19060 Nov. 1998 A Framework for Action Indigenous Knowledge for Development Afframeworkfor action KNOWLEDGE AND LEARNING CENTER AFRICA REGION THE WORLD BANK Indigenous Knowledgefor Devielopmnent This paper has been prepared by Reinhard NVoytek (Consultant, Practice Manager, IK Initiative) under the overall guidance of Nicolas Gorjestani (Program Manager, IK Initiative). The paper has benefited from the suggestions of the IK Initiative Team in the World Bank (Africa Region and Information Solutions Group) as vell as from the views of the external adNisory panel of the IK Initiative composed of representatives of partner institutions. An earlier draft of the paper (dated October 15, 1998) was disseminated to the partners during the meeting of PICTA in Tunis on October 21-23, 1998. The present draft reflects the suggestions made and agreements reached by the partners at that meeting. Funding for the IK Initiative has been provided by a grant from the Innovation Marketplace of the WTorld Bank. The views and conclusions within are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the World Bank or any of its affiliated organizations. November 1998 Knowledge and Learning Center Africa Region The World Bank Cover photo courtesty of R. Kiessling, GTZ, Eschborn: WVomen in Mali painting fabric using traditional Bogolan motifs and techniques. ii A Fracmework for Action Table of Contents Overview ..... iv What is indigenous knowledge? .......... 1 Why is indigenous knowledge important? .......... 2 Importance of IK for the development process ... 2 Importance of IK for the poor .......... 3 Exchange of indigenous knowledge ..........6 Framework for Action .......... 8 Action Plan 1998-99 . 9 Related Issues ......... 10 Intellectual property rights of indigenous knowledge . 10 National policies in support of knowvledge for development .......... 10 Role of information and communication technology .... 11 Controversial aspects of indigenous knowledge . . II Annexes Overview of the Indigenous Knowledge for Development Initiative . 14 Matrices Tvpology and Selected Features of Indigenous Knowledge at Community Level .......... 17 Increasing and Improving the Available Information on Indigenous Knowledge . 18 Increasing Awareness of the Importance of Indigenous Knowledge..... 19 Establishing a Global Netvork for the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge ....20 Sharing Responsibilities in the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge ... 21 Traditional Transfer of Indigenous Knowledge .......... 22 Modern Transfer of Knowledge and Potential .......... 23 Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge .... 24 Examples of Indigenous Knowledge .......... 25 Resource Centers for Indigenous Knowledge .......... 26 Methodology ........ 31 Key Events Related to Indigenous Knowledge .......... 32. Selected Bibliography and Newsletters/Periodicals . 36 iii Overview is paper has been prepared within the context of the Indigenous Knowledge for Development Ini- tiative. The initiative is lead by the World Bank in partnership with several organizations which are collaborating under the Partnership for Information and Communication Technology for Africa (PICTA). The main premise of the paper is that the vision of a truly global knowledge partnership will be realized only when the people of the developing countries participate as both contributors and users of knowledge. There is, therefore, a need not only to help bring global knowledge to the developing coun- tries, but also to learn about indigenous knowledge (IK) from these countries, paying particular atten- tion to the knowledge base of the poor. To this end, the paper explains why indigenous knowledge should play a greater role in the development activities of the World Bank and its development partners. It then proposes a framework for action for the development partners to help raise awareness of the importance of IK and to better integrate IK in their development activities in order to improve the benefits of develop- ment assistance. What is indigenous knowledge? Herbal medicine is a good example of IK, which has affected the lives of people around the globe. The literature on IK does not provide a single definition of the concept. Nevertheless, several traits distin- guish IK broadly from other knowledge. IK is unique to a particular culture and society. It is the basis for local decision-making in agriculture, health, natural resource management and other activities. IK is embedded in community practices, institutions, relationships and rituals. It is essentially tacit knowl- edge that is not easily codifiable. The paper illustrates the concept with boxes that describe several ex- amples of IK practices and the key lessons for development: adoption of modern bean varieties in Colum- bia and Rwanda; distribution of food aid in Nepal; abolition of female circumcision/mutilation by women of Malicounda in Senegal; and postpartum maternal and child health care rites among the Ibo in Nigeria. Why is indigenous knowledge important? Indigenous knowledge provides the basis for problem-solving strategies for local communities, especially the poor. It represents an important component of global knowledge on development issues. IK is an underutilized resource in the development process. Learning from IK, by investigating first what local communities know and have, can improve understanding of local conditions and provide a productive context for activities designed to help the communities. Understanding IK can increase responsiveness to clients. Adapting international practices to the local setting can help improve the impact and sustainability of development assistance. Sharing IK within and across communities can help enhance cross-cultural understanding and promote the cultural dimension of development. Most importantly, in- vesting in the exchange of IK and its integration into the assistance programs of the World Bank and its development partners can help to reduce poverty. How is indigenous knowledge exchanged? The integration of IK into the development process is essentially a process of exchange of information from one community to another. The process of exchange of IK within and between developing countries and between developing and industrial countries involves six steps: iv A Frameworkfor Action Recognition and identification. Some IK may be embedded in a mix of technologies or in cultural val- ues, rendering them unrecognizable at first glance to the external observer (technical and social analyses may, therefore, be required to identify IK). Validation. This involves an assessment of IK's significance and relevance (to solving problems), reli- ability (i.e., not being an accidental occurrence), functionality (how well does it work?), effectiveness and transferabilityv Recording and docunentation is a major challenge because of the tacit nature of IK (it is typically exchanged through personal communication from master to apprentice, from parent to child, etc.). In some cases, modern tools could be used, while in other circumstances it may be appropriate to relv- on more traditional methods (e.g., taped narration and drawings). Storage in retrievable repositories. Storage is not limited to text documents or electronic format; it could include tapes, films, story telling, gene banks, etc. Transfer. This step goes beyond merely conveying the knowledge to the recipient - it also includes testing the knowledge in the new environment. Pilots are the most appropriate approach