Nam Theun 2 Hydroelectric Project SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN RESETTLEMENT ACTION PLAN - APPRAISAL DRAFT, NOVEMBER 2004 - VOLUME 1: INTRODUCTION AND CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES VOLUME 2: NAKAI PLATEAU ­ EMDP AND RAP VOLUME 3: DOWNSTREAM AREAS ­ EMDP AND RESETTLEMENT AND COMPENSATION FRAMEWORK VOLUME 4: PROJECT LANDS RESETTLEMENT (ACQUISITION AND COMPENSATION) FRAMEWORK Preface This document is the Appraisal Draft (November 2004) of the Social Development Plan. This Appraisal draft supersedes the earlier Advanced Draft of May/July 2004. It has been drafted to incorporate as mush as possible the comments and advice from World Bank, Asian Development Bank, Agence Française de Développement and the NT2 Project Panel of Experts. This draft will be used as a basis for Appraisal by the IFI's. Comments arising from this Appraisal, and any remaining comments of other stakeholders, will then be thoroughly reviewed and as appropriate, incorporated into the final SDP. This Social Development Plan is drafted in four volumes. The present volume is the second and includes the Nakai Plateau Ethnic Minority Development Plan and Resettlement Action Plan. For further description of the four volumes, see Chapter 1. Nam Theun 2 Hydroelectric Project SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN - APPRAISAL DRAFT, NOVEMBER 2004 - Summary Table of Content VOLUME 1: INTRODUCTION AND CROSS CUTTING ISSUES Vol. 1 Chapters: 1 Introduction 2 Project Description 3 Legal and Policy Framework 4 Public Consultation, Participation and Disclosure 5 Health Impact Assessment and Public Health Action Plan 6 Organisational Framework and Responsibilities 7 Institutional Capacity Building and Staff Training 8 Risk Management Framework, Monitoring and Evaluation 9 EMDP Executive Summary Appendices: A Concession Agreement (Schedule 4, Part 1, Social and Resettlement Component and Schedule 7, Part 2, Termination Obligations) B Relevant Safeguard Policies of IFIs (WB and ADB) C National Legal and Policy Documents D Legal Instruments specific to the NT2 Project (Social Component) E IAG and POE Comments on the SDP F National Public Consultation Workshop G Bibliography VOLUME 2: NAKAI PLATEAU ­ EMDP AND RAP VOL. 2 PART 1: INTRODUCTION 10 Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 11 Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau VOL. 2 PART 2: ETHNIC MINORITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN FOR THE NAKAI PLATEAU 12 Ethnicity and Project Planning 13 EMDP Baseline Data 14 Participation 15 Mitigation Measures 16 Institutional Arrangements and Capacity 17 Monitoring and Evaluation 18 Scheduling and Financing VOL. 2 PART 3: RESETTLEMENT ACTION PLAN FOR THE NAKAI PLATEAU 19 Resettlement Site Selection and Land Tenure 20 Resettlement Infrastructure Development 21 Agriculture and Livestock Development 22 Irrigation System Planning 23 Forestry Management and Utilisation, Nakai Resettlement Area 24 Nakai Reservoir Fisheries Development and Management 25 Livelihood Integration and Income Scenarios ­ Transition to Stability 26 Social Development and Community Strengthening 27 Consolidated Schedule of Plateau Resettlement Activities 28 Summary of Plateau/Reservoir Resettlement Budget Appendices: H Nakai Plateau Notification, Registration, Socio-economic Survey I Demonstration Farms J Pilot Village Experience K Agriculture and Livestock Development Modeling L Nakai Plateau Forestry Background Documents M Khamkerd Resettlement Village Site Planning VOLUME 3: DOWNSTREAM AREAS ­ EMDP AND RESETTLEMENT AND COMPENSATION FRAMEWORK VOL. 3 PART 1: INTRODUCTION 29 Introduction and Executive Summary 30 Baseline Data 31 Description of Environmental Impacts 32 Description of Livelihood Impacts VOL. 3 PART 2: ETHNIC MINORITY DEVELOPMENT PLAN 33 Ethnicity and Project Planning 34 Livelihoods and Ethnicity 35 Local Consultation and Participation 36 Mitigation Process Framework 37 Institutional Arrangements and Capacity 38 Monitoring and Evaluation 39 Scheduling and Financing VOL. 3 PART 3: MITIGATION AND COMPENSATION FRAMEWORK 40 Mitigation and Compensation Programme 41 Monitoring, Evaluation and Grievance Procedures Appendices: N Xe Bangfai Socio-economic Survey (2001) VOLUME 4: PROJECT LANDS ­ RESETTLEMENT (ACQUISITION AND COMPENSATION) FRAMEWORK 42 Introduction 43 Preparation of Project Land Resettlement (Acquisition and Compensation) Plan 44 Camp Followers Management Plan Appendices: O Report on Baseline Study Phase 1, Methodology P Impacted Villages, Land and Assets Assessed to Date Q Preliminary Ethnic Minority Baseline Data and Analysis Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements CHAPTER 10 GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK, DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTS AND ENTITLEMENTS Table of Content 10 GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK, DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTS AND ENTITLEMENTS......................................................................................................1 10.1 INTRODUCTION, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES ...........................................................1 10.2 GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK...................................................................................... 2 10.2.1 Surrounding areas................................................................................................................................................2 10.2.2 Geology ................................................................................................................................................................7 10.2.3 Climate..................................................................................................................................................................7 10.3 PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE INUNDATION.............................10 10.4 SOCIAL IMPACTS RELATED TO THE NAKAI RESERVOIR..............................................10 10.4.1 Loss of Houses..................................................................................................................................................10 10.4.2 Loss of Agricultural Land and Vegetable Gardens.......................................................................................10 10.4.3 Loss of Forest Land..........................................................................................................................................11 10.4.4 Loss of Fishing Grounds .................................................................................................................................11 10.4.5 Loss of Cultural Heritage.................................................................................................................................12 10.5 MITIGATION AND ENTITLEMENTS.............................................................................12 10.5.1 Entitlements.......................................................................................................................................................12 10.5.2 Relocation...........................................................................................................................................................13 10.5.3 Livelihood Options...........................................................................................................................................15 10.5.4 Infrastructure and Facilities .............................................................................................................................15 List of Tables Table 10-1: Indicative Agricultural Lands to be Inundated by the Reservoir, by Village........................11 Table 10-2: Legal Entitlements as Defined in the Concession Agreement................................................12 Table 10-3: Nakai Plateau Villages, Current Location Elevation and Households to be Relocated......14 List of Figures Figure 10-1: Topographic Map of Nakai Plateau Pre-Inundation.................................................................. 3 Figure 10-2: Map of Nakai Plateau at Full Supply Level Showing Old and New Villages. ........................ 4 Figure 10-3: Geographic Features Surrounding the Nakai Plateau (Reservoir and Resettlement Area) . 5 Figure 10-4: Districts and Provinces in the Nakai Plateau Area ..................................................................... 6 Figure 10-5: Geology of the Nakai Plateau and Surroundings........................................................................ 8 Figure 10-6: Geological Cross-section of Nakai Plateau and Surroundings.................................................. 9 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 10 GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK, DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTS AND ENTITLEMENTS 10.1 INTRODUCTION, OBJECTIVES AND PRINCIPLES The construction and operation of NT2 Project will result in impacts, both beneficial and adverse, to the biophysical, socio-economic and cultural environments of the Project Area. On the Nakai plateau, 1,149 households with approximately 6,340 persons will be relocated from 16 out of the 17 villages over the period 2005-07, due to the inundation to create the Nakai Reservoir. Improving the welfare of families living on the Nakai Plateau has been a joint objective of NTPC and GOL ever since the mandate for the Project's development was agreed to in 1993. The evaluation of sites for resettlement and interaction with the PAP has proceeded in parallel with the development of engineering, environmental and financial plans. Various livelihood programme activities will be offered to Plateau households being affected by the reservoir, including: · The Agriculture and Livestock Development Programme, · The Forestry Development Programme, and · The Reservoir Fisheries Development and Management Programme, · The provision of new houses, electricity, domestic water, roads and services. All of the key parties - GOL and NTPC, the financiers, and most of all, the people who live in the project area - have an interest in ensuring that resettlement is implemented in such a way that all families involved are better off than before as a result of the Project. GOL and NTPC have agreed that the approach put forward by the World Bank in its relevant Safeguard Policies is a blueprint for the NT2 Project, with the added goal that all families are to be better off soon after relocation, rather than simply restored to their former living conditions. This is considered an appropriate and feasible objective given the amount of time given to planning, consultation and training prior to the physical relocation of the people, and the considerable budgets allocated to resettlement and social development. Thus, this Social Development Plan (SDP) has been prepared in accordance with the World Bank Safeguard Policies: Operational Policy on Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12), Operational Policy on Cultural Property (OP 4.11) and Operational Directive on Indigenous People (OD 4.20), and more recently the ADB Policies on Indigenous Peoples (versions of 1998), Involuntary Resettlement (version of 2003) and Policy on Gender and Development (OM F2). The primary aim of these IFI Policies, and the NT2 plans to address them, is to minimize the impacts on the affected population, to adequately compensate those who are adversely affected by the Project, and to ensure that resettlement is planned and implemented in a culturally sensitive and optimal manner. In summary, the SDP has been developed under the following guiding principles; · Funding is to be assured, the SDP being fully financed by the Project as an essential expenditure; · Resettlement planning to be integrated with project design; · GOL to develop and adopt the appropriate policies to ensure high standards of resettlement; · Resettled people to have their living standards and income earning capacity improved; · People to be resettled will play an active role in the design, planning and implementation; · The social and cultural cohesion of villages will be maintained and resettlement sites as near as possible to original villages; · Traditional organizational structures, religious beliefs and resource use will be incorporated into resettlement planning and implementation; · Appropriate consultation and participatory methods, utilizing local knowledge, to be used in developing production systems that suit the people's needs and the environment, and which avoid dependency on project or government agencies; November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements · Housing, community buildings, access roads and electricity will be provided in all resettlement sites, · Irrigation and domestic use water will be supplied; and · The planning, implementation and compensation processes will be open and transparent. 10.2 GEOGRAPHICAL FRAMEWORK 10.2.1 Surrounding areas The Nam Theun 2 Project (NT2) involves the inundation of part of the Nakai plateau to form a reservoir of maximum surface area of 450 km2 and minimum surface area of about 100 km2 (See Figure 10-1 and Figure 10-2 for current and post-inundation geography of the Nakai Plateau area). The Nakai plateau is situated at about 530 EL, and the two features of particular relevance to the plateau resettlement program are: (a) the future Nakai Reservoir; and (b) the Resettlement Area, as defined in PM Decree 193 as about 20,000 ha of (largely) forested land on the southern shore of the future reservoir. This future Nakai Reservoir, and the Resettlement Area, are surrounded by the following geographical features (illustrated in Figure 10-3): · To the north - northeast is the Nakai Nam Theun National Protected Area (NPA), containing also much of the Nam Theun 2 Watershed, an area of about 3,554 km2, largely forested, but also inhabited by about 1,100 families in 31 villages, in 5 main river valleys; · To the south-east, and after the drop-off the plateau escarpment, is a large area of limestone karst, which has been designated as the Phu Hin Poun NPA. Between the plateau escarpment drop-off and this limestone large karst area there are two flat valleys inhabited by rice growing villages; · To the north-west, and surrounding the north-western part of the reservoir, is the Nam Theun - Phou Hin Poun corridor, connecting the two NPAs mentioned above; · Directly south of the resettlement area, down the plateau escarpment, is the flat rice growing areas of the Gnommalath plain, surrounded also by limestone karst. Administratively, the Plateau (and future reservoir and resettlement Areas) is almost entirely located in Nakai District (see Figure 10-4), which itself is surrounded by 4 other Districts, and also borders directly with Vietnam. To the south, Nakai District borders Gnommalat District and to the north Khamkeut District. Nakai District is a new District, as up to the early 1990s Nakai District was part of Gnommalath District and the boundary between the two districts is still in the process of being determined. District maps show that the northern boundary of Gnommalath District actually extending up to the plateau. This is because at the time that Nakai was separated from Gnommalath, Gnommalath villages requested that they still be given access to some forest on the plateau. This boundary is now under review. Also at the time that Nakai District was formed, some villages in the lowland area to the west (between the plateau escarpment and the limestone karst of Phu Hin Poun NPA) were included in Nakai District. However, an electricity line and a road have recently been supplied to these lowland villages from Gnommalath District. In addition, access to these lowland villages from Nakai is via the Nam Malou basin, which will be flooded by the future Nakai reservoir. Thus, it is most likely that this lowland area and its villages may be excised from Nakai District and added to Gnommalath District. Two of the affected villages, Sop Hia and Nam Nian, are currently located on the north western edge of the plateau, and near the Nakai Dam site, and are actually just inside Khamkeut District of Bolikhamxai Province, on the border with Nakai District. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-1: Topographic Map of Nakai Plateau Pre-Inundation. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-2: Map of Nakai Plateau at Full Supply Level Showing Old and New Villages. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-3: Geographic Features Surrounding the Nakai Plateau (Reservoir and Resettlement Area) . November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-4: Districts and Provinces in the Nakai Plateau Area November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 10.2.2 Geology The main geological feature of the Nakai Plateau is the basin on which the Plateau is formed, which is sitting on bedrock of middle and upper Jurassic period bedrocks and composites, overlain by lower Cretaceous sandstones, mudstones and siltstones, overlain in places by mid-Cretaceous to Tertiary period halite and gypsum. The middle of the area - the flat plateau itself - is formed by Quaternary alluviums. The Resettlement Area will be established mainly on soils derived from the bedrock of Lower Cretaceous period, which is composed of fine to medium grained micaceous, quartzose sandstone with some gradation to mudstone and siltstone (see Figure 10-5 and Figure 10-6). 10.2.3 Climate The climate of the area is influenced by the southwest monsoon (wet season) which normally affects the area from May to October; and by the northeast monsoon (dry season) lasting from November until April (see Chapter 21, Section 2). The average annual rainfall over the Plateau is approximately 2,600 mm per year and at the dam site approximately 2,800 mm per year. Rainfall distribution is markedly seasonal with over 88 % falling between April and September during the southwest monsoon, and only 12 % falling between October and March during the northeast monsoon. This causes substantially high flows in the Nam Theun in the months of July and August (SMEC March 2003). Climatological data from Nakon Phanom plain, Thailand (across the Mekong River from Thakhek) indicates reduced temperatures from November to February with an average minimum of 14.7 °C in January. The hottest month is April when temperatures rise to 34.5 °C on the Nakon Phanom plain. Limited data indicates that mean temperatures on the Nakai Plateau are about 3-4 °C cooler, although the temperature difference appears to be higher during the dry season and lower during the wet season. Mean Relative Humidity (RH) declines to below 70 % during the dry season, and exceeds 80 % during the wet season, with a maximum mean of 87 % RH in August. RH data collected by SMEC in 2003 at more elevated locations in the region suggest humidity on the Nakai Plateau is likely to be similar to the Nakon Phanom plain (Thai side of the Mekong River) in the dry season, and probably significantly higher in the wet season. The Thakhek region is more seriously affected by the winter monsoon than other regions of Lao PDR. The summer monsoon reaches the region unhindered after crossing the overheated plains of Thailand. The monsoon wind speeds of highest frequency are between 2 and 4 on the Beaufort Scale (less than 26 km/h). The strongest winds are usually only felt during intense periods of the northeast monsoon. On average, 10 to 12 north-east monsoon events occur each year, generating wind up to approximately 100 km/h. On average, 7 to 10 South China sea typhoons occur each year, and some of these may pass over the ranges and affect the plateau, maybe once or twice a year. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-5: Geology of the Nakai Plateau and Surroundings For legend to geological symbols, see Figure 10-6. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Figure 10-6: Geological Cross-section of Nakai Plateau and Surroundings Cross-sections A, B and C refer to Figure 10-5. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 10.3 PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE INUNDATION The immediate impact of inundation is that up to 450 km2 of the Nakai Plateau will become covered by the Nakai Reservoir. This will affect forests, wood lands and agricultural land, and some wetlands, and the terrestrial and aquatic life currently inhabiting the area. At its lowest level at the end of the dry season, the reservoir will recede to a surface area of about 80-100 km2. For more details on these impacts, refer to the Environmental Assessment and Management Plan (EAMP). The crest of the Nakai Dam itself is at 538 EL, but due to back-up effect, the actual level of the water in the reservoir when reservoir is full at Nakai Dam, at 538 EL, maybe be a little more than 538 EL. In addition, in some wetter years, more water will be flowing into the reservoir than is released through the turbines, and thus water will overflow at the Nakai Dam (riparian flow). Thus, in these years, when the reservoir level at the Nakai Dam is > 538 EL, somewhere between 538 to 539.5, depending on the severity of the wet season, the level of the middle and upper areas of the reservoir would be correspondingly higher, somewhere between 538+ EL to 39.5+ EL. For this reason, the inundation cut-off levels for the two main (social) impacts of inundation have been decided as: · 538 EL for agricultural lands, on the assumption that these lands can withstand some degree of inundation, in some years; and · 540 EL for housing or other permanent structures, on the assumption that these structures should never be affected by flooding. 10.4 SOCIAL IMPACTS RELATED TO THE NAKAI RESERVOIR The main social impacts resulting from the inundation of the plateau to form the Nakai Reservoir will be loss of houses, agricultural lands and vegetable gardens, forest land, fishing grounds and some small areas cultural heritage. Much of the SDP Volume 2 is dedicated to planning the resettlement of the fifteen (15) villages currently located in the area of the future reservoir, and the two (2) villages located on the edge of the reservoir, and thus partly affected. These villages host about 1,029 households with approximately 5,678 persons (as of 2003). For a detailed description of the villages and households, which will be affected by the formation of the Nakai Reservoir, see Chapter 11 (Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau). An outline of the mitigation and entitlements is provided in Section 10.5. The Plateau will also be the site of some of the construction activities on Project Lands, such as the Nakai Dam, Headrace Channel, Intake Structure, construction of the relocated section of Road 8B, construction of saddle dams at crest level 542.5 EL, and some tunnelling works. The impacts and mitigation of their construction is discussed in Volume 4 of this SDP. 10.4.1 Loss of Houses Inundation will affect houses in 16 villages of the plateaus 17 villages (see Table 10-1). In Oudomsouk, about 94 houses (1998 figure) will be affected and in Phonphanpek no houses will be affected as they are located above the 540 EL. In Nakai Tai and Nakai Neua, there are some houses that are above 540 EL and thus not affected - although they may still wish to move a short distance depending on the location and layout of the new village, while in the 13 other villages, all houses will be affected and villagers therefore entitled to the full relocation package. 10.4.2 Loss of Agricultural Land and Vegetable Gardens In 2002, the total area under paddy cultivation on the Nakai plateau was 91 ha in wet season and 35 ha in dry season, in seven and five of the 17 villages, respectively1. This area will be inundated by the Nakai Reservoir. It should be noted however, and as can be seen from Table 10-1 that the productivity of these 1Nakai District Agricultural Office Rice Production Survey, 2002 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements rice fields is very low - averaging 1.1 t/ha for paddy and abut 0.55 t/ha for upland rice, although these figures do come form a year in which flooding and pest depredation took a heavy toll., as is often the case. Villagers also cultivated about 434 ha of upland rice field (15 villages), and about 86 ha of corn, 49 ha of cassava and 4 ha of vegetables2. The majority of these areas will also be lost to inundation. Table 10-1: Indicative Agricultural Lands to be Inundated by the Reservoir, by Village. Wet season paddy Dry season rice Upland rice area final area final area final planted production planted production planted production no Village HH Persons ha kg ha kg ha kg Nakai District, Khammouane Province - plateau villages 1 Phonphanpek 73 472 31.00 16,213 2 Nongboua 31 157 15.00 - 3 Sop on 84 429 18.53 2,180 4 Bouama 56 300 2.00 1,200 2 2,150 22.67 1,796 5 Phonesavang 27 159 9.25 7,939 6 Sopma 46 166 23.63 9,452 7 Done 115 726 29.75 14,270 5 5,900 40.40 54,700 8 Khone khen 42 246 12.00 13,500 34.70 28,020 9 Ka Oy 24 153 50.94 5,750 10 Sop Phene 43 230 39.00 13,600 11 Nakai Neua 79 376 18.00 13,716 18 18,500 19.12 1,863 12 NakaiTai 174 832 19.98 16,289 8 10,500 35.93 36,043 13 Nongbouakham 40 286 3.00 0,7 2 2,200 18.00 300 14 Thalang 64 329 47.00 9,993 15 Oudomsouk 0 0 ?? ?? 898 4,861 84.73 58,975 34.25 39,250 405.17 187,849 Khamkeut District, Bolikhamsay Province 16 Nam Nian 23 130 3 5,350 7 5,530 17 Sop Hia 56 316 37 23,050 79 446 3 5,350 44 28,580 10.4.3 Loss of Forest Land Forest land is presently used as a source of timber for construction, firewood and of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Parts of these resources are accessed from within the future inundated area and parts (especially for the NTFPs) come from above the inundation areas, in the Nakai Nam Theun NPA. Refer to the EAMP for detailed information on the loss of forests. 10.4.4 Loss of Fishing Grounds The Nam Theun and it's tributaries are sources of fish and aquatic products, which make up 4 % of income and 6 % of imputed income (1998 census data). Fish and aquatic products are thus an important source of animal protein for many villagers. While current fishing grounds will be lost - inundated - it is expected that the new Nakai Reservoir will be productive and more than compensate for this loss. 2These figures are incomplete as they only cover around half of the villages. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 10.4.5 Loss of Cultural Heritage According to preliminary surveys there are no archaeological or historical sites in the area to be inundated3. However, a few villages have temples, which will be moved to the new village according to specific cultural procedures. Most graves will be flooded, but villagers have confirmed that they wish to let the graves remain where they are as long as appropriate ceremonies and offerings are made to the ancestors' spirits. These spirits can be moved if proper procedures are followed4. 10.4.6 Health Impacts Possible impacts on villagers health are discussed in detail in Chapter 5. 10.4.7 Impacts of Construction period Impacts related to the construction period on the Nakai plateau, including the increase in populations during this time, are discussed in detail a Chapter 44 10.5 MITIGATION AND ENTITLEMENTS 10.5.1 Entitlements The legal entitlements of the PAP affected by the inundation to create the Nakai Reservoir are specified in the Concession Agreement, Schedule 4, Part 1, and shown in Table 10-2. Table 10-2: Legal Entitlements as Defined in the Concession Agreement. 1. Housing: · the labour and transportation cost associated with the dismantling of existing house and constructing new one · provision of new materials for construction of new house · electrical wiring and basic fixtures · minimum housing area not less than existing area or 42m², whichever is the greater · households with 7 or more persons containing two families have the option to have two houses · sheds, other outbuildings and fencing will be provided to the household 2. House/Farm Land: · 0.5 ha per household · up to 0.15 ha of rice land per household in off village location, to be developed/allocated on a community basis. In the event less land is available, other livelihood options will provide replacement. [In the October 2002 CA, this rice land was to be in an 'off village' location and allocated on a community basis. However, wherever possible, this 0.16 ha will be continuous with the above mentioned 0.5 ha, and thus a total of 0.66 ha of irrigated land will be developed and improved] · land provided with survey, and joint title to husband and wife · house to be constructed in location acceptable to owner. 3. Infrastructure: · irrigation water to the house/farm lot boundary and distribution system · irrigation to rice lands · year-round household water supply · electricity to the house · road access to house/farm lot · school access within 3km · clinic access within 5km 3Stephen Sparkes (1997): Observations Relating to the Resettlement of People on the Nakai Plateau. 4Stephen Sparkes (1997): Observations Relating to the Resettlement of People on the Nakai Plateau. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements 4. Services: · transportation of all household assets to new location · health check of all household members prior to and after move · access to RMU for advice · access to Grievance Procedure for complaints 5. Cash: · one-time cash allowance to cover moving time, disturbance ­ USD 15 per person · compensation for fruit trees lost at district prevailing market prices in case no acceptable replacement trees provided; compensation for standing crops at market prices. 6. Production Assistance: · effective access to a range of feasible production and income generation options to meet pre-determined household income target, including production forest and Reservoir fisheries · tools to work the farm land and forest land · planting materials for 3 years after preparation of farm lot, including fruit tree saplings · fertiliser and other agro-chemicals for 3 years after preparation of farm lot · training in farming, forest management and fisheries techniques · agricultural advice for 5 years after preparation of farm lot · access to identified forests for collection of non-timber forest products · access to identified Reservoir drawdown areas · skills training for wage labour jobs · household budgeting training · income support program during implementation period, at 440 kg of rice per person · households with economically inactive members and other vulnerable households to participate in the production benefits from communal forests through the provision of a basic needs allowance as determined by the village. 7. Departees: Those wishing to permanently leave the District and not move to a resettlement site will receive a one - time payment for the value of the land, trees, production, and structures lost, plus transportation and disturbance allowances. Besides the entitlement to 0.66 ha of irrigated agricultural land (point 2 above), it has been decided to allocate two further cropping zones for the purposes of developing and sustaining agriculture production, the reservoir drawdown areas; and 'upland' areas currently under degraded forests. Following research and development of rainfed agriculture systems, and if they are shown to be ecological sustainable and productive, the followings entitlements may be further provided in the two zones, as follows; (a) at least 0.5 ha per resettler family of extra rainfed cropping and grazing area, depending on the labour availability and ability of any family to work the land; and (b) at least 1 ha for the first new generation from resettler families, To give effectiveness to these entitlements, and obligations on the part of NTPC, a range of programs have been developed and budgets (and trailed in Ban Nong Boua, the Pilot village). These programs are detailed in Chapters 19 to 28, and summarised below. 10.5.2 Relocation The proposed NT2 Resettlement Area is situated on the south west shore of the Nakai Reservoir. Figure 10-2 shows the NT2 Resettlement Area and the proposed locations of the resettled villages. Efforts have been made to select these resettlement sites within existing traditional territories to ensure cultural continuity and familiarity, which will reduce disruption or stress that may be created by the resettlement process (see Chapter 19). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements Table 10-3 shows the distance the resettlers will have to move to their new village locations. Ten of the villages will be moving 3.5 km or less from their current location. Three will move 10-15 km, while two villages will remain at their present location. For the two villages in Khamkeut District a decision on relocation site is still to be made. The resettlement sites comply with village desires to be near the future reservoir, near an all-weather road, near their present locations, near the forest and near land that can be used for growing rice. Because all the sites are adjacent to Nakai Reservoir, they will have access to the drawdown area, which is expected to be agriculturally productive in the dry season as the reservoir recedes, and also has potential for grazing. Table 10-3: Nakai Plateau Villages, Current Location Elevation and Households to be Relocated. Estimated HH's to be % HH's Distance to Elevation Total relocated to be New Village Name of Village (in 1998) HHs (El<538**) Relocated Site (km) Nakai District 1 Ban Oudomsouk 533-550 248 94 38 % - 2 Ban Thalang 529-539 50 50 100 % 0.5 3 Ban Nong Boua Kham 528-549 55 55 100 % 2.9 4 Ban Nakai Tai 531-547 148 148 100 % 0.6 5 Ban Nakai Neua 531-548 63 63 100 % 0.9 6 Ban Sop Phene 526-531 41 41 100 % 12.2 7* Ban Sop Ma 526-528 14 14 100 % 10.6 (hamlet: B. Hat Khamphane 527-529 18 18 100 % 13.2 (hamlet: Ban Keng Gnao) 527-530 14 14 100 % 4.8 8* Ban Nong Boua (includes 525-535 28 28 100 % 1.8 hamlets: Sailom & Pamanton) 9 Ban Phonphanpek (B Jat San) > 540 93 0 0 % - 10 Ban Boua Ma 528-531 53 53 100 % 2.0 11 Ban Phonsavang 531-532 22 22 100 % 3.0 12* Ban Sop On 528-531 65 65 100 % 3.3 13 Ban Done 528-531 88 88 100 % 2.7 14 Ban Khone Khen 529-531 37 37 100 % 2.0 15 Ban Ka Oy 536-539 26 26 100 % 10.5 Khamkeut District 16 Ban Sop Hia 519-533 53 53 100 % + 17 Ban Nam Nian 529-532 17 17 100 % + TOTALS 1,133 886 (population as of May 1998) * Several hamlets on the Plateau are officially recognised as one village, therefore they will be relocated as one village ** Number of Households as of May 1998 *** The abandoned hamlets of Ban Pakkatan May, Ban Nya Long and Ban Tham On are now not included + To be decided November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements About 650 ha of land will be converted to sustainable, irrigated agriculture land, which will be developed in mainly degraded, unstocked forest already highly disturbed by shifting cultivation and past logging activities. Therefore, most resettlement sites will require minimal clearing of vegetation. The establishment of agricultural livelihoods and construction of resettlement sites give rise to some environmental concerns and these are addressed in Environmental Assessment and Management Plan (EAMP). The construction of the villages will provide skilled work for the people to be resettled, and this will assist in their participation in determining their own priorities and preferences for village and house layout. Chapter 19 of this SDP details the site selection process and villager preferences. 10.5.3 Livelihood Options The SDP presents four main livelihoods options: · for agriculture, · livestock raising, · reservoir fisheries, and · commercial forestry These four main livelihood options have been designed with the objectives of providing maximum flexibility to the resettlers in terms of: (a) adapting to changes in farming systems and other livelihoods, and (b) income rehabilitation. The livelihood options for the relocated villagers are fully discussed in Chapters 21 to 25. In addition to direct farm, forest or fisheries based livelihoods, the villagers, especially those with spare labour or specific skills, will be supported and trained to seek an income and livelihood from a range of other service or business enterprises )off-farm employment), such as: · tailoring and weaving; · small machine repair and spare parts shops (pushbikes, motorbikes, power tillers, etc.); · small goods shops; · marketing - buying and selling local produce (fish, vegetable, crops, etc.); · processing of locally produced produce; · employment on the NPVFA; · employment in the NT2 project facilities (guards, gardeners, boatmen, etc.); · taxi and boat taxi drivers; · other service related to tourism; and · construction-related unskilled and semi-skilled labour. 10.5.4 Infrastructure and Facilities NTPC is committed to providing both the infrastructure and facilities for the resettled communities. Each resettled family will be provided with 0.5 ha of cleared land for crops, vegetable gardens, fruit trees and 0.16 ha for irrigated rice fields, a total of 0.66 ha of irrigated agricultural land. NTPC will be responsible for the installation, and the GoL will support (with funds from the Social and Environmental Remediation Fund, SERF) the operation and maintenance of a reliable pumped irrigation water supply to these agricultural lands. A separate house block of approximately 0.12 - 0.15 ha will also be provided, in a village layout, and NTPC will support the villagers to construct new houses for each family. Domestic water supply systems November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 10: Geographical Framework, Description of Impacts and Entitlements will be developed and electricity will be supplied to the houses. Furthermore, roads, schools and community buildings will be constructed. A transformer with sufficient capacity to supply up to 20 MW will be located at the power station at a cost of about USD 1.3 million. This will facilitate the use of electric irrigation pumps and will provide a more economic, convenient and reliable electric water supply. This power supply should also lead to improvements in nutrition and hygiene and in education. ********** * * * ********** November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau CHAPTER 11 BASELINE DATA ­ NAKAI PLATEAU Table of Content 11 BASELINE DATA ­ NAKAI PLATEAU..................................................................1 11.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS....................................................................................1 11.1.1 Baseline Surveys ................................................................................................................................................1 11.1.2 Participatory Approaches.................................................................................................................................1 11.2 DEMOGRAPHIC BASELINE .......................................................................................... 2 11.2.1 Villages Affected by the Reservoir..................................................................................................................2 11.2.2 Households Affected by the Reservoir ­ `Eligibility by Impact'................................................................2 11.2.3 Household Eligibility in terms of `Cut-off Date'..........................................................................................3 11.2.4 Population growth ............................................................................................................................................6 11.2.4.1 Prediction of Households eligible for Relocation and House Construction Program............8 11.2.4.2 Households eligible for the Irrigated Agriculture Program ........................................................8 11.2.4.3 Households eligible for the Forestry and Fisheries Programs....................................................9 11.2.5 Occupations of Plateau populations.............................................................................................................10 11.2.6 Potentially Vulnerable Populations...............................................................................................................10 11.3 ETHNIC BASELINE.....................................................................................................13 11.4 HOUSEHOLD INCOME ...............................................................................................15 11.5 LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES...........................................................................................15 11.5.1 Agricultural Production..................................................................................................................................15 11.5.2 Livestock and Animal Husbandry ................................................................................................................18 11.5.3 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP).........................................................................................................20 11.5.4 Forestry Resources of the Resettlement Area.............................................................................................21 11.5.5 Fisheries............................................................................................................................................................22 11.6 EDUCATION...............................................................................................................22 11.7 GENDER.....................................................................................................................23 List of Tables Table 11-1: Historic Demographic Data of Plateau Households (1995 ­ 1998), and 2003 Census and Eligible Households......................................................................................................................... 5 Table 11-2: Households Eligible to Participate in Housing Re-establishment Program and Irrigated Agriculture Programme (figure in brackets). Shading indicates number of households at time of commencement of activity for specific village............................................................... 8 Table 11-3: Households Eligible to Participate in NT2 Forestry and Reservoir Fisheries Programs. Shading indicates population at time of commencement of activity. ...................................... 9 Table 11-4: Categories of Potentially Vulnerable Households.....................................................................12 Table 11-5: Cash and Imputed Household Incomes on the Nakai Plateau...............................................15 Table 11-6: Rice Deficiency on the Nakai Plateau, 1996 ..............................................................................16 Table 11-7: Comparison of Rice Growing Areas, Nakai Plateau, 1996 and 2002 ....................................17 Table 11-8: Rice Growing Areas Destroyed by Flood and Elephants, Nakai Plateau 2002 ...................18 Table 11-9: Livestock Numbers in Villages to be Resettled, 1998 and 2002.............................................18 Table 11-10: Sale of Buffaloes and Cattle in Nakai District, 2000-2004. .....................................................20 Table 11-11: Land use/Forest type within the Resettlement Area................................................................21 Table 11-12: Forest Land in the Resettlement Area by Forest Type ............................................................22 Table 11-13: Educational Levels and Literacy on the Nakai Plateau ............................................................23 Table 11-14: Division of Labour between Men and Women.........................................................................23 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau List of Figures Figure 11-1: Illustration of Population Increase - Natural and Migratory, on the Nakai Plateau, 1998 to 2003 .................................................................................................................................................... 7 Figure 11-2: Occupational Pattern among Adult Population (Excluding Civil Servants), Nakai Plateau, 1998 ..................................................................................................................................................11 Figure 11-3: Distribution of Buffaloes among Nakai Plateau Households.................................................19 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 ii Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11 BASELINE DATA ­ NAKAI PLATEAU 11.1 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 11.1.1 Baseline Surveys Since 1994, all villages to be relocated have been visited several times in order to obtain data and information relating to village livelihoods and to inform villagers of the impacts the Project will have on them. The Public Consultation, Participation and Disclosure (PCPD) Process (see Chapter 4) is continuing throughout the resettlement and livelihood development processes to help identify needs and solutions to potential problems. Various methodologies have been employed in assembling more quantitative baseline data for the residents of the Nakai Plateau, which would be sued for planning and then implementation purposes. The baseline data collected in surveys and questionnaires to date consist of: 1. Household surveys of economic assets were first carried out by the LWU in 1995 and then by CARE, using Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques in 1996. These studies listed the assets and the main socio-economic features of residents of the Nakai Plateau. 2. The Notification and Assets Registration was conducted by the RMU in October 1998. These formed the baseline of all entitled households on the Nakai Plateau (see Appendix H). The census included an assessment of potential assets that would lost due to inundation, including land area, population, houses, fruit trees, cattle, wells, roads, etc. The results of this census formed the basis for eligibility for entitlements, and for calculating compensation for individuals, households and villages as described in the various iterations of the RAP/SDP. 3. At the same time as the Census, a socio-economic survey was carried out using a random sample of 320 households, and this formed the basis for developing the economic target and the livelihood rehabilitation plan for the resettlers (see Chapter 25 and Appendix H). 4. The 2003 population census undertaken to determine the rate of increase in eligible populations (natural growth) and new immigrants. It was later decided that this would also be the new cut-off date census for plateau populations. 5. An on-going assessment of the productive capacity of the proposed new resettlement areas (in terms of both the land, forest and water resources), and the subsequent identification of land use options and selection of resettlement sites (see Chapter 19). The methodologies for each of the surveys differ to some extent. The NTPC survey produced statistical records of the affected populations, while the CARE study utilized Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques and examined themes relating to livelihood and ethnicity. The PCPP reports were the result of applying Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques, which recorded villagers' attitudes and expectations as well as updating statistical information on population and household numbers Baseline data and feedback from participants will continue to be collected from ongoing studies and fieldwork on all aspects of proposed livelihoods, and from the pilot village and demonstration farms experience. 11.1.2 Participatory Approaches In addition to surveys, a number of participatory approaches have been used to collect qualitative data and to facilitate a realistic interpretation of survey data. Both anthropological and consultation team field visits utilized participatory methods (CARE 1996, NTEC 1997 and 1998). The following participatory methods were used throughout the preparation of the RAP: · In-depth interviews of individuals and families were carried out on several occasions in order to obtain additional information relating to individual household economics, social organization, cultural practices, gender relations and resource use. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau · Discussions with local leaders were carried out on several occasions throughout the consultation process and during all studies in order to update statistics on village population, migration patterns and relationships between traditional and formal positions of authority within the villages. · Discussion with ritual practitioners was carried out in order to assess cultural practices, rituals relating to relocation, territorial spirits and religious beliefs that could affect resettlement. · Participant observation was conducted in all villages during anthropological field visits starting from 1996 onwards, and by PCPP Teams in 1997 and 1998 and by consultation teams in 2004. This involved staying in villages for several days and nights in order to observe first-hand village life and routines and to establish trust and affirm conclusions of the quantitative surveys. Informal discussions were held with many villagers in order to gain insights into local aspirations and the potential challenges of the resettlement plan. Study teams comprised government officials from the RMU, LWU and Institute for Cultural Research, Ministry of Information and Culture as well as consultant anthropologists. · Participatory rural appraisal techniques were used in 1997 and 1998 as part of the gender- sensitive consultation process. This involved land use mapping, designing "dream villages", prioritizing livelihood options, village layout, and house designs. Groups of men and women discussed various aspects of the draft resettlement plans and provided feedback. The above described participatory approaches and methods have also been utilized during the recent consultations of June-August 2004 as described in Chapter 4. All these various types of data have been cross-checked and integrated into the resettlement plans in an attempt to fulfil the consultation and planning criteria in regard to consideration of the cultural and socio- economic needs of ethnic minorities as required under OD 4.20 and ADB Policy on consultations. 11.2 DEMOGRAPHIC BASELINE 11.2.1 Villages Affected by the Reservoir The villages affected by inundation of the Nakai Plateau have changed little since the mid 1990s. The main changes relate to abandoned hamlets (Ban Nya Long, Ban Tham On and Ban Pakkatan May) and relocated hamlets. These hamlets are small settlements which are not officially recognized as a village, but are part of a larger village. Thus, as of 2003, there are 17 recognized villages, of which 15 will be fully affected by reservoir inundation and 2 villages partially affected (see Section 11.2.2). In Phonphanpek and Oudomsouk villages, only a part of the village population will be affected and eligible for the various livelihood programmes in that only some of the houses in Oudomsouk are below 540 EL and will thus be relocated, while very few Phonphanpek village houses are below 540 EL. 11.2.2 Households Affected by the Reservoir ­ `Eligibility by Impact' Results of population (and socio-economic) surveys conducted from 1995 to 1998 by CARE International, PCPP teams and the RMU are summarized in Table 11-1, together with a survey conducted out by Nakai District assisted by RMU and NTPC in 2003. The number of affected households has increased Note: there are two type of `eligibility': both because of natural population increase and (a) eligible in terms of being impacted ­ flooded ­ by some in-migration into the region but also due to the project (some families in Oudomsouk and experience gained in designing and conducting Phonephanpek are not impacted and thus not surveys, leading to more comprehensive data eligible); and collection on the Plateau in the 1998 and 2003 (b) eligible in terms of a Project cut-off date. Census undertakings. The RMU Census of October 1998 is the most detailed effort to collect population and socio-economic information. The 2003 census was equally detailed, but it concentrated only populations. In both cases the surveys identified total persons and households, and thus impacted fully or partially by the project. Of the 17 Plateau villages, 15 will be fully impacted and thus fully eligible, and 2 partially impacted. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau In Oudomsouk, it was estimated in 1998 that of the 283 families in the town, 94 families' dwellings were to be inundated. However, it is not clear if the level of inundation used was 538n EL or 540 EL. 538 EL is the crest height of the Nakai dam, and it is assumed that agricultural land can be developed down to this elevation. However, in those years in which water will flow over (through) the Nakai dam (when water flowing into the Nakai reservoir is more than is being released via the turbines, the reservoir height may be at higher than 538 EL, somewhere between 538 EL and about 539 + because of backwater effect, and depending on the amount of 'excess' rain in any wet season. Thus, it has been decided that houses should not be constructed below 540 EL. Based on this, it can be assumed that houses (or other structures) currently existing below 540 EL would be subject to inundation and thus must be relocated. Irrespective of whether the 1998 Census used 538 EL or 540 EL, the actual definition of these levels in 1998 was based on 5 m interval contour lines derived from aerial photos and some spot survey heights. Topographic surveys being undertaken in 2004 will provide more accurate maps with 0.5 m contours and thus a clearer picture of which dwellings and other buildings are below 540 EL. Thus, these 94 families registered in 1998, and which have now naturally expanded to 110 is, at this stage, an estimate only. Also in 1998, 25 families of Ban Oudomsouk were assessed to have agricultural land that would be inundated. Again, this figure is indicative only, and the Oudomsouk families whose agricultural lands will be inundated, and thus eligible for the livelihood restoration program, will only be know following the detailed topographic survey. Ban Phonephanpek villagers are a combination of: a) Families resettled in 1993 under a BPKP scheme, in which families from the Plateau and watershed were invited to join the BPKP reforestation program, as labourers. Unfortunately, this program was not successful and the families, once moved into Phonephanpek village, were left without a livelihood. They thus resorted to shifting cultivation and gathering of forest products, often from as far as the southern edge of the Nakai Nam Theun NBCA. These families live in the 45 houses constructed in the hamlet Ban Jut Sun by BPKP, using softwoods, and the houses are now in poor condition, and electricity was never supplied to these villages. b) Families from other sources, not living in the Ban Jut Sun, but spread out over the general area They may be farmers, public servants, business people, or a combination. Ban Phonephanpek is above the 540 EL level, and will thus not require actual relocation, but the NT2 Project will assist to repair their houses, install cement footings, and provide electricity. Of other families in Phonphanpek, a certain ­ currently undefined ­ number of dwellings may be inundated at below 540 EL and thus require relocation. With respect to agricultural lands, the current planning assumes that most of the village's agricultural lands will be inundated and thus the villagers will be eligible to participate in the livelihood restoration program. This needs to be confirmed. 11.2.3 Household Eligibility in terms of `Cut-off Date' Up until early 2004, the 1998 census was regarded as the NT2 Projects cut-off date for eligibility and inclusion in the plateau resettlement program. Only those families registered in 1998, plus the natural growth of these families and establishment of new families from at least one member of these original eligible families would be eligible. New immigrants after that date would not be eligible. A population census was conducted in August 2003 in order to: (a) establish the rate of natural growth of eligible families, (b) establish how many non-eligible immigrants ­ those entering the plateau after the 1998 census ­ where on the plateau. The census was undertaken by District staff, led by the District police (who are responsible for records of populations, issuance of household books and citizen cards) and the District administration, following training from NTPC staff. The results of that census are shown in Table 11-1. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau During this 2003 census, the registration lists and the assets registration books issued in the 1998 census were used by the team, with each family, to decide if they were eligible in terms of the 1998 census. That is, all the villagers aware fully aware that, as of the actual time of the census in 2003, the policy was that new immigrants (unrelated to level 1 to 1998 eligible families) would not be eligible for the resettlement program ­ in accordance with the policy at that time. Following review of the data and the issues by GOL, NTPC and IFI's, a decision was made to accept all people residing on the plateau (all those who are actually impacted by the project) as of the 2003 census date as those eligible for participation in the resettlement program. That is, not only the 1998 eligible families, their progeny and their new families, but also new immigrants would now be eligible. This 2003 census date is the latest and most reasonable census to judge cut-off as, starting in early 2004, various people have and continue to enter the plateau to seek opportunities related to the PCA activities. The program to disclosure and inform all those eligible as of July 2003, and inform that any new immigrants after that date would not be considered, except if adjudicated on a case by case basis by the NT2 Project Grievance Committee, will follow the following steps: (i) The Resettlement Committee issues a notice of the cut off date. (ii) The NTPC produces: (a) a village by village list of all families and family members of eligible families as of 2003; (b) a village by village book of eligible family members, for use by each VRC; (c) a family registration card. (iii) Consultation teams, together with relevant District authorities will then: · convene a meeting in each village to explain (a) the new cut-off date, and (b) any family can make a claim (grievance) if they feel they should be included on the census list; · ensure that the village lists are posted in the Village Notice Board and Village Consultation Centres; · ensure that the census book is provided to the VRC; and · ensure that each family registration card is delivered to each family. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Table 11-1: Historic Demographic Data of Plateau Households (1995 ­ 1998), and 2003 Census and Eligible Households. Historical Data Results of 2003 Census and Eligibility Social / Cultural No. HH, 2003 Census Eligible Households Research Emigrated Old Naturally Housing + Livelihood Institute, CARE Survey PCPP Survey households households increased Immigrated livelihood Programmes No. Village February 1995 February 1996 April 1997 1998 Census 1998-2003 remaining households households Total programmes Housing only only (a) (c) (d = a - c) (e) (f) (g = d+e+f) (h) (i) (j) 1 Khone Khen 36 36 36 37 2 35 8 1 44 44 2 Done 81 87 88 89 4 85 28 3 116 116 3 Sop On (incl. old Nikhom 3) 62 58 62 66 2 64 27 2 93 93 4 Ka Oy n/a 23 24 26 4 22 4 3 29 29 5 Phonsavang 28 29 28 25 6 19 8 3 30 30 6 Sop Ma / Hat Khampane / Kaeng 38 34 38 47 7 40 15 9 64 64 7 Sop Phene 40 40 38 43 4 39 10 2 51 51 8 Boua Ma 48 39 39 53 12 41 15 4 60 60 9 Nong Boua / Sailom / Pamanton hamlets ) 28 40 35 28 0 28 2 0 30 30 10 Phonphanpek n/a n/a 51 85 16 69 21 12 102 0 102 11 Oudomsouk* 167 n/a 234 283 67 216 2 8 226 94 28 12 Nakai Tai 134 130 130 147 4 143 34 1 178 178 13 Nakai Neua 59 58 58 67 2 65 15 3 83 83 15 Nong Boua Kham 48 41 53 42 7 35 0 12 47 47 14 Thalang 28 37 35 52 6 46 13 5 64 64 16 Sop Hia 24 51 34 54 9 45 8 2 55 55 17 Nam Nian 24 24 14 16 0 16 5 5 26 26 Pakkatan Mai n/a (w Sop Hia) Village abandoned Nya Long n/a 4 Village abandoned Tham On n/a 12 Village abandoned TOTAL n/r n/r 997 1,160 152 1,008 215 75 1,298 970 94 130 n/a: not available Total, Total, n/r: not relevant (due to missing data) Housing Livelihood Programme Programme (h + i) (h + j) Total eligible per livelihood programme, 2003: 1,064 1,100 *) Numbers of eligible households for Oudomsouk are indicative only due to out-migration between 1998 and 2003 and subject to re-surveying of houses and land in relation to the 538 and 540 meter levels.. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11.2.4 Population growth Past growth In general, the populations of the Plateau villages to be relocated have grown at a fairly consistent rate, although in and out migrations are probably more common on the Plateau than in other areas of rural Lao. There has been some in-migration from the Ban Lak Sao area recorded in the Bolikhamxay Province villages of Ban Nam Nian and Ban Sop Hia. There has also been a significant increase in population in Ban Oudomsouk, the Nakai District centre, from 167 households in 1995 to 283 at the time of the 1998 census. Several households from villages located on the Plateau have relocated to Ban Oudomsouk to be close to markets and services. In-migration from the Nakai Nam Theun NBCA is also a factor, although not as significant as in-migration from other areas. As described above, the population as of August 2003 is the baseline or cut-off population of eligible households. However, by the time that relocation and the development of the modified livelihoods are initiated, these populations will have grown due to (a) births and (b) marriages. Such natural growth in the number of eligible families must be accounted for in the planning of the various livelihood programmes in the SDP. Predicted future growth The future projections for illegible populations for each of the housing and livelihood programs (see Table 11-2 and Table 11-3) are based on the 2003 figures multiplied by an assumed average rate of natural increase in population of 3 % per annum (but not including in-migration). The eligible population projections shown in the various livelihood activity support programmes differ depending on the year that the village is actually relocated and particularly the year that the particular livelihood program comes on stream. However, it should be noted that irrespective of predicted population increases, the housing and livelihood programs will be provided to all and any eligible persons present at the time that the actual program is implemented. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Figure 11-1: Illustration of Population Increase - Natural and Migratory, on the Nakai Plateau, 1998 to 2003 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11.2.4.1 Prediction of Households eligible for Relocation and House Construction Program Households eligible for new housing will be, logically enough, those that are predicted to be flooded by the Nakai Reservoir. This will include all households in 15 villages, and around 40 % of the households in Oudomsouk village. Ban Phonphanpek will not be flooded and villagers from this village are therefore not eligible for new housing. The number of houses to actually be moved and re-established will depend on the natural growth of households in each village, at the time of relocation ­ which will be phased over 2 years. Using: (a) the 2003 census data as the baseline or cut off date for population/household numbers; and (b) an average growth rate of 3.0 % per year the current scheduling for house relocation, the number of households, which may need relocation, in 2005 and 2006 (including those already moved under the pilot village program) will be about 1,149 in total, as shown in Table 11-2. Table 11-2: Households Eligible to Participate in Housing Re-establishment Program and Irrigated Agriculture Programme (figure in brackets). Shading indicates number of households at time of commencement of activity for specific village. Total Eligible HHs, cf. Expected number of households assuming 3.0 % annual growth rate Mid 2003 census 2004 2005 2006 Village Housing Irrigation Housing Irrigation Housing Irrigation Housing Irrigation Khonken 44 45 47 48 Don 116 119 123 127 SopOn 93 96 99 102 KaOy 29 30 31 32 PhonSawang 30 31 32 33 Sopma 64 66 68 70 Sopphen 51 53 54 56 Bouama 60 62 64 66 Nongboua 30 31 32 33 Phonephanpek a) 0 102 0 105 0 108 0 111 Oudomsouk b) 94 28 97 29 100 30 103 31 Nakai Tai 178 183 189 195 Nakai Neua 83 85 88 91 Nongbouakham 47 48 50 51 Thalang 64 66 68 70 Sophia 55 57 58 60 Namnian 26 27 28 28 Total 1,064 1,100 1,096 1,133 1,129 1,167 1,163 1,202 Total eligible per year 30 0 453 666 705 a) For Phonephanpek, there will be no households eligible for the Housing Programme but 111 for the Irrigated Agriculture Programme b) In Oudomsouk, an estimated 103 households eligible for the Housing Programme and 31 for the Irrigated Agriculture Programme in 2006. 11.2.4.2 Households eligible for the Irrigated Agriculture Program Households eligible to participate in the irrigated agriculture program will be all households from 15 Plateau villages plus all households from Phonphanpek and about 28 households from Oudomsouk in 2003. It is assumed that none of the remaining households in Oudomsouk have agriculture, forestry or fisheries activities, which will be affected by the reservoir. The number of households to actually be given a plot of irrigated land, and to participate in other aspects of the irrigated agriculture program will again depend on (a) the natural growth of households in each November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau village and (b) the time of relocation and development of the agricultural land, which will also be phased over 2 years. Using an average growth rate of 3.0 % per year, and based on the current scheduling for village relocation, the number of households, which may participate in the agricultural development program, starting from 2005-2006, plus the already moved pilot village, will be about 1,188 households (see Table 11-2). 11.2.4.3 Households eligible for the Forestry and Fisheries Programs Those eligible to participate in the Community Commercial Forestry Program will be all those villages and households affected, in some way, by reservoir flooding, including all the households of Phonphanpek village and those households of Ban Oudomsouk whose rural based livelihoods are impacted by the flooding. The Forestry program has commenced already in 2004, and all villages are included in this activity as of that date, as this program is independent of the date of relocation. In 2004, the number of households to actually participate in and benefit from the forestry program was 1,133 as shown in Table 11-3. That is, there will be 1133 shares of the Community Forestry issued to the 1,133 eligible families. The forestry entitlement - the right to receive a dividend from the profits of forestry on the Resettlement Area activities - is not only provided to all resettler families, but it can be handed down from generation to generation, but sharing of an original families 'share' amongst the new generation. These shares can be inherited but not sold. Table 11-3: Households Eligible to Participate in NT2 Forestry and Reservoir Fisheries Programs. Shading indicates population at time of commencement of activity. Expected number of households assuming 3.0 % annual growth rate Mid 2003 Village census 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Forestry Fisheries Khonken 44 45 47 48 50 51 53 Don 116 119 123 127 131 134 139 SopOn 93 96 99 102 105 108 111 KaOy 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 PhonSawang 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Sopma 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 Sopphen 51 53 54 56 57 59 61 Bouama 60 62 64 66 68 70 72 Nongboua 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 Phonephanpek 102 105 108 111 115 118 122 Oudomsouk 28 29 30 31 32 32 33 Nakai Tai 178 183 189 195 200 206 213 Nakai Neua 83 85 88 91 93 96 99 Nongbouakham 64 66 68 70 72 74 76 Thalang 47 48 50 51 53 54 56 Sophia 55 57 58 60 62 64 66 Namnian 26 27 28 28 29 30 31 Total 1,100 1,133 1,169 1,204 1,240 1,274 1,315 Similar to the forestry program, the Reservoir Fisheries Program will come on-line at the one time (some time after reservoir filling) and all Plateau villages and households affected, in some way, by reservoir flooding and staying on the Plateau will be eligible. In 2003, the number of houses thus eligible was 1,100. The number of households to actually participate in and benefit from the fisheries program will be those eligible as of 2009, when the Nakai Reservoir will be filled and the reservoir fisheries program initiated. As shown in Table 11-3, this is estimated to be 1,315 households. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11.2.5 Occupations of Plateau populations The RMU Census of October 1998 also investigated the occupations of all plateau persons at that time. The data for adult persons, as represented in Figure 11-2 shows that in most villages, farmers make up more than 80 % of the adult population. Oudomsouk and partly Phonephanpek have relatively more villagers who are occupied with other activities such as construction, service and trading, small business, forestry employment and handicraft. The figures exclude school children, students, house wives, civil servants and unemployed. 11.2.6 Potentially Vulnerable Populations Some Project-affected households may be particularly vulnerable for a number of reasons, including the following characteristics: · Widow headed households; · Handicapped persons as household members, or as head of the family; · Female headed households (but working-age males as members); · Male head of household being over 60; · Single person households. The 1998 census found that approximately 207 households or approximately 23 percent of the resettler population on the Nakai Plateau qualify as Potentially Vulnerable Households (PVH) in one or more of these categories (see Table 11-4). Although there is no evident correlation in the table between current economic circumstances and vulnerability, poverty is still considered likely to increase a family's potential vulnerability. As the majority of all affected households are below the Lao poverty line, income levels will be monitored during implementation and economic vulnerability will be considered in the overall livelihood planning process. Given this additional focus on economic vulnerability, the preliminary categorization presented in Table 11-4 should be considered merely as a conservative benchmark estimate. Another factor affecting vulnerability may be ethnicity. Although the livelihood systems of all ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau are similar, some of the Vietic groups have only recently taken up swidden agriculture and discontinued their traditional hunting and gathering. The Ahoe of Sop Hia and other villages were resettled on the Plateau 20 years ago after the Second Indochina War and have adapted after a long period of settlement in lowland areas during the war. However, a few Kri and Phông families are recent arrivals from the catchment area and are likely to find adaptation to the proposed livelihood system more challenging. They may lack the necessary skills, knowledge and experience in farming techniques, have the lowest levels of rice self-sufficiency, and may still rely on hunting and gathering to some extent. The majority of the Vietic groups on the Plateau are not considered particularly vulnerable ­ less that 20 families are recent arrivals (within the last 10 years). Special measures for dealing with the special characteristics and needs of potentially vulnerable households are presented in Chapter 26. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Figure 11-2: Occupational Pattern among Adult Population (Excluding Civil Servants), Nakai Plateau, 1998 Number of people 350 300 250 Handicapped or Elderly Person 200 M aking Handicrafts 150 Trader (including small shop) 100 Forestry / Sawmill Emp. Construction / Service Sector / M isc Emp. 50 Farmer 0 oukS en au y na n O hanpekP opS angwaS ma O Ma pane noT Lang Ni aiH Do neK opS aoyN iaTiak Ka hamK heneP ouaB m opS Na honP udomO honP hamKtaH engK Neiak Na haT ouaB LomiaS Na opS ongN manaP honK ongbouaN November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Table 11-4: Categories of Potentially Vulnerable Households Affected Number Category Total Definition Community HH of PVH PVH % 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Categories Category Head of Household Balance of Household Ban Phonephanpek 0 2 1 1 2 1 Male over 60 in 2003 Insufficient able-bodied Ban Ka Oy 26 6 23 2 3 1 2 8 2 Female (not widow) working age males. * Ban Sop Hia 54 8 15 4 1 2 1 8 3 Widow Ban Keng Gnao 14 2 14 1 1 2 4 Handicapped Ban Sop Ma 15 3 20 1 1 1 3 5 Person under 16 Ban Phonsavang 25 4 16 3 1 3 1 1 9 6 Single person - Ban Boua Ma 53 14 26 9 2 2 1 3 17 7 - Two or more handicapped persons Ban Hat Khamphane 18 4 22 1 1 1 1 4 8 Non-Lao - Ban Nong Boua 8 1 13 1 1 Ban Pamanton 7 0 0 0 * For a 4 person household or less, "insufficient" is defined as less Ban Nong Boua Kham 42 6 14 5 1 2 8 than 2. Similarly for a 5-8 person household, it is less than 3 and for Ban Oudomsouk 94 22 23 12 3 1 1 1 7 25 a household in excess of 8 persons, less than 4. Ban Sop On 66 19 29 10 4 5 2 2 1 24 Ban Thalang 52 8 15 3 2 3 2 10 Ban Sailom 13 4 31 1 1 2 1 5 Ban Nakai Tai 147 37 25 22 6 7 7 9 4 55 Ban Done 89 25 28 11 1 9 6 3 6 36 Ban Sop Phene 43 10 23 5 1 3 3 2 1 15 Ban Khone Ken 37 10 27 3 4 3 2 2 14 Ban Nakai Neua 67 20 30 8 5 7 1 4 25 Ban Nam Nian 16 2 13 1 1 1 3 Grand Total 886 207 23 102 33 48 28 36 18 7 272 Notes: 1. # not included in Totals. 2 Some individual households match more than one category. 3. Villages arranged in ascending order of current per head income. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11.3 ETHNIC BASELINE The population of the Nakai Plateau and a number of groups in the downstream areas qualify as "indigenous peoples" or ethnic minorities according to World Bank criteria as outlined in Operational Directive 4.20 and ADB's policy on Indigenous Peoples. These groups exhibit aspects of a distinct social and cultural identity in comparison with the majority Tai-Lao ethnic groups. In the Lao PDR, the term "ethnic group" (xon phao) is used to describe all groups in the country, but a distinction can be made between the major group (Lao Loum), who primarily inhabit lowland areas, cultivate paddy rice, practice Buddhism and are more developed in terms of integration into the mainstream economy, and other - minority - groups (xon phao noy). The NT2 Project area is populated by a range of ethnic groups, including various Lao Loum types and groups that belong to the Mon-Khmer (Lao Theung) ethno-linguist group. A detailed account of ethnicity is provided in Chapter 12. According to Chapter 12 there are five main ethnic groups on the Plateau: · Brou or Makong of the West Kautic branch of the Mon-Khmer ethno-linguistic family, belong to the official classification of Mon-Khmer, commonly referred to as Lao Theung (upland Lao). · Tai Bo, who may well have originally been Vietic but have adopted Tai-Lao culture and languages, also classified Tai-Lao (referred to as Lao Loum or lowland Lao) macro-group. · Upland Tai groups, mostly Tai Moey and Tai Mène, who are recent arrivals. · Vietic groups (Ahoe, Kri, Phông, and other smaller groups) belonging to the Mon-Khmer ethno- linguistic family. · A few members of the Sek ethno-linguistic group, an ancient branch of the Tai-Kadai language family, originally from what is now the Nakai-Nam Theun NPA. Characteristics of the ethnic group communities affected by the NT2 Project which indicate that they qualify under the World Bank policies on indigenous peoples include: 1. All villagers indicate the desire to remain on the Plateau, indicating a strong sense of belonging to the region and attachment to the resources available in the forests and rivers. In addition, there are demarcations of territory according to the range of influence of territorial spirits (phi muang). 2. All Nakai groups define themselves as distinct cultural groups by name, but there is also a tendency for villagers to class themselves as Lao Theung, with the exception of the Tai in-migrants, in relation to the dominant culture of the lowlands. The actual differences between the various groups on the Plateau are less important than differences with the Lao Loum lowlanders. 3. The indigenous languages on the Plateau and in downstream areas are being replaced by Tai and Lao dialects that are mutually intelligible for lowlanders. There are, however, still many bilingual speakers. 4. The number of customary social and political institutions has been reduced with the integration into the Lao State. There are, however, councils of elders (thau khon) who oversee socio-cultural events such as marriages, funerals and collective rituals. In addition, in several villages there are hereditary positions of mediums (mo thiem) and ritual priests (mo phi) who perform local rituals and ceremonies, which differ from lowland rituals to some extent. 5. All the communities affected by the proposed resettlement have primarily subsistence-oriented economies consisting of upland rice, livestock and forest products. The surpluses of forest products and occasionally livestock are sold to merchants in Ban Oudomsouk for cash or bartered for rice. Few families have much in the way of consumer goods but demand is growing. The population of the Nakai Plateau that is to be resettled is presented in terms of ethno-linguistic categories in Table 12-2 and Table 12-3. The ethnic groups of the Nakai Plateau should be considered as November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau "indigenous peoples", according to the World Bank OD 4.20 and ADB Policy on Indigenous Peoples.1 The distinctions between groups are perhaps less significant than the contrast between the inhabitants of the Nakai Plateau and the dominant lowland cultures. The process of integration of these groups into the dominant culture has been occurring for some time and is ongoing. The Project will likely accelerate this process, and local villagers express a desire to see progress and to improve their standards of living, as revealed by the consultation process since 1997. It would not be possible to insulate these ethnic minorities culturally and economically from the outside or from the influence of outsiders. A preferable approach is to offer them the social and economic means with which they can participate in national development on a par with the majority groups in towns and in lowland areas to the south of the Nakai Plateau. Economic improvement can only serve to preserve the social structure of villages and preserve some of the cultural diversity of the region. Measures to strengthen existing village structures and aspects of local cultures such as house design have been integrated into the RAP. Ritual procedures concerning moving houses and villages will be incorporated into the resettlement process. Brou or Makong and the various Vietic speakers are all recognized by the Lao government as ethnic minorities. The Tai Bo appear to be a hybrid group, classified officially as Lao Loum but often referring to themselves as Lao Theung and indigenous to the Nakai Plateau (Tai Nakai). The distinctions between the groups, however, are becoming difficult to define due to increased inter-marriage, the common use of Lao language, the adoption or hybridisation of Lao culture ­ which is not so different from their original cultures in many respects. The area has been subjected to numerous, and often significant in- and outward, migrations over the last 200 years, so that the distinctions between ethnic minorities has become less clearly defined. In addition, the people of the Plateau have long been exposed to localized social disruption due to war, invasion, epidemics and physical relocation due to the practice of shifting cultivation. One can speak of a "Nakai culture", a kind of melting-pot culture, consisting of a shared material culture, common socio-religious beliefs and livelihood systems. There are a number of bilingual speakers but the majority speaks dialects of Tai languages akin to lowland Lao dialects. Upland Tai groups have migrated mostly from Khamkeut to the Plateau after 1995. The ethnic situation on the Plateau is further complicated by the considerable intermarriage and a shared culture. Most of the original distinguishing features of the ethnic minorities such as language, material culture, house design and ritual practice have merged. In many cases, families of these ethnic minorities exist in name only, with little or no distinguishing features from their immediate neighbours on the Plateau. Hence the emphasis is on the differences between the Nakai Plateau peoples and the dominant majority Lao culture rather than between the Nakai Plateau ethnic minorities themselves. Health and education facilities on the Plateau are scarce, and the physical isolation of many of the villages, some of which are only accessible by boat, make it even more difficult for children to go to school and for sick people to see a doctor or health worker. Of the 20 communities (villages and hamlets) expected to be resettled, only 7 villages have schools, two of which have not been operational since 1997 due to lack of teachers. Even when children have access to school, they often stop attending at an early age in order to help their families economically. The district centre of Ban Oudomsouk is populated by recent migrants from all over the country. The majority are Tai Lao and Lao Kaleung from Khammouane Province to the south and Tai from Bolikhamxay Province to the north. These migrants work mainly as wage labourers in construction and forestry as well as running the majority of restaurants and shops in town. 1 The exception is a number of recent economic in-migrants from Khamkerd who have arrived in the villages of Sop Hia and Nam Nian over the last ten years and recent Lao in migration to Plateau, mainly to Oudomsouk and Phonphanpek. These groups, although they are not `ethnic minorities', will still be entitled to all the benefits of the resettlement and rehabilitation package. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau 11.4 HOUSEHOLD INCOME Table 11-5 shows the cash and imputed household income on the Nakai Plateau based on two household surveys ­ CARE in 1996 and the RMU in 1998. Comparison of the two surveys shows a fourfold increase in average household income in a little over two years in local currency. However, inflation between 1996 and 1998 was high and accounts for approximately 50 percent of the nominal increase of Kip 1.4 million. Average household income in both years is still well below the national poverty line of US$ 780 (in 2004) for the average Plateau-family size of 5.3 persons. Table 11-5: Cash and Imputed Household Incomes on the Nakai Plateau Average HH Income Average HH Income Activity in 1996 (Kip) % in 1996 in 1998 (Kip) % in 1998 A. Cash Income: Agriculture and livestock 83,000 18 411,951 22 Wildlife 18,000 4 8,803 0 NTFPs 97,000 21 99,257 5 Fishing 23,000 5 84,926 4 Wages 36,000 8 203,947 11 Jewellery and Handicrafts N.A. 29,571 2 A. Total cash income 257,000 56 828,454 44 B. Computed Income: Rice production 140,000 30 541,813 29 Rice for work/donations N.A. 80,998 4 Wildlife 31,000 7 34,050 2 NTFPs N.A. 19,902 1 Fishing 34,000 7 106,753 6 Agriculture N.A. 223,165 12 Livestock N.A. 32,020 2 Handicrafts 1,705 0 B. Total Imputed Income 205,000 44 1,040,406 56 Total income (A+B) 462,0001 100 1,868,8602 100 1Equivalent to US$ 462 at 1996 exchange rates 2Equivalent to US$ 449 at 1998 exchange rates The methodology in the second survey was more thorough and included several items not taken into account in the first survey, such as rice for work, agricultural production and livestock as part of imputed income. In addition there has been domestic price inflation and a devaluing of the Kip in comparison to the US Dollar so that there is a slight decrease in dollar terms from US$ 462 to US$ 449. Some changes in the sources of income should be noted. There is a marked increase in wage labour as well as income from work for rice programs. This contrasts with the decrease in reliance on NTFPs, most likely due to a scarcity of some items on the Nakai Plateau. In addition, some affected areas of Oudomsouk and Phonphanpek (Ban Jat San) villages were included in the 1998 survey for the first time. 11.5 LIVELIHOOD ACTIVITIES 11.5.1 Agricultural Production Plateau communities have traditionally had a mixed economy that included swidden rice, fish, livestock, hunting and gathering forest products, all primarily for household use. In recent years, increases in November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau population, a shortened swidden cycle, and exposure to cash commodities, have spawned more intensive and extensive exploitation of the forest for its marketable products. Soil fertility, labour availability, access to a reliable water supply and the availability of draft animals and manure are all factors contributing to yield. Average yields in the area are generally in the range of 0.8 ton per hectare for upland and 1.5 to 2.0 tons per hectare for rainfed paddy rice. Paddy production is restricted by the availability of fertile non- flooded flat land. Vegetables are mainly grown on swidden fields close to the homestead, in the garden plots next to the house or along riverbanks. The main crops include cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes, lettuce, beans and pumpkin. Tobacco is sometimes grown in these gardens, mostly for home consumption. With the aid of mechanical power and/or access to a reliable water supply for irrigation, maximum land use could be expanded beyond the present average cultivation area, which is probably less than one hectare per family. The size of family land-holdings varies from 0.4 ha to 2.4 ha. Generally, large holdings are less intensively cultivated, due largely to a lack of available labour and/or draft power (buffalo and/or power tillers). The shift from an almost entirely subsistence economy to a somewhat more commercial one has been promoted by in-migrants. These newcomers arrived when Oudomsouk village became the Nakai District centre in the early 1990s, as labour for earlier government sponsored logging, or came in search of land or other economic benefits. They generate a buying market for items such as vegetables, meat and forest products. Even with the growth in other sectors, agriculture still dominates the Plateau economy, with rice being the main crop grown. Although all villagers attempt to grow rice, only 17 % of families are able to produce sufficient rice for a full year (see Table 11-6), and about half of all families have a rice deficit for more than six months. Most families consider rice cultivation their main `occupation', probably testifying more to the cultural significance of rice than to its occupational dominance. There is no major difference in rice deficiency between ethnic groups. The only tendency towards less deficiency is for the Vietic group, which has 39 % of households with rice sufficiency and `only' 31 % with rice deficiency for 6-8 months. Table 11-6: Rice Deficiency on the Nakai Plateau, 1996 Percentage of households rice deficient by number of months Deficit Deficit Deficit Deficit Ethnic group Sufficient <3 m 3-6m 6-8 m >8m Total Bo 17 6 15 62 0 100 Brou 6 17 34 19 21 97 Vietic 39 10 20 31 0 100 New Villages 32 16 9 13 27 97 Average 17 12 22 36 13 100 The total cultivated area in 2002 was approximately 700 ha, with rice accounting for about 80 % of this (see Table 11-7). Paddy rice is not a large contributor to total production (< 20 %) due to the low yields associated with this type of cultivation under rainfed conditions. Upland rice production also continues to decline because of government policy to reduce shifting agriculture, poor soils and alternating flood and drought. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Table 11-7: Comparison of Rice Growing Areas, Nakai Plateau, 1996 and 2002 Paddy Upland Rice Other Upland Crops Area - Wet Season Area - Dry Season Area - Wet season Area No. HH 1996 2002 1996 2002 1996 2002 Corn Cassava Vegetables Main Ethnic ha / ha / ha / ha / ha / ha / Village Groups 1996 2002 ha HH ha HH ha HH ha HH ha HH ha HH ha ha ha Nakai District 1 Ban Nakai Tai Bo 148 174 9.0 0.06 20.0 0.11 0 8.0 0.05 59.0 0.4 35.9 0.21 n.r. n.r. n.r. 2 Ban Sop Phene Bo 41 43 0 0 0 0 44.0 1.1 39.0 0.91 n.r. n.r. n.r. 3 Ban Sop On 4/ Bo, Brou 65 84 1.0 0.02 0 0 0 60.0 0.9 18.5 0.22 4.0 5.0 3.0 4 Ban Sop Ma 2/ Bo, Brou 46 46 0 0 0 0 41.0 0.9 23.6 0.51 n.r. n.r. n.r. 5 Ban Nakai Neua Bo, Lao, Brou 63 79 18.0 0.29 18.0 0.23 3.0 0.05 18.0 0.23 16.0 0.3 19.1 0.24 8.0 3.0 0.5 6 Ban Thalang Bo, Phouthai 50 64 0 3.0 0.05 0 0 43.0 0.9 47.0 0.73 16.0 8.0 n.r. 7 Ban Done Brou 88 115 44.0 0.50 29.8 0.26 0 5.0 0.04 41.0 0.5 40.4 0.35 18.0 12.0 n.r. 8 Ban Khone Khen Brou 37 42 6.0 0.16 12.0 0.29 0 0 29.0 0.8 34.7 0.83 11.0 4.0 n.r. 9 Ban Phonsavang Brou 22 27 0 0 0 0 15.0 0.7 9.3 0.34 n.r. n.r. n.r. 10 Ban Ka Oy Brou 26 24 0 0 0 0 17.7 0.7 50.9 2.12 n.r. n.r. n.r. 11 Ban Boua Ma Brou, Bo 53 56 0 2.0 0.04 0 2.0 0.04 22.0 0.4 22.7 0.41 6.0 4.0 n.a. 12 Ban Nong Boua 3/ Brou, Bo 28 31 0 0 0 0 20.0 0.7 0 0.00 15.0 8.0 n.r. 13 Ban Phonphanpek Brou, Lao, Vietic 93 73 0 0 0 0 n.a. 31.0 0.42 n.a. n.a. n.a. 14 Ban Nong Bouakham Lao, Brou, Bo 55 40 0 3.0 0.08 0 2.0 0.05 22.0 0.4 18.0 0.45 4.0 2.0 0.2 15 Ban Oudomsouk mixed 248 360 n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Khamkeut District 16 Ban Sop Hia Ahoe, Phouthai , 53 56 0 0 0.00 0 0 32.0 0.6 37.0 0.66 1.0 1.0 n.r. 17 Ban Nam Niam Phouthai, others 17 23 0 3.0 0.18 0 0 13.0 0.8 7.0 0.30 3.0 2.0 n.r. Total 1,133 1,337 78.0 0.07 91 0.07 3.0 35 0.03 475 434 0.32 86.0 49.0 3.7 Sources: Socio-Economic and Cultural Survey, Nam Theun 2 Project Area (1996) Care International/Lao PDR; NT2 RMU Rice Production Surveys 2002 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau In 1996, there was virtually a total crop failure on the Plateau due to flooding in September. Even in normal rainfall years, a significant proportion of the planted area is totally lost to flooding, and yield reductions from both prolonged inundation and elephant damage can be expected (see Table 11-8). According to this survey only 192 tons of the 983 tons required (20 %) can be obtained from the Plateau. Table 11-8: Rice Growing Areas Destroyed by Flood and Elephants, Nakai Plateau 2002 Area un- Total production incl. losses to harvestable flooding & elephants1 Annual Total area due to Harvestable Milled Total rice rice planted flooding area Un-milled rice rice required deficiency Crop ha ha ha t t/ha t t t WS Paddy 90.8 30.0 60.8 64.2 1.06 38.5 DS Paddy 35.0 0.0 35.0 39.3 1.12 23.6 Upland Rice 434.1 65.5 368.6 216.4 0.59 129.9 Total 559.8 95.5 464.3 319.9 0.68 191.9 982.7 790.8 Source: NT2 RMU Surveys 2002 1Conversion of Un-milled Paddy to Milled Rice using a factor of 0.6 The soils on the Plateau are heavily leached, susceptible to erosion, with low pH, low organic matter content and poor buffering capacities. They are also low in macro-nutrients, particularly phosphorous. The `A' horizons are typically shallow (less than 30 cm), with soil textures ranging from fine sandy loam to fine sandy clay loam, and clay contents between 20 % and 35 %. Insect pests, rat damage and poor planting material also contribute to low rice yields on the Plateau. For further details, refer to Chapter 21 and Appendix K). 11.5.2 Livestock and Animal Husbandry Buffalo are the dominant type of large livestock raised on the plateau. The total number of buffalo in the villages to be resettled was 4146 according to the 1998 census, and 4,168 head according to District data as of 2003 figure (see Table 11-9). Table 11-9: Livestock Numbers in Villages to be Resettled, 1998 and 2002. Livestock Population, 1998 Average Livestock per HH, 1998 Livestock Population, 2002 Village Name Buffalo Pig Poultry Buffalo Pigs Poultry Buffalo Cattle Horse Pig Poultry Ban Khone Khen 164 72 331 4.4 1.9 8.9 138 225 280 Ban Done 1,076 115 2,381 12.1 1.3 26.8 764 274 971 Ban Sop On 166 95 552 2.5 1.4 8.4 179 8 43 586 Ban Ka Oy 38 57 364 1.5 2.2 14.0 54 28 520 Ban Phonsavang 77 7 158 3.1 0.3 6.3 38 - 173 Ban Sop Ma/Ban Keng Gnao 35 21 365 173 23 325 2.0 0.6 14.4 Ban Hat Khamphane 58 5 310 Included with Sop Ma Ban Sop Phene 188 39 428 4.4 0.9 10.0 205 8 380 Ban Boua Ma 304 53 634 5.7 1.0 12.0 361 3 30 635 Ban Sailom 47 13 49 Included with Nong Boua Ban Nong Boua 140 3 145 7.3 0.6 12.2 182 4 2 412 Ban Pamanton 16 2 148 Included with Nong Boua Ban Phonphanpek 138 22 393 1.6 0.3 4.6 112 1 7 172 Ban Oudomsouk 56 48 1,178 0.2 0.2 4.2 146 142 37 93 9,109 Ban Nakai Tai 1,123 89 2,281 7.6 0.6 15.5 1,166 9 65 866 Ban Nakai Neua 384 36 763 5.7 0.5 11.4 580 3 75 650 Ban Nong Boua Kham 4 38 615 0.1 0.9 14.6 12 159 51 90 620 Ban Thalang 51 40 661 1.0 0.8 12.7 58 4 57 522 Ban Sop Hia 73 32 1,154 1.4 0.6 21.4 No data Ban Nam Nian 8 - 262 0.5 - 16.4 No data TOTAL 4,146 787 13,172 3.6 0.7 11.4 4,168 330 98 1,013 16,221 *Source: 1998 Census and Nakai District DAFO (2002). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau The 1998 survey found that, on average, buffalo ownership per family was 3.6 buffaloes per household (see Table 11-9). However, these averages mask the reality that the ownership is very skewed, with relatively few households (358, or 30 %) raising 3 or more buffaloes, only 11 % of the households owning over 10, and 59 % of the households owning no buffaloes, as shown in Figure 11-3. Figure 11-3: Distribution of Buffaloes among Nakai Plateau Households. 800 No. of Buffaloes / HH No. of HH Share of HH (%) 0 678 58.6 700 678 1 50 4.3 2 71 6.1 3 51 4.4 600 4 40 3.5 s 0 Buffaloes 5 31 2.7 oldh 500 1-2 Buffaloes 6 34 2.9 useo 3-5 Buffaloes 7 21 1.8 8 24 2.1 Hfor 6-10 Buffaloes 400 >10 Buffaloes 9 11 1.0 10 23 2.0 mbe 300 11 8 0.7 Nu 12 19 1.6 13 14 1.2 200 15 7 0.6 121 122 113 123 16 5 0.4 100 17 4 0.3 18 5 0.4 19 5 0.4 0 20 9 0.8 21 6 0.5 22 1 0.1 23 2 0.2 24 1 0.1 25 1 0.1 27 3 0.3 28 4 0.3 29 1 0.1 30 7 0.6 31 2 0.2 32 2 0.2 36 2 0.2 37 1 0.1 38 1 0.1 40 3 0.3 42 1 0.1 43 1 0.1 45 1 0.1 50 2 0.2 51 1 0.1 63 1 0.1 70 2 0.2 83 1 0.1 Total 1,157 100.0 Cattle ownership is also very skewed, with only two villages, Ban Oudomsouk and Ban Nongboua Kham raising herds of any significance. Due to disastrous flooding and the subsequent lack of rice in 1996, many animals were sold in order to purchase food. Indeed, buffalo are kept largely as a store of wealth for use in times of need, rather than being considered as a resource managed for regular income. A small proportion of adult animals are used for draft purposes in those villages with permanent rice fields, and there is also some rental of draft animals to lowland farmers for land preparation in Gnommalat. Table 11-10 shows the sale of buffaloes and cattle from the 15 Nakai villages during the years 2000-04. Cattle and buffaloes are allowed free-range access to grass-fields and forest areas, but are excluded from rice fields and gardens during periods of cultivation. Taking into account all possible grazing areas, stocking rates could be as low as 1 animal to 20 hectares, but is likely to be much higher due to the way each herd is managed at the village level. It is evident that stocking rates are higher in the Ban Nakai Neua and Ban Nakai Tai area, with a stocking rate closer to 1 animal to 4 ha. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau During the dry season, animals are grazed, largely unattended, in forest areas. During the wet season, they are commonly placed in a penned area at night within the village to prevent damage to crops. There is no supplementary feeding of improved forage, nor management of natural forage through controlled grazing of different areas at different times of the year. A shortage of feed is reported by some farmers from March to May, corresponding with the middle to the end of the dry season, but this appears to be as much a function of how far farmers are prepared to graze their animals away from the village, as it is an absolute shortage of feed. Periodic outbreaks of Haemorrhagic Septicaemia, Foot and Mouth Disease and Blackleg with high losses are reported. Vaccination rates are low. Mortality rates in calves (0-1 years) of up to 50 % are reported. Liver fluke is also reported to be a problem in buffalo that have been rented out to farmers in the lowlands. Drenching for endoparasites is not practiced, and there appears to be no use of any other animal health remedies. Table 11-10: Sale of Buffaloes and Cattle in Nakai District, 2000-2004. Buffalo Cattle Village 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Khon Kaen 3 6 7 11 13 Done 65 71 85 99 105 1 2 3 Sop On 19 37 25 28 31 4 2 4 Ka Oy 1 3 2 4 5 Phonsavang 3 5 6 7 9 1 Sop Ma 2 5 8 4 6 Sop Phene 9 11 12 13 15 Boua Ma 35 39 47 55 59 3 2 3 Nong Boua 8 11 16 21 24 Phonephanpek 4 5 11 8 12 Oudomsouk 11 17 15 19 23 1 4 Nakai Tai 168 185 179 191 202 9 15 12 10 14 Nakai Neua 63 82 104 51 113 3 2 3 Nong Boua Kham 13 15 18 19 21 3 0 3 Talang 2 3 Total 404 492 537 530 641 9 18 23 19 35 Although numbers are low, cattle may be regarded as more of a productive resource than buffalo. Many households would like to own cattle in preference to buffalo, citing higher productivity, higher calf survival and easier management; but have difficulty of obtaining breeding stock. Pigs are owned by most households, mainly to recycle wastes and as an income generating activity, but also for slaughter for household consumption and for use on ceremonial occasions. The only breed evident is of local origin, black and relatively small. In general pigs are not housed but are left to forage, with minimal supplementary feeding of rice bran, reject corncobs, banana and palm stems, tuberous and aquatic plants, and household scraps. Periodic outbreaks of swine fever are reported, with very high losses. Vaccination rates for all livestock are low and other animal health inputs are non-existent. Chickens of local breed are owned by almost all households, with average ownership of 15 per household. They are kept for sale, household consumption and ceremonial occasions. Chickens are generally allowed free range, and are not vaccinated. Populations are routinely decimated by Newcastle Disease and fowl cholera with near total losses. Cash income in project villages from poultry was Kip 8,600/household in 1996, or 4 % of total cash income (CARE 1996). 