Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Ceramic Tile and Sanitary Ware Manufacturing Introduction capacity of the environment, and other project factors, are taken into account. The applicability of specific technical The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are recommendations should be based on the professional opinion technical reference documents with general and industry- of qualified and experienced persons. specific examples of Good International Industry Practice (GIIP) 1. When one or more members of the World Bank Group When host country regulations differ from the levels and are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as measures presented in the EHS Guidelines, projects are required by their respective policies and standards. These expected to achieve whichever is more stringent. If less industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to be used stringent levels or measures than those provided in these EHS together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which Guidelines are appropriate, in view of specific project provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially circumstances, a full and detailed justification for any proposed applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of alternatives is needed as part of the site-specific environmental multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A assessment. This justification should demonstrate that the complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at: choice for any alternate performance levels is protective of www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines human health and the environment. The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and Applicability measures that are generally considered to be achievable in new facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application The EHS Guidelines for Ceramic Tile and Sanitary Ware Manufacturing include information relevant to ceramic tile and of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the sanitary ware manufacturing projects and facilities. Annex A establishment of site-specific targets, with an appropriate contains a full description of industry activities for this sector. It timetable for achieving them. does not include extraction of raw materials, which is included in The applicability of the EHS Guidelines should be tailored to the EHS Guidelines for Construction Materials Extraction. the hazards and risks established for each project on the basis This document is organized according to the following sections: of the results of an environmental assessment in which site- specific variables, such as host country context, assimilative Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring 1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight Section 3.0 — References that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to, varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility. APRIL 30, 2007 1 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP 1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts • Segregation of storage areas from other operational areas; and Management • Use of enclosed silos to store bulk powder materials; The following section provides a summary of EHS issues • Use of wind protection, barriers for wind protection (e.g. either artificial barriers or vertical greenery, such as associated with ceramic tile and sanitary ware manufacturing densely growing trees and shrubs) if raw material is stored that occur during the operational phase, along with in open piles; recommendations for their management. Recommendations for the management of EHS issues common to most large industrial • Enclosed dry raw material transportation systems (e.g. facilities during construction and decommissioning phases are conveyors, enclosed screw feeders, and feed pocket provided in the General EHS Guidelines. enclosures); • Dust extraction equipment and baghouse filters, particularly for dry materials loading and unloading points, and where 1.1 Environment products are cut / ground and polished;2 Environmental issues associated with ceramic tile and sanitary • Reduced air leakage and spillage points through ware manufacturing primarily include the following: maintenance activities; • Maintaining negative pressure in closed systems used for • Emissions to air material handling, and dedust air from suction; • Wastewater • Use of wet dust separators to treat emissions from spray • Solid waste drying and glazing processes in fine ceramic manufacturing. Sintered lamellar filters may also be used to Emissions to Air separate wet dust from spray glazing and to clean off-gas Air emissions may be generated from storage and handling of from the spraying cabins. These filters have a high raw materials and during firing or spray drying of ceramics. In resistance to abrasion and enable collection efficiencies of the latter case, emissions may be derived from the raw up to 99.99 percent. materials and / or from the fuels employed for heat and power generation. Sulfur Oxides The emission of SO2 in ceramic kiln exhaust gases depends on Particulate Matter the sulfur content of the fuel and certain raw materials (e.g. The main sources of particulate matter emissions include the gypsum, pyrite, and other sulfur compounds). The presence of handling of raw materials (e.g. screening, mixing, weighing, and carbonates in raw materials may, however, prevent the transporting/conveying); dry grinding / milling ( less common formation of sulfur emissions because of their reaction with SO2. than wet milling); drying (e.g. spray drying); glaze-spraying processes (e.g. for both tiles and sanitary ware production); ware decorating and firing; and fired ware finishing operations. 