in this step; and Dissemination to a wider community adds the developmental dimension to the exchange of knowl- edge and could promote a wider and deeper ripple impact of the knowledge transfer. Exchange of IK is the ideal outcome of a successful transfer and dissemination. This is essentially a learning process whereby the community where an IK practice originates, the agent who transmits the practice, and the community that adopts and adapts the practice all learn during the process. The followv- ing is an example of a successful exchange of IK with lessons for the development process: Thepapr prpoesafraeor oato ~ revltutn4arund ourpillars: n,~jcterasf Disseminating~~ ijformtion Deeopn daaasofI praties lssns learnd, sores, artners, aingetc.m Idniyn n etn intrmetsfo cature and dissemination ofi~&~ IK aiapa i ti ~Pubisin selected cases in prin and electroniasformat Wlhat shouil the development community do about IK? The paper proposes a framework for action revolving around four pillars: Disseminating information: Developing a database of 1K practices, lessons learned, sources, partners, etc. Identifying and testing instruments for capture and dissemination of IK. Publishing selected cases in print and electronic format. Facilitating exchange of IK among developing countryT communities: Helping build local capacity to share IK, especially among the local IK centers. Identifying appropriate methods of capturing, disseminating IK among communities. Facilitating a global network to exchange IK. Indigenous Knowledgefor Development Applying indigenous knowledge in the development process: Raising awareness of the importance of IK among development partners. Helping countries to prepare national policies in support of indigenous practices. Integrating indigenous practices in programs/projects supported by partners. Building partnerships: Learning from local communities and NGOs. Leveraging limited resources of partners to obtain greater impact on the ground. Addressing the intellectual property rights issue of indigenous knowledge. Using this framework, the partnership that has developed around the IK Initiative has elaborated an initial plan of action for 1998-99, including specific objectives and deliverables. Within this framework, each partner institution would undertake activities consistent with the respective institutional policies and procedures. An external advisory panel composed of representatives of partner institutions has also been established to provide input on strategic and implementation issues. The initial main focus of partner activities will be threefold: increase awareness of IK; disseminate IK practices; and help build the capacity of local centers to further identify, document and disseminate IK practices. Partners could provide financial support to local IK centers for research into IK practices, for the establishment of Internet connectivity between the local centers as well as for more traditional dis- semination tools to facilitate the exchange of IK practices across communities. The main challenge for development partners will be to integrate IK practices in the design and imple- mentation of development activities that they support. This will require: awareness raising among those who offer development advice; listening to and hearing clients to learn from local communities about what they know; and combining local knowledge with experience from around the world to find relevant and realistic solutions to the development problems of local communities. What are the related issues? Property rights of indigenous knowledge. There is an emerging debate on whether and how to protect the intellectual property rights of IK practices (e.g., should traditional healers be paid royalties once ac- tive compounds of medicinal plants they use are isolated by pharmaceutical companies). WIPO is begin- ning to address this issue. National policies in support of knowledgefor development. Knowledge as an instrument of develop- ment has not received the needed attention in developing countries in general and in Africa in particular. This is changing. As the awareness of the importance of knowledge in the development process grows, the next logical step would be for the country authorities to begin elaborating specific policies in support of acquiring, absorbing and communicating knowledge, with particular attention to indigenous knowledge. The partners should encourage this process through financial and technical support. Role of information and communication technology. As the countries establish connectivity, modern ICT could become a powerful enabler for the exchange of IK. In the near future, however, most IK ex- change is likely to rely more on traditional instruments. External support to help build local capacity for dissemination could focus on videos and radio broadcasts in local languages (especially in the rural areas), telecenters (again in the rural areas), and electronic networking, especially among local IK centers. Controversial aspects of 1K. Some experts caution against any attempts to transfer IK because they believe that IK cannot or should not be exchanged across communities. These experts believe that IK could be irrelevant or even harmful outside its original cultural context, and that NVestern science is inca- pable of appreciating traditional cultures. Experts warn that attempts to record, document and transfer IK might lead to the disempowerment of indigenous people. Sensitive approaches will, therefore, be needed to reduce the potential risk of disempowerment of local communities, without compromising the principle of global knowledge partnership for the benefit of all communities. vi The vision of a truly global knowledge partnership will be realized only when the developing countries par- |ticipate as both contributors to and users of knowledge. The Global Knowledge Conference (Toronto, June 1997) emphasized the urgent need to learn, preserve, and exchange indigenous knowledge. In his recent call for a new inclusive approach to development, the President of the WVorld Bank stressed the need for a framework that deals inter alia with indigenous people and their knowledge.' In the context of the Partner- ship for Information and Communication Technology for Africa (PICTA), the World Bank has agreed to lead an Indigenous Knowledge for Development Initiative to stimulate recognition, utilization, and exchange of indig- enous knowledge in the development process.2 This paper has been prepared in the context of this initiative. The paper's objectives are twofold. First, it aims to explain why indigenous knowledge should play a greater role in the development activities of the World Bank and its development partners. It focuses on the following questions: what is indigenous knowledge? why is indigenous knowledge important in the development pro- cess? and what is the process through which indigenous knowledge is exchanged? The second objective is to propose a framework for action which the World Bank and its development partners could follow to help (a) raise awareness of the importance of indigenous knowledge and (b) better integrate indigenous knowledge in their development activities to improve the benefits of development assistance, especially to the poor. What is Indigenous Knowledge? Herbal medicine is a good example of indigenous knowledge (IK) which has affected the lives of people around the globe. The literature on indigenous knowledge does not provide a single definition of the concept. This is in part