11.5.3 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) A total number of 247 NTFP species were recorded during a survey of the Nakai Plateau. Damar resin (14 %), rattan shoots (12 %) and cardamom (12 %) are considered to be the most important products from November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau the forest. NTFPs are especially important in those villages on the edge of the forest, i.e. Ban Khone Khen, Ban Ka Oy and Ban Sop On. More than half of the household cash income, which is primarily derived from the harvesting of NTFPs, was spent on buying rice in 1996. Damar resin was one of the most valuable products and almost tripled in value leading to increased harvesting in 1997. The harvesting of damar resin has increased from 17 tons in 1996 to 80 tons in 1997. In 1998 there was hardly any damar resin left on the Plateau and in the surrounding areas due to over-harvesting to make up for the loss of rice due to recent flooding. Bong bark harvest decreased from 50 tons in 1996 to 22 tons in 1997, either because priority was given to collecting damar resin or its easy availability declined. The situation with rattan was less clear and cardamom harvesting remains generally stable. 11.5.4 Forestry Resources of the Resettlement Area Investigations on land use in the Resettlement Area indicated that while 90 % of the land remained under forest cover, this cover was in varying states of integrity, ranging from relatively pristine to highly degraded. In Table 11-11, land which has over 25 percent tree ground cover is referred to as stocked forest, the remainder classified as unstocked, i.e. land which could be regenerated to productive forest if not required for other purposes. Only 75 percent of the total forest area of 18,106 ha can be considered productive forest on account of logging and other forms of degradation having taken place. Table 11-11: Land use/Forest type within the Resettlement Area Land use/forest type Area (hectares) Percentage (%) Well stocked, production forst 5,590 27 Forets in hilly areas 4,723 23 degraded forestr 7,793 38 Unstocked and Agricultural land 2,014 10 Swamp 13 0 Water 21 0 Urban 356 2 Other 46 0 Total 20,556 100 Source: FIPC, 2001. According to the forest inventory carried out by FIPC in 2001 (see Table 11-12), forested land covers about 18,106 ha of the 20,692-ha resettlement area. Over this forested land the average stand volume is about 100 m3/ha. There are four forest types of which mixed broadleaf/pine is the most common, with Pinus merkusii (mai pek) being the dominant pine species. The most common hardwood species include: Dipterocarpus alatus (mai nyang), Hopea feerea (mai khen), Vatica cinerea (mai si), and Anisoptera robusta (mai bak). Logging and shifting cultivation in the past have heavily degraded much of the forested land. Of the 18,106 ha of forested land, after excluding: (a) contiguous areas with low stand volume (i.e. <80 m3/ha) in about 6,500 ha, (b) inaccessible and steep forests of about 4,000 ha, and (c) present and future areas for resettlement and agriculture of about 2,000 ha, only about 5,590 ha can be considered for commercial production in the short to medium term. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau Table 11-12: Forest Land in the Resettlement Area by Forest Type Stocked, Degraded Steep slope production forests production forest forests All Land Area (ha) Area Volume (no forest type area or volume data Area Volume Forest eco-Type (ha) (m3/ha) available for these forest zones) (ha) (m3/ha) Dry Dipterocarp - - 310 310 35 Dry Evergreen 1,108 157 2,576 3,684 126 Mixed Deciduous 263 107 3,145 3,408 74 Mixed Broadleaf and Pine 4,219 153 6,485 10,704 103 Subtotal 5,590 7,793 4,723 18,106 "unstocked" 2,014 other land use 572 Whole Area 5,590 151 7,793 4,723 20,692 100 11.5.5 Fisheries Fish harvested from the Nam Theun River is the main source of protein for the communities on the Nakai Plateau. Fish are caught for household consumption and for sale, and contribute to 6 and 4 % of total imputed and cash income, respectively, in 1998 (see Table 11-5, page 15). Fresh fish are consumed during the rainy season; in the dry season, villagers rely to a greater extent on dried and fermented fish. All kinds of fish are caught for human consumption, with catfish and carp species being the most common. Occasionally, a large fish or a substantial catch may be sold in village market or at roadside stalls. Fish, in this context, refer to aquatic organisms of which finfish are usually predominant. Small-mesh nets and traps catch many invertebrates, all of which are eaten. Men fish in the mornings and evenings, before they leave for the fields and after they return. Most fish are caught by cast nets in the rapids, or by deep-water gill nets. Bait and hooks are also used, but to a lesser extent. Children and sometimes women search the banks and shallows for frogs, aquatic insects and small fish that supplement the family's diet. 11.6 EDUCATION In many of the villages on the Nakai Plateau schools are not functioning properly. Either attendance was low due to the need of children to support their families economically or teachers were not regularly conducting classes. Teachers' salaries are low at approximately US$ 30-40 per month. Some schools are financed by the villagers themselves since the local government had neither the funds nor could provide for the teachers. Villagers understand the importance of education but have little means of obtaining an education for their children. The exceptions are the large school in Ban Oudomsouk and the roadside village of Ban Nakai Neua. In theory, each village (often shared in the case of small hamlets) should have its own primary school. However, only primary schools in large villages like Ban Done, Ban Boua Ma, Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Thalang were functioning properly. In many of the villages schools had not been functioning at all for several years. Adult literacy is another important element in linking education with successful social development. Most of the women and many men on the Plateau are illiterate. Villagers would be better equipped to handle the relocation and learn new skills if they were literate. It would also allow them to compete on more equal terms with more advanced downstream groups who are presently dominating the service sector and off- farm employment. No detailed survey on literacy was carried out on the Nakai Plateau but from the various surveys and participatory observations made in the area, one can conclude that only a small percentage of villagers were literate in the Lao language (see Table 11-13). None of the ethnic minority languages of the Plateau are written down. Except for a few women, mostly located in Ban Oudomsouk, roadside villages and November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 22 Chapter 11: Baseline Data ­ Nakai Plateau recent arrivals from downstream areas, women in general are illiterate. Some young women and girls who have had some basic schooling (village primary schools) exhibited varying degrees of literacy. Table 11-13: Educational Levels and Literacy on the Nakai Plateau No. of People % of Population No schooling 3,076 62.9 Primary School, 1-5 1,526 31.2 Secondary School, 1-4 214 4.4 High School, 1-3 43 0.9 College 8 0.2 Institute 5 0.1 University 7 0.1 Semester / Master 1 0.0 Others 9 0.2 Total 4,889 100.0 Source: 1998 Census. Literacy levels for men are slightly higher due to a number of factors: boys tend to go to school for longer periods of time, have opportunities to acquire literacy from the monkhood and education outside the region. In addition, many labourers and recent male migrants are literate. Several village leaders were originally from outside the Plateau (Lao Loum areas), showing that literacy can play a role in obtaining positions of influence and power in the village. 11.7 GENDER2 Men, in general, are considered as the head of households and have most dealings with organizations and government agencies outside of villages. Buddhist concepts of merit also rank men higher than women in the religious sphere. Although men dominate politics and religion, women are very active in the economic sphere, including local shops and stalls, markets and small businesses. Men tend to run larger businesses and have greater access to credit and technology. The division of labour between men and women is by no means absolute but there are clear notions of what male work is and what female work is. Table 11-14 lists the most common tasks and responsibilities which men and women perform and some of the tasks often shared. This division of labour implies an inter-dependency of men and women in the establishment of a functioning household unit. Table 11-14: Division of Labour between Men and Women Male work Shared Tasks Female Work · Heavy work in the fields such as · Weeding, clearing fields, planting and · Most of the household tasks such as removing large trees and cutting down harvesting; cleaning, washing clothes and preparing trees; · Collecting food in the forest and along all the meals; · Contact with officials and government streams and Non-Timber Forest· Pounding rice twice a day; representatives; Products for sale; · Looking after young children, the sick · Overnight trips to markets in towns; · Fetching drinking water from the river and the infirm; · Work with machines, motor boats and (primarily a female task but men also · Taking care of domestic animals in the driving vehicles; fetch water upon returning from house area (pigs, chickens and ducks); · Carpentry, blacksmith, boat-making, bathing). · Taking care of the vegetable gardens house-building and other tasks near the house; involving specialized tools; · Selling vegetables and forest products in · Formal positions of authority in the the nearby markets. village; · Herding buffalo and cattle; · Fishing with nets and hunting and trapping. ********** * * * ********** 2this section will be updated following finalization of the gender strategy. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 23 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau CHAPTER 12 ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Table of Content 12 ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU ...................................................1 12.1 ETHNIC GROUPS...........................................................................................................1 12.1.1 Review of OD 4.20 Definitions.........................................................................................................................1 12.1.2 Classification of Ethnic Groups ........................................................................................................................1 12.1.3 Vietic Groups .......................................................................................................................................................6 12.1.4 Brou .......................................................................................................................................................................7 12.1.5 Tai Bo and Lao Kaleung.....................................................................................................................................8 12.1.6 Upland Tai Groups............................................................................................................................................12 12.1.7 Sek........................................................................................................................................................................12 12.2 A MELTING-POT CULTURE ........................................................................................ 12 12.2.1 A Dynamic Cultural Process ............................................................................................................................12 12.2.2 Migration and Integration.................................................................................................................................13 12.2.3 Intermarriage ......................................................................................................................................................15 12.3 ETHNIC GROUPS SURROUNDING THE PLATEAU AND NEW MIGRANTS...................... 17 12.3.1 Ethnic Groups in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA.........................................................................................17 12.3.2 Ban Oudomsouk................................................................................................................................................17 List of Tables Table 12-1: Classification of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau.................................................................2 Table 12-2: Self-Nominated Ethnicity of Male and Female Heads of Household on the Nakai Plateau, Dry Season 2002-03.............................................................................................................3 Table 12-3: Self-Nominated Ethnicity of Male and Female Heads of Household on the Nakai Plateau by Village, Dry Season 2002-03..........................................................................................4 Table 12-4: Population and Migration for the Nakai Plateau ­ 1998 to 2002* .............................................6 Table 12-5: Comparison of Languages of Project Area.....................................................................................9 Table 12-6: Origin of Plateau Villages in Relation to Migration and Splitting.............................................13 Table 12-7: Intermarriage on the Nakai Plateau ...............................................................................................16 Table 12-8: Male Marriage Partners (sons-in-laws -luk khoey) in Ban Done...............................................17 Table 12-9: Marriage Partners (exogamy) from Ban Done.............................................................................17 Table 12-10: In-migration to Ban Oudomsouk...................................................................................................18 List of Figures Figure 12-1: Existing Village Ethnic Distribution................................................................................................5 Figure 12-2: Historical Migrations of Major Regional Ethnic Groups...........................................................14 Figure 12-3: Example of Intermarriage from Ban Sop On ..............................................................................16 Figure 12-4: Photos on Housing, Livelihoods and Beliefs among Ethnic Groups on Nakai Plateau.................................................................................................................................................19 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 12 ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU 12.1 ETHNIC GROUPS 12.1.1 Review of OD 4.20 Definitions World Bank's characteristics on Indigenous Peoples (OD 4.20, 1991) and the Asian Development Bank's Policy on Indigenous Peoples (1998) may be applied to the ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau in the following manner: Attachment to the natural resources of the area and a sense of ancestral territory. The overwhelming majority of villagers requested to remain on the Plateau despite the offer of wet-rice paddy in the lowlands, indicating a strong sense of belonging to the region and attachment to the resources available in the forests and rivers. In addition, there are demarcations of territory according to the range of influence of territorial spirits (phi muang). · All groups define themselves as distinct cultural groups by name (Bo, Brou/Makong/Sô, Ahoe, etc.) but there is also a tendency for villagers to class themselves as Lao Theung (`slope dwellers') in relation to the dominant culture of the lowlands (Lao Loum), according to the Lao Government classifications. The actual differences between the various ethnic groups on the Plateau is deemed secondary in comparison with the distinction between the lowlanders (wet-rice cultivation, Buddhism and integration into the national economy) and plateau dwellers (swidden cultivation, mostly animist and peripheral). · The indigenous languages on the plateau are being replaced by Lao and Tai dialects, which are mutually intelligible for lowlanders. There are, however, many bilingual speakers. Few of the next generation are likely to be fluent in Brou or Vietic languages on the Plateau and most children do not speak minority languages at present. · The number of customary social and political institutions have been reduced by integration into the Lao State. There are, however, councils of elders (thao khun) who oversee socio-cultural events such as marriages, funerals and collective rituals. In addition, in several villages there are hereditary positions of mediums (mau thiem) and ritual priests (mau) who perform local rituals and ceremonies, which differ to some extent from lowland practices. · All the communities affected by the proposed resettlement have primarily subsistence-oriented economies consisting of upland rice, livestock and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs). The surpluses of forest products and livestock are sold to middlemen or in Ban Oudomsouk or further afield for cash or bartered for rice. Few families have much in the way of consumer goods but demand is growing. Thus, the ethnic groups of the Nakai Plateau should be considered as `indigenous peoples' according to World Bank and ADB Policies on Indigenous Peoples. It will be argued below that they can be considered `indigenous' as a whole since the distinctions between groups are not nearly as significant as the distinction between them and the lowlanders and the newly arrived lowland Lao groups in Nakai District Headquarters, Ban Oudomsouk. 12.1.2 Classification of Ethnic Groups For practical purposes it is necessary at the outset to classify the various groups inhabiting the Nakai Plateau before elaborating on the dynamic processes and interactions between the groups. There are five main ethno-linguistic groups inhabiting the Nakai Plateau: Vietic, Brou, Bo, Tai and Sek. Table 12-1 shows how these groups are classified according to anthropologists, official classifications, etic categories (how other refer to a group) and emic categories (how the group refers to it self). These four types of classification of the ethnic groups do not always correspond. Smaller groups, such as the Vietic, are often categorised in a negative manner, revealing that they have been classified in relation to the values of the dominant groups in the area. The labels of kha meaning `slave' or Phi Tong Luang (Yellow Leaf People or `spirits') reflect that fact that the Lao and other Lao Loum groups consider them as lacking basic traits of `civilisation'. The Lao category for Brou (Makong) is also November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau used but has less of a negative connotation. The official categories are changing the notions of self-identity of smaller groups. The Vietic and the Brou (Makong) are considered Lao Theung while the Tai and Sek ethnic groups are under the category of Lao Loum. However, the Tai Bo or Bo, because they speak a dialect of Lao have been classified officially as Lao Loum. The Bo were mostly likely Vietic that have changed their ethnic identity through contact with Tai and Lao groups and intermarriage between these groups. Evidence of this is that they referred to themselves as Lao Theung like the Brou and Vietic groups of the Plateau. The self-identification of Tai Bo as `slope dwellers' rather than lowland Lao (Lao Loum) will be used in the analysis to follow since the Bo clearly have much more in common with the other Lao Theung groups than the Lao of the lowland areas. There are a number of Tai Lao (the dominant ethnic group of the country) and Phou Thay residing in a number of villages and in Ban Oudomsouk. Table 12-1: Classification of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Anthropological Referred to by Others Self-reference Designation Official Classification (Etic Categories) (Emic Categories) Vietic Groups ­ Phong, Kri, Mon-Khmer Group ­ Phong Lao Thueng, Phi Tong Luang Phong, Kri, Ahoe or Salang, Ahoe, Salang and Kri Others have no (Yellow Leaf `People') or but more commonly as Lao official classification `Kha' (slave) Thueng Brou Mon-Khmer Group - Lao Theung Brou, Tri, Katang ­ sometimes Makong as Lao Theung or even Lao Loum Bo ­ formally Vietic but Lao-Tai Group - Bo Lao Thueng or Lao Loum Lao Thueng, Tai Nakai or Lao mixed and integrated with depending on location Loum depending on location Lao and Tai groups Tai ­ mostly Tai Men, Tai Lao-Tai Group - Tai Men, Lao Loum, Tai Tai Men, Tai Moey, Phou Moey, Phou Tai and Lao Tai Moey, Phou Tai and Lao Thay, etc. Sek Lao-Tai Group - Sek Lao Loum Sek or Lao Loum Tai-Lao groups ­ Tai-Lao, Tai-Lao groups ­ Lao, Nyo, Lao Loum or Lao Lao, Nyo, Yooy, Lao Nyo, Yooy, Lao Kaleung Yooy, Lao Kaleung Kaleung or Lao Loum Phou Thay Phou Thay Phou Thay or Lao Loum Phou Thay or Lao Loum Table 12-2 and Table 12-3 and provides an overview of the different ethnic groups in the villages on the Nakai Plateau and their distribution. This table illustrates both male and female household members in terms of ethnic identity and is, thus, more detailed than earlier studies that showed only the ethnic identities of male household heads, and illustrates the dynamic `melting-pot culture' of the Nakai Plateau. Ethnicity on the Plateau appears to be a combination of factors. These include: · Residency after marriage ­ children tend to adapt the main ethnic group residing in that village or the ethnic group of the parent resident in that village; · Identity inherited from one's parents (kinship in the sense of blood-relations); · Identification with dominant groups residing in that village or surrounding area; · Identification with dominant groups if time is spent outside the village studying (Lao language) or working as labourers. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-2: Self-Nominated Ethnicity of Male and Female Heads of Household on the Nakai Plateau, Dry Season 2002-03. Male Female Total Ethnic Group Numbers % Numbers % Numbers % Upland Tai 89 8.6 100 8.8 189 8.7 Phou Thay 76 7.4 84 7.4 160 7.4 Sek 9 0.9 11 1.0 20 0.9 Tai Bo 290 28.2 400 35.0 690 31.8 Other Lao 129 12.5 121 10.6 250 11.5 Makong 356 34.6 355 31.1 711 32.7 Other Kautic (except Makong) 38 3.7 29 2.5 67 3.1 Vietic 30 2.9 33 2.9 63 2.9 Other groups (Khmu, Hmong, Lue, Nyuan, etc. 12 1.2 9 0.8 21 1.0 Total 1,029 100.0 1,142 100.1 2,171 100.0 Figure 12-1 provides a visual representation of the locations of the different ethnic groups on the Plateau in terms of village composition. All villages are mixed to some extent but in general terms, the Vietic are present in small numbers in Sop Hia in the far northwest corner of the Plateau and in Nakai Tai. The Brou dominate the south east portion of the Plateau while the Bo are more concentrated in the central parts. New arrivals (Tai ethnic groups, Phou Thay and Lao) are concentrated in the District Capital, along roadside villages and in the northwest corner of the Plateau close to their original areas. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-3: Self-Nominated Ethnicity of Male and Female Heads of Household on the Nakai Plateau by Village, Dry Season 2002-03. Upland Tai dialects Phou Sek Lue Tai Men Tai Moei Tai Dam TaiDaeng Tai Aek Tai O TaiKwan Tai Pao Tai Pung Tai Teng Tai Khao Tai E Tai Sam Tai Sin TaiSaeng TaiPhuak Thay Village M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Khonekhen Done 1 1 1 3 1 SopOn 1 3 2 1 Bouama 2 KaOy 1 1 Phonesavang 1 Nongbouakham 1 2 1 1 1 1 8 10 Kaengngao Hatkhampan Sopphen Sopma Nakaitai 5 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 Nakaineua 1 2 1 Thalang 3 1 10 13 1 1 4 2 3 4 1 Oudomsouk 3 5 9 9 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 5 5 46 50 4 4 4 4 Phonephanpek 3 5 1 1 1 1 2 3 5 1 1 1 Sophia 11 13 5 9 3 3 4 1 1 Namnain 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 7 7 3 Nongboua Total 18 20 35 42 1 1 5 4 3 3 1 0 3 2 5 8 0 1 6 2 1 0 1 5 7 7 1 1 1 1 1 3 76 84 9 11 7 5 % 1. 1. 3.4 3.7 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0.5 0.7 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 7. 7. 0. 1. 0. 0. 7 8 1 1 5 4 3 3 1 3 2 1 6 2 2 1 4 7 6 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 4 9 0 7 4 Lao dialects Kautic languages and dialects Vietic languages and dialects Khmu Hmong Yuan Tai Lao Tai Bo Kaleung Nyai Nyaw Phuan Yooy Makong Kri/Tri Suay Kata Ta Oy Ahoe Phông Salang Melang Village M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Khonekhen 3 32 42 Done 3 1 1 1 92 94 1 1 SopOn 37 50 1 23 22 1 1 1 1 Bouama 6 14 1 39 35 8 9 KaOy 1 17 21 1 Phonesavang 1 6 28 20 1 Nongbouakham 16 13 1 3 1 1 2 5 9 1 2 2 Kaengngao 2 2 18 21 Hatkhampan 11 14 4 2 Sopphen 27 28 2 1 1 3 6 9 12 1 1 1 Sopma Nakaitai 1 1 110 145 3 1 2 3 1 9 12 7 1 1 1 Nakaineua 1 45 68 1 4 1 1 6 4 1 1 Thalang 1 1 13 12 6 7 1 1 4 4 4 3 1 Oudomsouk 51 40 7 19 10 13 1 6 5 9 2 6 39 35 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 Phonephanpek 1 18 32 5 1 1 2 2 1 30 36 3 1 1 1 1 1 Sophia 6 6 1 2 4 3 8 9 9 9 1 1 1 1 Namnain 1 1 3 4 1 1 1 1 Nongboua Total 72 57 290 400 29 24 1 0 8 14 14 17 5 9 356 355 33 27 2 0 1 0 2 2 16 15 12 13 2 4 0 1 4 2 1 1 0 1 % 7. 5. 28. 35. 2. 2. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1. 0. 0. 34. 31. 3. 2. 0. 0. 0. 0. 1. 1. 1. 1. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0. 0 0 2 0 8 1 1 8 2 4 5 5 8 6 1 2 4 2 1 2 2 6 3 2 1 2 4 1 4 2 1 1 1 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Figure 12-1: Existing Village Ethnic Distribution November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-4 shows recent population increases and migrations according to villages and reveals that the population, and ethnic composition, has changed very little from 1998 to 2002 despite knowledge of the project and detailed planning. Table 12-4: Population and Migration for the Nakai Plateau ­ 1998 to 2002* Change in the Number of Households No. of No. of Change in No. In-migration In-migration households households of households from the from non- Names of Villages (1998) (2002) (2002-1998) NBCA NBCA areas Out-migration Ban Oudomsouk 283 289 6 0 26 24 Ban Sop Hia 54 54 0 0 1 7 Ban Nam Nian 16 28 12 0 6 0 Ban Thalang 52 59 7 1 1 3 Ban Nong Boua Kham 42 42 0 0 0 6 Ban Nakai Tai 147 158 11 1 5 4 Ban Nakai Neua 67 72 5 0 4 2 Ban Sop Phene 43 45 2 0 0 0 Ban Sop Ma / Ban Hat Khamphane / Ban 47 49 2 6 5 3 Keng Gnao hamlets Ban Nong Boua / Ban Sailom / Ban 28 28 0 1 2 3 Pamanton hamlets Ban Phonphanpek 85 82 -3 4 10 18 Ban Boua Ma 53 59 6 1 4 4 Ban Phonsavang 25 27 2 2 2 0 Ban Sop On 66 79 13 0 6 2 Ban Done 89 110 21 2 1 2 Ban Khone Khen 37 37 0 0 0 2 Ban Ka Oy 26 26 0 1 0 3 TOTAL: 1160 1244 84 19 73 83 * Sources: The 1998 data is taken from October 1998 Census (see RAP Appendix G). Data for 2002 is from district office records (RMU, February 2002) and includes both households that are effected and not effected by the Project. 12.1.3 Vietic Groups The Vietic groups on the Nakai Plateau have undergone a good deal of assimilation in contrast to the small pockets of Vietic groups throughout the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA that live mostly in isolated areas where pressures to adapt to other more technologically advanced and larger groups have been less pronounced. The Plateau Vietic can be considered as the `original' inhabitants of the area since all other groups have entered the area at a later date, according to historical evidence (CARE 1996: 21-22). It appears that the Vietic groups have been displaced by others with agricultural practices, such as the Brou and Tai. Originally, the Vietic groups were hunter-gatherers and were spread thinly over a large area ­ low population density is necessary with this type of livelihood. They now comprise approximately about 12% of the villagers on the Nakai Plateau and 25% of the population in various locations in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA. Vietic groups on the Plateau consist of the following sub-groups, mostly located in the northern and to a lesser extent in the central parts of the Plateau: Ahoe (16 families) located mostly in the villages of Ban Sop Hia and Ban Talang. These households can be considered as `indigenous' to the northern part of the Plateau, that is their villages have been located in the region for at least three generations. However, many residents spent time in villages in Thakhek as war refugees, returning in the mid-1980s to different parts of the Plateau and have subsequently been influenced by lowland culture but the Ahoe language in still spoken by all members of the community, including children. Phong (12 families) located mostly in Ban Sop Hia, in the northern parts of the Plateau, have probably moved onto the Plateau in the nineteenth century from the Nam Noy at approximately the same time as the Ahoe and the Malang/Bo groups. It is possible that District statistics have confused the categories of November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Phong (Vietic) and Tai Phông in their records since only 6 Phong families were recorded in the 1996 (CARE Report, Appendix 5). The Phong language is still spoken and closely related to Ahoe. Salang and Melang groups (ca. 4 families) are recent arrivals from the Nam Sot and are now located in various villages. Vietic groups located along the various rivers in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA and Vietic groups on the Nakai Plateau have only limited interaction in terms of trade and in obtaining potential marriage partners. There is also evidence of some migration in and out of the Plateau area between the various Vietic villages. There is little or no interaction with related Vietic groups over the border with Vietnam, where they are collectively referred to as Chút (population 2,400 ­ cf. Dang et al. 1993). Collectively, the Lao refer to the Vietic groups as kha, meaning `slave', a term used for many Austro- Asiatic groups, indicating that these were hunter-gatherers and without the `signs of civilization' (Buddhism and rice cultivation, according to the lowland Lao) until quite recently. The designation of Lao Theung or Mon-Khmer by the Lao Government distinguishes them from lowlanders and Tai Lao groups. Not all of the various Lao Theung official categories cover the range of Vietic groups. The Vietic speaking Phong and Ahoe are not included in the official 48 categories but are rather considered as sub-groups only. As with other hunter-gatherers, Vietic groups formerly lived in small bands (patrilineal kinship groups for the most part) and migrated along established paths. Today, all have become sedentary on the Nakai Plateau, and many of the Vietic groups have inter-married with Brou and Tai and adapted various forms and degrees of sedentary lifestyles. A special example of this is the Tai Bo (see Section 12.1.5 below). There is evidence to suggest that many Vietic groups are being assimilated into other groups with more advanced technology. However, they are still the least integrated into the national economy and have traditionally relied heavily on wildlife, fishing and collection of forest products for trade. As regards language, the different Vietic dialects are not always mutually understandable ­ see samples in Table 12-5. However, a selection of words presented at the end of this chapter reveals certain similarities. It is probable that these Vietic peoples developed local variations in the different river valleys above the Plateau. The majority of Vietic speakers on the Plateau are bilingual but many of the next generation have limited or no knowledge of Vietic languages and function instead in Lao or Tai dialects. This is due in part to the fact that the Ahoe and other groups were resettled in Thakhek for 15 years during the Second Indochina War and assimilated completely or partly into mainstream Lao culture. All Vietic speakers reported a good or fair knowledge of the Lao language (see Table 13-17 in Chapter 13). 12.1.4 Brou In contrast to the Vietic groups, the Brou represent a homogenous ethno-linguistic group (Western Katuic language of the Austro-Asiatic language family) ranging from the Vietnamese border to the lowland areas below the Nakai Plateau in Gnommalat and Boualapha Districts. Their homeland was probably in Vietnam near the headwaters of the Nam Pheo (Chamberlain 1997: 17). There are about 40,000 Brou (Bru-Vân Kiêù) in Vietnam in areas bordering the Nam Theun 2 Watershed (Dang et al. 1993). According to Chamberlain, the Brou appear to have fled Thai armies and attempts at forced migration in the 1800s and traveled from the lowland areas to higher ground, to less accessible areas on the Nakai Plateau and in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA. Hence, the presence of Brou throughout the whole area and their differing livelihood systems. The Brou are patrilineal and patrilocal and for the most part practice exogamy (women marry into men's lineages). They appear to have replaced some of the Vietic groups due to their more competitive use of resources and swidden agricultural practices: they make up approximately 45% of the inhabitants in the Plateau. This group has been very adaptive in that their livelihoods range from mixed hunter- gatherers/swidden farmers in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA through to wet rice cultivators in the lowlands. On the Nakai Plateau, they have a mixed livelihood system with swidden cultivation being the most important element. Other elements consist of raising livestock, limited hunting of wildlife, gathering NTFPs and fishing as well as gardens. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau The Brou language or Sô is spoken by a number of villagers in the central and south-eastern parts of the Nakai Plateau. It functions as a language of daily interaction only in Ban Hatkhampane and Ban Phongesaveng on the Nam Theun. In Boua Ma, Sop On, Done and Khon Khene only a few households use Brou in their homes on a regular basis. In general, Brou is a disappearing language on the Nakai Plateau and few children in these villages are functional in or even have a passive knowledge of the language. 12.1.5 Tai Bo and Lao Kaleung The Tai Bo are an interesting example of the ongoing assimilation and adaptation on the Nakai Plateau. According to Chamberlain (1997b:1-9), the Bo are likely to have been Vietic groups (possibly Melang from the Nam Sot) that have migrated to the Plateau from the 1860s onward. They have lost their indigenous languages and adapted a sedentary lifestyle with swidden cultivation like the other inhabitants in the area. Intermarriage between the Tai Bo and other groups on the Plateau, including the Brou is quite common. The Tai Bo, however, have not been converted to Buddhism and retain many cultural beliefs and behavior that are similar to the ethnic minority groups in the region. The Tai Bo consider themselves as the `original' inhabitants of the area but historical evidence indicates that many groups have inhabited or passed through this region over the past 300 years, including various Tai-speaking groups, Sek and many Vietic groups. It is possible that the de-populating of the area of inhabitants following the Thai invasion, occupation and forced resettlement (1828-1860) may have opened up the possibility for groups from areas to the north to move onto the Nakai Plateau. The word `Bo' (bau) means mine or in this case the salt mines that were developed during the French colonial period in areas to the west of the Plateau, in the upper reaches of the Nam Hinboun. The groups living there were probably associated with these mines or used them and then later used this designation as a marker of cultural and ethnic identity. The prefix `Tai' (tai) was probably added later to legitimize their status as an authentic ethnic group similar to Tai Men, Tai Meoi, Tai Dam, etc. Some Bo also claimed that they were `Tai Nakai', meaning Tai from the Nakai region. Tai Bo is an official Lao Loum category but Tai Nakai is not an officially recognized group. A similar trend can be observed for the Tai Khang and Lao Kaleung of the Nam Theun-Hinboun project area (cf. Ovesen 1993 and Sparkes 1995). The Tai Bo are an example of a dynamic and changing ethnic identity, of assimilation to a certain extent (loss of language and sedentary livelihood but retention of cultural beliefs) and a reassertion of identity within the dominant ethnicity discourse of the government (new labels of Tai Bo and Tai Nakai). This example illustrates the flexibility and adaptability of ethnic identity in the region where movement, assimilation and cultural borrowing are common. A comparison of Tai Bo with other Lao and Tai languages and dialects at the end of this chapter indicates a similarity with the closest Tai languages that surround the Plateau, Phou Thay and Tai Nyo. The dialect probably arose in the mid- to late nineteenth century. Recently, it has been further influence by contact with Lao speakers of the national language. The situation with the Lao Kaleung may be similar to the Bo in some ways. The Lao Kaleung are officially classified as Tai Lao and Lao Loum, however the term Kaleung seems to indicate that they could have been a Mon-Khmer or Lao Theung group that has been assimilated or adapted to Lao or Tai language, culture and customs (Ka or Kha referring to non-Tai groups), no doubt mixing with Lao groups in the region. It is likely that the Lao Kaleung could have originally been Brou groups since they have a `special relationship' with the Brou in that neither is to break the cultural taboos of the other (CARE 1996:18). Vargyas (2000: 13), writing on the Brou in Vietnam, indicates that one name that the Vietnamese use when referring to the Brou is `Ka Leung', and this would seem to support the theory that the Lao Kaleung were originally Brou. Vocabulary lists indicate that Lao Kaleung resembles Phou Thay and Tai Yooy in accent. The Lao Kaleung are found in areas south and southeast of the Plateau. Most have arrived on the Plateau as recent migrants, in search of economic opportunities or have married into Plateau families. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-5: Comparison of Languages of Project Area Tai Languages and Dialects Austro-Asiatic Languages and Dialects English Lao Kaleung Tai Bo Phu Thay Tai Moei Tai Daeng Tai Men Sek Makong Tri Ahoe Phông Head Hua Hua Hua Hoo Hua Huua Hua Maakkrao Pleu Pleu Ook Kulok Nose Daang Daang Daang Dang Dang Lang Dang Dang Mu Muu Mouh Muuy Ear Huu Huu Huu Huu Ahuu Huu Huu Hua Kntoor Katuu Shaay Saay Arm Khen Khen Khen Hen Khen Khen Khen Ken Mbleng Mleng Pel Per Hair Phom Phom Phom Phom Hom Fom Fom Phraa Sok Sok Shok Kuuy Tooth Khiaw Khiaw Khiaw Hiaw Khaew Khae-aew Khaew Neng Chineng Kanaeng Kashang Kasang Eye Taa Taa Taa Taa Tawaa Taa Tawaa Kadong Mat Mat Mat Mat Stomach Thong Thong Thong Thong Puum Tong Puum Thung Pung Pung Kaluung Roch Feet Tiin Tiin Tiin Tiin Tin Tin Ta-iin Yeung Yuung Anyiing Kiing Jiing Food Ahaan Ahaan Ahaan Ahaan Ahaan Jeung kin Ahaan Ahaan Atoo Rawae Treung am Ahaan* Rice Khao Khao Khao Khao Kha-ao Khao Khao Ka-aaw Awa Dooi Jaaw Jaaw Water Nam Nam Nam Nam Na-aam Nam Nam Nam Deuk Deu Daak Dak Fire Fai Fai Fai Fai Fii Fai Fii Wii Uih Uui Ku-yh Kuy Hot Hon Hon Hon Hon Huuhon Wok Huan Wok Uk Katao Padong Paat Cold Naaw Naaw Naaw Naaw Yen Nyoen Yen Maek Sinyet Yen* Ngol Klong Big Nyai Nyai Nyai Teup Tep Tep Tep Beuk Pool Peut Iih Kii Small Noi Noi Noi Noi Noo-oi Manaeng Noi Noi Kuuri Kui Et Didiit Many Lai Lai Lai Lai He He He Laai Plai Sa-eui leu Do Nyew Talk Waw Waw Waw Waw Waa Uup Waa Traaw Wow Rapaai Kanoo Jiaw Go/walk Pai Pai Pai Pai Paa Pai Paa Pai Peu Po Hiet Tii Come Maa Maa Maa Meu Maa Maa Maa Maa Juu Juu Veul Laaih Make/do Het Het Het Et He He He Hat Ta Ta Mae Mae Be Pen Pen Pen Pen Ye Yen Ye Phalam Kapan Keut Hroo Tao Ask Thaam Thaam Thaam Thaam Thaam Thoi Thaam Thaam Ableu Amo Haang Haang Eat Kin Kin Kin Kin Kii Lao Kii Kin Kyaa Chaa Am Am Mountain Phuu Phuu Phuu Phuu Phuu Puu Phuu Roi Ko Koo Ikong Ngong River Mae nam Mae nam Mae nam Nam/Se Mae nam Woi nam Mae nam Me nam Bideu Se* Maedaak Medaak Rain Fon Fon Fon Fon Fon Fen Fon Beuk win Myaa Mia Cheung Cheung Flower Dokmai Dokmai Dokmai Dokmai Dok mai Lok mai Dok mai Blokmai Piar along Pia aluang Poong Poongrang Flood Nam tuam Nam tuam Nam tuam Nam tom Nam thuam Nam thuam Nam thuam Nam hum Deuk lup Deu leup Daak pluup Daak pluup Monkey Ling Ling Ling Ling Ling Ling Ling Ling Tamur Tamiir Mon/Doo Do Bear Mii Mii Mii Mii Mii Meuai Mii Muay Chikao Skao Jakuu/Daang Kuuh Tiger Sua Sua Sua Seu Sua Sua Sua Kuuk Kulaa Kuulaa Paew Mew Elephant Saang Saang Saang Saang Jaang Saang Saang Saang Achiang Aachiang Yo Yuuh Wild Pig Muu paa Muu paa Muu paa Muu paa Muu paa Muu paa Muu paa Muu thol Aliik kurung Aliikkuuruang Chakon Kur bruu Turtle Tao Tao Tao Tao Tao Tao Tao Ro Piit Tamoom Ho Ro Cobra Nguushao Nguushao Nguushao Nguujongang Nguu Too Nguu Nguu Nguuphan Kuchang tuur Uusam matroo Tayaal kun Jlum Monitor Len Len Len Len Wean Tep Waen Len Rakot Booi Takot Tekot Bird Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Nok Jum Jeum Aachiim Jiim Fish Paa Paa Paa Paa Paa Paa Paa Plaa Tsiuh Akaa Kaa Akaa Dog Maa Maa Maa Maa Maa Maa Maa Maa Ajo Ajo Cho Cho November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Tai Languages and Dialects Austro-Asiatic Languages and Dialects English Lao Kaleung Tai Bo Phu Thay Tai Moei Tai Daeng Tai Men Sek Makong Tri Ahoe Phông Buffalo Khwai Khwai Khwai Khwai Khwaai Khwai Khwaai Waai Chriek Tria Sluu Kluu Cow Ngua Ngua Ngua Ngo Ngua Ngua Ngua Ngao Ndro Takaeng Po Po Ant Mot Mot Mot Mot Mot Mot Mot Maek Smuuch Smruut Kiin Kangar Mosquito Yung Yung Yung Yung Yung Yung Yung Yung Reyong Muai Jiavuung Nguung 1 Nung Nung Nung Nung Nung Mot Nung Nung Moui Muai Muuch Moot 2 Song Song Song Song Song Haai Song Song Baar Baa Haal Haar 3 Sam Sam Sam Sam Sam Sam Sam Sam Pai Pai Paa Paa 4 Sii Sii Sii Sii Sii Sii Sii Sii Poon Poor Pon Poon 5 Haa Haa Haa Haa Haa Haa Haa Haa Cheung Cheung Dam Dam 6 Hok Hok Hok Hok Hok Hok Hok Ok Tapet Taphat Phloo Pro 7 Cet Cet Cet Cet Tot Tot Cet Cet Tapuul Tapluur Piih Pei 8 Paet Paet Paet Paet Paet Paet Paet Paet Takwal Taklor Saam Saam 9 Kao Kao Kao Kao Kao Kao Kao Kuu Takae Take Chiin Chiihn 10 Sip Sip Sip Sip Sip Sip Sip Sip Mchit Moi chit Sip* Mui 20 Saaw Saaw Saaw Saaw Saaw Saaw Saaw Saaw Bachit Bal cit Haai meui Haai muai 100 Hoi/Loi Hoi/Loi Hoi/Loi Loi Hoi Hoi Hoi Oi Kolam Muu roi* Muai roi* Moot roi* I (pronoun) Khoi Kan Khoi Khoi, Ko, Kaa Kan Ka Raon Ngwaa Keu Ho Teu Kan You Jao Tao Jao Jao Meung ja Thao Meung ja Ai Mai Nyo Mii Chak They Phuak- Phuakman Phuak-khao Phuak-khao Meui meung Suu Meui meung Phuak rao Alai Kamia Jupaa Paanaa khao Child Luuk Luuk Luuk Luu Luuk Luuk Luuk Leuk Kon Kon Kon Kadae Mother Mae Mae Mae Me Eui Em Euai Me Mbii Ampii Muu Met Father Pho Pho Pho Pho Aai Po Aai Pho Mbae Ambua Ong Puu Uncle Lung Lung Lung Lung Aai kaa Lung Aai kaa Lung Twa Achaaai Lung* Lung* Aunt Paa Paa Paa Paa Euai hong Paa-a Eui hong Paa Djae Msem Paa* Paa* Maternal Maethao Maethao Mae-thao Nai Ui E naai Ui Me thao Mbae thao* Anya thao Phothao* Phothao* grandfather ko Maternal Phothao Phothao Phothao ko Taa O Oong O Pho thao Mbii thao* Anya thao Maethao* Maethao* grandmother Elder sister Eui Eui Eui Eui Euai Aa jeu Euai Jii Eui* Eui* Chii Chii Elder brother Aai Aai Aai Aai Aai Aa jaa Aai Aeng Aai* Aai* Maang Maang Far Kai Kai Kai Kai Kai Kai Kai Kai Yuung Truai Shngaai Eur Here Yuu pii Yuu pii Yuu pii Yuu pii Yuu ii Yuu ii nii Yuu ii Yuu maanii Panai Eut nai Ko tanii Ko uunii There Yuu poon Yuu poon Yuu poon Yuu poon Yuu un Yuu un Yuu un Yuu maom Patu Eut pte Ko uisui Ko uusii House Heuan Heuan Heuan Heuan Heuan Ke Heuan Aan Dung Duung Uuh Kano Village Baan Baan Baan Baan Waan Baan Waan Baan Viil Viil Baan* Baan* Spirit Phii Phii Phii Phii Phii Fii Phii Maang Kamut Kamui Kamuut Kamuut Territorial Phii muang Phii muang Phii muang Phii muang Phii muang Fii Sen Phii muang Maang Baan Kamut djang Ayang ho Kamuut Kamuut bauu spirit muang* House spirit Phii heuan Phii heuan Phii heuan Phii heuan Phii heuan Fii ke Phii heuan Maang haan Kamut dung Kamui duung Kamuut kamo Kamuut kano Ritual priest Mo Mo (theim) Mo (theim) Mo Yeng Liang Mo Tet Liang mo Mo* Adae Mo* Mo* November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Tai Languages and Dialects Austro-Asiatic Languages and Dialects English Lao Kaleung Tai Bo Phu Thay Tai Moei Tai Daeng Tai Men Sek Makong Tri Ahoe Phông Ancestors Phii sua Phii chua Phii chua Phii heuan Phii heuan Fii pho mae Phii heuan Mang pho Kamut mbii, Kamui ampii Kamuut mae Kamuut mae mang me kumut mbae Kamui ambua Kamuut poo Kamuut poo Who Phai Phai Phai Peu Pe le Fuu fe Pe le Deu Ameu Naomeu Nae Oo-e Where Sai Soei/sidoei Sai/Piiteu Sileu Ka le Ka leu Ka le Ma neu Imo Eut le Mii Ko-uu neu Negative Bo Bo Bo Mii Bo Eua Bo Bo Mbe Deu Ot De particle Knife Miit Miit Miit Mit/Phaa Paa nuai Miit Paa nuai Traaw Ajuu Pae Kaduut Kaduut Spoon Buang Buang Buang Bong Buang Buang Buang Buang Buang* Buang* Buang* Buang* Tractor Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai Lottai* Lottai* Lottai* Lottai* Car/truck Lot Lot Lot Lot Lot Se Lot Lot Lot* Lot* Lot* Lot* Road Thang Thang Thang Thang Thang Thang Thang Ro Ranaa Ranaa Kruwa Kraa Plough Hua tai Hua tai Hua tai Hoo tai Hua tep Hua tep Hua tep Hua nyeuk Pakhwang Tua piit Dook kii Lookkii Metal Lek Lek Lek Lek Lek Lek Lek Maa Lek tak* Taak Kalaek* Kalaet* Market Talaat Talaat Talaat Talat Talaat Talaat Talaat Talat Talaat* Talaat* Talaat* Talaat* Government Latta-baan Lattabaan Latta-baan Latta-baan Lattabaan Ong pua Lattabaan Lattabaan Lattabaan* Lattabaan* Lattabaan* Lattabaan* Meeting Pasuum Pasuum Pasuum Pasuum E nyaai Sum E nyaai Luam Pasuum* Sum* Pasuum* Pasuum* Ethnic group Pao Pao Pao Pao Pao Pao Pao Pao Tjet Muu* Pao* Pao* Village leader Pho baan Pho baan Pho baan Pho baan Nai waan Nai waan Nai waan Pho baan Pho baan* Pho baan* Pho baan* Pho baan* Money Ngeun Ngeun Ngeun Ngeun Ngeun Jaen Ngeun Nyaen Paraa Paara Prak Paarak Electricity Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa Faifaa* Faifaa* Faifaa* Faifaa* Resettlement Yoknyai Yoknyai Yoknyai Yoknyai Nii Paai kua Nii Yoknyai Yoknyai* Leu khroo Salung Sareng Kerosene Namman Namman Namman Namman kat Namman kat Namman Namman kat Namman Ncheng kat* Nammankat* Atuu kaat* Tuu kaat* kat kat kat kat kat Medicine Yaa Yaa Yaa Yaa Yaa Yaa Yaa Beumai Lahaw Heut Ka yaa heut* Kri yaa* * Indicates word borrowed from Lao/Tai languages November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 12.1.6 Upland Tai Groups The Upland Tai ethnic groups are relatively recent arrivals from Bolikhamxay Province to the north of the Plateau. Some Tai, Tai Yooy and Phu Thai originally arrived in the Khamkeut District area as a result of Khmu rebellions in the late 19th century (CARE 1996: 18), but most Tai are now moving into the northern areas of the Nakai Plateau and Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA from densely populated area around Ban Lak Sao, in search of land and sources of income. These Tai practice swidden for the most part and have similar mix of livelihood options as other Plateau occupants. The Tai groups are patrilinear and animist with only minor Buddhist influences, sharing many of the same cultural traits as other Tai in northern Lao PDR and Vietnam, such as the Men, Moei, Kwan, Phông and Pao further down stream on the Nam Theun (see Ovesen 1993). In addition, some of the Tai, especially at Ban Nam Nian, have been working for Bolisat Phattana Khet Phoudoy (BPKP) as drivers and loggers. Differences between the Tai languages or dialects are minimal and all are bilingual in Lao. The language lists provide a selected vocabulary for the two largest groups, the Tai Men and Tai Moei, and a smaller group, the Tai Daeng. Phou Thay is not classified as Upland Tai but rather as a separate category in its own right in the Tai language family. Most of the Phou Thay on the Plateau are recent arrivals from lowland areas and are based in Nakai Town. 12.1.7 Sek The Sek were the first group to arrive from Vietnam via Khamkeut District in the north. The Sek have inhabited the region for some time, at least since the beginning of the nineteenth century, since it is reported that the Siamese attempted to forcibly relocate them to Thailand after their defeat of the Lao in 1832. The Sek are found in small groups in northern Vietnam and in southern China. Although the Sek practice irrigation and have the highest yields of all the groups in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA with many families being self-sufficient, on the Plateau their livelihood system is similar to the other ethnic groups. Although there was previously a strong Buddhist influences among the Sek with temples in villages in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA, the majority now practice animism, that is ancestor and nature spirit worship with some Vietnamese influences such as celebrating Thêt. The Sek language is an archaic form belonging to the Tai language family. There are similarities between Sek and other Tai languages and all Sek speakers understand and speak Lao as well as other minority languages. 12.2 A MELTING-POT CULTURE 12.2.1 A Dynamic Cultural Process Culture is a dynamic process in which borrowing, adaptation and integration are key aspects. A melting- pot culture is a term that was first introduced by social scientists to explain the meeting and merging of different cultures in modern towns and cities. However, the term can also be applied to other locations where interaction between ethnic groups and merging of concepts, languages and cultural practices occur, such as on the Nakai Plateau. Integration into the dominant lowland Lao culture should not be seen as passive from the point of view of the ethnic and indigenous peoples of the Plateau but rather it should be viewed as a combination of integration and adaptation. It is not a process of `acculturation', that is a loss of culture and values, but rather a process of change where old and new ideas merge. The process of integration of these ethnic groups into the dominant culture has been ongoing for many centuries. The Nam Theun 2 Project could well accelerate this process due to population influx from outside the area and further integration into the national economy because of improved infrastructure and services. These ethnic minorities are not isolated groups of people and many express a desire to see progress and to improve their standards of living by being integrated into the Lao State and adopting many of its cultural traits, such as Buddhism and the Lao language. It would not be possible to isolate them culturally and economically from outsiders, and a preferable approach is to give them the social and economic means with which they can participate in national development on a par with their lowland neighbors. Economic improvement in terms of livelihood development can only serve to preserve the social structure of villages and some of the cultural diversity of the region. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau The dynamic quality of ethnic integration and adaptation on the Plateau contrasts somewhat with the situation in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA and the lowlands. Because of the diversity of ethnic groups recorded on the Plateau, there is a considerable amount of shared or common culture, characteristic of a merging process that can lead to a `melting-pot culture'. The reasons for this are: · Centuries of contact with lowland Lao culture, and a gradual expansion of that culture and language onto the Plateau through the migration of Lao and other ethnic groups into the area · Increased social interaction and intermarriage prevalent in all the villages · A common material culture (house architecture, basketry, tools and lowland style clothes) · A common basic cosmology of spirits with only minor influences from Buddhism · Flexible and pragmatic social organisation and residential patterns (primarily patrilocal) · Similar systems of labour exchange, ritual participation and community cooperation that involve all ethnic groups · Traditional leadership structures and traditional systems of mediating conflict All of these similarities will be explored in detail in this EMDP. 12.2.2 Migration and Integration The history of the region can be understood as a series of in-migrations from different areas around the Plateau (see Figure 12-2). The Vietic speakers who now mainly inhabit the northernmost parts were the first inhabitants (indigenous). These groups were originally hunter-gatherers were once spread thinly over a large area, as is characteristic of that livelihood system. The differences between the groups that arrived over the centuries developed and changed depending on geographic separation while common traits emerged due to contact, trade and inter-marriage. Ethnic boundaries were probably fluid as is revealed by the difficulties to classify many of these groups based on language and cultural traits (cf. CARE 1996). The villages on the Plateau have experienced a number of migrations and splitting over the past 50 years. Information has been collected during the various surveys and the following data has emerged and is presented in the table below. The main reason for splitting and migration has been the search for land and natural resources in different areas of the Plateau and economic opportunities in the roadside villages of Nakai Neua and Nakai Tai. Table 12-6: Origin of Plateau Villages in Relation to Migration and Splitting Original Village Site Ethnic Group(s) Splitting Main In-migration Done Brou Done Khon Khene Sop On Brou and Bo Sop On Some Brou in-migration from the NT2 Phonsavanh Watershed to Phonsavanh Nakai Neua Bo Lao and Tai groups from outside the Plateau Nakai Tai Bo Lao and Tai groups from outside the Plateau and Ahoe returning to the Plateau after 2nd Indochina war Bouama (originally called Brou and Bo Bouma (some resettled Brou migration in from Ban Teng and Ban Loa) in Jat San) Sailom (split Thaphaiban in the NT2 Watershed Area to again into three hamlets), Kengnyao, Sopma and Hat Khampane. Kangnyao, Sopma, Hat Bo migration in from Ban Bo to Sop Phene Khampan, Sop Phene Talang (originally called Bo Talang and Nong Boua Lao, Tai and other groups in nearby villages Ban Signo) Kham (Bo Cho) set up as Army Village Sop Hia Vietic groups Abandoned during the 2nd Indochina war and repopulated by returnee Ahoe, Phong from surrounding areas and Tai from Khamkheut District and Lak Sao November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Figure 12-2: Historical Migrations of Major Regional Ethnic Groups November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau A number of migrations occurred, the main ones being the Sek in the eighteenth century from the north and the Brou from the south a century later. More recently, various upland Tai groups from the Khamkeut area have arrived on the Plateau. The Tai Bo from the central regions were most likely Vietic speakers who have adapted Lao/Tai culture and language. This parallels the more recent laosisation of the some of the Brou who have adopted Buddhism and lowland Lao dialects. The establishment of Ban Nikhom 3 near Ban Sop On and Ban Nikhom 5 in the present-day site of Ban Nong Boua Kham (Bo Cho), and the subsequent influx of lowlanders has further accelerated the process of laosisation of the Plateau since 1975. The establishment of Nakai as a district in 1992 has also added many lowlanders to the ethnic mix. Villagers were often unable to give an answer when questioned about their ethnic identity and gave a variety of answers, revealing in many cases a desire to be classified within the mainstream culture (Lao Loum). Different dialects of Lao or Tai are the language of daily communication in most of the villages due to the amount of intermarriage since many derivatives and dialects of the original languages are not mutually understandable. These dialects of Lao or Tai have become the lingua franca in all cases perhaps due to the importance of Lao as a language of administration and education. Many under the age of 40 do not have a working knowledge of their `ethnic' language. The CARE Report (1996) classifies households along ethnic lines and this tends to exaggerate ethnic difference. In some cases, it is a difference in name alone. Upon questioning villagers to state their ethnic affiliation, there were two noticeable tendencies: association with the Plateau or a specific area on the Plateau, and a desire to identify with aspects of the dominant culture. Thus some groups, especially, the Bo often stated that they were Tai Nakai, that is the inhabitants of Nakai who spoke a dialect similar to the other Tai groups in the area. The Ahoe, Malang, Selang and other Vietic groups also use the prefix `Tai' as a means of legitimizing their status on a par with the other Lao Loum groups such as Tai Men, Tai Lao, Tai Lue, etc. When the term Brou, is used it is often met with laughter since this group preferred to be called Tai Sô or Makong, Brou being associated with backwardness.1 Aspects of village social structures such as a sense of village identity and family/clan loyalty cut across the different ethnic groups and are often more relevant than ethnicity. Differences of wealth within the villages need to be considered in resettlement planning. The fact that all the villagers requested to remain on the Plateau itself is an important fact that qualifies them as indigenous, since attachment to a location is one criterion according to OD 4.20 and ADB's policy on indigenous peoples. The possible exceptions are groups of Tai from the Ban Lak Sao area who have recently moved onto the Plateau and have shown some interest in returning to that area. The Vietic groups in Ban Sop Hia have shown a desire to stay in the area or to return to traditional territories west of the Plateau. 12.2.3 Intermarriage One means of gauging the extent of the melting-pot culture on the Nakai Plateau is to examine inter- marriage between the groups. The family structures on the Plateau may be characterized as patrilineal and virilocal to a large degree. Like many groups in Southeast Asia, however, there is considerable variation that depends on practical aspects relating to location, relative wealth of families and available resources. Recording life histories and changes from one generation to another revealed that it was not uncommon for villagers to build several houses in different locations (Sparkes 1997: 19-22). This also indicated a high rate of separation. Table 12-7 illustrates data from a preliminary survey to acquire an overview of the extent of inter-marriage which appears significant on the Nakai Plateau. 1Another example of identifying with the dominant culture and renouncing what is perceived as a `primitive past' is the use of the word khaa, which means `slave'. Previously, the Mon-Khmer speakers were referred to as `slaves' by the Tai and Lao speakers. More than one informant referred to himself as Tai Kha, implying that he belonged to a legitimate ethnic group, using the word, `Tai', and combining it with an old notion of being subordinate to the dominant group, `slave'. This was also a common phenomenon near the site for the construction of the Theun-Hinboun dam (see Sparkes 1995:3-8). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-7: Intermarriage on the Nakai Plateau Wife's Ethnicity Husband's Tai/Phou Ahoe/ Other Ethnicity Brou Bo Thay Atel Phong Kaleung Lao Groups Brou 343 39 15 12 4 13 Bo 35 395 7 5 Tai/Phu Thay 3 8 48 9 3 2 4 Ahoe 10 4 5 21 2 1 1 Phong 10 2 2 1 Lao Kaleung 4 2 2 Lao 13 22 11 35 Other groups 4 4 (Compiled from District records at Nakai 2002 and field visits) An example from the village of Ban Sop On illustrates very well the complexity of ethnic identity through a number of intermarriage cases in this mixed Bo and Brou community. Figure 12-3: Example of Intermarriage from Ban Sop On L a o B r o u B r o u T a i B o + + T a i B o ½ La o ½ Brou + ¼ La o ¼ Brou + ½ Ta i Bo = Ma le ½ Ta i Bo ½ Brou = Fe m a le La o Brou ½ Ta i Bo Residence pattern for the Brou and the Tai Bo indicate patrilocal residence and hence the ethnic identity as Brou for the male in the figure above since the many of residents in Ban Sop On trace their origins to this group and the father of the child is Brou. However, there are no longer clear cultural distinctions between the Brou and the Bo who intermarry frequently in Sop On, both considering themselves as Lao Thueng. In contrast to the Brou, the Lao favor initial matrilocal residence (wife's family compounds) such that the grandfather of the male in the figure above was incorporated into the Brou community. The example of in- and out-marriage from Ban Done is illustrative of how ethnic boundaries are easily transgressed and how ties with neighboring villages are established over time. Upon first inquiries many villagers claimed that the village was Brou and that they practiced endogamy (marriage with women from within the village proper). Upon further questioning, however, there appeared to be many other ethnic groups present as marriage partners and Brou from other areas. Location determined the ethnicity of the children. The examples given were as follows: November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-8: Male Marriage Partners (sons-in-laws -luk khoey) in Ban Done Number of luk khoey Ethnicity Place of origin 7 Brou Ban Ngom area 3 Lowland Lao Thakhek area 1 Tai Yoy Ban Bo 1 Sek Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA area 1 Tai Nyo Mahaxai 1 Lowland Lao Luang Prabang Table 12-9: Marriage Partners (exogamy) from Ban Done Number of Brou women leaving Ethnicity of husband in village new village Destination 5 Brou Ban Ngom area 3 Lowland Lao Thakhek area 2 Brou/Bo Ban Sop On 2 Brou Ban Khone Khen 1 Lowland Lao Luang Prabang 1 Tai Phuan Xieng Khouang There appears to be no taboos on inter-marriage among the various groups although there is a preference for marrying within one's own group. In addition, the Care Report states that the population of Ban Khon Khene at the southeastern end of the Plateau could represent yet another mixture of ethnic groups, where the Vietic Phong intermarried with the Tai Yooy and then assimilated with the Brou (1996: 20). However, it has proven difficult to investigate this claim since most households consider themselves as Brou or Makong but speak Lao. If there has been former assimilation of groups, there is little evidence of this at present. 12.3 ETHNIC GROUPS SURROUNDING THE PLATEAU AND NEW MIGRANTS 12.3.1 Ethnic Groups in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA Many of the ethnic groups on the Plateau are also found in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA area, including the inhabitants of the village of Ban Ka Oy which may also have to be relocated due to the inundation of swidden fields, qualify as ethnic minorities due to the relatively isolated river valleys and lack of contact with the lowland culture. Hence the different groups have retained, to a far greater degree, their distinct customs and original languages as outlined in the CARE Report (1996). There is little in the way of a melting pot culture as of yet and still a great diversity of ethnic groups among villages. The Brou or Tai Sô of Ban Ka Oy have never had a school or Buddhist temple and mostly use Brou as the language of daily communication. This contrasts with the Brou of the Plateau who speak a dialect of Tai or Lao. There was, however, one example of a Tai Meoi from Ban Lak Sao who did not speak Brou and conversed with the other villagers of Ban Ka Oy in Lao which everybody seemed to understand. An Ethnic Minority Development Plan has been developed in parallel with this document for these groups (EMDP for the NT2 Watershed 2003) by GOL. 12.3.2 Ban Oudomsouk The district town of Oudomsouk (Muang Nakai or Nakai Town) came into existence recently with the dismantling of the State Farm cum Re-education Centre at Ban Nikhom 3 near Ban Sop On and the creation of the Nakai District in 1992. It is populated by recent in-migrants from all over the country. The majority of inhabitants of the town are lowland Lao from many provinces (Tai Lao, Lao Kaleung, Tai Lue, etc.) and they are not directly impacted by the Project. These in-migrants work mainly as officials and wage laborers in construction and forestry as well as running the majority of restaurants and shops. There is also a considerable Vietnamese presence as owners of restaurants and traders in the town. Table 12-10 below indicates the population as of March 1997. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Table 12-10: In-migration to Ban Oudomsouk No. of Place of Origin Households Arrival Date Type of Work Nikhom 32 109 1992-96 BPKP, laborers, restaurant owners Khammouane 64 1992-96 Army, police, teachers, doctors, officials Province Nakai Plateau villages 25 1995-96 Farmers living on the outskirts of town Ban Lak Sao 23 1995-96 Laborers, shop owners Pakse 2 1995 Merchants Pakading 2 1996 Farmers and merchants Savannakhet Province 3 1995 Shop owners Mahaxai District 6 1995-96 Shop and restaurant owners Total 2343 In 1997 the former residents of Ban Nikhom 3 made up nearly half the total of 234 households of the new town (population in 2002 was 289 households). These residents came originally from all parts of the country and consist mostly of families of officials and army officers from Luang Prabang, Savannakhet and Sayaburi. Many have intermarried with the local populations in the former Ban Nikhom 3 area. The language and culture is Lao, that is lowland Lao (Lao Loum). This is reinforced by the addition of officials and skilled people from urban and semi-urban areas throughout the country who also identify themselves with the dominant culture. What is important to note from this table is that the inhabitants of the villages of the Plateau have not secured work opportunities in town such as laborers, drivers or jobs in the chipboard mill. Only a few men, mostly from the roadside villagers of Ban Nakai Neua and Ban Nakai Tai work for BPKP (9 households were recorded in 1997) and a very few from the rest of the Plateau have managed to acquire temporary or fulltime wage labor. 2Nikhom 3 refers to a State Farm that was established after the Second Indochina War. Many of the workers on this farm were former Royalist army officers and government officials from all over the country (Tai Lao, Lue, Phuan, etc). Nikhom 3 was dismantled in the early 1990s with the majority of the population settling on the Nakai Plateau, primarily in Nakai Town. Many had married local women and have families with local women. Many of the shops, stall and small business in Nakai Town have been established by form Nikhom 3 workers. 3 The figures here are approximate since the situation on the ground is changing rapidly with the arrival of more and more villagers and merchants seeking new opportunities. During the survey, at least 12 men were recorded who were presently staying with relatives and working in Ban Oudomsouk. It is more than likely that some of these will bring their families and set up house in the near future. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 12: Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Figure 12-4: Photos on Housing, Livelihoods and Beliefs among Ethnic Groups on Nakai Plateau. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data CHAPTER 13 NAKAI PLATEAU EMDP BASELINE DATA Table of Content 13 NAKAI PLATEAU EMDP BASELINE DATA .........................................................1 13.1 METHODOLOGIES.........................................................................................................1 13.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS............................................................................................1 13.2.1 Income Sources ..................................................................................................................................................1 13.2.2 Income in Relation to Ethnicity .......................................................................................................................2 13.2.3 A Diminishing Resource Base ..........................................................................................................................3 13.2.4 Agricultural Production .....................................................................................................................................4 13.2.5 Rice Deficiency and Ethnicity...........................................................................................................................6 13.2.6 Livestock and Animal Husbandry on the Plateau..........................................................................................7 13.2.7 Livestock Distribution and Ethnicity...............................................................................................................9 13.2.8 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) ..........................................................................................................9 13.2.9 Fisheries.............................................................................................................................................................11 13.2.10 Reliance on NTFPs, Fisheries and Sale of Wild Animals in relation to Ethnicity...................................11 13.3 BELIEF SYSTEMS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE ISSUES.................................................. 13 13.3.1 Overview of Belief Systems ............................................................................................................................13 13.3.2 Ethnic Aspects of Belief Systems...................................................................................................................13 13.3.3 Territorial Spirits...............................................................................................................................................14 13.3.4 Visiting and Ancestral Spirits..........................................................................................................................16 13.3.5 Folk Buddhist Influences ................................................................................................................................17 13.3.6 Life Cycle Rituals..............................................................................................................................................18 13.3.7 Moving the Cosmos.........................................................................................................................................20 13.3.8 Moving Houses.................................................................................................................................................21 13.3.9 Cultural Heritage...............................................................................................................................................22 13.4 HEALTH STATUS.........................................................................................................22 13.4.1 General Health Status......................................................................................................................................22 13.4.2 Diseases Endemic to the Nakai Plateau........................................................................................................23 13.4.3 Nutritional and Reproductive Health Problems ..........................................................................................24 13.4.4 Health Facilities on the Nakai Plateau and Vicinity.....................................................................................24 13.5 TRADITIONAL HEALTH PRACTICES............................................................................26 13.5.1 Traditional Causes of Disease and Traditional Health Specialists .............................................................26 13.5.2 Traditional Health Practices on the Nakai Plateau ......................................................................................28 13.5.3 Indigenous Health Ingredients .......................................................................................................................28 13.5.4 Changes in Indigenous Practices....................................................................................................................29 13.6 EDUCATION STATUS ...................................................................................................30 13.6.1 Literacy...............................................................................................................................................................30 13.6.2 Lao Language Proficiency ...............................................................................................................................31 13.6.3 Education Facilities..........................................................................................................................................33 13.7 GENDER ISSUES..........................................................................................................33 13.8 RELATIONS WITH NON-NAKAI PLATEAU GROUPS .....................................................35 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data List of Tables Table 13-1: Cash and Imputed Household Income in Reservoir Households ...............................................2 Table 13-2: Ethnicity and Household Income .....................................................................................................3 Table 13-3: Rice Requirements and Yields for Plateau Villages in 2002..........................................................5 Table 13-4: Total and Average Rice Yields for Plateau Villages........................................................................6 Table 13-5: Rice Deficiency on the Nakai Plateau, 1996 ....................................................................................7 Table 13-6: Livestock Population for Reservoir Villages....................................................................................8 Table 13-7: Livestock Ownership per Household...............................................................................................9 Table 13-8: Comparison of Prices (Kip) of Non-Timber Forest Products and Rice...................................10 Table 13-9: NTFPs, Fishing and Wild Animals for Sale in Relation to Household Income......................12 Table 13-10: Territorial Spirits of the Nakai Plateau ...........................................................................................16 Table 13-11: Leading Causes of Mortality in Lao PDR in the mid 1990s (Kobayashi et al., 2004).............23 Table 13-12: Health Facilities in Khammouane Province and in Project Area Districts (2001) ..................25 Table 13-13: Medical Personnel in Khammouane Province and in Project Area Districts (2001)..............25 Table 13-14: Ratio of Medical Personnel to Population in Khammouane Province (2001).......................25 Table 13-15: Educational Levels and Literacy on the Nakai Plateau (all affected people)............................31 Table 13-16: Education Level of Household Head on the Nakai Plateau .......................................................31 Table 13-17: Lao Language Proficiency on the Nakai Plateau...........................................................................32 Table 13-18: The Division of Labour.....................................................................................................................34 List of Figures Figure 13-1: The Annual Agricultural Cycle...........................................................................................................4 Figure 13-2: Nakai Plateau Villages Approximate Territorial Boundaries (1997) ..........................................15 Figure 13-3: Basic Cosmological Aspects of Nakai Plateau Ethnic Groups...................................................20 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 ii Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data 13 NAKAI PLATEAU EMDP BASELINE DATA 13.1 METHODOLOGIES The following methods of data collection were employed at various stages in the planning for resettlement of ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau: Household surveys of economic assets were carried out first by the LWU in 1995 and again during the Notification, Registration and Socio-Economic Sample Survey by the RMU in 1998. These surveys list the assets and the main socio-economic features of the residents of the Nakai Plateau. The data was collected by interviewing household members on an individual basis. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) techniques were used by CARE (1996). Further surveys were carried out in 2003 for additional data and quality control of existing data. Census of all entitled households on the Nakai Plateau in October 1998 (cf. Appendix H). In-depth Interviews of individuals and families were carried out on several occasions (CARE 1996, NTEC (Sparkes) 1997, 1998 and intermittently from 2002-2004) in order to obtain additional information relating to individual household economics, social organization, cultural practices, gender relations and resource use. Discussions with local leaders were carried out on several occasions throughout the consultation process and during all surveys in order to update statistics on village population, migration patterns and relationships between traditional and formal positions of power within the villages. Discussion with ritual practitioners were carried out (NTEC (Sparkes) 1997, 1998 and 2002-2004) in order to assess cultural practices, rituals relating to relocation, territorial spirits and religious beliefs that could affect resettlement. Participant Observation was conducted in all villages by survey teams in 1997 and 1998 that involved staying in villages for several days and nights in order to observe firsthand village life and routines and to establish trust and affirm conclusions of the quantitative surveys. Informal discussions were held with many villagers in order to gain insights into aspirations and potential challenges of the resettlement plan. Survey teams consisted of government officials from the RMU, LWU and Institute for Cultural Research, Ministry of Information and Culture as well as consultant anthropologists. Shorter field visits were carried out by various consultants from 2002 to 2003. Participatory Rural Appraisal Techniques were used in 1997 and 1998 as part of the gender-sensitive consultation process. This involved land use mapping, designing `dream villages', prioritizing livelihood options, village layout and house designs. Groups of men and women discussed various aspects of the draft resettlement plans and gave feedback (NTEC (Sparkes) 1998). All these various types of data were co-related, checked and fed into the resettlement planning process. These methods fulfill the consultation and planning criteria with regard to the taking into consideration the cultural and socio-economic needs of the ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau as outlined in OD 4.20. 13.2 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS Two major socio-economic surveys have been undertaken on the Nakai Plateau. The first one was by the CARE team in 1996 (including a revision of the LWU's work from 1995) and the Notification and Registration Survey in late 1998 (data complied in 1999). Both these surveys provide an overview of all economic and livelihood activities that were later analyzed by various experts and integrated into resettlement planning. 13.2.1 Income Sources Given the difficulties of obtaining reliable data concerning household incomes, the following table is indicative only of the average household income for the Plateau and reveals the importance of agriculture November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data and NTFPs in generating cash income. Although there is a fourfold increase in income in kip due to inflation, however, this translates in fact into a marginal decrease in terms of dollars. Table 13-1: Cash and Imputed Household Income in Reservoir Households Activities Income in 1996 % in 1996 Income in 1998 % in 1998 Agriculture and livestock 83,000 18 411,951 22 Wildlife 18,000 4 8,803 0 NTFPs 97,000 21 99,257 5 Fishing 23,000 5 84,926 4 Wages 36,000 8 203,947 11 Jewellery and Handicrafts N.A. 29,571 2 A. Total cash income 257,000 56 828,454 44 Rice production 140,000 30 541,813 29 Rice for work/donations N.A. 80,998 4 Wildlife 31,000 7 34,050 2 NTFPs N.A. 19,902 1 Fishing 34,000 7 106,753 6 Agriculture N.A. 223,165 12 Livestock N.A. 32,020 2 Handicrafts N.A. 1,705 0 B. Total Imputed Income 205,000 44 1,040,406 56 Total income (A+B) 462,000 100 1,868,860 100 The total income of 462,000 kip was equivalent to USD $462 in 1996. The total income of 1,868,860 kip was equivalent to USD $449 in 1998. The methodology in the second study was more thorough and included several items not taken into account in the first survey, such as rice for work, agricultural production and livestock as part of imputed income. In addition, there has been inflation and a devaluing of the Kip in comparison to the USD $ so that there is a decrease in terms of USD $ from 462 to 449. Plateau communities have traditionally had a mixed economy consisting of cultivating rice and food crops, fishing, raising livestock, hunting for meat and gathering NTFPs, all primarily for household use. In recent years, increases in population, problems with shortened swidden cycles, and exposure to cash commodities, have spawned more intensive and extensive exploitation of the forest for its marketable products. The shift from an almost entirely subsistence economy to a somewhat more commercial one is being promoted by migrants. These newcomers engage either in government sponsored logging, or in search of other economic benefits such as trading or market stalls. These people generate a market for items such as vegetables, meat and forest products. 13.2.2 Income in Relation to Ethnicity The Care Report (1996: 22) examined income in relation to ethnic groups and length of habitation. Table 13-2 shows that the length of habitation is approximately the reverse of social rank and average household income. The Vietic groups, it should be pointed out, are living in villages together with Tai, Lao and Brou inhabitants in Sop Hia and Nakai Tai and this could affect the ranking. The Tai, the most recent arrivals are clearly ranked first and this is due to the fact that many are more integrated into the mainstream economy and have better technology and skills. A number of Tai have been employed by BPKP and dominate the small stalls along Route 8B. Tai culture and language are also similar to lowland Lao. The Brou and Bo have considerably lower household incomes and, on average, are not involved in market activities or off-farm employment. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-2: Ethnicity and Household Income Social Rank Average HH Income Length of Habitation 1. Tai/Sek 359,962 Kip 1. Vietic 2. Vietic 229,127 Kip 2. Bo 3. Brou 212,137 Kip 3. Brou 4. Bo 173,264 Kip 4. Tai/Sek In addition to ethnicity, the types of villages in terms of location, access to markets and historical development determine to a large extent the standard of living. The further villages are from the road or District Capital, the poorer they tend to be. One can divide the villages roughly into three groups, and these groups correspond to a certain degree with ethnicity: roadside villages (relatively large number of Lao or Tai), villages to the south-east of the Plateau (predominately Brou) and the poor villages at the centre and northern parts of the Plateau (predominately Bo) (cf. Sparkes 1998). 13.2.3 A Diminishing Resource Base Present conditions on the Plateau may be characterized as having a "diminishing resource base". The majority of time and energy goes into the cultivation of swidden rice, the staple food. Swidden, or upland rice cultivation, can only be successful in a large area of sparse population. The present population has been expanding over the last 10 years at a rate higher than the Lao average (CARE 1996: 30). As a result the fallow period has been shortened to meet the demand, subsequently reducing the harvests and the quality of the already poor soils. For good harvests a swidden cycle of 10-12 years of fallow is required given the rate of regrowth and soils. Traditional sources of wealth are buffalo and Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), which are either bartered or sold for food, and consumer goods in Ban Oudomsouk, Thakhek or further afield. Large areas previously used for grazing animals and gathering NTFPs have been damaged by commercial logging, and these areas have still not fully regenerated after the halt of logging activities on the Plateau. Concurrent with this destruction of the natural environment, is an increase in demand for consumer goods and a shift from a primarily subsistence economy to a more market-oriented economy. Animals and forest products are now sold in order to acquire consumer goods imported from Thailand, Vietnam and China, which are on sale in local markets. This in turn has put more pressure on an already diminishing resource base. The majority of cultivation takes place within the village area but villagers travel afar to collect NTFPs and to find suitable grazing areas for their buffalo, that is into other villages' traditional territories and the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA. Verbal permission was all that was required in the past. For a small percentage (5-10%) villagers can take as many forest products from other areas as needed. There are, however, indications that the severe floods of 1996 and subsequent years have created great pressure on resources. There was one reported case from Ban Ka Oy of goods being seized by village authorities in 1997 because a villager from the neighboring Ban Sop On had not sought permission before gathering damar resin (kisii). When various informants were asked about this issue there seemed to be little consensus about whether one should or should not seek permission from village authorities regarding quotas. They all claimed, however, that this was the first case of goods being seized, and this could indicate that it is becoming difficult to acquire enough forest products to exchange for rice. The only flood comparable with the disaster of 1996 was the even higher flood of 1959, which were also of a longer duration. That time is still vivid in the memories of many elderly folk on the Plateau. Upon being questioned about the years following the 1959 flood, they stated that it took about three years to recover to levels comparable to pre-1959 production. This was when buffalo herds1 were larger, forest products more available and demands for purchased goods very low. It is unlikely that a stable utilization of resources has been re-established after the floods of 1996. Interviews with villagers in 2002 and 2003 1Many villagers claimed that buffalo herds were significantly higher before the outbreak of the Second Indochina War and that animals were shot and slaughtered by both sides during the fighting in order to supply food. There are no statistics on this and some of the CARE Report (1996) material seems to indicate a recent increase in numbers. What interviews with villagers did reveal, however, is that there is a significant difference in numbers owned by each individual household. Many villagers in the Tai Bo villages in the centre of the Plateau, claimed they had none either because of disease or because they had to sell their buffaloes off to buy rice. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data indicated that NTFPs were only available in large quantities in the NBCA and involved camping out for several weeks at a time to meet quota already agreed upon between village leaders and middlemen. A more recent development recorded during a brief field visit in April 2002 is the effects of the cessation of logging on the Nakai Plateau and in the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA. Previously the logging companies with their numerous laborers, drivers and supervisors provided a market for local food and services along the roadside villages of Ban Oudomsouk, Nakai Tai, Nakai Neua, Thalang and Nam Nian. Evidence that the logging has stopped completely on the Plateau is the numerous stalls, restaurants and guesthouses that have been boarded up or dismantled. Some of the people who had migrated to the Nakai Plateau during this height of timber extraction have left, accounting for many of the households that have left the area. Although no systematic survey has been conducted there must have been income losses for many families who had invested in small businesses at that time. 13.2.4 Agricultural Production Agricultural production on the Plateau is currently based upon rain fed rice cultivation and small-scale vegetable gardens. Soil fertility, labor availability, access to a reliable water supply, draught and animal supply are all factors contributing to yield. Average yields in the area are generally in the range of 0.8 tonne per hectare for upland and 1.5 to 2.0 tonnes per hectare for paddy rice. Paddy production is restricted by the availability of fertile non-flooded flat land. With the aid of mechanical power, or access to a reliable water supply for irrigation, maximum land use could be expanded beyond the present average area of cultivation, which is probably less than one hectare per family. The size of family land-holdings varies from 0.4 ha to 2.4 ha. Vegetables are mainly grown on fields in proximity to the homestead on garden plots directly associated with the dwellings or along nearby riverbanks and may include cabbage, cucumbers, tomatoes, lettuce, beans and pumpkin among others. Tobacco is sometimes grown in these gardens, mostly for domestic consumption. With the exception of Oudomsouk itself, the vast majority of the population is engaged in agricultural production. The following diagram indicates the most important activities during the year. Figure 13-1: The Annual Agricultural Cycle Activity J F M A M J J A S O N D Swidden Rice Clearing Burning Planting Weeding Harvesting Paddy Rice Ploughing Planting Harvesting Livestock Rainy Season Pasture herding Fishing Intensive Intensive Vegetable gardens Harvesting Planting NTFPs The most important activity is the production of rice. Except for the roadside villages of Nakai Neua and Nakai Tai, and to a lesser extent Done, villages practice extensive swidden or upland rice cultivation. This involves approximately 10 months of work with the most intensive periods being the actual clearing and firing in the hot season and harvesting at the end of the year. Harvests are relatively poor: 723 kilos/family compared with 1558 kilos/family in the lowland areas in Gnommalat District. The months when villagers are not engaged in rice production are mostly devoted to collecting Non-Timber Forest Products. The area is far from self-sufficient in rice as indicated in Table 13-3 below. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-3: Rice Requirements and Yields for Plateau Villages in 2002 Age Division Wet Season Paddy Dry Season Rice Upland Rice area Village Rice destroy- final area production production, annual months (Dominate Ethnic requirement area ed by productio area final area destroyed final unmilled calculated as rice de- Group or Groups) HH Persons Total 1-14 yrs > 15yrs in 1 year planted flood n planted production planted by flood prod'n rice milled rice deficient ficient kg ha ha kg ha kg ha ha kg kg kg kg/yr no. mths Nakai District, Khammouane Province - Plateau Villages Phonphanpek (Mixed) 73 472 234 208 264 88,184 31.00 1.00 16,213 16,213 9,727 78,457 10 Nongboua (Brou/Bo) 31 157 75 84 73 l22,922 15.00 - - - 22,922 12 Sop On (Brou/Bo) 84 429 199 207 222 88,840 18.53 6.90 2,180 2,180 1,308 87,532 11 Bouama (Brou) 56 300 152 140 160 53,421 2.00 2 1 200 2 2,150 22.67 4.05 1,796 5,146 3,087 50,334 10 Phonesavang (Brou) 27 159 79 79 80 29,054 9.25 1.51 7,939 7,939 4,763 24,291 10 Sopma (Bo) 46 166 80 76 90 30,806 23.63 8.40 9,452 9,452 5,671 25,135 9 Done (Brou) 115 726 359 351 375 133,371 29.75 7 14 270 5 5,900 40.40 10.00 54,700 74,870 44,922 88,449 7 Khone Khen (Brou) 42 246 127 119 127 45,187 12.00 - 13 500 34.70 5.90 28,020 41,520 24,912 20,275 5 Ka Oy (Brou) 24 153 72 70 83 28,397 50.94 3.63 5,750 5,750 3,450 24,947 10 Sop Phene (Bo) 43 230 118 107 123 42,559 39.00 10.21 13,600 13,600 8,160 34,399 9 Nakai Neua (Bo) 79 376 200 186 190 68,766 18.00 10 13 716 18 18,500 19.12 2.30 1,863 34,079 20,447 48,319 8 NakaiTai (Bo/Vietic) 174 832 422 352 480 156,533 19.98 8 16 289 8 10,500 35.93 3.30 36,043 62,832 37,699 118,834 9 Nongboua-kham (Tai) 40 286 133 130 156 53,144 3.00 3 0.7 2 2,200 18.00 2.40 300 3,200 1,920 51,224 11 Thalang (Tai) 64 329 173 147 174 59,568 47.00 5.89 9,993 9,993 5,996 53,572 10 TOTAL 898 4,861 2 423 2,256 2 597 900,752 84.73 29.96 58 975 34.25 39,250 405.17 65.49 187,849 286,774 172,062 728,690 average yield : 1.1 t/ha average yield: 0.55 t/ha Khamkeut District, Bolikhamxai Province - Plateau Villages Nam Nian (Tai) 23 130 62 56 74 24 382 3 5 350 7 5 530 10 880 6 528 17 854 9 Sop Hia (Tai/Vietic) 56 316 147 160 156 57 524 37 23 050 23 050 13 830 43 694 9 TOTAL 79 446 209 216 230 81 906 3 5 350 44 28 580 33 930 20 358 61 548 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-4: Total and Average Rice Yields for Plateau Villages Summary Amount Units Total area of Wet paddy field (2002 wet season) 87 730 ha Paddy area destroyed by flooding and insect pests 29 970 ha Current are of dry season paddy field 34 250 ha Total area of upland fields (2002 wet season) 448 870 ha Upland rice area destroyed by flooding and insect pests 65 490 ha Total production - as paddy (unhusked) 320 674 kg Total production - as milled rice 192 420 kg Rice requirement in 1 year 982 658 kg amount of rice villagers are deficient in 790 238 kg average number of months rice deficient 9 Months Sum of rice requirement helping 790 238 kg Shifting, or swidden, cultivation is a major governmental concern for many reasons. Even with small populations and adequate fallow time, the yields of shifting cultivation can rarely support a family of four without supplemental rice purchases in present day Lao PDR (UNDP 1994). In addition there is the desire to protect the watersheds to sustain adequate water yields for hydropower project production. Population pressures without an increase in agriculture production will only cause more forest area to be lost, and the amount of natural forests in the vicinity of the village to decrease. People need to walk farther to find and use forest products. Farmers are forced to reduce fallow periods, and shorter fallow periods cause soil fertility to diminish, and erosion problems to increase. A shorter fallow period negates the use of ecologically-sound agricultural practices necessary to protect the fertility of Alisols soils, which are reportedly heavily leached, susceptible to erosion and with low pH, and organic matter content (see Table 10-12). The weathered, leached, Alisols soils require a 15-year fallow period for the best result.2 Recent studies show the optimal number of people to forest area is about 12 persons per sq. km. The environment and the agricultural resource base are being degraded in a constantly reduced cycle. Declining soil fertility results in reduced crop yields. Labor requirements to control weeds increase, which does not exist in sufficient quantity, and thus yields decrease. This in-turn places the household at risk, and thus more land is placed under shifting cultivation. In addition, the environment has been further degraded by commercial logging on the Plateau since the 1980s. In order to compensate for recurrent rice deficits, villagers grow corn and vegetables, and collect wild tubers and other edible forest products. They also raise livestock (buffalo and cattle), which generally serve as a reserve that can be sold at times of rice deficit. With the substantial changes associated with forestry operations on the Plateau, it would appear that they are becoming increasingly reliant on hunting, fishing and the collection and sale of NTFPs. The absence of wildlife in the immediate vicinity of villages, and the declining availability of forest resource base would suggest that the sustainability of these practices is questionable. Most of the wildlife of the Plateau has already been hunted out and some forest products, such as damar resin, are either being harvested at an unsustainable rate or are becoming harder to obtain. 13.2.5 Rice Deficiency and Ethnicity There is no correlation between ethnicity and paddy production (see Table 13-4). Paddy is grown by Bo in Nakai Tai and Nakai Neua and by Brou in Done, Kone Khen and Bouama. Also Vietic grow paddy (in Nakai Tai). Dry season rice is grown in the same villages except for Khone Khen. Upland rice is grown in all villages and by all ethnic groups. 2 Many villagers stated that they let their fields remain fallow for only 3-4 years and claimed that was ample time. They are no doubt echoing government policy concerning swidden agriculture and the desire to stop villagers from burning down forests. The same arguments were encountered in the villages near the site of Theun-Hinboun dam (Sparkes 1995:12-13). Upon inspecting the fields in the vicinity of the villages, however, it became obvious that the fields were fallow for 10-15 years. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data According to the 1996 survey Vietic households and households from new villages had a higher degree of rice sufficiency (39 % and 32 %) than Bo and Brou (see Table 13-5). Half of Brou households (51 %) had rice deficit for up to 6 months, while only 21 % of Bo, 25 % of households in new (mixed) villages had 25 % and 30 % of Vietic households had deficiency for up to 6 months. 