2 The use of baghouse filters is frequent in the ceramics industry and is Prevention and control techniques to reduce fugitive particulate especially important if dust contains significant levels of metals. The filters can be used in silo dedusting, dry raw material preparation and handling, spray matter emissions include the following: drying, and dry grinding or shaping. Corrosion control necessitates the maintenance of appropriate temperatures. These filters enable collection efficiencies of up to 95 percent. APRIL 30, 2007 2 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP Pollution prevention and control techniques for the reduction of measures may be used to reduce energy consumption in this SO2 emissions include: sector: • Use of fuels with a low sulfur content, such as natural gas • Replace inefficient kilns (e.g. down-draft kilns), and install or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); new, adequately sized tunnel or shuttle kilns or fast-firing • Use of low-sulfur raw material and low-sulfur body kilns (e.g. roller hearth kilns). In the sanitary ware industry, additives to reduce sulfur levels in processed materials; consider installing roller hearth kilns, especially if a reduced • Optimizing the heating process and firing temperature, number of patterns is produced; reducing the latter to the lowest temperature range (e.g. up • Substitute heavy fuel oil and solid fuels with clean fuels to 400°C); (e.g. natural gas or LPG); • Use of dry or wet scrubbers. If dry sorption cannot produce • Improve kiln sealing to reduce heat losses arising from a sufficient clean-gas concentration, implement the use of excessive air flow (e.g. metal casing and sand or water wet scrubbers (e.g. reactive scrubbers or quench reactors) seals in tunnel kilns and intermittent kilns); by adding basic reactive chemicals (e.g. calcium- and • Improve thermal insulation of kilns to reduce heat loss; sodium-based chemicals) dissolved into wash water (wet • Use low thermal mass insulation in intermittently fired kilns; abatement). • Use low thermal mass kiln cars to improve overall efficiency (e.g. using materials such as cordierite-mullite, sillimanite, and recrystallized silicon carbide), as well as Nitrogen Oxides minimize other parasitic loads3; The main sources of NOX are the generation of thermal NOX • Use high-velocity burners to obtain a higher combustion caused by high firing temperatures (>1,200°C) in the kiln, the efficiency and heat transfer; nitrogen content in the raw materials, and the oxidation of • Optimize peak flame temperatures in the kiln, and install nitrogen contained in fuels. Recommended measures for the computerized control of kiln firing; reduction of NOX emissions include the following: • Optimize dried-material transfer between the dryer and kiln, and where possible, use the preheating zone of the kiln for • Optimizing peak flame temperatures in the kiln, and use of completing the drying process (to avoid unnecessary computerized control of kiln firing; cooling of the dried ware before the firing process); • Reducing the nitrogen content in raw materials and • Recover excess heat from the kiln, especially from the additives; cooling zone, for heating dryers and predrying products; • Use of low NOx burners. • Recover heat from kiln exhaust gas to preheat combustion air. Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, especially CO2, are mainly Energy efficiency opportunities in spray dryers include the associated with the use of energy in the kiln and spray dryer. following: The General EHS Guidelines provides additional information 3 Low thermal mass kiln cars allow significant fuel savings in tunnel kiln furnaces regarding management strategies, including energy and increase throughput by increasing the space available for wares. They also conservation, for greenhouse gas emissions. The following permit closer adherence to the preferred heating and cooling temperature profiles and minimize thermal shock to the products. APRIL 30, 2007 3 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP • Selection of spray dryer with an optimized nozzle; Metals • Installation of insulation for the spray dryer; The heavy metal content of most ceramic raw materials is • Proper sizing of exhaust fans and installation of inverter- generally low and of limited concern, with the exception of some based variable-speed controls, rather than fixed-speed ceramic pigments glaze materials. In order to reduce metal fans and dampers. emissions: Other energy efficiency opportunities include the following: • Use commonly available glazes that do not contain lead or other toxic metals. Chromium-based pigments and • Use of high-pressure hydraulic presses in ceramic tiles; colorants that contain antimony, barium, cobalt, lead, • Use of press casting in sanitary ware plants; lithium, manganese, or vanadium should be avoided; • Optimization of grinding-cycle time in ball mills; • Use colored compounds (e.g. stain-containing pigments) • Optimization of the amount of water in the mill