due to the differences in background and perspectives of the authors, ranging from social anthropology to agricultural engineering. Nevertheless, the various definitions also have some common traits. These are captured in the writings of two of the leading authorities on IK (see box). Indigenous technologies, practices, and knowledge systems have been studied extensively by sector specialists and even more so by social anthropologists. However, most studies are descriptive; they concentrate primarily on the social or ethnological aspects of knowledge rather than on the technical ones. The literature contains limited information regarding the systematic transfer of local knowledge across communities and cultures. Yet, there is considerable impressionistic evidence of IK transfer from traditional societies to industrial coun- tries (e.g., acupuncture, herbal medicine, rehydration salts, etc.). For a typology of IK, including knowledge areas, types of bearers of IK and the way IK is mani- fested in each area, see Matrix 1 in Annex II. The following highlights the special features of in- digenous knowledge, which distinguishes it broadly from other knowledge. According to the literature4 IK is: - Locad, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader cultural traditions; it is aset of expe- riences generated by people livng in those communities. Separating the technical from the non-technicail, the ratio- nal fimm the non-rational could be problemiatic. Therefore, w-hen transferred to other places, there is a potential risk of dislocating aK * Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily codifiable. * Transmitted orally, or through imitation and demon-- 7 ii stration. Codifying it may lead to the loss of some of its- properties. Indigenots Knowledgefor Development * Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial and error, tested in the rigorous laboratory of survival of local communities constantly reinforce IK. * Learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of tradition even when new knowledge is added. Repetition aids in the retention and reinforcement of IK. * Constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced, discovered as well as lost; though it is often perceived by external observers as being somewhat static. Why is Indigenous Knowledge important? Importance of Indigenous Knowledge for the development process The features described above suggest that indigenous knowledge is an integral part of the development process of local communities.5 According to the 1998/99 World Development Report, knowledge, not capital, is the key to sustainable social and economic development. Building on local knowledge, the basic component of any country's knowledge system, is the first step to mobilize such capital. Moreover, there is a growing consensus that knowledge exchange must be a two-,vay street. A vision of knowledge transfer as a sort of conveyor belt moving in one direction from the rich, industrialized countries to poor, developing ones is likely to lead to failure and resentment. "Governments and international institutions can certainly help countries with the daunting task of sifting through international experience, extracting relevant knowledge and experimenting xvith it. But they will have the most success if they help developing coun- tries adapt knowledge to local conditions. Sharing knowledge with the poor is most effective when we also solicit knowledge from them about their needs and circumstances"6. Therefore, development activities, especially those that aim to benefit the poor directly, need to consider IK in the design and implementa- tion stages of the process. Recent WNorld Bank client feedback surveys provide additional insights regarding the importance of knowxledge of local institutions and practices. These surveys indicate that clients are (a) highly satisfied wAith Bank staff's knowledge of international best practices; but (b) less satisfied with staff's ability to adapt international practices to the local setting. Among the key determinants of client satisfaction is knowledge of local institutions and local practices. A better understanding of the local conditions, including indigenous knowledge systems and practices could, therefore, help to better integrate global technologies to solve the problems facing local communi- ties in the developing countries. This would in turn help to improve the impact of development assistance as xell as client satisfaction with the services of the Bank and its partners. The challenge for the development community is to find better ways to learn about indigenous institu- tions and practices and where necessary adapt modern techniques (i.e., "global best practices") to the local practices. Only then will global knowledge be rendered relevant to the local community needs. The key factor in the adaptation process is the involvement of those who possess indigenous knowledge. A study of 121 rural wvater projects in 49 countries found that 70 percent succeeded when the intended ben- eficiaries participated in project design, compared to a 10 percent success rate among programs xvhere they did not.7 As the following examples illustrate, knowledge of local practices and the involvement of local communities can be a powerful tool for the effective adaptation of global knowledge of best interna- tional practices to the local setting. 2 A Frameworkfor Acton Importance of Indigenous Kdenowledge for the poor Indigenous knowvledge is an important part of the lives of the poor. It is an integral part of the local ecosystem. IK is a key element of the "social capital" of the poor; their main asset to invest in the struggle for survival,t toxprod e o provide for shelter or to achieve control of their om hn lives. Indigenous knowledge also provides problem-solxing strategies for local communities and helps shape r- cal visions and perceptions of enironment and societ& ytpical examples include:' midwives and herbal medicine treatment of cattle ticks by the Fulani using Tephrosia plants soil and land classifications in Nigeria *water catching stone bunds in Burkina Faso pconstruction of buildings with natural "air conditioning" in the Sudan Kpelle artisans' steel making technology in Liberia bagroforestrv systens emulating the natural climax vegetation on the Kilimanjaro settlement for land disputes between far lrers and nomads in Togo comnmunal use and indi-zidual allocation of land by the Washambaa in Tanzania ^ local healers' role in post-contliit resolution in Mozambique transfer of knowledge through elders, rituals, initiation, and stor o tellers in aXest tlrica ecsystems to control power and distribute " ealth among the Maasai in East Africa. for urvval to rodce ood,to rovde fr seltr orto chive cntrl o ther on lves tndli7'c'1lnouS Kto-(Nul1e(49fL,)or DLevlC'iOpm1lt1 Vinall, IK is ot particuilar relevance to the p-( ir in the t i}lliowing scttors (11- stratgies: * .triutlttLre" * anllial hltsbandiryv and ethiic veterinarv miiedicinc * use antd minaigemellint ot namitural resour-CeS * primary heialth care (1Pl ( '), preventive Imedicine nid psycho-so cidl care * s lvill. and lending * 'onlliniiUity d.'vclopinliilt * p overty allc\iation. It is imiportatnt to note, howevc\ver, that lI(lt aill indigcn'l>II pratctiecc' arte hcneficil to tihe sti>d:ihc;lll let\el- o)1111p'1It Of lt aO0ea1 o:011t11iinity' and nI ot all HI Call (I prioi pr l'OvideC te r1ight S( )liIti Oi fi a N I 1ci ) 1a i lltI'. T'\IpiCal examples arc slash and humrn agrictilture" and feil mle cirurticinisii in. TllcrtiOre, I icl e ido pt il I ii inte,grating it inlto development programs, (r even disscijifiitulig it pra-Ictices iic'(d to I IIc sertititfii/eld It teiri' approipriateness jtlst as any othier tecllitology. In additioll to scienlltifitc pI- (if, IOcal v2\ idelnce1C' an(d t Ili' so )eio-cnitura I backgroiui(n in whichI thec prtctiCe r 11 )CuL CCi'( i11S ( )nHeed e ii 1_ I' t iOIII iII t L' l)Ye I, CeS'I u' \;lida itiO)n ad eval tiItIt in.