62 % of the Bo households had rice deficiency for 6 months or more, while this was the case for 40 % of the Brou households and households from new villages and 31 % for Vietic. Table 13-5: Rice Deficiency on the Nakai Plateau, 1996 Percentage of households rice deficient by number of months Deficit Deficit Deficit Deficit Ethnic group Sufficient <3 m 3-6m 6-8 m >8m Total Bo 17 6 15 62 0 100 Brou 6 17 34 19 21 97 Vietic 39 10 20 31 0 100 New Villages 32 16 9 13 27 97 Average 17 12 22 36 13 100 13.2.6 Livestock and Animal Husbandry on the Plateau Buffalo are the dominant type of livestock owned within the project area (see Table 13-6). The total number of buffalo in the villages to be resettled was 3,100 head in 1996 and 4,146 in the 1998 census, with average ownership of 4.3 per household. Distribution is markedly skewed, with some households owning over 30-40 animals (up to 90 head being recorded in 1996), and a significant proportion not owning any head at all. Due to flooding and the subsequent loss of all rice in the autumn of 1996, many animals were sold to make ends meet. Buffalo are kept largely as a store of wealth for use in times of need, rather than being considered as a resource managed for regular income. A small proportion of adult animals are used for draft purposes in those villages that have permanent rice fields. There is also some rental of draft animals to lowland farmers on the Gnommalat Plain for 1-2 months of the year for land preparation. However, this practice seems to have halted due to the introduction of hand-tractors in the lowland areas. The number of domestic animals, especially buffalo, reportedly has never recovered from the effects of the Second Indochina War (1962-1975).3 In 1996, the 16 villages in the CARE study owned 3,100 buffalo, though three villages (Ban Nakai Tai, Ban Done and Ban Thalang) accounted for almost 60 percent. This 1996 survey of the number of animals per household is compared with a more recent survey carried out in late 1998 indicated in Table 13-7. A number of villages were not originally included in the first survey so that the totals differ by approximately 30 per cent. In addition, the methodology of the second survey was more thorough and detailed. Buffalo are currently allowed free-range access to grass-fields and under forest grazing areas, but are excluded from rice fields and gardens during periods of cultivation. Taking into account all possible grazing areas, stocking rates could be as low as 1 animal to 20 hectares, but is more likely to be much higher due to the way each herd is managed at the village level. It is evident that stocking rates are higher in the Ban Nakai Neua and Ban Nakai Tai area, with a stocking rate closer to 1 animal to 4 ha. During the dry season, animals graze largely unattended in forest areas. During the wet season, they are commonly placed in a penned area at night within the village to prevent damage to crops. There is no supplementary feeding of improved forage, nor management of natural forage through controlled grazing of different areas at different times of the year. A shortage of feed is reported by some farmers from March through to May, corresponding with the middle to the end of the dry season, but this appears to be as much a function of how far farmers are prepared to graze their animals away from the village, as it is an absolute shortage of feed. 3The Second Indochina War refers to a period of hostilities lasting from approximately 1962 until the victory by the Pathet Lao forces in 1975. This is incorrectly referred to as the Vietnam War in the West, partly because the conflict was `secret' and not officially declared by either Vietnam or the US. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-6: Livestock Population for Reservoir Villages Dominating Livestock Population, 1996 Livestock Population, 1998 Village Name Ethnic Group Buffalo Pigs Poultry Buffalo Pigs Poultry Ban Nakai Tai Bo 740 260 580 1123 89 2281 Ban Nakai Neua Bo 209 22 500 384 36 763 Ban Sailom Bo / Brou 239 60 200 47 13 49 Ban Pamanton Bo / Brou Included with Ban Sailom 16 2 148 Ban Nong Boua Bo / Brou Included with Ban Sailom 140 3 145 Ban Sop On Bo / Brou 105 36 600 166 95 552 Ban Sop Phene Bo / Brou 100 150 2000 188 39 428 Ban Hat Khamphane Bo / Brou Not included in 1996 survey 58 5 310 Ban Phonphanpek Brou / Bo Not included in 1996 survey 138 22 393 Ban SopMa/KengGnao Brou / Bo 31 13 850 35 21 365 Ban Done Brou 760 262 1400 1076 115 2381 Ban Boua Ma Brou 262 59 246 304 53 634 Ban Khone Khen Brou 153 56 363 164 72 331 Ban Phonsavang Brou 69 25 150 77 7 158 Ban Ka Oy Brou Not included in 1996 survey 38 57 364 Ban Sop Hia Tai / Vietic 40 20 300 73 32 1154 Ban Nam Nian Tai 16 17 250 8 0 262 Ban Thalang Upland Tai / Bo 328 158 1700 51 40 661 Ban Nong Boua Kham Mixed 15 15 230 4 38 615 Oudomsouk Mixed Not included in 1996 survey 56 48 1178 Ban Tham On 19 21 600 Village no longer exists Ban Nya Long 14 7 80 Village no longer exists TOTAL 3100 1181 10,049 4,146 787 13,172 Periodic outbreaks of Hemorrhagic Septicemia, Foot and Mouth Disease and Blackleg are reported with high losses. Vaccination rates are low. Mortality rates in calves (0-1 years) of up to 50% are reported. Liver fluke is also reported to be a problem in buffalo that have been rented out to farmers in the lowlands. Drenching for endoparasites is not practiced, and there appears to be no use of any other animal health remedies. Average ownership of pigs in project villages is reported to be 6 head per household. Pigs are owned by most households, mainly to recycle wastes and as a sideline income generating activity, but also for slaughter for household consumption and for use on ceremonial occasions. The only breed evident is of local origin, black and relatively small. In general pigs are not housed but are left to forage, with minimal supplementary feeding of rice bran, reject corncobs, banana and palm stems, tuberous and aquatic plants, and household scraps. Periodic outbreaks of swine fever are reported, with very high losses. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-7: Livestock Ownership per Household Main Ethnic Average per HH (1996) Average per HH (1998) Village Group Buffalo Pigs Poultry Buffalo Pigs Poultry Ban Nakai Tai Bo 5.7 2.0 4.5 7.7 0.6 15.7 Ban Nakai Neua Bo 3.6 0.4 8.6 6.7 0.6 13.4 Ban Sailom Bo / Brou 6.0 1.5 5.0 3.6 1.0 3.8 Ban Pamanton Bo / Brou Included with Ban Sailom 2.3 0.3 21.1 Ban Nong Boua Bo / Brou Included with Ban Sailom 17.5 0.4 18.1 Ban Sop On Bo / Brou 1.8 0.6 10.3 2.7 1.5 8.9 Ban Sop Phene Bo / Brou 2.5 3.8 50.0 4.6 1.0 10.4 Ban Hat Khamphane Bo / Brou Not included in 1996 survey 3.2 0.3 17.2 Ban Phonphanpek Brou / Bo Not included in 1996 survey 3.5 0.6 10.1 Ban SopMa / Keng Gnao Brou / Bo 0.9 0.4 25.0 1.2 0.7 12.6 Ban Done Brou 8.7 3.0 16.1 12.4 1.3 27.4 Ban Boua Ma Brou 6.7 1.5 6.3 5.7 1.0 12.0 Ban Khone Khen Brou 4.3 1.6 10.1 4.4 1.9 8.9 Ban Phonsavang Brou 2.4 0.9 5.2 3.1 0.3 6.3 Ban Ka Oy Brou Not included in 1996 survey 1.5 2.2 14.0 Ban Sop Hia Tai / Vietic 0.8 0.4 5.9 1.4 0.6 21.4 Ban Nam Nian Tai 0.7 0.7 10.4 0.5 0.0 16.4 Ban Thalang Upland Tai 8.9 4.3 45.9 1.2 1.0 16.1 Ban Nong Boua Kham Mixed 0.4 0.4 5.6 0.1 1.2 18.6 Oudomsouk Mixed Not included in 1996 survey 0.6 0.5 12.5 Ban Tham On 1.6 1.8 50.0 Village no longer exists Ban Nya Long 3.5 1.8 20.0 Village no longer exists TOTAL 4.3 1.6 14.0 4.7 0.9 14.9 Chickens of local breed are owned by almost all households, with average ownership of 14 per household. They are kept for sale, for household consumption and for use on ceremonial occasions. Poultry are generally left to range outside, and are not vaccinated. Populations are routinely decimated by Newcastle Disease and fowl cholera with near total losses. Again, the effect of these epidemics is obvious in the district statistics. Birds are commonly sold for consumption at 1-2 years of age for 1,500-2,500 Kip per head. A few households reported more specialized chicken production, with chickens being housed and fed a diet of rice bran, corn and scraps. Eggs are traded for 150 Kip each. Some households, generally in villages located close to the river, also raise a few ducks for sale. Three- year-old ducks are sold for 3,500-4,000 Kip each. Cash income in project villages from poultry production was 8,600 Kip per household in 1996, or 4% of total cash income (CARE 1996). 13.2.7 Livestock Distribution and Ethnicity As with rice production, it is difficult to generalize with livestock distribution in relation to the different ethnic groups on the Plateau. Livestock ownership seems to be related to the availability of pastures (forests or wetland areas) and the presence or absence of various diseases more than to ethnicity (see Table 13-7). High numbers of buffaloes per household are found in Nong Boua (Bo/Brou, 17.5 head per HH) and Done (Brou, 12.4 head per HH). The villages with the lowest per household ownership appear to the smaller Bo and Vietic villages ­ higher rates of disease were recorded in these villages, often resulting in the decimation of small livestock. Lower per household ownership is also the case in roadside villages and the District Capital of Oudomsouk where there were a lack of available pastures and alternative sources of livelihood were common. 13.2.8 Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) During the periods of participatory observation in the villages on the Plateau, most families were engaged in searching for Non-Timber Forest Products in order to make ends meet. Such activities are common November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data during the winter months of December through to February, between harvesting and clearing of swidden fields. Since 1997 many have camped out in the forests well into April because there was no rice available in the villages, and some have been forced to survive on NTFPs, including wild roots and tubers, edible plants, mushrooms, insects and wildlife. The other reason for staying away from the village has been to collect NTFPs to supply to middlemen (as part of the vilage quota) who exchange NTFPs for rice and cash. With the early rains in late April and in the beginning of May, the delay may prove disastrous for some. The following is a list of products harvested on the Nakai Plateau. · Damar resin (kisii): either old resin found in clumps on the forest floor or new resin removed from trees by making V-shaped cuts to tap the bark. This was the main source of income for villages and in 1997 there was evidence of extensive and damaging tapping everywhere. Villagers stay for up to two weeks in the forests to collect this item which is sold to middlemen and then to Thailand. There it is mixed with turpentine and other materials to waterproof baskets and boats. Limited amounts are still found on the Plateau. · Fragrant bark (nyang bong) is stripped off the bong tree (Notaphoebe umbelliflora). This severely damages the tree and often kills it. The trees are sometimes cut down first and then stripped. The bark is used to make incense which is on sale in local markets in Khammouane Province and in Thailand. The bong is becoming rare on the Plateau. · Rattan (boun, saan and wai): these plants are used for food and for tying together bamboo weaving. They are increasingly rare on the Nakai Plateau. · Creeper (thoun): this is used for binding bamboo pieces together in the construction of buildings. This was previously harvested in March but there has been virtually none in the past few years. · Palm-like fruits and leaves (tau and khau): these palm trees provide food that is consumed in villages or sold and leaves used for roofing. They are available year round but mostly harvested in the winter when villagers have more time to fix houses or build new dwellings. Villagers have traditionally made up the deficit in rice by selling these Non-Timber Forest Products and buffalo. For a number of factors already mentioned above, the availability of these products has diminished. The following table is a compilation of interviews and shows the relative prices of rice bought for resin sold per kilo. Table 13-8: Comparison of Prices (Kip) of Non-Timber Forest Products and Rice Date 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Rice (1 kg) 100 220 250 280 320 380 400 420- 500 600 600 800 1000 Resin (1 kg) 30-50 40 50 70 100 140 150 170 120- 200- 500- 800- 200 350 600 1200 The prices are calculated from various interviews with villagers from all over the Plateau and give a rough idea of the increase in the 1990s. Other items such as rattan products and bark have increased in price by more than double but these products are more difficult to acquire in most areas. The price of fish per kilo has also doubled over this time as well. Resin is the main source of income and is often exchanged directly for rice in the villages with middlemen from Thakhek picking up the bags of resin for markets in Thailand and returning a few days later with sacks of rice and cash. The village headman was responsible for organizing such exchanges and making agreements with merchants in advance. In 1990 it took approximately 2 ½ kilos of resin to purchase one kilo of rice, and in January 1997 the ratio was about the same. The difference in the latter 1990s is that so much rice needs to be bought for a limited amount of resin available. The really crucial point is the demand for seed rice in May since most households will have to buy seed rice or borrow it from relatives in the lowlands. A brief field visit by the consultant in April 2002 confirmed that the price of rice per kilo was 2000 kip in the markets and 3000 kip if transported to the villages. Despite the fact that there is a doubling of the price of rice, the price for selling resin in the markets or to middlemen has remained the same at 800-1000 kip per kilo in 2002. The most recent information on prices indicate one kilo of resin at 1,000-1,200 (2003-2004) ­ a slight increase from 2002 ­ and the price of rice at 2,500-4,000 per kilo depending on the season, slightly higher than the 2002 statistics. This indicates that the exchange of resin for rice four to one. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data When fieldwork was conducted in January and February 1997, authorities and NTEC were made aware of the severe food shortage on the Plateau related to the severe flooding of 1996. NTEC together with EcoLao then attempted to acquire funding and food for the Plateau through various aid agencies. CARE International Lao in Vientiane distributed 180 tons of rice on the Plateau and 10 tons of rice seeds. The World Food Program (WFP) distributed 150 tons of rice to villages of the Plateau affected by flooding. This provided some relief but the long-term recovery of the local economy will only be accomplished with planning and new skills to cope with a diminishing resource base. Hence the attractiveness of the proposed livelihood model (Chapter 21-25). The flooding of 2002-2004 has not been excessive and these years can be described as `normal' flood years with yields of 40-60% of rice needs. 13.2.9 Fisheries After rice, fish is the most important item on the diet for all ethnic groups on the Plateau. Fish are caught mainly for household consumption with occasional surpluses being sold in local markets, on the roadside or to neighbours. Fresh fish are consumed during the rainy season, but in the dry season, villagers may have to rely on dried or fermented fish (paa daek). All kinds of fish are caught for human consumption, with catfish and carp species being the most common. Fish, in this context, implies all kinds of aquatic organisms of which fish are usually predominant. Small-mesh nets and traps catch many invertebrates, all of which are eaten. Men fish in the mornings and evenings, before they leave for the fields and after they return. Most fish are caught by cast nets in the rapids, or by deep-water gill nets. Bait and hooks are also used, but to a lesser extent. Boys and sometimes women search the banks and shallows for frogs, aquatic insects and small fish that supplement the family's diet. There is a tendency in some villages, such as Ban Sop Hia, to catch fish for sale in the markets in Ban Lak Sao or Oudomsouk. Given that the supply of fish from numerous villages in the vicinity seems to exceed the market demand, prices have remained stable or even fallen. Villages, without a good knowledge of the workings of the market, have increased fishing to a level that may be unsustainable in the long run. Villagers in Ban Sop Hia in April 2002 complained that big fish were now rarely caught. There is no statistical information available for the importance of river fishing to the local economy. But it is evident from the numerous fishing nets and fishermen observed along many, if not all, of the rivers in the study area, that river fishing is important to the local people and the most important source of protein. During the repeated overnight stays by survey teams at the villages fish was the one food which was readily available at all times. 13.2.10 Reliance on NTFPs, Fisheries and Sale of Wild Animals in relation to Ethnicity The following table is based on data collected in the CARE Report (1996) and attempts to relate income from NTFPs, fishing and the sale of wild animals to the different ethnic groups in the Plateau. Not all villages were covered during this survey and the data is indicative only given the fact that there is a reluctance to divulge information, especially concerning hunting of wild animals. All prices are in kip. The correlation of livelihood activities with ethnic groups is difficult primarily because there are other factors which also determine livelihood options and that all ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau are engaged in all types of activities to some degree since knowledge and technology are shared. As regards, NTFPs, fishing and hunting, the following factors are important: · Location in terms of resources ­ proximity to rivers, forests and wildlife · Market access ­ either proximity to markets or contacts through middlemen · Demand for products and prices · Number of options available in the livelihood system Ethnicity does not seem to be the main factor in relation to the sale of NTFPs, fishing and wild animals if one examines these three income sources in Table 13-9. If one looks at villages with high and low average per household income from NTFPs, one can see that all ethnic groups are represented. The Bo in Sop Phene and Sop Ma, the Brou in Phonsavang and the Tai, Vietic and Bo in Sop Hia and Thalang have a November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data high reliance on the gathering of NTFPs. All of these villages have relatively good access to the Nakai- Nam Theun NBCA and have market access through middlemen who visit villages or directly in the case of Thalang. The villages of Nakai Neua (Bo), Nakai Tai (Bo and Vietic) and Nam Nian (Bo and Tai) are all roadside villages with alternative sources of income from shops, stalls and wage employment. In addition, Nakai Neua, and Nakai Tai have poor access to NTFPs, being furthest away from forests. Table 13-9: NTFPs, Fishing and Wild Animals for Sale in Relation to Household Income Main No. of NTFPs Fishing Wild Animals for Sale ethnic HH Value of Average Value of Average Value of per Average Village group (1996) per Village per HH per Village per HH Village per HH Ban Nakai Neua Bo 58 1,465,000 25,258 3,000,000 51,724 1,345,000 23,189 Ban Nakai Tai Bo 130 2,205, 000 16,961 1,800,000 13,846 496,000 3,815 Ban Sailom Bo/Brou 40 1,765,000 44,125 4,625,000 115,625 200,000 5,000 Ban Sop On Bo/Brou 58 4,235,800 73,031 10,050,000 173,275 2,432,000 41,931 Ban Sop Phene Bo/Brou 40 6,020, 000 150,500 1,600,000 40,000 430,000 10,750 Ban Sop Ma/ Keng Gnao Bo/Brou 34 4,946, 000 145,470 1,200,000 35,294 1,005,000 29,558 Ban Done Brou 87 4,141,300 47,601 1,650,000 18,965 1,080,000 12,413 Ban Boua Ma Brou 39 1,930,500 49,500 3,525,000 90,384 780,000 20,000 Ban Khone Khen Brou 36 1,087,000 30,194 1,000,000 27,777 384,000 4,465 Ban Phonsavang Brou 29 3,149, 000 108,586 1,800,000 62,068 510,000 17,586 Ban Sop Hia Tai/Vietic 51 10,720,000 210,196 1,950,000 382,352 2,449,500 48,029 Ban Nam Nian Tai 24 248,000 10,333 950,000 39,583 178,000 7,416 Ban Thalang Tai/Bo 37 25,570,000 691,081 3,480,000 940,540 654,000 17,675 With regards fishing, the villages of Sop On (Bo/Brou), Sailom (Bo/Brou), Sop Hia (Tai/Vietic) and Thalang (Bo/Tai) derive relatively high amounts of kip from fishing. This is mainly due to access since these villages, with the exception of Sailom, are located on the Nam Theun near rapids or relatively fast- moving water where fish are more abundant. One reason the residents of Sailom (now relocated into the new village of Nong Boua Kham) rely on fishing is a combination of poor agriculture production, lack of alternatives and ready access to the markets at Oudomsuk. The lowest average per household levels were at Nakai Tai, Done and Khone Khen where the first village is located far from the Nam Theun and the latter two along less productive stretches of the Nam Theun in terms of fish production and farthest from markets for selling fresh fish. Data on the sale of wild animals indicates that the villages of Sop Ma/Keng Gnao (Bo/Brou), Sop On (Bo/Brou) and Sop Hia (Tai/Vietic) have the highest average per household incomes from this source. Again this has to do with both access to resources and markets rather than ethnicity. Villages with relatively low income from the sale of wild animals are either roadside villages with other sources of income, such as Nam Nian, far from forests, such as Nakai Tai and Sailom, or far from markets, such as Khone Khen. It should be reiterated that all ethnic groups partake in gather NTFPs, in fishing and in hunting. Most of these activities are being pursued at an unsustainable level at present with NTFPs, fish and wildlife disappearing from the Nakai Plateau. Traditional techniques and levels of harvesting these resources are rapidly being replaced by more systematic means, such as fulfilling quotas for NTFPs set by middlemen from Thakhek, dynamite fishing and hunting parties to satisfy a growing demand for fish and wildlife in the towns, in particular markets in Lak Xao. From the point of view of the different ethnic groups on the Plateau, it can be argued that the Vietic, in general, are more reliant on the natural resources of the forests and rivers, and less on livestock. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data 13.3 BELIEF SYSTEMS AND CULTURAL HERITAGE ISSUES 13.3.1 Overview of Belief Systems As would be expected with a melting-pot culture, there is a considerable amount of shared cosmological concepts and beliefs on the Nakai Plateau. These beliefs are similar to many groups of Southeast Asia, including the lowland Lao and the various groups in the vicinity of the Plateau. All of the ethnic groups believe in spirits that control various aspects of the cosmos and explain causality, including accidents, sicknesses, death and incomprehensible phenomena. Each type of spirit is associated with a certain location and a particular power to affect the lives of the living. Some villages, notably the Brou villages at the southeast end of the Plateau and some Bo villages along the road, have been influenced by `folk Buddhism' from the lowlands but for the most part this Buddhism is a thin veneer on top of spirit beliefs. The most important powers in the spirit world are the territorial spirits that govern large areas and are an important consideration when relocating villages. Other spirits which play an important role in village life are the so-called `visiting spirits' (phi thiem) and the ancestral spirits (phi mau). House spirits (phi heun) are important in relation to moving houses. 13.3.2 Ethnic Aspects of Belief Systems Despite the similarities, there are some differences between the ethnic groups, and it is necessary to review these before describing the common spirits and rituals. Vietic Groups The Vietic Groups that inhabit the Plateau were originally forest dweller and animist but have been influence firstly by lowland Lao perceptions and traditions due to extended stays in Thakhek and other lowland areas during the Second Indochina War and secondly be residing with Tai groups from the Lak Sao area. Little is know about the original cosmology but there appear to have been a number of mediums, both male and female, who have been able to contact the spirits in times of illness and for intervention. Only one elderly female medium was still active in Sop Hia in 2001. Mediums can also become territorial or `visiting' spirits if powerful enough after they pass away. Belief in forest spirits is still prevalent but data has not been collected systematically and in many cases is difficult to obtain (only elderly specialists seem to understand these matters) since spirits manifest themselves in various ways and at various times, often causing accidents and strange phenomena. Many terms and concepts from other groups are now used, such as the word phii to cover a range of spirits from the Lao language rather than the Vietic word, kamut or kamuut on many occasions. Since the Vietic are no longer nomadic, their cosmology is changing and merging with the other sedentary groups with whom they now reside. Tai and Lao ritual specialists have for the most part taken over the roles of traditional Vietic practitioners. Bo or Tai Bo The Bo have lost most, if not all, aspects of their Vietic origins in terms of cosmology. Like the Vietic groups, Lao, Tai and Brou ritual specialists perform rituals for this group and Lao terms are used to describe the spirit world. Makong or Brou Traditional Brou cosmology consisted of numerous spirits that inhabit animals, people and natural phenomena. The most important spirits were the spirit of the sky, known as djang sursei, the Creator Spirit, and the djang cutek, the spirit of the Earth responsible for good harvests. Originally there may have been totemism based on clan groups but this is no longer the case for the Plateau dwellers. The Brou also had a number of ritual specialists that communicated with the spirit world, mediums who performed divinations and cured diseases by divine intervention. The Brou of the Plateau, however, have been influenced by lowland Lao and Buddhist traditions and today specialists conduct Lao rituals such as the calling of the life essence (basi sukhwan) and Buddhist monks are often called in for cremations or ceremonies before burial. Most ritual specialists in the Brou villages are former monks who have spent time in lowland monasteries, gaining `spiritual power' or saksit. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data 13.3.3 Territorial Spirits Territorial spirits (phi muang in Lao, Tai and Bo, kamut djang in Brou and kamuut bauu in Ahoe) are spirits that influence a large area around a village or group of villages. These spirits receive annual offerings (buffalo, pigs, turtles or chickens along with alcohol and other items) before the start of the agricultural season in February. The origin of these spirits is often a legendary person/founder of a village or the medium who communicated with the spirit. Table 13-10 indicates the names, ritual centers and origins of the spirits on the Nakai Plateau. The table indicates which villages hold annual rituals for each of the territorial spirits. These take place in January or February before the commencement of the agricultural season. The origins of the spirits vary but they are usually connected with the names of former mediums and/or founders of the village. Mediums and politically powerful people have correspondingly powerful spirits and become associated with a particular territory and people residing in that territory. A relationship develops between the living and the spirit consisting of offerings and respect for the spirit in return for protection and intervention in times of need or disaster. The ritual offerings consist of animal sacrifice, alcohol and various decorations. The date for a kin seng ceremony, as it is called, is agreed upon by the ritual specialists and approved by village authorities. In the kin seng ritual at Ban Nakai Neua (Bo, Brou, Tai and Lao attending) in 1997, four jars of alcohol (lao hai), four chickens, one pig and forest products (bong and san) were offered and a new platform with a roof was constructed for the spirit. The medium, Nang Phet, a 50-year old Bo woman, became possessed with the spirit of Jao Suliya. The spirit refers to the founder of the village who resisted a Siamese invasion of the nineteenth century. In the festive atmosphere that follows, Jao Suliya is called upon to protect the village and ensure a successful rice harvest in exchange for the sacrifices and food offered. The territory covered by the phi muang is to be respected by those not residing in the village. Villagers from outside must first seek permission to harvest kisi (resin) or other NTFPs and pay a tax to the village headman. Villagers without a territorial spirit also levy taxes but cannot legitimize their actions in the same manner since all Lao are aware of the power of these phi muang and avoid making trouble. An incident with the logging company BPKP reveals just how important these territorial spirits are in the consciousness of the Lao as well as those living on the Plateau. BPKP approached Ban Done in order to acquire permission to build a temporary bridge over the Nam On for transporting logs. Ban Done village authorities insisted on a fee of 500,000 Kip and the sacrifice of one buffalo to the spirit. Ban Khone Khen authorities were approached instead and the fee was only 300,000 Kip and one buffalo for a different location for the bridge. A deal was struck with Ban Khone Khen and the proper ritual performed to inform the spirit. This episode illustrates how the financial and the spiritual realms combine: fees and permission to cross spiritual territory are negotiable yet failure to do so could result in accidents and mishaps if the spirit is angered. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Figure 13-2: Nakai Plateau Villages Approximate Territorial Boundaries (1997) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-10: Territorial Spirits of the Nakai Plateau Ritual Centre Villages (and Name of Spirit and Territory ethnic group) Origin of Spirit Explanations Thama Ransi Ban Sop Hia - Ban Sop Hia former medium of area refers to rapids at dam Din Hin Kiu Nam (Dam Site) Ban Sop Hia site and Nam Yala Yala (Originally Vietic) Jao Naukaeo Ban Pakkatan - Ban Pakkatan unknown name refers to mountain east Din Phu Heua (Originally Vietic) of village Ta Sang Ban Thalang - Ban Thalang -Ban former medium area refers to the former Din Kaeng Nam Nian and village head name of Ban Thalang at the Panong (Originally Bo) of Kaeng Panong Panong rapids Jao Phu Saet Ban Nakai Tai - Ban Nakai Tai - territorial spirit of son-in-law of the spirit of Ban Din Phu Saet Ban Nong Boua the Saet mountain Nakai Neua (Daet Luang) Kham nearby (Originally Bo) Jao Khwa Ban Nakai Neua - Ban Nakai Neua founder who refers to historic person and Lakhon and Jao Din Bau Sang Ban Sop Phene resisted Siamese his son who inherited the Suliya Khan Tau (Originally Bo) invasion position as leader Phimmasen and Ban Sop On - Ban Sop On, Ban original names of area refers to salt mines and Phimmasaun Din Bau Puak Sop Ma, Ban Hat the father and son wallowing pool of wild pigs. Buak Mu Khamphane, Ban who were It also relates to a legend Keng Gnao, Ban mediums in Ban about giants shaping the Boua Ma Ban Sop On landscape. Sailom and Ban Phonsavang (Originally Bo) Unknown name Ban Ka Oy - Din Ban Ka Oy unknown origin spirit is related to spirit of Khanan (Brou) Ban Khone Khen, possibly brothers Jao Sua Ban Done - Din Ban Done founder of the founder is son-in-law of spirit Katap (Brou) village of Ban Khone Khen and Ban Ka Oy Jao Hualan Ban Ban Khone Ban Khone Khen founder of the `The bald man from Ban Sin', Sin Khen- Din Sin (Brou) village a refugee who fled the Siamese attack on Vientiane 13.3.4 Visiting and Ancestral Spirits Two other types of spirits are common throughout the Plateau: visiting spirits and ancestral spirits. These are not associated with a particular territory but rather with an individual medium or a family. Most villages on the Plateau had several examples of both kinds of spirits, and they are also common in some lowland areas. Visiting spirits (phi thiem) are usually male spirits that originate in the forests and `visit' villages by possessing women and, in some rare cases, men. The spirit will communicate his demands in February or March and a ritual is held in the medium's ritual hut. These huts are permanent and each year they are cleared and improved before the annual ceremony. The ceremony consists of offerings such as chickens, alcohol and various decorations. These forest spirits combine a number of qualities which villagers often confused with other spirits. They can also become territorial spirits under certain circumstances. In the Bo village of Sop Phene, the local female medium performs a ritual similar to the rituals of the territorial spirits and over time this `visiting spirit' may in this way become the territorial spirit of that village since villagers no longer attend the kin seng ceremony in Ban Nakai Neua. A similar situation occurs in the Brou village of Keng Gnao were the local medium informed the survey team in 1997 that next year the spirit will reveal its identity and become a proper territorial spirit. In both cases, these villages seem to be trying to establish autonomy in the spirit world. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Phi thiem were also confused with phi mau (in Lao, Tai and Bo) which are translated here as `ancestral spirits' since they are associated with a particular household. Phi mau are the sprits of deceased family members whose identity is no longer remembered but whose spirits are believed to inhabit the house and the compound areas.4 These rituals are performed by elderly men of all ethnic groups, often tracing their origins to founding families and having knowledge of magical formulae, sometimes combined with Buddhist text as a legitimising element. A long table is laid out with offerings in front of the house and copious amounts of meat and alcohol are consumed over a 24-hour period. The main function of such a ritual is similar to the above mentioned rituals: food offerings and incantations in exchange for protection and a successful agricultural season. There are numerous spirits that do not have specific names but may manifest themselves whenever there are inexplicable events, illnesses or accidental deaths in the vicinity. Some are associated with deceased persons, especially those who have died violent deaths or those who have committed hideous acts. Sickness and unusual phenomena are associated with the spirit world. It is perhaps easy for the western, scientific mind to dismiss such beliefs, but it is important to take them seriously when dealing with villagers. One particular example which has direct consequences for health is the prohibition on hanging up mosquito nets in some Bo and Brou villages. The spirits of Ban Sop Phene, Ban Khone Khen and some households in Ban Boua Ma are adverse to the idea and some villagers risk malaria rather than arouse the wrath of these supernatural beings.5 13.3.5 Folk Buddhist Influences Before 1975 there were many small wooden monasteries housing a few novices and monks in many of the Bo and Brou villages on the Plateau. Folk Buddhism, which is itself a mixture of Buddhist ideas and various spirit beliefs and Hinduism from the Khmer traditions, has influenced many aspects of religion on the Plateau. Today there are only two deserted monasteries in Ban Boua Ma and Ban Done which have been rebuilt since 1975, but these have not recently been functioning as places of worship. There are, however, several former monks, referred to as `Jan' (short for aajaan, meaning teacher) who perform rituals that are similar to lowland Lao rituals and use elements from Buddhism such as Pali texts for magical spells (khathaa). Jan Som from Ban Done serves all of the villages in the south-eastern part of the Plateau and is representative of this type of specialist. He travels from village to village performing various rituals for people recovering from illness, seeking protection from evil spirits and desiring prosperity and a successful harvest. After 14 Lenten seasons in the monastery in Gnommalat District, he considers himself a practitioner of Buddhism because, as he expressed in his own words: `takon bau mi sasana, bau mi kotmai' (before there was no religion, no laws). This form of Buddhism differs greatly from the Buddhism practiced in major towns in Lao PDR. After the destruction of many of the villages on the Plateau during the Second Indochina War, most of the monasteries were not restored. Recently, however, Buddhism has come to represent progress and modernization for many villagers living in remote parts of the country. Buddhism is now associated with `modern' Lao culture, that is the dominant culture of the lowlands. There is a monastery in Ban Oudomsouk where a dozen novices and monks now reside. They are constantly called out to villages to perform cremation rituals and for merit-making ceremonies. The results of the PRA survey reveal that many villages requested a temple for their new village. This shows a desire to identify with the dominant lowland culture. This does not mean, however, that Buddhism will replace traditional spirit beliefs and practices. All over Southeast Asia, Buddhism coexists with other religious forms such that there is ample place in the cosmos for a monastery for Buddhist monks, a shrine for the territorial spirits, huts for visiting spirits and a spirit post for the spirits of the house. 4Phi mau are nameless spirits associated with a particular family. Spirits of recently deceased family members are remembered by name or called phi phaumae, literally spirits of father and mother. The Lao word mau is also used to denote ritual specialists, such as mau basi or mau phii, and the connection can be that both the ritual specialists and the spirits can assist people in obtaining divine intervention. 5A possible explanation for this phenomenon is that the spirits are associated with the spirit post in the house, the post that often has a shelf for offerings of food. It may be that all posts in the house have become associated with spirits over time, and thus the prohibition of hanging a net or hammering a nail into posts has developed. This could not be confirmed by villagers. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data 13.3.6 Life Cycle Rituals A brief examination of life cycle rituals reveals a number of similarities among the ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau with only slight differences in rituals, beliefs and practices. This is due to the fact that there is a melting pot culture on the Plateau and considerable borrowing and sharing of ritual experts, techniques and cosmology. Birthing In all villages and across all ethnic groups, the majority of women give birth in their homes or the homes of their parents or in-laws with the assistance of traditional midwives and women experienced in childbirth. Ritual specialists (male and female) are called in cases of emergencies to make offerings to house spirits. All groups practice a period of recovery called `lying by the fire' (yuu fai or kam fai). This involves a limited diet (rice, salt and in some cases certain roasted meats), sitting by a fire and sweating throughout the day, drinking copious amounts of boiled water with the medicinal bark of certain trees such as mai daeng and regular baths in this water. The time spent at the fire varies but at least 15 days for the first child is normal and subsequently less for other children. The general condition of the mother and child also determines the length of stay since it is unusual for the period of yuu fai to be terminated if both are not healthy. Yuu fai is a common practice throughout all of Southeast Asia and beyond, hence there are only variations between the main ethnic groups in Lao PDR, such as the number of days and whether or not there is a ritual bath after this period of seculsion. It is clear that Lao and Tai influences and practices regarding birthing have influenced Vietic and Bo groups. Marriage The family structures for all ethnic groups on the Plateau may be characterized for the most part as patrilineal and virilocal (CARE Report 1996; Sparkes 1997). Like many groups in Southeast Asia, however, there is considerable variation, which depends on practical aspects relating to location, relative wealth of families and available resources. Recording life histories and changes from one generation to another revealed that it was not uncommon for villagers to build several houses in different locations. It also indicated a high separation rate and no prohibition on remarrying for either men or women. A number of marriage (dong) types involve changing household allegiance. Below is an account of the number of marriage types with comments on how different ethnic groups share these aspects. Dong tan (patrilocal) involves a large feast and ideally sacrificing a buffalo, and offering up to 16 chickens, 16 jars of lao hai, two pigs and a gift of traditional money (ngeun fak).6. At the end of the ritual the bribe leaves her parents' house and comes under the protection of the spirits of her husband. Many marriages never reach this stage since it requires a considerable investment. One example of how long this takes was a 55 year old man who had been married for nearly thirty years and who had just recently performed the dong tan. This explains why many men reside in their wives' household or in their wives' villages despite the ideal of virilocality. The Vietic groups of Sop Hia have a special variation on this type of marriage which is called dong pasum which prescribes that bamboo tubes be filled with fermented fish and then broken to be eaten by the relatives from both sides after being offered to the spirits of the brides' house. This type of marriage form is the preferred type among all ethnic groups but not the usual practice among the lowland Lao. Dong sukhat (matrilocal) appears to be the opposite of dong pan since the man moves into the woman's household and remains there. He is "cut off" (khat) from his own family and accepted into his wife's with all the rights and privileges it entails. He can inherit property and there are no taboos usually associated with a new arrival such as entering through the same doorway as his mother-in-law. This type of marriage appears to be a form of adoption of a man who will lead a household, possibly when there are no heirs or mature men living there at the time. It is also a way for younger sons to establish themselves as household heads quickly. This seems quite common in some of the Brou villages (Ban Done had ten examples) but is form among all groups and is often due to the fact that some households have only daughters or a choice of the parents to reside with or in the vicinity of a daughter in their old age. In addition, soms may moved to other villages or off the Plateau in search of work and marriage partners. 6Ngeun fak is a traditional type of money exchanged at wedding throughout Laos and by different ethnic groups. The money is made of silver (80% or more) and shaped like a shallow canoe. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Dong phaksuk (temporarily matrilocal or uxorilocal) is the most common type of marriage among the Brou and Bo. The groom comes to live in the house of the bride and works for her household. It involves a payment of two jars of alcohol (lao hai) and two fowls as brideprice. The ancestors of the bride are informed of his presence and he thus comes under their protection. There are less elaborate versions of this ritual and among the Ahoe it is called dong sauhon. Eventually, the couple may relocate back to the husband's village or build a house in the vicinity of the wife's parents. Dong yaun is a type of liminal stage in which the couple leaves the woman's parents' house and sets up their own household right away without a marriage ceremony. They are obliged to make the proper offerings to the woman's spirits within three years and perform a full ceremony called dong tan, which results in patrilocal residence. The reasons given for this type of marriage is a lack of resources to perform ceremonies immediately. This is a common strategy for poor Bo households. Dong pan is a type of staged elopement. A small ritual is performed informing the spirits of the bond and the woman moves right away into the man's household. This kind of marriage probably occurs mostly when the woman comes from a poor family and cannot claim the usual brideprice. The woman's parents relinquishes control over their daughter without proper payment. A few examples exist among all ethnic groups, mostly involving poor households. Dong lat resembles kidnapping, but, as is the case in many Southeast Asian cultures, it is a staged kidnapping. There were examples in some villages of younger men kidnapping women for elder men. An amount of cash is left behind. This may be a face-saving gesture for families who cannot afford a proper marriage or wealthy families forcing poorer ones to give up their daughters without proper payment. A few examples exist among all ethnic groups, mostly involving poor households. The majority of households contain nuclear families of one generation but it is usual for one child to stay with their aged parents to look after them, either in the parental house or in a separate house in the same compound area. There is no social support from the State and kinship is the only social net available in time of sickness or in times of need to farmers. If all children have moved out of the village, a grandchild is often sent back to care for an elderly couple. The variations in marriage types are probably due to the amount of different ethnic groups which have coexisted on the Plateau and pragmatic considerations such as the availability of resources. In all villages there are several of the above mentioned marriage types and as a result there is a constant change in household composition. In almost every household, however, there should be an able-bodied man and woman if the household is to function properly. Among all groups courting is common and young men and women decide themselves who their marriage partners will be. Parents need to approve but rarely refuse. Among the Lao Loum groups there is bride price (khaa dong) and a basi ceremony conducted by a priest. Post-marital residence is always matrilineal, at least initially among the Lao. Some Bo families in the roadside villages have also started to perform basi ceremonies for marriage. Illness Although there are government and private clinics and dispensaries in Nakai Town and in a few of the larger villages, there are also local practitioners and a belief that illnesses may have both natural (biological) and supernatural causes. All groups have local practitioners called maw (term is used by all ethnic groups7) who are responsible for conducting elaborate basi ceremonies or simply tying the wrists of ill villagers in order to hinder their spirit from leaving the weakened body. The use of traditional herbs is also prevalent with considerable borrowing amongst all groups. One should distinguish between local knowledge in the form of using natural ingredients such as plants, herbs, animal parts and other items combined with spells or chants and the influence of Buddhist priests, for the most part local men who have spent time in lowland monasteries and learnt rituals. The former is shared knowledge among the community while the latter is often guarded and secretive knowledge of specialists. The priests are responsible for conducting larger and more elaborate ceremonies, such as calling on the spirits to provide a bounteous harvest. 7Vietic and Brou groups have borrowed the Lao and Tai word, mau, for ritual specialists on the Plateau. Among the Tri adae is also used by the elderly, and among the Sek tet is also referred to. Tet refers to a cultural borrowing from Vietnam and the New Year's celebrations of the same name. There are only a few Tri and Sek households on the Plateau. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Death Traditionally, many groups in SE Asia buried their dead. It is only through the influence of Buddhism that cremation has become the norm among many ethnic groups in the region. For the indigenous Lao Theung groups, burial was the norm. Nowadays, monks conduct cremation rituals not only for the Lao and Phou Tai groups but also many Lao Theung groups, chanting Buddhist texts and purifying the living. The Brou, Bo and some Vietic groups combine elements of Buddhism and spirit traditions. This includes the juxtaposition of offerings to ancestral and territorial spirits as well as to the monks, buffalo sacrifices together with Buddhist purification chants, and ordinations followed by a feast with alcohol and raw meat. In some cases, there is another ritual (up to three years after the cremation) called jek khao, a kind of second burial that re-introduces the spirit back into the community as a benevolent ancestral spirit that watches over the living. The figure below is a visual representation of the cosmos for the ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau. Figure 13-3: Basic Cosmological Aspects of Nakai Plateau Ethnic Groups Territorial Spirit and shrine Forest and Animal Spirits Evil Spirits, causing illness Rice and fertility spirits Residents Ancestral Mediums Spirits Village Visiting Spirits Cultivated Area Burial Grounds Forest Area 13.3.7 Moving the Cosmos The different ethnic groups on the Plateau have frequently changed village sites either of their own volition or because of war, involuntary resettlement or epidemics. There are, therefore, mechanisms for relocating the village and rituals for appeasing the spirits in order to facilitate such a move. After conducting many interviews with ritual specialists, it can be concluded that it will not be difficult to move the cosmos to new village sites if proper procedures are followed. Furthermore, allowing for this would have positive consequence for the resettlement as a whole. It would reduce the psychological stress which is often expressed in `grieving for a lost home' or the anxiety about an unfamiliar relationship with unseen powers (cf. Scudder and Colson 1982). Examples of correct procedures resemble regular rituals in many ways: food, alcohol and decorations made of banana leaves and flowers are offered and the spirit is informed of the proposed move in the case of all ethnic groups. According to the medium of Ban Sop On, the territorial spirit should be given a full explanation of why the village is to move. This parallels other occasions when spirits are informed when there have been a number of strange events or accidents or when the rains are late. What is important to note is that the welfare of the villagers is in the interests of the spirits (ancestral or territorial) and vice versa. `If the village needs to be relocated because of inundation and will acquire better housing and improved infrastructure, the phi muang is sure to see the sense of that', explained the medium. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data In the case of villagers being relocated outside the traditional spiritual territory, such as might be the case with Ban Ka Oy and Sop Hia, if the people decide to relocate on the opposite side of the river, several things may happen. If the area is uninhabited and a fair distance from the ritual centre of another territorial spirit, the village may be able to move the spirit and re-establish it as a phi muang with a new territory intact. If the village is located near another village, it may abandon its own spirit and seek the protection of the spirit whose territory it now occupies such as was the case for all the villages under Ban Sop On's territorial spirit. There are also cases of lands being split between villages and founder spirits like in the example of Ban Done being created from land given by Ban Ka Oy and Ban Khone Khen. There are probably more variations. What is important is that villagers are consulted and given ample time to prepare for the move so that the proper rituals may be conducted. It is important that a consensus be reached within the village and under the direction of village elders who often have a double role of guardians of tradition (thao khun) and founding fathers (related to the spirit of a particular founder). The power and influence of these territorial spirits `manifest' themselves over time in the way the village prospers and the health of the inhabitants. However, since these spirit territories have a practical dimension in relation to access to land and resources, there may arise claims by several villages over a particular territorial demarcation in the resettlement area. Traditional conflict resolution consists of the elders of each village discussing the matter and coming to a mutually acceptable solution. This may involve ritual obligations and fees/payments/rent by one group to the other. 13.3.8 Moving Houses The following is a list of house rituals which all ethnic groups practice in one form or another when building and moving into a new house. Again the differences between the groups should be noted during the preparations for the resettlement but this outline contains elements from all the ethnic minorities on the Plateau and will give an idea of what kind of rituals are involved in the process of relocation. Choosing the Site: The choosing of the site involves divination (sieng) that is receiving a message of approval from the spirits. Ritual specialists may employ a piece of bamboo cut in two which is tossed into the air. If the two halves land upright or facing down it is auspicious to build a house on the site. If the two halves are of opposite values, it is inauspicious (common practice for Brou and Bo). Another common method is placing grains of uncooked rice on either an egg or at the base of a candle. If the grains have not fallen off by the next morning, the spirits approve of the choice of site (common for Tai ethnic groups). Construction of Houses: Construction of the house (phuk heun), or at least the frame, is a joint effort involving relatives and other villagers. It is an occasion for a village celebration and feast in which the women cook a meal and the men all pitch in to erect the structure. This is done on an auspicious day according to charts of the months and old texts in the possession of village elders, usually with training in a monastery. Once the day is decided upon, construction begins at midnight and continues for the whole day until there is enough of the house erected to live in. If there is not enough time, another auspicious day is selected. This is an ideal scenario and there is significant deviation from it since the construction of bamboo huts is a simple affair with a small ceremony but large structures may be erected over a period of many months or even years. A ceremony may involve only the raising of the first two important posts, sao jeh and sao khwan. Moving In: Moving into a new house (kheun heun mai) involves a recreation of a journey and invitation to stay (kae hit). In many cases the roles of fictitious previous inhabitants of the house are played by a village elder (usually male) and the male household head wanders around the house before asking if he could enter to rest. In some cases (among the Ahoe) the elder cries out for help in putting out the fire. The new inhabitant enters after receiving permission and hammers a nail to the post on which he hangs his belongings. This establishes him as the owner and the rest of the family member may then enter. There is also a calling of the house spirits (phi heun) to inform them that their descendants have moved into a new house and that they should protect and look after the interests of the living. Afterwards strings are tied around the wrists of the new occupants by the elders and all those present (mat meu). There are shorter variations of this ritual. The three families at the Theun Duane Demonstration Farm stated that all that is needed is a feast the night before and calling of the spirits and tying wrists. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data These rituals or aspects have been incorporated into the resettlement planning so far as part of the pilot village relocation. They have helped villagers feel at ease relocating their homes and it shows that planners take the villagers' worldview seriously and are concerned about how they settle in. It is important to remember that the member of all ethnic groups will not feel psychologically at ease if they are not under the protection of their spirits. This approach has resulted in a relatively smooth relocation and positive feedback from the villagers themselves and will continue. These and other rituals have been discussed with village elders in an attempt to see how they may be adapted to the resettlement of villages on the Nakai Plateau. There was considerable flexibility and a willingness to make compromises considering how houses and villages could be moved. 13.3.9 Cultural Heritage There are no known archaeological or historical sites in the area to be flooded by the NT2 reservoir (no findings have been recorded in any of the anthropological and sociological surveys conducted to date). No evidence of prehistoric human habitation; no stone implements or other indications of Paleolithic or Neolithic habitation have been found. Due to the mobility of the population on the Plateau and the disruption caused by war and invasion, there are very few structures and sites of cultural importance. The only items that have been identified are several monasteries constructed of wood in Ban Done and Ban Boua Ma, stupas made of stone or concrete and gravesites. In the case of village monasteries and stupas, adequate measures will be taken for their transportation to new village sites or for new buildings of at least a similar value to be constructed. Stupas and other religious structures such as spirit houses (simple structures made of bamboo and thatch) for village spirits (phi muang, phi thiem and phi mau) will be moved by the villagers themselves since they will have the required knowledge of local rituals and procedures for moving such objects. Making adjustments to schedules such as the selection of an auspicious day for commencing the relocation would contribute to the well being of the villagers during relocation. Concerning gravesites, measures will be taken to avoid locating villagers too close by for fear of spirits. Although many villagers exclaimed that this did not matter, the fact is that if certain inauspicious or inexplicable events occur, villagers may attribute them to an offended spirit at the new site. Given the possible disorientation that may temporarily occur during resettlement, villagers may be more prone to make such associations. Hence avoiding gravesites would avoid such problems. Gravesites that will be flooded by the reservoir did not seem to trouble people, but this is difficult to gauge from interviews. There seemed, however, no need to conduct rituals to transport spirits of deceased relatives since they reside in the house not at the gravesites. However, for recently deceased family members removal of urns containing ashes, stupas and appropriate ritual will be needed. NTPC has indicated that it would co-operate with the Ministry of Culture and Information so that appropriate protective and/or salvage measures will be adopted if any archaeologically significant properties are uncovered during the construction activities. These may consist of old Buddha statues or religious objects from previous monasteries or shrines in the area. The Concession Agreement outlines contractual obligations regarding the minimization of potential impacts on cultural items during construction and as a result of inundation, including monitoring, visibly marking items, consultations with GOL if items are discovered and full compensation or replacement (see CA, Schedule 4, Part 1 and 2, `Protection of archaeological heritage'). A detail archeological studying will be completed in 2004 to verify these assumptions that are based on the anthropological and social surveys. This will include archaeological digs and a systematic collection of data from the Nakai Plateau. 13.4 HEALTH STATUS 13.4.1 General Health Status The following health surveys were carried out on the Nakai Plateau: i. Health surveys carried out by the University of Chiang Mai (Pholsena 1997) in 1994-96; ii. Health surveys conducted by John Storey (1997); November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 22 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data iii. Health surveys conducted by RMU (2002); iv. Health Impact Assessment and Public Health Action Plan (see Vol 1 of the SDP, Chapter 5); v. Initial and ongoing studies by the Traditional Medicine Research Centre. These surveys and reports along with observations and discussions with villagers as part of formal consultations and informal visits, form the basis for the health analysis. The major public health problems in the project area are similar to those found in the nearby rural communities of adjacent provinces with a similar level of development. The Nakai Plateau is in fact fairly representative of public health problems occurring in the country as a whole as indicated in Table 13-11. The ongoing Government/WHO/UNICEF expanded program of immunization (EPI program) is addressing major childhood diseases (measles, diphtheria, whooping cough, polio and TB) in the country. Table 13-11: Leading Causes of Mortality in Lao PDR in the mid 1990s (Kobayashi et al., 2004) Cause of Death Mortality rate (per 100,0000) Malaria 7.62 Pneumonia 3.03 Meningitis 1.45 Diarrhoea 1.23 Tuberculosis 0.75 Accidents 0.51 13.4.2 Diseases Endemic to the Nakai Plateau The communicable diseases most commonly reported by health institutions in the project area are diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections (ARI) and malaria. Accidents associated with swidden-type agricultural practices, such as serious cuts and wounds form nearly 10 percent of all reported health problems and make an important demand on healthcare supplies and facilities in the area as reported by the 2002 Health Survey of the Nakai Plateau. Health assessments of Ban Nakai Neua in 2001 and Ban Nongbua, Sailom and Pamanton (hamlets that formed the pilot village) in 2001 indicate that there are high rates of parasites (up to 90%) and low rates of Malaria and TB. A table summarising reported symptoms by those experiencing acute illness on the Nakai Plateau is presented in Chapter 5 (Table 5-28). Malaria Malaria is the most potentially life-threatening of the three communicable diseases mentioned in the above table. In Lao PDR, 97 percent of all cases of malaria are due to Plasmodium falciparum. Plasmodium falciparum is the species that can develop multi-drug resistance to standard drugs, can also cause cerebral malaria and is always potentially life-threatening (Souliya 1996). The diagnosis of malaria cases in the project area, apart from at Thakhek hospital, is largely based on clinical symptoms and about 52 percent of all in- patients and 27 percent of all out-patients are due to malaria (GOL/WHO, 1996). The second most common malaria species, P. vivax, has not yet been reported as being resistant to chloroquine anywhere in the country. It will be noted that malaria cases were not reported from Nakai District until 1993 when well over 70 per cent of all patients were positive for malaria. This exceptionally high number cannot be explained, especially as it has declined in the years following. It may well be that residents of the Plateau have since had greater access to anti-malaria drugs. The malaria transmission season on both the Nakai Plateau probably occurs year round, although with the highest prevalence from May to early July, and again from October to early November, on account of temperature and rainfall patterns which influence mosquito breeding. There may be epidemiological variations between the Plateau and the river valleys and in irrigated areas with a different time sequence and transmission pattern emerging. Although the colder weather on the Nakai Plateau may affect transmission, and may favor P. vivax, it is not unusual in other similar situations, for transmission to take place inside the warmth and protection of the house. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 23 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Recent initiatives on the Nakai Plateau to reduce the incidence of malaria have been extremely successful. This EU-sponsored malaria programme resulted in only 10 reported cases of malaria in 2001 of 571 blood samples taken. Only six people required hospitalisation for the disease and there were no reported deaths. This dramatic reduction in malaria is primarily due to the distribution of mosquito nets. A study carried out by the Ministry of Health (2001) reported that only 4% of the population of the three pilot hamlets that have been moved to the new village site of Nong Boua tested positive. Diarrhoea Diarrhoea due to bacteriological contamination of water and food is probably more common in the hot, humid period of the year. Infections of the upper respiratory tract (coughs, colds and runny nose) and acute respiratory infections (ARI) are at their peak during the cold season both on the Plateau and in the valleys, especially among younger children. It should also be noted that the transmission season for diarrhoeal infections could be expected to be prolonged in areas where irrigation either exists now or in those areas where it will be introduced due to larger surface water areas. This is not a problem at present due to a lack of irrigation on the Nakai Plateau. Other diseases endemic to the project area are: Opisthorchiasis caused by a trematode worm and contracted by the wide-spread practice in the lowlands of eating raw fish often as conserved paste; large roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides) which is transmitted through contaminated food; hook worm (contacted by walking barefoot); whipworm (Trichuris trichuria) and tapeworm. Diseases which are present in Lao PDR but which are not at the moment present in the project area include dengue fever and schistosomiasis. 13.4.3 Nutritional and Reproductive Health Problems The general nutritional situation on the Plateau is poor. The stable is glutinous rice which provides most of the calorie intake. Fish is the most important source of protein and various green leafy vegetables, fruits and forest plants provide vitamins. Fruit trees are relatively rare in some villages (central Plateau area). The planned vegetable gardens and fruit trees in the resettlement plan will be a positive supplement to a poor diet. Women are usually responsible for vegetable gardens and food preparation and more information is needed to improve families' diets. Improving the diet of children is perhaps the most important preventative means against disease in Southeast Asia (FAO 1995). Drinking water is not usually boiled. Villagers fetch water directly from the Nam Theun or Nam On or streams nearby. There is little understanding of the potential health problems and the primary concern is that the water appears clear, that is without sediment. In some cases, water is boiled with various barks and leaves resembling tea was served but this is the practice only during the cold winter months. It was also confirmed that there were only a few isolated examples of eating raw fish that can transmit opisthorchiasis. It is possible that lowlanders from Ban Nikhom 3 introduced it to the area but a few families keep jars of fermented fish (paa daek) stored in their kitchens. A particular problem which relates to both health and nutrition is postpartum recovery practices called yuu fai, which means `lying by the fire'. Women are confined for a period of 7-15 days during which they drink medicinal water, usually made from boiling the bark of trees and plants, and sweat profusely. They start to eat dried food (roasted fish, chicken and frogs), rice and salt after a few days. Efforts should be made to modify the diet, by encouraging women to eat more nutritious food containing vitamins during this period, while still continuing the tradition that relates to purifying the body and re-establishing a balance of elements in it. There are midwives (mae sadam or mae kep) in all villages and in a few villages traditional healers (mau yao). The former have a limited knowledge about delivery and postnatal care but cannot deal with serious or complicated cases. Since most of these midwives are elderly, they would not be suitable to be trained as paramedics. Many healers have no apprentices and few practice on a regular basis. It seems that the introduction of medicines, even though on a limited scale, has weakened peoples' beliefs in traditional healing practices. 13.4.4 Health Facilities on the Nakai Plateau and Vicinity Health facilities in Nakai consist of one District Hospital, five health centres and one malaria control station. The health centres can be characterised as frequently incompletely staffed and poorly stocked with November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 24 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data essential drugs. Most villages have a designated Village Health Volunteer (VHV), but the volunteer seldom has the necessary medicines and most need technical strengthening. Adjoining Nakai District there are other District Hospitals and health centres that are only slightly better in terms of resources and staff. The nearest Provincial Hospital is in Thakhek for serious medical problems and operations. A total of one Provincial Hospital, nine District Hospitals and eighty-nine Health Centers in Khammouane Province sereve a total population of 331,044 (LECS2 1999) as show in Table 13-12. Health personnel available within the province and in four districts are outlined in Table 13-13. The ratio of medical personnel to population within Khammouane Province is shown on Table 13-14. This ratio of population to medical staff is considered very high. Table 13-12: Health Facilities in Khammouane Province and in Project Area Districts (2001) Gnommalat Khammouane Health Facility Nakai District Mahaxai District District Province General Hospital 0 0 0 1 District Hospital 1 1 1 9 Health Center 5 4 5 59 Malaria Station 1 1 1 10 Total Health Facilities 7 6 7 79 (Khammouane Province Health Dept. 2001) Table 13-13: Medical Personnel in Khammouane Province and in Project Area Districts (2001) Gnommalat Khammouane Title Nakai District Mahaxai District District Province Medical doctor 2 2 1 69 Asst. doctors 7 6 6 185 Nurse Practitioners 13 26 21 467 Asst. Dentist 0 1 0 5 Pharmacist 0 0 0 9 Dispensers 3 3 3 5 Nurse Auxiliaries 3 3 2 45 Laboratory Technician 0 0 0 5 Malaria control 2 1 3 12 personnel (Khammouane Province Health Dept. 2001) Table 13-14: Ratio of Medical Personnel to Population in Khammouane Province (2001) Title Ratio (Staff to People) Medical doctor 1:4,798 Assistant doctor 1:1,789 Nurse practitioner 1:709 Assistant dentist 1:66,209 Pharmacist 1:36,783 Dispenser 1:62,209 Nurse Auxiliaries 1:7,357 Laboratory Technician 1:62,209 Malaria control personnel 1:27,587 Ratios based on Khammouane Province Health Dept. 2001 for medical data and LECS2 1999 for population data November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 25 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data 13.5 TRADITIONAL HEALTH PRACTICES Most villagers on the Nakai Plateau make extensive use of traditional health practices in additional to bio- medicine which is becoming more and more readily available. Various ethnic groups have different concepts of health and disease, but at least in the villages visited in the preliminary investigation (September 2004) most information had shared fundamental concepts that are found throughout South East Asia. The Tai-Lao worldview is dominant in many regions, including Lao PDR. This indigenous health consists of three basic medical categories with corresponding practitioners: · Natural disease stems from exposure to noxious natural elements · Losing a soul or khwan · Intervention of phi (spirits, corpse or evil spirits) 13.5.1 Traditional Causes of Disease and Traditional Health Specialists The mô tamnyae or traditional midwife assists in uncomplicated childbirth mainly by pushing on the abdomen at the right time. She (usually a female but not always) will cut the cord with a sharp piece of bamboo. At times she can move a breech into a head-down position before actual labour starts. Nowadays the Ministry of Health trains "Traditional Birth Attendants". If they are literate, these experienced midwives are invited to join. Where a Mô tamyae isn't available the husband or a knowledgeable family member will take on this role. After giving birth, a new mother traditionally is kept indoors for some 3 (Hmong) to 30 (Tai Lao) days. During this period her diet is restricted to items, such as salty rice, white chicken or duck meat and rattan leaves. She drinks copious amounts of hot medicinal tea which supposedly helps the uterus shrink, the breasts to fill and the body to wash out toxic substances. Various plants or barks are used for this purpose. While thus secluded in the house, she and her baby sit near a glowing fire and receive one visitor after another. At daily or weekly intervals she is made to sweat visibly, by lying on a bamboo bed standing over red-hot charcoal. This domestic ritual is called "yu fai" (to sit by the fire). It draws on the medicinal knowledge of a mô ya (ya = poison or medicine, that is `body-changing' substance). Herbal, mineral or animal ingredients can all serve to cure illness of natural origin. Most households know and use at least the more common medicinal plants. But a mô ya's pharmacopoeia is vastly more elaborate. Buddhist monks and medical researchers have again codified, systematised and expanded on this. One practice is called ya hôm (scented medicine) and refers to steam saturated with herbal essences. It can be inhaled or may soak a patient's whole body. A piece of wet cloth of varying sizes is used to confine this sauna-like function. A `bonesetter' priest or mô pao (priest that blows spells ­ usually male) heals broken bones by blowing (pao) over them. Over closed fractures he first rubs powder of a secret root, chews a medicinal leaf, blows slowly over the breakage and mumbles his magical formulae (môn). Such powerful blowing and words are said to heal any body part or to prevent successive infant deaths. It is an active principle carried by the formula that heals, like an herbal essence would. In the domestic sphere, blowing over a fontanel or a painful spot are also common reactions for consoling parents. And almost anyone in the region knows how to better muscle or tendon pain by kneading and rubbing. Often one can see child feet carefully working their parent's hurting back or waist. In order to prevent natural disorder, parents protect their offspring from dust, dirt, sun, rains, winds, insects and rotting matter. They try providing healthy elements like water, food, vitamins, rest and merit. Certainly weak persons such as dek daeng (child red= infants), pregnant women and the elderly need this kind of care. In Laos the Government has broadcast such advice in a campaign called the "three cleans" - food, dress and houses. Loss of Souls Every human being holds some 32 khwan or souls, one for each organ or body part. Airplanes, trucks, cars, houses, drums, elephants, buffaloes, tigers and rice also have khwan. Khwan are described as `fickle as children' or `fearful as chickens'. Fright, curiosity, playfulness and benign or malicious attacks can all make November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 26 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data them leave the body they are part of. The number of souls departed is evident in the severity of the resultant malaise. This concept commands a set of taboos and prevention measures. An infant is not taken near a corpse. The dead person's spirit or phi idles about there until cremation. An infant (a pregnant woman, an elderly or sickly person) should stay out of fields or forests. House and village spirits cannot protect it there. At home, parents all know how to "tie the wrists" (mat khen) of their children to steady their fickle khwan. This is an abridged version of the well-known "baci" or "sou khwan" ceremony visitors to Lao all get to know at some time. A Moh Khwan would usually be a man having spent time at a Buddhist temple. But e.g. to repair some misdemeanour a mother can perform it for a victim neighbour child. Moh Khwan are normally female with the Tai Dam. Rites of passage in Tai groups always include a sou khwan. This happens after yu fai, as part of a boy's ordination or by way of traditional marriage. Sou khwan means "to unite', i.e. the khwan with the body they care for. But sout khwan means `to pray', i.e. the lost khwan to return to base. A mô khwan prevents; a mô sout cures. Sou khwan is called for when people get separated from loved ones. As after studies abroad, after a long journey or when a family member dies. Surprises, accidents, operations and conflicts make khwan flee too. Whether to sou or to sout, and varying somewhat with occasion, group or location, the ceremony's structure remains the same. First an auspicious time and place is decided. The mô khwan and numerous guests arrive about that time, and find a pha khwan already prepared. This "tray to feed the khwan" carries a chalice containing dry rice. Stuck in the grains are elaborate flower pieces, varied incense sticks and candles plus a few branches holding a bundle of white cotton 20cm threads. A long string of cotton lies rolled up next to this centrepiece. Other plates on the tray contain a boiled egg, sticky rice, some bananas, sweets, flowers, a bottle of alcohol plus perhaps a boiled chicken, betel nuts and leaves. The mô khwan takes place opposite the person to be celebrated, with the pha khwan between them. Guests sit behind and often touch the attendant's (and each other's) elbow during the ceremony's prayers. All have their legs folded sideways in sitting on the floor mats. The candles are lit. The mô greets and may call on (Buddhist) divinities for assistance. The cotton rope is unwound to span the whole congregation; it specifically encircles attendant and officiator. Its ends are tied between the centrepiece flowers. Now the mô calls for the khwan themselves. His words try to convince or to seduce them to keep or to return to protecting their proper owner. The litanies last variably long. At the end the khwan are thought indeed to have united or returned. Now the mô khwan ties the first pair of white cotton strings around each wrist of the ceremony's beneficiary. In doing so, he murmurs wishes for prosperity and good health. He deposits some of the offerings to the khwan in the hand he's tying. Other guests now come tie the attendant's wrists as well. All wish her well and propose other things to eat from the tray. When both wrists are tied with all available threads, the ceremony terminates with a collective meal for all those present. Spirit Affliction Disrespected house spirits (phi huan) may whisk away a descendant's khwan, resulting in malaise or worse. A corpse carried inside the village gates may unleash epidemics. Disrespected village spirits (phi ban) in their anger then allow the restless ghost to catch the khwan of another villager. This person then dies too and its own ghost will do the same again, and on and on. This shows why Tai peoples so honour their domain spirits. These after all are their normally protective ancestors. But more malicious phi lurk further away, in the fields, rivers, forests and cemeteries. Those who died a violent or unnatural death (by abortion, poison, suicide, accident, murder or in labour) are particularly vicious. If someone strays too far from their phi ban's cover, or even actually disturbs those savage phi (pricking a stick in the sand, throwing a stone in a pond, cutting a tree uninvited may be all it takes) severe disease ensues. Not only did most of the khwan flee, but the enraged phi has now actually entered that person's body (phi pop). Diseases caused by familiar phi are less grave or more chronic. People seek to placate, not to frighten these spirits. This they do by offering them their favourite dish, e.g. chicken, duck, goat, pig, cow or buffalo. Diviners or mô yao find out what exactly it is an angry/hungry phi wants to smell (just the odour suffices the phi). A common divination technique is to scoop a handful of rice and to count the grains. A pair November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 27 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data result means `yes', no pair is `no'. More popular is trying to stand an egg or knife on edge. Others drop rice grains on an egg, counting the number of those left on top. Only if all answers are negative ("Are you the phi huan? Are you the phi huay?") the mô yao decides that the disease is natural and should therefore be treated with herbs or drugs. But if the answer is yes (and several phi may be involved, each craving different foods), and the goal of rituals is to make offerings to satisfy the spirit and to exorcise the spirit from the person with the help of the mô môn. Without active help from healers, parents can ward off the phi by respecting the taboos on corpses or on the way guests may move or stay inside their house. Some ethnic groups use marks to protect children against ghosts. Most of the time, regular offerings to one's house spirits suffice to keep supernatural illness at bay. Village spirits, however, require an expert to be attended to. Once a year, in front of the sacred Village Hall (hô ban) a public ritual involves the phi ban. It is conducted by a medium called a mô thiem (priest for visiting spirits ­ male or female). 13.5.2 Traditional Health Practices on the Nakai Plateau Most villagers are familiar with a range of medicinal plants, often for tea and sometimes for steam baths. Most can perform simple massage (yieb), the knowledge of which is transmitted over generations. After birth, all mothers practice yu fai. Usually it is the husband who maintains the fire, finds the herbs and prepares the teas. Guests here do not share in drinking the tea, unlike Tai Lao custom prescribes in lowland areas. The Tai Bo of Nakai Tai do not carry their infants to the field. By contrast, when they need to work their plots the Makong will mark a infant's forehead with soot. This tells a greedy phi that the child already has an owner and should be left alone. Just before returning home again, the mother will usually call after her baby's khwan so that is will not stay behind. In general, people state that either gender can perform simple domestic rituals. Mô khwan or Mô sout are all men though since they learn spells while residing in a temple. Nakai Tai villagers said "We are modern now, we're already used to having a male TBA since hospital gynaecologists are mostly male too. Our women are not as ashamed as before". But all observe the taboos related to corpses, avoided by children under five or pregnant women, and prohibited from being carried into the village. Everyone also knows how to tie wrists. Herbalists are mostly men because few women are literate since remedies are often written down. A Mô sout should have spent time at the monastery, is therefore normally male. A crucial decision for many attending a patient is whether to undertake spiritual action before, after or in parallel with bio-medicine. Makong women in Nong Boua, for example, appear to favour modern medicine in this regard. On the first day of fever paracetamol is given, on day two a blood test is taken and on day three they may make a trip to the local clinic at Nakai. A mô yao comes only when death seems imminent. Elsewhere though, certainly among the elder and the illiterate, many call the mô yao on day 2 or 3. At Nong Boua Kham one counts grains of rice staying on an egg but at .Done one tries to stand the egg on a coin. The mô thiem treats questions related to their whole community's well being. On the Plateau however, several mô thiem use possession by way of divination like Hmong shamans. 13.5.3 Indigenous Health Ingredients Types of Ingredients In order to compare what present day Nakai indigenous medicine contains by way of medicinal ingredients, following is a brief overview of types of elements: · Inert substances of minerals (bright coloured minerals and soils) and liquids and solids that can cause transformations, such as water, acid, etc. · Inert substances of animal origin, such as milk · Excrement of newborn mammals, lizards and insects, and urine · Body parts of animals, such as bear gallbladder, livers horns, teeth, bones, shells, skin · Parts of aquatic animals, such as bones, shells and body parts of fish, molluscs, crabs, etc. · Plant species (200 medicinal plant species and over 1000 are listed in 200 medicinal plant species in neighbouring Gnommalath, and Bualapha Districts) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 28 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Many of these ingredients are rare (endangered and rare animals) or from remote areas (shells from the ocean) and this seems to increase their value and `magical' or transformational properties. Nakai Ingredients There are a limited number of herbalists and traditional health practitioners on the Nakai Plateau. One practitioners from Done uses the following combinations: · A piece of stalactite left to infuse in rainwater to cure high fever; · Salt and sugar with water for the treatments of diarrhoea (similar to oral re-hydration practices); · Bones of flying squirrels to treat kidney stones, skin to treat burns and penis for boosting vigour in men ­ also civets, tiger and gibbon parts used for vigour; · 100 plants for various complaints were recognised from existing records. 13.5.4 Changes in Indigenous Practices Choices in Health Treatment on the Plateau People in Nakai Tai claim that most now prefer biomedical drugs to traditional herbal remedy. This change has occurred since the NT2 Project provided them with a 26-item Drug Revolving Fund (DRF) in 2000. The preference seems to have spread to all people, regardless of economic status and gender. Only the elderly still prefer first consulting with the spirits using a mô yao. Younger people would rather borrow money for pills than to pick herbs for treatment. Ban Nong Boua villagers continue to use medicinal plants. Brou women in Nong Boua exemplified the most modern attitude to cure. A feverish toddler is given paracetamol on day one, gets a blood check on day two and might return to sleep at the hospital as of day three. This usually means getting an intravenous drip, known to be effective. Before, in the old village, caretakers started with herbs until someone returned two hours later with pills. Both sorts were then given jointly; without fear for conflict between them. In fact, health-seeking behaviour generally relies on trial and error until cure or death. Initially, symptoms are given up to 48 hours to abate, before a new remedy or health provider is sought. In roadside villages, this often means just changing the antibiotic. In remote ones natural, biomedical and spiritual means alternate or combine in increasingly rapid succession to ward off imminent death. Since the last traditional practitioner died at the previous Nong Boua site, no one has taken on this role. In Ban Done severity of presenting symptoms (high fever, abdominal pains, seizures) decides whether to start with herbs or drugs.. Conveniently, the District Hospital is a mere 40 minutes ride away (at 5000 kp/p) and prevention items like impregnated bed nets are now bought from the District Health Office for 8500kip, against 30.000 when sold in the market. In Ban Done biomedicine was introduced in 2000 and the drug fund has kept revolving thanks to rules strictly applied by the health worker. Drugs work fast, work most of the time, are easy to purchase, easily swallowed and include contraceptives. Diagnosis seems more reliable. But they are not free, must be bought from afar, often give side effects, and steadily lose quality. If used wrongly, they're outright dangerous. Yet on the whole people trust biomedicine more (a disease may "return" following poor drug regime compliance ­ and anything, including herbs, will cure a viral 3d fever). Herbal cure takes longer to surface, and only does so half of the time. A shared view exists on what herbs and drugs have going for or against them. Herbs are free and always somewhere at hand. They show fewer side effects than medicines. Remarkably people find that "when herbs heal, they do it well and the disease doesn't return". But preparing an herbal concoction may take up to 48 hours (if e.g.7 ingredients are all found at distant spots) and isn't often pleasant to swallow. In addition, few people know enough about formulas and locations to collect a reasonably potent remedy. Not all villages have their herbalist. A way of preserving tradition officially endorsed by the Ministry of Health is to include industrial as well as natural formulations in revolving drug kits. Conversely, training herbalists to administer a DRF seems quite acceptable. Such a person could decide faster when to change remedies, and one needn't locate a second person to avail of both functions. If of course s/he were absent, one again would wish for decoupled skills! Certainly a Traditional Birth Attendant, possibly even a mô môn might usefully add drug therapy to their trade. The main criterion for these responsibilities was felt to be literacy and intelligence, not age or experience. Having the educated work with the experienced was called optimal. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 29 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Modernizing Medicine on the Plateau There was no problem in acquiring the Tai Lao names for common herbs. The Ban Done herbalist doesn't know Brou names for the plants he uses. Though over 60 he doesn't speak the language himself. This is also true for Nong Boua residents, one resident reporting: "but we willingly trade our tradition and customs for those of the Lao", referring to the change from burial to cremation. This process of assimilation and integration of culture seems at work in the domain of medicinal knowledge too. Most herbal doctors are disappearing without successors ("Pou nom khi khaan hien, khi khaan khalam" ­ young people don't bother with study or discipline) which means that the compendium of medicinal wisdom is being lost: "Ancient mô yao knew what time of the day, the week or the moon to take what part of a plant. We here just go and get what we need and know enough about." In Nong Boua elders could still cite therapeutic indications, but younger people mostly knew but the names of common medicinal plants. As ancient practices are phased out, modern ways are phased in. The young and educated are the first to take pills. Once introduced the practice seems to spread quickly. Ya luang (great medicine) works well and fast, and is promoted by the Ministry. Though Nong Boua's leader thinks an intelligent mô yao might make a good health worker, he doubts a spirit conversely would think of possessing a health worker to call her into divining. Thus the trend becomes irreversible. Differing opinion among the leaders and young population and the elders and remaining practitioners exist in many villages. Not all are satisfied with hospital treatment and many complain about the costs of medicine. It is likely that both medical systems will coexist on the Plateau for some time to come even though some traditional practices are disappearing. 13.6 EDUCATION STATUS Information on the education status of the ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau can be obtained by combining literacy levels and school attendance statistics on the one hand and by visiting and assessing the conditions and functioning of educational facilities on the other (see Table 13-15). The education levels of village leaders are important in assessing the capacity of local authorities to tackle the upcoming challenges of resettlement and livelihood development (see Table 13-16). In addition, knowledge of the Lao language is important when considering the consultation process. 13.6.1 Literacy From the various surveys carried out on the Nakai Plateau and from participatory observations made in the area, one can conclude that only a small percentage of villagers were literate in the Lao language. None of the minority languages of the Plateau are written down. Except for a few women, mostly located in Ban Oudomsouk, roadside villages and recent arrivals from lowland areas, the majority of women are illiterate. Some young women and girls who have had some basic schooling (village primary schools) exhibited varying degrees of literacy. Literacy levels for men appear to be only slightly higher due to a number of factors: boys tend to go to school for longer periods of time and have opportunities to acquire literacy from the monkhood and educational institutions outside the region. In addition, many laborers and recent male migrants are literate. Several village leaders were originally from the lowlands, showing that literacy can lead to positions of influence and power in the village. Table 13-15 shows that 63% of the population of the Nakai Plateau never attended school. One can also assume that most of the population with only primary school, which is the majority of those that did attend any school, are probably functionally illiterate if they have not been using their writing and reading skills regularly during adolescence and adulthood. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 30 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-15: Educational Levels and Literacy on the Nakai Plateau (all affected people) Education Level No. of People % of Population Primary School 1-5 1526 31% Secondary School 1-4 214 4% High School 1-3 43 1% College 8 0% Institute 5 0% University 7 0% Semester/Master 1 0% Others 9 0% No Schooling 3076 63% Total: 4889 100% (1998 Census Data used) Table 13-16: Education Level of Household Head on the Nakai Plateau Education Level (head of household) No. of HH % of HH Primary School 1 24 3% Primary School 2 115 13% Primary School 3 84 9% Primary School 4 34 4% Primary School 5 101 11% Secondary School 1 11 1% Secondary School 2 8 1% Secondary School 3 47 5% Secondary School 4 0 0% High School 1 1 0% High School 2 2 0% High School 3 21 2% College 6 1% Institute 2 0% University 3 0% Semester/Master 1 0% Others 2 0% No Schooling 423 48% No Response 1 0% Total 886 100% 13.6.2 Lao Language Proficiency Table 13-17 on the following page records the level of understanding, speaking, reading and writing Lao of all the ethnic minorities in the villages on the Nakai Plateau. As is expected in a melting-pot culture, there is a lingua franca among all the different languages groups, in this case, it is the national language of the country. It should be pointed out, though, that the dialect of Lao spoken on the Nakai Plateau (in most cases, Tai Bo) is only slightly different in terms of vocabulary and tones, and is mutually understandable for lowland Lao-speakers (see Table 12-5). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 31 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Table 13-17: Lao Language Proficiency on the Nakai Plateau Understanding Lao Speaking Lao Reading Lao Writing Lao Good Fair Poor Good Fair Poor Good Fair Poor Good Fair Poor Village M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F M F Khonekhen 33 34 1 8 32 35 3 6 8 2 9 2 16 9 4 13 2 16 41 Done 96 106 96 104 2 18 4 30 10 45 95 17 4 31 10 46 94 SopOn 65 73 2 1 67 73 1 16 2 13 8 34 68 12 1 16 8 35 69 Bouama 56 57 1 4 57 57 4 2 26 7 28 55 25 6 30 57 KaOy 21 22 1 21 22 1 4 6 2 10 21 2 8 2 10 21 Phonesavang 21 18 7 7 1 17 12 10 14 1 5 5 1 15 28 1 7 17 29 Nongbouakham 40 38 40 38 7 3 20 9 12 29 7 3 20 9 12 27 Hatkhampane 15 15 1 15 15 1 7 1 8 15 7 1 8 15 Kaengngao 10 5 10 19 1 10 4 10 20 1 6 1 15 23 6 1 15 23 Sopphen 45 45 3 45 43 1 4 3 1 14 2 27 46 3 1 14 2 27 46 Sopma 16 18 1 15 16 2 2 4 12 19 4 12 19 Nakaitai 142 163 6 4 2 144 164 4 4 1 16 3 33 7 95 163 16 2 33 8 97 163 Nakaineua 61 72 3 61 72 3 15 2 25 21 19 534 14 1 26 22 19 54 Thalang 48 52 1 48 53 11 3 15 10 22 40 11 2 15 11 22 40 Oudomsouk 201 216 1 201 217 133 68 36 37 32 110 133 66 35 34 32 118 Phonephanpek 75 85 1 75 85 1 19 4 31 14 25 67 19 4 30 14 25 67 Sophia 48 53 1 49 53 6 1 14 6 29 46 6 1 14 5 29 47 Namnian 24 25 1 25 25 10 1 5 5 11 18 10 1 5 5 11 18 Nongboua 23 25 2 1 25 25 4 1 7 4 13 22 3 1 7 4 14 22 Averages 1,025 1,107 33 51 1 5 1,028 1,098 30 60 1 4 277 95 299 146 460 943 258 87 309 143 469 955 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 32 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Only six/five adults were recorded as having a poor understanding of the Lao language or poor speaking skills in Lao. The overwhelming majority of the ethnic minorities categorised their own skills in the Lao language as good or satisfactory. Most ethnic groups on the Plateau, nearly all children under the age of 10, have Lao or a Lao/Tai dialect as their mother tongue and little or no knowledge of Brou or Vietic languages. The Brou language was spoken by only a handful of households as the main language of communication in the domestic sphere, with the exception of Kaenggnao and Boua Ma where most seem to know Brou, and most Vietic families still used Ahoe and Phông as languages of daily interaction. Hence, it is a mistake to associate the knowledge of an ethnic language, such as Brou or Ahoe, with an ethnic group on the Plateau since most now speak only Lao or a dialect of Lao (Tai Bo). It is quite feasible that in 20-25 years there will be no ethnic minority languages spoken on the Nakai Plateau except between elders. An independent review of the language situation on the Plateau (Enfield, Jan 2004 - Max Planck Institute) reports that: · There do not appear to be qualitative differences in economic livelihood between villagers of different ethnicities · Language is not necessarily a defining criterion of ethnicity · The Plateau is a site of intense language contact, and villagers are exposed to a number of different languages in daily life · The process of ethnic minority language loss appears to be in advanced stages in most villages However, the report also notes that attitudes to language loss vary from group to group. Many Brou stated that they did not regret the loss of their original language. The Vietic of Sop Hia, on the other hand, were conscious of the importance of their language and cultural identity. All Ahoe in this village, including children, speak Ahoe as well as Lao and other language. 