mix; which are stable at high temperatures and generally inert in • Limitation of electrical load in mills, through adoption of silicate systems. The risk of metal volatility with this type of dual-speed electrical motors or electrical motors fitted with glaze can be further reduced with short firing cycles; fluid couplings; • Use high-efficiency dust-abatement techniques (e.g. fabric • Use of moisture sensors for dryness and coating control in filters). ceramic tile manufacturing; • Use of cogeneration of heat and power to generate power with waste heat from gas turbine–based operation of the Wastewater spray dryer. Industrial process wastewater Process wastewater is mainly generated from cleaning water in Chlorides and Fluorides preparation and casting units, and various process activities Chlorides and fluorides are pollutants found in waste gases from (e.g. glazing, decorating, polishing, and wet grinding). Process ceramic kilns, and are generated from impurities in clay wastewater is characterized by turbidity and coloring, due to the materials. The use of additives and water containing chloride very fine suspended particles of glaze and clay minerals. The during the preparation of the raw materials may generate potential pollutants of concern include suspended solids (e.g. hydrochloric acid (HCl) emissions. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) may clays and insoluble silicates), suspended and dissolved heavy be generated by the decomposition of clay fluorosilicates. metals (e.g. lead and zinc), sulfates, boron, and traces of Recommended measures to prevent and control emissions of organic matter. Sector-specific measures to prevent and chloride and fluoride include the following: minimize the generation of wastewater include the following: • Use low-fluorine raw material and additives, which can be • .Use dry off-gas cleaning systems instead of wet off-gas used to dilute emissions in the processed material; cleaning systems; • Use dry scrubbers. Both HF and HCl can be controlled • Where practical, install waste glaze collection systems; using basic absorbents, including sodium bicarbonate • Install slip conveying piping systems; (NaHCO3), calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2], and lime, in dry or wet conditions. APRIL 30, 2007 4 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP • Separate process-wastewater streams from other process resulting from glazing, plaster, and grinding activities. Other steps, and implement closed-circuit water reuse systems;4 process wastes include broken ware from process activities (e.g. shaping, drying, and firing); broken refractory material; Process Wastewater Treatment solids from dust treatments (e.g. flue-gas cleaning and Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this dedusting); spent plaster molds; spent sorption agents (e.g. sector include flow and load equalization with pH adjustment; granular limestone and limestone dust); and packaging waste sedimentation for suspended solids reduction using settling (e.g. plastic, wood, metal, paper). basins or clarifiers; multimedia filtration for reduction in non- settleable suspended solids; dewatering and disposal of Recommendations for solid waste management include the residuals in landfills, or if hazardous in designated hazardous following: waste disposal sites. Additional engineering controls may be • Reduce waste production through process enhancements required for advanced metals removal using membrane filtration such as : or other physical/chemical treatment technologies. o Replacing slip casting in plaster molds with pressure slip casting units (isostatic presses) with polymer Management of industrial wastewater and examples of molds; treatment approaches are discussed in the General EHS o Increasing the lifespan of plaster molds (e.g. using Guidelines . Through use of these technologies and good harder plaster molds obtained through use of practice techniques for wastewater management, facilities automatic plaster mixers or vacuum plaster mixers); should meet the Guideline Values for wastewater discharge as o Installing electronic controls for the firing curve (to indicated in the relevant table of Section 2 of this industry sector optimize the process and reduce the amount of document. broken ware); o Installing spray booths that allow reclaiming of excess Other Wastewater Streams & Water Consumption glaze; Guidance on the management of non-contaminated wastewater • Reduce waste generation by recycling and internal reuse of from utility operations, non-contaminated stormwater, and cuttings, broken ware, used plaster molds, and other by- sanitary sewage is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. products, including sludge through the following Contaminated streams should be routed to the treatment system techniques: for industrial process wastewater. Recommendations to reduce o Recycle sludge into the ceramic molds, particularly in water consumption, especially where it may be a limited natural facilities where wet milling is implemented in raw resource, are provided in the General EHS Guidelines. material preparation; o Reuse sludge from fine ceramic and sanitary ware Solid Wastes manufacturing as a raw material or additive in the Process waste originating from the manufacture of ceramic manufacture of bricks or expanded clay aggregates; products mainly consists of different types of sludge, including