( )1 Nevertheiless, as thlc following examIplPc ilIstraSt es, t Cs l et,inm lllitiiti C' Ca n Iil)iIiZe la(nd SIOId LI I A. illite- gral participaIntsi of ally prograrm) to chanc,c indigenous practices th lail'tIIV 1)i'i1 a cOlili' rainillt t(h )t -4 i;I I wvcl h)inIg (of' I loti IC I lCoiitItIlIity. Application: Senegalese rural women abolish female circumcision in their community' Women of Malicounda decided that the problem they wished to address was the custom of female circumcision - a pattern in Bambaral Mandingue and Pulaar communities. By informing themselves on practices elsewhere and on the effects of circumcision on girls' health and sexual life, they developed an arsenal of arguments and eventually convinced the village council to abolish the practice officially. Not satisfied with this result, they subsequently created a team in order to visit neighboring villages, speak to women there and help them win cases in their own communi- ties. In January of 1998, a congress of 16 villages from the region - all of Bambara or Mandingue lineage - met to discuss the change in practices and adopt the 'Declaration of Malicounda." Word of their initiative traveled to the Casamance region of southem Senegal, where another group of sixteen villages - all of Pulaar lineage - assembled for a similar conference and declaration. In fact, President Abdou Diouf of Senegal himself proposed the "Oath of Malicounda" as a model for national adoption. Lesson: Mobilizing public opinion against the established order can help to modify discriminatory indig- enous practices. P. Easton, University of Florida, "IK-Notes 3" ( December 1998). This exatiuplc also illtstrtacs thllt ilnigen Ilis hIm wled'c is lnOt static. Thie prlct icc' o(i ft111:11i eitei1uioli- sioI cotuld he overcouric tiltrotgih the adtIvocaIcy' of o11 ass(ociation Of \\'woillcil \\0hieh- 11i III;Itg'. o illu'liuleln tlieir' 1(hea ll political enuvironmient, isiinig tr.l(dutiol1lI 'IS \\w11 IS 111asmodr-11 illstitItoliult. 111(lin'llgleos practi ceS Can11 gt211 lv'l11V adaIt IIIt rc'Spo0Se to Q1uti1l )l changes ill iethU SociAl andi oatoil 1 i- I'OiliICltS s!sine' ildigC tis arrticesrc clscly i netr wvith pc1 ple's cuilt alr-1 \:1;ilts iiid lpvesd (( ) \\o tifirm g-eneratio n to ge-ncr-ation. Ihowever, manv ll svstcicnsisire ctirrntlk ait risll of (\tillci'It (li2o_ :HlsC (t roidl/v eliagiig4ii natural environmincnts aind oiiomnijc. l olitiCl1. and tultd ttr;ih-A Cl]Atg' iI, aIIl sca ;le I'l-ratices can v:iulishl as tl hv becone illp ip l l)lriatie f ir new\c ni a heu 1) '. - a uluit ) 41\N(k'A 4 A Frameworkfor Action Moreover, many local practices may disappear because of the intrusion of foreign technologies or concepts that promise short-term gains or solutions to problems without being capable of sustaining them. Accord- ingly, care must be taken not to undermine effective indigenous practices. For example, local practices may require fewer material resources than imported technologies, allowing the former to weather the vi- cissitudes of local shortages and material constraints. The following story about the use of rehydration salts illustrates the challenge of preserving IK in the context of adoption of modern technologies. The potential disappearance of many indigenous practices could have a negative effect primarily on those who have developed them and who make a living through them. A greater awareness of the impor- tant role that IK can play in the development process is likely to help preserve valuable skills, technologies, artifacts, and problem solving strategies among the local communities. Often such local practices also have an impact on issues of global concern. Therefore, preserving the IK capital can enrich the global com- munity and contribute to promoting the cultural dimension of development. In some cases it can also help to protect the global environment, as illustrated by the following example. The precedig examples illustrate how: * IK can provide problem-solving strategies for local communities, especially the poor. * Learning from IK can improve understanding of local conditions. • UTnderstandinig IK can increase responsiveness to clients. * Building on local experiences, judgments and practices can increase the impact of a development program beyond cost-effective delivery of staples. 5 Indigenous Knowvledgefor Developinwnt * Indigenous approaches to development can help create a sense of ownership that may have a longer last- ing impact on relations betvween the local population and the local administration, giving the former a means of monitoring the actions of the latter. IK can provide a building block for the empowerment of the poor. In summary, IK is important for both the local communities and the global community. The develop- ment partners need to recognize the role of IK, understand its workings in the context of the local commu- nitics, and integrate systematically the most effective and promising of such practices into the develop- ment programs they support. As mentioned above, the impact and sustainability of international practices could be enhanced if they are adapted to the local conditions and the indigenous practices. Yet, IK is still an underutilized resource in the development process. Special efforts are, therefore, needed to under- stand, document and disseminate IK for preservation, transfer or adoption and adaptation elsewhere. By helping to share IK within and across communities the development community can learn a lot about the local conditions that affect those communities. IK should complement, rather than compete with global knowledge systems in the implementation of projects. By investigating first what local communities know and have in teniis of indigenous practice, development partners could better help improve upon those practices by bringing to the dialogue international practices from development experiences in other parts of the world. Moreover, this process can contribute to better cross-cultural understanding and to the pro- motion of culture in development. But, above all, investing in the exchange of indigenous knowledge and its integration into the development process can help reduce poverty. Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge Although IK is readily shared among members of a community (in so far as these IK practices are a part of the daily life of the community), it is generally shared to a lesser degree across communities. Moreover, as IK is predominantly tacit or embedded in practices and experiences, it is most commonly exchanged through personal communication and demonstration: from master to apprentice, from parents to chil- dren, from neighbor to neighbor, from priest to parish. Recording tacit knowvledge, and transferring and disseminating it is, therefore, a challenge. Exchange within a community wvhere providers and recipients speak the same language and share its underlying cultural concepts is much more easily accomplished than transferring tacit knowledge across cultures. To facilitate the understanding of the exchange pro- cess, it is useful to break down the process into its various elements. Exchange of indigenous knowledge is a process, comprising essentially six steps: The process typically begins with recognition and identification of knowl1edge as expressed in a technol- ogy or a problem solving strategy. However, identification of IK can at times prove difficult. For example, some IK may be embedded in a mix of technologies or in cultural values, rendering them unrecognizable at first glance to the external observer. Others may have become part of every day life of a community to an extenit that makes it difficult to isolate such practices even by individuals or communities applying them. In such cases, technical and social analvses of certain practices may be needed to identify IK. The next typical step is to validate IK in terms of its significance and relevance (to solving one or several specific problems), reliability (not being an incidental occurrence), functionality (how well does it work), effectiveness and transferability. The users themselves should preferably conduct or be involved in the vali- dation at the original site of application of IK. Transfer of IK from one community to another may in some 6 A Frameworkfor Action cases prove difficult. This is because most IK is stored in tacit form, which in certain circumstances may make it transferable only through direct practice and apprenticeship. Proof of an efficient process at the point of origin does not necessarily ascertain its efficacy under seemingly similar conditions in other loca- tions. Lessons from earlier transfers of modern as well as appropriate technologies indicate that the cul- tural, political, and economic environment and the level of technical competence of recipients are critical for sustainable adoption and adaptation of foreign technologies. Consequently, it is important to carry out pilots to test the new technology with the recipient. Nevertheless, in some cases it should be possible to undertake a general assessment of transferability, subject to confirmation with follow up pilots. The next step, i.e., recording and documenting, is another major challenge again because of the tacit nature of indigenous knowledge.1" The scope of recording/documentation is largely determined by the intended use of the information. Thus, while scholars would want to understand and capture a more com- prehensive view of knowledge with all its ramifications, a practitioner might be satisfied wvith an answer to the question "How did they do that?" The recording may require audio-visual technology, taped narration, drawings, or other forms of codifiable information. In case the tacit nature of a practice does not lend itself to such recording, information about locations, individuals or organizations that can demonstrate or teach a practice could be used as a pointer to the source of IK. Storage in retrievable repositories is the next typical step in the process. This involves categorization, indexing, relating it to other information, making it accessible and conserving, preserving and maintain- ing it for later retrieval. Meta-information needs to be produced to make retrieval more user-friendly. This could include electronically stored and indexed abstracts, directories of experts or applications. Storage should not, however, be restricted to only text documents. It should also include other retrievable types of repositories of information such as tapes, films, databases and IK practitioners. The transfer of IK goes beyond conveying it to the potential recipients. An important element of the transfer is to test the knowledge in the new environment. Economic and technical feasibility, social and environmental impact and other criteria as deemed necessary by the recipients need to be examined. Indi- viduals, a community group, a civil society organization, or researchers could be used to help test, reject or adopt and adapt the new knowledge. Government and donor agencies could support these transfers. The transfer may involve intensive practical training, apprenticeships or demonstrations. Some local prac- tices can only be transferred directly, from practitioner to practitioner. Only a few people in a community will have the risk bearing capacity to accept substantial failure of an imported technology. Careful selec- tion of partners and potential beneficiaries in a participatory process is a prerequisite for a successful transfer. The risk of failure is reduced if the new technology builds upon existing local knowledge. Once the transfers and adaptation process has been carried out successfully through a pilot, the dis- semination of IK to a wvider community adds the developmental dimension to the exchange of knowledge and could bring about a wider and deeper impact of the knowledge transfer. Depending on content and context, dissemination activities could include public awareness campaigns, public broadcasting, adver- tisements, seminars, workshops, distribution of information material, publications and the incorporation of IK in extension programs or curricula. Dissemination activities could be either targeted to specific groups or address the general public. Governments could encourage the process by creating a favorable political, economical and legal framework. Exchange of IK is the ideal outcome of a successful transfer. This is essentially a learning process whereby the community where an IK practice originates, the agent that transmits the practice, and the community that adopts and adapts the practice all learn during the process. The following is an example of a successful exchange of IK. 7 Indigenous Knowledgefor Development - *ptic5-r# l l~ ~~agnclul system to Rwlna adtaptation andretrase TheWshaba ofth Ulsa Mowti i Tanzania had developed a:l use system e rmg the ciaxI getatioof the d u atw rest. They teg anrmuats and peremis on the same plot in a nufti- I storyarn . The pinipl weretrnsfrred to Nyabisdu, Rwandi a GTZ assist project and speciaI multpupose contour bans wih treesshrubs and fodder grasses were added to Xt systEn. The adapted prac- tice was later retrasferred to theWahambaaone des populatton and need for firewood had depltd the soi covera demand f typduc had initiatedt itrodut of imprved cattlebreeds. Lesson Emulationonturalvegetan s valapproach to socnsevatio;transtering andadng elents to addreWs neproblems adds vaue to he ormigia land use systen For an overview of the traditional modes of exchange of IK see Matrix 6 and for modem modes see Matrix 7 in Annex II. For a more detailed description of the exchange of IK according to actors and instruments to be applied see MIatrix 8 in Annex II. Since the early 1990s, a number of conferences and workshops have been held throughout the world to address the issues involved in the exchange of IK and its use in the development process. (For a list of key events and conferences related to IK see AnnexVI. For a selected bibliography and a list of newsletters and periodicals related to IK see Annex VII). These conferences have contributed to awareness building and identification of possible ways to help preserve and use IK more systematically. The challenge now is to develop specific proposals for the development community to help put IK into action for development. Framework for action This section proposes a framework for action to respond to the challenge of better integrating IK into the development process. The framework revolves around four pillars (see Annex II, Matrices 2 to 5 for details, including the specific areas of action, the work that has already been undertaken, and the additional ac- tions that would be required to better integrate IK into the development process): Disseminating information. Key actions include: * Developing a database of IK practices, lessons learned, sources, partners, etc. * Identifying and testing instruments for capture and dissemination of IK. * Publishing selected cases in print and electronic format. Facilitating exchange of IK among developing communities. Key actions include: * Helping build local capacity to share IK, especially among the local IK centers. * Identifying appropriate methods of capturing, disseminating IK among communities. * Facilitating a global network to exchange IK. Applying indligenous knowledge in the development process. Key actions include: * Raising awareness of the importance of IK among development partners. * Helping countries to prepare national policies in support of indigenous practices. * Integrating indigenous practices in programs/projects supported by partners. 