13.6.3 Education Facilities In many of the villages on the Nakai Plateau, schools are not functioning properly. Either attendance was low due to the need to gather NTFPs or plant rice (every able-bodied pair of hands is sometimes needed) or teachers were not regularly conducting classes. During surveys, teachers who should have been conducting classes were often found at home, much to their embarrassment. The incentive for performing one's duty is not great since the District only pays 30,000 Kip per month (approximately USD $ 30 in 1997). Some schools were financed by the villagers themselves since the local government had neither the funds nor could it provide for teachers. Due to the bad flooding in 1996, many families could not pay the fees to the teachers.8 Villagers understand the importance of education but have little means of obtaining an education for their children. The exceptions are the large school in Ban Oudomsouk and the roadside village of Ban Nakai Neua. In theory each village (often shared in the case of small hamlets) should have its own primary school. However, only primary schools in large villages like Ban Done, Ban Boua Ma, Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Thalang were functioning properly. In many of the villages schools had not been functioning at all for several years. The national curriculum is in the Lao language. For most ethnic minorities (Brou and Bo) on the Plateau this does not pose a problem since their mother tongue is Lao. However, there are some children who have a minority language (Brou or Ahoe) as a mother tongue. Studies have reported that without consideration of ethnic languages (ADB 2001 ­ Health and Education Needs) ethnic minority children may become disadvantaged and drop out of school. Recruitment of local teachers that speak local languages will be one important way of addressing this issue. 13.7 GENDER ISSUES Since the 1980s, improving the status of women has become an increasingly important aspect of development projects. This is because it was felt that previously women's labour was not always 8 A similar phenomenon is recorded in the Theun Hinboun region. Many villages had organised their own classes with a local person who could read and write as a teacher. Nominal fees collected from the families made up the teacher's salary. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 33 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data transferred to the market and that men benefited more directly in the first stages of a transition from a subsistence to a market-oriented economy. WB OD 4.30 states that women should be considered as a "vulnerable group" in addition to considerations of ethnic minorities in WB OD 4.20. The ADB has a policy on gender and development that outlines programmes and initiatives. The division of labor between men and women is by no means absolute but there are clear notions of what is male work and what is female work among all the ethnic groups. Men, however, were frequently seen taking care of young children and doing domestic tasks while women could do all kinds of work in the fields if necessary. Villagers often exclaim that "men and women do the same work". But upon further inquiry, there were some definite concepts of the division of labor. One common expression was phusay sak phuying nam, which translates as "men make the hole in the ground using a pole, women place the rice seed in the hole". This appears to be a co-operative work effort at first glance but it also symbolizes the superior position of men in these societies: the man goes first and stands upright, the woman follows behind and has to bend over. Table 13-18 lists the most common tasks and responsibilities which men and women perform and some of the tasks often shared. The PRA map-making sessions, carried out as part of planning resettlement (Sparkes 1997), also highlighted this division of labor and the inter- dependency of men and women in the establishment of a functioning household unit. Table 13-18: The Division of Labour Male work Shared Tasks Female Work · heavy work in the fields such as · weeding, clearing the fields, · most of the household tasks such removing large trees and cutting planting and harvesting as cleaning, washing clothes and down trees · collecting food in the forest and preparing all the meals · contact with officials and along streams and NTFPs for sale · pounding rice twice a day government representatives · fetching drinking water from the · looking after young children, the · overnight trips to markets in river9 sick and the infirm towns · taking care of domestic animals in · work with machines, motor boats the house area (pigs, chickens and and driving vehicles ducks) · carpentry, blacksmith, boat- · taking care of the vegetable making, house-building and other gardens near the house tasks involving specialized tools · selling vegetables and forest · formal positions of authority in products in the nearby markets the village · herding buffalo and cattle · fishing with nets and hunting and trapping The division of labour as outlined in the above table is representative for all ethnic groups on the Plateau. This is due in part to a shared production system and similar access to natural resources. In addition, no religious taboos or restrictions on either men or women doing certain types of work were recorded. However, there are some differences between the ethnic groups in relation to male and female behaviour and gender roles. The most noticeable difference is that Vietic groups and some Brou communities that have settled relatively recently on the Nakai Plateau from the NBCA, tend to have more restrictions governing female behaviour, including access to rooms, commensality and interactions with male relatives. Addressing these differences between the groups and ensuring that women also benefit from the Project can best be achieved through gender-segregated consultations and specific measures (see Section 26.5.1). The recent Gender Report on NT2 (Iram June 2004) examined the roles of men and women in the various communities on the Plateau and the potential impacts and mitigation measures. In terms of 9Men and women fetch water whenever they bathe, but women do so for all domestic uses including cooking, clearing and washing in addition. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 34 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data workload for women in particular, it will be important to monitor changes in the livelihood system and introduction of market economics to a greater degree. 13.8 RELATIONS WITH NON-NAKAI PLATEAU GROUPS Interactions between the inhabitants of the Nakai Plateau and other peoples are common. Although the region is only slowly being integrated into the national economy, contact with other groups has been ongoing for centuries as illustrated above in Section 12.2.2. It is worth noting the different types of contact as well as former and existing trends: Transferral of cultural beliefs, notably the spread of Buddhism and lowland cultural practices. Some men acquired their education in monasteries in the lowland areas and returned as learned men and religious practitioners. The spread of Buddhism has varied depending on relationship between the state and Buddhism. In the twentieth century, a form of Buddhism that was mixed with local beliefs existed on the Plateau with irregular contact with monasteries to the south. Since 1975 there has been a decline in Buddhist activities until quite recently when a small monastery was re-established in Ban Oudomsouk. Changing livelihood patterns are evidence of continuous contact with groups inside and outside of the region. Groups such as the Brou and Sek have influenced the Vietic population in that the latter now practices sedentary agriculture and to a large extent have similar livelihood systems. The recently arrived Tai groups in the northern parts of the Plateau have also adapted their livelihood system to suit the ecological niche - swidden instead of their traditional paddy production. Recent attempts by the government (Nikhom 3) and different ethnic groups at introducing wet rice paddy have not been successful in most cases, due to agro-ecology rather than ethnic reasons. Trade in livestock illustrates contact with other groups surrounding the Plateau. Firstly, buffalo from the lowland areas were previously given to villagers on the Nakai Plateau for grazing since there was limited pasture in the lowland areas of Gnommalath and Mahaxai Districts. Buffalo were traded both in the lowland areas of Thakhek District and over the mountains in Vietnam. Several trade routes were well established for these purposes and Brou and Vietic groups used their kinship and clan ties to maintain these economic links, but this does not seem to be evident today. Trade in NTFPs and wildlife reveals a similar arrangement of economic and social ties that are mutually supportive. The rich resources of forest were much sort after commodities in other parts. Ethnic groups hunted, fished and collected a variety of NTFPs for sale to middlemen from the lowland areas, Ban Lak Sao, Thailand and Vietnam. Items were often bartered for rice, salt and manufactured goods. This trade and the trade in livestock resulted in the introduction of many items produced in other areas as well as essential food supplies and goods. Marriage between groups outside the Plateau is common as is highlighted in Section 12.2.3 above. A number of partners, both male and female, come from areas surrounding the Plateau, including the Brou and Lao communities in the Gnommalat and Mahaxai Districts, the Vietic groups in the catchment area, Lao immigrants from all over the country (former members of Nikhom 3) and even some Tai groups from the Ban Lak Sao area. There are no strict rules with the possible exception of the Tai groups, and there is considerable movement between regions for work, hunting and gathering and trading. Intermarriages are one of the many reasons for the `melting pot' designation that describes the similarities between the ethnic groups on the Plateau (cf. Section 12.2). Disturbances during Second Indochina War (ca. 1962-1975) have resulted in involuntary resettlement, village relocations and a refugee situation. Some groups were relocated in areas to the south of the Plateau due to fighting, including some Vietic groups. The children of these groups attended Lao schools and these people were exposed to Lao culture and customs. There was considerable movement of people from and to the Plateau and the catchment area throughout the war, resulting in further mixing, re- composition of villages and exposure to different cultures. In addition, many able-bodied men joined the army, a multi-ethnic organization. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 35 Chapter 13: Nakai Plateau EMDP Baseline Data Lao Nation State and dominant lowland Lao values have been influencing all of the cultures on the Plateau. The establishment of the new District Capital at Ban Oudomsouk has increased the number of Lao professionals, traders and service industry workers. Education in Lao and the economic, social and political influence of the dominant lowland Lao is significant on all cultures on the Plateau. ********** * * * ********** November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 36 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau CHAPTER 14 LOCAL PARTICIPATION ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Table of Content 14 LOCAL PARTICIPATION ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU.......................................1 14.1 CONSULTATION PROCESS ­ PLANNING STAGE .............................................................1 14.1.1 Definitions of Consultation ..............................................................................................................................1 14.1.2 Local Consultation Process...............................................................................................................................1 14.1.3 Ethnic Minority Languages and Special Provisions.......................................................................................1 14.1.3.1 Language and Consultations ......................................................................................................... 2 14.1.3.2 Participation of Women................................................................................................................. 2 14.1.3.3 Vulnerable Groups......................................................................................................................... 2 14.2 PCPD TEAMS AND REVIEW OF LOCAL CONSULTATIONS (1997-2004) ..........................2 14.2.1 PCPD in 1997.....................................................................................................................................................3 14.2.2 PCPD in 1998.....................................................................................................................................................3 14.2.3 PCPD in 2004.....................................................................................................................................................4 14.3 ASSESSMENT OF `MEANINGFULNESS' IN RELATION TO PROJECT DESIGN (1997-98) .....................................................................................................4 14.3.1 Quality of Discussion or Dialogue...................................................................................................................5 14.3.2 Degree of Disagreement....................................................................................................................................6 14.3.3 Affects on Project Design.................................................................................................................................6 14.3.3.1 The decision to remain on the Plateau instead of relocation in the lowland areas................ 6 14.3.3.2 Alterations in house designs to suit the needs and aspirations of the PAPs.......................... 7 14.3.3.3 Modifications of the livelihoods systems .................................................................................... 7 14.3.3.4 Village layout................................................................................................................................... 7 14.4 RESULTS OF 2004 CONSULTATIONS ..............................................................................8 14.4.1 Ethnic Aspects....................................................................................................................................................8 14.4.2 Recommendations..............................................................................................................................................8 14.5 CONSULTATION PROCESS ­ IMPLEMENTATION STAGE.................................................9 14.6 VILLAGE ORGANISATIONS ............................................................................................9 14.6.1 Formal Village Organisations..........................................................................................................................10 14.6.2 Informal Village Organisations.......................................................................................................................11 14.6.2.1 Village Elites.................................................................................................................................. 11 14.6.2.2 Lao Socialist Party ........................................................................................................................ 11 14.6.2.3 Ritual Leaders................................................................................................................................ 12 14.6.3 Leadership and Ethnicity.................................................................................................................................12 14.6.3.1 Village Leadership and Ethnicity................................................................................................ 12 14.6.3.2 Organizational Strengthens and Weaknesses............................................................................ 16 14.6.4 Institutional Arrangements for Consultations..............................................................................................17 14.6.4.1 Village Facilitators ........................................................................................................................ 17 14.6.4.2 Training and Supervision of Consultation Process.................................................................. 21 List of Tables Table 14-1: Village Leadership Information .......................................................................................................13 Table 14-2: Challenges for Resettlement of Villages on the Nakai Plateau...................................................18 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau 14 LOCAL PARTICIPATION ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU 14.1 CONSULTATION PROCESS ­ PLANNING STAGE 14.1.1 Definitions of Consultation Public Consultation can be defined as the process through which the views and opinions of all interested parties or stakeholders are integrated into project planning, implementation and monitoring. Consultation is a type of communication that specifically establishes an ongoing `feedback loop', integrating stakeholder views and opinions into various project activities. Communication also consists of information dissemination, including discussions with non-stakeholders and media presentation of the Project. Information to stakeholders on options and potential project impacts is often the first step in establishing the feedback loop. In the context of the NT2 Project, this process was referred to as the `Public Consultation and Participation Process' (PCPP) at the onset but was later modified to Public Consultation, Participation and Disclosure (PCPD), including aspects of document disclosure and translation to stakeholders. For the remainder of this chapter, the whole process will be referred to as PCPD. Public Relations implies communication regarding all aspects of the Project to the general public, including all forms of media representation and the availability of reports and documents concerning the projects. It does not necessary involve feedback although this could be an outcome of media presentation of the Project and is an integral part of the transparency of the Project. 14.1.2 Local Consultation Process A dialogue has been established with all stakeholders who are directly or indirectly involved in the NT2 Project and who have expressed a wish to participate in the PCPD. Consultation at local, regional, national and international levels is well advanced and will continue throughout the different project stages. In this section, the local consultation process will be investigated. A full account of the consultation process on all levels is found in Volume 1 (Chapter 4). Local PCPD prior to the signature of the Concession Agreement had three main steps: Step 1: Information collection and dissemination: This initial step aims to promote awareness among PAPs. Information flows in two directions, both from the local people to the project personnel and in the opposite direction. Awareness of local conditions is attained through the collection of data relating to social aspects, livelihoods, health, education and other areas which facilitate evaluation of impacts and planning for project implementation. Additionally, information is disseminated to stakeholders detailing project features and implications for altered social and physical environments. Step 2: Eliciting Stakeholder Concerns: Comments from stakeholders in response to information gained during Step 1 are sought and discussions of alternatives and proposed mitigation activities encouraged. In this way, issues that may have been previously overlooked or outstanding concerns of stakeholders are given a forum for review. This represents a needs-assessment, and provides a base from which decisions can be made. This is `informed' and focused discussion that can lead to important insights and avoidance of problems at an early stage. Phase 3: Active Involvement in Project Design and Implementation: Based on the decisions made in Step 2, requirements for education, training, financial and institutional strengthening are identified and integrated into project design. The process will continue during implementation so that stakeholders may be fully involved throughout the process. This process is not linear, but provides for cyclical feedback, should deficiencies at any stage be evident. 14.1.3 Ethnic Minority Languages and Special Provisions World Bank Safeguard Policy (OD 4.20) and ADB Policy (1998) on Indigenous Peoples state that a strategy for local participation should ensure that indigenous peoples or ethnic minorities are involved in decision-making throughout the planning and implementation of the project. Effective channels of communication should be established to ensure local preferences and local-level participation. In order to do, this special attention needs to be given to a number of aspects: November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau · Language sensitivity ­ making sure information is understood and the ethnic groups have the means of communicating their concerns; · Provisions to ensure women participate in consultations and are not dominated by men; · Provisions to ensure vulnerable groups, such as the elderly, the poor, female-led households, etc., participate. 14.1.3.1 Language and Consultations The vast majority of the people on the Plateau understand and speak Lao well, most speaking Lao or a dialect of Lao as their mother tongue. However, as indicated in Section 13.5 there are some households that may have poor speaking skills and some that only use the Lao language in interaction with people outside the village. In addition, one should consider the fact that many people will feel more at ease expressing themselves in an ethnic minority language rather than Lao, which may not be their mother tongue. During local consultations, following steps have and will continue to be taken regarding language. · Before consultations, assess the level of understanding of the Lao language ­ one should asks a number of people present, especially women and the elderly in order to make sure that everyone understands and speaks Lao;Whenever there is any doubt as to the level of understanding, assign a local member of the community who is fluent in both Lao and the ethnic minority language to do simultaneous translation;. · Using a translator will slow the consultation process down considerably and it might be necessary to form two groups to conduct discussions separately. · Separation of a village along ethnic lines if there more than one ethnic minority present and if this is suggested or insisted on by one of the groups ­ parallel meetings should be held and a plenum session can then be held at the end of the consultation if considered useful for sharing ideas between the groups 14.1.3.2 Participation of Women Ensuring the participation of women in the consultation process will require a pro-active approach since most leadership positions and experience in dealing with outsiders and official organisations are considered the role of the men. Thus the Project will pursue: · Female facilitators, preferably with a knowledge of the local culture and ethnic minority languages, will be given the responsibility of presenting information and conducting discussions with women; · Separate groups for consultations are necessary to allow women the freedom to express their opinions; · Information on households has been and will be gathered from both men and women in the future so as to present a balanced picture of the domestic sphere, a predominantly female sphere; · Female representation in local leadership through the Lao Women's Union provides planners a means of encouraging women to participate in consultations 14.1.3.3 Vulnerable Groups The involvement of vulnerable groups in consultations is essential in order to ensure that the weaker and poorer members of communities are involved in planning and implementation. This is also the case with smaller ethnic groups that are often under-represented in local organisations and less experienced than other groups. Consultation Teams will: · Identify all socially and economically vulnerable groups in the village ­ poorest households, the elderly and households run by women or without able-bodied men to assist in the relocation. · Identify small ethnic minorities in the different Plateau villages, for example the Vietic groups in Sop Hia, Nakai Tai and Phonphanpek or the Tai-speaking persons in Ka-Oy. · Separate groups or individual interviews and discussions should be held with these groups or households, with language possibly being a factor in the case of ethnic minority groups. 14.2 PCPD TEAMS AND REVIEW OF LOCAL CONSULTATIONS (1997-2004) The stakeholders at the local level are those directly affected by the Project that is residing in villages on the Nakai Plateau that are to be relocated. PCPD teams have been established and trained in PRA techniques to facilitate the flow of information. The teams comprise local Lao people, drawn from a range of backgrounds and experience in Public Consultation, social surveys, anthropology and education. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau In addition, the teams represent a diversity of socio-economic, cultural, gender, and generational perspectives. They have and continue to carry out work in villages and report directly to the RMU, which will be responsible for resettlement planning and implementation. Since PCPD is in some respects a new approach to project planning, innovation was an important factor in being successful at soliciting opinions and engaging the local population in discussions about the potential impacts of NT2. The traditional decision-making process through traditional consultation among leaders and indirectly with community members was supplemented and altered by the presence of outsiders and new methods. These methods aimed to establish trust and a partnership for development in the future as well as provide information and avoid the problem of `consultation fatigue'. Innovative methods included: · PRA methods such as making resource maps and `dream village' maps; · Visits to the demonstration farms to see interventions and aspects of the livelihood model; · Video presentation of the Project and its effective on the population of the Plateau; · Gender-segregated discussion groups. 14.2.1 PCPD in 1997 The first stages of PCPD have been coordinated by an NTEC consultant who has been responsible for training, planning and reporting on consultation activities on the Plateau. The RMU is responsible for carrying out PCPD activities at the local level and builds upon this experience. The RMU will ensure that there is continuity in the consultation process through adequate representation of all interest groups. Methods used during the first PCPD were participant observation, sample interviews and Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) techniques. Updating existing quantitative data on the villages was also carried out to some extent. The goals were: · To ensure that all directly affected people living in the reservoir were aware of and understood the main features and impacts of the Project and the implications of relocation; · To collect information in regard to existing village development systems and decision making processes (defining their structure and efficiency); · To document existing livelihood patterns, land usage and aspects of society (socio-cultural and economic) likely to be affected by relocation; · To conduct meetings with villagers to facilitate discussions of their concerns and aspirations and to document these to channel to project decision-making, including villagers' choice of locations, priorities and preferences regarding village layouts and house designs. The results of this PCPD work have been published by NTEC under the title of Observations Relating to the Resettlement of People on the Nakai Plateau (May 1997). These activities correspond to Phases 1 and 2 of PCPD mentioned above. 14.2.2 PCPD in 1998 A second round of PCPD work on the Nakai Plateau was carried out in April and May 1998 and included members of the newly formed RMU as well as an NTEC consultant. During this visit, discussions were held on many issues raised previously and the proposed livelihood model was also presented and feedback obtained, that is Phases 2 and 3 as described above. Extensive use was made of visual aids, including posters, diagrams, pictures and a video explaining the construction of the NT2 dam, resettlement and livelihood options. See Figures 4-1, 4-2, 4-4 and 4-7 to 4-10 of Chapter 4 for examples of the participatory process and the most recent visual aids used. The main goals of this round of PCPD on the Plateau were the following: · To ensure that affected people were fully aware of and understood the features and impacts of the Project and the implications of relocation by means of the video and discussions concerning livelihood model, house design and the village move; · To update statistical information about population and village institutions as well as noting any changes in the socio-economic situation in the villages; · To conduct meetings with villagers to facilitate discussions of their concerns and aspirations in relation to the proposed livelihood model; November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau · To identify existing community development systems which could be utilized and improved during implementation; · To explore potential mechanisms for establishing village Resettlement Committees. The results of this PCPD are summarized in an NTEC report (PCPD on the Nakai Plateau, July 1998) and form the basis for some of the revisions of the Draft RAP that have been incorporated into many of the chapters in Final RAP (July 1998). It also identified some items relating to planning PCPD activities for the next two years and a PCPD plan for RAP activities (See Chapter 4). Additional information was made available at Project Information Centres that were established outside Ban Oudomsouk and Thakhek. These centres have provided further points of contact between the Project and villagers, dealing with inquiries and disseminating information in various forms. The centres also are utilized to hold periodic meetings of village and district representatives and local Non- Government Organizations (NGOs). 14.2.3 PCPD in 2004 Public consultation has been carried out by the RMU since the formation of the organization. There has been regular contact between the PAPs and members of the RMU both through informal discussions and meetings and more informal interaction during the two main consultation phases (1997-98 and the recent 2004 consultations). It is important to emphasize that many members of the RMU participated in the PCPD exercises and data collection surveys on the Plateau, and this provides an important continuity and familiarity for the villages in the coming years in the detailed design phase prior to construction and relocation. See Table 4.4 in Chapter 4 for further details. The 2004 consultations were the most extensive to date and built on a number of important lessons learnt from the previous consultations. In addition, more information about the project, its impacts and the proposed mitigation arrangement have been detailed in the interim. The main steps in the consultation process are explained in detail in Sections 4.8.1 and 4.9.1, in Chapter 4 of Vol. 1 of the SDP. Here certain methodologies related to ethnic minorities will be summarised: · The size of sample for participation in this round of consultations included all affected households sending at least one member to participate in the discussions at the village level · Separate group discussion and consultations for Vietic groups in Ban Sop Hia, separating the Tai groups originally from Lak Sao and the indigenous Vietic into two groups. · Language checks before commencement of consultations and discussions in local languages (Brou and Vietic) · The choice of the 10 Village Facilitators included people from different ethnic groups, male and female members, traditional and formal (political) leaders, different age groups and different levels of skills and literacy to present a balanced selection of village members to represent the diversity within the village · The Consultations Process involved the selection of Village Facilitators, training of these facilitators in the village by an independent communications consultant (Dr. Anek Nakabutr) and his team from Thailand and monitored by an independent international anthropologist (Dr. Jim Chamberlain). 14.3 ASSESSMENT OF `MEANINGFULNESS' IN RELATION TO PROJECT DESIGN (1997-98) The notion of `meaningfulness' is central in the evaluation of the effectiveness of public consultation for any large infrastructure project. If the consultation process is central to the overall success of the Project and to ensure participation of stakeholders, especially at the local level, it is absolutely essential to develop criteria in assessing activities on the ground. In assessing the effect of consultations, one has to consider the context of Lao PDR both in relation to the traditional forms of consultation and the political situation. New ideas and innovations introduced new concepts and means of communication. In addition, the fact that there are different ethnic minorities in the Project Area needs to be considered, although a shared livelihood system and melting-pot culture reveal that there are shared concerns that are common among all groups regarding resettlement planning and implementation. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau The following aspects are considered as a way of assessing the meaningfulness of the consultation process: · The quality of discussion and dialogue; · The degree of disagreement; · The effects of the decision-making process on project planning. These aspects will be discussed with selected examples from the consultations that have already taken place on the Nakai Plateau. 14.3.1 Quality of Discussion or Dialogue The quality of the discussions and dialogues under the consultation process is to some extent subjective but the kinds of comments should indicate whether the information on the Project is understood and the kind of issues that are brought up. Some examples of this are: Food Security was a major concern of villagers is food security given rice shortfall and the unpredictable nature of the climate. This was expressed often as bo mi khao kin (no food/rice to eat) or bo mi phau kin (not enough food/rice to eat) by all the ethnic groups on the Plateau that suffer from rice shortages. The first priority was to be full (kin khao im). According to the social surveys and work with the livelihood model, this aspect has been the most challenging since the concern with food security is so central but cannot be met completely without cash income. Resettlement in Lao PDR is often associated with rice paddy cultivation. One Bo villager from Ban Sop Ma summed it up like this: · Yaak kin khao pai muang na If you would like to eat rice, go to Gnommalat; · Yaak kin pa hai yu muang phu If you would like to eat fish, stay on the Plateau; · Yaak dai su hai pai Nakai If you would like a girlfriend, go to Nakai; · Yaak tai hai pai nawang If you would like to die, go to the northern forests (nawang). Many discussions comparing relocation on the Gnommalat Plain below and the promise of irrigated paddy verses remaining on the Plateau near the forests were complex and touched on key issues of availability of resources, infrastructure improvements and potential cash-earning possibilities as well as food security. It was clear that all ethnic groups could see the inter-connections of all these items. Resource Mapping was a successful tool for eliciting views and confirming interpretations since the making of maps was a joint effort and often provoked discussions on locations, form (linear along roads or cluster type), ownership, assess, seasonal use and the quality of resources. PRA exercises like this allow for corrections and different opinions as the exercise proceeds. The comparison of male and female resource and `dream village' (Sparkes 1997; Chapter 12) resulted in some lively interactions and corrections. The practical aspects of village life can be summarized by an expression of a Brou farmer at Ban Khone Khen: · Tang pai wat man kieng, tang pai nong man meun The path to the wat is well trodden; the way to the fishpond is slippery. Comparative Experiences: comparisons with the recent relocation of Ban Jat San and forced collectivization in the late 1970s. Many could point out the faults and mistakes of the houses, layout and problems in managing the nearby pine plantations. Details such as a lack of adequate rooms, lack of facilities for cooking, no toilets, shortage of water, softwood beams and floors and other aspects gave insights in what to avoid when planning new dwellings. PCPD team members were forced to go into detail and show how planning and implementation would be different and rely on co-operation and participation of the PAPs. The Bo and Brou villagers at Ban Boua Ma suffered greatly under the forced collectivization policy provoking one Brou villager to state: `we'll go but we don't want it to be another Sumwang!', referring to the person responsible for the former resettlement programme. Neighbours: it became clear from numerous discussions that the men and women from all the ethnic groups looked upon relocation in a different manner. Women voiced concerns about who would be neighbors and the importance of family relationships that would not have been voiced in male or mixed groups. One Bo woman from Ban Sailom stated that sip kha na bo tho ha kha lang (ten legs in front does not equal five in the rear), meaning in this context, that five old neighbours are more worth than ten new ones. Neighbors are referred to in terms of kinship (phi naung) or as sharing the same spirit (phi diaw). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau 14.3.2 Degree of Disagreement The amount of disagreement, both with proposed models and aspects of the resettlement and among themselves are good indicators of the openness of discussions and the quality of interactions. Some examples include: Upon explaining the draft livelihood model which did not include rice and emphasized home gardens and forest management, villagers in Ban Sop Hia openly disagreed with one Ahoe man stating that: kin ta pak kap makmai pen ling (eating just veggies and fruit, we'll turn into monkeys). This indicated the importance of rice with regard to any potential livelihood model. Reactions to the proposed forestry management plan were mixed at first with some villages stating, pai dai, hien dai (we can go [be relocated], we can learn) but others were sceptical seeing this proposal as a threat to food security: kin mai bo dai (we can't eat wood), as one Bo man stated. Disagreements on house designs are a good example of changing attitudes and aspirations of the populations on the Plateau. Traditional house designs were studied and several models were drawn as examples for the second round of PCPD. The ethnic sensitivity (different designs for Vietic groups as opposed to Bo and Brou styles) that had gone into these designs turned out to be misdirected. Villagers of all ethnic groups overwhelmingly chose the variation closest to a lowland Lao design rather than their traditional house style. Apparently, the Lao design was associated with progress and was more spacious although details in locations of doors, windows, the size of the veranda and the location of the kitchen were retained as local features. Many were sceptical of relocation and feared that they would not receive assistance, stating that moving was a difficult and tiresome process: nyay heun sai wela sapson theung pheun ja suay ­ ko mai yung yak (moving houses is time-consuming and a confusing experience even with assistance ­ to build anew is difficult). Such skepticism forced consultation teams into outlining aspects in more detail and answering questions on specific aspects. Another related aspect was concern about fruit trees: yak makmai ­ tonmai kao (I want to have fruit trees ­ mature trees). Planners were forced to pay more attention to long-term implications and difficulties foresee by villagers in the move. Another concern, not really a disagreement but rather something that had not received enough attention in earlier planning, was that of the importance of rituals and their relationship to a successful relocation of the village. One Bo villager in Ban Sop On stated yoknyay phi muang, nyay phasa dai ­ ao pha song ma het phiti khaknae (moving the village spirit and the cemetery requires the monks conduct the proper rituals). This affects the time and how the practical arrangements are figured out prior to the actual move as well as the role of village leaders and ritual specialists. In general, it should be concluded that people expressed themselves openly and many expressed their opinions and skepticism towards the Project. Members of all ethnic groups stated that promises were not kept on previous occasions and that there could be many problems such as no actions or follow-up, only talk (yan bo kheu wao), fear of inequality of some benefiting while others will not (yan bo samom sameu phu dai phu bo dai) and broken promises (sia khwan lai teua laew). 14.3.3 Affects on Project Design Many of the consultations have resulted in direct influence on project design and planning. 14.3.3.1 The decision to remain on the Plateau instead of relocation in the lowland areas Despite the fact that there was an option at the commencement of detailed project planning for resettlement areas on the Gnommalath Plain below the Nakai Plateau, all ethnic groups expressed the strong desire to remain near the forests and not opt for the development of irrigated rice fields in the lowlands. For the Vietic and Bo ethnic groups, the option of paddy in an area that was unfamiliar was never a consideration since these groups have little in the way of direct contact with the people in the lowlands and no kinship relations with the population there. In addition, the Vietic, and to some extent the Bo, are reliant on the resources available in the forests of the Plateau and surrounding NBCA for food and income. Agricultural techniques are not as well developed among these two groups since a sedentary lifestyle was only relatively recently adopted. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau For the Brou, the option of relocation to Gnommalath District was discussed among the villagers, especially in Ban Done and Ban Khone Khen where there are a number of kinship ties and former trade relationships between these Brou villagers and those on the Gnommalath Plain. Some Brou villagers stated that they would prefer to relocate and obtain paddy in the lowlands but the vast majority preferred resettlement on the Nakai Plateau, opting for the familiar and continuity rather than something new that would involve relocation in another part of the province. It may still be the case that some Brou families may prefer to relocate near relatives and kin in the lowlands, and this is an option covered under cash payment and disturbance allowances for those who chose to locate off the Plateau. However, the original area identified by the Project for relocation of villages and whole communities in the lowlands will not be developed. This is a strong indication that planners have taken into account the wishes of the ethnic minorities on the Plateau since relocation to lowland areas is common practice in many parts of the country. Development of a sustainable livelihood system for the Nakai Plateau is challenging given the poor soils. 14.3.3.2 Alterations in house designs to suit the needs and aspirations of the PAPs. House designs for resettlers have been determined as a result of many discussions and consultations with all ethnic groups on the Plateau. Initially, as explained in Section 15.3 below, anthropologists studied the differences in house designs and identified two basic types ­ closed veranda and open veranda styles (see Figures 15-1 and 15-2 in Chapter 15), the former used by Vietic groups and the latter by most Bo and Brou inhabitants of the Nakai Plateau. There were also a number of Lao or lowland style houses but initially the emphasis was on establishing a number of styles acceptable to the different ethnic minorities. To the surprise of the anthropologists, all ethnic groups preferred the open veranda style, including the Vietic groups in Sop Hia who still used their traditional design. The Ahoe and Phong villagers complained that the old style was not attractive (bo ngaam) and there was too much smoke from cooking (khwam lei). Some Vietic in Sop Hia and nearly all Vietic groups in Nakai Tai and Phonphanpek now live in houses with open verandas and the practical advantages seem to be understood by those Vietic occupying traditional dwellings. There was considerable feedback regarding the details of the designs, such as the placement of doors, the size of windows, need for larger kitchen areas, etc. In addition, Brou villagers comments that there should be a clear indication that different family sizes need different types of houses - hence the double-roof for larger houses, based on the larger Brou houses in Boua Ma and Done villages. 14.3.3.3 Modifications of the livelihoods systems Modifications to the suggested livelihood systems worked out by various experts are also important in showing that the different ethnic minorities' voices were listened to when planning the details of livelihood restoration and development for the Plateau inhabitants. The feedback on the draft livelihood models in 1997 and 1998 resulted in a number of significant changes. These include: The introduction of rice as an integral part of the livelihood model followed continuous questions and concerns about food security and cultivation of rice, the staple crop for all ethnic groups. It was not enough to produce vegetables and obtain income from forestry in order to purchase rice, but the psychological factor of food security, of producing at least enough rice to feel at ease during the resettlement move. Many villagers, particularly along the rivers (Vietic, Bo and Brou) mentioned fishing and the possibilities of fishing in the reservoir. Their main concern was proper equipment since the nets and traps they possessed would not be suitable for fishing in a shallow lake. Training and equipment for improved fishing, as well as organising the management of fishing resources, became an important aspect in the revised livelihood plan. 14.3.3.4 Village layout Village layout was studied during the planning and most villages, except for roadside villages, were of the `cluster type', that is houses were groups according to kinship relations and available space, usually parallel to a river. Roadside villages tended to have houses aligned on both sides of the road with the remaining houses were scattered behind them. During the first round of consultations, villagers, especially women, emphasised the importance of being close to kin although the layout proposal was first based on optimal use of resources and time saved in going to fields ­ houses spread out along a road providing easy access November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau to fields. Reactions from all groups were critical, especially among the Bo, Brou and Vietic villagers that were not located along existing roads. People wanted to live closer together and stated that they did not mind walking to their fields. However, many liked the idea of everyone being located along the road, an important sign of development. Village layouts and configurations were modified for the Pilot Village (mixed Bo and Brou ethnic groups) after considerations of clan and kin relations into groupings. This involved rethinking the `scientific approach' to production based on being close to fields and opting for a cluster solution but with every house arranged along the road. It is likely that such compromises will occur when other villages are moved. Religious considerations Relocation should occur after consultations with village leaders and ritual experts in order to fulfil traditional requirements. All ethnic groups stated that carrying out proper rituals was essential during the relocation for the contentment of the villagers. Villagers rarely volunteered such ideas but when anthropologists discussed these matters, it became apparent that the spirit world played an important role in the worldview of all ethnic groups. During the relocation of the three families from Sop On to the new houses on the Demonstration Farm, ceremonies were held. This was much appreciated and no doubt helped in a smooth transition for the family. A culturally sensitive approach would involve discussions on the timing and details of location for new villages with village leaders, both political and religious leaders. 14.4 RESULTS OF 2004 CONSULTATIONS 14.4.1 Ethnic Aspects The 2004 Consultations were more sensitive in relation to ethnic issues than the previous consultations in that ethnicity was one of the factors in determining the approach and methodology of the consultations. The following aspects and special provisions should be noted: · Consultations included at least one member from each affected household. Members that did not attend the first meeting were informed later by the Village Facilitators ­ thus 100% coverage of affected households rather than a sample that may or may not be representative · Language checks were carried out in all villages prior to the consultations in order to ensure that all groups, including women and the elderly participated · Information was presented in the form of posters and diagrams since the majority are not functionally literate on the Plateau. · Selection of Village Facilitators included members of all ethnic groups in the community so that all interest groups could voice their opinions · GoL officials were informed about ethnic issues and suitable approaches to be used and their awareness of ethnic issues has improved during this consultation round · In Sop Hia, parallel consultations were conducted for the Tai and Vietic groups since it had become apparent over the last 5 years that these two groups required different resettlement solutions 14.4.2 Recommendations The recommendations or lists of concerns of villages are presented in detail in Chapter 4. These include proposals for modifications of livelihood options, house design, additional assistance and equipment and other aspects. Many of the concerns and proposals are already covered in the Concession Agreement and are included in the SDP. A number of issues will be considered regarding the details of the implementation arrangements ­ these issues have been recognised as `feasible and worth considering'. Proposals for the Nakai Plateau include: · Village Layout: barb-wire fence around the village proper, gardens near the house, future land for village expansions, agricultural areas larger than one ha per households, modifications to village layout, wells and taps to more houses and new village office November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau · House Design: larger poles, larger bathroom with toilet, thicker timber beams, taps on upper floors, larger houses, larger windows, larger veranda/reception area, house ownership certificate to be issued and larger distance between houses · Crop Production: larger garden, survey to improve soil quality, hand tractor, relocation activities to start immediately, barb-wire fence, subsiding water and electricity fees, clear land allocation and organisation of production groups · Livestock: larger number of livestock to be kept by resettlers and larger grazing areas as compensation · Fisheries: fish pond (also for frogs and eels) and means for transportation fish to markets · Forestry: villagers to be allowed to cut trees for buildings and repairing houses and allowed to export logs · Other livelihood options: priority in obtaining work with the Project, sewing and weaving machines, start-up funds for small businesses and support for village blacksmiths In addition to these proposals made by the villages, the consultation process was reviewed by an independent anthropologist who made recommendations regarding the consultation process as it enters a transition period from planning to implementation and monitoring. The following observations and recommendations were made: · Need to focus on the non-material aspects of the resettlement process ­ the re-establishment of a fully functioning society (social, economic, political, cultural and psychological), especially on the central role of `social capital', that is systems of reciprocity, beliefs, social status and other cultural aspects). There needs to be a greater awareness of how these aspects constitute a society by planners during the resettlement process. · Continued process of consultation and incorporation of concerns and proposals made by the villages. This involves a follow-up visit soon to show how villagers' comments have actually been incorporated into project design. This should continue throughout the implementation phase, and the role of Village Facilitators is important in carrying this out. · GoL staff from the district, province and seconded project staff now have a greater appreciation of ethnic issues but there is still room for improvement. Further training and discussion need to be carried out to ensure that ethnic issues are fully incorporated into planning and implementation. Both the villagers' concerns and proposals as well as the recommendation by the independent reviewer will be incorporated into the ongoing revision of the plans and future implementation arrangements. 14.5 CONSULTATION PROCESS ­ IMPLEMENTATION STAGE Sections 14.1-14.4 outlined the consultation process in terms of planning and incorporation of concerns and opinions of affected persons into project documents. The following sections in this chapter will outline how the consultation process will continue during implementation and what institutional arrangements will be in place to ensure that ethnic issues are considered during implementation and monitoring. When considering implementation it is necessary to examine the following aspects: · Existing village organisations and structures and what roles these will have in consultations and implementation arrangements for resettlement and monitoring · Ethnic representation in leadership and the strengthens and weakness of leadership in general · Institutional arrangement for carrying out consultations and monitoring · Consideration of funds (budget arrangements) and schedule for continued consultations 14.6 VILLAGE ORGANISATIONS The village organisations in the consultation and planning processes need to be examined in some detail. Positions of economic, social and political power have considerable influence in project decision-making and how the benefits of the Project may be shared by a community as a whole. The situation on the Nakai Plateau is complex since there are different kinds of organisations, and their roles often overlap, being November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau either complementary or competitive. The first type of organisations is formal political structures and the second one is the informal structures, including positions of traditional/ritual, economic and political influence. Originally, leading families (often founder families) had a monopoly on formal village positions such as the village headman and the Council of Elders (thau khun) as well as the most important ritual roles. Material wealth was usually equated with political, social and spiritual power. The present situation is one of transition due to the integration into the Lao State and the creation of positions that are nominated by outside governing bodies instead of positions being mostly hereditary. These new positions often parallel traditional ones but nominations depend more on education, experience, economic influence and Party membership than traditional claims to spiritual power or founding families. 14.6.1 Formal Village Organisations The following is a list of formal village organisations, consisting of either elected/appointed positions or traditional positions that are usually inherited. There is considerable overlap between these two types: The village headman (nai ban or phau ban) is the leader of the village and is responsible for all formal relations with district authorities and with other villages. He is responsible for collecting taxes on the quantity of rice produced in the village, appoints other officials in the village, judges disputes and is ultimately responsible for law and order. This was traditionally a position monopolized by certain leading families but education, experience in dealing with the world outside the village and local politics are now playing an important role. The assistant headman (hong nai ban) and the representative (kamakan) assist the village headman in decision making and carrying out his work in the village. All three members form the village committee that is elected every three years when district officials approve the candidacy of five villagers. From the five, the village elects three, the candidate with the most votes becomes headman, the second most, the assistant and the third most, representative. All members of the village committee in all of the villages were male. Section Leaders and Assistants (hua na nway and hong nway) are appointed by the village head and are responsible for helping to call the populace to meetings and implementing the headman's decisions. There can be up to four sections (nway) in larger villages and none in the smallest village. Sections are usually based on physical proximity but in Ban Sop Hia, for example, there are two sections dividing the original members of the village (mostly Vietic groups) and the new arrivals (Tai Men and Tai Moey) who built houses beside the existing village. Council of Village Elders (thau khun) is a traditional organization that was previously responsible for resolving disputes of all types within the village and advising the village headman. These positions are often hereditary and occupied by the eldest males from founding families. There was also one case from Ban Sop Hia that the local female medium was the sole thau khon in the village. Ban Sop On had three founding families (two brothers and one sister) whose members appoint the thau khun of that village. The role of the elders has been altered by new positions introduced by the government, reducing their role to one of guardians of traditional knowledge. Primarily they are now responsible for organizing annual phi muang ceremonies, approving marriage ties and maintaining friendly relations with the spirit world. In fact, members (usually three) are often religious specialists. Advisory Councils for Disputes (san kai kia) were formed in 1996 for the first time and have taken over the arbitrator's role of the thau khun. They act to advise the headman when making decisions. In most villages there is considerable overlap between these new councils and the thau khun and often other organizations. For many the distinctions are not clear. The task is often expressed in terms of resolving disputes within families and between village members - phit kap phi nong and phit kap phua mia ("argument with relatives" and "arguments between husband and wife"). In most villages there were a number of disputes recorded which were resolved by the headman with the advice of the elders and/or the advisory council in 1996-97. The headman of the san kai kia and the two other members are appointed by the village headman. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau The Lao Front for National Construction (niaw hom) consists of one to three members depending on the size of the village and is mainly responsible for organizing large communal projects, although villagers often did not understand its role and confused it with the thau kun and the san kai kia in many cases. The Youth Organization (sao num) was for the most part inactive in the villages visited but some informants mentioned that they also organized large projects or helped in recruiting men for military service. The leader of the Youth Organization is often a Party member who reports directly to local Party officials and recruits potential members in the villages. The Village Militia (kon hong) usually consists of two to three men but it is unclear what their role is from interviews with villagers. Some mention that they are responsible for patrolling the area while others claim that the army has now taken over that task. The Lao Women's Union (LWU - sahaphan maeying) is the only official organization in which women play a direct role. No women occupied any of the above positions with the exception of the ceremonial role of the thau khun in two villages. The role of the union varies from village to village and depends for the most part on the leadership skills of the head of the union (hua na). In some cases the union had organized communal vegetable gardens and distributed information on health issues and was well organized into sections (nway), a structure that paralleled the male structure of village headman, sections, assistants and representatives. In other villages there were no activities recorded. The procedure for electing the union members parallels the elections of male officials. It was clear from making inquiries into formal village structures that many people were ignorant of the different positions, responsibilities and roles of the leaders. The number of positions and people involved in the various decision-making processes seems unclear to even the leaders in some cases. In one village, Ban Ka Oy, there were 18 official titles in a village of 23 households! There seems to be a gap between formal structures and actual practice in making important decisions. The role of the village head and his assistant were always clear but their efforts varied. The role of the other organizations differed but for the most part they were either inactive or played a minor role in decision-making. 14.6.2 Informal Village Organisations In order to understand better the workings of decision-making in the village setting, one should examine informal organisations, which are just as important - at times even more so. These can be divided into two kinds that have significant influence on decision-making at the village level: leading families and Party members. 14.6.2.1 Village Elites In many villages the key positions within the formal organizations are concentrated in a number of leading families with certain members holding two positions such as combining the thau khuon and the san kai kia or rotating between cousins and relations the key positions of village headman, assistant and leader of the san kai kia. When individual villagers were asked who were not part of this village `élite', they expressed opinions that the leaders looked after their own interests and the interests of their families first and foremost. It is no coincidence that economically strong families are also well connected politically. Thus there appears to be a nucleus of power in each village which excludes the majority of members. Leaders are often from families with the largest buffalo herds, the best paddy fields and contacts with outsider middlemen who collect NTFPs. Monopolizing key resources and controlling the supply of key items means that leaders can persuade many villagers to agree to their preferred actions. Kinship ties often reinforce such an economic power base. As with formal leadership positions, educated villagers of any ethnic group tended to dominate these kinship groups. 14.6.2.2 Lao Socialist Party The second informal structure is the Lao Socialist Party (pak pasason pathivat lao). It is difficult to collect data on membership within the village since people are not forthcoming about the activities of members and rarely state that they themselves are members. Only one case was reported in which the man admitted being an active member of the Party. The task of Party members involves monitoring the activities within the village and making verbal or in some cases written monthly reports at district or provincial meetings. In this way the authorities keep an eye on what is going on in the villages and ensure that government policy is being followed. The result is that villagers are cautious in expressing their opinions about politics November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau in many cases. They fear that being outspoken will draw attention to themselves. No doubt villagers themselves know who is a member, often leaders of the militia or the Youth Organization as well as new members and old soldiers who fought in the Second Indochina War. Not all members are active but they are a group that can be mobilized when needed. However, it would be wrong to portray this group as extremely influential since economic power and traditional positions are perhaps in most contexts more influential on decision-making. 14.6.2.3 Ritual Leaders Another important informal groups are ritual leaders. This is a diverse group of individuals who conduct various rituals and ceremonies on behalf of the villagers. Most ritual specialists are respected for the skills in communicating with the spirits in times of need (for rain, good harvests, recovery after childbirth, etc.) or when requesting intervention (finding the spiritual cause of illness, influencing future events, etc.). Many ritual specialists belong to founding families or are members of the Council of Elders. The following is a list of the most important ritual leaders: · Clan leaders (sometimes referred to as mô ­ priest ­ or by name alone) are often responsible for contacting the local territorial spirit since the founder of the village sometimes became the spirit of that territory or has a special relationship to that spirit. Among the Vietic, women and men can be clan leaders and carry out spirit rituals. · Priests (mô baci ­ mostly men) perform many rituals, including propitiating various spirits, calling the khwan or life essence during illnesses and performing offerings for family or house spirits · Mediums (mô phi or mô song) are men or women who are possessed or can contact spirits in trances. These spirits are often souls of persons wandering the earth after death by accidents or during childbirth. They cause illnesses and need to be chased out of the person or village. · Monks are not present in Nakai villages at present but some priests have spent time in monasteries and monks are often called to villages to perform cremation rituals or Buddhist ceremonies. 14.6.3 Leadership and Ethnicity 14.6.3.1 Village Leadership and Ethnicity Table 14-1 presents the background of the village leadership, including ethnicity and sources of income. In general, there is a close correspondence between the ethnic composition of villages and the ethnicity of village leadership. For example, in the Brou ethnic villages in the southeastern part of the Plateau, there are Brou (sub-groups like the Makong or Tri) occupying all positions, as is the case in Ka-Oy, Khone Khen, Don, Bouma and Phonsavang. In the Tai Bo villages in the central part of the Plateau, the Tai Bo dominate in terms of village leadership. This is the case for Nakai Tai, Nakai Neua, Sop Phene and Sop On. What is interesting to note is that in mixed villages, the leadership positions often reveal the ethnic composition, indicating that there are ample opportunities for all ethnic groups to be presented and occupy formal positions with the village leadership organisation. Villages such as Sop Ma (mixed Bo and Makong/Brou), Talang (mixed Tai and Bo ethnic groups), Nongbouakham (mixed Lao, Tai and Makong/Brou), Sop Hia (Tai and Vietic groups), Nong Boua (Bo and Brou) and Phonphanpek (Brou, Kaleung and Vietic/Salang). One should note, however, that the Lao and Tai groups dominate leadership in the District capital and have a proportionally high representation in leadership on the Plateau, with positions in Nakai Neua, Nakai Tai, Talang, Nongbouakham, Nam Nian, Sop Hia, Sop On and Nongboua. In most of these villages they are a small minority but they often have higher levels of education and other valuable experience. Only Lao or other Lao Loum individuals have secondary income in the form of trade, which includes running shops and stalls or acting as middlemen. It should also be noted that the Vietic groups appear to be under-represented. The Vietic comprise more than half of the population but are not represented in the top three positions. The Vietic are not represented in Nakai Tai or in Talang where there also a number of households. There are Vietic leaders of the Niaw Hom in Nam Nian (A Liha man, belonging to a small Vietic group from Khamkeut District) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau and in Phonphanpek (Salang ethnic group originally from the NBCA). It is not surprising that the Vietic should have positions that relate to rituals and cultural practices rather than political positions since the Vietic have in general less access to socio-economic and political positions of power. Table 14-1: Village Leadership Information Education/ Work Main Other Position Name Age Place of Birth Ethnicity Experience Occupation Income Oudomsouk Village Head Mr. Champa 49 B. Gnangkahm, Xebang Lao Primary School, Year 5. Farming Health Care Anousone Fai, Khammouane Army Nurse. Work. 1st Deputy Ms. Thone 36 B. Khampheng, Lao Secondary School, Year 3. Farming Trade Mahaxai, Khammouane Army Nurse. 2nd Deputy Ms. Nouansy 39 B. Sumteui, Khamkeuth, Phou Thay Primary School, Year 5. Farming Labourer Borlikhamsai Civilian. Elder's Mr. Bounthanh 65 B. Phonegnam, Lao Primary School, Year 2. Farming Trade committee Hinboun, Khammouane Kaleung Soldier. LWU Ms. Phetsamone 36 B. Pavek, Lao Secondary School, Year 3. Farming Trade Louangprabang Nurse. Youth Org. Mr. Chanethavong 34 B. Sienglair, Tha, Lao Secondary School, Year 3. Farming Trade Khammouane Labourer. Nakai Neua Village Head Mr. Sanamsai 36 B. Nakai Neua, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming Livestock Phengsylom Khammouane Used to be a driver. 1st Deputy Mr. Banechong 50 Louangprabang Lao Secondary School, Year 3. Farming Trade Police Officer. 2nd Deputy Mr. Sinenorkeo 48 B. Nakai Neua, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Elder's Mr. Kany 48 B. Nakang, Hin Boun, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. On 43 B. Nakang, Hin Boun, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Keo 22 B. Bouama, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Nakai Tai Village Head Mr. Keo Thosa 38 B. Nakai Tai, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming Livestock Khammouane. Civilian. 1st Deputy Mr. Ninda 50 B. Keng Pa Mong, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 1. Farming Livestock Southanone Nakai, Khammouane Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Pheng Dokkeo 38 B. Nakai Tai, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane. Civilian. Elder's Mr. Kahom 60 B. Phako, Nakai, Meuy Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Sa 43 B. Nakai Tai, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane. Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Sang 43 B. Nakai Tai, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane. Civilian. Sop Ma Village Head Mr. Vanhsay 64 B. Sop Ma, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Leuisananh Khammouane Provincial youth. 1st Deputy Mr. Phui 40 B. Keng Gnao, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. 2nd Deputy Mr. Khamsavath 35 B. Sop Ma, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Deputy Village Chief. Elder's Mr. Phouan 67 B. PakKaTan, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 1. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khamkeuth, Borlikhamsa Soldier. LWU Ms. Sai 46 B. Mak Phuan, Natan, Brou Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Woman Union. Youth Org. Mr. Khamphai 36 B. Thacham Pa, Natan, Brou Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Private teacher. Sop Phene Village Head Mr. Khouan 46 B. Sop Phene, Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Syphachanh Khammouane Security. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Education/ Work Main Other Position Name Age Place of Birth Ethnicity Experience Occupation Income 1st Deputy Mr. Vah Soulichanh 43 B. Kengmaknam Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Bounma 39 B. Nonghom. Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock Khammouane Civilian. Elder's Mr. Sy Khung 75 B.Sop Phene, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane Village chief. LWU Ms. Mei 45 B. Nakai Tai, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Khang 28 Sop Phene, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Thalang Village Head Mr. Sangka 41 B. Sop On, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Phimmasone Khammouane Provincial Security. 1st Deputy Mr. Don Syharath 44 B. Nakham. Hin Boun. Phouthai Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Hin Boun Security. 2nd Deputy Ms. Noy Phothong 25 B. Song Hong, Hin Boun Tai Meuy Primary School, Year 4. Farming Trade Khammouane Civilian. Elder's Mr. Siengpa 52 B. Phadeng, Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering committee Sithbangna Khammouane Teacher. LWU Ms. Choy Saiyavongsa 28 B. Phonehong, Meuy Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khamkeuth, Bolikhamxai Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Meisy Khamphila 28 B. Phadeng, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Nongbouakham Village Head Mr. Pin Khuilasith 36 B. Singthong, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Used to be a Teacher. 1st Deputy Mr. Vanhsay 38 B. Nakhua, Pakkading, Lao Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Komsaisana Borlikhamsai Teacher. 2nd Deputy Mr. So 30 B. Paklai, Saignabouly Lao Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Livestock-keeper, Laksao. Elder's Mr. Sanamsai 65 B. Kava, Boualapha, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Deng 35 B. Khamdok-mai, Lao Secondary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Xebang Fai, Khamm Trade Officer. Youth Org. Mr. Seng 25 Khamkeuth, Meuy Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Borlikhamsai Civilian. Nam Nian Village Head Mr. Souvanhthorn 48 B. Natung. Paklai, Tai Khao Secondary School, Year 6. Farming Trade Khamphisouvong Saignabouly BKPK Staff. 1st Deputy Mr. Sysai 45 Sop Phene, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Used to be a Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Ting 46 B. Don Sat, Khamkeuth, Tai Nyo Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Phetlumphane Borlikhamsai Used to be a Soldier. Elder's Mr. Bounkhum 63 B. Kalang, Khamkeuth, Liha Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering committee Borlikhamsai Soldier. LWU Ms. 43 B. Nakadok, Khamkeuth, Sek Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Douanphetlumphane Bolikhamsai Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Thavone 28 Sienghonehongs(special Tai Yuan Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering zone) Labourer. Sop Hia Village Head Mr. Souvanhthorn 48 B. Natung. Paklai, Tai Khao Secondary School, Year 6. Farming Trade Khamphisouvong Saignabouly BPKP Staff. 1st Deputy Mr. Sysai 45 Sop Phene, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Used to be a Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Ting 46 B. Don Sat, Khamkeuth, Tai Nyo Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Phetlumphane Borlikhamsai Used to be a Soldier Elder's Mr. So 56 B. Phiengpho, Ahoe Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khamkeuth, Used to be a Soldier Borlikhamsai LWU Ms. Bouavanh 42 B. Phiengpho, Ahoe Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khamkeuth, Borlikham Youth Org. Mr. Kainboun 28 B. Phiengpho, Ahoe Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khamkeuth, Borlikhamsa Civilian. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Education/ Work Main Other Position Name Age Place of Birth Ethnicity Experience Occupation Income Sop On Village Head Mr. Ouam 38 B. Sop On, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Linesomphou Khammouane Bouama Village Youth. 1st Deputy Mr. Keuth 50 B. Nong Eoi, Lao Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Phanethavong Gnommalat. Khamme Previously ordained. 2nd Deputy Mr. Sing Khomnaloun 35 B. Sop On, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. Elder's Mr. Tone 67 B. Sop On, Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Khamsy 40 B. Sop On, Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Village Youth. Youth Org. Mr. Ox Khenvongsa 25 B. Sop On, Nakai, Tai Bo Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Village Youth. Bouama Village Head Mr. Sei Dengouthorn 40 B. Bouama, Nakai, Tri Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Independent Soldier. 1st Deputy Mr. Thang 55 B. Thaphaiban, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Chai 30 B. Salieng, Nakai, Brou Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Village Youth. Elder's Mr. Siengkong 68 B. Thaphaiban, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Prev. Head of Zone. LWU Ms. Douan 50 B. Bouama, Nakai, Tri Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Village Youth. Youth Org. Mr. Onta 25 B. Bouama, Nakai, Tri Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Previously ordained. Phonsavang Village Head Mr. Siengphone 36 B. Phonsavang. Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 2. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Previously ordained. 1st Deputy Mr. None 38 B. Pung, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane Previously ordained. 2nd Deputy None at present Elder's Mr. Kham 60 B. Phonsavang, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 1. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Keui 45 B. Phonsavang, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 1. Farming Livestock Khammouane Village Nurse. Youth Org. Mr. Deu 24 B. Phonsavang, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 1. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Student. Nong Boua Village Head Mr. Khamphong 47 B. Nong Boua, Nakai. Tai Bo Primary School, Year 3. Farming Livestock Khammouane Village Security. 1st Deputy Mr. Khain Phaliboua 40 B Na Hao, Nakai, Tai Sam Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock Khammouane Employee 2nd Deputy None at present Elder's Mr. Pheng 28 B. Sop Ma, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane LWU Ms. No 48 B. Ka Oy, Nakai, Tai Bo Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane Village Youth. Youth Org. Mr. Oy 27 B. Navang, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock Khammouane Student. Phonphanpek Village Head Mr. Sy Boualaphanh 41 B. Tha, Nakai, Brou Secondary School, Year 1. Farming Livestock Khammouane Security. 1st Deputy Mr. Ta 48 B. Phonsavang, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane Teacher. 2nd Deputy Mr. Pat 30 B. Koun, Hin Boun, Kaleung Secondary School, Year 2. Farming Trade Khammouane Soldier. Elder's Mr. Nao 56 B. Maka, Nakai, Salang Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Tha Boualaphanh 53 B. Thamouan, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 2. Farming Livestock Khammouane Tailor. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Education/ Work Main Other Position Name Age Place of Birth Ethnicity Experience Occupation Income Youth Org. Mr. Thanh 35 B. Mamy, Nakai, Brou Secondary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Ka Oy Village Head Mr. Lom Saiyarath 45 B. Ka Oy, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. 1st Deputy Mr. Sanh Sengdaloun 45 B. Ka Oy, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Gnommalat D. Police. 2nd Deputy None at present. Elder's Mr. Douan 76 B. Mak Phuan, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Chief of Zone. LWU Ms. Ny 55 B. Mal Phuan, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Civilian. Youth Org. Mr. Thongseng 25 B. Thongvanglair, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Student. Khone Khen Village Head Mr. Nor 53 B. Khon Ken, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. 1st Deputy Mr. Sypaseuth 60 B. Khon Ken, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. 2nd Deputy None at present. Elder's Mr. Meui 60 B. Khon Ken, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Soldier. LWU Ms. Suan 60 B. Khon Ken, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 1. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Village Youth. Youth Org. Mr. Ly 23 B. Khon Ken, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. Don Village Head Mr. Phonephet Oudon 52 B. Don, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Khammouane Soldier. 1st Deputy Mr. Bouapha 56 B. Don, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming Livestock Chanhthida Khammouane Soldier. 2nd Deputy Mr. Thanh 53 B. Don, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 4. Farming NTFP gathering Khammouane Soldier. Elder's Mr. Kompary 65 B. Don, Nakai, Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering committee Khammouane Primary School Teacher LWU Ms. Phengsy 40 Brou Primary School, Year 3. Farming NTFP gathering Trade officer. Youth Org. Mr. Vong 20 Brou Primary School, Year 5. Farming NTFP gathering Soldier. 14.6.3.2 Organizational Strengthens and Weaknesses Table 14-2 presents an overview of Nakai Villages in terms of potential resettlement challenges, taking into consideration the present socio-economic and leadership status. The organizational strengthens and weakness for the different villages and ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau should be understood in terms of the ability to mobilize social capital. Social capital can be measured in terms of the process of mobilizing members of a given community to undertake collective action for the benefit of the community as a whole. Social capital is thus a prerequisite for any development initiative. In reviewing the leadership situation and other factors outlined in Table 14-2, one can divide the villages on the Plateau into three general characteristics: Weak Organisations: Sop Phene, Sop Hia (Vietic groups that are under-represented), Phonsavang, Nongboua, Ka-Oy and Sop Ma (and hamlets of Hat Khamphane and Keng Nyao). These village leaders have relatively little formal education. In addition, or partly because of this, there is a relatively high reliance on natural resources such as NTFPs and limited experience with market economics. These villages are small but represent a range of ethnic groups ­ Bo, Brou and Vietic. There are few or no Lao Loum residing in these villages and none have roads or functioning services. Strong Organisations: Villages with more robust organisations have leaders with better education and often involved in trade and other activities as well. These villages can be characterised as having November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau functioning services and relatively good infrastructure, mostly roadside villages. Economically, they are better off, have more diversified sources of income and skills. Villages in this category include the professional inhabitants (mostly Lao Loum) of Nakai Town or Oudomsouk, Nakai Neua, Nakai Tai and Talang. In general, there are some Lao or Tai ethnic groups in these villages, often over-represented in leadership positions. The remaining villages can be classified as having organisations that are neither weak nor strong with only a few leaders have education beyond primary school. The ability to mobilize communities for collective action depends on the personality of the leaders and the resource base as well as the ethnic composition of the different villages. 14.6.4 Institutional Arrangements for Consultations 14.6.4.1 Village Facilitators A number of challenges arise from the analysis of leadership, ethnicity and present circumstances of villages on the Plateau in relation to the consultations process. A mechanism is necessary to ensure that all groups partake in the consultation process. Since the performance of leadership varies and the relationship between the different formal and informal structures is complex, an institutional arrangement must include a balanced organisation that represents the diverse interests of communities. This organisation requires training and support in order for the consultation process to continue onto implementation and monitoring phases of the Project. One conclusion of the earlier consultation experiences was the need for a representative body at the village level that would work with district government organisations and line agencies, RMU/DRWGs and various experts and advisors at the local level. This would be in addition to the Village Resettlement Committee (VRC) that is composed of formal leadership positions and villagers with skills in agricultural and economics. It was decided by project planners that the composition of this group should reflect the various interest groups at the local level and thus aim to ensure that all stakeholders would be represented. One important task of the First Round of the 2004 Consultations was to obtain agreement at each village for the selection of this body of 10 persons to act as Village Facilitators for each affected village. The general composition consists of the following elements and balances: · Village Leaders and traditional leaders (formal and informal leadership balance) · Male and female members (gender balance) · Elderly, middle-aged (able-bodied adults) and youth members (age balance) · Members of all ethnic groups (ethnic/language balance) · Members with good communication skills and illiterates (education balance) Groups of village facilitators were selected and then immediately trained to perform their first task, that is consultations about the NT2 project following one-day of training, and under the supervision of Consultation Experts in both Nakai Plateau and downstream villages. The role of these facilitators will be to conduct consultations in the future and to act as an intermediary between formal organisations, including the VRC and RMU and affected villagers and their concerns. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Table 14-2: Challenges for Resettlement of Villages on the Nakai Plateau Pop Ethnic Existing Livelihood Existing Social Leadership and Village (2002) Composition System Infrastructure Institutions Comments Ban 289 Mixed town but Mixed economy ­ services, District hospital, District HQ, educated Dominated by non-indigenous population (lao loum) Oudomsouk (not all dominated by Lao government jobs, shops and primary and secondary leadership and relativelyHigh-level of literacy and well-integrated into regional economy directly Loum groups ­Brou agricultural production schools robust institutions Need to include rural population in consultations, not just urban effected and Tai Bo mainly Income stratification significant Located on main road educated groups and option for households to return to natal ) on outskirts (rural vs. semi-urban) village on the Plateau for resettlement Ban Sop Hia 54 Mix of Vietic groups Swidden cultivation and heavy Primary school not Leadership dominated The proposed splitting of Sop Hia into a Tai resettlement village and recent Tai in- (unsustainable) reliance on functioning by Tai groups (former (together with Nam Nian) and a separate Vietic hamlet will allow migrants NTFPs and fishing BPKP) ­ Vietic occupy for the Vietic to regain control of decision-making processes lower positions Special assistance for Vietic groups in terms of livelihood development and need to monitor ethnic relations with surrounding groups and sustainable use of natural resources Ban Nam Nian 28 Mostly Tai in- Swidden cultivation ­ previous Located on Route 8 ­ Leadership mixed ­ all Proposed village relocation in Khamkeut for Tai groups will split migrants reliance on BPKP discontinued no functioning services households in-migrants. the village with some Tai Bo and Brou returning to their original ­ services and shops closed Former BPKP village villages on the Nakai Plateau being the most likely scenario down head Ban Thalang 59 Tai Bo and Tai Swidden cultivation and Located on Route 8 at Leadership mixed ethnic Mixed ethnically, experience of market economics due to location ­ groups gathering of NTFPs ­ river crossing ­ groups and some formal no evidence of dominance by Lao or Tai groups ­ head is a Brou. previously much market functioning school and educational activity but now many stalls health post ­ limited qualifications closed commercial activity Ban Nong 42 Mixed lowland Originally a State Farm for Located on Route 8 Leadership mixed ethnic Mixed ethnically but no evidence of dominance by Tai groups ­ Boua Kham population with supplying cattle to the Army functioning school and groups and some formal head is a Brou. Limited experience of market economics ­ some indigenous but now more like another health post ­ limited educational dependence on government support to some extent Brou and Bo village in terms of livelihood ­ commercial activity qualifications Additional support may be required for dealing with large herds of income from pensions government cattle and buffalo in relation to livelihood options and more intensive systems of cultivation Ban Nakai Tai 158 Predominantly Bo Roadside village with mixed Located on Route 8 Leadership mixed While predominantly a Tai Bo village, they accept new families with some Brou, Lao economy based on swidden, functioning schools and ethnic groups and some from any ethnic group, usually relatives of an already mixed married and Vietic some wet rice cultivation, health post and formal educational couple. Integrated into mainstream economy and with some trade livestock, NTFPs and markets commercial activity qualifications experience. Additional support may be required for dealing with large herds of cattle and buffalo in relation to livelihood options and more intensive systems of cultivation November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Pop Ethnic Existing Livelihood Existing Social Leadership and Village (2002) Composition System Infrastructure Institutions Comments Ban Nakai 72 Predominantly Bo Roadside village with mixed Located on Route 8 Leadership mixed Similar to Nakai Tai, it is mainly a Tai Bo village, although they Neua with some Brou and economy based on swidden, functioning school and ethnic groups and some accept new families from any ethnic group, usually relatives of an Lao some wet rice cultivation, health post and formal educational already mixed married couple. Integrated into mainstream economy livestock, NTFPs and markets commercial activity qualifications and with some trade experience. Ban Sop Phene 45 Tai Bo Swidden and gathering NTFPs Almost none. New (but Generally weak Generally quite poor and requires considerable support in terms of with some livestock and fishing temporary) school leadership with limited training, livelihood development, skills development, guidance in supported by NTEC. education and terms of marketing produce, etc. experience Should be monitored in terms of ethnic relations ­ the few literate may dominate decision-making process Ban Sop Ma/ 49 Tai Bo in Sop Ma Swidden with considerable Almost none. New (but Generally weak Generally quite poor and requires considerable support in terms of Ban Hat and Hat Khamphane reliance on NTFPs, livestock temporary) schools leadership with limited training, livelihood development, skills development, guidance in Khamphane/ and Brou in Keng and fishing supported by NTEC. education and terms of marketing produce, etc. Ban Keng Gao experience ­ village splitShould be monitored in terms of ethnic relations ­ the few literate Gnao in terms of hamlets and may dominate decision-making process. Brou are relatively recent ethnic groups along the arrivals from the NBCA while the Tai Bo are indigenous to the Nam Theun Plateau. Ban Nong 28 Mixed Tai Bo and Swidden with considerable Previously none. Moved Generally weak Pilot village ­ generally very poor, with weak leadership and limited Boua/ Ban Brou reliance on NTFPs to Nong Boua Pilot leadership with limited experience of market economics. Sailom Village, and full range of education and Requires considerable support in terms of training, livelihood services being experience ­ village splitdevelopment, skills development, guidance in terms of marketing developed. in terms of hamlets and produce, etc. ethnic groups Should be monitored in terms of ethnic relations ­ the few literate may dominate decision-making process Ban 82 Very mixed, Mixed economy ­ swidden, Tubewell water supply. Recent village - Mixed population of resettlers from Boua Ma (Brou), in-migrants Phonphanpek reflecting the range NTFPs and some wage labour. Other services accessed Leadership mixed ethnic from NBCA (Vietic) and other groups renting accommodation for of groups on the Some houses rented to in Oudomsouk town groups and some formal work in the area (Tai Lao groups) implies some differentiation in plateau and labourers. (Majority former (District center). educational terms of livelihood and experience. watershed: Brou, Tai Bouama people) qualifications Vietic groups wil considerable support in terms of training, Lao, Vietic, some livelihood development, skills development, guidance in terms of Phou Thay marketing produce, etc. Non -indigenous Tai Lao groups with marketing experience. Should be monitored in terms of ethnic relations ­ the few literate may dominate decision-making process Ban Boua Ma 59 Mixed Brou (Tri) and Swidden, livestock, limited wet Almost none. A small Leadership dominated Representative village for Nakai and requires some support in terms Tai Bo paddy production and NTFPs temporary school. by Brou ­ some of training, livelihood development and skills development but with experience and some limited experience of markets education November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau Pop Ethnic Existing Livelihood Existing Social Leadership and Village (2002) Composition System Infrastructure Institutions Comments Ban 27 Brou Swidden, livestock, fishing and Almost none. New (but Leadership dominated Representative village for Nakai and requires some support in terms Phonsavang NTFPs temporary) school by Brou ­ some of training, livelihood development and skills development but with supported by NTEC. experience and some limited experience of markets education Ban Sop On 79 Tai Bo, also Brou, Swidden, livestock, limited wet Previously ('80's) a focal Leadership dominated Representative village for Nakai and requires some support in terms others. paddy production, fishing and development village, but by Tai Bo ­ some of training, livelihood development and skills development but with NTFPs now most infrastructure experience and some limited experience of markets non functional. education Ban Done 110 Brou, a few Sek Swidden, considerable livestock A school offering Leadership dominated Representative village for Nakai and requires some support in terms (buffalo), limited wet paddy primary education by Brou ­ some of training, livelihood development and skills development but with production and NTFPs experience and some limited experience of markets education Additional support may be required for dealing with large herds of cattle and buffalo in relation to livelihood options and more intensive systems of cultivation Ban Khone 37 Brou Swidden, considerable Almost none. A samll Leadership dominated Representative village for Nakai and requires some support in terms Khen livestock, and NTFPs temporary school. by Brou ­ some of training, livelihood development and skills development but with experience and some limited experience of markets education Ban Ka Oy 26 Brou Swidden, livestock, fishing and None Leadership dominated NBCA village ­ generally very poor, with weak leadership and NTFPs ­ high reliance on by Brou ­ relatively limited experience of market economics. forests weak leadership Requires considerable support in terms of training, livelihood development, skills development, guidance in terms of marketing produce, etc. May be split up and resettled in sections in other Brou villages ­ thus monitoring of individual households may be required during transition. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 14: Local Participation on the Nakai Plateau 14.6.4.2 Training and Supervision of Consultation Process From the point of view of ethnicity, it is necessary to introduce a number of measures to ensure that ethnic issues are always included in the consultation process during implementation and monitoring. The following measures will be carried out: · Training of RMU and Nakai DRWG in ethnic awareness as part of the ongoing consultation process ­ need to `mainstream' ethnic issues · Continued support for Village Facilitators and strengthening their role in the consultation process ­ need to have meetings and workshops to encourage and monitoring their involvement · Supervision of the consultations process by International Community Development and Ethnic Manager and Lao Assistants on NTPC staff · Independent monitoring unit and the POE need to pay special attention to the performance of local GoL organisations in relation to ethnic issues ********** * * * ********** November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues CHAPTER 15 MITIGATION AND ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES Table of Content 15 MITIGATION MEASURES ......................................................................................1 15.1 RIGHTS TO LAND AND RESOURCES..............................................................................1 15.2 IMPACTS ON LIVELIHOODS AND APPROACH ................................................................2 15.3 SITE IDENTIFICATION..................................................................................................2 15.3.1 Suitable Locations on the Nakai Plateau........................................................................................................ 