o Recycle, as raw material, dust collected in abatement sludge from process wastewater treatment, and process sludge systems and through different process activities, in addition to cuttings and other process losses; 4 Water recycling for ceramic tile manufacturing is typically 70–80 percent and 30 – 50 percent for sanitary ware manufacturing. APRIL 30, 2007 5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP • For materials that cannot be recycled, dispose according • Implement periodic dust removal from surfaces (e.g. to industrial waste management guidance included in the vacuum cleaning equipment with high-efficiency particulate General EHS Guidelines. air [HEPA] filters; • Vacuum, hose down, or wet sweep work areas instead of dry sweeping; 1.2 Occupational Health and Safety • Purchase premixed materials, if feasible, to reduce the Occupational health and safety impacts during the construction need for mixing. Limit the need for shoveling dry powder, and decommissioning of ceramic tile and sanitary ware and arrange for reception of raw materials in larger manufacturing facilities are common to those of most industrial containers, for handling by forklift; facilities, and their prevention and control are discussed in the • Transport raw material through enclosed conveyors or General EHS Guidelines. Occupational health and safety tubes; issues associated with the operations phase of ceramic tile and • Conduct glazing applications in well-ventilated areas, and sanitary ware manufacturing primarily include the following: install spray booths. Avoid using low-solubility glazes containing lead and other heavy metals; • Respiratory hazards • Provide personal protective equipment (PPE), (e.g. • Exposure to heat overalls, goggles, gloves, and face masks) to workers • Exposure to noise / vibration operating in dusty environments and applying glaze. • Physical hazards • Electrical hazards Exposure to Heat Heat exposure may occur during operation and maintenance of Respiratory Hazards furnaces or other hot equipment. Exposure to radiant heat and Workplace exposure to fine airborne particulate in the form of temperature changes, and to high ambient humidity, is an silica dust (SiO2), deriving from silica sands and feldspar, is the industry-specific hazard. Recommended techniques to prevent main occupational hazard in this sector. Other potential hazards and control exposure to heat include the following: may result from glaze application, airborne refractory ceramic ?bers, and combustion by-products. Recommended techniques • Ensure adequate ventilation of the workplace (e.g. ducting to prevent and control exposure include the following: in fresh air, allowing cross-ventilation, and installing exhaust fans); • Segregate raw material storage from other operational • Provide air-cooled rooms for worker to take breaks; areas; • Shield surfaces where workers are close to hot equipment; • Install local exhaust ventilation systems with filter units • Reduce the time required for work in high temperature (e.g. fettling hoods); environments (e.g. shorter shifts at these locations); • Install kiln venting systems (e.g. use adjustable vents • Use PPE (e.g. insulated gloves, shoes, and air- or oxygen- mounted over the top of the kilns) to facilitate kiln loading supplied respirators), especially during maintenance and unloading; operations; APRIL 30, 2007 6 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP Noise and Vibration Noise sources include raw material preparation (e.g. crushing, grinding, milling, dry and wet mixing, screening, and clarification), pressing and granulation processes, cutting, grinding and polishing, fan burners in kilns, and packaging activities. Guidance on the management of noise is provided in the General EHS Guidelines . Physical Hazards Activities related to the operation and maintenance of equipment (e.g. mills, mill separators, and belt conveyors) represent a source of exposure to physical impacts, especially during equipment start-up and shutdown. Other typical hazards include handling sharp materials, lifting heavy objects, performing repetitive motions. Guidance on the prevention and control of physical hazards is described in the General EHS Guidelines. Electrical Hazards Workers may be exposed to electrical hazards due to the presence of electrical equipment throughout ceramic tile and sanitary ware manufacturing facilities. Recommendations to prevent and control exposure to electrical hazards are provided in the General EHS Guidelines . 1.3 Community Health and Safety Community health and safety impacts during the construction, operation, and decommissioning of ceramic manufacturing plants are common to those of most industrial facilities and are discussed in the General EHS Guidelines. APRIL 30, 2007 7 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP 2.0 Performance Indicators and Table 1. Air emission levels for ceramic tile Monitoring Pollutant Unit Guideline Value Particulate Matter mg/Nm 3 50a 2.1 Environment SO2 mg/Nm 3 400b NOX mg/Nm 3 600b Emissions and Effluent Guidelines HCl mg/Nm 3 30 Tables 1 and 2 present emission and effluent guidelines for this sector. Guideline values for process emissions and effluents in HF mg/Nm 3 5 this sector are indicative of good international industry practice Lead mg/Nm 3 0.5 as reflected in relevant standards of countries with recognized Cadmium mg/Nm 3 0.2 regulatory frameworks. These guidelines are achievable under TOC mg/Nm 3 20 normal operating conditions in appropriately designed and Notes: a Dryer and kiln stacks; b Kiln operations (at 10 percent O ). 