8 IK for Development Initiative Action Plan: 1998-1999 Objectives Program Deliverables Partner Deliverables Action Area 1: Disseminating Information Develop a database of IK practices, lessons At least 200 IK practices in data base on Internet. Each partner to contribute at least 1 0 practices. learned, sources, partners, etc. World Bank to build and maintain data base on IK Website. Identify and test instruments for capture and Reference guide to instruments based on case studies. Each partner to contribute at least one case study. dissemination of IK. World Bank to prepare and disseminate reference guide. Publish selected cases in print and electronic At least 24 issues of "IK Notes". Each partner to contribute at least 1 article. format. World Bank to publish and disseminate. Action Area 2: Facilitating Exchange of IK Among Developing Communities Help build local capacity to share IK At least 10 IK Centers strengthened with enhanced Each partner to strengthen at least one center. connectivity, capacity to identify IK practices. Identify appropriate methods of capturing, At least 10 case studies of successful examples of IK Each partner to contribute at least one case study. disseminating IK among communities. exchange across local communities. World Bank to disseminate. Facilitate a global network to exchange IK. At least 10 telecenters supported for IK exchange. IDRC, ITU, SDNP, WB to assist at least one center. Action Area 3: Applying Indigenous Knowledge in the Development Process Raise awareness of the importance of IK Workshops for partner institution staff. At least one workshop per partner. among country policy makers and Special presentations on IK for external audiences during At least one event per partner. development partners. partner-sponsored events. Regional Conference on IK (Fall 1999). World Bank organize conference (partners provide support). Integrate indigenous practices in 10 projects/programs using some form of IK practice in project Each partner to design at least one project/program using some form of programs/projects supported by partners. design. IK practice. Action Area 4:. Building Partnerships Learn from local partners and NGOs. Identify and disseminate partner-supported projects which use At least one project/program per partner. IK practices in project design. World Bank to disseminate. Leverage limited resources of partners to Harmonize/coordinate partner activities under IK framework for Each partner to develop, finance and implement specific plan of action obtain greater impact on the ground. action. consistent with the overall IK framework for action. Address the intellectual property rights issue Identify specific actions. WIPO to take lead to identify specific actions. of indigenous knowledge. Agreed at PICTA Meeting, Tunis, October 22, 1998. Indigenous Knowledge for Development___ ____ Building partnerships. Key actions include: * Learning from local communities and NGOs. * Leveraging limited resources of partners to obtain greater development impact. X Addressing the intellectual property rights issue of indigenous knowledge. Using this framework, the partnership that has developed around the IK Initiative has elaborated an ini- tial plan of action for 1998-99. The specific objectives that the partners will endeavor to achieve in each action area, including the deliverables are summarized in the following table. An advisory panel has also been established to provide input on strategic and implementation issues (see Annex I). In implementing the agreed activities under the framework described above, the partners intend to work closely with local IK centers and other NGOs (see Annex V for implementation approach, methodology, and likely instru- ments). The initial priority is to: raise awareness; help identify/disseminate IK practices; and build the capacity of local centers to further identify, document and disseminate IK practices. This could include financial support for research into IK practices, establishment of Internet connectivity between the local centers as well as more traditional dissemination tools to facilitate the exchange of IK practices across communities. The main results achieved to date under the IK initiative are: * IK data-base developed with about three dozen examples; X Website on the Internet established to provide a gateway to information on IK, including pointers to IK data base, and centers involved in IK-related issues; * IKINotes, a publication dedicated to IK practices launched (two issues published); * Existing IK centers in Africa surveyed, and partnerships established with selected centers to carry out research and prepare syntheses of IK practices. See Annex I for details. Related issues Intellectual property rights of indigenous knowledge There is an emerging North-South debate in the IK study community on whether and how to protect the intellectual property rights of IK practices. For example how should the healers with iatro-botanical (i.e., medicinal use of plants) knowledge be paid royalties once active compounds of the medicinal plants they use are isolated by pharmaceutical companies and sold on a commercial basis? Patenting such compounds by foreign companies is a related and yet unresolved issue. WIPO, one of the partners of the IK Initiative, has already begun to address these issues in dialogue with the other development organizations and civil society. Specific proposals are expected in the near future. National policies in support of knowledge for development Knowledge as an instrument of development has not received the needed attention in developing coun- tries in general and in Africa in particular. In the past, country development policies would typically focus on the adoption of "WVestern" practices with a view to modernizing the society and transforming the pro- ductive sectors. As a result, there was very little systematic effort to promote indigenous practices in the development process. However, this is changing. Since the early 1990s, a number of conferences and work- shops around the globe have helped to raise awareness of the importance of knowledge in development. 