2 15.3.2 Village Boundaries............................................................................................................................................. 3 15.3.3 Village Consolidation and Splitting................................................................................................................. 5 15.3.4 Mechanisms for Reaching Consensus and Conflict Resolution.................................................................. 6 15.4 HOST VILLAGE.............................................................................................................8 15.5 HOUSE DESIGNS ..........................................................................................................9 15.6 LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS...............................................................................................12 15.6.1 Livelihood Requirements ............................................................................................................................... 12 15.6.2 Livelihood Features......................................................................................................................................... 12 15.6.3 Assessment of Risks........................................................................................................................................ 13 15.6.4 Livelihood Development in Relation to Ethnicity...................................................................................... 13 15.7 PLANNED INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENTS..............................................................19 15.7.1 Road Construction and Upgrading ............................................................................................................... 19 15.7.2 Electricity Supply............................................................................................................................................. 19 15.7.3 Water Supply- Domestic & Irrigation........................................................................................................... 19 15.8 SERVICE IMPROVEMENTS...........................................................................................19 15.8.1 Health Sector Impacts .................................................................................................................................... 19 15.8.2 Sanitation and Health Program ..................................................................................................................... 20 15.8.3 Indigenous Health Practices........................................................................................................................... 21 15.8.4 Education, Extension and Training.............................................................................................................. 22 15.9 IMPROVEMENTS FOR WOMEN....................................................................................23 15.10 PILOT VILLAGE ..........................................................................................................24 15.11 MEASURES TO PROTECT CULTURAL HERITAGE ........................................................24 15.12 OVERVIEW OF RISKS TO VULNERABLE ETHNIC MINORITIES AND MITIGATION MEASURES ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU...................................................................................25 List of Tables Table 15-1: Resettlement Preferences of Villages on the Nakai Plateau, 1997 ...............................................3 Table 15-2: Resettlement Site Suitability................................................................................................................4 Table 15-3: Realignment of Traditional/Spirit Territory Boundaries...............................................................7 Table 15-4: Resettlement Livelihood Options....................................................................................................13 Table 15-5: Livelihood Options and Ethnic Minority Concerns.....................................................................16 Table 15-6: Risk Matrix for Vulnerable Ethnic Minorities on the Nakai Plateau.........................................26 List of Figures Figure 15-1: Sample House Designs 1997............................................................................................................10 Figure 15-2: Sample House Designs 1998............................................................................................................11 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues 15 MITIGATION MEASURES The following sections outline the mitigation measures to be carried out as part of the SDP (see Chapters 19 to 26). This chapter deals with livelihood development systems, site location and identification, infrastructure improvements, health and education improvements, gender-specific mitigation measures and measures to guard cultural heritage and emphasises social and cultural issues. Technical details are provided in the SDP. 15.1 RIGHTS TO LAND AND RESOURCES Chapter 3 in Volume 1 of the SDP outlines in detail the legal and policy framework. Some important aspects should be noted in relation to the resettlement of ethnic minorities on the Plateau since rights to land and resources is a key issues to the long-term sustainability of the plan and the long-term security of the affected persons. A sense of ownership is essential if the livelihood development options and relocation process is to be carried out successfully. The NT2 Resettlement Policy "provides for the application of special measures as required towards ethnic minorities and vulnerable persons to assist them to take care of their needs and foster self- reliance" (Article 1). Entitlements and eligibility are outlined in the Resettlement Regulations and allow for the natural increase in family sizes and compensation options. The Concession Agreement Decree No. 37/PM of 12 April 2002 approves the allocation of the Resettlement and Forest Area to the affected people on the Nakai Plateau. Land title document have been issued to resettlers in the Pilot Village of Nong Boua and will be issued to all resettlers on the Plateau upon relocation as well as resettlers in the Bolikhamxai village site. These documents cover the resettlement household plots and 0.5 ha of farming land in the vicinity of the household plots. Decree No. 193/PM of 29 December 2000 establishing the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA Corridor Areas, the reservoir area, and the Resettlement and Forest Area for the affected people. Regulations for the establishment and operations of the Nakai Plateau Village Forestry Association (NPVFA) have been approved by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAF) and authorized by the Governor of Khammouane Province. This establishes the NPVFA as a legal entity and will have sole rights to harvest and sell timber and NTFPs from the allocated forest, provided this is done in a sustainable manner. Sustainable forest management is the main obligation of NPVFA, which will be undertaken by carrying out planning, forest management, protection, and conservation activities. In order to legally conduct a forestry business according to MAF one requires a license for logging, sawmilling and wood processing and furniture factories. NPVFA has applied for all three licenses but has so far only obtained one for wood processing and furniture factories. Thus the resettlers, in the form of the NPVFA, have the right only to the resources of the forest as long as they are properly managed but not to the land itself. The GoL is in the process of developing a legal instrument1 aimed at strengthening the previous PM Decree's 193 and 37 in order to ensure that; (a) the forest resources in the Resettlement Area are for the exclusive use and benefit of the plateau resettlers only; (b) the allocation and use land in the Resettlement Area is undertaken within framework that resettlers have the primary right to land use, both currently and in the future; (c) land titles will be issued for all housing and permanent agricultural land within one year of actually relocating, building new houses or opening and planting the first crop on the agriculture land. However, these titles will be issued with a caveat prohibiting the sale of such land within the 8 to 9 year resettlement period, unless otherwise adjudicated by the Grievance Committee; (d) the fisheries resource in the Nakai Reservoir is for the exclusive use of Plateau resettlers (and those currently fishing in the proposed inundation zone) until such time as it is proven that such fisheries resources are in excess of the requirement of the Nakai fishers or their descendents; and 1as above, this legal instrument is still under review by the IFIs November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues (e) the trading in the reservoir fisheries resources is to be conducted only by the authorized reservoir fishers (the plateau resettlers, reservoir area fishers, and their descendents). 15.2 IMPACTS ON LIVELIHOODS AND APPROACH Inundation of up to 40% of the Nakai Plateau will result in the loss of a significant portion of the land currently used by the villages for agriculture, livestock grazing, gathering of NTFPs and hunting. However, the reservoir is likely to increase fish yield and will provide a source of water for irrigated farming. The drawdown zone offers a potential for seasonal agriculture, grazing and aquaculture. Currently, agricultural productivity is constrained by inadequate water supply, seasonal flooding, poor soil fertility, and the lack of capital and technological ability. The inhabitants of the villages affected by the reservoir currently live much below the national poverty line and they are aware of their dwindling resource base. Rice cultivation is generally poor and all villages have recurring food deficits. Of the 450 km2 to be inundated by the reservoir, it is estimated that only 46 km2 has actually been cultivated; the rest being largely under degraded secondary forest cover. The CARE (1996) socio-economic survey found that there were 78 ha of wetland paddy and 486 ha of upland rice within the reservoir area but considerable rice deficits for over 8 months in the year on average. The affected people have not traditionally depended on a single source of income for their livelihoods, having subsisted on shifting cultivation, livestock, fishing, hunting, gathering of forest products and to a lesser extent on paid employment. Public consultations conducted with the affected people have indicated that they do not wish to move too far away from their present villages. During the second round of PCPP in 1998, the main concern expressed was food security, but this did not mean, nor has it ever meant, self-sufficiency in rice. The communities are accustomed to exchanging forest products and buffalo to make up deficiencies in rice production. Hence, promise of gardens, fruit trees and livestock in their new lives helped to create some impression of food security which was familiar, building on their existing practices. In communities where there was rice production, primarily the Brou villages to the south-east and Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Nakai Neua (along the main road), there was also considerable interest in paddy. As regards forestry, their only experience is the plantation owned by BPKP near Ban Oudomsouk where some of the nearby villagers work. Even though the BPKP plantation has not been completely successful in achieving expected targets, many showed interest in the prospect of working on communal plantations or working for companies since this held the promise of a stable cash income. In addition, many participants were relieved that they could stay on the plateau and stated that they were willing to try anything in order to improve their lot. Villagers are aware that the GOL prefers that they stop practicing swidden agriculture and many felt that they would be moved to the lowlands far from the forests, their traditional source of income. However they are also aware that their new lifestyle will have a number of unfamiliar aspects which, while they are willing to try, they know will require training. As outlined later, there will be training and feedback from monitoring, and this is a key component of the overall plan. 15.3 SITE IDENTIFICATION 15.3.1 Suitable Locations on the Nakai Plateau The first step in developing new livelihood options for the Nakai resettlers was to identify suitable land on the Plateau in accordance with their wishes to remain there (see Chapter 19). Land should be suitable for agricultural development, easily accessible, with available water supply year round and located near the reservoir. Twenty-five sites were chosen on the western edge of the Nakai Plateau in Zone 3 within the current Plateau village boundaries, except for the two affected villages in Bolikhamxay Province, Ban Sop Hia and Ban Nam Nian, which may still opt for relocation in the same province, which is north of the dam site. The capacity of the areas on Nakai Plateau to provide the necessary resources for the livelihood of resettlers was assessed in detail in the 1996/97 dry season. The total area of the land available as the Plateau Resettlement Area is almost 22,000 ha. Previous consultations with villagers resulted in strong November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues indications of their preference to be near the future reservoir and to new roads. Table 15-1 summarizes the results of consultations carried out as part of the PCPP in 1997. Table 15-1: Resettlement Preferences of Villages on the Nakai Plateau, 1997 y Village ce s s vicinit sour cesca cescat easar ds ensdrage yra hall etabl water yitc mill ithin ater char W W Road Fores Grazing Paddy Or egV ell tric mple Market W Ele Toilets School Dispens Te illageV Rice Ban Sop Hia Ban Nam Nian Ban Thalang Ban Nakai Tai Ban Nakai Neua Ban Sop Phene Ban Sop Ma* Ban Sailom** Ban Boua Ma Ban Phonsavang Ban Sop On*** Ban Done Ban Khone Khen * Ban Sop Ma includes three hamlets: Ban Sop Ma, Ban Hat Khamphane and Ban Keng Gnao ** Ban Sailom includes three hamlets: Ban Nong Boua Kham, Ban Sailom and Ban Pamanton *** Ban Sop On includes the three households of Ban Nikhom 3 The results of the PCPP map-making exercises of "dream maps" reveal that villagers would prefer the following aspects for their new villages: · Orientation of the village along roads with each house having access to the road. This seems to have replaced the structuring aspect of the river in traditional villages. The road is seen as representing progress and a link with the outside world, that is markets and possible wage labour. · Improvements such as electricity, access to running water and toilets that are privately owned and not communally shared. Each household preferred their own garden area. · Non-residential buildings such as the school, dispensary, pump-house, village hall and religious structures to be located outside the grouping of houses as they usually are in traditional villages. · Surrounding the village was paddy or fields for growing crops such as corn, sugar cane or larger plots for vegetables. On a few maps villagers located forests and grazing areas further a field. When the ideas for the new village were presented to the villagers in the second round of PCPP in 1998, the vast majority welcomed the potential lifestyle improvements given the poor economic situation on the Plateau. 15.3.2 Village Boundaries Earlier reviews of village boundaries indicated that it would be possible to relocate most households within their current village boundaries. Therefore, efforts have been made to select sites within existing traditional territories because such cultural continuity and familiarity potentially reduces possible disruption or psychological stress created by the resettlement process. Two classifications exist with regard to the administrative and political status of the existing villages on the Plateau. Administrative villages are those with over 20 households or 100 families. These are formally recognized as villages with defined boundaries and associated responsibilities and obligations to the November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues respective district in which they occur. The second type of classification is the "cluster village", generally not recognized at the District level in the planning and administrative context. These "cluster villages" tend to be small and scattered throughout the village boundary of the major administratively recognized village in which they occur. Often these cluster villages form when villagers have moved into the boundary area from elsewhere and have requested permission of the resident administratively-recognized village chief to establish their households. These distinctions are recognized and acknowledged in local terminology. For the purposes of ease of description, these administrative and non-administrative village types are combined. Table 15-2: Resettlement Site Suitability Within Within land Within Reservoir Village Potential cultural use Admin Admin. Unit resettlement sites Distance to each site boundary? boundary? boundary? Ban Sop Hia ­ Tai Nam Pan area, 28 km N N N Ethnic Groups Bolikhamsay Prov Ban Sop Hia ­ Vietic Sites 7-13 15-20 km N Y N Ethnic Groups Ban Nam Nian Nam Pan area, 28 km N N N Bolikhamsay Prov Ban Thalang Sites 11, 12, 13 Site 11 - 2 km Y Y Y Site 12 - 2.5 km Y Y Y Site 13 - 1 km Y Y Y Ban Nong Boua Sites 5, 6, 8 Site 5 - 1.5 km Y Y Y Kham Site 6 - 2 km Y Y Y Site 8 - 2 km Y Y Y Ban Nakai Tai Sites 4a), 4b), 4c) Site 4a) - 1 km Y Y Y Site 4b) - 2 km Y Y Y Site 4c) - 3 km Y Y Y Ban Nakai Neua Sites 1, 2, 3 Site 1 - 1 km Y Y Y Site 2 - 1 km Y Y Y Site 3 - 0.5 km Y Y Y Ban Sop Phene Sites 1, 2, Site 1 - 5 km Y N N Site 2 - 5 km Y N N Site 3 - 5 km Y N N Ban Hat Sites 14, 15, 16 Site 14 - 6km Y N N Khamphane, Ban Site 15 - 6km Y N N Sop Ma, Ban Keng Site 16 - 6km Y N N Gnao Ban Sailom, Ban Sites 16, 17, 18 Site 16 - 2km Y Y Y Nong Boua, Site 17 - 3km Y Y Y Ban Pamanton Site 18 - 3km Y Y Y Ban Boua Ma Sites 17, 18, 19 Site 17 - 2km Y Y Y Site 18 - 1km Y Y Y Site 19 - 3km Y Y Y Ban Phonsavang Sites 19, 20a), 20b). Site 19 - 3km Y N N Site 20a) - 1km Y N N Site 20b) - 5km Y N N Ban Sop On Sites 20a), 20b), 21 Site 20a) - 3km Y Y Y (including Ban Site 20b) - 3km Y Y Y Nikhom 3) Site 21 - 4km Y Y Y Ban Done Sites 21a), 21b), Site 21a) - 3km Y Y Y 21c), 22 Site 21b) - 2km Y Y Y Site 21c) - 2km Y Y Y Site 22 - 2km Y Y Y Ban Khone Khen Sites 23, 24, 25 Site 23 - 4km Y Y Y Site 24 - 6km Y Y Y Site 25 - 7km Y Y Y Ban Ka Oy Sites 20a), 20b) Site 20a) - 1km N N N Site 20b) - 1km N N N November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Traditional village territories tend to follow natural features of the landscape and correspond to land usage of the members of a village. Non-members of the village should first seek permission from village leaders before they can practice swidden cultivation or harvest forest products. Furthermore, these territories have a cosmological dimension. Many villages have guardian spirits (phi muang) whose territory corresponds to traditional boundaries for larger, more established villages. Other villages are included in these boundaries. 15.3.3 Village Consolidation and Splitting Considerable efforts have been made to retain existing village structures and respect the requests of site locations, but one has also to consider village size and the practical arrangements of providing suitable infrastructure and services. In terms of sustainability of institutions and organisations, one requires a minimum number of people. A number of consolidations may occur depending on final consultations and detailed planning. It should be emphasised that the practical aspects will be carefully balanced with social and cultural aspects for the optimal resettlement solution. The following consolidations are likely to occur: The hamlets of Nongboua, Sailom and Pamonton: these three hamlets are an unstable group that has changed composition and location several times over the past 10 years. Originally, a number of families that left the large village of Bouma, a mixed Bo and Brou village, to establish a new village called Sailom. This later split into three different hamlets in the 1990s. In 2001, Pamonton ceased to exist as its inhabitants joined the other two hamlets of Sailom and Nongboua. The Pilot Village has involved the relocation of the remaining two hamlets into one new village, called Nongboua Mai (mai meaning new). No problems regarding ethnicity have occurred and this is mostly likely because both Bo and Brou families have been living together for some time and are originally from the same village of Bouama ­ the language of the village is Lao and the culture is a shared `Nakai' culture of the Plateau. Villagers themselves agreed to this arrangement during detailed consultations. The Pilot Village is organised spatially according to the four main clans or original founding families, three Bo and one Brou. Relocation is within traditional territory, within the spirit boundaries of Bouma, the village of origin. The villages of Keng Ngao, Hat Khamphene and Sop Ma are all small villages located on the left bank of the Nam Theun above the bridge at Thalang. They form one administrative unit with a single leadership structure. The first village is a predominantly Brou village while the latter two have majority Bo populations. All three settlements were originally offshoots from Ban Bouma but a number of Brou households joined these settlements from Ban Teng and Ban Thaphaiban in the NT2 Watershed area. Two possible sites are proposed for all three settlements since none are more than 30 households. No problems regarding ethnicity are envisaged since both Bo and Brou families have been living together for some time and are already functioning administratively as one village. Relocation is likely to be outside traditional boundaries but within familiar territory with the same neighbouring villages. The village of Ka-Oy to the north of the proposed reservoir and on the Nam Theun is a traditional Brou village. There are close ties with the neighbouring villages on the Nakai Plateau, intermarriage and trade agreements, especially with Ban Done and Ban Sop On. There has also been a history of migration up and down the Nam Theun in search of suitable sites for swidden and to avoid flooding and pests. Villagers in Ka-Oy look upon the other Brou and Bo villages as relatives (phii nong) and should not have a problem integrating with regards to ethnicity. However, it is still uncertain whether Ka-Oy residents will opt for resettlement or stay in familiar territory and be included in the sustainable livelihood development of the NT2 Watershed. Special efforts will be made to ensure that a consensus is reached in an equitable manner. The village of Phonesavang is a Brou village that has been formed by households from Sop On to the southeast and by new arrivals from the NT 2 Watershed Area. Many of these villages are related but a number of families have connections to villages to the north in the Watershed. The latter are relative new arrivals. The proposed integration into the new site for Sop On should not create problems for ethnicity as long as traditional clans and kinship organisation are respected in layout. There are also two potential splitting of existing villages. Both Sop Hia and Nam Nian villages in the northeastern part of the Plateau. The Tai populations in the villages of Sop Hia and Nam Nian in Bolikhamxai Province are special case since all are recent arrivals (within the last 5 to 15 years) from November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Khamkeut District and surrounding areas in Bolikhamxai Province. These Tai villagers are located beside existing Vietic groups and have adapted to swidden farming and gathering of NTFPs. This was an economic migration caused in part by a shortage of land in their original Tai village sites and in part by the opportunity to exploit an area relatively rich in natural resources and with a low population. The relocation of the Tai-speaking groups to a site in Bolikhamxai will return them to familiar territory but with support for developing a sustainable livelihood system. The different Tai groups speak different dialects (Tai Daeng, Tai Moey, Tai Men, Tai Khao, etc.) and are divided into clans but there is considerable intermarriage and shared values. The communities in the proposed resettlement sites (Ban Nam Pan area) are also the same Tai groups, and have also fairly recently moved to that area. The Vietic groups in Sop Hia (Ahoe and Phong) along with the few Vietic households in Nam Nian will establish their own village on the plateau, on the shores of the reservoir, in the vicinity of Thalang with which they are likely to share educational and health facilities. It is important that the Vietic groups establish their own village site to ensure that they are not dominated by other groups as has been the case in Sop Hia where Tai in-migration has led to a lack of representation of Vietic villagers in leadership and the overexploitation of available natural resources in the area by new in-migrants. 15.3.4 Mechanisms for Reaching Consensus and Conflict Resolution As is explained in the above sections, efforts have been made to relocate villages within traditional territories and taking into account ethnic composition. Most of the suggested consolidations and splitting of villages above have been discussed with villagers and consultations are underway to ensure that any problems are dealt with in an open manner. The process of reaching consensus and resolving potential conflicts about village boundaries are similar to how the consultation process for all villages will proceed. Consensus about any possible consolidation and splitting or alteration in village boundaries will require the following steps: · Based on technical and practical considerations for site requirements and population, potential consolidation of villages will be identified · Examination of baseline data and analysis of the consultation concerns and proposals will identify whether there is an issue of internal cohesion or ethnic tension (separation of ethnic groups) in the community or series of hamlets that make up a community · Consultations (August 2004) have introduced the idea of consolidation and splitting of village to all location on the Plateau ­ villagers will then have time to consider options and to discussion these options among themselves informally · Consultations (Planned for November-December 2004) will be undertaken to determine resettlement sites for new villages so that detailed site planning and preparation may commence. At this point a consensus needs to be reached. · If there are some households not agreeing on a particular relocation site, other site options may be considered since it all cases of consolidation and splitting there are options. · A formal agreement then needs to be drafted and signed with village leaders on behalf of the village confirming site choice There are a number of conflict resolution mechanisms at the local level that could be drawn on to solve any potential problems regarding the realignment of traditional or spirit territories or the establishment of one village in the territory of another village. Table 15-3 outlines potential changes in traditional territories. From the point of view of village administration units, a consultation process will be initiated that will include local authorities (District and previous village leaders), NTPC technical staff and the affected persons in the village. The alignment of village boundaries will depend on a number of key factors: · Location and proximity of villages in the resettlement areas · Land use and resource use requirements, especially community forestry needs · Size of resettlement sites (at least 50 households are required for full village administrative status) · Ethnicity and spirit territories November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Table 15-3: Realignment of Traditional/Spirit Territory Boundaries Ritual Centre (Main Village) Villages Changes in Boundaries Sop Hia ­ Vietic spirit residing Sop Hia (Vietic) Movement out of spirit area (under control of female in rapids near dam site Vietic Medium at Sop Hia) into Thalang spirit territory Sop Hia (Tai groups) Movement out of Vietic spirit territory into spirit territory of Nam Pan (Tai) Thalang ­ Tai Bo spirit Thalang (Tai, Brou Reduction of spirit territory size (realignment of residing in rapids near village and Lao groups) boundaries) Nam Nian (Vietic) Movement within existing territory of Thalang Nam Nian (Tai Movement out of Thalang spirit territory into spirit groups) territory of Nam Pan (Tai) Nakai Tai ­ Tai Bo spirit Nakai Tai Reduction of spirit territory size and incorporation of part residing in nearby mountain of Nakai Neua territory (realignment of boundaries) Nong Boua Kham Movement within existing territory Nakai Neua ­ Tai Bo spirit Nakai Neua Reduction of spirit territory size (realignment of (former village leader) boundaries) Sop Phene Movement within existing territory Sop On ­ Tai Bo spirit and Sop On Reduction of spirit territory size (realignment of former medium of village boundaries) (refers to old salt licks) Sop Ma Movement within existing territory (option of move into Nakai Tai territory) Hat Khamphane Movement within existing territory (option of move into Nakai Tai territory) Keng Gnao Movement within existing territory Boua Ma Movement within existing territory Sailom (Pilot) Movement within existing territory Phonsavang Movement within existing territory Ka-Oy ­ Brou spirit of former Ka-Oy Movement out of spirit area neighbouring spirit territory village leader of either Sop On, Done or Khone Khene Done ­ Brou spirit of former Done Reduction of spirit territory size (realignment of village leader boundaries) Khone Khene­ Brou spirit of Khone Khene Reduction of spirit territory size (realignment of former village leader boundaries) The location, resources and cultural requirements have already been addressed in terms of the ongoing detailed site locations (Chapter 19). The actual number of villages and composition is not yet fully fixed since villagers at a number of sites still have to choose as to where they would like to relocate. The eventual number of village administrative units is yet to be determined. A consultation process will be initiated after a preliminary decision has been made by villagers as to their choice of site (November- December 2004). There will be a series of meetings that include GoL authorities at the village level and the resettlers led by the RMU and with the advice of NTPC technical staff. Discussions will be aimed at reaching agreements on: · Village locations and new boundaries · Village composition in terms of village units (nouay) · Village leadership structures (headmen, leaders of nouay and other local representatives) · Village layout according to ethnic groups and clans November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues It is difficult to predict outcomes of spirit territory realignment and how people will adjust to new territories since much depends on the ritual specialists and events accompanying the movement, especially accidents or natural phenomena that could influence interpretations of spirit preferences. Ritual specialists within a village or mediums through rituals and ceremonies may determine how cosmological changes will be handled ­ ritual obligations prior to a move or after resettlement. In the case of potential conflict or realignment of territories, it will be the responsibility of the elders in each community (thao khun) to meet and decide on an outcome and the necessary rituals or ceremonies. The history of the Nakai Plateau indicates that there are mechanisms and precedents for solving such issues, given the fact that many villages have relocated in the recent past for various reasons. 15.4 HOST VILLAGE Consultations with the villages of Sop Hia and Nam Nian have resulted in the decision by the affected communities to split the villages along ethnic lines, between the indigenous Vietic groups (mostly Ahoe) and the recently arrived Tai groups (over the past 20 years). A number of options and possible locations for new village sites were discussed with the Tai groups, including resettlement on the Nakai Plateau along with the other villages. However, a consensus has emerged for relocation to Khamkeut District in Bolikhamxai Province, whence all households originated. The planning process can be summarised as follows: · Consultations at Sop Hia and Nam Nian (1996-2002) ­ information dissemination and feedback as to various resettlement options but issue not fully resolved regarding ethnic composition of villages · Location of potential resettlement sites in Khamkeut District identified by GoL as a possible site in 2002 · Technical appraisal of two sites and preliminary plans and budget for best choice (Nam Pan site) by irrigation and livelihood development specialist in June 2003 (see Appendix M) · Preliminary survey of socio-economic and cultural characteristics (Back to Office Report, NTEC, October 2003). · Affected villagers site in early 2004 and meetings between leaders and villagers from host village of Ban Nam Pan and resettlers from Sop Hia and Nam Nian · Detailed consultation on option in June 2004 with confirmation of site selection with Tai villagers from the Nakai Plateau · Late 2004 follow-up consultations with the goal of achieve village consensus (in this case, ethnic group consensus) about relocation and livelihood options for Tai groups in Sop Hia and Nam Nian · There will be a full appraisal of impacts on the host village carried out in late 2005 as part of the detailed technical planning ­ this will include an assessment of land usage in the proposed resettlement area, including grazing, NTFP collection, water sources and rotational swidden fields. It is important that individual families in Nam Pan not be directly affected by the loss of land, resource assess or income. · Formal consensus is required by the leadership and villagers of Nam Pan before resettlement is to commence. This will include agreement on the mitigation measures, primarily the new road and irrigation system for both the new resettlement village and Nam Pan · Mechanisms for joint management of the irrigation system need to be finalised during the implementation process Conflict resolution measures and grievance procedures between resettlers and host villagers are similar to those which are outlined for the project as a whole in Chapter 8. Since both groups are from the same ethnic groups or closely related groups of Tai (Tai Men, Tai Moey and Tai Phouak), they shared the same culture, language and value systems. Disputes between neighbouring villages are solved by meetings between the leaders of the villages, both village headmen and their assistants, as well as other formal leaders, and traditional leaders. If issues of land and resource use cannot be resolved at this level, disputes are usually referred to the District, in this case it will be to the District Resettlement Working Group in Khamkeut. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues 15.5 HOUSE DESIGNS Initial house designs have been developed through consultations with the villagers who are to be resettled, incorporating aspects of traditional house designs among the different ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau. All houses have a number of similar aspects. The home (heun) has a private sphere consisting of sleeping quarters, a public sphere for receiving guests and entertaining (veranda) and a production sphere (kitchen for cooking food, washing and growing spices and vegetables). The proposed house design comprises all these elements: Figure 15-1 shows the first two designs developed after the first round of PCPP. Two basic designs were illustrated showing the two main house styles in the area. The first drawing on the left represents the most common type of house on the Plateau and is similar to the style most often used by Bo and Brou ethnic groups. The second drawing to the right illustrates a house style common among some of the Vietic groups on the Plateau, in particular the Ahoe and Phong of Sop Hia village. The main difference is that the veranda is closed in some traditional Vietic houses. The aim at this stage of the consultations was to discuss modifications and concerns with housing. The illustrations provoked considerable comments and suggestions, including an overwhelming desire for the first design with the open veranda, including among the Ahoe and Phong populations of Sop Hia where such houses were observed (see Section 14.3 above for comments). Figure 15-2 illustrates the modified house designs as a result of further feedback during the second round of PCPP in April and May 1998. Figure 15-2 shows house designs for single families (up to 6 inhabitants) and extended families (over 7 inhabitants). House designs may be further modified at the time of construction if the household makes reasonable request for modification according to the desire of the different ethnic groups or individual house owners. Villagers will be provided with a new house and with transportation to move materials from their former houses to be reassembled on the new site if so desired. These new structures conform to traditional house designs by incorporating the following elements: a veranda, a kitchen area, two doors in accordance with kinship taboos, a construction on poles with two ladders (to the kitchen and to the veranda) with an odd number of rungs, and doors which open in a direction other than the west. No house will be smaller than the original dwelling, and the actual size will depend on the number of inhabitants. Labor resources and time permitting, villagers themselves will construct their own houses under the supervision of trained carpenters. When necessary, additional labor resources will be brought in. Having villagers construct their own home has important social and psychological advantages since by investing time and energy in establishing themselves on their new plots, they will more easily acquire a sense of belonging to the new sites. Men are traditionally responsible for constructing houses in villages and form a pool of labor whenever new buildings are put up. A similar pool of labor would ensure that all houses are built and that disadvantaged households, that is households with a labor shortage, single mothers, ill or disabled members or few kinship ties, will not be negatively affected by the relocation. The relocation of houses at the Pilot Village illustrates that the construction of the houses is proceeding well. This involves a common frame but the details such as arrangement of interior space, decorations and carvings and other features have been carried through consultations with the owners. The result is that the first three houses constructed at Nongboua Mai are different in appearance. This shows that the different ethnic characteristics and details in house construction can be reproduced using a culturally sensitive approach and consultations with owners. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Figure 15-1: Sample House Designs 1997 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Figure 15-2: Sample House Designs 1998 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues 15.6 LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS 15.6.1 Livelihood Requirements In keeping with the expressed desire of the affected villagers to remain on the Plateau, studies were undertaken of the natural resources in the area above the Full Supply Level (FSL). However, it must be appreciated that the amount of agricultural land available in the Nakai Plateau is very small. Provincial Authorities have classified 90% of the area as forestland in 1993. The resettlement planning studies identified an area of about 22,000 ha between the western boundary of the proposed reservoir and the edge of the escarpment to identify areas suitable for the establishment of resettlement villages with house plots. The following factors were considered as minimum requirements for locations: · above El 539.0 · minimum area of 4 ha (for 8 families) · access to water supply (potable & irrigation) · access to drawdown zone · access to roads or other transportation infrastructure · access to markets · minimizing distance to new location · consideration of villages' spiritual boundaries · adequate returns from irrigated land · potential for growing rice in selected locations · social, cultural and ethnic factors taken into account · potential for exploitation of NTFPs · potential for community forests 15.6.2 Livelihood Features A full account of the planning, selection and options for livelihood development are provided in Chapters 21 to 25). Here only an outline of the salient features is provided. The main characteristics of the livelihood development are the following: · Maximizing opportunities for irrigated cropping with priority initially for rice production due to the fact that rice is the most important crop and emphasized by villagers during consultations · Intensive vegetable, food, fodder and fruit production on upland plots, replicating the existing practices of home plot gardens in the villages · Intensified livestock production that aims at introducing fodder production, improved health and extension services · Commercial forestry on a community basis, including a forestry development plan and forestry dividend fund · Sustainable exploitation of reservoir fisheries with restricted access for resettlers and ethnic groups in the NBCA Off-farm employment will be limited but there will be opportunities during the construction period and some employment after construction for skilled workers and in the service sector. The interim income target for resettlement households, including income in cash and in kind, for year 5 of the resettlement implementation period is the then current Lao Kip rural poverty line amount per person as calculated by the National Statistics Centre, multiplied by the number of persons in the household (this being equivalent to US$ 800 per average household). The full development village income target is the November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues national average level for the country (this being equivalent to US$ 1,200 per average household) as calculated by the National Static Centre, multiplied by the number of persons in the household. This final development target ensures is well above the poverty line. Refer to Chapter 25 for further information regarding income targets. The strength of the livelihood development plan is its flexibility since it consists of a basic package for all households and supplementary options for income depending on specific sites, labour requirements and interests of the households and communities. Table 15-4 indicates the options. Table 15-4: Resettlement Livelihood Options Basic Package per Household Supplementary Enterprise Options Farm/House plot: 0.5 ha (Income $ 260) Fisheries Rice: 0.15 ha (optional) (Income $ 130) Forestry Forestry Dividend (Income $ 100 +) Buffalo Raising: Total Income $ 590/HH Off-Farm Employment An analysis of the production models and economic forecasts is provided in Chapter 25 (Livelihood Integration and Income Scenarios). 15.6.3 Assessment of Risks The income estimates of the livelihood package and options are based on an average household size participating in all of the proposed enterprises. It is necessary to review the potential impact of the recommended general livelihood model on the incomes of individual households that may have different human resource, skill endowments or preferences among the different ethnic groups. Based on the socio- economic surveys and the consultation carried out on the Nakai Plateau, a range of possible scenarios have been examined in Chapter 25 of the SDP. · Households having no male working members and with old or infirm adults will be specifically targeted with income supplements from the forestry resource dividend fund to account for lack of manpower. · Given the interest in household food security, it is highly unlikely that resettlers will reject the offer of wetland rice, but those opting to do so will not be significantly affected as long as they are able to earn cash income from the other enterprises. · Over 60 percent of the affected villages already own more than 5 buffaloes but some households have no buffaloes and these household should be able to compensate the loss of about 9 percent of their income, from fisheries, off-farm employment, intensive house plot cultivation and forestry. · Experience from the Nam Ngum 1 Reservoir shows that after the construction of the dam, fisheries has become a major source of livelihood for nearly 2000 households and there is a ready market for fish both in Lao PDR and in Thailand; thus the number of households not taking advantage of this opportunity will be negligible. · Commercial forestry is a resource that is being set aside for the community by the GOL as a source of income security for the affected people; it is hoped that this will engender a sense of ownership among the resettlement community, thereby ensuring full participation in this activity. · Non-farm employment as a source of income has been very conservatively estimated and any household that decides not to engage in this will not be adversely affected. · The forestry resource in the Resettlement Area is able to compensate for any shortfall in household income from other sources (crops, livestock and fisheries). The allocation of the forestry resource from which the households derive income should therefore take this into account. 15.6.4 Livelihood Development in Relation to Ethnicity Data from the Care Report (1996) and RMU socio-economic surveys (1999) indicate that all villages have mixed economic systems. It is difficult to examine the differences solely in terms of ethnic groups due to the fact that most villages are composed of at least two or more groups. However, some generalisations can be made from the data available in relation to village characteristics and potential sites and challenges (see Table 15-5). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Some important points and potential challenges for resettlement to consider are listed below. It should be stated, however, that for the most part there are good relationships between all the ethnic groups on the Plateau and there are considerable differences within ethnic groups in terms of livelihoods, skills and experience. It is necessary to ensure that all ethnic groups are represented on the District Resettlement Working Group based in Nakai Town (Oudomsouk). At present there are only representatives from the Tai Lao majority groups and very limited representation by minorities. Further recruitment of members of the DRWG for Nakai should favour representatives from the Tai Bo, Brou and Vietic ethnic minority communities whenever feasible in order to represent interests of these groups at this level of project planning and implementation. This is significant for dealing with resettlement of parts of Oudomsouk itself as it is for general issues regarding all Plateau villages. Vietic Groups Of particular concern are the Vietic groups because of their small numbers, the fact that they are spread out in a number of villages and dominated by other more advanced ethnic groups, and their lack of experience of more modern technologies and knowledge of market economics. These ethnic groups are the most reliant on the natural resources of the Nakai Plateau in terms of hunting, fishing and forest foods. They are less efficient that other ethnic groups in harvesting NTFPs, partly because they, at least until recently, have not been motivated to earn large amounts of cash. This, however, is changing as the overfishing in the Nam Theun at Sop Hia illustrates. A number of mitigation measures will be introduced to deal with these challenges: · Separation of the dominant Tai groups and the Vietic households in Sop Hia and relocation of the latter to a site south of the reservoir or to another suitable site in the area ­ this will allow the Vietic to regain control over decision-making processes · Option for Vietic households in Nam Nian to join the Vietic of Sop Hia at the new site · Option for Vietic households in Thalang to join this new site if it turns out that there is a willingness to consolidate and if there are signs that the Vietic of Thalang are not deriving the same benefits as the Tai and other ethnic groups at the new site for Thalang village · Provisions to separate the Vietic groups or at least cluster households together for Nakai Tai and Phonphanpek where there are also small numbers of Ahoe and Salang. · Livelihood development will emphasise a continuity of NTFPs, fishing and collection of forest foods that these groups are highly reliant on. · Links to programmes in the NBCA regarding development of NTFPs, medicines and other forest products that could also be cultivated on the Plateau · Additional assistance for adapting to and adjusting to new production techniques since many Vietic groups have less experience that the other ethnic minorities on the Plateau ­ this means separate programmes for technical assistance in relation to irrigation, growing cash crops, improved livestock management, literacy and accounting for forestry management and capacity building for village leadership · Establishing regular visits to demonstration sites for Vietic groups and mutual visits to Vietic resettlement sites and livelihood development schemes to share experiences · Specific monitoring of small Vietic minorities in Thalang, Nakai Tai and Phonphanpek to ensure that Veitic participate in consultations on a par with the other ethnic groups and partake in decision-making · Specific monitoring of natural resource usage by Vietic groups and neighbouring villages to ensure that other ethnic groups are not exploit Vietic resources (previous conflicts over resources between Vietic villagers and other ethnic groups residing in Thalang have occurred in the past) Tai Bo There is considerable variation in the production systems of the Tai Bo across the Plateau. They range from reliance on NTFPs to wet rice cultivation. Of particular concern, however, are the smaller Bo villages and hamlets along the Nam Theun in the middle of the Plateau: Sop Ma, Sop Phene, Hat Khamphane and Nong Boua. These villages are likely to require additional assistance and monitoring since they have weak leadership, little experience of technology and market forces, and are highly reliant on the November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues forests and fishing. The Tai Bo villages along the road are unlikely to require special assistance for livelihood development. In some cases, measures to assist Vietic groups mentioned above may be used to enhance benefits for these Tai Bo communities. Brou Most Brou households and villages have mixed economies and exhibit a certain flexibility in terms of adaptation to new techniques. Of particular concern are reports of very large herds of buffalo and cattle in some Brou and Bo villages. These herds may exceed the carrying capacity of the proposed resettlement sites and measures to reduce herds to a sustainable level in these Bo and Brou villages will prove a challenge for planners. The current plan is to suggest that most of the herd are capitalised and funds placed in bank accounts. The buffalo raising families would retain up to 10 head, and on gaining experience with (a) the rise and fall of the reservoir, and thus the drawdown zone productivity, and (b) the productivity of fodder programs they would decide whether to reinvest their funds in a larger herd or in another livelihood activity. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Table 15-5: Livelihood Options and Ethnic Minority Concerns Main Ethnic Existing Livelihood Proposed Proposed Village Groups System Site Livelihood System Particular Ethnic Concerns Further Mitigation Oudomsouk Mixed but dominated Mixed economy ­ services, Near original for internal Ethnic minorities reside on the outskirts District Resettlement by Tai Lao groups ­ government jobs, shops and home sites immigrants, they have and dependent on agriculture ­ their Working Group to Brou and Tai Bo agricultural production the option to return to concerns may not be represented by include all ethnic mainly on outskirts Income stratification (rural their original villages administration ­ likely that more educated minorities to be relocated vs. semi-urban) and participate in and resourceful groups benefit livelihood programs Sop Hia Mix of Vietic groups Swidden cultivation and Vietic Vietic families can Separation of Vietic and Tai groups ensures Special training and and recent Tai in- heavy (unsustainable) reliance families to chose any or all of that the former are able to develop socially, assistance for Vietic migrants on NTFPs and fishing the plateau, agriculture, livestock, economically and culturally within their groups to adjust to Tai families fisheries and/or own village area ­ considerable assistance is livelihood options. Extra to forestry options. required to ensure Vietic groups adjust. monitoring of village Khamkeut Tai families: gravity Foresee few problems for Tai groups who boundaries and resource irrigated wet season are familiar with alternative livelihood use so that this small paddy, dry season techniques group is not exploited by crops, community others. forestry. Nam Nian Mostly Tai in- Swidden cultivation ­ Khamkeut Same as Tai from Sop Tai to return to Khamkeut together with Potential competition migrants previous reliance on BPKP Hia. the Tai groups in Sop Hia. Area inhabited between resettlers and discontinued ­ services and by other Tai groups and close to original host and neighbouring shops closed down territories. villages may require additional inputs and monitoring Thalang Tai Bo and Tai Swidden cultivation and 13 Mainly reservoir based Vietic households may be less prepared for Option for Vietic HHs to groups gathering of NTFPs ­ commercial fisheries. change than the Tai and other ethnic join other Vietic from previously much market Also agriculture, groups and require additional assistance. Sop Hia for cultural acitvity but now many stalls tourism and transport, preservation closed forestry. Nong Boua Mixed lowland Originally a State Farm for 7 Mainly reservoir based Lao and non-indigenous groups may Organisation of village in Kham population with some supplying cattle to the Army and agriculture. Also dominate the Bo and Brou ethnic groups. different ethnic groups indigenous Brou and but now more like another livestock and forestry. may be necessary for Bo village in terms of livelihood implementation ­ income from pensions November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Main Ethnic Existing Livelihood Proposed Proposed Village Groups System Site Livelihood System Particular Ethnic Concerns Further Mitigation Nakai Tai Predominantly Bo Roadside village with mixed 2 Can chose any or all Vietic households may be less prepared for Special programmes and with some Brou, Lao economy based on swidden, of agriculture, change than the Tai and other ethnic monitoring for Vietic and Vietic some wet rice cultivation, livestock, fisheries groups and require additional assistance. ethnic groups through livestock, NTFPs and and/or forestry consultations markets options. Nakai Neua Predominantly Bo Roadside village with mixed 1 Can choose any or all Lao and non-indigenous groups may Organisation of village in with some Brou and economy based on swidden, of agriculture, dominate the Bo and Brou ethnic groups. different ethnic groups Lao some wet rice cultivation, livestock, fisheries may be necessary for livestock, NTFPs and and/or forestry implementation markets options. Sop Phene Tai Bo Swidden and gathering 11 Mainly reservoir Dominate Tai Bo village but with little Weak leadership may NTFPs with some livestock fisheries and experience of new agricultural techniques require additional support and fishing agriculture. Also or market activities and weak leadership ­ in order to mobilise social forestry and trade heavily reliant on forests capital for the options. resettlement Sop Ma/Hat Tai Bo in Sop Ma andSwidden with considerable 8 or 16 Can choose any or all Mixed Bo and Brou hamlets with little Consultations with Khamphan/ Hat Khamphane and reliance on NTFPs, livestock of agriculture, experience of new agricultural techniques separate ethnic groups Keng Gnao Brou in Keng Gao and fishing livestock, fisheries or market activities and weak leadership­ will be undertaken if and/or forestry heavily reliant on forests necessary options. Nong Boua/ Mixed Bo and Brou Swidden with considerable 16 Can choose any or all Pilot Village Relocation ­ village layout Consultations with Sailom reliance on NTFPs of agriculture, based on clan structures. separate ethnic groups livestock, fisheries No ethnic problems have arisen during will be undertaken if and/or forestry initial resettlement and livelihood necessary options. restoration. Phonphanpek New village with Mixed economy ­ swidden, Loss of Can choose any or all Mixed ethnic village ­ newly arrived Vietic Contact network between mixed population of NTFPs and some wage fields only of livestock, fisheries groups most inexperienced with agricultural the various Vietic groups Brou, Bo, Lao and labour. Some houses rented and/or forestry techniques and will require special on the Plateau to be Vietic to labourers options. assistance. organised to deal with specific problems Boua Ma Brou and Bo Swidden, livestock, limited 17 Can choose any or all Mixed ethnic groups ­ good relations No specific mitigation wet paddy production and of agriculture, between Bo and Brou groups ­ no foreseen NTFPs livestock, fisheries apparent social tension and/or forestry options. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Main Ethnic Existing Livelihood Proposed Proposed Village Groups System Site Livelihood System Particular Ethnic Concerns Further Mitigation Phonsavang Brou Swidden, livestock, fishing 18 or 19 Can choose any or all Predominantly Brou No specific mitigation and NTFPs of agriculture, foreseen livestock, fisheries and/or forestry options. Sop On Bo with some Sek, Swidden, livestock, limited 19 Can choose any or all Predominantly Bo with a few households No specific mitigation Brou, Tai and Lao wet paddy production, of agriculture, of Sek and Brou ethnic groups ­ good foreseen fishing and NTFPs livestock, fisheries relations between groups and/or forestry options. Done Brou Swidden, considerable 21 Livestock important, Predominantly Brou with a few households Ensure resolution of livestock (buffalo), limited but also agriculture, of Sek and Bo ethnic groups ­ good issues concerning large wet paddy production and fisheries and forestry relations between groups buffalo herds, mainly NTFPs options. through savings and loans groups. Khone Khen Brou Swidden, considerable 22 Livestock important, Predominantly Brou No specific mitigation livestock, and NTFPs but also agriculture, foreseen fisheries and forestry options. Ka Oy Brou Swidden, livestock, fishing 19, 21 or 22 Agriculture, livestock, Predominantly Brou and highly reliant on Special assistance for and NTFPs ­ high reliance fisheries and/or forests integration into other on forests forestry options. Brou villages and adjustment to livelihood systems November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Small Ethnic Groups within Ethnic Minority Villages In many villages there are small groups of ethnic minorities, often only a few households in relation to a dominant group, be that Tai Lao or another ethnic minority. In most cases, this is unlikely to be a problem since all of these groups have been coexisting for a long time and intermarriage is common. However, certain measures may have to be taken: · Monitoring of the progress of the different ethnic groups in mixed villages in order to identify any large differences in terms of adaptability and income; · If there are considerable differences, separate training and programmes should be considered to offset this imbalance in skills and experience; · Visits to other resettlement sites of the same ethnic group to share experiences. The pilot village relocation indicated that villages that are mixed ethnically may relocate in a way to separate the different ethnic groups in terms of village layout since this is often based on kinship and clan relationships that do not cross-cut ethnicity in most cases. If this turns out to be the way most mixed villages are relocated, it will be easy to consider separate arrangements (training, capacity building, technical assistance, site visits, etc.) for the different ethnic groups if so required. 15.7 PLANNED INFRASTRUCTURE INVESTMENTS There are three main infrastructure investments: improvements of roads, the supply of electricity and water supply (see Chapter 20). 15.7.1 Road Construction and Upgrading The existing road from Ban Oudomsouk to Ban Nam Nian will be submerged under the reservoir. A new road which largely follows the edge of the reservoir for much of its route will be built which will provide road access to villages in potential resettlement sites 1-13 between Ban Oudomsouk and Ban Thalang. In addition, about 30km of village access roads to potential resettlement sites to the south-east of Ban Oudomsouk (sites 14-25). All new villages will have road access as part of the resettlement package. 15.7.2 Electricity Supply According to the RAP Budget, a 50 KW generator will be supplied per 50 families during the first phase of resettlement and later to act as a backup generator or for other uses by the community. The permanent installation of electricity to the resettled communities will consist of ca. 80 km of main and distribution lines and electric wiring hooking up individual households to the grid. Details of electricity supply will depend on the final section of sites and the locations of houses, both of which will be worked out during consultation with families and community leaders. 15.7.3 Water Supply- Domestic & Irrigation A reliable water supply is necessary for each of the resettlement communities and is directly linked to the improvement of livelihoods and health situations. All resettlement villages will have access to water supplies for domestic and irrigation use. Potential sources of domestic water for domestic use include gully-stop wells and deep wells. The provision for domestic water will greatly improve the health situation given the high presence in water-borne diseases and parasites reported in the area. 15.8 SERVICE IMPROVEMENTS 15.8.1 Health Sector Impacts The public health aspects invariably apply to the resettled, settled, or workforce groups. In many situations, these groups will not only live side by side but also will interact and, under certain conditions, live together. The reservoir, both during construction and when completed, is not expected to have an adverse impact on public health within the area of its influence. Water-Borne Diseases (Malaria) Water related diseases over which concerns have been raised are malaria, schistosomiasis and opisthorchiasis. These can be controlled provided the correct measures, such as environmental control, November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues insecticidal application and personal protection among worker and resident communities are in place and functioning in time. During construction of the Nam Ngum dam more than 25% of the workforce suffered from malaria at any one time. At that time, DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichlorethane) household residual spraying was regularly carried out as well as the mosquito proofing of all buildings where possible and appropriate. Despite this, malaria remained a problem during construction and there was much concern on what the malaria situation would be after the dam was completed. However, following completion of the dam, and its subsequent filling, the mosquito vector population declined and the incidence of malaria dropped to levels where only a few cases of malaria are now diagnosed each year. The explanation for the above revolves around the elimination of suitable breeding places for the two principal vectors Anopheles minimus and A.maculatus as the Nam Ngum reservoir reached its final level. This situation has continued to the present. While such an event may, or may not occur in the present Project, the previous experience with these disease vectors is important and may well indicate trends that will be seen elsewhere. Irrigation channels, when completed, may constitute a source of continued mosquito breeding for A.maculatus and A.minimus. Another potential problem is that A.dirus could increase in numbers following cattle rearing in the area of the reservoir because their flooded hoof-imprints could provide ideal breeding for A.dirus. At present this mosquito has not been recorded in the area and its behavior and survival at the altitude of the reservoir, during the cold season, is not known and not considered likely. Opisthorchiasis This disease requires a snail as the intermediate host, but can only be transmitted to humans through eating raw fish or fermented fish. Providing fish dishes are cooked, it is considered not to be a potential problem. Raw fish dishes are popular in some of the resident communities and it is possible that members of the workforce will expose themselves to conditions where the disease can be transmitted. However, it will be part of the health program's preventative efforts to inform all communities of appropriate control methods. Schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis is absent from the project area and is not expected to be a problem with completion of the reservoir or the irrigation channels. Its nearest focus is Khong Island, Khong District in the southern reaches of the Mekong in Champassak Province. Following the finding of small numbers of the vector snail at Mahaxai the possibility of schistosomiasis in the project area has raised. It is considered highly unlikely that Schistosoma mekongi would be able to establish itself, from its nearest base in Khong Island. But in any case the disease at Khong Island has been under considerable control program pressure since 1989 and prevalence in the population of about 10,000 persons is now less than one per cent, the majority of those infected being aged between 5-14 years of age. Routine monitoring will identify the problem in the unlikely event that it appears. Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) and Other STDs HIV is an important potential health problem which both immigrant workers and the existing communities face and which the Project must be well prepared for. Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs) are present in the population but are more easily identified and are treatable. Transmission of HIV is either by unprotected sexual contact, contact with contaminated blood or exchange of body fluids or through the use of shared hypodermic needles among infected drug addicts. Every effort will be made to publicize these facts to both the workforce and to the resident communities. Testing construction workers for HIV due to the prevalence of the virus in Southeast Asia is being considered. 15.8.2 Sanitation and Health Program The following components form the basis of the health program: November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues · Simple pit latrines protected by an S-shaped water trap are recommended for resettled households. The manufacture of S-shaped latrine slabs is promoted by GOL and their procedures and pit design will be followed. · The provision of a domestic water supply to all villages has been previously dealt with, but the avoidance of creating mosquito-breeding sites near to any water pumps will be assured through construction of concrete or cement covered aprons around any pump sites. · Malaria control and the control of the dengue fever mosquito will be part of the on-going disease control program as proposed by the GOL and, in Nakai and Gnommalat Districts, the joint control program with the European Union. · The local population will potentially be impacted by the health of the workforce if they are in the same area. Worker health is of paramount concern to construction contractors and an important criterion to be met when campsites are selected. Good siting for the camp with the availability of natural drainage will be an important criterion. Details of the health care practices that the construction contractors will be committed to implementing may be found in the EAMP. · Anti-malaria measures following accepted practice will be instituted at campsites and facilities established for the early diagnosis and treatment of patients. The distribution of 300 treated mosquito nets in the 1998 round of PCPP work was the first step in improving the health of the local communities. Communities, once settled, will be better served through the existing health services infrastructure which will be strengthened at the clinic and Village Health Volunteers (VHV) levels through focal training and ensuring adequate supplies of drugs and other inputs from RMU and local NGOs. · Establishment of nine clinics, staff housing for clinics and medical supplies and equipment (ca. US$ 1,000 per clinic) as well as a training program for health personnel (see Chapter 28). · In collaboration with the respective GOL health institute and the Department of Health, Khammouane Province, RMU will assist communities in the implementation of approved healthcare programs in the Resettlement Area. It is beneficial for all concerned that the villagers overall health status improves and the burden of disease in the population are reduced so as to facilitate the relocation and participation in learning the new skills of the livelihood model. This will include provision of information and education to the workforce on prevention of diseases, including, malaria, opisthorchiasis, diarrhoea and HIV/AIDS. 15.8.3 Indigenous Health Practices The inundation of the Nakai Plateau will result in the loss of areas that are presently used to gather herbs, roots and other items used in indigenous health remedies. From preliminary investigations one can conclude that there will be no loss of any plant species that is endemic to the Plateau alone. All ingredients used in traditional medicine are also found in areas of the Nakai Plateau that will not be inundated or in surrounding areas of higher biodiversity, such as the Nakai-Nam Theun NBCA where resettlers will continue to have access. The general trend in the villages is towards adopting more and more aspects of modern medicine and reliance on drugs available from Village Health Volunteers, local shops and clinics and treatment at the Nakai hospital or other larger establishments in the region. However, for minor complains and treatment of psychosomatic symptoms, that involve a combination of material and spiritual cures, traditional methods are still widely employed. It should be mentioned that even in urban areas of the country, traditional practices continue to exist, partly because modern scientific medicine tends to cure physically only and lacks a social and spiritual dimension. The following measure will be carried out in relation to indigenous health practices: · Detailed study on traditional health practices and identification of ingredients by the Traditional Medicine Research Centre and International Consultant to be completed by November 2004 · Establish links with studies of ethno-botany being undertaken in the NBCA as part of the SEMFOP-1 · Identification of rare species or commercially interesting species that could be considered for a herbarium on the Plateau ­ possibly as part of an existing demonstration farm November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues · Recruitment of traditional health specialists (mô yaa, mô maun, mô pao and mô tamyae ­ priests, spirit doctors, healers and midwives) when feasible as local health workers so that indigenous knowledge may be transferred into the context of a new setting · Careful monitoring of harvesting of species used in indigenous medicine and health practices that may change as a result of resettlement (possible rapid shift from traditional to modern medicine) 15.8.4 Education, Extension and Training Education interventions cover three main areas: establishment of school buildings, literacy and extension education and training for livelihood implementation, and recruitment of new teachers. Chapter 28 states that there will be approximately 17 schools (72 rooms) established in the Resettlement Area (one per community) with supplies and equipment (US$ 500 per room) as well as accommodation for teachers. Given the low rates of literacy on the Plateau, adult education and literacy programs will form a key element in community development. The consultation sessions with villages always emphasized the importance of education and literacy. GoL and NGOs working in Lao PDR for many years have experience setting up and running adult literacy programs in rural areas. These programs will be up and running before the actual resettlement in order to acquire the maximum benefits. It would also give villagers a positive impression that measures are being taken to ensure a better future for them. Extension education aims to persuade people to make improvements to their livelihood enterprises. It is a gradual process that first creates awareness and interest, provides opportunities for the target population to try out the new ideas, and finally ensures that the necessary support services are available for them to adopt the concepts. In the new settlements, farmers will be required to change from an extensive to an intensive type of farming. Besides, they must learn new skills to practice irrigation, fodder crop production, forestry management and optimum utilization of reservoir fisheries. They should also be assisted to strengthen their capacity to undertake community development work. NTEC has already established a demonstration farm in Theun Duane and a plant supply nursery at Ban Nakai Neua. Based on the proposed household enterprises, the extension education and training program will focus on the following: · Forestry management: establishment of committees, awareness of rights and income sharing mechanisms, skills' improvements in silviculture and a community forest management plan (cf. FIPC 2001) · Fisheries management: improved fishing techniques, restocking, awareness of new techniques, handling and preservation, management and marketing, and the establishment of a fisheries development plan · Wetland rice farming: preparation of land, training in wetland rice agricultural techniques and water management and assistance for storage and pest management · Upland irrigation techniques: improved terracing and land use practices and training in equipment maintenance and irrigation techniques · Vegetable and fruit cultivation: training in land preparation, cultivation techniques, fertilizer application, cropping practices and marketing · Livestock management: training in health management, improved feeding techniques, housing requirements, composting, grazing practices and community management of common grazing areas in the drawdown or under selected forest cover · Nutrition and health: health and nutrition awareness programs as part of the Sanitation and Health Program (see Section 15.6.2). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 22 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues · Community development: Focus on skills development and income generation activities as well as support for community organizations with links to all of the above training programs and livelihood interventions 15.9 IMPROVEMENTS FOR WOMEN In the case of the Nakai Plateau and the lowland areas, women already play a significant role in the partially monetarized economy, primarily in the selling of agricultural and forest products in local markets. At the same time women have very little political power and do not have the same access to resources that men have. The question may be posed: how will the NT2 Project impact women's economic position in these societies? And, in addition, how will the socially and culturally productive activities in the household such as caring for children, the elderly and the sick, providing food for the family and the passing on of cultural values, be affected by the Project? An Asian Development Bank Report, entitled Handbook for incorporation of gender analysis for women in development in bank operations, (ADB 1994) identifies two complementary approaches to women in development: the equity approach, which aims at improving women's decision-making powers, and the anti-poverty approach which concerns special programs for women with the goal of improving their socio-economic conditions. Both approaches empower women by giving them more control over their own time and resources. There are a number of aspects from the Nam Theun 2 Project which could directly affect women in a positive manner: · Improved labour opportunities in the new villages. Most of the work, such as caring for vegetable gardens and plots of cash crops in the vicinity of the house, has been the traditional domain of women. With improved agricultural methods and better yields, there should be more food for the family grown near the household (money saved) and possibly surpluses which can be sold in local markets (money earned). · Labour opportunities on the plantations: Caring for seedlings and weeding in the proposed new plantations and in commercial plantations would provide women with another source of income. In the resettled BPKP village in Ban Oudomsouk, Ban Jat San, it is mostly women who do the work on the nearby plantation. This income would go directly into the household coffers. · Improved Health Facilities: The availability of medical facilities would give women access to medicine and proper advice on a range of topics which affect their lives. Women are responsible for the sick, the infirm and elderly as well as the care of young children. Improved medical facilities in the form of a dispensary run by a trained paramedic and regular visits by a doctor would be an important improvement and would save money and time. This would be in addition to the obvious improvements in pre-natal and post-natal care. · Improved Education Facilities: The introduction of schools manned by local teachers would allow children between the ages of 5 and 12 to attend. This would have the result of relieving mothers of some of the child-care burden and allow them more time to work in the gardens or in the plantations. · Availability of water: The provision of domestic water in the new village sites would also have a positive impact on the lives of women. It is women and girls who are mostly responsible for fetching water, washing clothes, preparing food and cleaning the house, all of which require water. · New Roads: Improved transportation is beneficial to both men and women but has a special importance for women since they make most of the trips to the markets to purchase food and supplies or to sell agricultural and forest products. Again this would improve women's earning power, most of which goes directly to caring for the needs of the family. These benefits would allow women to earn more money by means of reducing the time spent within the confines of the domestic sphere with its reliance on men for cash income. Money earned by women goes for the most part to improving the lot of the family, such that development for women means development for the next generation as well. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 23 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues The proposed livelihood model indicates that the division of labor will continue along the lines of Table 13-18. It is unrealistic to imagine that women from the villages will have the same opportunities to earn wages as the men may have because of the responsibilities at home. Providing better opportunities to earn money by selling produce from the household vegetable gardens and livestock will enhance women's earning power. Much of the work in the community forest could also be carried out by women. In the villages, most women who are married and over the age of twenty are either pregnant, nursing or with small children. This has naturally reduced the time women have had in the fields and outside the village proper. There were only a few women in the better-off villages along the road who have access to birth control. Improving the position of women is connected to health issues discussed above. 15.10 PILOT VILLAGE The decision to move a village in advance of the main resettlement was taken in 1999 and work commenced in 2000 in the three hamlets of Ban Sailom, Ban Nongboua and Ban Pamanton that constitute a single village administrative unit referred to as Ban Nongboua. The goals are to provide the RMU and NTEC planners with an opportunity to test assumptions, verify predictions and work out solutions to problems in advance of the relocation. The proposed Pilot Village would be carefully planned and implemented and will possibly give planners insights into how villagers adjust to the new site and aspects of the livelihood model. Monitoring labor resources and institutional capacity will be very important aspects, continuing the work already completed on monitoring the three families on the demonstration farm at Theun Duane. An update on the progress of the Pilot Village status is provided in Appendix J. In terms of ethnic relations, there have been no serious conflicts or misunderstandings as of yet. In fact, the resettlers have insisted that the village layout be based on clans which group the different ethnic groups into two sections of Bo and one section of Brou. This pilot move, therefore, has shown that ethnicity is important for village layout and that the consultations are `culturally sensitive' enough to allow this to be expressed and the approach to resettlement flexible enough to allow modifications to take this into account. The same can be said of the house designs. The new houses are all different in terms of details, allowing the different ethnic groups to retain their differences in artistic and architectural expression. 15.11 MEASURES TO PROTECT CULTURAL HERITAGE Recovery and relocation of the few moveable archaeological and historical artefacts from communities on the Nakai Plateau (e.g. Buddha images) will be completed in conjunction with provincial and district Culture and Information Offices. Consultations and negotiations will be carried out to determine culturally acceptable relocation to nominated sites. The historical artefacts near Ban Nakai Tai will not have to be moved but can be integrated into the new village in the immediate vicinity. According to villagers in consultation meetings, it might not be necessary to relocate village cemeteries, on the condition that appeasement rituals for relocation of village spirits (phi muang) are held. The villagers have indicated that all items that may be regarded as `cultural property' will be easily incorporated in the move with their other belongings. Appropriate protective and/or salvage measures will be adopted if any archaeologically significant properties are uncovered during the construction activities. If properties are recovered it will be the responsibility of the provincial and district Culture and Information Offices. If items are considered as having significant cultural value, it may be necessary to seek advice from the national Culture and Information Offices. Members from these offices have been involved in the socio-cultural surveys and public consultation programs in 1997 and 1998 and therefore have a good knowledge of the culture and history of the project area. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 24 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues The recently completed Physical and Cultural Resource Study (2004) has identified structures and items of cultural value that will be inundated by the reservoir and impacted by construction activities, and proposes mitigation measures for relocation and replacement for Project Lands. 15.12 OVERVIEW OF RISKS TO VULNERABLE ETHNIC MINORITIES AND MITIGATION MEASURES ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Table 15-6 provides an overview of all the possible impacts, risks and mitigation that will be carried out in order to ensure that vulnerable ethnic minorities will not become marginalised but rather become project beneficiaries. By vulnerable ethnic minorities, one refers only to the Veitic groups presently located at Sop Hia and a few households in Nam Nian, Thalang, Nakai Tai and Phonphanpek and the Tai Bo and Brou residing in smaller villages in the centre of the Nakai Plateau (Sop Phene, Hat Khamphane, Sop Ma and Keng Gnao). The larger Brou and mixed villages to the southwest and villages along the road are not considered `vulnerable' for this analysis. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 25 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Table 15-6: Risk Matrix for Vulnerable Ethnic Minorities on the Nakai Plateau Impact/Activity Risks Proposed Mitigation Potential Residual Impact Further Possible Mitigation Relocation into new Families may have problems moving House designs based on extensive New designs may not be suitable to all Modifications to existing structures ­ EMs to houses into houses that are unfamiliar and consultations with ethnic groups and groups or households ­ houses not make modifications under the supervision of different built with household participation as properly maintained or cleaned a qualified carpenter or technician labourers ­ detailed decided households Change of livelihood Introduction of new livelihood aspects Livelihood options build on existing Poor performance in the various Additional training and options for livelihood ­ more intensive and modification of existing systems livelihoods as much as possible livelihood options due to a lack of development ­ specific training for agricultural systems will require considerable skills training understanding of new technology and communities, including those of different and less reliance on and support, especially during Considerable support, training, methods. Possibly returning to post- Ethnic Minorities forests for NTFPs transition. There is always a risk that supervision and monitoring during resettlement livelihood activities such Increased monitoring of implementing some groups will return to traditional transition as swidden and livestock grazing in agencies and supplementary training and ways. NBCA. ethnic sensitivity to local needs (on-the-job training by national and international experts) Participatory decision- Decisions may be made without proper The consultations process has made Lack of participation in consultation More sensitivity to local languages and local making by affected consultation and without prioritising efforts to include villagers' concerns process as part of the implementation traditions ­ training and support for Village families in the the needs, concerns and aspirations of and had many meetings and discussions of livelihood improvement measures. Facilitators consultation process the affected households and with affected parties. Suggestions have Smaller ethnic minorities and Increased monitoring of implementing communities. been incorporated into detailed vulnerable communities may be agencies and supplementary training and planning and relocation will be reluctant or uncertain about how to ethnic sensitivity to local needs (on-the-job undertaken in a culturally sensitive participate fully in the process. training by national and international experts) manner. Improved schools Levels of literacy are low on the Nakai Literacy programmes for all villagers Lack of school attendance, high drop- Careful monitoring of school performance, Plateau due to schools not functioning and new schools as well as support in out rates and poor performance of teacher performance and consultations with and teacher absenteeism. Literacy is an the form of materials and equipment.. EMs in relation to other groups. parents and students in order to identify asset when relocating and learning new Local teachers or teacher assistants problems. Additional measures could be livelihoods as well as becoming more from EM groups to be recruited EM adults not attending adult literacy special training in the Lao language, special economically integrated. There is a risk whenever feasible. classes tutoring by bilingual teachers or financial that illiterate groups will become support for uniforms and equipment. disadvantaged. Review and continue adult literacy programme for EM communities. Improved health Poor health facilities and high mortality The PHAP provides support in a Higher than average health problems, Increase in health initiatives and measures to services rates are characteristic of the Nakai number of areas for all groups. In higher mortality and morbidity rates counter possible health problems ­ special Plateau. Conditions could continue to addition, there will be health centres at for EMs during or after the relocation. consultations and visits by health specialists deteriorate during resettlement and resettlement sites as well as support for to identify problems and suggest mitigation hinder the rehabilitation process. equipment and training. Special measures specific to these communities if not Influx of workers and camps also programmes for preventive health in already being carried out by the Project. health risk. relation to project construction impacts. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 26 Chapter 15: Mitigation and Ethnic Minority Issues Impact/Activity Risks Proposed Mitigation Potential Residual Impact Further Possible Mitigation Changing use of Unsustainable harvesting of NTFPs in Continued gathering of NTFPs in An over-reliance on NTFPs could lead Close monitoring of NTFP harvesting and natural resources the areas surrounding the resettlement resettlement areas and along the to a further reduction in surrounding awareness programmes on sustainability of (restriction on access) zone and continued harvesting in the northern shore of the reservoir but at a forests and potential conflict based on this resource. Increase domestication of NBCA reduced scale. Research into potential old village boundaries selected products and introduce them into markets and experiments at villages that are harvesting NTFPs with close domestication of certain NTPFs for supervision. More attention can also be given sale. to successful livelihood interventions to increase income during transition and afterwards. Exploitation of More established, better educated and Each household will receive the same Exploitation of vulnerable groups by Consideration of relocation of Vietic or other vulnerable groups by more resourceful groups on the Plateau amount of land and housing in other ethnic groups living in the same vulnerable groups into a separate other ethnic groups and those in Nakai or camp followers proportion to its size and resources village or nearby. Lack of equity in the administrative village units with clearly living in the same may take advantage of the changing with smaller. Monitoring of progress, distribution of goods within the village demarked village boundaries and rights to village or nearby situation which they are likely to including livelihood development and with certain influential individuals and resources. understand better. This may include income levels and a participatory families monopolising decision-making hording of goods, controlling markets, approach aim to minimise and resources. Increase monitoring of internal village obtaining land and rights to resources marginalisation of vulnerable groups. administration and decision-making and other aspects of a rapidly changing processes. socio-economic system. Additional training and skills development for smaller and vulnerable groups. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 27 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau CHAPTER 16 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CAPACITY FOR ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Table of Content 16 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CAPACITY FOR ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU....................................................................1 16.1 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS................................................................................1 16.2 ASSESSMENT OF CAPACITY...........................................................................................1 16.2.1 Resettlement Experience with Ethnic Minorities ......................................................................................... 1 16.2.2 Implications of Village Leadership.................................................................................................................. 3 16.2.3 Patterns of Community Cooperation ............................................................................................................. 3 16.2.4 Traditional Conflict Resolution....................................................................................................................... 4 16.3 AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS..............................................................................................5 16.4 ASSESSMENT OF PROFESSIONAL STAFF ........................................................................5 16.5 ETHNIC MINORITIES AND LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS....................................................6 16.6 MOBILIZATION PROCESS AND FIELD PRESENCE.........................................................6 16.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF ETHNIC MINORITY REPRESENTATION..7 16.2.5 International and National Ethnic Minority Advisors ................................................................................. 7 16.2.6 Ethnic Minority Representation on the Nakai DRWG................................................................................ 7 List of Tables Table 16-1: GoL Staff Allocation for NT2 Resettlement Activities (as of October 2004)...........................2 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 16 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CAPACITY FOR ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU 16.1 INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS The overall project organization is explained in detail in Chapter 6. The main components are: Resettlement Committee (RC), which will have overall responsibility for the resettlement process, policy issues and auditing. Resettlement Management Unit (RMU) will be the implementing agency primarily for the co-ordination of government organizations, allocation of budgets, consultation and monitoring in relation to livelihood development, community development and training. District Resettlement Working Groups (DRWG) are the main groups for carrying out the relocation of villages, ongoing consultation with villagers, implementation of livelihood programs and designing sites, plot layouts and allocation. Village Resettlement Committees (VRC) will represent villagers' concerns and mobilization base for resettlement activities. The RMU will be responsible for organizing community development and extension services for the resettlement villages. The extension education staff required for this work would have to be recruited and trained. They will participate in specialized training in all the relevant areas pertaining to the livelihood model. An agronomist with university level training and at least 10 years professional experience will be available to or employed by the RMU, supplemented by village level extension workers employed at a rate of about 1:100 households during the first five years. They will have at least a Diploma level training in agriculture, including livestock and will be based in the villages and provided with housing. Their residences may also serve as extension centres at the rate of one centre for every two villages. Since most of the plateau resettlers have been classified as Ethnic Minorities under WB and ADB policy, it will be necessary to have expertise to cover this field in the RMU, linked to expertise in handling gender issues, community development and participatory planning and consultations. It is important that understanding of social issues and international standards of planning, implementation and monitoring in relation to these issues form a central part of the capacity building programme for GoL agencies. 