2 operated facilities through the application of pollution prevention and control techniques discussed in the preceding sections of this document. These levels should be achieved, without Table 2. Effluent levels for ceramic tile dilution, at least 95 percent of the time that the plant or unit is Pollutants Units Guideline Value operating, to be calculated as a proportion of annual operating pH S.U. 6–9 hours. Deviation from these levels in consideration of specific, local project conditions should be justified in the environmental BOD5 mg/L 50 assessment. TSS mg/L 50 Oil and grease mg/L 10 Emissions guidelines are applicable to process emissions. Lead mg/L 0.2 Combustion source emissions guidelines associated with Cadmium mg/L 0.1 steam- and power-generation activities from sources with a heat Chromium (total) mg/L 0.1 input capacity equal to or lower than 50 MW are addressed in the General EHS Guidelines with larger power source Cobalt mg/L 0.1 emissions addressed in the EHS Guidelines for Thermal Copper mg/L 0.1 Power. Guidance on ambient considerations based on the total Nickel mg/L 0.1 load of emissions is provided in the General EHS Guidelines . Zinc mg/L 2 Temperature increase °C <3a Effluent guidelines are applicable for direct discharges of treated a At the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which takes into effluents to surface waters for general use. Site-specific account ambient water quality, receiving water use, potential receptors and discharge levels may be established based on the availability assimilative capacity and conditions in the use of publicly operated sewage collection Resource Use and treatment systems or, if discharged directly to surface The following Tables, 3 to 5, provide examples of resource waters, on the receiving water use classification as described in consumption and load indicators in this sector. Industry the General EHS Guidelines. APRIL 30, 2007 8 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP benchmark values are provided for comparative purposes only Table 4. Waste generation and individual projects should target continual improvement. Industry Output per unit of product Unit benchmark Table 3. Energy consumption Glaze waste produced in tile g/m 2 of tile 100 surface glazing surface Industry Inputs per unit of product Unit g/m 2 of tile 90–150 benchmark Sludge surface Ceramic tile manufacturing –— energy consumption Solid waste — cuttings and g/m 2 of tile 700–1300 defective tiles surface Thermal energy: kJ/kg 980–2,200 Spray drying process Recovery and re-use of glaze in m3/day 0.08–0.1 sanitary ware manufacturing Thermal energy: kJ/kg 250–750 Glaze used per sanitary ware item kg/item 1.5–3 Drying process Thermal energy: Firing:once-fired tiles kJ/kg 5,400–6,300 (Tunnel kilns) Thermal energy Firing:twice-fired tiles kJ/kg 6,000–7,300 (Tunnel kilns) Thermal energy Firing:once-fired tiles kJ/kg 1,900–4,800 (Roller hearth kilns) Thermal energy Firing:twice-fired tiles kJ/kg 3,400–4,600 (Roller hearth kilns) Electric energy kWh/kg 50–150 Pressing Electric energy kWh/kg 10–40 Drying Electric energy kWh/kg 20–150 Firing Sanitary ware manufacturing — energy consump tion Conventional tunnel kiln kJ /kg 9,100–12,000 Modern tunnel kiln with light kJ /kg 4,200–6,500 fiber insulation Roller heath kiln kJ /kg 3,500–5,000 Modern shuttle kiln kJ /kg 8,500–11,000 Source: EU BREF (2005) APRIL 30, 2007 9 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP States (OSHA),7 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values Environmental Monitoring published by European Union member states,8 or other similar Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be sources. implemented to address all activities that have been identified to have potentially significant impacts on the environment, during normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental Accident and Fatality Rates Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work to the particular project. time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this representative data for the parameter being monitored. sector in developed countries through consultation with Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following published sources (e.g. US Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK monitoring and record-keeping procedures and using properly Health and Safety Executive)9. calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring the operating standards so that any necessary corrective The working environment should be monitored for occupational actions can be taken. Additional guidance on applicable hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be sampling and analytical methods for emissions and effluents is designed and implemented by accredited professionals10 as part provided in the General EHS Guidelines. of an occupational health and safety monitoring program. Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational 2.2 Occupational Health and Safety accidents and diseases and dangerous occurrences and accidents. Additional guidance on occupational health and Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS Occupational health and safety performance should be Guidelines. evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),5 the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the United States National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH), 6 Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United 7 Available at: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR DS&p_id=9992 8 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ 9 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm 5 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/ 10 Accredited professionals may include certified industrial hygienists, registered 6 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ occupational hygienists, or certified safety professionals or their equivalent. APRIL 30, 2007 10 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP 3.0 References and Additional Sources Assopiastrelle and Snam. 1998. Rapporto Integrato Ambiente Energia Sicurezza US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1995.Office of Compliance. Profile Salute Qualità, Industria Italiana delle Piastrelle di Ceramica e dei Materiali of the Stone, Clay, Glass and Concrete Products Industry. Sector Notebook Refrattari. Sassuolo, Italy: Assopiastrelle and Snam. Project. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/noteb Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA), United ooks/ Kingdom. 2004. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Secretary of State’s Guidance for the A2 Ceramics Sector including Heavy Clay, US EPA. Code of Federal Regulation Title 40, Part 63 National Emission Refractories, Calcining Clay and Whiteware. Sector Guidance Note IPPC SG7. Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Source Categories. Subpart KKKKK London: DEFRA. Available at National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants for Clay Ceramics www.defra.gov.uk/environment/ppc/localauth/pubs/guidance/notes/sgnotes/ Manufacturing. Washington, DC: US EPA. Environment Australia. 1998. National Pollutant Inventory, Emissions Estimation Technique Manual for Bricks, Ceramics, and Clay Product Manufacturing. Camberra, Australia: Environment Australia. Government of Hong Kong, Environmental Protection Department. 1994. Air Management Group. A Guidance Note on the Best Practicable Means for Ceramic Works. BPM4. Hong Kong: Government of Hong Kong. Available at http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/guide_ref/guide_best_pr act.html European Commission. 2005. European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau (EIPPCB). Reference Document on Best Available Techniques (BREF) for Ceramics. Seville: EIPPCB. Available at http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm European Commission. 1996. Corinair90. Emission Inventory Guidebook. Fine Ceramics Production. Activities 030320. Copenhagen: EC. Available at http://reports.eea.europa.eu/EMEPCORINAIR4/en/B3320vs2.1.pdf European Environment Agency (EEA). 2001. Joint EMEP/CORINAIR Atmospheric Emission Inventory Guidebook, Third Edition. Copenhagen: EEA. Available at http://reports.eea.europa.eu/EMEPCORINAIR4/en/page012.html German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, and Nuclear Safety (BMU). 2002. First General Administrative Regulation Pertaining the Federal Immission Control Act (Technical Instructions on Air Quality Control – TA Luft). Berlin: BMU. Available at http://www.bmu.de/english/air_pollution_control/ta_luft/doc/36958.php German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, and Nuclear Safety (BMU). 2004. Promulgation of the New Version of the Ordinance on Requirements for the Discharge of Waste Water into Waters (Waste Water Ordinance - AbwV) of 17. June 2004. Berlin: BMU. Available at http://www.bmu.de/english/water_management/downloads/doc/3381.php Ireland Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1996. BATNEEC Guidance Note – Coarse Ceramics. Class 13.4, Draft 3. Dublin: Ireland EPA. Available at http://www.epa.ie/Licensing/BATGuidanceNotes/ Northern Ireland Environment and Heritage Service. 1998. Chief Inspector’s Guidance to Inspectors – Ceramic Processes. Process Guidance Note GNB 3/6 Version 1. Belfast: Northern Ireland Environment and Heritage Service. Available at http://www.ehsni.gov.uk/pollution/ipc/guidancenotespartb.htm United States (US) Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). 2003. Occupational Injuries and Illnesses: Industry Data. Years 1995–2003. Washington, DC: BLS. Available at http://www.bls.gov/iif/oshsum.htm APRIL 30, 2007 11 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP Annex A: General Description of Industry Activities Ceramic products are manufactured from clays and other non- summarizes the main raw materials used in ceramic metallic inorganic materials. Ceramic tiles are thin slabs, manufacturing. generally used as coverings for floors and walls. Tiles typically Body components are usually delivered to the raw material are shaped through extrusion or dust pressing at ambient temperature, then dried and fired to maintain their form storage area in bulk and are generally stored in open stockpiles or in containers / silos to limit interaction with atmospheric permanently. Ceramic products used for sanitary purposes (e.g. agents and dust generation issues. Raw materials are prepared lavatory bowls, wash basins, cisterns, and drinking fountains) through several processes (e.g. primary and secondary are collectively referred to as sanitary