10 A Frameworkfor Action There has also been progress in moving IK from the realm of folklore into the developmental domain. The next logical step would be for the country authorities to begin elaborating specific policies in sup- port of acquiring knowledge (e.g., accessing and adapting global knowledge, creating and capturing indig- enous knowledge), absorbing knowledge (e.g., creating opportunities for lifelong learning), and commu- nicating knowledge (e.g., harnessing the potential of new information technology, bringing access and dis- seminating knowledge to the poor). Some African country authorities are starting to address these issues in a more systematic fashion. For example, the South African Parliament is preparing a document that may soon become a declared policy on IK.12 This experience could provide important pointers for other countries as they embark on a similar process in the future. The development partners can play a supportive role by encouraging this process and by providing finan- cial and technical assistance to help elaborate national knowledge policies. Partners should consider de- veloping adapted tools for such support. The World Bank has recently developed the concept of Learning and Innovation Loan (LIL), which provides an example of the kind of flexible lending instruments that could be used in support of formulation of national policies and targeted intenrentions to leverage knowl- edge in general and IK in particular in country development programs. Role of information and communication technology (ICT) The use of modern ICT is still the exception rather than the rule in the direct exchange of indigenous knowledge within and between communities. As the countries establish connectivity, modern ICT could become a powerful enabler for the exchange of IK. In the near future, however, more traditional and appro- priate tools for dissemination could be used to facilitate the transfer and exchange of IK. The following represents the kind of tools that could be used depending on the local circumstances and the degree of access and connectivity of a country and a community. External support to build local capacity, including the dissemination of such tools among local communities could facilitate the process of IK exchange: Video and radio broadcasts in local languages could disseminate IK practices using story-telling tech- niques, especially in the rural areas; Telecenters could help make knowledge flow in a "two way street" from the local communities outward (indigenous practices) and from the global community inward (international practices). Telecenters are being introduced in several countries (e.g., Senegal, South Africa, etc.). Electronic networking would be most appropriate to establish exchanges among civil society groups and to link the nearly dozen existing local IK centers in various countries (see Annex IV). Controversial aspects of indigenous knowledge This report would be incomplete if it did not identify some of the controversial issues of the debate on indigenous knowledge. The following highlights the main issues raised in the literature: Indigenous knowledge cannot be codified and recorded, and hence cannot be exchanged across com- munities and cultures. Other authors go even further and insist that being unique to and part of a particu- lar culture of a people, transferring local knowledge would render it irrelevant, inappropriate or even harmful. These authors claim that IK could only be preserved in-situ by continuous application. Western science is incapable of appreciating traditional cultures and their knowledge systems and 11 IndiEgenous Know0ledge for Deveomelnt-- practices. It is also assumed that the "Western" scientific approach cannot appreciate local practices, as it does not recognize the spiritual elements of IK. This assumption is re-enforced by claims that "Western" values would still be imposed on local cultures by means of imported technologies. Attempts to record and transfer IK could lead to the disempowerment of indigenous people. The issues raised by critics would have to be addressed when dealing with indigenous knowledge in the development process. The primary concern should be the bearers of indigenous knowledge themselves or the intended beneficiaries of a knowledge transfer. Careful and sensitive approaches are needed, based on dialogue and participation, and leaving decisions on sharing and adoption of knowledge to the local com- munities. This should reduce the perceived risk of disempowerment of these communities, without com- promising the principle of a global knowledge partnership for the benefit of all communities. 'James D. Wolfensohn, President, World Bank, Address to the 1998 Annual Meetings of the World Bank and the IMF. 2An overview of the IK Initiative is in Annex I. The partners of the IK Initiative are: CIRAN/Nuffic, CISDA, ECA, GTZ,IDRC, ITU, ILO, SANGONet, UNDP, UNESCO, WHO, WIPO and World Bank (lead partner). 3 This paper has been prepared by Reinhard Woytek (Consultant, Practice Manager, IK Initiative) under the overall guidance of Nicolas Gorjestani (Program Manager, IK Initiative). The paper has benefited from the suggestions of the IK Initiative Team in the World Bank (Africa Region and Information Solutions Group) as well as from the views of the external advisory panel of the IK Initiative composed of representatives of partner institutions. An earlier draft of the paper (dated October 15, 1998) was dissemi- nated to the partners during the meeting of PICTA in Tunis on October 21-23, 1998. The present draft reflects the suggestions made and agreements reached by the partners at that meeting. Funding for the IK Initiative has been provided by a grant from the Inno- vation Marketplace of the World Bank. Adapted from Ellen and Harris (1996) 5 Until relatively recently, the development community's conception of knowledge was influenced primarily by the philosophy and methods of western science. "Few, outside of some anthropologists and historians recognized that there are myriad sciences embedded in cultures of other peoples and civilizations throughout the world. Today, both scholars and public policy makers are recognizing the importance of various local or culture-based knowledge systems in addressing the pressing problems of develop- ment and the environmenf ' [foreword to the proceedings of Conference on Traditional Knoweldge and Sustainable Development, World Bank, September 1993, in support of the United Nations Year of the World's Indigenous People (Davies, S. and Ebbe, K., editors, 1995)]. 6 Oped article by Joseph Stiglitz, Vice President and Chief Economist, World Bank, in International Herald Tribune, October 6, 1998. 1998/99 World development Report: Knowledge for Development. See Annex III for more detailed descriptions of selected practices. For example, the Tonga and Kalanga communities in Zimbabwe rely on indigenous knowledge systems for determining food production and labor division between gender and age groups, and as part of community survival. See "IK-Notes 2" (publication of the IK Initiative, published by the World Bank, November 1998): "Sustainable Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Agriculture in Zimbabwe's Rural Areas of Matabelel and North and south Provinces". 10 There is some debate on whether slash and burn techniques are always detrimental. Some have argued that slash and bum 12 A Frameworkfor Action agriculture may be an appropriate technique in certain circumstances. 11 A manual on how to capture indigenous knowledge has been prepared by the IIRR in 1996: "Recording and Using Indigenous Knowledge", Silang, Cavite, Philippines. 