16.2 ASSESSMENT OF CAPACITY 16.2.1 Resettlement Experience with Ethnic Minorities Resettlement of ethnic minority groups in the context of hydropower development is recognised as being very challenging. There have been numerous reviews of resettlement, including the recent WCD Report, that state that ethnic minorities (EMs) are among the most vulnerable of populations. Because attachment to traditional territory and reliance on the resources in these areas, EMs require additional assistance to adjust to new surroundings and adapt to new livelihood systems. In addition, a lack of representation in decision-making bodies and in government, illiteracy and different value systems, religion and social organisation from the dominant groups have in led to marginalisation of small groups. A critical review of resettlement in Lao PDR was carried out by the UNDP (Goudineau 1997). Some of the main shortcomings of previous resettlement projects in Lao that were carried out by the government are as follows: · Lack of funds for planning, actual relocation, livelihood development and follow-up monitoring; · Lack of experience on local and district levels in implementation due to a lack of qualified staff and experience in dealing with a range of issues, especially in the fields of livelihood development and health; November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau · Difficulties occurred as a result of a top-down approach from the various levels within the government resulting in a lack of meaningful consultation with relocatees in advance of resettlement regarding site selection, services and support; · Local cultural beliefs and values and ethnicity were often not taken into consideration in relation to achieving policy directives such as the reduction of swidden practices such that many ethnic minorities lost their sense of cultural identity and well-being as communities. Given this background and capacity, a major challenge for the developers is to ensure that capacity is in place before implementation commences. Following the extensive interaction between professionals and planners and the different specialists and administrators on the Lao side that has been ongoing since 1996, steps are being taken to strengthen the capacity and to establish robust institutional arrangements in the form of the RMU and other implementation agencies under the leadership of the Resettlement Committee. However, there will be a need for considerable input from international and national experts in a number of fields, including anthropologist or ethnic minority specialist, community development experts and institutional experts. See Table 16-1 for a list of GoL staff associated with the Project and their ethnicity. Table 16-1: GoL Staff Allocation for NT2 Resettlement Activities (as of October 2004) Location, and name Normal position Position in NT2 Tenure Ethnicity Khammouane Province 1 Mr Khambai Lamdath Province Governor President RC Kaleung 2 Mr Odai Soudaphone Deputy of Province Governor Deputy of President RC PT Kaleung Bolikhamxai Province 1 Mr Khamphan Soudthidampha Deputy of Province Governor Member RC Meoy RMU 1 Mr Hoy Phomvisouk NT2 Head of RMU FT Tai 2 Mr Maniveng Phetoudom Director of LIL project Deputy of RMU PT Phouha 3 Ms Keooula Souliyadeth Deputy Head of Prov LWU Deputy, Women's affairs PT Kaleung 4 Land Planning & PT Mr. Sisouvanh Development Division Planning Officer Kaleung 5 Mr. Vieng Khone Livestock Specialist Livestock PT Phouthai 6 Mr. Vath Engineer Design & Construction PT Phouthai 7 Mr. Boualien Agronomist Agriculture FT Hmong 8 Mr. Omega Planning Dept Administration FT Phouthai 9 Community FT Ms. Souksavanh Rural Development Development Kaleung 10 Ms. Keo koud Planning Dept Home Economics FT Moey 11 Home Economics FT Ms. Opick Planning Dept /Education Tai Daeng 12 Ms. Toum Nurse Public Health PT Phouthai Nakai District Working Group 1 Mr Thonekeo Dep. Head of District Cabinet Head of DRWG PT Kaleung 2 Mr Sengkeo Head: Construction Office Deputy head of DRWG PT Brou 3 Mr Khamsing Boualaphan Head of Trade Union Coordinator PT Brou 4 Mr Khamveui Souliyapom Head, Justice/Court Office Pilot Village Manager FT Phou Thay 5 Mr Inthasone Head , DAFO Member FT Phouan 6 Mr Siangsouang Head of Welfare Member PT Brou 7 Mr Bounhiang Head of Youth Union Member PT Phouthai 8 Ms Dr Khamla Nartdavong Head of District LWU Member PT Kaleung 9 Mr Bounmy Phanouvong Head of Health Member PT Phou Thay 10 Mr Syhai Keokaithin Head of Education Member PT Phouan 11 Mr Sengxai Komnaloon Lao NFC Member PT Tai Bo Khamkeut District Working Group 1 Mr Kongkham Head of district cabinet Head of DRWG PT Tai Moey 2 Ms Souny Saimany Head of district LWU Member PT Tai Moey 3 Mr Bounliang Head of DAFO Member PT Tai Moey November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau This shows that most of the staff at the Nakai District office have their origin in the area and represent a number of Tai-Lao groups on the Plateau. There are, however, three members who are from ethnic minorities, two Brou and one Tai Bo represented in the Nakai DRWG. All three members of the Khamkeut represent the ethnic group in that area, the Tai Moey. 16.2.2 Implications of Village Leadership There are perhaps three possible implications for village leadership. Firstly, given the complex structures and the dominance of certain families in leadership positions, it will be necessary to make sure that decisions which affect the future of the village (location, improvements, etc.) are made in plenum where open discussion may be encouraged. This is to ensure that information concerning the NT2 Project is reaches everyone in the villages, including women, ethnic minorities and vulnerable groups, who previously knew little or nothing about the implications of the building of the dam and resettlement. Efforts have to be made so that vital information is disseminated to the general population and not just discussed among key, male members of the village. Many of the experiences from the early participation in the late 1990s have been incorporated in the recent 2004 consultations (see Chapter 4). Secondly, women are not always included in decision-making and may not participate fully in discussions that will affect their future lives. This is evident in the observation of decision-making processes during the PRA sessions described above in some detail in 1997. The only organization that involves women is the Lao Women's Union, which has members in each village. The level of activity of the organization varies depending on the state of the village and the quality of the leadership. In Ban Sop On and Ban Nakai Neua, for example, the Union organized gardens and had an active leader while in Ban Sop Hia and in Ban Sop Phene, little had been done for years. Strengthening the LWU will be a key factor for improving the participation of women in project implementation and monitoring. Thirdly, there is a danger that village elite and economically strong individuals and families obtain control of the distribution of goods and benefits of the Project. This is a problem with all such large-scale infrastructure development throughout the world. The only way to ensure an equitable distribution of goods and fair distribution of benefits is to monitor closely using both internal monitoring and external audits. Much can be done, and is in the process of being done, by establishing good institutional arrangements, training government staff and making the affected populations aware of their rights and proposed mitigation measures. In particular the recent selection of Village Facilitators representing a cross-section of interests and groups will be central in voicing the opinions of all groups in the village as part of the ongoing consultation process. 16.2.3 Patterns of Community Cooperation There are a number of ways in which villagers cooperate among households and at a community level, and these have the important role of constituting a village fellowship and identity that often involves all ethnic groups. There are three main types of village cooperation: labour exchange systems, community projects and ritual obligations. Labour exchange systems are a key aspect that governs socio-economic interaction at the village level. Traditional systems are rooted in kinship organisations, the basic element being the extended family. Many ethnic groups reside in compounds, consisting of three generations. One of the key differences between the ethnic groups is the composition of such groups. Many Tai-Lao groups, including the Lao, Phuan, Nyo and other lowland groups, practice uxorilocal residence, that is residence determined by the wife, at least initially. Hence, such compounds usually consist of parents and daughters' family with the youngest daughter usually living under the same roof as her parents, and kinship is reckoned along female lines (matrilineal). Among the Phou Thay and the Upland Tai groups (Tai Men, Tai Moey, Tai Daeng, etc.) there is a preference for sons (patrilineal). However, in both systems there is considerable variation in preferences for sons and daughters. The Brou and Vietic groups are also patrilineal, but only the former have compound arrangements, the latter being organised in small kin group (bilateral for the most part). There is still a need to investigate the social structures of the various Vietic groups in the project area. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau Labour exchange is an essential part of swidden and paddy rice production throughout the project area since these activities are labour-intense. Labour is available from a large kinship network and reciprocity can be delayed for a considerable amount of time. This can be in the form of labour at another time or another service at a time of need. This system is, thus, flexible in terms of time and actual means of payment/service. This is still the predominant system of labour exchange in traditional villages and is preferred in villages that are less integrated into the market system based on cash transactions. Community project require the cooperation of the village as a whole, and in some ways this can be seen as an extension of labour exchange systems based on kin. Many villagers refer to themselves as phi-nong, meaning that they are all related, literally elder and younger kin/siblings. Projects that require many hands, such as the construction of a house, clearing of irrigation canals, building community buildings or maintaining a temple or road, demand village-level organisation. This is often the joint responsibility of the village headmen or assistants and the representatives of mass organisations, such as the LWU and the LNF. However, kinship ties and proximity in terms of neighbours also play a part in the mobilisation process, especially in the case of house construction. One of the most common ways of organising labour on the community level is that all households provide one person, often an able-bodied male for construction, as its contribution. Sometimes households may contribute a small amount of cash instead, while other households may be exempt due to a lack of able-bodied adults or illness. One of the most common types of community projects on the Plateau is the construction of the frame of a new house where the men of the village cooperate, usually under the supervision of an experienced villager or carpenter, to erect a frame within a 12-hour period in the evening or night time. The beneficiary household usually supplies food and alcohol to those involved. Another important type of village cooperation manifests itself in the form of ritual obligations and community festivals. This includes all rites de passage (marriage, entering the monkhood, moving into a new house, death ceremonies and offerings for ancestors) and village-level rituals, such as offerings to the territorial spirits and `visiting spirits', rain-making rituals and special occasions like relocating a village and rituals for averting unusual events, plagues and natural disasters. Participation is not only for the collective goal of the ritual but also a social obligation in terms of support in a material and socio-psychological manner. This relates to the sense of identity and belonging to a particular location and community where one has clear social obligations and responsibilities to other members and can in times of need rely on a community for support. It is important to note that these three types of cooperation at the village level will be mobilised on several occasions in relation to the resettlement process and that village leaders and members of the VRC and the Village Facilitators are all embedded in these systems of cooperation, reciprocity and exchange. Hence, all actions carried out in the village are likely to be carried out within these important systems. Some important aspects relate to the village layout (kinship and residence patterns in the community), construction of houses and clearing of fields (labour exchange) and rituals for relocation and establishment of villages (ritual obligations). 16.2.4 Traditional Conflict Resolution At the village level there are traditional means of resolving conflict. Most villagers prefer to resolve issues at a village level involving people and organisations that they are familiar with than to involve outsiders and District government. The following summarises the various level of traditional conflict resolution: · Within household or extended families, the eldest males and in some cases the eldest females discuss the issue with those kin involved and find a solution or compromise ­ not adhering to a decision or consensus may risk exclusion, temporary or permanent, from the household · Among households, the eldest males, ritual leaders or clan leaders, will meet among themselves to resolve disputes. The thao khun (Council of Village Elders) is especially important regarding disputes about marriage and spirits while the sang kai kia (Advisory Council for Disputes, est. in 1996) has taken over the role of the Council of Village Elders regarding non-cultural matters such as disputes about land or crime and function as a sort of village court for local disputes. However, the roles and responsibilities of these two groups are often overlapping with some members included in both organisations. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau · Disputes between villagers are usually handled by village leaders with support from assistants and other village authorities and mass organisations. Disputes usually concern land or access to resources, in particular NTFPs. There have been a number of disputes of this nature on the Plateau and fees are often imposed on offenders who have gone into other village territories without first seeking permission. Traditional clan leaders and ritual leaders often have the role of `advisors' in these disputes since they represent large kinship networks. In all traditional conflict resolution, the hierarchy of age (elders over younger members) and status (leadership in terms of political positions or traditional clan leadership) play important organisational roles. However, the main approach to solving problems is through dialogue and consensus within the group where the problem or dispute has arisen. There is an attempt to limit the extent of the conflict. Most disputes are resolved locally through a combination of social pressure and obligation on the one hand and the need for community solidarity and belonging on the other. 16.3 AVAILABILITY OF FUNDS Adequate funds have been allotted for institutional capacity building due to the importance of capacity building and establishing viable institutions to implement and monitor the Project. The SDP budget indicates that the staffing costs, capital costs and running costs are included in the overall resettlement costs. In addition, there is a budget item specifically for training the RMU staff and Technical Assistance programme provided by the ADB for assessing and improving the capacity and performance of GoL Moreover, GOL is providing personnel, recruiting from within the government system at the national, provincial and district levels. Much of the work at the village level will be undertaken by local village authorities as part of their overall responsibilities to the communities, including resettlement planning, co- ordination and reporting. 16.4 ASSESSMENT OF PROFESSIONAL STAFF The development of the RMU is ongoing at present with only some of the key positions filled. The RMU consists of government employees recruited from various organizations within the government system. A full assessment of the staff is not possible at the present time since only a limited number of initiatives and actions have been carried out on the ground, the most important of which is the ongoing Pilot Village relocation. The size of the RMU and the DRWGs will increase significantly when the Project moves into the resettlement implementation phase at the beginning of 2005. However, it is clear from the type of experience and background of the staff that there will be a need for technical assistance from a variety of professionals in order to ensure a successful resettlement. The district level staff in particularly will require assistance and training if they are going to be able to carry out their tasks and fulfil their responsibilities according to the SDP. Furthermore, there will be roles for international professionals to assist, guide and help co-ordinate efforts in order to ensure international (WB) standards are met. There will be roles for local consultants and NGOs in areas that the district and RMU do not have the sufficient technical expertise, such as health awareness programs, ethnic minority issues and adult literacy. Of particular concern is the weak agricultural extension services at the district levels. Given the central role of the livelihood model, considerable assistance will be needed for government staff to cope with all the implications of the model and its range of options. The SDP (Chapters 7, 21 and 24) has identified a broad-based program of extension services that will be further identified in detail in the process of establishing the Pilot Village. The handling of the Pilot Village relocation by the RMU and government staff with limited input from other professionals has been a test case and involved a complete assessment of abilities. A short field visit and assessment in April 2002, concluded that the RMU staff and technical assistants from the district and demonstration farms were participating in the establishment of the Pilot Village. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 16.5 ETHNIC MINORITIES AND LOCAL ORGANIZATIONS Ethnic minorities are represented at the different levels of government at the local level and at district level to some extent. At the village level, local leaders are selected by the communities after being approved by the government and for the most part represent the different ethnic minorities on the Plateau. However, there is a tendency for lowland Lao and other more educated groups from outside the Plateau to acquire some positions within village organizations due to their literacy, experience and skills. These are usually an individuals married with local women and integrated into village life. Hence, there represent the interests of villagers, being part of extended families and kinship relationships. At the district level, many representatives are from areas outside Nakai District or not from the villages on the Plateau. This is because Nakai acquired the status as a district only in 1992, having previously been part of Gnommalat District. Many of the positions are, therefore, from Gnommalat District following the reorganization of government staff. The former District Chairman was Brou and the present chairman is Kaleung, both originally from Gnommalat District, reflecting the general tendency for representation of groups in local government. The composition of the RMU and DRWG for Nakai District consist of number of a number of ethnic groups: Brou, Phu Thay, Tai and lowland Lao. There are no representatives from ethnic minorities from the Plateau villages. However, the formation of Village Resettlement Committees in Ban Sop Hia, Ban Thalang, Ban Nakai Neua, Ban Sop Phene and Ban Nong Boua/Ban Sailom/Ban Pamanton consist of representatives from local ethnic groups. Given the lack of education, skills and experience in dealing such a large infrastructure project, much of the government leadership will need to be recruited at a national level and will be dominated by lowland groups. However, implementation of the Project will involve the co-operation and, through consultation, understanding of the various ethnic groups. International and national experts will monitor the involvement of ethnic minorities in the planning, implementation and monitoring process. There is also a recommendation for ethnic minority experts from the Institute of Cultural Research to act as advisors to the RMU and inclusion of ethnic minorities in the DRWG for Nakai. 16.6 MOBILIZATION PROCESS AND FIELD PRESENCE Since only a limited amount of activities have been carried out by the RMU and the District in the field, it is difficult to comment on this theme in the planning phase. One should note that there is a provision to gradually increase the number of staff before the implementation phase. Once the implementation has started there will be ample staff to oversee activities and carry out consultation with PAPs as adequate training and skills development programs will have been started by that time. In April 2002, the RMU consisted of one full time manager and two part time assistants from the LWU and manager of the Learning through Innovation Loan (LIL) for the catchment programs (cf. SEMFOP). In addition, staff from the demonstration farms at Theun Duane Demonstration Farm and Nakai Neua Demonstration Farm and Nursery were assisting in the establishment of plot layouts 3 days per week. At the level of the DRWG in Nakai District, there were two full time government members from the district with responsibilities for co-ordination of district support and technical cum agricultural support for the Pilot Village. Another 9 members of the DRWG for Nakai District have been selected but are not yet active. VRCs have been established in all 17 villages/hamlets on the Plateau. In addition, there are activities aimed at improving livelihood and health in the villages that is being coordinated by the RMU and GOL and with the assistance of NGOs. · Distribution of farm equipment, tools and seeds (mid-2001); · Support for construction of schools and supply of school equipment in Ban Sop Hia; · and Ban Sop Phene (District provided teachers) from mid 2001 to the present; · Co-operation with CARE Int. rice-for-work program and the construction of fish ponds in Ban Nakai Neua and Ban Done with the RMU supplying the farm equipment; · Co-operation with EU Malaria program by supplying per diems for District staff responsible for the distribution of nets, medicine and information for training; November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 16: Institutional Arrangements and Capacity for Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau · Co-operation with NGO Amitié-Coopération Franco-Laotienne for health upgrading, training and health monitoring on the Nakai Plateau. 16.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT OF ETHNIC MINORITY REPRESENTATION There are two main initiatives that are necessary for improving ethnic minority representation and participation in decision-making. As is noted in the sections above, there is a lack of representation of ethnic minorities on most levels except for the village level. It is necessary, therefore, to make modifications to ensure that ethnic minorities are able to voice their opinions at least at the district level and that international and national experts have a role of advisors to monitor this process. 16.2.5 International and National Ethnic Minority Advisors Given the complex situation of the Plateau in terms of ethnic composition and the challenges of carrying out a resettlement programme in a culturally sensitive manner, advice and guidance will be necessary from international anthropologists and community development experts throughout the resettlement, especially in the initial stages when familiarity with international standards and WB/ADB safeguard policies may be limited. Training of GoL and capacity building will be an important role. It is also necessary to involve national organisation in the monitoring of ethnic minority issues. The following positions are required: · Member of Institute of Cultural Research to act as a part-time advisor on the RMU in the Social Unit­ details on input and ToR will be finalised before resettlement commences (ca. April 2005) · International expert as part of NTPC's Resettlement Office Organisation ­ these are indicated as a Consultation and Ethnic Development Manager and Lao Advisors (see Figure 6-4 and budget for Community Consultation and Ethnic Development) · Independent Monitoring Unit and POE to monitor ethnic issues 16.2.6 Ethnic Minority Representation on the Nakai DRWG At present there are three members of the DRWG that are ethnic minorities from the Nakai Plateau or surrounding region. It is agreed that there will be no less than three ethnic minority members. Efforts will be made to recruit new members that are indigenous to the Plateau and from Ethnic Minority groups if they are qualified for such positions. The fact that literacy and education levels are low for most Plateau dwellers makes recruitment to DRWG for Nakai difficult. Ethnic awareness training will be carried out for all GoL organisations involved in implementation. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 17: Monitoring and Evaluation of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau CHAPTER 17 MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Table of Content 17 MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU....................................................................................................1 17.1 INTERNAL MONITORING SYSTEM..............................................................................1 17.2 INDEPENDENT EXTERNAL MONITORING .................................................................1 17.3 SOCIAL INDICATORS...................................................................................................2 List of Tables Table 17-1: Sample Social Monitoring Indicators...........................................................................................2 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 17: Monitoring and Evaluation of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 17 MONITORING AND EVALUATION OF ETHNIC GROUPS ON THE NAKAI PLATEAU Given the scale of the Project and the degree of capacity building and institutional strengthening that is required for implementation, monitoring and evaluation are absolutely essential aspects to ensure high standards are maintained throughout all phases. Monitoring and evaluation will be both internal and external. A number of important social monitoring indicators are also provided at the end of this chapter. The monitoring of ethnic minorities and vulnerable groups will be especially important since these segments of society may become marginalised. Detecting problems and shortcomings in performance early is key to tailoring further interventions and realising income targets for all groups on the Plateau. All Monitoring Indicators will be differentiated by ethnic groups. 17.1 INTERNAL MONITORING SYSTEM The Resettlement Office (RO) will be responsible for monitoring of the infrastructure construction so that relocation can take place on time. It will report regularly to the RMU and the RC. The RMU will monitor progress in the preparation of the villagers for the physical move, the move itself, the post move settling-in phase and the livelihood and community development. A series of reporting tables has been developed. Every month, the resettlement progress report for each village will be prepared. This will indicate the activities completed, funds allocated and spent, relocations completed, development tasks completed, and community activities completed. These reporting cards will be collected by each village and District Resettlement Working Group, and aggregated by the RMU. By comparing the progress on the ground with the implementation schedules, the RMU can identify areas of weak implementation, and take remedial action. For those problems requiring decisions from higher authorities, the RMU will report to the RC. Both the RMU and the RO will each have monitoring units. Reports from both sources will be integrated to provide an overview. Discussions will be held with village leaders and affected communities to assess a range of social issues and to qualitatively review progress on a regular basis as part of the ongoing consultation process. Monitoring will require the participation of the Village Facilitators who represent a range of village groups, including ethnic minorities, women and youth. This information will form part of the monitoring reporting or feedback. Gender monitoring will ensure that women participate in livelihood restoration programmes, management and decision-making and other activities. 17.2 INDEPENDENT EXTERNAL MONITORING The main objective of the NT2 Resettlement Policy is to ensure that Project Affected Persons are better off after resettlement and that they reach the income targets set in the Concession Agreement. Achievement of this objective may be difficult to judge by those implementing the Plan because they will be so involved in it. To overcome this, monitoring and evaluation by an independent institution, here called external monitoring, will be conducted. The candidate organization or individuals will be those with extensive experience in social surveys and familiar with the local language and socio-economic conditions. To ensure that the best candidate is selected, the recruitment of independent external monitors will follow a competitive bidding process. A request for proposals will be advertised and sent to potential candidates, including NGOs and social science institutions. Based on a review of their work plan and qualifications, the most suitable organization will be selected to carry out the external monitoring and evaluation work for NT2. Selection will take place upon Project approval, by the RMU. A separate budget for the independent external monitor will be provided. Organizationally, the external monitoring is not unlike the Panel of Experts, in that it provides independent advice on progress. The external monitors will report to the RC. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 17: Monitoring and Evaluation of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau 17.3 SOCIAL INDICATORS The main focus of the monitoring and evaluation will be on the changes in social and economic conditions of villages, individual households and households disaggregated according to ethnic groups. Based on existing socio-economic characteristics of the villages and the type of rehabilitation and relocation schemes to be implemented, a set of indicators will be developed for affected households and villages, including income level, sources of income, food sufficiency, basic health and education conditions, women's status, etc (see Table 17-1). The monitoring and evaluation will be carried out until it can be shown that the resettlement objectives have been fully achieved. This is currently estimated to be December 2010 according to the resettlement schedule in the SDP. Table 17-1: Sample Social Monitoring Indicators Indicator Present status Objectives Household US$ 449 (1998) Average rural village income upon project completion income and at final income of per Household (in 1997/98 calculated at US$ 1,200) Division of Traditional division of labour and New division of labour and livelihood arrangements Labour involvement in livelihood on the Plateau do not overburden either men or women in terms of (study yet to determine details but time and resources ­ indicators to be determined proposed as part of Gender Study 2004) from proposed study. School Low and irregular in most of the villages Significant increase in attendance and establishment Attendance on the Plateau - lack of school facilities of fully functional schools for each village and teachers Literacy Rate 48% illiteracy and only 42% have some Significant increase in school attendance at primary form of primary education level and decrease in gender literacy gap; increase in adult literacy Health Only four health stations in the Nakai Establishment of clinics in each resettlement village, Facilities District at present manned by trained local personnel and supplied with equipment and sufficient medicines Nutritional Poor status as based on health study Significant improvement in potable water for all Status reports resettlers; improved weight-height ratios for infants Malaria Between 21.2% and 10.3% recorded in Recent significant reduction due to EU program ­ 1997 in Ban Nakai Tai continued low presence of malaria Parasitic Significant presence of many common Significant decrease in parasitic diseases diseases parasites (up to 90% of the population infected) Child mortality National Infant Mortality rate is Available medical advice, staff and medicines to deal rate estimated at 87.2 per 1000 live births for with childhood diseases and significant decrease in rural populations (UNFPA 2000) and is child mortality probably higher is such remote areas as the Nakai Plateau Maternal Care National statistics for antenatal care: - Available medical advice, staff and medicines to deal 24.2% only with maternal and significant decrease in maternal Births assisted by doctor or health mortality worker: 13.5% only Again statistics are probably lower for the Nakai area The methodology will include a combination of sample household survey, focus group interviews and participatory discussion, a combination of surveys and qualitative methods. A baseline socio-economic survey of a sample of affected households has been during 1998 (see Appendix H of the SDP for survey November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 17: Monitoring and Evaluation of Ethnic Groups on the Nakai Plateau design). This has set the reference points but the results of the individual households will be compared on the village and ethnic group levels. The resettlement monitoring and evaluation work will start at the same time as implementation and will continue after the construction period until income levels of resettlers reach the stated goals laid out in the policy. An evaluation report will be prepared each year following a field survey and will be submitted to the Resettlement Committee. Such a report could, for instance, show that some families are doing very well for identified reasons and that some other families are doing poorly for certain reasons. Such findings can then be used by the RMU to redirect or adjust its programs. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 18: Recommendations for Scheduling and Financing CHAPTER 18 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHEDULING AND FINANCING Table of Contents 18 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHEDULING AND FINANCING.....................1 18.1 SOCIAL AND ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES IN RELATION TO IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE....................................................................................................................1 18.2 SOCIAL AND ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES IN RELATION TO BUDGET.............................2 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 18: Recommendations for Scheduling and Financing 18 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHEDULING AND FINANCING The SDP presents a detailed schedule and budget for the resettlement of ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau (Chapter 28). Aspects that are important from an ethnic minority perspective, and that have been incorporated into the overall approach to resettlement planning, include the following. 18.1 SOCIAL AND ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES IN RELATION TO IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE All relevant social and ethnic minority concerns relating to scheduling and implementation have been incorporated into the SDP. The most important concerns are highlighted below. The general approach to planning has been one of establishing an effective, long-term relationship between government agencies and the Project, on the one hand, and affected communities, local organizations and ethnic minorities, on the other. Institutional strengthening and training for both resettlers (villagers participating in the demonstration farms and pilot village resettlement) and for government agencies (RMU, DRWGs and VRCs) have been central elements from the start of project planning and will continue throughout the project construction period and during the first years of operation. This includes awareness about the needs of the different ethnic groups for planners, culturally sensitive approaches to consultations for the implementing agencies involved and involvement of ethnic minorities in decision-making process and new institutional arrangements. The ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau have been part of an extensive consultation process in order to elicit their concerns and viewpoints as well as to obtain feedback on various aspects of resettlement planning and this will continue with a focus on the needs of specific communities and ethnic groups within these communities during the implementation. Ethnic groups will be consulted on proposed village relocation sites, plot locations for individual households and layout of fields and livelihood elements, paying attention to belief systems, cultural practices, kinship support networks and differences in design criteria. This is being done at present for the Pilot Village relocation (see Appendix J). Choice of village sites will be finalised during the consultation process, starting in November 2004. Ethnic groups will participate in the clearing of land, construction of houses and other infrastructure activities and be given ample time and support to relocate, including for carrying out all necessary communal and household rituals ­ this is being done at present for the Pilot Village relocation (see Appendix J). House construction will commence for the new village of Nam Pan, Sophene, Sopma, Sop Hia, Nongbouakham, Bouama, Phonsavang and Sopon at the commencement of the 2005 dry season. The rest of the Plateau villages will start house construction one year later. The basic steps and order for relocation is: · Topographic survey · Finalisation of village site location through consultation · Village layout design · UXO Survey and clearance · Land clearing · Marking of plots and land titling · Village house construction and construction of public buildings · Installation of technical aspects concurrent with house construction for roads, electricity supply, domestic water and sanitation, and irrigation November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 18: Recommendations for Scheduling and Financing Culturally sensitive assistance will be provided for assessing livelihood options, forestry management and income support procedures so that ethnic groups can make informed choices regarding their future livelihoods and changes to traditional practices. Many of the features of the planning such as the livelihood models, house designs, village layouts, infrastructure improvements are derived in part from the consultation process and the feedback given by the ethnic groups on the Plateau. This process will continue to ensure that the different ethnic groups are able to voice their particular concerns during the resettlement process. Various forms of technical assistance covering all aspects of the livelihood restoration process are integrated into relocation activities. International and Lao TA for agricultural extension and livestock have already started for the pilot village and will expand considerably in 2005. Since the reservoir will not be inundated until 2009 and training programmes will commence in 2008 onwards. Monitoring by the affected ethnic groups on the Nakai Plateau will involve members of the communities themselves (Village Facilitators) in addition to elected leaders and members of government organizations ­ this is to ensure that all minorities are involved. Village Facilitators have been active in the consultation process since August 2004. 18.2 SOCIAL AND ETHNIC MINORITY ISSUES IN RELATION TO BUDGET A number of key features of the budget in the RAP represent the concerns and considerations of social conditions and ethnic minorities on the Nakai Plateau. The allotted resettlement budget of over US$ 20,000 per household is high by national and international standards as is the goal of nearly tripling existing incomes to around US$ 1,200 per annum based on average household per village. The budget covers all livelihood and infrastructure aspects as detailed in Chapter 28. Key elements of the relocation, community development and livelihood restoration include (references to budget items given in brackets): · Family house, toilet, granary, electric wiring and water supply for each household based on the number of residents (house size depending on the number of residents) and designs in consultations with future owners so as to include any architectural details of the different ethnic groups on the Plateau as is evident already in how the Pilot Village houses have been constructed (Item G3); · Funds for land clearing, fencing, tools, fertilizers and equipment for resettler families to create a sense of belonging to the new resettlement site (Item G1 ­ Clearance of Village Sites); · Relocation costs, including transportation, labour and for necessary relocation rituals for the village as a whole (territorial spirits) and for households (spirit ritual for each ethnic group) included in disturbance allowance (Item G2 ­ Organise Villagers for Relocation and T6 ­ Support Relocation); · All community structures, including clinics, schools and tree nurseries ­ again designed with consideration of the ethnic groups' beliefs and interests (Items H7 ­ Community Buildings); · Electricity supply, ponds, water supply and roads for each resettler village to ensure higher standards of health, better livelihood opportunities and market access (Items H1-6 ­ Design and Construction of Infrastructure and Equipment); · Forestry Management Program and Reservoir Management and Fisheries Development Program that takes into consideration existing practices and attitudes to natural resource allocation, including the weaknesses and strengths of the different ethnic groups (Item F2 ­ Training Resettlers); · Livelihood Improvement Program that involves a culturally and ethnically sensitive approach to instructing resettlers in the new and improved aspects of the livelihood options, including consultations involving trainers familiar with the social and cultural needs of the different ethnic groups (Budget items in P ­ Agricultural Development Programme, Q1 ­ TA for Agricultural Development Programme, R6 ­ Fisheries Training and T for technical assistance, training, extension and various support programmes); · Community development and income generation support, including skills, training and income support programs that are suitable for the different ethnic groups on the Plateau in terms of existing skills, needs and information that has been and will be obtained during consultations (Items November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 18: Recommendations for Scheduling and Financing F2 and T8 ­ Income Generation Activities, T9 ­ Village Savings and Loans Facilities and T11 ­ Income Support and Support to Vulnerable Households); · Health Program that is designed to address potential problems caused by the project (introduction of diseases from lowland areas), incorporating existing traditional health practices among the ethnic groups with modern techniques in a culturally sensitive manner (Budget Items N for Regional Health Programme and U for Resettlement Health Programme). · Education programme supporting the establishment of nurseries, primary schools and non-formal education programmes (Item T10 ­ Education Programme) · Training and support for Village Resettlement/Development Committees and Mass Organisations, including the Lao Women's Union, Youth Organisation and LNFC (Items T1 ­ Training of VRDCs and T7 ­ Support to Community Organisations) · Monitoring and data collection of resettlers (Item T2 ­ Population and Citizen Management) Support for social development as well as technical input in terms of infrastructure, equipment and buildings is extensive and covers all areas of social concern. Since livelihoods are similar among all ethnic groups on the Plateau, differences will only emerge while accessing options and consulting with communities and individual households during actual implementation. Funds will be available for cultural aspects of relocation, including rituals for moving from one location to the other, for entering new dwellings and for arranging houses according to clans and kinship ties. This is the ongoing practice for the Theun Duane Demonstration Farm (Appendix I) and is presently being carried out for the Pilot Village relocation (Appendix J). Particular issues related to ethnic minorities include the following key items: · External Monitoring (Item A ­ External Monitoring) for ongoing monitoring and evaluation of the different ethnic groups and their performance during the livelihood restoration and relocation process. · Ethnic Minority Advisor for the RMU (part-time), possibly seconded from the Institute of Cultural Resource or Department of Ethnic Affairs from April 2005 (Item F15.1b in the Social Cultural Unit) · Training in Ethnic Minorities Awareness for RMU, DRWGs and RO staff as well as local GoL organisations involved in resettlement (b\l F11.2) · Training and support for the Lao National Front for Construction (Responsible for Ethnic Issues), including basic training in relation to project needs, investigation of new data and development of strategies, and advocacy to ensure village elders and traditional organisations have role in the resettlement process (Item T7) · Awareness and cultural sensitivity training for medical staff in provincial and district health institutions (b\l N). · Training of Village Health Volunteers (VHV) with preference given to traditional health practitioners (b\l N). · Funding for research by the Traditional Medical Research Centre (TMRC) to carry out Part II of Traditional Health Practices Survey in 2005 (b\l N). · Funding for recommendations as a result of Part II Survey by TMRC, including possibly a herbarium on the Nakai Plateau or the inclusion of traditional medicines in the Village Drug Revolving Fund (VDRF) (b\l N). · Cultural and spiritual heritage issues, including Physical and Cultural Resources Survey (see EAMP Budget), · Provisions for vulnerable ethnic minority households and communities, expected to include additional measures for Vietic groups in Sop Hia and small hamlets and villages along the central portions of the Nakai Plateau (Sop Phene, Sop Ma, Kengngao and Hatkhampan and possibly other households (Item T11 ­ Income Support and Support to Vulnerable Households) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 18: Recommendations for Scheduling and Financing A key staff composent in relation ensuring compliance with ethnic minorities safeguard policies is the Community Consultation and Ethnic Development Team covered by the NTPC budget. There is funding for an international Technical Manager full-time from 2005 to 2007, two senior Lao Technical Assistants (one male and one female), one senior TA responsible for socio-economic monitoring and one database expert. This staff will be supporting and working directly with the Junior Lao staff under the RMU at each village on the Nakai Plateau. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure CHAPTER 19 RESETTLEMENT SITE SELECTION, LAND USE PLANNING, AND LAND TENURE Table of Content 19.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1 19.2 INITIAL IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL RESETTLEMENT ZONES .............................1 19.3 PLATEAU RESETTLEMENT SITE SELECTION ................................................................2 19.3.1 Traditional Village Boundaries....................................................................................................................... 2 19.3.2 Ethnic Identity and Relocation...................................................................................................................... 7 19.3.3 Cultural Preferences and Resource Access................................................................................................... 7 19.3.4 Assessment of Villager Preferences in 1998................................................................................................. 7 19.3.5 Possible Village Consolidation or Splitting .................................................................................................. 8 19.4 TECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATIONS..............................................................................9 19.4.1 Specific Site Selection Criteria and Site Carrying Capacity......................................................................... 9 19.4.2 Topography .................................................................................................................................................... 10 19.4.3 Soil Survey and Suitability............................................................................................................................. 11 19.4.4 Water Supply and Irrigation Potential......................................................................................................... 12 19.5 EXPERIENCE OF RESETTLEMENT OF THE PILOT VILLAGE - BAN NONG BOUA......... 16 19.6 SCHEDULE OF VILLAGE RELOCATION........................................................................ 17 19.7 VILLAGE LAYOUT........................................................................................................ 18 19.7.1 Village Layout Preferences of Affected Communities.............................................................................. 18 19.7.2 Detailed Village Layout Planning ................................................................................................................ 19 19.8 VILLAGE LAND AND FOREST USE PLANNING.............................................................22 19.8.1 Forest and Land Use Planning, Allocation and Management ................................................................. 22 19.8.2 Family and Village Livelihood planning ..................................................................................................... 27 19.8.3 Forest and Land Use and Urban Development Monitoring and Mapping ........................................... 28 19.9 ACHIEVEMENT OF A 'GREEN LIGHT' ON A RESETTLEMENT SITE..............................28 19.10 LAND AND RESOURCE TENURE IN THE NAKAI RESETTLEMENT AREA .....................29 19.10.1 Privately Owned Land................................................................................................................................... 29 19.10.2 Common Property Resources and Land in the Resettlement Area........................................................ 32 19.11 BOLIKHAMXAY RESETTLEMENT VILLAGES ................................................................33 19.11.1 Choice of General Resettlement Area ........................................................................................................ 33 19.11.2 Detailed Site Investigation............................................................................................................................ 35 List of Tables Table 19-1: Factors Considered in the Selection of Prospective Resettlement Sites....................................2 Table 19-2: Summary of Consultations on Villager Preferences for Relocation Sites..................................8 Table 19-3: Technical Survey and Design Studies for Topography, Soils and Irrigation. .........................11 Table 19-4: Irrigation System Design Considerations and Options for Resettlement Sites......................13 Table 19-5: Indicative Relocation Schedule of Plateau Villages with Predicted Number of Households, House Plots and Agriculture Area at Time of Relocation. ........................................................17 Table 19-6: Resettlement Preferences of Plateau Villagers.............................................................................18 Table 19-7: Steps and Procedures for NTRA-FLUPAM in Coordination with Livelihood Development and Technical Studies.......................................................................................................................24 Table 19-8: Steps in the Land Titling Process for Plateau Resettled Villages..............................................32 Table 19-9: Results of 8 June 2003 Consultations with Sop Hia and Nam Nian Villages.........................33 Table 19-10: Comparison of Projected Full Development Household Incomes..........................................35 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure List of Figures Figure 19-1: Map of 25 Possible Plateau Resettlement Blocks as delineated in 1998....................................5 Figure 19-2: Indicative Village Boundaries (1997) of Existing Plateau Villages, and Proposed Relocation Route and Sites (as of 2003)..............................................................................................................6 Figure 19-3: Indicative Land Use and Forest Cover of the Plateau Resettlement Area..............................14 Figure 19-4: Satellite Photo Coverage Indicating Forest Cover and Land Use of the Resettlement Area .............................................................................................................................................................15 Figure 19-5: Proposed Pilot Village Layout 1 - Houses Located on Agricultural Plots - Farms ...............20 Figure 19-6: Proposed Pilot Village Layout 2 - Houses Grouped in a Village - Chosen by Villagers.......21 Figure 19-7: Example of Land Title Certificate as Used in the Lao PDR .....................................................30 Figure 19-8: English Translation of Land Title Certificate as Used in the Lao PDR ..................................31 Figure 19-9: General Map of Indicative Resettlement Site, Ban Nam Pan in Khamkerd District, for Tai Villagers from Sop Hia and Nam Nian.........................................................................................37 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 ii Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure 19 RESETTLEMENT SITE SELECTION, LAND USE PLANNING AND LAND TENURE 19.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes how the general resettlement areas were selected, the preferences and requirements of the villages to be resettled, and how the actual new village site location will be finalized in a participatory manner with those affected. It also describes how land tenure will be developed for the housing and agricultural lands, and how villagers have, and will continue to be involved in the design and construction of their own houses in their new village location. 19.2 INITIAL IDENTIFICATION OF POTENTIAL RESETTLEMENT ZONES Following field surveys carried out in 1995, seven general potential resettlement areas were identified for further review. These general areas were numbered and located as follows: General area No.1, located in Nakai District, Khammouane Province, southeast of Ban Oudomsouk, the boundaries of this area being adjacent to the proposed reservoir and escarpment; General area No. 2, located in Nakai District southeast of Site 1 near the villages of Ban Done and Ban Khone Khen; General area No. 3, also situated in Nakai District, northwest of the villages of Ban Oudomsouk, on the proposed reservoir shoreline; General area No. 4A, located in Nakai District, southwest of the Site No.3; General area No. 4B, situated in Gnommalat District, Khammouane Province, east of the village of Ban Pha Toung; General area No. 5A, situated north of the village of Ban Nam Nian, Khamkeut District, Bolikhamxay Province; General area No. 5B, located on road No 8 to Ban Lak Sao, about 12 km north of Site 5A, in Khamkeut District, Bolikhamxay Province. This area includes Ban Pakkatan and its periphery. After further study, four of these seven areas were assessed as suitable for resettlement. These were general areas 1, 2 and 3 on the Nakai Plateau (referred to later as the Plateau Resettlement Area) and general area 4B in the Gnommalat District (referred to as the downstream Resettlement Area). The other three areas were rejected on economic and/or environmental grounds. Public consultations and participatory resettlement studies demonstrated a very strong villager preference to remain on the Plateau rather than moving to the lowland areas, except for the three Tai families from Sophia and Namnian villages who chose to return to their former home in the Lak Sao area. The relocation of these two villages will be explained in detail in Section 19.11. Although General Area 4B had obvious potential, it was not on the plateau, and, as was pointed out by the Panel of Experts (POE), the area may better be reserved for use by voluntary settlers from the Nakai- Nam Theun NPA in the medium term or potential replacement land for communities affected along the Downstream Channel or otherwise affected by project construction. For that reason it was not considered further in the Plateau Resettlement Plan, which turned its focus to areas on the Nakai Plateau. In response to villager preference for the plateau, focus turned to the Plateau Resettlement Area and 25 blocks were delineated as suitable for potential resettlement (see Figure 19-1). These 25 zones are located on the western edge of the Nakai Plateau, and generally fall within the existing Plateau village boundaries. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure 19.3 PLATEAU RESETTLEMENT SITE SELECTION A variety of factors are important to the Project planners (NTPC and GOL) and to villagers when deciding on their resettlement site preferences and these presented in Table 19-1. Table 19-1: Factors Considered in the Selection of Prospective Resettlement Sites 1. The resettlement sites should be as near as possible to the old village location. Social 2. The resettlement site should not infringe on land or resources of other villages, but if it considerations does then resolutions and agreements should be amicable developed 3. Social and cultural factors must be taken into account including the village spiritual areas and customary boundaries. 4. Access to water: Water supply must be accessible from the reservoir, along with an elevated site for the header tank to allow gravity irrigation to farm plots 5. Topography: Slope for the farm plot area(s) should be as gentle as possible and ideally not exceed 15% Agricultural 6. Soils: The soils selected must be capable of providing adequate returns with a potential considerations for the production of wetland paddy rice wherever possible 7. Layout: All farm plots should form 1 contiguous land area wherever possible 8. Land availability: the area of land available for cultivation, preferably contiguous areas 9. Roads or other transportation infrastructure must be sufficiently accessible to Access ensure access to markets and other support services. 10. Access to the reservoir, drawdown zone, forest and grazing areas should be convenient. All these factors are investigated and considered thru the village consultation process (see Chapter 4), and the participation of affected villages has and continues to be an underlying theme of the resettlement area selection process. 19.3.1 Traditional Village Boundaries Initial assessments of village boundaries indicate that it will be possible to relocate the majority of households within their existing village and administrative boundaries. For those relocating into the current boundaries of other villages, they are familiar with the proposed resettlement sites. Two classifications exist with regard to the administrative and political status of the existing villages on the Plateau. Administrative villages are those with over 50 households. These are formally recognized as villages with defined boundaries and associated responsibilities and obligations to the respective district in which they lie. Figure 19-2 shows these existing village boundaries, as assessed in 1997. The second type concerns hamlets, which tend to be small and scattered throughout the village boundary of the major administratively recognized village in which they occur. Often these hamlets form either (a) when villagers have moved into the boundary area from elsewhere and have requested permission of the resident administratively-recognized village headmen to establish their households, (b) families of a village decide to establish dwelling closer to their (newly opened, or shifting) agricultural fields, or when villages split and a number of families relocate due to a shortage of land or resources in a particular area. Traditional village territories tend to follow natural features of the landscape, and may correspond to the customary land use patterns of the villagers. In addition, these boundaries often have a cosmological dimension. Many villages have guardian spirits (phi muang) whose territory corresponds to the traditional boundaries for larger, more established villages. Other villages or hamlets that are established later are included within these spirit boundaries. However, traditional village boundaries are, especially on the plateau, somewhat dynamic, reflecting the change on village locations and establishment of new villages over the last 20 to 30 years. The following November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure describes the existing village boundaries in the Resettlement Area, and the way that other villages may be accommodated in these areas. Ban Thalang village boundaries This village had no clear border in 1998 as it is a relatively new immigrant village. Previously the area was part of the administrative area of the Ban Nakai Tai. The boundary to the north is generally recognized as the Nam Theun, although the villages of Sop Hia and Ban Nam Nian also utilize this northern area for swidden cultivation. Ban Talang will be relocated within its current village boundaries. Some villagers of Bna Sop Hia, and the village of Ban Sophene will move into this area Ban Nong Boua Kham boundaries: This is also a new immigrant village without clear boundaries. Ban Nong BouaKham will be relocated within its current village boundaries. Some villagers of Ban Sop Ma will move into this area Ban Nakai Tai village boundaries The southern boundary of Ban Nakai Tai borders with Ban Nakai Neua. It follows the Huoui Nakai west to the Sayphou Ak Range and the tributary of the Huoui Paduk. The western edge is the escarpment to the Nam Malou, to the Nam Gnalong, and then to the Nam Theun. From here the boundary is the Nam Theun upstream to Ban Thalang. The eastern boundary is along the Nam Theun from Ban Thalang to the track which leads to Ban Sop Phene. Ban Nakai Neua village boundaries The northern border of Ban Nakai Neua is Ban Nakai Tai along the Huoui Nakai to the boundary of Ban Sop On. In the south, the border is the tributary of the Huoui Hai up to the Range and over to the Huoui Paduk. The western boundary borders Ban Van Giem along a ridgeline going north to the Huoui Paduk. The village of Ban Nakai Neua is one of the largest villages in the proposed Resettlement Area. This village contains 67 families and 303 inhabitants and is centered near the old district headquarters at Nakai Kang. Ban Nakai Neua and Naki Tai will be relocated within their current village boundaries, and no other villagers will be relocated into these current village boundaries. Ban Boua Ma village boundaries This village is bordered in the north by Ban Nong Boua, and the boundary is determined by Huoui Samkha and the Huoui Arak towards the watershed of the Huoui Khuang. The south is bordered by Gnommalat District and the Nam Kathang Gnai towards Nam Nong Boua Nyai and to the Nam Theun. The eastern boundary is Ban Phonsavang on the Nam Theun from the Huoui Arak to the Nong Tai Khuang pond. The western boundary is Ban Oudomsouk and the Huoui Ta Bot and Nam Kathang Gnai, which commences from the watershed of the Huoui Khwang to Huoui Ta Bot until the tributary of the Huoui Kathang. Ban Bouma will be relocated within its current village boundaries, and no other villagers will be relocated into these current village boundaries, except that some families from Keng Yao and Sopma hamlets may join the families of Bouma in its new village site. Ban Sop On village boundaries The northern boundary is Ban Sop Ma and Ban Phonsavang. The boundary runs from the Na Hao hill to Nong Tai Khuang pond, across the Nam Theun and the feeder road to Ban Nong Boua across Nam Theun to Nong Phong towards the farming areas. It follows across the Khok Kwang and road to Huoui Tao and the Nam Kathang. The southern boundary is with Ban Done, which commences from the tributary of the Huoui Chicho (which drains into the Nam Theun) and then to the Sayphou Ak Range to the Nam On and along the Nam On to the tributary of the Huoui Swing, along the Huoui Swing and finally to the road to the Nam Kathang Gnai. The eastern border is with Ban Ka Oy commencing from the Phu Hao southward along the Huoui Xang Tay, Huoui Tong and to the tributary of the Huoui November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Chicho. Gnommalat District forms the western boundary where the Nam Kathang Gnai is the border. The boundary starts from the tributary of the Huoui Tao and follows the Huoui Kathang to Ban Done. Ban SopOn will be relocated within its current village boundaries. Bna Phonsvang, and possibly some families from Ban Kaoy, will be relocated into these current village boundaries. Ban Done village boundaries In the north, Ban Done is bordered by Ban Sop On, with the Nam Swing as the border from the Huoui Swing to the Nam On. The boundary follows along the Huoui Swing across the feeder road to the Nam Kathang Gnai. The opposite side of the Nam On is the boundary from the tributary of the Huoui Ta Long to the Sayphou Xoy Range towards the Huoui Yai where it drains to the Huoui Mun Tun. The eastern boundary is Ban Ka Oy from the Huoui Mum Tun to the old road towards the watershed of the Huoui Kheng Sun that drains to the Nam On until it reaches the Huoui Khone Khen. The border to the south is from the tributary of the Huoui Khone Khen to the feeder road towards Huoui Lao Yai and into the Nam Kathang Gnai. The western boundary is from the Huoui Lao Yai to the Nam Kathang towards the track to Ban Gnommalat Neua across the Nam Kathang Gnai. Ban Khone Khen village boundaries The village is bordered in the north by Ban Done with the Huoui Khone Khen as the border from the tributary of the Huoui Kathang Gnai and the Huoui Lao Yai which drains to the Huoui Khone Khen towards the Nam Theun. From here the boundary runs on the opposite side of the Nam Theun along the Huoui Mun Turn. In the south the boundary is the Gnommalat District, with the border on the Huoui Leak and then from the watershed of the Huoui Leak to the Nam on. The eastern boundary is the tributary of the Huoui Leak and Nam on and then to the watershed of the Huoui Theun. The western boundary is Gnommalat District (Sayphou Xoy Range) with the Nam Kathang Gnai as the border. The villages of Ban Done and Ban Khon Khen will both be relocated within their current village boundaries, and no other village will be relocated there, although they may be joined by some families from Ban Kaoy. These above village boundaries were described by the villagers themselves and correspond to a combination of administrative, customary land-use and spiritual boundaries. It should be noted that some areas of the Plateau which are not identified as belonging to a particular village, although villagers do make use of them for hunting, fishing, harvesting NTFPs, and for grazing. In summary, nine of the seventeen villages will be moved relatively short distances and within cultural, land-use and administrative boundaries. Another six villages will be relocated within these boundaries, while two village Sop Hia and Nam Nian, will be relocated back close to their original areas in Khamkerd District. Prior to and after relocation, new village boundaries are require to be negotiated, as described in Section 19.8 on FLUPAM. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-1: Map of 25 Possible Plateau Resettlement Blocks as delineated in 1998 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection and Land Tenure Figure 19-2: Indicative Village Boundaries (1997) of Existing Plateau Villages, and Proposed Relocation Route and Sites (as of 2003) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection and Land Tenure 19.3.2 Ethnic Identity and Relocation From the point of view of ethnic identity and the possible impact on the culture of the different ethnic groups, all groups share a common culture on the Nakai Plateau, as described in the EMDP. The vast majority converse in Lao, share cosmological beliefs and a common livelihood system. Indeed, many plateau inhabitants, especially the Tai Bo, describe themselves as `Tai Nakai', meaning `ethnic group of the Nakai Plateau'. The Brou and Bo populations have co-existed in the region for hundreds of years and intermarriage is common. Therefore, one should consider that any relocation within the Plateau, even if they are outside traditional village boundaries, as being within the general cultural and cosmological system of reference. Thus, such relocation is not a threat to traditional ways of thinking or an introduction of new cultural beliefs. There are historical instances of movement within the plateau area with existing villages splitting, satellite hamlets developing and smaller communities joining. Some examples of this historical splitting and consolidation of plateau villages are described under Village Consolidation in Section 19.3.5. 19.3.3 Cultural Preferences and Resource Access When the idea of relocation was presented to affected villagers during the participatory consultative process, their first reactions were mainly positive. Most welcomed the potential for improved lifestyles and new livelihood options given the poor economic situation on the Plateau. Their main concern was food security, but this did not mean, nor has it ever meant, self-sufficiency in rice. The communities are accustomed to exchanging forest products, fish and livestock for rice or working for others to make up deficiencies in family food needs. Hence, the potential for vegetable, fruit trees and livestock in their new livelihoods was a food security concept with which they were already familiar, given their existing practices. There are also instances in plateau communities where paddy rice production has been developed, primarily the Brou villages to the southeast (Don and Khon Kaen and the Bo villages of Ban Nakai Tai and Ban Nakai Neua. As regards production forestry, the plateau populations have experience in at least two types; (a) the forest plantation owned and managed by BPKP near Ban Oudomsouk (now defunct) where some of the nearby villagers have worked, and (b) the various logging activities over the last ten years, in which some villagers have participated in, in various capacities. Many villagers are now interested in the prospect of working on community commercial forestry activities, particularly as it held the promise of a stable cash income. Villagers are aware that the GOL prefers that they stop practicing pioneering swidden in new areas of forest and try to develop sedentary farming practices. Although they are more familiar with swidden agriculture, most expressed a willingness to adopt stabilised agricultural activities. However they were also keenly aware that their new lifestyles would have a number of unfamiliar aspects for which they would require training. 19.3.4 Assessment of Villager Preferences in 1998 Villager preferences for the plateau relocation sites have been previously assessed on two occasions. The first, in the dry season of 1997/78, identified the general area where they would prefer to be resettled. In the second assessment, conducted in 2003 more specific sites were identified within the broader area selected earlier. The results of these two participatory assessments, along with the relocation distances and boundary changes that they would incur, are presented in Table 19-2 and the latest indicative resettlement site shown in Figure 19-2. The third assessment will be made during the rather protracted FLUPAM process (see Section 19.8) November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Table 19-2: Summary of Consultations on Villager Preferences for Relocation Sites. Within Potential sites same Within Within Reservoir considered in 1997-98, Indicative Site(s) 2003, and distance ethnic village district Village > distance from village from current village group boundary boundary Ban Thalang Zone 11: 2 km Zone 11: 0.5 km Yes Yes Yes Zone 12: 2.5 km Zone 13: 1 km Ban Nong Boua Zone 5: 1.5 km Zone7 : 2.9 km Yes Yes Yes Kham Zone 6: 2 km Zone 8: 2 km Ban Nakai Tai Zone 4a): 1 km Zone 2: 0.6 km Yes Yes Yes Zone 4b): 2 km Zone 4c): 3 km Ban Nakai Neua Zone 1: 1 km Zone 1: 0.9 km Yes Yes Yes Zone 2: 1 km Zone 3: 0.5 km Ban Sop Phene Zone 1: 5 km Zone 11: 12.2 km No No No Zone 2: 5 km Ban Hat (Considered as one Zone 11: 13.2 km (possibly with Sop No No No Khamphane administrative unit) Ma) Ban Sop Ma Zone 14: 6 km Zone 8: 10.6 km (with Hat No No No Zone 15: 6 km Khamphane) Yes No No Zone 16: 6 km Zone 16: 5 km (with Keng Gnao) Ban Keng Gnao Zone 16: 4.8 km (possibly with Sop Yes No No Ma) Ban Sailom, Ban Zone 16: 2 km Zone 16: 2 km (pilot village site) Yes Yes Yes Nong Boua, Zone 17: 3 km Ban Pamanton Zone 18: 3 km Ban Boua Ma Zone 17: 2 km Zone 17: 2km Yes Yes Yes Zone 18: 1 km Zone 19: 3 km Ban Phonsavang Zone 19: 3 km Zone 18: 3 km beside Theun Douane Yes No No Zone 20a): 1 km Demo Farm Zone 20b): 5 km Zone 19: 3.5 km (with Sop On) Yes No No Ban Sop On Zone 20a): 3 km Zone 19: 3.3 km (possibly together Yes Yes Yes (including Zone 20b): 3 km with Phonsavang) Nikhom 3) Zone 21: 4 km Ban Done Zone 21a): 3 km Zone 21: 2.9 km Yes Yes Yes Zone 21b): 2 km Zone 21c): 2 km Zone 22: 2 km Ban Khone Khen Zone 23: 4 km Location to the south of original site Yes Yes Yes Zone 24: 6 km 22: 2 km Zone 25: 7 km Ban Ka Oy Zone 20a): 1 km Zone 19: 12 km (together with Sop No No No Zone 20b): 1 km On & Phonesavang) BR : 1 km Zone 21: 10.5 km ( with Done) Near Zone 22: 11 km ( with Khone Khen) Ban Sop Hia 1) in-situ, up slope, 500 m Zones 10-12: as its own village, or Partially Partially No (Vietic Groups) 2) Zones 7-13: 15-20 km possibly a hamlet of Talang 3) Bolikhamxay Ban Sop Hia and "as above" Ban Nam Pan area, in Khamkerd Yes No No Nam Nian District (Tai Groups) 19.3.5 Possible Village Consolidation or Splitting As can be seen from the above table, adhering to village preferences for relocation sites will, in some instances, require the consolidation of more than one community or hamlets into a resettlement village. Such village consolidation will facilitate the provision of improved infrastructure and services, and with the proper support as planned under the SDP, will allow stronger and more cohesive communities to develop, with the capacity to manage and improve their own livelihoods in a cooperative and sustainable manner. Existing village structures will be maintained, and the cultural traditions of villagers will be November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure respected during any consolidation process that may be required. The following consolidations are likely to occur: 1. The hamlets of Nongboua, Sailom and Pamonton are an unstable village group that has changed composition and location several times over the past 10 years. Originally, a number of families left the large village of Bouma, a mixed Bo and Brou village, to establish a new village called Sailom. This later split into different hamlets in the 1990s. In 2001, Pamonton ceased to exist as its inhabitants joined the other two hamlets. The Pilot Village involves the relocation of the remaining two hamlets into one new village, called Nongboua Mai ('mai' meaning new). In establishing this 'consolidated' village, there have been no problems regarding ethnicity since both Bo and Brou families have been living together for some time, and are originally from the same village. Villagers themselves agreed to this arrangement during detailed consultations held in 2002-03. In addition, the site of relocation is within traditional territory and within the spirit boundaries of Bouma village, the village of origin of these hamlets. 2. The villages of Keng Ngao, Hat Khamphene and Sop Ma are all small hamlets, located on the left bank of the Nam Theun upstream from Ban Talang. They form one administrative village unit with a single leadership structure. The first village is a predominantly Brou village while the latter two have majority Bo populations. All three settlements are fairly new, being formed as offshoots from Ban Bouma but a number of Brou households joined these settlements from Ban Teng and Ban Thaphaiban in the NT2 Watershed area. There are two proposed sites for the three settlements since none are more than 30 households. No problems regarding ethnicity is envisaged since both Bo and Brou families have been living together for some time, and the village units are already functioning administratively as one village. Proposed relocation is outside traditional boundaries but within familiar territory with the same neighbouring villages. 3. The village of Ka-Oy to the north of the proposed reservoir and on the Nam Theun is a traditional Brou village. There are close ties with the neighbouring villages on the Nakai Plateau, intermarriage and trade agreements, especially with Ban Done, Khone Khen and Ban Sop On. There has also been a history of migration up and down the Nam Theun in search of suitable sites for swidden and to avoid flooding and pests. Villagers in Ka-Oy look upon the other Brou and Bo villages as relatives (phii nong) and should not have a problem integrating with regards to ethnicity. Special efforts should be made to ensure that a consensus is reached in an equitable manner and that the village moves as a whole unit, or at least following clan lines. 4. The village of Phonesavang is a Brou village that has been formed by households from Sop On to the southeast and by new arrivals from the NT 2 Watershed Area. Many of these villages are related but a number of families have connections to villages to the north in the Watershed. The latter are relatively new arrivals. The proposed integration into the new site for Sop On should not create problems for ethnicity as long as traditional clans and kinship organisation are respected in the village layout. If necessary, there is also the option of relocating Ban Phonesavang on a separate site. 5. The Tai populations in the villages of Sop Hia and Nam Nian in Bolikhamxai Province are a special case since most are recent arrivals (within the last 10 years) from Khamkeut District and surrounding areas. These villages have located beside existing Vietic groups and have adapted to swidden farming and gathering of NTFPs. This was an economic migration caused in part by a shortage of land in their original village sites and in part by the opportunity to exploit an area relatively rich in natural resources and with a low population. The relocation of the Tai-speaking groups to a site in Bolikhamxai would be to return them to familiar territory, of the same ethnic group, but with support for developing sustainable livelihood systems. The various Tai groups speak different dialects and are divided into clans but there is considerable intermarriage and shared values. 19.4 TECHNICAL SITE INVESTIGATIONS 19.4.1 Specific Site Selection Criteria and Site Carrying Capacity Following the consensus amongst plateau villages that the main resettlement zone should be on the southern shore of the Nakai Reservoir, the Prime Ministerial Decree 193/PM was enacted on 29th November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure December 29, 2000 to legally establish the entire plateau area southeast of the reservoir as the Resettlement Area, and defined its boundaries and legal status. The decree required that more detailed studies would be required to establish the exact location of specific resettlement sites. During consultations undertaken between 2001 and 2003, leaders of plateau villages then went on to further clarify the exact preferred location of the resettled village (see Figure 19-2). Notwithstanding the fact that total village consensus will first be sought, rather than just villager leaders, for relocation site preference, a range of technical studies or other considerations must also be undertaken to confirm the resources, the development potential and the suitability of each site, before detailed village layout planning can be undertaken. At least three types of technical studies are will required to precisely locate the resettlement village sites and farm plot areas (see Sections 19.4.2 to 19.4.4) based on the three main technical considerations for resettlement site selection and suitability assessment - topographic, soils and irrigability, which are part of the larger considerations of agricultural potential, social considerations and resource endowments and location (see Table 19-1). On the basis of the above criteria, potential resettlement sites should be located on the reservoir shoreline, with access to irrigation water, and the drawdown zone. Access to grazing and forest lands is also important. Most of the land should have slopes less than 15 percent, suitable for village sites and the establishment of individual farm plots. Many of the potential resettlement areas meet these criteria, and also fall within existing village customary use areas (see Figure 19-2). The existing land use in the resettlement area is indicated in two maps, a interpretation based on year 2000 Spot imagery (Figure 19-3) and the more recent satellite photo compilation of QuickBird photos and Landsat images (Figure 19-4). The availability of land is of course a basic consideration. A minimum total resettlement area of 810 ha will required, based on approximately 1000 households each requiring a 0.66 ha flat or terraced farm plot, with an additional approximate requirement of 140 ha of land required for housing and associated village facilities (based on a house plot size of 30 x 30 m, or 0.09 ha, plus land for schools, markets village meeting hall and office etc). Beginning in 2003, the NTPC has started to investigate the topographic, soil-type and irrigation considerations. The investigations could be seen a progressing through four (4) phases, as follows: (i) Reconnaissance; (ii) Conceptual planning; (iii) Detailed survey and feasibility assessment; and (iv) Detailed Design. A summary of these four phases, and progress to date, for the three main technical considerations, is provided in Table 19-3 and described in more detail in the following sections. 19.4.2 Topography Resettlement village sites must encompass adequate areas of flat or gently sloping land for house construction and agricultural land development. These areas must also be largely contiguous to enable the development of irrigation systems and associated structures. Slopes must be less than 15 percent for effective development of terraced farm land. Steeper slopes would require the movement of excessive amounts of top soil (to create terraces), uncovering infertile sub-soil horizons or even underlying parent material in the shallow surface soils that predominate in the area. In addition, the risk of soil erosion, particularly in the early years of terrace development before contour hedgerows are fully established, increases with steeper slopes. Soil erosion is a particular risk, given the erodable nature of the sandy loams and loamy sands common in the area. In addition to the presence of sufficient areas of appropriate land for the village site and farm plots, at least one point of sufficiently high elevation to site a header tank providing adequate head for gravity irrigation will be required in close proximity to the agricultural land area. Topographical considerations will also be important in designing the layout of irrigation water distribution systems. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Table 19-3: Technical Survey and Design Studies for Topography, Soils and Irrigation. PHASE Topography Soils Irrigation Reconnaissance Use existing topo-maps and Broad reconnaissance soil General survey of irrigation field visits to develop general survey to be conducted along potential to identify potential understanding of potential transects to identify for each site, possible systems resettlement sites particularly promising or and approximate costs. extremely poor soils. . >> status completed in 1998 due Oct to Dec 2004 completed in 1998 Conceptual Using existing topo maps and Following further site- other available data to specific studies on sites develop a conceptual plan for identified by soil and topo. each site. surveys to select systems and define specifications. >> status ongoing completed, see Chapter 22 Detailed survey Topographical survey's and Soil survey of selected sites to Based on topographic survey, and feasibility mapping, at detailed scale, on assist feasibility analysis including location of pump assessment which to assess agricultural site and header tank, to and irrigation feasibility. contribute to feasibility and confirmation of 'concept' . >> status 3 villages complete by May 2004, due November to Dec 2004 start June 2004 another 5 by Dec 2004 Design Design of farm plot layout and village house layout etc >> status pilot village complete, first group of others in 2004-05 Existing topo-maps and topographical data have been used for preliminary resettlement site selection and for assessing and comparing the potentials of each. A detailed topographic survey will be undertaken at each of the chosen resettlement sites, following the reconnaissance soil survey. The data collected during the survey, will be used to produce topographical maps at a scale of 1:2,000 with 0.5 m contour intervals. The topographical maps produced will be used to identify housing sites, and will also be the basis for the layout, and later titling, of the individual farm plots. The completed maps will also be used for village layout and infrastructure planning including the location of roads, houses, community structures and areas for future growth, for planning the soil survey and for the detailed design of the water supply systems both agricultural and domestic. 19.4.3 Soil Survey and Suitability Soil surveys are required to (a) identify any areas with significantly better soils than those areas currently identified by a combination of villager preference, topography and closeness to reservoir waters, and (b) provide a better understanding of soil quality and constraints of selected resettlement sites. The aim is to reduce the level of risk associated due to poor physical and nutrient condition of the soil types which predominate in all the resettlement sites. Soil surveys will begin with an initial reconnaissance survey covering all land identified as generally suitable for agriculture based on topography and irrigation potential. The intention here is to identify any soil types with particular promise for agriculture or any particularly poor soils unsuited to agricultural production. This survey will be transect-based and somewhat broad, based on a few main parameters (texture, colour, pH, N, P, CEC, for example). Existing or earlier forest types may be assessed prior to the survey as an aid to defining appropriate transect lines to ensure that potentially promising soil types are not missed, as natural forest cover is determined to a large extent by soil moisture regime and soil type and thus may be a valuable indicator of soil fertility. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Following the reconnaissance survey, a detailed grid-based soil survey may be undertaken. Survey results will be computerised and used in a GIS system, where they can be overlaid with topographical survey and other spatial data sets to assess land capability classes. Here again, the survey will be supported with soil chemical analysis for all soil types identified. Unlike previous soil surveys, chemical analysis will be expanded to include lime requirement and soluble ferric iron. Lime requirement is essential for calculating inputs to ameliorate the high level of acidity in the major soil types and soluble ferric iron levels. This is essential to assess the potential risk of iron toxicity in paddy rice to which the commonly occurring Ferric Acrisols found in the area are prone. The second and more detailed survey will thus include: Soil survey of the potential resettlement sites at a scale of 1:5,000 Preparation of maps at a scale of 1:5,000 for soils, land use and land capability Prepare of a soils report incorporating the findings of the survey including physical and chemical characteristics The grid survey method will require up to 120 observations per square kilometre, to be used with additional observations on the physiographic correlation of the soils, and some additional detailed observations at designated intervals. The physiographic survey is used to provide for more exact soil boundaries. Aerial photo interpretation (API) may be used in combination with topographic maps, traditional land use, forest cover and geological maps as a means of finalizing the soil boundaries after completion of the fieldwork. Such a detailed soil survey will take time and require significant manpower requirements and will therefore begin in late 2004, immediately following the topographic surveys. 19.4.4 Water Supply and Irrigation Potential All resettlement sites will be provided with water supply systems for both domestic use and irrigation of the agricultural land. The water sources, types and designs of individual systems will vary according to local topography, distance from the reservoir, groundwater-quality, water-table types and depths, and the resettled village population. Domestic supply will be of adequate quality and quantity to serve the needs of all households. In some cases it may be common to the irrigation supply system, with or without additional treatment. In other cases, however, domestic and irrigation water systems will be separate. Domestic water supply systems that might be considered include rainwater storage, bore holes, lined dug wells, impoundment of small streams, and reservoir-water with or without treatment depending on water quality. Water sources and supply systems for domestic purposes will be assessed for each site, and, where required, groundwater surveys will be conducted. The assessment, planning and conceptual design of irrigation systems will be based on access to year round water from the reservoir, which is dependent on local topography and slope. Systems will comprise intakes, pump-stations, supply lines, header-tanks, distribution systems and on farm irrigation structures. The potential options currently under consideration for each of the system components, along with design considerations are presented in Table 19-4. The above system components and design considerations were developed through a generalized reconnaissance design study in 2003 (see Chapter 22). This study assessed overall irrigation potential, feasibility of different sources and delivery systems and estimated approximate cost figures for each. Further site-specific studies for the most appropriate farm plot locations identified by soil and topographical surveys are required to develop detailed irrigation plans. Making use of the aforementioned survey data, these studies will select the most appropriate type of system, the necessary capacity, most suitable components, define specifications and approximate costs, for each of the resettlement sites. These conceptual design studies will begin in 2004, once the topographical and soil survey data become available. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Table 19-4: Irrigation System Design Considerations and Options for Resettlement Sites System component Options Design considerations Water sources Reservoir Proximity to reservoir Natural water courses yield of water - most likely insufficient Intake structures Low-level sump Reservoir water levels/drawdown Excavated supply channel Channel excavation volumes Sedimentation of sumps/supply channels Pump-stations Pontoon pump systems Power supply Electric centrifugal pumps Distance/vertical interval to header tank Various capacities (12-122 kW) Population/area served/percolation losses Axial flow pumps at reservoir edge Pumping costs/care and maintenance Pumping hours/water duty Future system expansion needs Supply lines Flexible hoses to edge of reservoir Distance to header tank/local topography Steel delivery pipes Static head/pipe diameter Flushing valves (for sediment/debris) Sediment load Header-tanks, Reinforced concrete header tanks Elevation/availability of high points Sand sediment trap (function of header tank) Local topography/area served/IWR Stilling basins Future system expansion needs Distribution Gravity feed from header tank Population/land area/IWR systems Lined canals (trapezoidal) Local topography Buried pipelines (as in the Pilot Village) Lining material for canals On-farm structures Stilling basin Cropping patterns/irrigation schedules Flood/furrow/siphon-pipe/hand irrigation Soil and slope characteristics of farm plots On-farm drainage outlet(s) Size and shape of individual plots Based on the specifications and cost estimates from the conceptual design phase, detailed irrigation system design will be tendered to private sector contractors under the supervision of Resettlement Office staff. Detailed irrigation system planning will be dependent on the following: · Accurate topographical data and maps from the completed topo-survey; · Finalised farm-plot location and layout; and · Finalised village residential site selection (for combined irrigation/domestic water systems). Detailed irrigation system designs will take into account the potential need for future expansion to accommodate anticipated population and/or IWR demand increases. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-3: Indicative Land Use and Forest Cover of the Plateau Resettlement Area November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-4: Satellite Photo Coverage Indicating Forest Cover and Land Use of the Resettlement Area November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure 19.5 EXPERIENCE OF RESETTLEMENT OF THE PILOT VILLAGE - BAN NONG BOUA The objective of selecting and establishing a Pilot Village to be moved in advance of the others is to provide an opportunity to trial implement the survey, design and implementation procedures, to test assumptions, to verify predictions and work out solutions to problems in advance of the main relocation. The Pilot Village has been carefully planned and implemented and is already providing insights and lessons for the future resettlement process. The three hamlets of Ban Nong Boua, Ban Sailom and Ban Pamanton were selected for relocation as a Pilot Village based on the following: · Villagers were positively inclined towards moving as soon as possible; · The hamlets were relatively small and had much to gain from resettlement; · The re-location distances involved were generally less than one kilometre; · The hamlets contain both Brou and Bo ethnic groups, and would thus provide valuable lessons for future village consolidation; · The total number of households involved was 30, which was considered sufficient to be representative of future relocations, but small enough to be manageable as a pilot; · Existing houses and conditions were generally of very poor quality; and · The potential for developing irrigation based on a small reservoir on the Malai creek. Planning for the establishment and relocation to the Pilot Village commenced in 2000 and actual relocation began in early 2002. Planning involved: · In depth consultations with the 30 households involved; · Participatory preparation of village layout plans and options; · Soil survey · Topographic surveys and design of field and house layouts; · Preliminary design of infrastructure works; and · Detailed design of the irrigation systems. Detail consultations were carried out with villagers from the three hamlets regarding site selection, village and farm-plot layout and the location of individual households. Following site selection, El 538 was marked off with fencing and land was cleared in April 2002. Identification of potential land for irrigation and system requirements was carried out in the second half of 2002. An access road to the relocation site was completed and facilities for technical staff were constructed in late 2002. The RMU supervised planning and relocation activities with the assistance of the RO, technical specialists from the demonstration farm at Theun Duane and Ban Nakai Neua Nursery staff. The villagers first cropped their agricultural lands in the 2002 wet season, and three houses constructed at that time. Most houses were constructed in late 2002 and 2003. Appendix J provides a detailed overview of the establishment of the Pilot Village and its present status. Valuable experience has been gained from Pilot Village relocation, and has been used to modify future plans for the main resettlement process. Ongoing development and support is being provided, and further lessons are expected to be generated. The major lessons learned to date include: · The topographical survey data were not sufficiently detailed for planning purposes. As a result, topo-survey plans for the remaining areas have now been changed to a scale of 1:2,000 with 0.5m contour intervals. · Soil surveys were not implemented on a grid system, and thus results difficult to interpret and use. · The original plans that each family would be given 0.15 ha area of paddy separate from the main farm plot was found not to be workable, nor wanted by villagers. As a result, the 0.15 paddy land entitlement and the 0.5 ha of agricultural land entitlement, will be combined to a 0.65 ha irrigated November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure agricultural land entitlement, and villages will develop and plant paddy rice were and when they consider it feasible, but most likely on the lower terraces of the farm plot. · The original plan of constructing the family house on the farm plot was not acceptable to villagers, who wanted to reside together as a `nuclear' village in close proximity to each other. · The consolidation of disparate villages from different ethnic groups into a single community has not posed any problems. The various groups are living together in harmony and inter-marriage continues to take place. · Planning and constructing the irrigation system highlighted a number of technical and local constructor capacity problems. It emphasized the need for thorough surveys prior to design, for a thorough design process of all components, and the need to strengthen the technical screening and selection of contractors. 