ware and are mainly crushing, grinding, screening, dry or wet milling, dry screening, manufactured from vitreous china (semi-porcelain) or spray-drying, calcining), mixed and pressed, and extruded or earthenware. The typical production levels for ceramic slip cast into shape (shaping / forming). Preparation of glazes is manufacturing facilities vary from 10 to 50 tons / day for fine ceramics and 450 to 500 tons / day for ceramic tiles. conducted using silica (as major glaze component), fluxing agents (e.g. alkalis, alkaline earths, boron, lead), opacifiers (e.g. The common process activities of the ceramic tile and sanitary zirconium and titanium), and coloring agents (e.g. iron, wares manufacturing sector include the mixing of basic raw clay chromium, cobalt, manganese). Water is regularly used to minerals with other additive minerals and the firing / fusion enhance mixing and shaping, followed by a drying stage. process. In the firing / fusion process, the raw materials are Surface treatment and decoration of the clay products may also transformed in a glassy phase (vitrification) at temperatures be used. The products are then placed in kilns for firing / between 1,000°C and 1,400°C. The vitrification process vitrification. provides the ceramic products with specific chemical and physical properties, including resistance to heat and fire, Table A-1. Ceramic Forming Raw Materials strength, and chemical inertness. The main manufacturing Additives kaolin, limestone processes covered in this guideline include raw storage and Basic Raw Materials (plastic kaolinite, montmorillonite halloysite materials) preparation of raw materials, shaping, drying, surface treatment quartz, feldspar, chalk, dolomite, Fillers and Fluxing Agents (e.g. glazing or enameling), firing, treatment (e.g. polishing), (non plastic materials) wollastonite, iron oxides, gypsum, steatite, talc. sorting, and packaging. A typical ceramic manufacturing Silica, alkalis, lead, boron, zirconium, process is shown in Figure A.1. Glaze Components iron, chromium, cobalt Raw Materials Storage and Handling Firing Process Products manufactured by the ceramic industry predominantly The firing process allows the vitrification of the shaped and dried consist of a complex mixture of clay minerals (aluminum clay products. Firing is conducted in kilns, which may be of silicates that serve as plastic materials) complemented with continuous or intermittent operation. The continuous kilns other minerals (e.g. additives, fillers and fluxing agents include tunnel kilns and roller hearth kilns. Tunnel kilns are [nonplastic materials], and glaze components). Table A-1 refractory tunnels served by rail tracks carrying kiln-cars. The APRIL 30, 2007 12 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP cars have refractory decks on which dried ware is set in defined, stable patterns. The cars are pushed through the kilns at set intervals, countercurrently to a flow of air drawn by fan(s) to an exhaust duct located near the car entry zone. Most tunnel kilns are gas-fired. Dried raw material on the cars is preheated by hot gases drawn from the firing zone, while incoming air cools the fired material and is preheated before combustion. A part of the air from the cooling zone is usually drawn off to the adjacent dryers. To reduce firing times and energy consumption, a gas- tight firing chamber is needed and, therefore, the firing chamber and kiln-cars are usually sealed at the sides of the tunnel with a sand seal (or by water or other mechanical solutions) against secondary air. Single-deck roller hearth kilns are most commonly used for wall and floor tile production. Firing is provided by natural gas-air burners located at the sides of the kiln. The firing process has been reduced to less than 40 minutes and tiles travel over driven rollers. The main heat transmission mechanisms are convection and radiation. Roller hearth kilns are sometimes used for the production of clay roof tiles and sanitary ware. Intermittent kilns include shuttle and hood-type kilns, based on single chambers, which are charged with dried ceramic products, sealed, and then exposed to a defined firing cycle. The kilns are usually provided with gas burners, and intermittent kilns are sometimes used for smaller-scale manufacture of special sanitary ware. Product Finishing Several treatments are applied after firing to finish the products. These treatments include grinding (either wet or dry), sawing, and polishing. The addition of auxiliary materials is also possible for specific productions. Sorting, packaging, and storing of ceramic products concludes the typical manufacturing process. APRIL 30, 2007 13 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines CERAMIC TILE AND SANITARY WARE MANUFACTURING WORLD BANK GROUP Figure A.1: A Typical Ceramic Tile Manufacturing Process Storage of raw Preparation of raw materials (dry or wet materials process of dust process ofpressing powder) dust pressing followed by powder) milling, mixing, and spray drying Firing Surface treatment Drying Shaping (glazing for glazed tiles) Product Sorting Packing Storage or finishing shipping Figure A.2: A Typical Sanitary Ware Manufacturing Process Storage of raw Body preparation materials Mold making Surface Slip casting, Firing Drying, fettling treatment garnishing, / sponging (glazing) dressing Product Sorting Packing Storage or finishing shipping APRIL 30, 2007 14