19.6 SCHEDULE OF VILLAGE RELOCATION It is intended to move all villages to their respective resettlement sites in an orderly manner with the minimum level of stress and social upheaval in the affected populations. The relocation schedule will be carefully developed, to ensure all villages are relocated in an orderly manner, and before any impacts are experienced in their existing locations. Existing villages will be affected by flooding at different times, as first the coffer dam (at 524 ESL) and then the main reservoir fills. Those (slightly lower) villages that will be affected by backwater flooding due to the coffer dam will need to be moved first, followed by those that will be affected first by reservoir inundation. The impact of flooding is obviously dependent on elevation, thus those villages at higher elevations, those very close to new resettlement areas (on the edge of the plateau) will be moved last. Table 19-5: Indicative Relocation Schedule of Plateau Villages with Predicted Number of Households, House Plots and Agriculture Area at Time of Relocation. Houses Agricultural Area New Village no Old Village Name (post relocation) No. plots Planned area (ha) No. of plots Already relocated (2003) 1 Nong Boua Nong Boua 30 19.8 30 Relocation planned for 2005 - 2006 dry season 1 Sop Hia New Sop Hia & Nam Pan 58 37.0 56 2 Nam Nian Nam Pan 28 14.5 22 3 Boua Ma Boua Ma 64 42.2 60 4 Sop Phene Sop Phene 54 35.6 52 5 Nong Boua Kham NongBouakham 50 33.7 51 6 Sopma, Hartkhampan, Sopma & Nong Boua 68 48.2 57 Gangnao 7 Phonsavang Phonsavang 32 21.1 26 8 Sop On Sop On 99 70.6 104 sub-total (05/06) 453 282.5 428 Relocation planned for 2006 - 2007 dry season 1 Thalang Thalang 70 46.2 61 2 Done Done 127 89.1 125 3 KhoneKhen Khone Kene 48 42.2 47 4 Ka Oy > Done/Khone Kene 32 5 Nakai Neua Nakai Neua 91 60.1 91 6 Nakai Tai Nakai Tai 195 128.7 194 7 Oudomsouk Oudomsouk 103 20.5 0 8 Phonphanbaek Phonphanbaek 0 73.3 sub-total (06/07) 666 361 547 Total (approximate) 1,149 The logistics of relocating around 1,149 families from numerous villages to some 12 different resettlement sites are considerable. Thus, the plan to relocate villages over 5 years - although with an intense main period of three (3) years - is based on the ability to have as many facilities and livelihood options as possible in place, and operational, prior to actual relocation, and to allow sufficient time and resources for an orderly move. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure As access to water for domestic and irrigation purposes will, for most resettlement sites, be dependent on reservoir inundation, relocation will be delayed as long as possible. Resettlement sites with an opportunity for non-reservoir-based irrigation (e.g. Nong Boua and Bouma villages) may be moved first. However, it will be unavoidable that some villages will be relocated up to 3 years before water from the reservoir is available. In these instances, livelihood activities that are not dependent on reservoir waters will be given priority and emphasis. The indicative schedule for relocation as indicated in Table 19-5 will continue to be revised up until the actual time of relocation. 19.7 VILLAGE LAYOUT 19.7.1 Village Layout Preferences of Affected Communities PCPP meetings were held in the affected villages on the Nakai Plateau by NTEC consultants and GOL officials in 1997 and 1998. These participatory consultations were aimed at fully ensuring active community involvement in planning, improving villager understanding of how the Project would affect their lives, and obtaining local perspectives on resettlement. Participatory mapping techniques based on individual aspirations and community `visions' for livelihood systems and quality of life were used in these consultations. Table 19-6 summarizes the results of the participatory mapping exercises which culminated in sketching 'dream' maps of the resettlement areas, along with key attributes of the new villages. Table 19-6: Resettlement Preferences of Plateau Villagers decreasing level of perceived need y gardens ssec vicinity access saryn urceos hall s areas ac water t Resettlement mill st Village Within School Road Electricit Dispe Water Toilets Temple Well Marke Rice Paddy Vegetable Village Orchard Fore Grazing Ban Sop Hia Ban Nam Nian Ban Thalang Ban Nakai Tai Ban Nakai Neua Ban Sop Phene Ban Sop Ma* Ban Sailom** Ban Boua Ma Ban Phonsavang Ban Sop On*** Ban Done Ban Khone Khen *Ban Sop Ma includes three hamlets: Ban Sop Ma, Ban Hat Khamphane and Ban Keng Gnao **Ban Sailom includes three hamlets: Ban Nong Boua, Ban Sailom and Ban Pamanton ***Ban Sop On includes the three households of Ban Nikhom 3 Review of Table 19-6 and reference to notes taken during the consultations, revealed a number of key local preferences for the new village layouts: November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure · As with current village layouts, residential areas should form the core of the village separate from farm plots; · Orientation of the village should be along a road with each house having access to the road; · Services such as electricity, access to running water and toilets should be privately owned and not communally shared; · Each household would like their own small garden area by the house; and · Non-residential buildings such as schools, the dispensary, village hall and religious structures should be located adjacent to, but outside the village residential area. A similar participatory planning process has already been used for the design of the Pilot Village. Here again, a major design feature desired by the resettled households was that villages houses should be grouped together, separate from the farm plots. This is reflected in the Pilot Village resettled households' choice of Layout 2 from the two proposed layouts, Figure 19-5and Figure 19-6. 19.7.2 Detailed Village Layout Planning A consultative and participatory approach will continue to be taken in the planning of village layouts to ensure that local preferences are incorporated, and to allow for flexibility among different resettlement villages. The process will consist of two main steps: (i) the development of village layout options through participatory planning for each resettlement village; and (ii) the preparation of technical plans for the desired layout. The first step is entirely participatory and based largely on villager ideas and preferences (with facilitation from RO and RMU staff). These proposed village layouts will be over-laid on the new topographic maps (at 1:2,000 to 1:5,000 scale), along with information on soils, water supplies, etc. to check their technical feasibility. This will generate detailed technical plans which will be re-presented and discussed with villagers for feedback, modification and final approval. The development of alternative village layout options will be an iterative process. As new ideas and options are received from one resettlement community, they will be added to the growing `inventory' of options that can then be presented to and discussed with other villages during the planning process. The participatory nature of planning will be facilitated by simple approaches. Maps and aerial photographs will be used to aid participatory analysis at two levels, firstly, the village position and its relationship with farm- plots and other resources such as the reservoir, grazing land and village-use forests, and secondly, the location of houses, roads and infrastructure within the village itself. Scale 3-D models may also be used to place specific features - houses, schools, farm plots, forest, etc. - to enable villagers to explore different options and combinations in a visual, easily understood and realistic format. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection and Land Tenure Figure 19-5: Proposed Pilot Village Layout 1 - Houses Located on Agricultural Plots - Farms November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection and Land Tenure Figure 19-6: Proposed Pilot Village Layout 2 - Houses Grouped in a Village - Chosen by Villagers November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure 19.8 VILLAGE LAND AND FOREST USE PLANNING Prime Ministerial Decree 193 of 29/5/200 defines the (approximately) 20,000 ha Resettlement Area, and specifies that the Resettlement Area and Forest Area will be used by resettlers, allocated to families to establish houses and given to them for sustainable use. Prime Ministerial Decrees 37 of 12/4/04 then specifies in article 4.1 that ' The Minister of Agriculture and Forestry is entrusted in collaboration with the Provincial Governor, local administrative authorities, the department for national land planning and development and the Resettlement Committee for the determination of the boundary of the land areas and categories of land uses such as the area on which new villages will be established, the area for agricultural production activities, the forest land area for a sustainable forestry business activities, the area for construction and expansion of Nakai District for the future , consistent with the actual local conditions'. Recent discussions on this directive have resulted in the agreement that villagers should also be incorporated in the land and forest use planning exercise, and indeed this is consistent with the widely accepted FLUPAM process. This issue, along with the need to ensure (a) that the land and forest use planning in the resettlement areas takes the resettlers needs as the primary objective, and (b) to ensure that land acquisition and use is managed (not just planned), will be addressed by the enactment of a Provincial Governors Directive (in December 2004) to ensure the managed and appropriate planning, delineation and distribution of land and resources in the Resettlement Area (see Chapter 3). The ultimate objective will be to have a Land and Forest use management plan for the entire Resettlement Area, which would include zonation in to major use categories which may include; · urban areas (especially around Nakai District centre); · village areas; · industrial areas; · tourism areas; · rural and permanent agriculture areas; and · forestry areas, etc However, such a total Resettlement Area planning should ideally be a product of a participatory panning process, the main component of which would be the forest and land use planning of each resettlement village, as described below. 19.8.1 Forest and Land Use Planning, Allocation and Management Forest and Land Use Planning, Allocation and Management (FLUPAM) is a process of participatory resource management planning, aimed at ensuring equitable access to forest and land resources and providing the basis for their sustainable management by local communities. The process was initiated some years ago in the Lao PDR, and has seen evolution and improvement to the stage where clear and effective guidelines and process's are now available. However, FLUPAM objectives, and also the guidelines and processes for its implementation, must be adapted to the particular situation, and the resettlement of villages on the Nakai Plateau is such a particular situation. In the case of the Nakai plateau Resettlement Area, the major objectives of FLUPAM will be; to develop appropriate and balanced forest and land use zonation, with a view to sustainable management systems and productive land use in order to achieve sustainable and integrated resettler livelihoods; to ensure equitable access to forest and land resources for all resettler community members, and formalizing land use rights within the existing legal framework. to develop a partnership between villages and the Government for the joint management of forests, agriculture land, other lands and the reservoir. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 22 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Although NTRA-FLUPAM will employ many of the methods and tools which are common to standard LUP procedures, the process has been modified in a many key areas to make it more appropriate for use in Resettlement Area. It will have to be closely scheduled with the whole resettlement program and with the timing that the various livelihoods will be able to be initiated and developed; Land allocation will be not be initially provided as temporary certificates, but rather permanent land titles (to housing and agricultural land ) and permanent use certificates to the rest of the land, to be provided within one year after relocation, or establishment of the agricultural lands; Rather than working in one village at a time, it will be conducted simultaneously for all the villages, or at least in two groups of north western and south eastern villages. The fact that the community networks have already being promoted over many years already, will facilitate this process; Swidden cultivation will not be contemplated in the Resettlement Area, as all agriculture will be sedentary and managed. Thus, monitoring of agricultural land use over time will be much more manageable (in comparison to areas where shifting cultivation is a feature); Unlike other areas, the forests will be intensively surveyed and managed, this facilitating (a) planning of forest use and (b) monitoring of forest use; While NTFP and other forest products will be allocated to each village management and utilization, the commercial timber resource will be managed jointly by all the villages, as one production forest; A significant portion of the Resettlement Area, around 6,000 ha or more, is currently degraded forest, and decisions as to how to develop or manage this area - for forest regeneration, for development for agriculture or grazing, or a mixture of these, can only be made over a long period of time as the productive potential of these areas and livelihoods is further tested and understood. Most (not all) of the RA is currently divided under the responsibilities of 9 villages - which will also be relocated into their own area villages - and the area of these villages will have to be subdivided to make room for 6 other villages relocating into the area from the other side of the plateau. Thus, the current boundaries will have to be modified and new and land use arrangement will have to be renegotiated; The village settlement (housing) zones will be the subject of detail urban planning, except in this case village participation will be an integral part of the urban planning; The planning of the irrigated agriculture zones areas will also be the subject of detail design; The livelihoods of the villages - to which the forest, land and reservoir use planning is inextricably linked - are not their current livelihoods but the range of new (if not similar livelihoods) some of which are unknown in terms of productivity, and all of which will be progressively developed at different times, over the next 6 years. Thus, the NTRA-FLUPAM will have to be both; (i) timely, in that the Project construction and relocation program musty follow certain timelines and (ii) flexible, to accommodate both (a) the progressively initiating and then development of each of the livelihood options livelihoods - and (b) the change in the physical characteristics of the area with the inundation of the reservoir 3.5 years into the program, and the operation of the reservoir 5 years into the program. Thus, the NTRA-FLUPAM will be a phased but iterative process which proceeds through various stages, some run simultaneously in each village with technical studies and livelihood development planning. While the exact processes and steps will be improved and modified over time, Table 19-7 provides a preliminary definition of the progressive implementation of FLUPAM in the Resettlement Area. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 23 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Table 19-7: Steps and Procedures for NTRA-FLUPAM in Coordination with Livelihood Development and Technical Studies Stage Village FLUPAM Steps Livelihood Development Steps Technical Studies s Stage 1. Relocation Site Villages preferences have been based on; Consultations to explain and review: Technical studies; selection - closeness to reservoir; > the range of livelihood options > topographic surveys; - amount of forest; available; - amount of drawdown zone; > soil survey; > the risk and benefits of these - amount of agricultural land; options; > irrigation design and village - amount of grazing land; layout concept studies; . > the balance between options - current village boundaries; which the villages would prefer. > forest inventories. Stage 2. Initial boundary 1. Village FLUPAM orientation preparation. Participatory review of Livelihood > detailed satellite , topographic negotiations 2: Initial negotiations regarding realignment of options and activities maps, reservoir maps etc provided boundaries, sharing of resource's etc. to villages to facilitate negotiations. 3. Initial negotiations regarding use of drawdown and reservoir areas; 4 Draft initial (new) village boundaries, on (a) land (b) drawdown;: and (c) reservoir FOLLOWING RELOCATION Stage 3. Testing of Commercial forestry livelihoods livelihoods tested (salvage logging for 3 years). Irrigated agriculture tested in Three villages (Ban Nong Boua, Ban Bouama, Ban Phonsavang) Initiation and testing of DMC Stage 4. Review of Participatory review of (a) irrigated agriculture, (b) Technical review of (a) irrigated livelihood options and forestry activities and (c) DMC agriculture, (b) forestry activities land use planning Two levels of review: and (c) DMC > review by pilot village themselves Technical review of socio November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 24 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Stage Village FLUPAM Steps Livelihood Development Steps Technical Studies s > review by other villages economic data of families (socioeconomic survey at FC + 3) Presentation of experts review Participatory planning, village by village, on the preferences for land and forest use, especially: (a) decision to go ahead with irrigated agriculture, or not (b) decision on how to manage and use degraded forest areas - grazing, DMC or forest regeneration. Stage 5. Zonation Step 2 Confirm plans for agricultural development, and then Production of good maps If feasible, allocate rainfed upland areas - via DMC systems - to original and new families planning for use of forest products - within villages and between villages forest and land use zonation develop regulations re land and forest use, in relation to zones FOLLOWING RESERVOIR FILLING AND OPERATION OF FISHERIES: ABOUT COD + 2 Stage 6. Drawdown and Drawdown zones: 1: Technical surveys and studies of Reservoir > review villager activities in this areas (a) fisheries > if feasible to use, then review zonation and boundaries. (b) drawdown zone > allocate land, mainly to new families 2: Technical review of socio economic data of families) Reservoir > review villager activities and fish catch > review zonation and allocation ot villages - and rights and responsibilities of such allocation. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 25 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Stage Village FLUPAM Steps Livelihood Development Steps Technical Studies s > review management rules and regulation Stage 7. On-going Following the zonation and allocation of the FLUPAM drawdown zone and reservoir areas, FLUPAM will be undertaken on a cyclical basis, probable every 3 years The aim is to (a) revise the macro level zonation and allocation to competitive uses, in accordance with the requirement so the livelihoods of the reseller's, and sustainable resource utilization and management (b) revise land and resource management arrangements and process's (b) ensure the equitable access to resource November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 26 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure FLUPAM has a number of important attributes which will be adhered to in order to achieve its desired objectives. That is, FLUPAM must be e: Participatory: It involves villagers in every step of the process and encourages them to make their own decisions about livelihoods and sustainable natural resources management. Empowering: It strengthens community organisation and capability and provides villagers with the skills and tools to solve their own problems and make improved land and forest use and management decisions. Gender responsive: It promotes the active participation of women in all decisions regarding resource allocation and management and addresses the unique problems of women by the use of gender dis-aggregated discussion groups. Networking: It promotes inter-village cooperation to solve resource use conflicts and creates linkages and networks between villages to facilitate mutual support and cooperation in both conservation and community development activities. Holistic: It focuses at the level of the entire ecosystem, including community livelihood systems, and addresses the key interactions between habitats and people. Interdisciplinary: It involves group tasks by teams comprising land use planners, foresters, agriculturists, gender specialists and district officials who work with villagers in an interdisciplinary manner. Integrated: It links sustainable resource use and management with development in an integrated manner Stepwise: It follows a logical sequence and provides time for both villagers and officials to consider the outcomes and implications of each step in the process. Iterative, flexible: As villagers implement agreements and adopt new resource management and livelihood practices, conditions change, new problems emerge and additional lessons are learned requiring that certain steps are repeated in the light of the changed circumstances. 19.8.2 Family and Village Livelihood planning Family and livelihood planning is a central feature of the resettlement program, and as such will be an integral part of NTRA-FLUPAM. Family level socio-economic data already well known, and will be monitored continuously. In addition, the range of livelihood options will be both; (a) tested in pilot schemes; and (b) reviewed, both by specialists and buy the villagers themselves.- Such experience and review will lead to choices being made about the livelihoods mixes that a family may wish to adopt, and then the way that a village wishes to use, develop and manage its village territory of land, forest, drawdown zone and reservoir. Livelihoods in the drawdown zone will be dependant on the technical feasibility of cropping, grazing or otherwise using the area, which is influenced by; (a) the operation of the reservoir, and (b) the level of soil erosion or deposition in any particular. Livelihoods in the reservoir will be basically be defined by two issues. (a) the technical feasibility and productivity of fishing, and the need for fisheries management from an ecological perspective. (b) the decision as to where to manage and harvest the fisheries by (a) private (household) enterprise or (b) a cooperative business enterprise. Development of the livelihoods in the land of the Resettlement Area itself itself, however, is somewhat more difficult as (a) there are a range of options, (b) the relative productivity of the options is not known November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 27 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure actuary, and (c) the villager adaptability and preferences for these options will change over time. These issues (b) and (c) will only be resolved progressively, over about 6 years. Basically, the challenge will be to match the resource availability in the site with the gradual development of livelihoods of the resettlers, and such balancing will them lead to the required zonation. Thus, eventually, villagers must decide on the balance of the land (that land which is currently degraded forests) will be used to be used for: · agricultural land; · grazing land; · regenerating forest land; or · other uses. A parallel choice which will have to be made is the programs (and villagers) focus on intensive irrigated agriculture or the more extensive rain fed cropping using DMC systems. It should be noted however, that all three livelihoods are not mutually exclusive. For example, it may be possible for some, maybe many villages, to have separate area areas dedicated to both irrigated and rainfed cropping systems. Silvo-pastoral systems may be developed whereby grazing and forestry are compatible. In addition, the establishment of grass swards for grazing could be an integral part of the DMC systems. 19.8.3 Forest and Land Use and Urban Development Monitoring and Mapping Unlike most other development projects, the status of forests will be surveyed and monitored in detail by the NPVFA and district forestry staff. They will delineate; · production forest areas · conservation forest areas (mainly the sloping areas) · degraded forest areas - which will be the subject of on going trials to define the best use of these areas - which could be regeneration forest, DMC systems or grazing, or a combination of all three · nature tourism areas which could be undertaken in the first 2 areas above The data of these areas is aided by the availability, over 60 % of the areas, of detailed satellite photos. Thus, monitoring and mapping is achieved by the parallel activities of (i) review and mapping from satellite photos and (ii) field/forest level verification. Also, unlike most other development projects, the status of the agricultural areas will be the subject of detailed topographic surveys and land allocation and irrigation development. The urban areas likewise will be the subject of detailed mapping, planning. This forest cover and land use mapping will be repeated every 5 years, using both detailed forest and field surveys and satellite photos as the basis for monitoring land use changes and as a means of checking that village land use agreements are being followed. On-going FLUPAM processes will then ensure participatory review of the data (photos, maps etc,) in parallel to review of the socio-economic and livelihood development. Based on these reviews, the zonations and land use plans and regulations may be amended, as required. 19.9 ACHIEVEMENT OF A 'GREEN LIGHT' ON A RESETTLEMENT SITE The above sections review the social and technical considerations that will be taken into account in the process of deciding on (a) the resettlement site location, and (b) the land and forest use planning for that whole area allocated to each villages. These considerations (for resettlement site selection) can be summarised into a checklist of issues which must be finalised before a "green-light" can be given as confirmation of a particular resettlement site. Social green-light indictors November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 28 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure (i) all villagers having visited the site; (ii) all villagers having being given technical information about the site; (iii) all villagers having agreed on the site; (iv) if in another villages territory, arrangements and agreements reached with that village; and (v) preliminary forest, land (and reservoir) use planning and allocation being undertaken w.r.t. the whole area allocated to the villages (and within boundaries agreed to by neighbouring villages. Technical green-light indicators (i) topographic studies complete, and showing sufficient land with slope less than 15 %; (ii) access to year round reservoir water confirmed and costed, and appropriate location for a header tank defined; and (iii) soils as good as possible. 19.10 LAND AND RESOURCE TENURE IN THE NAKAI RESETTLEMENT AREA These zones, or similar, would be subject to review and revision over a set period of time, every 5 years, for example. Within, and between these zones, or areas of approved land use, there will be differing tenure arrangements depending largely on the type of ownership, such as: 1. land owned and managed by individual households, including (i) resettlement houses,(ii) farm plots, and (iii) privately owned land of existing households who are not to be resettled; 2. land owned and managed communally by individual resettlement villages (for example, community infrastructure, public areas, sacred grounds, etc.); 3. land owned by the State, public land and buildings such as hospitals, schools, roads, etc 4. community commercial forest areas managed for the common benefit of all resettlement villages. The NT2 Project policy specifies that resettlers will be provided with guaranteed land titles to their house and agricultural plots soon after they are relocated into the resettlement sites. In addition, it is intended to ensure that resettled communities are provided with communal rights to village use land areas, and that fair and equitable tenure and management arrangements are put in place for common property land and resources on the plateau. 19.10.1 Privately Owned Land Under Lao law, all land is the property of the national community, but all citizens have the right to use, transfer and inherit this land. The usual process of land registration involves an assessment of an individual's right to the land, and if successful in showing such right, the individual is issued with a land title, registered in a Land Register Book and Land Parcel Register Index specific to each village. In the case of the NT2 Project, the issuance of PM Decrees 193 and the register of eligible households will provide for the 'assessment of an individuals right to the land'. Such titles can be inherited, sold and be the subject of a court order (known as permanent assignment). It may also be leased or mortgaged (indefinite assignment). The land title provides the owner with security of tenure for that land but it does not specific the uses such land may be put to or classified as (for example agricultural or forestry land). In the NT2 Project, all resettlement housing and agriculture land will be issued a land title in accordance with the procedure based on the Ministerial Direction on Systemic Adjudication of Land Use Right No. 997/MOF, and in the name of both the husband and wife's of each individual households. An example of a Land Title Certificate and an English translation are presented in Figure 19-7 and Figure 19-8. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 29 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-7: Example of Land Title Certificate as Used in the Lao PDR November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 30 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-8: English Translation of Land Title Certificate as Used in the Lao PDR Lao People Democratic Republic Peace Independence Democracy Unity Prosperity ====OO===== Ministry of Finance. Code : [ ][ ] [ ][ ][ ] [ ][ ][ ][ ] House and Land Department. Province:.............................. House and Land Office. Land Titling Certificate. District:................................ Land titling recorded book No. 4 Village:................................. Sheet No......................................... No........................................... Issue to.................................................................................................................................................. Date of birth............................Nationality........................................Occupation........................................ Present address........................Unit....................................................District............................................... Province....................................father's name....................................mother's name.................................. Husband and wife.............................................................................................................................................. Land location: Street...............Unit....................................................Village................................................ Size.............................................ha ........................................................Square meter. Scale..................................Land map no.....................................No..................................................... Map of the Land Land map. At. .................................................Date...............................................Month.............................................Year Director of the Finance division. Director of the House and Land office. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 31 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure However, due to the specific and unique nature of the NT2 relocation of mainly ethnic minorities, and in order to protect these villagers from unwise decisions, it is intended to enact a Resettlement Committee regulation to the en sure that the land titles issued to each resettler family are endorsed to the effect that they cannot sell the land (or title) until the end of the Resettlement Period (about 8 years), unless that resettler makes a claim to the Grievance Committee who may decide that they indeed have a valid and reasonable rationale for selling the land. Thus, while the basic procedures of land titling (systematic registration) in Lao PDR will be followed for the registration and issuance of land titles for all resettled families - in the name of both the husband and wife, and for both household and farm plots - some modifications will be required to meet the somewhat unique needs of NT2 resettlement process. These are summarised in Table 19-8. Table 19-8: Steps in the Land Titling Process for Plateau Resettled Villages Normal land titling process Modifications proposed under the RAP 1. Adjudication Team (AT) inspects the Inspections will be phased according to relocation schedules. property Adjudication team will be provided with all relevant maps and assisted on-site by RMU staff. 2. AT reviews with the abutting Representatives of resettlement households will have to be on-site neighbours regards the boundary - during this process. assume consensus. 3. Survey team surveys the land (and House and farm plot maps to be provided by RO/RMU. installs `posts') 4. AT calls for all documentary and No historical evidence in the NT2 project, in which case PM Decree historical evidence of land occupancy 193 effectively waivers the 15 years occupancy requirement.. (15 yrs required) 5. AT gets info. on claimants name, To be provided by RMU and RO, as part of the census on eligibility address, etc. of households. 6. Public announcement period of land Public announcements to be posted in each villages, and in Nakai claim (390 days): posted in Village Town notice board. leaders house, AT office, public area 7. Title prepared and register book RO/RMU will also maintain a land file for each individual land parcel in all resettlement villages. 8. Title goes to Provincial Land Office for As normal titling procedures, with the specification that an approval and signing. endorsement be given to protect resettlers. 19.10.2 Common Property Resources and Land in the Resettlement Area In regard to land use management and tenure of each resettlement village land and forest areas the forest areas surrounding each village, current government policy emphasizes the use of a well-established system of participatory land use planning (LUP) to identify, delineate and define uses for a variety of land use zones within customary village land use boundaries. The various zones recognized are as follows: 1. Village Settlement Land: Includes private houses, public buildings, roads, and so forth. 2. Village Agricultural Land: Includes cultivated land, and other intensive productive uses, such as fishponds, livestock and so on. 3. Village Conservation Forest: Strict controls are enforced, with few uses are allowed. 4. Village Protection Forest: Activities that contribute to soil erosion are prohibited, including the cutting of trees, and forest clearance, by NTFPs collection permitted. 5. Village Use or Production Forest: Cutting of timber permitted for domestic use, but timber will be extracted by the NPVFA, following a sustainable logging plan. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 32 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure In the NT2 Resettlement Area, the above zones and the participatory land use planning system will be adapted to define uses and management responsibilities for common property resources. Although village customary land use boundaries exist (Figure 19-2), the loss of much of these to reservoir inundation, the creation of new resettlement villages, and the consolidation of some former villages means that retaining them would result in a highly inequitable distribution of resources and management responsibilities. It is therefore proposed to use a modified LUP process where all resettlement villages would together address the issues of common property resource tenure and management, including forest areas, grazing land, the reservoir and other water resources. The aim is to develop appropriate management agreements for their use to ensure: · an improved understanding in resettlement communities of the potential benefits and key management issues associated with these resources; · equitable and appropriate access to the resources for all resettlement communities; · a fair division of tasks and responsibilities among communities for their sustainable and productive management; · an equitable distribution of the benefits accruing from the use of the resources; and · the development of appropriate management and conservation agreements for their sustained use. This significant LUP exercise are will need to be phased over the period of resettlement and beyond as villagers acclimatize to their new locations and as they adjust to different livelihoods, as commercial management plans are developed for forestry, and as water is impounded in the reservoir. 19.11 BOLIKHAMXAY RESETTLEMENT VILLAGES The two northern villages of Sop Hia, located in Bolikhamxay Province and Nam Nian (located on the border of the Bolikhamxay and Khammouane Provinces) have compositions and histories that differ from the other villages on the Nakai Plateau. Some Sop Hia residents are Vietic people, indigenous to the area (Ahoe), others are Tai settlers recently arrived from the Khamkeut District. Nam Nian village was established mainly as a roadside village and service centre for logging trucks and consists mainly of Tai groups, originally from the Lak Sao area. 19.11.1 Choice of General Resettlement Area Discussions with villagers from Sop Hia beginning in early 2002, revealed that the Vietic households wanted to remain on the plateau and relocate resettlement areas 7-13, near Ban Thalang. The remaining Tai households preferred to relocate to the districts in Bolikhamxay from where they originated. Further discussions in early 2003 concluded that the Tai groups from Sop Hia and Nam Nian would relocate in Bolikhamxay Province and the Vietic groups from Sop Hia would relocate on the plateau. The results of the latest round of consultations with villagers are presented in Table 19-9. Table 19-9: Results of 8 June 2003 Consultations with Sop Hia and Nam Nian Villages Preferred Location by Number of Households Village Lak Sao Nakai Reservoir Elsewhere Sop Hia 21 32 4 Nam Nian 26 0 0 Totals 47 32 4 Given the fact that there are only 25 Vietic households, there are not enough to compose a new administrative unit. Hence, it was proposed to relocate them at a separate site, but close enough to share health and education facilities with Ban Talang. This satisfies their desire to retain their original village composition, and at the same time, allows the necessary improvements in social and livelihood services to be provided. It should be pointed out that there are already Vietic groups in Talang (4 households) and that Sop Hia's swidden fields are located in Nakai District, which is familiar territory to them. The Vietic November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 33 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure households from Sop Hia thus become part of the plateau resettlement process which has already been discussed in the preceding sections of this Chapter. In regard to relocating the Tai groups from Sop Hia and Nam Nian, district authorities along with RMU staff identified a suitable area near to their original village sites. The chosen site is in Khamkerd District of Bolikhamxay Province, close to Nam Pan village, which lies to the southeast of Lak Sao, the district centre. The site was chosen as there is good access to Road 8A, an availability of spare land, and potential for the construction of an irrigation system. However, unlike the plateau resettlement sites, there is a small recipient village, Nam Pan, established in 1975 by 17 families from the Nam Pheo area. It now has 35 families of the same ethnic groups as those to be resettled. Because currently, the Nam Pan community is so small, it is administratively part of another village, Chom Jeng, which is close to Lak Sao Town. Thus, while it was originally envisaged that resettlers from Sop Hia and Nam Nien would be relocated in a newly established village area, this new option allows them to combine with a similar ethnic group, making the new community large enough to be officially recognized in its own right and thus have its own administration, school, water supply and the like. Discussions have been held with Nam Pan villagers, who are generally receptive to the idea of accepting the resettled families from Sop Hia and Nam Nian for a number of reasons: · The proposed consolidation will allow the village to be officially recognized in its own right. · Current families will benefit from the improved social services such as a school, dispensary, etc. · Existing residents will also have access to irrigation water from the system to be constructed for the resettled households. · Resettlers are of the same ethnic group and are originally from the same area. A number of additional steps will be required to finalize the proposed relocation agreement between the recipient and resettled communities. Firstly, a visit to Nam Pan by Sop Hia and Nam Nian residents will be organized to discuss the desirability of consolidation and how best to achieve this. If agreement is reached, follow-up visits will be required to jointly explore possibilities for the location of housing and agricultural land. It is also planned to organize a series of extended visits by Sop Hia and Nam Hian representatives to undertake land use planning jointly with Nam Pan residents. This will allow both parties to jointly assess the land and forest resource base, its current uses and to develop new management plans to accommodate the resettled households into the area. Forest and Land Use Planning Allocation and Management Land (FLUPAM) procedures will be used to extend the standard LUP process in two important dimensions. First, it will cater for the issuance of land use certificates to resettled (and existing) families for their house and farm-plots. Second it will be used to plan livelihood development activities in support of relocation, in a participatory manner. FLUPAM processes of resource management planning are aimed at ensuring equitable access to forest and land resources and providing the basis for their sustainable management by local communities, by: · Stabilizing forest and land use patterns under a sustainable management system; · Ensuring equitable access to forest and land resources for all community members and formalizing land use rights within the existing legal framework; · Establishing resource use and conservation co-management agreements with local communities; and · Developing a partnership between villages and government for the joint management of community development and conservation activities. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 34 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure As such, it is considered an extremely appropriate tool for use in preparing both recipient and resettled communities for the proposed relocation and consolidation. 19.11.2 Detailed Site Investigation Detailed site investigations in the proposed Nam Pan resettlement site will proceed largely as those described for plateau resettlement sites in Section 19.10, but with a few important differences: · The social requirements of consolidating two resettlement and one recipient village into a single harmonious ethnic Tai community. · An assessment of existing infrastructure and services and the preliminary identification of what is needed or what will be upgraded in the relocation site. · Consideration of existing land-use and in the specific resettlement site and customary tenure issues in order to determine the need for compensation in the host community. Resettlers at in Nam Pan will not have the same opportunities as those who are resettled adjacent to the Nakai Reservoir. They will not have: · Access to reservoir fisheries resources; · Access to the Nakai Plateau Village Forestry Association; nor · The employment opportunities created both during and after construction of the hydropower project. These differences will be fully assessed and adequate provisions will be made to ensure a fair and equitable entitlement package. For example, as the plateau resettlers are to be provided with a 0.66 ha irrigated farm plot, it is proposed that Nam Pan resettlers be provided with a larger 1.5-ha plot, to compensate for their inability to participate in the fisheries and forestry income generating activities. A fuller comparison of potential entitlements is described in Table 19-10. Table 19-10: Comparison of Projected Full Development Household Incomes Element & Nakai Plateau Khamkerd - Nam Pan Component Remarks Income (US$/year) Remarks Income (US$/year) Agriculture 1. Wet season paddy rice 0.16-ha plot 45 1.5-ha plot 450 2. wet season other crops 0.5-ha plot 87 3. Dry season paddy rice 4. Vegetables 0.03-ha plot 87 0.25-ha plot 290 5. Field crops 0.62-ha 100 1.25-ha 200 6. Fruits 70 trees 33 0 7. Buffalo 5 buffalo 65 As Nakai 65 8. Pigs 1 pig 40 As Nakai 40 9. Forestry 225 0 10. Fisheries 350 0 11. Employment 250 0 12. NTFPs 20 75 Total 1,302 1,330 Note: For 50 households and a 1.5-ha plot, a net irrigation area of 75ha is required. Allow a 10% increase for land lost by track and canal right-of-way, plot berms, gullies etc. A 82.5-ha gross scheme area is required to be established. The Khamkerd District officials proposed two possible areas for village and irrigation development: 1. Houay Sot Irrigation Scheme: BPKP has prepared drawings and a design report for 63-ha scheme; and November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 35 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure 2. Nam Pan Irrigation Scheme: Khamkerd DAFO have prepared a preliminary assessment report and commenced a topographical survey. The Houay Sot scheme was in investigated and considered infeasible. The potential irrigated agriculture area is only 63-ha, and two earth dams are required to be constricted to service this areas. Thus, at an estimated total development cots of US $454,000 (US $7,208 per hectare), this option is far too expensive. It is also near a river in an area subject to flash floods which would cause wet season damage, while the river has low dry season flows. The Nam Pan Irrigation Scheme The DAFO report shows an earth dam 780-m long and 28.7-m high. A high spillway and main canal intake structure will be required. A less expensive option is required. The Consultant has identified an irrigation area of around 150 ha. The revised proposal includes: Irrigate below the 530 masl. contour. The cropping pattern is wet season rice and dry season vegetable and field crops. An embankment dam about 190-m long and 10-m high located on the Nam Pan. A reinforced concrete spillway. If no storage is proposed, the dam will be smaller. A gravity canal system distribution system including a main canal, 4 secondary canals and a series of tertiary canals. Including households from the existing Ban Nam Pan. They will have traditional land-rights in the area. Exercises based on the topographical survey maps will be sufficient as a pre-feasibility study. For a feasibility study, further investigations are required including: Geo-technical for the dam foundation and borrow pits. Hydrology. Nam Pan mean monthly and flood discharges. Soils in the irrigation area. Cost comparison of various options on cropping patterns, dam storages and command areas. A local consultant company will complete these studies. If Ban Nam Pan households are included in the scheme, a cost sharing arrangement will be developed with Khamkerd District.. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 36 Chapter 19: Resettlement Site Selection, Land Use Planning and Land Tenure Figure 19-9: General Map of Indicative Resettlement Site, Ban Nam Pan in Khamkerd District, for Tai Villagers from Sop Hia and Nam Nian November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 37 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development CHAPTER 20 RESETTLEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT Table of Content 20 RESETTLEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT................................1 20.1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1 20.2 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY, MAPPING AND BEACON INSTALLATION.................................1 20.3 VILLAGE LOCATION AND LAYOUT................................................................................1 20.4 UXO CLEARANCE AND SITE PREPARATION .................................................................1 20.5 ROADS AND DRAINS......................................................................................................2 20.6 HOUSE DESIGNS AND CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................2 20.6.1 House Designs ................................................................................................................................................ 2 20.6.2 House Construction ..................................................................................................................................... 10 20.7 PUBLIC BUILDINGS..................................................................................................... 10 20.7.1 Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 10 20.7.2 Nursery and Primary Schools...................................................................................................................... 11 20.7.3 Meeting Hall/Community Centre/Village Office.................................................................................... 11 20.7.4 Market ............................................................................................................................................................ 11 20.7.5 Rice Mill/Workshop..................................................................................................................................... 11 20.7.6 Organic Fertilizer Factory............................................................................................................................ 12 20.7.7 Seed Processing and Storage Facility.......................................................................................................... 12 20.7.8 Clinic............................................................................................................................................................... 12 20.8 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION............................................................................... 16 20.8.1 Water Supply ................................................................................................................................................. 16 20.8.2 Sanitation ....................................................................................................................................................... 17 20.8.3 Hygiene Education and Maintaining and Monitoring the Facilities ...................................................... 17 20.9 VILLAGE ELECTRIFICATION .......................................................................................20 20.10 GENERAL DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY...............................................................20 List of Tables Table 20-1: Summarized Quantities of Materials to Build 3, 6 and 9 Person House's.................................3 Table 20-2: Infrastructure Development (Summary) Matrix..........................................................................20 List of Figures Figure 20-1: House Designs Following Consultations in 1998 .........................................................................4 Figure 20-2: Typical Design of a 3 Person House ...............................................................................................5 Figure 20-3: Typical Design of a 6 Person House ...............................................................................................6 Figure 20-4: Typical Design of an 8 Person House.............................................................................................8 Figure 20-5: Design of the Combined Meeting Hall and Village Office for Ban Nong Boua ...................13 Figure 20-6: Design of the Seed Processing and Storage Facility, Ban Nong Boua.....................................15 Figure 20-7: Design of the Filtration Tank Constructed for the Ban Nong Boua Domestic Water Supply. ................................................................................................................................................18 Figure 20-8: Old and New Houses at Nakai Plateau.........................................................................................19 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development 20 RESETTLEMENT INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT 20.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the infrastructure that will be provided for each plateau resettlement village and how it will be developed. The infrastructure provided at each resettlement site will include housing, irrigated farm plots1 and community buildings. The provision of such infrastructure will be preceded by the topographic survey and mapping of each resettlement site. The resulting maps will be a basic tool for the on-going consultations with the resettlers, who will continue to participate in the planning and design of the village and irrigation system layouts. The resettlers will also participate in the design of the houses, community buildings and other facilities. Electricity will be provided to all villages and buildings therein. The provision of domestic water is a priority, and various options are available for this. Every house and farm plot will have access to a road, and this road/track network within each village will be directly connected to the new all-weather roads from Oudomsouk north west to the Thalang Bridge, and from Oudomsouk southeast to the last resettlement village of Ban Khone Khen. The schedule for the design and then construction of the various infrastructure components of the Plateau Resettlement Program is provided in Chapter 27. 20.2 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY, MAPPING AND BEACON INSTALLATION While Chapter 19 describes the existing topographic maps and data that have been used to date for the preliminary selection of the resettlement sites, the next step will be the topographic survey and the preparation of maps of all the resettlement sites. Following the survey of the Ban Nong Boua pilot village in 2002, two sites ­ Ban Oudomsouk and the Ban Sop On/Phonsavang (currently known as Theun Douan) ­ were surveyed in the dry season of 2003/2004 to produce topographic maps of 1:2,000 or 1:5,000 scale with 0.5 m contour interval. Included in this surveying program is the installation of bench marks and beacons to demarcate the Nakai Reservoir full supply level of EL 538 m and EL 540 m. All the remaining (10) plateau resettlement sites will be surveyed during the 2004/5 dry season to produce topographic maps of 0.5 m contour interval. The Nam Pan resettlement site, to which half of Ban Sop Hia and all of Ban Nam Nian will move, will also be surveyed in the 2004/5 dry season. 20.3 VILLAGE LOCATION AND LAYOUT After detailed topographic maps have been prepared, preliminary alternative village locations and possible layouts for (a) farm plot, (b) irrigation system, (c) village housing and community infrastructure, and (d) the road and track network will be developed and presented to each village. During consultations, the reasons for the layouts will be explained to the villagers, who will then have time to review and consider the layouts and other data such as the results of soil surveys and visit the sites. They will then decide the preferred locations and layouts. Following this participatory decision making process, detailed layouts will be prepared. 20.4 UXO CLEARANCE AND SITE PREPARATION Unexploded Ordinance (UXO) will be surveyed and cleared from all resettlement areas. It is envisaged that two contracts will be necessary for full UXO survey and clearance, as follows: (a) sample surveys of all the areas in which a representative sample strip will be surveyed. The sample survey will identify the level and type of UXO contamination. An area may be classified as either having light, moderate or heavy contamination; (b) the second contract will be for the actual clearance and based on the findings of the sample surveys. Experienced companies and/or NGOs will be contracted to undertake the work, with an important 1Chapter 22 provides a description of the irrigation systems to be constructed. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development selection criteria being the ability of a company or NGO to include the resettling villagers themselves in the UXO clearance activities. After UXO clearance, the demarcated areas will be cleared, by the villagers themselves, of trees and other vegetation. Some of the areas will have trees that are commercially useful, particularly in the northern Plateau resettlement areas and at Ban Nam Pan. These areas will have to be surveyed and identified and the Plateau area trees logged by the Nakai Plateau Village Forestry Association (NPVFA). The small trees and bushes will be cleared by the villagers using slash and burn techniques. The individual plots will then be surveyed, measured and set out, and plot boundaries marked on the ground. The land titling procedures (see Chapter 19) can then commence. 20.5 ROADS AND DRAINS Every house and farm plot will have access to a village road (or track) and the village roads will have access to the nearest all-weather road. For the resettled villages located north of Oudomsouk, the nearest all-weather road will be the relocated Road 8B, for which the NTPC head contractor ­ the HCJV ­ is responsible for the survey, design and construction. For the villages located south of Oudomsouk, a new road will be built from Oudomsouk to the Nakai Reservoir saddle dams in this area, and this is again the responsibility of the HCJV. However, there will be at least two villagers located further south of this road, and thus this saddle dam road will have to be extended (by the resettlement program) to connect to these villages. Road 8B will have two lanes, a gravel pavement, a formation width of 7m and a design speed of 40km/hour. The road south to the saddle dams and the extra 30 km of new southern resettlement roads will be a single lane with a formation width of 5m, a gravel pavement and a design speed of 40km/hour. Rainfall on the Nakai Plateau is high during the wet season and the inclusion of a surface water drainage system will be an important aspect of the road design, and the village layouts. Road 8B and the resettlement road bridges will be designed for 100-year occurring design floods and culverts 50-year floods. The intra village roads will be connected to the main roads described above. They have a minimum of 4 m pavement and a formation width of 8 m. The drainage system will consist of "v" shaped open channels and precast concrete culvert pipes to convey the runoff to the reservoir or nearest other natural water course. Local competitive bidding procedures will be undertaken for the construction of the roads which will be completed before the commencement of house construction. 20.6 HOUSE DESIGNS AND CONSTRUCTION 20.6.1 House Designs Based on the farm plot and village layout preferred by the pilot villages, each resettled household will be allocated a 0.65 ha plot for irrigated agricultural land and a 600 m2 (20 x 30 m) plot for the construction of a new timber house and surrounding garden. It should be noted however that such a configuration may change slightly if villages choose to locate the house plot within the agricultural land area. House designs have been developed through consultations with the villagers who are to be resettled. Figure 20-1 illustrates the modified house design as a result of feedback during the second round of PCPP in April and May 1998. The main improvements on earlier designs where (i) to build houses with wood instead of bamboo walls, (ii) to incorporate larger verandas, and (iii) and where possible, to split the roof into two peaked sections. These improvements reflect the current designs of houses belonging to the better-off villagers on the plateau, a house design that all plateau dwellers aspire too. The improved design incorporates aspects of traditional house designs, including three 'zones' - private, public and production spheres. The private sphere is the sleeping quarters. The public sphere is the November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development veranda, for receiving guests and entertaining. The production sphere is the kitchen, for cooking food, washing and growing spices and vegetables. The new structures will further conform to traditional house designs by incorporating elements such as two doors in accordance with kinship taboos, an elevated construction on columns with two ladders, one to the kitchen and one to the veranda, the ladders having an odd number of rungs, and doors which open in a direction other than the west. Not only is the NT2 Project committed to providing houses in a style which are preferred by villagers, it is also committed to providing housing of adequate size. The housing entitlement of plateau resettlers, in terms of size of house, is a minimum of 14m2 per person. It is estimated that for at least 75 % of the plateau population this is larger than the house they currently occupy. For those households whose current house is larger than this, their new house will not be smaller than the original dwelling, so that households whose dwellings are currently larger than 14m2 per persons will be provided with a house as large as their current dwelling. Thus, based on this requirement to provide a house which is proportionate in size to the number of household members, there are seven standard house designs, based on households or 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 persons, which thus varies in minimum size from 42m2 to 126m2. In 1998, 66 % of the households lived in bamboo walled houses and 21 % in softwood walled houses, so that a full 67 % of households will be living in houses of improved construction materials. All the house plots will be fenced. Typical house designs for a 3, 6 and 8 person households are provided in Figure 20-2, Figure 20-3 and Figure 20-4, while Table 20-1 provides a summary Bill of Quantities for the materials required to build these houses Table 20-1: Summarized Quantities of Materials to Build 3, 6 and 9 Person House's. 3 pers/hh 6 pers/hh 9 pers/hh no Description unit quantity quantity quantity 1 doorframes and doors pc 3 3 3 2 windows frames and windows pc 3 3 5 3 wooden pillar 15 x 15 x 300 pc 11 13 24 4 concrete pillar 15 x 15 x 250 pc 11 13 24 5 galvanized iron 300 cm sheet 80 21 109 6 galvanized iron 240 cm sheet 89 43 7 nut & bolt 18cm pc 38 43 80 8 nails for galvanized iron box 20 28 35 9 concrete to support stair sheet 2 2 2 10 all type of nails kg 40 53 70 11 hinge/(door and window) pc 21 21 24 12 locks/latches (door and Window) pc 12 12 16 13 handles/(door and window) pc 12 12 16 14 Normal lock/ pad lock and hinges (door) set 2 2 2 15 wooden planks wall: 1.7 x 20 x 400 = 420 pc m3 2.448 3.536 5.7 16 wooden planks floor: 2.2 x 20 x 700 = 70 pc m3 1.1088 1.584 1.12 17 other types of wood > 5 x 15 x 500 = 28 pc m3 0.9 0.78 1.05 > 5 x 15 x 400 = 32 pc m3 0.45 0.525 0.96 > 5 x 10 x 500 = 70 pc m3 0.325 0.84 1.75 > 5 x 10 x 400 = 34 pc m3 2.304 0.6 0.68 > 4 x 8 x 400 = 300 pc m3 2.304 3.072 4.1 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-1: House Designs Following Consultations in 1998 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-2: Typical Design of a 3 Person House November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-3: Typical Design of a 6 Person House November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-4: Typical Design of an 8 Person House November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development 20.6.2 House Construction Following agreement on the design of houses, NTPC staff will finalise detailed final drawings and bills of quantities (BoQ). The BoQs will be divided into two sections: · Section 1 will include all non-timber materials including precast concrete footings, nails, nuts and bolts. · Section 2 will include all the timber for the house including columns, beams, floors, walls, roofing, doors and windows. The, local, Provincial and National level builders will be invited to bid for the construction of the villagers houses, and contracts will most likely be for one or multiple numbers of houses. However, the villagers will be fully involved in the construction of their own houses, in order to: (a) facilitate a flexible design process and thus ensure a design appropriate to ethnic and other concerns of the householders; (b) ensure householder feelings of ownership and belonging; and (c) generate some transitional income; Thus, while local and provincial builders will be contracted to build the resettler houses, the builders will be given an allowance to employ the householder, plus any other labour they may require. In cases where no able bodied men are available in a particular household, the whole village will be mobilised to assist. Having villagers participating in the construction of their own home has important social and psychological advantages since by investing time and energy in establishing themselves on their new plots, they will more easily acquire a sense of belonging to the new sites. Men are traditionally responsible for constructing houses in villages and form a pool of labour whenever new buildings are put up. A similar pool of labour would ensure that all houses are built and that disadvantaged households, that is households with a labour shortage, single mothers, ill or disabled members or few kinship ties, will not be negatively affected by this aspect of the relocation. Local competitive bidding procedures will be applied for the supply of the non-timber materials such as house footings, roofing materials, nails, hinges etc. For the supply of timber, it is likely that timber will come from two sources. One source of timber will come from the trees salvage harvested from the reservoir area and processed by a local sawmill. The second source will be the processing of trees salvage logged from the various Project Lands in the Resettlement Area. This logging will be undertaken by the NPVFA and they will also saw and process this timber, so that they can provide (i.e. sell) not only wall and floor planks but also prefabricated doors and window panels and frames. Just before construction commences, each family will be consulted once again on the house design, and the design can then be modified and amended on site during the course of construction, as long as no more construction materials are required. Villagers will not only be provided with a new house but also assistance with the transportation of materials from their former houses. These materials can be reassembled on the new site, if so desired, to either enlarge the house built by the Project or to build an outhouse. The materials can also be saved for future family expansion. 20.7 PUBLIC BUILDINGS 20.7.1 Introduction Each resettled village will be provided with the following community buildings: · nursery and primary school; · meeting hall/community centre/village office; · market, small or larger, depending on village size; · rice mill and workshop; and · organic fertilizer factory. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Standard designs for the buildings were prepared for the construction for the Pilot Village. These designs will be used or modified for the other resettled villages of similar number of households. For the larger village communities, larger buildings will be required. In either case, there will be further consultations with all the resettled villages to agree on the designs. All the public buildings will be connected with electricity. They will have access to water and latrines will be built nearby. They all will have adequate drainage facilities to evacuate surface water. 20.7.2 Nursery and Primary Schools Section 26.6 of the SDP describes educational support. It explains that three types of educational support are envisaged: (i) nursery and crèche-type facilities, (ii) primary and secondary schooling, (iii) adult education and vocational training. Nursery facilities will be provided in every resettlement village to improve the welfare of infants and to relieve their parents of the task of childcare during the day. The villagers will decide whether the nursery facilities will be part of the village primary school or independent of it. The nurseries will be of a simple design, allowing good air circulation, with a mixture of wooden tile and corrugated iron roofing, rainwater collection and latrines. Nursery school equipment will include simple bedding, mosquito-nets and first-aid kits. The primary school design will be based on two students per household and a classroom area of 56 m2 for thirty students. The school will be constructed with concrete flooring, a hardwood frame, half brick and half timber walls, and roofing of either corrugated iron or timber tiles. The school will be connected to the electricity supply and will also have a water supply. There will be at least one latrine provided per class room. Housing will be provided to teachers, as necessary, and they will be constructed to the same design and standards as the resettler houses and provided with the same facilities. The adult education and vocational training will take place mainly in the village meeting hall. 20.7.3 Meeting Hall/Community Centre/Village Office As a general rule, few of the villages on the plateau have or maintain a temple. Thus, a communal meeting area must be developed to provide a space where issues can be discussed openly, and where non-formal training can be provided. In addition, village technical staff should have a good environment in which to keep their records, in which to plan and report on their work, and in which to conduct small and larger meetings. Thus, it has been decided that a multipurpose building or group of buildings will be constructed to serve these purposes. The floor plan of the village hall constructed in Nong Boua is illustrated in Figure 20-5. The village meeting hall and office will be constructed with a hardwood structure, concrete floor and sheet metal roofing. It will be connected to the electricity and water supplies. There will be a toilet and adequate drainage to evacuate surface water. 20.7.4 Market Each village will have a roofed market with a concrete floor, wooden roof structure and sheet metal roofing. Considering the crucial importance of produce marketing for the NT2 resettlement program, special and innovative consideration will be given to the design of these markets, including consideration will be given to the requirements of fish marketing. The size of the markets will depend on the number of village households. Adequate drainage around the market area is particularly important. 20.7.5 Rice Mill/Workshop The project will provide one rice mill and workshop for every fifty families. They will be constructed with concrete flooring, hardwood structure and sheet metal roofing. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development 20.7.6 Organic Fertilizer Factory An organic fertilizer factory will be established in most villages as in some cases it can be shared by more than one village. The experience gained in Ban Nong Boua Pilot village will be used to finalize design of the factories, which require the design of efficient workspaces for raw materials storage, materials mixing, composting areas, packaging areas and a finished product storage areas. They are likely to be constructed with concrete flooring, hardwood structure, bamboo lattice walls and a mixture of timber tile and thatched grass roofing. 20.7.7 Seed Processing and Storage Facility Most likely aligned to the organic fertilizer factory, each village or group of villages will be provided with a seed processing and storage facility. The facility will include a covered and concrete area for final seed drying and cleaning and at least one room with air conditioning. Rat and mice proofing is another important design factor. The design of the facility being built in Ban Nong Boua pilot village is presented in Figure 20-6, and experience gained from the construction and utility of this building will be used to design further seed facilities. 20.7.8 Clinic There will be at least 2 clinics constructed and operated in the Resettlement Area (in addition to the rehabilitated District hospital), one in the north west (probably in Ban Thalang) and one in the south east (either Ban Sop On or more likely Ban Done). These clinics will be constructed with concrete flooring, brick and/or hardwood structure and corrugated iron roofing. The clinic will be supplied with a sink and furniture appropriate to the size of the clinic. If required, staff housing, to the same standard as resettler houses, will be constructed. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-5: Design of the Combined Meeting Hall and Village Office for Ban Nong Boua November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-6: Design of the Seed Processing and Storage Facility, Ban Nong Boua November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development 20.8 WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION 20.8.1 Water Supply All the resettlement villages will be provided with water supply systems for domestic use. There are a range of possible domestic water supply systems that could possibly be developed2 in the area, including · rainwater collection; · water pumped or hand lifted from an open well; · water pumped from a lined borehole; and · water piped from the irrigation header tanks, via a filtration system. The development of domestic wearer supply systems will be undertaken in two stages; · Prior to reservoir inundation: During this period, the use of the irrigation system water supply for domestic water will not be possible. However, boreholes or wells may be dug in lower areas. · Following reservoir inundation: During this period the lower area boreholes or wells will not be possible (flooded) but the water table in the general area will be higher and thus groundwater more easily accessible. Also, it will now be possible to use/divert some of the water pumped from the reservoir in the irrigation system for domestic purposes. Groundwater is generally the cleanest source of water, and the feasibility of using groundwater, abstracted by hand pumps or by rope and bucket from hand dug or bored wells, will be assessed. The water quality, well discharge and depth to the water table in the dry season are the principal considerations and some test wells will be implemented. If the use of groundwater is found feasible, then consultations will be held with the villagers to assess the type of well, method of abstraction, number and location. The number will depend on the village layout and number of households in the village. The dug well is a traditional method of obtaining water in rural areas. Smaller diameter wells, boreholes or tube wells are quicker and easier to sink. This type of well is usually fitted with a handpump but water can also be raised by small buckets or an electrical pump. For shallow wells, "TARA" handpumps, designed and manufactured in India, is a reliable pump and are commonly used by UNICEF in Lao PDR. However there are cheaper Thai and Lao manufactured pumps available. Whatever type of well is dug, it will be protected from contamination by the construction of a reinforced concrete apron around the well head and a drainage channel to a soakaway to prevent creating a muddy surrounding. Also, before a well is used, it will be disinfected by a chlorine solution. The yield of wells placed in the higher areas of a resettlement villages before reservoir inundation may not be sufficient for all domestic use, and thus it may be necessary to excavate or drill the wells at a lower elevation and pump up to a header tank, or tanks, located within the village. Rain water collection, by individual households, from roofs via guttering and downpipe into storage tanks, is a common source of domestic water supply and is being practised at the Pilot Village. It provides very clean water and will be promoted in all villages. However, problems with this method include: · it is somewhat expensive to install, for every house; · there may be insufficient storage to last a family through the dry season; and · if the collection tank is not covered, dengue fever may be problem. 2The generally preferred method of rural village water supply is by a piped gravity fed system after tapping a perennial spring or stream located above a village. However it is unlikely that any such stream exist near the sites of the resettled villages on the Nakai Plateau. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development These issues will be addressed, and the use of this rain water, in the wet season, for consumptive use, is a preferred method to be presented to villagers for consideration. Filtered and piped irrigation/reservoir water. The irrigation system to be developed for Plateau resettlement villages will consist of pumping from the Nakai Reservoir to a header tank or stilling basin located on high ground in the resettlement area. The less-sloping areas will have a stilling basin and an open canal system of water conveyance. The more-sloping areas will require a header tank and buried pipe conveyance system. It is possible to construct a gravity domestic water system in parallel to this irrigation system, by installing a supply pipeline from the header tank to the village housing area, via a filtration system. In this case the water is pumped by the irrigation system, and a small quantity siphoned of for the domestic water system. Such a system has already been constructed in the Pilot Village, and includes a gravel and charcoal filtration tank, located between the header tank and the village, to remove suspended solids and some micro-organisms from the water (see Figure 20-6). After passing the filtration tank the water is piped to stand-pipes located within a household group, with approximately 5 households per standpipe. If the wells and rain water collection methods are not satisfactory, then this further method of water supply will be investigated and implemented if proved feasible. 20.8.2 Sanitation Every household will have its own latrine. There are several types of latrine available in Lao PDR. Given alternatives, the usual village choice is the "pour flush" type which uses a pit for excreta disposal but a ceramic pan cast into a cover slab. The pan provides a water seal which ensures that odours are kept from the shelter, and a vent pipe, with fly screen, will be fitted to the pit. Pour flush types require 1.5 to 2 litres of water for flushing. The pans are slightly more expensive but they are odour free and are the safest type of latrine regarding the transmission of excreta related diseases. Latrines should be located at least 30 m from any well. A timber shelter will be located around the latrine for privacy and protection from weather. Notwithstanding the above, a review will be made of the various designs provided by or recommended by WHO, and in consultation with villages, the final decision will be made. Installation is not technically difficult and after being shown how to construct a couple of latrines, the villagers will be able to construct their own. As previously stated, latrines will also be constructed outside all public buildings. 20.8.3 Hygiene Education and Maintaining and Monitoring the Facilities Generally, the resettled villagers will not have experience of water supply and sanitation facilities. The installation of the facilities alone will not lead to improvements in health unless they are accompanied by changes in hygiene behaviour. A hygiene education programme will be implemented by the RMU that will encourage the villagers to correctly maintain the water supply and sanitation facilities. The quality of the water will be monitored and regular inspections will be made of the water supply systems to check for contamination. The costs of operation and maintenance of the water supply and irrigation systems will be borne by NTPC prior to COD, and by the Social and Environmental Remediation Fund (SERF) after COD. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-7: Design of the Filtration Tank Constructed for the Ban Nong Boua Domestic Water Supply. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Figure 20-8: Old and New Houses at Nakai Plateau Typical house on Nakai Plateau Typical house on Nakai Plateau Building house in Nong Boua Pilot Village Joining hands in Nong Boua Pilot village House in Nong Boua Pilot Village House in Nong Boua Pilot Village Nong Boua Pilot Village House in Nong Boua November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development 20.9 VILLAGE ELECTRIFICATION Every resettled household will be connected with electricity. This will require the following: · Provision of a 22 kV transmission line to each village; · The installation of step down transformers with accessories and safety features; · Provision of a 0.4-kV network through the housing area; and · Individual house and public building connections with meters, wiring, and the provision of fluorescent light fixtures and power points consistent with the size of house/household. 20.10 GENERAL DEVELOPMENT METHODOLOGY The process by which any particular infrastructure is to be designed and constructed will depend on the scale and complexity of the structure, on whether NTPC undertakes the activity or the work is contracted out, under the supervision of NTPC, and whether the villagers can be involved in the activity. A summary of the agencies or groups that may implement each of the main activities required for the development of an infrastructure is provided in Table 20-2 below. For those activities which will be contracted to private companies the following process will, in general, be followed: · NTPC will call for technical submissions ­ for major or difficult infrastructure activities ­ usually via newspaper advertisements; · NTPC will then review the technical submissions, and prepare a list of preferred bidders for each major activity. This will be the first round of technical pre-qualification. · NTPC will then issue a call for tender, in some cases only to those companies that have passed the technical pre-qualification; · The bids will then be evaluated, based on (a) technical content of the bid (that is, the companies and firms will be evaluated twice for their technical and personnel capability to conduct the task), and (b) the financial submission. · Contracts will then be prepared. Table 20-2: Infrastructure Development (Summary) Matrix Village consultation or Description Activity Implementation participation 1 Topographic Survey and Tendering procedures NTPC none Mapping Survey and mapping Consultant companies none Tendering procedures NTPC none Prepare alternative locations and 2 Village Location and Consultant companies yes ­ crucial Layout choose location. Prepare alternative layouts and choose layout. Consultant companies yes ­ crucial Tendering procedures, identification of NGO, and NTPC none 3 UXO Surveys and Clearance subsequent negotiation Survey and clearance Private companies or NGOs participation 4 Site Preparation 4.1 Site preparation: trees Identify and log commercially useful trees NPVFA yes 4.2 Site preparation: Small trees Clearance by slash and burn and bushes methods Resettlement farmers yes 5 Roads and Drains 5.1 Design roads and drains Completed during preparation of Consultant Companies village layouts. some consultation 5.2 Construct roads and drains Tendering procedures NTPC none Construct roads and drains Contractors none November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 20: Resettlement Infrastructure Development Village consultation or Description Activity Implementation participation 6 House Design and Construction 6.1 Design Design Houses NTPC yes -consultations Tendering procedures NTPC none 6.2 Construction: Supply materials Supply materials >Wood: NPVFA > yes - via NPVFA >Other: Supply companies > none Tendering procedures NTPC none 6.3 House construction Construct houses Individual carpenters, small & larger contractors yes - help builders 7 Public/Community Buildings 7.1 Design Design buildings NTPC yes - consultations Tendering procedures NTPC none 7.2 Construction: Supply materials Supply materials Supply companies, Contractors, NPVFA yes - if NPVFA Tendering procedures NTPC none 7.3 Construction Construct buildings Small and larger villagers can tender contractors fro construction 8 Water Supply and Sanitation 8.1 Groundwater assessment Tendering procedures NTPC none Investigations Private companies none Tendering procedures NTPC none 8.2 Wells/boreholes Locate and design GoL (Nam Saat) yes - consultations Construction GoL and resettlers yes - participation Assess supply success RMU and villagers yes -consultations Prepare sketches and BoQs GoL/RMU yes - consultations Tendering procedures for supply NTPC/RMU none 8.3 Rainwater collection contracts Tank placement, installation of guttering and down-pipes Villagers yes - participation Assess supply success RMU and villages yes - consultations Assess feasibility of gravity supply from irrigation systems RMU and villages yes - consultations 8.4 Incorporate with irrigation Prepare drawings and BoQs GoL/RMU yes - consultations supply Construction tendering procedures NTPC/RMU none Install gravity supplies Contractors yes - participation 8.5 Monitor water quality Samples and analysis NTPC/GoL yes - participation Review and choose latrine type RMU/GoL/WHO yes - consultations Prepare BoQs RMU/GoL none 8.6 Sanitation Tendering procedures for supply contracts NTPC/RMU none Installation RMU and villages participation 8.7 Hygiene education Undertake workshops RMU/GoL participation 9 Village Electrification 9.1 Transmission lines and Design NTPC/EDL none transformers Construction NTPC/EDL none 9.2 Village Networks Design EDL none Construction EDL or Contractors none 9.3 House connections Design EDL participation Construction EDL or Contractors none ********** * * * ********** November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development CHAPTER 21 AGRICULTURAL AND LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT Table of Content 21. AGRICULTURAL AND LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT.......................................1 21.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................1 21.1.1 Agricultural and Livestock Entitlements....................................................................................................... 1 21.1.2 Program Components ..................................................................................................................................... 2 21.2 CLIMATIC FACTORS.......................................................................................................3 21.2.1 Rainfall............................................................................................................................................................... 3 21.2.2 Evaporation ...................................................................................................................................................... 4 21.2.3 Temperature...................................................................................................................................................... 4 21.2.4 Wind Speed....................................................................................................................................................... 5 21.2.5 Day Length........................................................................................................................................................ 5 21.2.6 Sunshine Hours................................................................................................................................................ 5 21.3 SOILS AND LAND MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................5 21.3.1 Description of Soils ......................................................................................................................................... 5 21.3.2 Appropriate Cropping Systems and Fertility Management........................................................................ 6 21.3.3 Irrigation Potential and Limitations - water use efficiencies...................................................................... 7 21.4 SITE SELECTION AND LAND DEVELOPMENT................................................................7 21.4.1 Site Selection..................................................................................................................................................... 7 21.4.2 Land development ........................................................................................................................................... 8 21.5 CROPPING SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS.......................................................................8 21.5.1 Irrigated Agriculture on terraces .................................................................................................................... 9 21.5.2 Direct Seeded Mulch Based Cropping (DMC) Systems........................................................................... 15 21.5.3 Reservoir Drawdown Zone Agriculture ..................................................................................................... 16 21.5.4 Crop Seed and Varieties................................................................................................................................ 19 21.5.5 Fruit Tree Propagation.................................................................................................................................. 20 21.5.6 Fertiliser Materials.......................................................................................................................................... 20 21.5.7 Pest and Disease Control.............................................................................................................................. 21 21.6 EXTENSION APPROACHES FOR CROP PRODUCTION ...................................................21 21.6.1 Risks and Assumptions ................................................................................................................................. 23 21.7 PILOT VILLAGE EXPERIENCE TO DATE.......................................................................23 21.7.1 Wet Season Cropping.................................................................................................................................... 24 21.7.2 Dry Season Cropping .................................................................................................................................... 25 21.7.3 Fruit Trees....................................................................................................................................................... 25 21.7.4 Livestock ......................................................................................................................................................... 28 21.7.5 Problems with Farm Plot Development..................................................................................................... 28 21.8 LARGE LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................29 21.8.1 Current buffalo and cattle raising................................................................................................................. 29 21.8.2 Existing Forage Production Potential ......................................................................................................... 30 21.8.3 Potential for improved forage production.................................................................................................. 31 21.8.4 Future Management of buffalo and cattle in the Resettlement Area...................................................... 35 21.9 OTHER COMPONENTS OF THE LIVESTOCK PROGRAM................................................36 21.9.1 Animal Health Care ....................................................................................................................................... 36 21.9.2 Housing and nutrition for small livestock .................................................................................................. 36 21.9.3 Animal Breeding Programs........................................................................................................................... 37 21.9.4 Extension Approaches for Livestock Development................................................................................. 37 21.9.5 Risks and Assumptions ................................................................................................................................. 38 21.10 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND FARMING SYSTEMS INTEGRATION ...................................38 21.10.1 Activity Model and Gross Margins for Crops............................................................................................ 39 21.10.2 Comparisons of GMs for each crops.......................................................................................................... 43 21.10.3 Gross Margins for Livestock Production ................................................................................................... 44 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 i Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.11 WHOLE FARM SCENARIOS...........................................................................................46 21.11.1 Possible Integration of Crops and Forages on Irrigated Plots................................................................. 46 21.11.2 Financial Analysis of Whole Farm Scenarios ............................................................................................. 50 21.12 MARKETS AND MARKETING........................................................................................53 21.12.1 Market Description and Analysis................................................................................................................. 53 21.12.2 Assessment of Current Market Volumes.................................................................................................... 55 21.12.3 Assessment of Current Prices....................................................................................................................... 56 21.12.4 Anticipated Market Development ............................................................................................................... 57 21.12.5 Nakai Comparative Advantage and Implications ...................................................................................... 58 21.12.6 Market Strategy and Acceleration Program................................................................................................ 59 21.13 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE....................................................................................64 List of Tables Table 21-1: Mean Monthly Rainfall for Nakai Tai Station (1994-2001)..........................................................3 Table 21-2: A Soil Analysis Results from the Pilot Village Area on the Nakai Plateau................................6 Table 21-3: Factors Considered in the Selection of Prospective Resettlement Sites ....................................7 Table 21-4: Parameters for Design and Construction of Terraces ................................................................10 Table 21-5: Area and Yield of Crops Planted in Nong Boua Pilot Village, Wet Season 2003..................24 Table 21-6: Area and Yield of Crops Grown in Nong Boua Pilot Village, Wet Season 2004...................25 Table 21-7: The First Plantings of Vegetable Crops, Dry Season 2003-2004..............................................26 Table 21-8: Fruit Trees Planted in Nong Boua Pilot Village, 2003................................................................26 Table 21-9: Technical Plan for Dry Season Cropping, Nong Boua Pilot Village 2004-05. .......................27 Table 21-10: Size and Number of Livestock Owned by each Household, Pilot Village, 2004 ...................28 Table 21-11: Number of Buffalos by Village and Household, 1998 Census..................................................29 Table 21-12: Number of Buffaloes and Cattle sold from the 15 Nakai Villages, 2000-2004. .....................29 Table 21-13: Estimate of Existing Forage Supply and Demand Resettlement Area.....................................30 Table 21-14: Estimate of Potential Forage Availability in Resettlement Area. ..............................................35 Table 21-15: Crops and Livestock for which Activity Models and Gross Margins Budgets have been generated.............................................................................................................................................38 Table 21-16: Example 1 of Gross Margins Budget: Irrigated Paddy Land, Wet Season (0.16 ha). ............41 Table 21-17: Example 2 of Gross Margin Budget: Peanuts, Dry Season, Stability Phase (0.1 ha). ............42 Table 21-18: Gross Margins for Annual Field Crops (US$ / 0.1 ha) ..............................................................43 Table 21-19: Gross Margins for Vegetable Crops (US$ / 0.1 ha)....................................................................44 Table 21-20: Gross Margins for Livestock Production, at high input levels..................................................44 Table 21-21: Example 3 of Gross Margin Budget: Buffalo Raising.................................................................45 Table 21-22: Indicative (possible) Whole Farm Scenarios.................................................................................48 Table 21-23: Cropped Areas under each Whole Farm Scenario during Wet Season and Dry Season, Transition and Stability Phase (m2) ...............................................................................................49 Table 21-24: Financial Analysis for Whole Farm Scenario 1.1 (Intensive Cereal / Legume Wet Season Cropping with Dry Season Vegetable Production). ....................................................................50 Table 21-25: Summary of Financial Analysis for 11 Whole Farm Scenarios (High and Low Input) ­ Sum of Gross Margins for each Component within each WFS (without Labour), US$/HH/Year. .................................................................................................................................51 Table 21-26: Estimated Market Volumes.............................................................................................................55 Table 21-27: Retail and Farm Gate Prices (US$) ................................................................................................56 Table 21-28: Medium Term Market Opportunities, Risks and Production Features....................................61 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 ii Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development List of Figures Figure 21-1: Summary of Meteorological Data for Nakai Tai (1994-2001).....................................................4 Figure 21-2: Three Examples of Terraces with 5, 10 and 15 % Degree Slopes............................................12 Figure 21-3: Photos of Contour Terracing in the Nong Boua Pilot Village..................................................12 Figure 21-4: Photos of Wet Season Cropping, Nong Boua Pilot Village.......................................................13 Figure 21-4: Photos on Dry Season Cropping in Nong Boua Pilot Village...................................................14 Figure 21-5: Direct Seeding through Mulch using a Hand-Jab Seeder; Maize / Sorghum emerging through Mulch (photos courtesy of CIRAD)...............................................................................16 Figure 21-6: Annual Fluctuations of Nakai Reservoir Surface Water Elevations and Reservoir Surface Water Areas........................................................................................................................................17 Figure 21-7: Drawdown Areas in Main Reservoir and Areas Close to Resettlement Area.........................18 Figure 21-8: Comparison of Gross Margins for Annual Field Crops (US$ / 0.1 ha) ..................................43 Figure 21-9: Comparison of Gross Margins for Vegetable Crops (US$ / 0.1 ha)........................................43 Figure 21-10: Example of Sensitivity Analysis for WFS 1.1 (Stability Phase)..................................................52 Figure 21-11: Khammouane Pig 'Exports' by Type 1998-2002.........................................................................55 Figure 21-12: Seasonal Price Ranges, Thakhek 2002...........................................................................................59 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 iii Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21. AGRICULTURAL AND LIVESTOCK DEVELOPMENT 21.1 INTRODUCTION The goal of the Agriculture and Livestock Development Program is to enable resettled households on the Nakai plateau to develop productive and sustainable agriculture and livestock production as a part of their livelihood system, a livelihood system which will also include reservoir fisheries, commercial forestry and various non-farm or off-farm enterprises. The Resettlement Area, on the southern edge of the Nakai reservoir, is on generally poor soils and thus specific cultural practises1 will be developed to ensure sustainable and economically feasible agriculture in the area The adoption of these new forms of sedentary agriculture will take several seasons for full adoption. Achieving this goal will require support during the transition from their traditional rainfed, upland shifting agriculture based systems to IWDC and DMC systems. These new agricultural systems will require the introduction of new crops and breeds of livestock, improved land, soil and mulch cultural practices, some increased use of agricultural inputs and the marketing of surplus produce. The vehicle for providing this support will be an enhanced and strengthened extension service on the Nakai Plateau that can sustain the delivery of inputs and support services to the chosen cropping and livestock systems. - The adoption of irrigated paddy production, for example, would be a new activity for many households, and the use of irrigation for the production of field and vegetable crops in the dry season, and the use of supplementary irrigation water in the wet season, will be a completely new venture. While the villagers will be dealing with familiar crops, it is the adoption of improved practise and varieties together with their culture on terraces or under mulch, and the use of organic and chemical fertiliser, and selected herbicides, which will be new to them. 21.1.1 Agricultural and Livestock Entitlements Relocated households will, according to the Concession Agreement (see Appendix A1), be entitled to assistance to establish new (although similar) livelihoods at the new locations. Entitlements related to agriculture and livestock include the following; · 0.5 ha of irrigated land will be provided to each household, and up to 0.16 ha of rice land per household. [In the October 2002 CA, this rice land was to be in an 'off village' location and allocated on a community basis. However, wherever possible, this 0.16 ha will be continuous with the above mentioned 0.5 ha, and thus a total of 0.66 ha of irrigated land will be developed and improved]; · the land will be provided with survey and joint title to husband and wife; · the land will be cleared and prepared for cultivation by the owner, with their own labour paid; · the land will be provided with year round irrigation water; · tools will be provided to work the farm land and the forest land; · planting materials for the first 3 years after preparation of farm lot, including fruit tree saplings, will be provided, as will fertiliser and other agro-chemicals. [The October 2002 CA provides for fertiliser provision for the first 3 years only, but revised plans envisage support, if required, throughout the transition period]; · training in farming, forest management and fisheries techniques will be provided; · agricultural advice for 5 years after preparation of farm lot will be provided [this entitlement has been revised to allow provision of agricultural advice for the whole resettlement period of about 8 years, as required]; · access to identified reservoir drawdown areas for grazing of existing animals [this entitlement has been revised to allow also cropping in allocated areas of the drawdown zones]; · training to be provided in household and enterprise budgeting; 1 Some families already practice sedentary agriculture (paddy (wet) rice production, while most practices slash and burn cultivation which, in some cases, is practiced in fairly well defined swidden cycles. The new agriculture systems will include irrigated wet and dry season cropping on formed terraces (IWDC), and rained direct seeded mulch-based cropping systems (DMC). November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 1 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development · Resettlers will have the flexibility to choose from a range of farming options and maintain current livestock numbers; and · Households without large livestock (about 60% of households) will be eligible for up to two large animals to supplement their livelihoods. Besides the entitlement to 0.66ha of irrigated agricultural land, it has been decided to allocate two further cropping zones for the purposes of developing and sustaining agriculture production, namely (a) the reservoir drawdown areas; and (b) 'upland' areas currently under degraded forests (in which DMC systems will be developed). Following research and development of rainfed agriculture systems, and assuming they are shown to be ecological sustainable and productive, the followings entitlements may be further provided in the two zones, as follows; (a) up to a further 0.5 ha per resettler family of extra rainfed cropping and grazing area, depending on the labour availability and ability of any family to work the land; and (b) up to 1 ha for the first new generation from resettler families, which, assuming 4 families are developed for the one original per resettler family. 21.1.2 Program Components The Agricultural and Livestock Development Program is composed of five main areas components: (a) The timely delivery of relevant inputs This will be achieved through assisting all the resettled households after choosing their particular livelihood mix to develop their own farm plans, assisting them with the physical layout of the contours and terraces on their farm lots and providing each household with the seed and other agricultural inputs based upon the cropping pattern that they have selected. Continuous support will be provided during the growing season to guide the resettled households in the adoption of improved cultural practices and alternative crops through the provision of all inputs together with demonstration and training. (b) Improving the productivity of livestock raising through improved animal health care and nutrition, and upgrading of the breeding stock. The traditional forms of livestock raising will be improved by the introduction of more extensive animal health care programs to reduce the level of mortality through enhanced capacity of local veterinary staff as well as training farmers in animal management, disease diagnosis and treatment. Nutrition levels will also be enhanced by increasing and upgrading the grazing resources of the forested areas and exploiting the drawdown areas for seasonal use. An Animal Breeding Centre will provide the focus for improved breeding programs with the acquisition of stock for dispersal to farmers as well as the establishment of AI programs as well as natural breeding. Training will also be provided for farmers on improved animal husbandry and breeding practices. (c) Participatory Research and Extension Due to the unique and challenging conditions for agriculture in the resettlement area, a parallel program of participatory research and extension will be undertaken to develop appropriate and sustainable forms of land use and management, and soil fertility management, for both soil erosion control and development of sustainable soil fertility enhancement methods, based on the DMC system. This will include use participatory farmer led extension approaches within the resettled villages. Training of all extension staff on the use of Farmer Field Schools will enable this approach to be adopted for all farmer training. This will ensure that the training for farmers is all conducted in the field as a continuous process through the growing season. The approach will enable extension staff to interact much more closely with the farmers. (d) Strengthening the capacity of the DAFO and provision of TA: To ensure that the delivery of extension services on the Nakai plateau are improved, technical and managerial support will be provided through the NTPC/RO by the hire of local TAs as well as November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 2 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development recruitment of International TAs. Additional field extension staff will be deployed through the District Agriculture and Forestry Office (DAFO) and the office and training facilities upgraded. (e) Development of marketing systems Nakai Plateau households must be able to dispose of their surplus produce, and they will be assisted in this endeavour by the construction of markets, by the provision of vehicles, and by development of numeracy and marketing skills. A small market information unit will be established in DAFO 21.2 CLIMATIC FACTORS The climate of the Nam Theun catchment is influenced primarily by the seasonal South West and North East monsoons, the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone and the tropical cyclone disturbances that include tropical storms and tropical depressions. During the WS from mid May to early October the catchment area is normally affected by the South-West monsoon (WS) which predominates when atmospheric pressure is low over Asia. This is a period of frequent and heavy rainfalls over the catchment although there is a dry period of one to two weeks between June and July. After this period the rainfall becomes more frequent, including heavy storms which results from tropical cyclones entering the region from the South China Sea, mostly from September to November. Flooding frequently occurs when two or more of these storms occur in succession or when the ITCZ, which is the forward edge of the SW monsoon, has passed into one of its more active stages, with tropical cyclones following shortly thereafter. There is a transition period from mid-October to early November, which is followed by the colder dry North East monsoon that normally blows from China between October and February. This season is characterised by sparse, relatively light rainfall, lower temperatures and humidity. This North East monsoon is followed by another transition period prior to the onset of the hot weather from March to early May and is characterised by increasing rainfall and humidity. This transition is slower than the transition from wet to cold seasons. 21.2.1 Rainfall The rainfall in the project area is the highest that occurs in Lao PDR. The South West monsoon produces a warm moist airflow into the area from May to September, and spatial variation of rainfalls is principally affected by orographic effects. The high rainfall occurs where physical barriers cause uplift. The limestone precipices and the main escarpment along the South Western edge of the Nakai plateau provide excellent conditions for orographic intensification of the precipitation. The rugged terrain in the upper parts of the catchment acts as an additional barrier, but much of the moisture is precipitated at the first barrier. Apart from the spill-over effect on the edge of the plateau, the rainfall in the Nakai plateau is likely to be rather less than in the upper parts of the catchment. The monthly rainfall on the Nakai plateau is highly seasonable with 89 percent of the rainfall occurring between May and September. The rainfall is the most important climatic variable in determining the productivity and potential of rainfed agricultural systems. Although total rainfall is high (2,979 mm) and would appear to be more than adequate to support rainfed agriculture from April to October, when rainfall exceeds potential evapo- transpiration, the bimodality of its distribution means that there is normally a high risk of prolonged dry periods, usually in June or July. Although this is not obvious from mean monthly rainfall data (Table 21-1), these period of drought are long enough to induce severe drought stress in rice and field crops. Table 21-1: Mean Monthly Rainfall for Nakai Tai Station (1994-2001) Station Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total B Nakai Tai 9.9 17.3 59.6 140.0 389.8 483.8 763.7 619.5 390.0 85.1 13.1 7.2 2,979 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 3 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.2.2 Evaporation Evaporation is closely related to temperature, humidity and wind speed. The rates of evaporation (measured by a Class A Evaporation Pan) that are experienced during the hottest months in March and April are in excess of 180 mm per month. Within the catchment area it is only in the period from April to September that the rainfall normally exceeds the evapo-transpiration rate. 21.2.3 Temperature Reduced temperatures are experienced from November to February, with a peak before the onset of the South West monsoon in May. Mean temperatures at Nakai vary from 17.3o C in January to 26.1o C in April and an annual mean of 22.6o C. The extremes of temperature show that during the cooler months the minimum temperature may fall as low as 2o C, whilst maximum temperatures have reached 34.9o C, on occasions. Although the frequency of experiencing such minimum temperatures is relatively low, it does have the potential to damage to fruit tree crops. Figure 21-1: Summary of Meteorological Data for Nakai Tai (1994-2001) M onthly Rainfall and Evaporation (m m ) 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay June July Aug Sept Oct N ov D ec Rainfall Evaporation M axim um and M inim um Tem peratures (C) 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay June July Aug Sept Oct N ov D ec Average M ax Tem p Average M in Tem p Extrem e M ax Tem p Extrem e M in Tem p Sunshine H ours and W ind Speed day)r )ce 10 pesrh(s /s 8 m(de 6 Spe 4 Hour ndi 2 hine W 0 Suns Jan Feb M ar Apr M ay June July Aug Sept Oct N ov D ec Sun Hrs W ind Speed November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 4 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.2.4 Wind Speed Winds are generally light throughout the year, with some increase in average wind speed during the DS. During thunderstorm activity, convective currents may produce strong surface winds, albeit usually of short duration. The catchment area is at a latitude at which the maximum frequency of typhoon landfalls occurs along the Vietnam coast and these occur mostly between August and October. Although the Anamite Chain presents a barrier to such storms, which usually dissipate rapidly overland, the catchment boundary is only 55 km from the coast and records indicate that three storms retained typhoon strength (>118 km per hr) over the catchment area in the past 40 years. 21.2.5 Day Length The day length is important in crop growth since it determines the potential amount of solar radiation available for crop growth. Also, many rice varieties, particularly the traditional ones, are photoperiod- sensitive, meaning that they flower in response to day length. The day length is determined by the latitude. The Nakai Plateau is situated 17o North of the equator and experiences noticeable changes in the day length during the year. On the longest day (June 21st) day length is approximately 13 hours whilst on the shortest day (December 21st) it is only 11 hours. This reduction in day length between the summer and winter stimulates the photoperiod-sensitive varieties to flower at a specific time of year with the result that the traditional rice varieties reach maturity at approximately the same time regardless of when they were planted. 21.2.6 Sunshine Hours The data on average daily sunshine hours demonstrates that the lowest figures are recorded from June to August, corresponding to the peak of the WS. During the DS, despite the shorter day length the number of sunshine hours is still considerably higher. The solar radiation measures the potential energy available for crop growth and the higher sunshine hours during the DS raise the yield potential of crops produced during the dry months. The slight decline in sunshine hours in the month of March is noticeable at other recording stations in the country and is attributed to the amount of DS burning that is taking place in the uplands with the smoke produced reducing the level of solar radiation. 21.3 SOILS AND LAND MANAGEMENT 21.3.1 Description of Soils The old alluvial soils (Lower Cretaceous Period) found within the agricultural resettlement area are classified predominantly as Acrisols, derived from bedrock of mainly sandstone with some gradation of mudstone and siltstone in places (see EAMP, Chapter 3). These are strongly weathered soils with low base saturation. The soils are podzolic with development of lateritic horizons in some areas and in general are heavily leached and infertile. They occur mostly on old land surfaces with hilly or undulating topography and are commonly encountered in wet tropical, monsoon climates. On the plateau, texture tends to be medium (sandy loams) under the hardwood, broadleaf forest, grading to medium-to-coarse (loamy sands and sands) under pine cover. The A horizons are generally shallow (<30cm) and are relatively structureless. Example soil analysis results2 presented in Table 21-2 indicate that organic matter content, pH and cation exchange capacities are all low, as are the major nutrient availabilities, particularly phosphate. These soils are prone to aluminium toxicity and all have strong P-sorption with a characteristic tendency for slaking and crusting, with high susceptibility to erosion. These factors all impose some severe limitation on their arable land uses. However, recent experience in the Pilot villages has shown that application of both lime and inorganic fertilizer can overcome these fertility limitations, thus making the soils suitable for production of annual rainfed and irrigated field crops only, although the need to maintain such inputs or the need use of suitable crop rotations with appropriate crop residue management practices, is now the issue. 2Example soil analysis results from the Soil Survey conducted in the area of the Pilot Village Ban Nong Boua. See Appendix K-1 for detailed results. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 5 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Table 21-2: A Soil Analysis Results from the Pilot Village Area on the Nakai Plateau Range Level Texture Sandy Loam pH KCl 4.1 Highly Acidic pH H2O 4.9 Highly Acidic Organic Matter % 0.9 to 1.8 Low Nitrogen % 0.06 to 0.08 Very Low C/N Ratio 8.5 to 12.5 Medium/High P, total % 0.019 to 0.026 Low P, available ppm 1.4to 1.5 Medium K. total % 0.037 to 0.045 Low K, available ppm 5.3 to 7.3 Medium CEC, total me/100g 6.3 to 8.0 Low Base Saturation, % 13.8 to 16.1 Very Low Ca me/100g 0.25 to 0.43 Very Low Mg me/100g 0.38 to 0.55 Low K me/100g 0.08 to 0.14 Low/Medium Na me/100g 0.135 to 0.142 Very Low 21.3.2 Appropriate Cropping Systems and Fertility Management Generally, these Acrisols on the Nakai plateau have been used for low yielding subsistence farming, mainly shifting cultivation systems which, provided fallow periods are adequate, have proved to be a moderately sustainable utilisation of these soils. However, farmers remain desperately poor when practising these swidden systems and swidden cultivation will no longer be possible or allowed in the resettlement area due to pressure on land and forest resources. Thus, alternative land management and cropping practices must be developed, aimed at increasing organic matter and cation exchange capacity which are preconditions for cropping these soils and obtaining responses to chemical fertilization. Irrigation on formed terraces and use of composted organic fertiliser Adapting cropping systems with complete fertilisation and careful management are probably a precursor for productive sedentary farming in this area, and it is likely that low input farming on these soils will not be rewarding. Thus, one way to improve the soils and their productivity is to increase the cropping and management intensity and thus productivity potential of the soils by double or triple cropping with the use of irrigation and organic fertiliser. The villagers have chosen resettlement sites on the shores of the reservoir, and thus pumping the reservoirs water to the resettlement sites is an attractive option. In addition, many of the villagers have requested the provision of irrigation system, which is also necessary for the productive and reliable production of wet paddy rice. However, because of the sloping nature of most of the areas identified for resettlement as well as the irrigation required for dry season crops and paddy production, it will be necessary to establish contoured terraces to stabilise the slopes and allow for the development of adequate organic matter levels in the soils. DMC - direct seeded mulch based cropping The only alternative to irrigated cropping in the resettlement areas is DMC or direct seeded mulch-based cropping systems in upland rainfed areas . The main principle of these systems is that the soil is no longer disturbed by mechanical action, and is always kept covered by former crop residues and dead or living mulch, and the main intention is to increase organic matter and stop soil erosion. Deep rotting systems of cover crops improve soils structure, increase below ground insects and microbial communities and recycle nutrients deep in the soils. If the quantity of mulch is sufficient then weeds are also controlled and water availability for crops increases. The zero tillage system's are now common in broadacre agricultural areas where machinery has been designed for direct seeding and fertilizing and herbicides used for mulch control. There uptake in less developed small holder systems is less common, but has nee demonstrated to be possible, productive and economic. However, specific systems - and their three main components of (a) soils management and land preparation, (b) crop management techniques, and (c) Thematic adjustments - will have to be developed for the Nakai resettlement area. Challenges in this area include poor soils will make fertility improvements difficult and mulch build up rather slow. However, experienced specialists consider that it can be done, over a 4 to 6 year timeframe to develop the systems. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 6 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development pH The low inherent pH of the soils can be ameliorated by the application of lime, at indicative rates of between 2 and 5 tons per ha. Application of ground limestone will raise the pH and improve cation exchange capacity. The objective should be to simply neutralise the exchangeable aluminium, which is the main problem in these acid soils, rather then to bring the soil close to a neutral reaction. In practical terms this implies raising the pH to above 5.5. 21.3.3 Irrigation Potential and Limitations - water use efficiencies The percolation losses in the soils in the resettlement sites will be a significant part of the water requirements for irrigated paddy production as well as irrigation for other crops. For heavy clay soils within the Mekong Plains, percolation rates of 1 to 3 mm per day are normal, but in lighter well draining soils, such as occur in the plateau, these rates are significantly higher. However, estimating the percolation losses without the results of infiltration rate tests and area field experience is difficult. For example, at the Theun Douan Demonstration Farm the soils are light and dry season rice trials required considerable pumping and achieved only low yields. After taking into account effective rainfall, a moderately high 6 mm per day could be assumed which results in a peak net supplementary IWR of 8 mm per day. After adjusting for the distribution efficiency and field application losses, which would normally be of the order of 60 percent, a gross IWR of 13 mm per day would be indicated. However, there may be lower irrigation efficiencies through higher distribution losses as the water will have to be conveyed between terraced paddies. It is for this reason that the land areas that are planted to irrigated paddy must be on the lower slopes where soils will have a higher clay content and percolation losses will be lower. Another factor will be that the soil water table level may change after the after the Nakai reservoir is filled. At least in the wet season, the water table should be considerably raised, and thus irrigated paddy water requirements in the wet season may be reduced considerably following impoundment of the reservoir. 21.4 SITE SELECTION AND LAND DEVELOPMENT 21.4.1 Site Selection Nakai Plateau villagers have repeated their preference to remain living on the Plateau rather than moving to the lowland areas, as previously proposed. In response to this preference, studies have been conducted to assess the natural resources in the area above the mean supply level of the reservoir (538 EL). The studies examined the area between the western boundary of the reservoir and the edge of the escarpment to identify suitable areas for the establishment of resettled villages with individual farm plots. Agricultural, social and resource related criteria were given due consideration in selecting prospective resettlement sites (Table 21-3), as described in detail in Chapter 19 Table 21-3: Factors Considered in the Selection of Prospective Resettlement Sites 1. Water supply must be accessible from the reservoir, along with an elevated site for the header tank to allow gravity irrigation to farm plots Agricultural 2. Slope for the farm plot area(s) should be as gentle as possible and ideally not exceed 15% considerations 3. The soils selected must be capable of providing adequate returns with a potential for the production of wetland paddy rice wherever possible 4. All farm plots should form 1 contiguous land area wherever possible Social 5. The resettlement sites should be as near as possible to the old village location considerations 6. Social and cultural factors must be taken into account including the village spiritual areas and customary boundaries Resource 7. Roads or other transportation infrastructure must be sufficiently accessible to ensure access considerations to markets and other support services 8. Access to the reservoir, drawdown zone, forest and grazing areas should be convenient Potential resettlement sites meeting the above criteria are located along the south-western shoreline of the reservoir, providing water for irrigation, and access to the drawdown zone, grazing and forest land. A significant portion of the land has slopes below 15 percent, which allows large enough areas for the selection of village sites and agricultural land. These potential resettlement areas also largely fell within November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 7 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development existing village customary use areas, thus reducing the potential of social upheaval and the risks associated with acclimatization to a new environment. Initially, the lands along the reservoir shoreline were divided into 25 potential village resettlement sites. These have now been reviewed by villagers and a each village has chosen, based on its own criteria, indicative sites, as shown in Figure 21-2. Most of the sites are flat to undulating, and a total area of about 750 ha will be developed into terraced and irrigated farm plots, based upon 0.66 ha per household, with an additional 50 ha of land required for the homesteads and associated village facilities. Surrounding these irrigated areas are similar area of upland degraded forest, and these may be developed into rainfed cropping, as described Section 21.5.2. While the villagers' choice of site often relates to closeness to water and the reservoir, some have also chosen areas where, based on available maps, there may be a large area of drawdown, land between elevations of 538 masl to about 530 masl. Villagers obviously see the potential to utilize such areas for dry season irrigated and early wets season rainfed cropping. A range of cropping options will be made available to each resettled household, and they will have flexibility in their choice of what and how to grow crops on the farm plots. In addition, what they grow on the land will likely change over time, as experience is gained as to what are the best crops and systems for the area, and as markets emerge and change. 21.4.2 Land development The areas to why the villagers will be relocated and developed as agricultural plots is currently under degraded to medium to good forest. Thus the land will have to be opened up for the farm plots. The establishment and development of these farm plots would require substantial labour inputs at the outset. This would include: Felling of trees and slashing of vegetation, a task which many of the villagers are accustomed to; While the good trees will be sawn by the NPVFA for sale to NTPC and then used to build villagers houses, the other vegetation will be burnt on site; and Removal of tree stumps is necessary if the land is to be cultivated, but may not be necessary of the DMC system is adopted. Stump removal is a difficult task, which cam be undertaken in three ways: (a) slow burning of the tree stump, in situ, which may take some years for the stump to disappear; (b) manual dodging and removal of stump; and (c) mechanical extraction In most cases, the land opening in the first year will be part of planting a wet season upland rice crops, atypical way that agricultural land is first brought into production in the Lao PDR. Following this first season's crop, in the case of the irrigated and terraced areas, the land would be surveyed and terraces started to be formed as explained in Section 21.5.1. This would be conducted in parallel to survey and design of the irrigation system. The on farm development of the irrigation system would, in most cases, begin in the following year. The experience being gained from the Pilot Village and demonstration farm will be used in developing the lands within these farming areas. 21.5 CROPPING SYSTEMS AND COMPONENTS There are three possible farming (cropping) systems that could be developed in, or in relation to, the resettlement Area, as follows: (a) irrigated, multiple season cropping, on bench terraces; Irrigated cropping has been tested in the Theun Douan farm and now in the Pilot Village, and has proved to be technically feasible and productive. It is also the system requested by resettlers (farmers). It is thus the main cropping system used in the planning of the agriculture program (until DMC and reservoir drawdown systems are shown to be feasible, and developed). (b) rainfed cropping in the area currently classified as degraded forest; Non-irrigated cropping of the fragile soils in the area is probably only viable under legume rotations and minimum tillage, the `direct-seeding mulch-based cropping' (DMC) systems. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 8 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development However, rainfed cropping with legume rotations and minimum tillage will take considerable time to develop as a productive and sustainable system, and at this stage the productivity of its technical components is not known. Thus, it will be part of the participatory research program, but not, at this stage, part of the detailed farm planning and income modelling. (c) cropping in the reservoir drawdown zone. The extent and type of cropping in the reservoir's drawdown zone is not possible to predict at this stage. It may be possible in some specified areas, especially those areas not subject to wave erosion. Thus, this is not at this stage considered in detailed planning and income scenarios, but villagers will have the full right to pursue cropping in theses areas if and when they become possible and viable. Regulations regarding the use of this area will be established in each village by the DAFO and the village authorities. 21.5.1 Irrigated Agriculture on terraces The main features of the planned irrigated cropping systems and components which are modelled in the economic analysis (see Section 21.10 and 21.11) include: · An area of 0.66 ha of land per family will be developed and provided with irrigation water to allow production of wet and dry season crops and forages. · Some households will initially continue to plant upland rice in these areas, but most will gradually change to production to the irrigated paddy, where technically and economically feasible and especially after the Nakai reservoir in operation. Paddy land will be located on the lower terraces, where slopes are less, and the land contiguous to the drawdown zones where cropping may also be developed, including mid to late dry season paddy rice. Both wet and dry season paddy can be grown or dry season crops such as water melon grown in the formed paddy areas. · Maize and sorghum will be important crops to be grown in both wet and dry season, intercrop or rotated with legumes such as peanuts, mung beans, black beans and soybeans - could be expanded in both WS and DS, mainly as sole crops but also as an intercrop with maize during the WS. · Vegetable production will be mainly undertaken in the dry season, with double cropping of vegetables as households further intensify the cropping patterns and gain experience. Vegetable crops will include cabbage and broccoli, cucumber, eggplant, tomato, chillies and garlic, in fact any species which grows effectively in the plateau environment and has a good market. · Fruit trees are another option that can be planted either (a) on the lower terraces where the water table will be more accessible in the dry season, thus reducing their need for supplementary irrigation, or on the higher terraces. Fruit types will include mango, jackfruit, guava, lychee, tamarind, pomelo, bananas and pineapple. · Irrigated forage production is another option. On perfectly flat areas these could be developed into grazing fields. However, on areas with any slope, cut and carry systems would be probably be developed to avoid erosion or damage to terracing. Establishment of forages/pastures could also be part of the cropping cycle, with the pastures being returned to crops every 2 years or so. · Establishment of long cycle industrial type crops is also a possible - tea, coffee, rubber, or whatever is feasible and economically productive. · Most of the land areas selected for relocation have undulating topography that will necessitate the establishment of terraces along the contours (see Section 21.5.1). The Irrigation Water Requirements for paddy production will be considerably higher than for the field crops grown on the other parts of the farm lot. Paddy grows best in a standing water depth of 10 to 15 cm, which needs to be maintained throughout the growing season. In addition irrigation water is required to cover evaporation losses from the open water as well as compensate for percolation losses in the inundated fields. Furthermore, there is a substantial water demand to saturate the land to permit the soils to be puddled prior to transplanting. The process of puddling the soil disturbs the fine clay soil particles that move settle between soil particles lower in the profile and hence reduce percolation losses. A dry season paddy crop has been included in the Whole Farm Scenarios following the filling of the reservoir, although this may prove possible in the lower terraces or in certain drawdown zones There are areas within the resettlement sites with higher clay contents, although these are mostly found in the November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 9 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development northern area. However, these soils will still have higher percolation losses than rates than the heavy clay soils normally used for paddy. The effect of puddling the soils will be to progressively change the soil structure and this will in turn progressively reduce percolation losses. Once this occurs then the production of dry season paddy could become more feasible, in the longer term. On the upper slopes non-ponded crops will be grown, because of the higher percolation losses. Although the annual applications of organic manure will improve the physical structure of the soils it will not materially influence the percolation rates. Dry season field and vegetable crops will be probably be grown under two general systems: (a) on flat ground or in 'holes' in cases where water is provided by sprinkler; (b) on raised ridges or beds where furrow irrigation is possible. Sprinkler - either semi automatic or fully manual - will be possible were dry season vegetable and field crops are grown on small areas (normally less than 150 sq m). This will substantially reduce the water demand although it will increase the labour requirement. in larger areas, water reticulation in pipes and canals will be the main systems developed (see Chapter 22) Terrace Design and Construction The work that has been done over the last two years in the Pilot Village has raised some concerns relating to the establishment of terraces and the task of providing irrigation water to these farm lots. Some basic assumptions regarding terrace design that should be applied are: · Terrace vertical intervals must be kept to a minimum to minimize cut and fill topsoil movement. The greater the vertical interval, the greater the cut and fill earth movement. The maximum vertical interval should not exceed 40 cm (20 cm cut and fill). · The rise in the interval is not vertical as there is little stone available for stonewalling. Instead the terrace rise should be cut at a slope of 0.5:1 (horizontal : vertical). Consequently some land will be lost by terrace construction. · At the end of the terrace there should be a small earth bund, 10-cm high. Thus, assuming 1:1 side slopes and 10-cm top width, a strip 30-cm wide will be lost. · The terraces surfaces must be level to ensure even distribution of irrigation water. Table 21-4 and Figure 21-2 below present guideslines for Bench Terrace Design and Construction, applicable for plot slopes between 2 and 20 %. The table shows the less the vertical interval the more the number of benches that are required and the less total bench width. The recommended maximum vertical interval is 0.4 m with a preferable 0.3 m interval (0.15 m depth cut and fill). Table 21-4: Parameters for Design and Construction of Terraces Vertical Interval (m) between terraces No. of benches Total bench width (m) 0.4 25 4 0.3 33 3 0.2 50 2 The preferable method of locating a contour is by the use of a clear hosepipe and water rather than using a conventional "A" frame. The method to be used should be as follows: · Temporary benchmarks are installed at every farm plot. This will require the use of theodolite and a skilled operator. · Individual plots are surveyed and mapped to determine land slope or slopes. Initially a 20 metre grid can be used. With experience, it will be possible to decide what density of spot levels is required. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 10 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development · The existing terrace lines are also located and the existing terrace widths/vertical intervals/land slopes are compared with those in Table 21-3. · If the existing terrace widths are considered satisfactory, then improving the existing bunds is undertaken using the clear hosepipe and pegs. Set the top of the pegs to the level of the contour. Excavate a trench and build a bund to the top of the pegs and then level the plot behind the bund accordingly. · If the existing terraces are not considered satisfactory then it will be necessary to re-design the terrace widths using the guideline table in conjunction with the farmer wishes regarding cut and fill depths (some plots may have shallower top soils than others). Irrigation efficiency will also be determined by the degree of levelling of the terraces to permit an even distribution of the water. If the terraces are uneven larger volumes of water will be required to maintain the minimum standing depths of water for the paddy. Terrace development should, where possible, be done manually, as the use of heavy equipment can result in the disturbance of the sub-soil which if mixed with the top soil can result in areas of the terrace that will have largely sterile soil. The actual construction of the contours and terraces is difficult and can be done by various means, often a combination of the following; · mechanically, by the use of large ploughing tractors or smaller hand tractors to loosen the soils and effect some levelling of the ground; and · manually, by use of hoes to level the ground and transfer soils for the construction. Using both these methods, it will take time - 2 to 3 the years - to fully developed the terraces and contours. Thus, there will be a requirement for substantial labour inputs during the first and second years to achieve (the land clearance and then) contouring and terracing, as well as the initial land preparation for cropping. This is estimated at 50 to 70 person days for the 0.66 ha farm lot, at least 60 % of which should take place during the first 2 years. This will be supported by the Project in the form of Food for Work Programs, and is a form of transitional income support. For the smaller households who have labour shortages, this support can also be used to compensate hired labour. A third method employed for terrace and contour development in more developed countries is the use of laser levelled graders (on very gentle slopes only). This is currently not contemplated to be used in the NT2 Project, but could be an option. Land Preparation Following opening up the land (see section 21.4.2), and in the early years in parallel to the progressive development of terraces and contours, the land in the irrigated plots needs to be prepared on a seasonal. The most common way to do this is with power toilers, the same tillers used to develop and level the land on the early years. The project will provide one power tillers to an average of 10 families or community groups. These machines, however, are multiple purposes, and when not preparing land are used for the transportation of inputs (fertilisers) and produce to market. Smaller areas, especially for vegetable crop beds, are also prepared by hand, with hoes etc. Following trialling and experience the progressive introduction of DMC systems into the terraced and irrigated areas may also be a possibility, and be especially important for the decrease in reliance on imported fertilisers or fertiliser production materials. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 11 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Figure 21-2: Three Examples of Terraces with 5, 10 and 15 % Degree Slopes. Figure 21-3: Photos of Contour Terracing in the Nong Boua Pilot Village. Contour bund developed as paddy rice bunds Contour bund planted to pigeon pea November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 12 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Figure 21-4: Photos of Wet Season Cropping, Nong Boua Pilot Village. Peanuts, at the stat of the wet season 2003 Ploughing a terraced field with hand tractor Maize, wet season 2004 Black beans Terraced fields (planted to maize to maize, early wet season, 03 Rice crop trial site, wet season 2004 Upland rice, wet season 2004 Planting bunded paddy rice, wet season 2004 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 13 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Figure 21-5: Photos on Dry Season Cropping in Nong Boua Pilot Village Bananas Mango Cabbages Papaya Broccoli Mustard greens Chillies Tomatoes November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 14 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.5.2 Direct Seeded Mulch Based Cropping (DMC) Systems The only alternative to irrigated cropping in the resettlement areas is DMC or direct seeded mulch-based cropping systems in upland rainfed areas of the resettlement. The main principle of these systems is that the soil is no longer disturbed by mechanical action, and is always kept covered by former crop residues and dead or living mulch, and the main intention is to increase organic matter and stop soil erosion. Mechanical actions (hoeing, ploughing) are replaced by biological improvement of soil structure by rooting systems of cover crops which improve soils structure, increase below ground insects and microbial communities and recycle nutrients deep in the soils. If the quantity of mulch is sufficient then weeds are also controlled and water availability for crops increases. The zero tillage system's are now common in broadacre agricultural areas where machinery has been designed for direct seeding and fertilizing and herbicides used for mulch control. The uptake of the DMC systems in small holder systems is less common, but has been demonstrated to be possible, productive and economic in the Lao PDR. However, the DMC systems require that the principles are applied creatively within each particular agro- ecosystem. Scaling-up of DMC systems must be based on the understanding of the agro-ecological and socioeconomic conditions under which alternatives are adopted and implemented at the local level. Thus, development of specific systems which are feasible and productive on the Nakai plateau, and especially in the resettlement area, will take time to develop, and will require research and onfarm trials on the main components of the cropping system, which include (a) Soils management and land preparation The DMC system replaces ploughing and scarification with the production and management of mulches - organic matter covering the ground, which could come from crop residues, or plants established to produce mulch such as grasses - which actually also have a forage function. This mulch management often include the use of a herbicide ('glyphosate') although over time villagers may develop systems which do not require herbicide use. The system replaces convectional planting techniques with specialised planters as shown in Figure 21-6. (b) Crop management techniques While crop sowing dates and plant density may change only slightly under DMC systems, special emphasis must be given to the development of notational and annual crop sequencing which will enhance mulch management and soils fertility. Crop management will also reduce economic risk and climatic risks Many options are available when using additional crops cover crops) but for smallholders a integrated cropping and livestock system is often mist suitable. (c) Thematic adjustments Finally, as in conventional systems, an understanding of the best and adapted cultivars must be developed, and especially the required fertiliser regimes and application methods. Challenges to the development of this DMC system in the Nakai resettlement area include · the paucity of soils nutrients and organic matter means that the DMC systems alone may take time to show significant improvement in soil fertility . · given the rather poor natural growth of natural vegetation on the plateau, will significant mulch be able to be develop to prevent erosion ? · the more intensive management - change for villagers ? On the other hand, shifting cultivators do not plough the soils at the moment, but rather dibble the seed, which is a rudimentary form of direct sowing. In DMC systems, these dibbling systems must be improved, probably by the used of specialised machines. Examples of DMC rotational systems which could possibly be developed in the Nakai resettlement area include: eg i: Annual crop and forage association: cash crop (maize) associated with forage specie (B. ruziziensis) to increase fodder resource: 2 years of forage and 1 year (wet season) of a maize or sorghum crop. eg ii: Annual crop and forage association: cash crop (maize) associated with forage specie (B. ruziziensis) to be used as cover crop for the next cycle. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 15 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development eg iii: two annual crops - early season legume (mung, peanuts) or other crop sesame) followed by a longer an main wet season grain crop - maize or sorghum, to be used later as animal feed. Figure 21-6: Direct Seeding through Mulch using a Hand-Jab Seeder; Maize / Sorghum emerging through Mulch (photos courtesy of CIRAD). The main areas or zones where these DMC systems, integrated with cattle grazing of cut and carry forage production, will be tested and developed, and then expanded as appropriate, will be in areas currently under degraded to very degraded forest in the Resettlement Area. There may be between 2,500 to 4,000 ha of such areas in the Resettlement Area (within that approximately 7,000 ha defined as 'degraded forest'). However, there will be competition with other uses of these areas. For example, permanent pasture may be one use (although these could also be used as fallow for annual crops in trhe DMC system), while natural regeneration or plantations of native trees and NTPCs ­ bong bark and cardamom for example ­ may be another preferred use. Thus, the uptake of DMC in the rainfed areas of the Resettlement Area and the use of the rest of the currently degraded forest areas will be a matter of trialling and village choice (see Chapter 19 for the on-going FLUPAM process). 21.5.3 Reservoir Drawdown Zone Agriculture Analysis of reservoir area maps (developed on a based of 5 m contour intervals), and the operation of the reservoir which is predicted to range from a full supply level of 538 masl to 526 masl ­ or a 12 m drop annually ­ suggest that a large area of land will be inundated by the reservoir only for some months of the year. These areas are exposed as the reservoir is drawing down in the dry season, or progressively filling up in the wet season. In fact, areas between 538 to around 536 masl will in some years not even be inundated (see Figure 21-7 and 21-6). However, only in that the area above 530 m asal (approximately) is considered as possible to grow crops. While the exact nature of this drawdown zone of the reservoir is difficult to predict, and will only be known after some years of operation of the reservoir, the drawdown zone could include the following types: (a) areas in the southern edge of the main reservoir which may be subject to erosion, especially in areas of slope > 5 %; (b) low areas which are very flat and may remain as swamps during the dry season - this would be the case for lower areas, say below 530 masl; and (c) higher areas of very gentle slope, or areas in the small embayments not subject to wind and wave, which could develop as seasonal grassland, seasonally flooded forests etc. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 16 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Figure 21-7: Annual Fluctuations of Nakai Reservoir Surface Water Elevations and Reservoir Surface Water Areas. 538 446 406 536 )lsa 366 2 ) m(leveLreta 534 326 mk(ae 532 286 WriovreseR 246 530 206 ArecarfuSreta W 528 166 126 526 86 524 46 N B R Y N L G P T V C N JA FE MAR AP MA JU JU AU SE OC NO DE JA Month Dry Year Level Wet Year Level Average Year Level November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 17 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Figure 21-8: Drawdown Areas in Main Reservoir and Areas Close to Resettlement Area. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 18 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development It is this third ecological zone that could be developed for agriculture, in two general seasons and systems, as follows: 1: during the dry season, as the reservoir is receding. Crops could be planted into the wet soils. for short season crops they may mature on wet soils alone. For longer season crops, they could be provided with supplementary irrigation. The most likely crops grown would be short season grain crops, short season legume crops, vegetable crops in small areas, and dry season paddy rice in bunded rice fields. The supplementary irrigation could be provided by: (a) a supplementary pipe or canal from the main irrigation systems - in cases where the drawdown zone utilised is contiguous with the main irrigated cropping; or (b) small dams or gully stops holding water from the receded reservoir, as is done around the Great Lake of Cambodia. 2: during the early wet season, before the reservoir is filled again (as it is progressively being filled) there will be large areas of exposed land receiving early wet season rains. In selected and appropriate areas, villages could grow short season crops such as maize, peanuts etc, as they currently do along the banks of rivers before they flood (e.g. the Xe Bangfai) or in their upland fields. The total area of possible drawdown lands immediately below (contiguous with) the Resettlement Area and which could possibly be utilised in this way has been tentatively been assessed by GIS mapping (see Figure 21-6) to be; · area of drawdown land between 530 to 535 masl = 1,258 ha · area of drawdown land between 535 to 538 masl = 1,045 ha For planning purposes, it is assumed that around 60 % will be either too steep, subject to erosion or for some other reason not suitable for copping, thus leaving about 1,380 ha of drawdown zone which may be suitable for cropping. 21.5.4 Crop Seed and Varieties Seed of improved varieties of all crops will be provided by the Project. Seed of improved selections of legumes and maize will be accessed many sources, including Had Dokkeo Vegetable Research Station, Na Phok National Agricultural Research Station in Vientiane municipality and the new Khammouane seed production station. At Had Dokkeo the maize variety LVN10 has proved successful in achieving yields in excess of 5 tons per ha in field trials. This is a hybrid variety bred at the National Maize Research Institute in Vietnam where they have also developed composite varieties, which would be more suitable since they would avoid the necessity for re-purchasing of seed every year. Priori to promoting any variety, simple on- farm variety trials will be conducted in each village to compare the performance of varieties under the fertility and climatic conditions of the plateau. Examples of current varieties include the peanuts varieties of Mock Kay, Khor Kean and Tong Nang, which have given unshelled yields of up to 2 tons per ha, the mungbean the variety VC 1468 which has yielded from 1.2 to 2 tons per ha, and the soybeans variety Chiang Mai 1 can yield up to 1.2 tons per ha.. Seeds of many vegetable crops and varieties are commercially available in Laos or in Thailand, although most of these are hybrids. They would provide the best yield potential and it will be necessary to ensure that households would have reliable supplies of the seed in future years when they become responsible for providing their own inputs. Rice varieties that are currently in use on the plateau under both upland culture as well as irrigated paddy are all glutinous varieties and most are photoperiod sensitive. These traditional varieties have a low yield potential, although through selection by the farmers they are well adapted to the local growing conditions. In the case of irrigated paddy, they are growing the same varieties in both the wet and dry seasons, although the area planted in the dry season is very small. However, because of the low temperatures in December and January short season cold tolerant varieties should be used. Planting normal varieties November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 19 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development earlier than this and exposing them to temperatures of less than 15o C can result in them not flowering. It will be necessary to test a number of varieties prior to identifying those that should be multiplied. While initially, seed will be purchased, the project will develop its own sown seed production facilities on the plateau.. Aside from the hybrid vegetable crops farmers will need to be encouraged to retain seed of the improved varieties of the field crops from their own crops for use in future seasons. 21.5.5 Fruit Tree Propagation Local and improved fruit tree varieties have, and will continue to be tested on the plateau to assess their adaptability and productivity on the plateau. Based on these and on farm results and farmers requirements, the project is encouraging the multiplication of fruit trees at the pilot farms and Village and in villages themselves, so that the plateau (and its farmers) become the main source of seedlings of fruit trees for distribution to farmers (as part of their entitlements). Training in nursery management is and will continue to be provided to interested farmers who wish to establish their own nursery. 21.5.6 Fertiliser Materials Because of the limitation of the soils in terms of their erosion susceptibility, high acidity, poor nutrient content low CEC, high absorption of P they will need careful management during the initial years of development. As the soils have high inherent acidity that will adversely affect crop growth, the Project will provide limestone for the initial treatment of the soil prior to the commencement of land and crop development in the resettlement sites. The extent of the need for further applications of limestone in subsequent years will need to be carefully monitored by soil sampling and pH testing. This District Agricultural and Forestry Office (DAFO) will support this activity by establishment and operation of a simple soils laboratory. However, it is envisaged that the liming treatment will not be required beyond the third year of cultivation so that the input costs of the lime will all be borne by the Project and will not be a burden to the households in the subsequent years. No liming should be necessary on the irrigated paddy land as the anaerobic conditions caused by the flooding of these soils in itself results in a stabilisation of the pH at an acceptable level for paddy production. The use of heavy applications of organic fertiliser will be necessary to build soil organic matter, and to improve the nutrient holding capacity, which in turn will also improve the buffering capacity of the soil to enable the pH to stabilise at an acceptable level. Producing large amounts of organic fertiliser will be a substantial task for the households, and the project will initially produce and provide this fertiliser by the establishment of organic, compost fertiliser factory, similar to that developed in the Pilot Village. If rates of application of at least 1 ton are applied on each 0.5 ha plot this will entail the production of on average over 30 tons of organic fertiliser each year in each village. However, during the first three years higher rates of application, about 2 to 3 tonnes per ha, will be applied. Farm generated animal manures will eventually have to become the main source of organic fertilisers, although the systems whereby villagers raise there cattle and other livestock - extensive, range feed or more intensive and based on the irrigation areas - will largely determine the extent and the way that these animal manures and used and processed before application. As experience and understanding is developed, and soil organic matter and buffering capacity is improved, the use of inorganic fertilisers will be considered. The use of compound inorganic fertiliser will be necessary particularly for paddy, maize and vegetable crops that will counteract the low levels of phosphate as well as supplying additional nitrogen to supplement that supplied by the organic fertiliser. The commercially available 15.15.15 may be appropriate, and rates of application of 50 kg per ha applied as a basal dressing during land preparation would be likely. For irrigated paddy where higher rates of nitrogen would be required to optimise yields a top dressing of 50 kg per ha of urea should also be November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 20 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development applied3. If required during the transition phase, the use of the inorganic fertiliser will be funded by the Project.. Subsequently, if the households revert to lower input levels it has been assumed that they would not maintain the use of chemical fertiliser but would revert to the use of only organic fertiliser. The soils are also low in phosphate, so that significant additions of either rock phosphate or dolomite will be added , either as basal dressing of in-hole applications. The introduction of leguminous field crops, as well as the planting of perennial leguminous species as hedgerows to stabilise the terraces will all contribute to building the nitrogen reserves of the soil. However, careful observation of the nodulation of the legume field crops should be used to determine the need for inoculation of the seed. This applies most particularly to Soybeans where the rhizobium may not be present in soils where this crop has not previously been planted. Incorporation of crop residues into the soil after harvest will also contribute to increasing the inherent soil fertility or alternatively allowing livestock to graze on the harvested areas. However, if livestock are allowed into the area the leguminous hedgerows may prove to be more attractive grazing than the crop residues. The foliage of the hedgerows will be better utilised as a part of a cut and carry system. 21.5.7 Pest and Disease Control On the plateau there is little if any use of pesticides and in the resettlement sites the crops will, as far as possible continue to be grown without the use of pesticides. The intensification of the cropping patterns inevitably will increase the incidence of crop pests and diseases and this will apply particular to some vegetable crops. However, there are effective IPM approaches that can be effective in controlling particular pests4. There will be programs of farmer training to support the introduction of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to enable them to minimise pesticide use. The principles of IPM will be taught using the well established approach of Farmer Field Schools, which will be the basis for the delivery of all farmer training whereby an emphasis is placed upon practical based teaching in the field rather than classroom based training. Producing organic vegetables on the Nakai plateau could enable the farmers to sell produce into niche markets in Vientiane or across the border in Thailand. There would be a need for assistance in sourcing and development market linkages and establishing a marketing centre in Nakai where buyers could obtain their produce. 21.6 EXTENSION APPROACHES FOR CROP PRODUCTION One of the greatest challenges to the intensification of the farming systems and cropping patterns will be the motivation of the farmers to adopt the new forms of (sedentary) agriculture. A wide range of extension approaches and development assistance will be provided to ensure that the resettlers progressively adjust to, and adopt the systems. The extension approach should focus on involving the farmers in a participatory manner so that farmer training and technical inputs are in response to their needs. The extension strategy proposed relies heavily on the use of Farmer Field Schools and the identification of Farmer Leaders, Village Livestock Agents., etc., who can themselves fulfil some of the functions of the field extension staff, and the development of trials and demonstration areas, as described below. Inputs The project will support the following inputs, mainly during the early years after resettlement to enable the households to establish their livelihood on their farm lot and gain experience. The physical inputs will comprise the following: · seed of improved varieties of all crops will be provided; · agricultural lime will be applied to all farm lots at the time of initial land preparation to counteract the inherent high acidity of the soils; 3 These rates of application are indicative only, and quite modest. They will effectively supply only 7.5 kg per ha of N, P and K respectively from the 15.15.15 supplemented by 23 kg per ha of N from the Urea topdressing applied to the paddy. There is no precise information on the chemical composition of the organic fertiliser. 4 One example is the control of control of Diamond Back Moth which attacks Brassica crops by the use of the parasitic wasp Trichogramma pretiosum that can be released into the area. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 21 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development · organic fertiliser materials will be supplied for all crops and chemical fertilisers supplied for specific crops in particular to address phosphate deficiencies; · provision of hoes and other simple tools; · provision of power tillers, and of direct seeding tools; and · all of the farm lots will be supplied with irrigation water, and the costs of this support will be borne by the Project including the ongoing maintenance and pumping costs, although after the first three years the villagers will be expected to contribute some nominal fee for use of the irrigation waters. Technical support The joint support from TAs and trained Provincial and District staff will ensure there is a high level of technical supervision to the agricultural development activities within the resettled villages. Research and trial areas in each village As discussed previously, the development of the new cropping and livestock systems will present certain technical (and social) challenges. Thus, there will be a need to establish a program of research and trails in range of subjects including; · crop cultivars; · fertiliser rates; · mulch management etc for DMC; · new types of crops; · methods for terrace management, etc This program will be managed by TA team, and established in two general ways: (a) research trails on dedicated research sites, linked closely to selected villages (an example of this is already established within the Nong Boua pilot village ; and (b) on farm trials, where the various components are tested in farmer fields Demonstrations plots Demonstration plots will be developed on actual farmer fields, with leading or innovative farmers, to provide examples of possible crops, and their main agronomic requirements of them. Such demonstration plots, or model farms, will be developed in each village to provide convincing demonstrations to the farmers of appropriate practices and crop management. These demo plots are also a useful tool for the conduct of these FFSs, with visits to the farmers' own farm lots being a part of the regular training sessions to discuss particular problems that have occurred alongside the organisation of additional on- farm trials and demonstrations. Farmer Field Schools Farmer Field Schools will be established as the vehicle for providing training to farmers on improved cultural practices, and to ensure that training on particular commodities extends for the duration of the production cycle, with the training being conducted on a regular basis in the field timed to coincide with critical growth stages. This will enable farmers to learn how to achieve optimum plant densities, raising and transplanting vegetable seedlings, fertiliser application, weed control and post-harvest practices. In general FFSs should be conducted with groups of farmers that number less than 25. This is to ensure that there can be good interaction within the group during each training sessions and it is easier to monitor the attendance of all the farmers at each training session. One of the important tasks of the AEWs, who will be the main facilitators of the FFSs, will be to motivate the farmers and seek their continued interest in attending the training sessions. However, the AEWs can use the regular attendance at the training sessions as a condition for the continued release of inputs to the households during the first three years. Normally, each FFS is concluded with the conduct of a graduation ceremony where farmer are awarded a certificate that gives them some prestige as having successfully completed the training. However, the AEWs may wish to keep the groups of farmers from the FFS intact to provide a vehicle to the continued provision of extension support, and also the conduct of other FFS that may deal with other commodities. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 22 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development A program of Cross Visits for the farmers to other areas will be implemented, although there seem to no other examples of this type of irrigated agriculture on terraced uplands in other parts of Laos at present. However, enabling farmers to visit established resettled villages will be a useful way of introducing them to the approach for the development of the farm lots in their own resettled areas. 21.6.1 Risks and Assumptions As already described, the introduction of intensive cropping patterns and sedentary agriculture will incur a number of risks: (a) Resettled households may not be prepared initially to adopt the intensive cropping patterns to maximise the utilisation of their farm lots. This is a risk that has been highlighted in the discussion and has been observed in the Pilot Village where there has been a tendency for example to continue to plant upland rice, in some cases as an intercrop with maize. By providing full support to the resettled households in the form of inputs as well as Food for Work Programs as a contribution towards their labour particularly during the initial land clearing and preparation it is intended that households will learn from experience and training programs and be encouraged to intensify their cropping patterns. (b) The optimum levels of inputs that are provided to resettled households through Project support may not be sustained. This is risk that in subsequent years, particularly with respect to the amounts of fertiliser, villagers to not maintain the levels of inputs supported by the project in the transition period. However, in the computations of Gross Margins and subsequent calculation of farm incomes, scenario's has been developed that depicts a reversion to lower input use to assess the impact of this change on the household income. (c) Households are prepared to develop their farm lots and work to improve the soil conditions in order to increase productivity. Applying and incorporating organic fertiliser will be a continuing need for a number of years. Again this is a practice that can be promoted during the initial years when support is being provided but it will require sustained extension efforts in future years to ensure that the households do maintain the practice. Adoption rates will be dependent on the improvement in soil structure and crop productivity that can be achieved during the first three years. (d) Levels of productivity can be achieved for the recommended crops. Assumptions have been made on yields for each of the crops examined. In general these have been kept at a modest level and in the analysis of farm incomes assumptions have been made in relation to a medium level of yield at each level of input usage. The results from the Demonstration Farm and Pilot village have provided some guide to the likely level of yields that can be achieved. (e) Irrigation potential of the soils. Detailed soil surveys have not been conducted in each resettlement area but the results from the Pilot Village indicate that it will be feasible to irrigate dry season crops provided, soil conditions can be improved. In the resettlement areas to the north the soil conditions appear to be rather more favourable for irrigated crop production. In the comparison of the farm incomes for different cropping patterns it has been assumed that there may be a gradual increase in dry season irrigated areas as the farmers gain experience as well as the soils conditions improving. 21.7 PILOT VILLAGE EXPERIENCE TO DATE Experience gained in the Nong Noua Pilot Village is presented in detail in Appendix J. The following section summarises the results and experience of the pilot village agriculture programme. The development of agriculture in the pilot villages has in summary taken the following course: 2002/03 dry season: clearing of the land and first layout of contouring; 2003 wet season: pilot and limited scale wet season cropping; 2002/03 dry season: pilot vegetable production around a gully stop dam/pond; preliminary planting of fruit trees etc.; 2003 wet season: first full scale and fertilised wets season cropping; 2003/04 dry season: first irrigated vegetable production using new irrigation system; follow up planting of fruit tress; 2004 wet season: 2nd wet season of full cropping; November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 23 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 2004/05 dry season: 2nd seasons of irrigated vegetable growing. 21.7.1 Wet Season Cropping in the Pilot Village The 2003 wet season crop plantings in Ban Nong Boua are presented in Table 21-5, which shows that a total of 1.59 ha of upland rice (13 families), 3.97 ha of maize (all 27 families), 1.83 hectares of peanuts (all 27 families) and 1.82 hectares of black bean (25 families) were planted. Yields were monitored through sampling of four 3m * 3m areas within each farmer's plot. The average maize yield was 1.7 t/ha, ranging from 1.0 to 2.3 t/ha. With low input medium yields are expected to be around 1.5 t/ha, while high inputs (improved seed, chemical fertiliser and more organic fertiliser) would expect a medium yield of 3.0 t/ha.. Yields for unshelled peanuts were in average 1.1 t/ha and ranging from 0.8 to 1.7 t/ha. In summary, yields of maize and peanuts were only fair, and will have to be improved if the cropping of these crops would prove to be viable alternative to rice growing. One reason for low yields is that farmers planted a mixture of local and improved varieties of corn, and planting in such mixtures crop agronomy is difficult. Peanuts were considerably attacked by soil insects, a problem which should decrease after a couple of years of cropping. Table 21-5: Area and Yield of Crops Planted in Nong Boua Pilot Village, Wet Season 2003 Upland Rice Maize Peanut Black bean (late HH (mid-late May) (early to mid May) (early mid May) May, early June) No. Area (ha) Area (ha) Yield (Kg/ha) Area (ha) Yield (Kg/ha) Area (ha) 1 0.06 0.06 1 806 0.06 1 000 0.02 2 0.12 0.12 1,958 0.03 1,083 0.075 3 0.18 1,486 0.03 1,222 0.03 4 0.18 0.04 1,528 0.06 1,222 0.06 5 0.04 0.16 1,917 0.03 - 0.015 6 0.1 0.32 1,861 0.22 1,222 0.16 7 0.16 1,389 0.09 1,028 0.09 8 0.24 1,167 0.08 806 0.03 9 0.16 1,889 0.1 861 0.07 10 0.32 2,083 0.2 833 0.15 11 0.12 0.16 1,333 0.12 889 0.15 12 0.16 0.16 1,306 0.03 833 0.12 13 0.28 0.18 972 0.12 1,028 14 0.15 0.15 1,389 0.05 1,306 0.01 15 0.16 1,667 0.07 917 0.08 16 0.24 2,167 0.06 972 0.06 17 0.03 1,250 0.03 1,264 0.06 18 0.15 1,389 0.08 1,653 0.15 19 0.15 1,972 0.04 1,000 0.15 20 0.16 1,528 0.01 889 0.04 21 0.06 0.1 2,306 0.06 1,153 0.012 22 0.12 0.12 2,000 0.06 861 0.09 23 0.08 0.1 1,778 0.04 1,639 0.08 24 0.12 0.12 1,694 0.07 1,333 0.018 25 0.07 1,889 0.03 1,417 26 0.07 1,389 0.04 1,222 0.072 27 0.09 2,250 0.02 1,472 0.03 Total 1.59 3.97 1,680 1.83 1,079 1.822 Note: Yield is only obtained for maize and peanut. Yield is measured by 4 representative sampling areas (@ 3m * 3m) in each farm plot. In the 2004 wet season, many farmers planted large areas of upland rice ­ 9.8 ha ­ and 1.3 ha of maize and about 0.7 ha of peanuts, as shown in Table 21-6. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 24 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Table 21-6: Area and Yield of Crops Grown in Nong Boua Pilot Village, Wet Season 2004. HH Upland Rice Hard (feed) corn Sweet corn1 Peanut No. Family Name Area (m2) kg/ha Area (m2) kg/ha Area (m2) kg/ha Area (m2) kg/ha 1 Thao vang 2,012 1,100 175 3,600 200 253.3 200 1,200 2 ChomNgon 2,400 900 333 2,500 333 652.8 660 1,200 3 Thao ka 1,493 900 200 3,300 200 551.2 300 4 Nang Say 1,722 800 200 4,900 300 950.4 300 1,400 5 Thao On 1,463 1,600 602 1,483.2 201 6 Kham phong 877 3,650.0 440 1,600 7 Nang Hay 6,336 1,300 8 Thong Dam 2,008 1,600 264 503.2 9 Xieng Non 552 1,000 192 756.0 240 1,300 10 Thao phone 1265 621.5 402 1,100 11 Chansy 2,401 n.a 120 330.0 140 1,200 12 Thone 3,206 1,600 285 342.0 258 1,100 13 Xieng kom 2,578 n.a 450 1,216.0 270 1,000 14 Thao Som 2,750 n.a 246 675.0 150 800 15 Phomma 2,430 n.a 120 378.0 160 900 16 Thao Khem 1,580 n.a 143 333.0 17 Thao vong 3,625 1,300 667 1,050.0 300 750 18 Thao Seng 1,377 1,200 372 588.0 19 Xieng in 1,491 1,600 150 350.0 20 Thao Han 2,828 1,200 320 1,400 320 588.0 380 21 Sysavane ,729 800 537 1,000 250 330.0 250 1,200 22 Thao Khen 1,827 1,000 145 3,700 304 180.0 608 1,100 23 Thao noot 3,992 1,500 460 24 Sing Lak 32,919 1,500 191 56.3 51 25 Boon my than 2,324 1,000 808 281.3 192 1,400 26 Thao oy 5,789 1,800 622 225.0 662 27 Thao pe 1,345 1,800 725 125.0 322 1,100 28 Thao et 2,086 1,900 750 186.0 486 1,200 29 Chan pheng 2,814 1,900 30 Xiengsong 1,200 900 350 210.0 Total - ha 9.83 ha 0.19 ha 1.11 0.74 ha 1Yields of sweet corn is based on `dry matter', not fresh cobs. 21.7.2 Dry Season Cropping in the Pilot Village The dry season on the Nakai plateau starts late September or early October and extends to late March or early April. At this stage, vegetables rather than field crops are normally grown during this dry season, and for many vegetables it is possible to plant and harvest two crops over the duration of the dry season. Table 21-7 provides details of the number of vegetable seedlings planted by each family in the first round of vegetable planting in the 2003-2004 dry season. This was the first season that vegetables have been grown on Ban Nong Boua Pilot village by utilising the newly constructed irrigation system. The main vegetables planted were cabbage, chilli, tomato, cucumber and eggplant, with smaller quantities of broccoli, kale, lettuce and herbs also grown. Table 21-9 presents the technical plan for 2004-05 dry season cropping. 21.7.3 Fruit Trees While some fruit trees were planted in 2002, most trees were planted in 2003, and all households planted various quantities of a number of fruit trees, including pomelo (total of 325), lychee (total of 178), lime (total of 302), jack fruit (total of 135), mango (total of 194), rose apple (total of 18) and longan (total of 16), as detailed in Table 21-8. The average number of trees planted is about 43 trees per family, considerably less that the 72 trees per family that was envisaged in the earlier RAPs. This is because the profitability of fruit trees is not yet fully understood or proven, and thus the plantings to date are more trial plantings. If, over the years, any family considers that fruit trees are suitable in terms of labour requirements and profitability, then they will have the option to plant more trees and manage their farm plot as an orchard. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 25 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development In addition, most households planted pineapple, while only a minority of households planted banana, rose apple and longan. These fruit tress were planted from end of April to mid June. Table 21-7: The First Plantings of Vegetable Crops, Dry Season 2003-2004 HH Water No Cabbage Chilli Egg plant Papaya melon Tomato Cucumber Long bean 1 180 300 20 20 22 60 60 2 100 300 20 20 20 20 60 3 150 482 60 20 25 40 20 4 360 300 20 20 36 80 60 60 5 165 300 40 20 20 20 6 540 536 50 20 50 80 80 60 7 162 310 80 20 20 60 60 60 8 222 300 30 20 20 60 60 60 9 150 300 20 20 21 60 60 60 10 417 430 220 30 20 30 80 11 278 947 85 45 32 30 80 12 339 300 45 38 22 22 50 13 265 550 40 45 34 35 14 125 265 20 25 20 32 30 15 335 400 20 25 20 30 16 235 273 125 30 19 35 80 90 17 320 300 60 20 26 60 60 60 18 125 250 80 20 20 60 60 60 19 460 300 50 20 18 80 60 20 200 300 20 30 60 60 60 21 228 600 60 40 20 101 22 330 400 30 35 20 54 80 50 23 223 325 30 40 20 58 90 70 24 266 300 50 30 20 30 80 25 120 300 20 10 20 30 30 20 26 467 646 107 50 20 70 80 30 27 301 417 98 50 20 60 80 50 Total 7,063 10,431 1,500 763 605 1,357 1,460 790 Table 21-8: Fruit Trees Planted in Nong Boua Pilot Village, 2003 HH Jack Rose Pine- No. Pomelo Lychee Lime fruit Mango apple Longan Banana apple Chilli Asparagus 1 8 5 8 8 10 5 69 400 100 2 4 5 9 17 7 5 49 100 300 3 10 10 10 10 10 56 300 200 4 10 10 5 13 10 3 64 250 100 5 5 9 6 5 12 65 200 150 6 8 10 10 10 20 4 112 686 200 300 7 15 6 15 5 5 5 51 250 200 8 10 6 15 5 56 300 200 9 10 5 10 4 5 69 200 100 10 38 8 20 11 3 114 300 200 11 10 6 10 5 4 4 45 210 250 12 15 5 10 5 5 45 200 200 13 10 5 10 5 2 70 150 110 14 15 5 10 5 70 200 100 15 15 5 10 3 5 52 280 16 10 5 10 6 65 200 150 17 10 7 15 8 4 45 250 270 18 7 10 15 6 45 200 100 19 17 10 13 14 51 577 300 189 20 24 7 13 5 10 45 656 100 287 21 10 5 10 8 48 200 150 22 12 5 17 2 7 57 300 180 23 10 5 10 1 10 61 250 100 24 10 7 10 2 5 4 51 200 100 25 9 6 11 4 6 45 100 26 10 5 10 5 9 45 195 150 27 13 6 10 4 8 79 130 Total 325 178 302 135 194 18 16 1624 6774 4520 776 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 26 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development Table 21-9: Technical Plan for Dry Season Cropping, Nong Boua Pilot Village 2004-05. Distance of planting Fertilizer application Methods of planting Seed/rate with in Row b/w rows type kg/1600m2 Time of fertilizer application Maturity/day No Type of crops type No kg/1600 m2 cm cm Field crops 1 Corn direct seeding 2-3 seeds/hole 5 kg 30 70 15-15-15 30 Before planting 80-85/95 -120 organic 300 2 time, before planting 150 kg and 2 weeks after planting 150 kg/rai 2 Sweet Corn direct seeding Seeding 2 - 3 seeds/hole 5 kg 30 70 15-15-15 30 Before planting 80-85/95 -120 organic 300 2 time, before planting 150 kg and 2 weeks after planting 150 kg/rai 3 Peanut direct seeding Seeding 2 - 3 seeds/hole 7 kg 30 60 15-15-15 30 Before planting 90-120 organic 150 Before planting 4 Black bean direct seeding Seeding 2 - 3 seeds/hole 5kg 30 60 15-15-15 30 Before planting 90-95 organic 150 Before planting Vegetable crops 1 Cabbage Transplanted 3 - 4 weeks 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2 Seedling transplanting 150 g 40 40 0rganic 400 weeks after planting 200 kg/rai 60-90 2 Broccoli Seedling Seedling, 3-4 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2 weeks, 150 g 50 60 0rganic 400 weeks after planting 200 kg/rai 3 Chinese kale Broadcast/hole 3kg/800g 20 20 0rganic 400 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2 weeks after planting 200 kg/rai 45-60 4 Mustard green Broadcast/hole/ Seedling, 3-4 2kg/800g/ 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2 seedling weeks, 200g 50 60 0rganic 400 weeks after planting 200 kg/rai 55-75 5 Carrot Broadcast on the 2 Time, before planting 200 kg and 2 line 1.2 kg 10 30 0rganic 400 weeks after planting 200 kg/rai 55-75 6 Chinese radish Broadcast on the line 1.8 kg 20 20 0rganic 300 Before planting 150 kg and 3 weeks after planting 150 kg/rai 45-60 7 Lettuce Seedling Seedling 4-5 2 Time, before planting 150 kg and 3 weeks 1.2 kg 25 30 0rganic 300 weeks after planting 150 kg/rai 40-50 8 Bunching Onion Broadcast on the line 1kg 5 10 0rganic 300 2 time, before planting 150 kg and 3 weeks after planting 150 kg/rai 50-60 9 Long bean direct seeding Seeding 2 - 3 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2-3 seeds/hole 4 kg 50 80 0rganic 400 weeks after 200 kg/seedling 60-90 15-15-15 20 Before planting 10 Cucumber direct seeding 1--2 seeds/hole 2kg 40 100 0rganic 400 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2-3 weeks after 200 kg/seedling 60-90 11 Tomato Seedling 4 weeks, 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2-3 transplanting 400 g 50 100 0rganic 400 weeks after 200 kg/seedling 60-70 12 Pepper Seedling 4 - 6 weeks, 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2-3 transplanting 150 g 50 100 0rganic 400 weeks after, 200 kg/seedling 70-90 15-15-15 20 Before planting 13 Eggplant Seedling 4 - 6 weeks, 2 time, before planting 200 kg and 2-3 transplanting 150 g 80 100 0rganic 400 weeks after 200 kg/seedling 60-120 15-15-15 20 Before planting November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 27 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.7.4 Livestock in the Pilot Village The villagers in Nong Boua have generally fairly low numbers of domestic animals (see Table 21-10), with buffalos being the most important. 15 families have buffaloes, while the remaining 13 families do not have any buffaloes. Of these 15 families with buffaloes, the average ownership is 15 head per family. 6 families have significant numbers, 20 or more head of buffalo. Only 2 families have cattle - cows - and these are all from the Project. Thus, pre relocation, none of the families had cows. Only 12 families have pigs, and 9 of these received their pigs from the project. Table 21-10:Size and Number of Livestock Owned by each Household, Pilot Village, 2004 HH No. No. HH members Cow Buffalo Horse Goat Pig Duck Chicken 1 4 2 3 2 4 2 3 3 7 2 4 3 8 10 5 4 2 6 10 29 2 10 7 8 19 8 11 37 10 9 4 1 10 11 5 2 12 12 3 2 10 13 5 2 14 3 9 15 16 3 2 10 17 10 50 18 3 4 2 19 8 20 2 4 20 8 2 2 21 12 4 22 10 5 23 6 6 6 24 6 3 25 1 4 6 26 6 21 27 6 9 28 1 Total 169 4 223 0 0 28 0 91 21.7.5 Problems with Farm Plot Development Within the Pilot Village Irrigation Scheme there are 29 farm plots already established varying in size from 5,380 to 7,000 m2. The excess land is absorbed for the construction of terraces. However, the plots vary in shape and only 14 % of them are roughly square to rectangular. About 58 % of the plots are irregular and about 28 % are long and narrow. Such variation, due to the topographic variations in the size, presents problems for farm plot development. There have been additional problems in preparing designs for bench terracing, in construction of terraces and the irrigation water distribution within individual the farm plots. Apart from varying in shape, the plots also vary in slope. The maximum slope is around 15 %, most are in the range of 6 to 10 %, although some plots are relatively flat. In addition, the slopes can also vary within an individual plot, and the soils in the area are very light and sandy. These physical characteristics have created two major problems: · The occurrence of soil erosion (although still rather limited) on the steeper slopes; and · Supply of irrigation water to the bottom of the longer plots. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 28 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development In recognition of the importance of bench terraces for (a) dry season irrigation of the farm plots, and (b) development of paddy rice, the 2003/04 dry season saw a dedicated effort to better development of the bench terraces and formation and compaction contours. 21.8 LARGE LIVESTOCK RAISING 21.8.1 Current buffalo and cattle raising The best estimate of cattle and buffalo populations and ownership in the 17 villages comes from the 1998 census, when it estimated that the total number of buffalo was 4,300 and for cattle 351 (see Table 21-11). While the average buffalo ownership was 3.6 per household some villages like Bang Nong Boua and Ban Done reporting 18.5 and 12.4 per household respectively. Buffalo ownership is highly skewed with about 60 % of households having no large livestock, while some individuals have very large herds (see Chapter 10). Data collected by Nakai district in 2002 reflect similar gross numbers (4,168 buffaloes in total). Table 21-11: Number of Buffalos by Village and Household, 1998 Census No. No. HH in No. HH with % HH with Village buffalos Village buffalos buffalo No. Cattle No. HH Khonken 164 37 20 54 0 0 Don 1,076 89 69 78 0 0 SopOn 166 66 33 50 2 1 KaOy 38 26 9 35 0 0 Ponsawang 77 25 11 44 0 0 Sopma (HKP & KY) 93 47 22 47 0 0 Sopphene 188 43 30 70 0 0 Bouama 304 55 31 56 1 1 NongBoua 140 8 6 75 SaiLom 47 13 4 31 Pamanton 16 7 6 86 Nong Boua 203 28 16 57 0 0 PonPhanpeak 138 85 28 33 0 0 Oudomsouk 56 285 31 11 244 44 Nakaitai 1,123 147 107 73 10 1 Nakai Neua 384 67 47 70 9 2 Nong Boua Kham 4 42 2 5 52 16 Talang 51 52 10 19 6 2 SopHia 73 37 17 46 0 0 Nam Nian 8 16 3 19 27 4 Totals 4,146 1,147 486 42 % 351 71 Buffaloes are kept largely as a store of wealth for use in times of need, or for sale to enable purchase of larger items (motorbikes, hand tractors etc.) rather than as a commodity managed for regular income. A small proportion of adults are used for draft purposes in those villages which have permanent rice fields. Nonetheless, livestock play an important role as a source of income contributing 36% of total cash income in 1996 and in 2002. Table 21-12:Number of Buffaloes and Cattle sold from the 15 Nakai Villages, 2000-2004. 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Buffaloes 404 492 537 530 641 Cattle 9 18 23 19 35 November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 29 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development At present these animals are able to graze over an area of at least 57,000 ha5 with a stocking rate of 1 animal to 12.2 ha. This level of stocking is certainly sustainable, based upon visual observation of both pasture condition and stock condition as of mid dry season. A shortage of feed is reported by some farmers from March through May corresponding with the middle to the end of the dry season but this appears to be as much a function of how far the farmers are prepared to graze their animals from the village as it is an absolute shortage of feed. 21.8.2 Existing Forage Production Potential The inundation of the Nakai plateau to form the Nakai reservoir will result in the loss of 45,000 ha of prime grazing and other habitat for buffalos. Due to this inundation, it is generally assumed that buffalo raising in the future will be restricted to a smaller area and thus it will be difficult to raise the same or more buffaloes than currently raised. This assumption, however, may not be correct. An estimate of the current forage in the resettlement area was made in 1997 (Margules Poyry) whose data is set out in Table 21-13. This table estimates the current forage potential of the resettlement area without pasture improvement interventions. Table 21-13:Estimate of Existing Forage Supply and Demand Resettlement Area Area Dry Matter Production Feed Supply in forest cover category Ha DM/ha (kg) Total Mt % of total · Upper Dry Evergreen Mixed Deciduous (10,010) 0 0 0 % · Mixed Deciduous & Conifer, Canopy Density <40 % 1,890 1,500 2,835 19 % · Mixed Deciduous & Conifer Canopy Density 40 % - 70 % 4,080 1,250 5,100 34 % · Mixed Deciduous & Conifer Canopy Density >70 % 4,470 1,000 4,470 30 % · non forest (urban and agriculture) 1,260 1,750 2,205 15 % · Grassland 130 2,500 325 2 % · Urban 60 0 0 0 % Total 11,830 14,935 100 % Feed Demand head Kg/head Buffalo 4,184 2,738 11,454 Cattle 297 2,190 650 Total 4,481 12,104 Surplus 2,831 Source: Margules Poyry (1997) and Current Demand Estimate from NTPC. This estimate does not include the use of the drawdown zone of approximately 9,600 Ha. Note: Animal Numbers vary with other Tables due to use of 1996 Census The table shows that while the grazing conditions and area in the Resettlement Area will be more limited than at present, the area may still be able to carry the current herd sizes, although there may be other factors, especially water availability, which, if undeveloped, will limit the carrying capacity in this area. Thus, the livelihood strategy, in recognition of the social and economic significance of the buffalo, the Resettlement area will be developed to allow both intensive livestock raising (in conjunction with the development of the more intensive farming systems which have been described in the previous section) and extensive livestock grazing in the general resettlement area. Most resettlers should be able to retain their current herd size, although it is expected that those families with very large herds currently will have to decrease the size of their herds immediately after inundation until such time as the actual grazing potential and management systems, are more clearly understood or developed. 5This area includes the main plateau - and future reservoir area - and the gentle uplands which will become the Resettlement Area on the SW side of the reservoir, but excludes the 10,010 ha of upper dry evergreen and mixed forest types. The area on the NE side of the reservoir has been excluded from the calculation since it is more densely forested and provides little grazing and its utilisation is constrained by the adjacent NPA. November 2004 Nam Theun 2 Project ­ Social Development Plan ­ Volume 2 30 Chapter 21: Agricultural and Livestock Development 21.8.3 Potential for improved forage production The grazing potential of the resettlement area and thus stocking rate of the order suggested by Table 21-13 will be close to the sustainable long term carrying capacity of the area. Thus, if: · the forage potential predictions are overly optimistic; and/or · the total number of large animals raised needs to be increased so that the resettlement area can not only 'feed' the current numbers of buffalo but an increase total numbers due to the provision of cattle to resettlers who currently have no buffaloes (as an entitlement), ... then there would be a need to develop the forage production of the Resettlement Area. A number of possible methods for increasing the production of improved forage have been identified, such as: · Establishment of intensive cut-and-carry forage plots, mainly in the irrigated area; · Utilisation of the reservoir draw-down areas for grazing of natural pasturage growth, or of semi- aquatic plants planted by the project; · Improved pasture production from the agro-forestry areas, for the upland areas in the Resettlement Area; · Establishment of tree and shrub legumes in the agro-forestry areas of the Resettlement Area; · The use of Urea treated rice straw, placement of urea blocks and development of watering holes or points to enhance utilisation of forages. Intensive forage production in irrigated farm plots There are two scenarios that will be considered for the production of forage in the irrigated farm plots; the establishment of perennial swards; and the planting (cropping) of annual or semi-annual forage crops. In both cases, the utilisation will be mainly by cut-and-carry in order to maximise dry matter production and stand life, and to avoid erosions or other problems due to animal trampling. Free range but manage grazing, may, however be possible in very flat areas of irrigated pasture. For the establishment of a perennial sward, the best option in terms of yield and quality is likely to be Braciharia sps, and Elephant or Napier Grass (Pennisetum purpureum). Other options include Gamba Grass (Andropogon gayanus) and Guinea Grass (Panicum maximum). It would be desirable to include legumes in the sward and the best alternatives to initially consider would be Greenleaf Desmodium (Desmodium intortum), Stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis), and Lablab (Lablab purpureus). Other legumes that may have application in a mixed sward include Glenn American Joint Vetch (Aeschynomene americana), Murray