2 In 1995, the Portfolio Committee on Arts, Culture, Science, Language and Technology of South Africa's Parliament introduced indigenous knowledge as a critical component in the restructuring of South African Science and Technology System. In collabora- tion with the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), a pilot project was undertaken to identify indigenous technolo- gies. In 1997, the portfolio Committee set up a variety of structures to help protect and promote indigenous knowledge and tech- nology. A White Paper is under preparation to serve as a basis for a national policy. 13 ANNEX I Overview of the Indigenous Knowledge for Development Initiative The Global Knowledge Conference (June 1997, in Toronto) emphasized the urgent need to learn, pre- serve, and exchange indigenous knowledge. In the context of the Partnership for Information and Commu- nication Technology for Africa (PICTA), the W7orld Bank has agreed to lead an indigenous knowledge ini- tiative to stimulate recognition, utilization, and exchange of indigenous knowledge in the development process. Funding for the World Bank's contribution to the Initiative is provided through a grant from the Innovation Marketplace of the World Bank. Partners The following partners have participated in the formulation of the initiative: ECA, CISDA, (Centre for Information Society Development in Africa) IDRC, ITU, UNESCO, UNDP, and WHO. Meanwhile, other partners have joined the initiative: CIRAN - Centre for International Research and Advisory Networks at Nuffic (Netherlands Organiza- tion for International Cooperation in Higher Education) SANGONet - Southern Africa NGO Internet Provider WIPO - NVorld Intellectual Property Organization ILO - International Labor Organization GTZ - German Agency for Technical Cooperation Objectives Disseminating infornation Developing a database of indigenous knowledge practices and lessons learned Publishing cases in print and electronic format Facilitating information exvchange among developing communities Helping build local capacity to share indigenous knowledge Identifying appropriate methods of capturing and disseminating indigenous knowledge among local communities Facilitating a global network to exchange indigenous knowledge Applying Indigenous Knowledge in the development process Raising awareness of the importance of indigenous knowledge development partners Helping countries to prepare national policies in support of indigenous practices Advocating the use of indigenous knowledge in programs and projects of the World Bank and its development partners. Building partnerships Learning from local communities and NGOs Leveraging the limited resources of partners to obtain greater development impact. Addressing intellectual property rights issue of indigenous knowledge 14 A Framework for Action Progress in implementation (as of October 30, 1998) Disseminating information Designed and disseminated promotional brochure on IK in English, French and Portuguese Started IK practices database (about three dozen practices synthesized and referenced) Launched "1K-Aotes", a monthly periodical to disseminate IK practices in the Bank and to external audiences (15,000 mailings per issue); first issue published in October 1998; secondin November. Launched IK Web Page at LTRL: http://wxNvxw.worldbank.org/html/afr/ik/index.htm. Contributed "Box" on IK for the 1998/99 WVorld Development Report: Knowledge for Development Facilitating information exchange among developing communities Launched jointly with CIRXN a survey of 14 African IK centers. Follow up field visits (underway) to help to identify the potential for building local capacity for dissemination of IK. Agreements wvith IK centers in Cameroon and Zimbabwve to research IK practices and prepare syntheses. Applying Indigenous Knowledge in the development process Concentrating in the initial stage on awareness building: Communication from senior management to WVorld Bank Africa Region staff on importance of IK Produced report "Indigenous Knowledgefor Development A Frameworkfor Action". Prepared 4-minute video on IK (played on WvN,orld Bank Africa Region's external web site as a "hot topic"). Showcased IK at the Knowledge Expo during Annual Meetings of the WXorld Bank and IMF (October 1998) with participation of partner CIRAN. Building partnerships Launched external partnership with PICTA (Partnership for Information and Communication Tech- nology for Africa, that includes CISDA, ECA, IDRC, ITU, UNDP, UINESCO) and other partners, among them ILO, WIPO, WHO and the SANGONet; external partners to exchange experiences with indig- enous knowledge and promote the integration of IK in the development process. Established external adtisory panel, to advise initiative on strategy and implementation. Developed close collaboration with CIRAN (Centre for International Research and Advisory Net works) at Nuffic (Netherlands Organization for International Cooperation in Higher Education). CIRAN acts a hub for a global network of indigenous knowledge centers. AWIPO has established unit to deal with inteUectual property rights of IK. Contact Reinhard Woytek Tel: 202-473-1641; Fax: 202-477-2977 Africa Region Knowledge and Learning Center e-mail: nvoytek@worldbank.org The World Bank NWebsite: http://worldbank.org/html/afr/ik/index.htm 1818 H Street NINT 15 Indigenous Knowledgefor Deven____ ANNEX 11 Matrices Matrix 1 "Typology and Sectoral Features of Indigenous Knowledge at Community Level" assist in determining which approach to chose in support of IK in a development program. The Matrix describes sector specific areas of indigenous knowledge; typical practices which are relevant for transfer; types of bearers of knowledge; manifestation of IK in hardware (artifacts) or software (laws, rituals, organiza- tion) which could assist in determining the relative ease of accessibility of IK to outsiders. Matrices 2 to 4 ("Increasing and Improving the Available Information on Indigenous Knowledge", "Increasing Awareness of the Importance of Indigenous Knowledge" and "Establishing a Global Network for the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge") describe the overall scope for action necessary to further integrate IK into the development process. For each area of action, its present status, re- quired action and an approach is suggested. Matrix 5: "Sharing Responsibilities in the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge" indicates a possible scope of partnership. In view of the special nature of IK, it is most likely that NGOs and CBOs would be the primary agents for the collection and recording and some of the validation activities of IK at the community level. These organizations would need substantial support to help identify, record, validate and exchange indigenous knowledge. In this context, development partners could consider supporting the establishment of IK support units within selected NGOs. Matrices 6 and 7 on "Traditional and Modern Means of Transfer of Indigenous Knowledge" describe the tools used in transferring knowledge within and across communities. These matrices also indicate the potential areas for involvement of the development partners. More specifically, Matrix 8 "Exchanging Indigenous Knowledge" presents an overview of issues per- taining to the exchange process according to actors, instruments and possible constraints to be ad- dressed in the context of external assistance. These matrices do not claim to cover the entire realm of indigenous knowledge relevant to develop- ment. Any attempt to present a full coverage would lead to an unfocussed, encyclopedic presentation of local practices or ways of exchanging knowledge. Accordingly, the matrices have a rural bias. However, as the initiative evolves, it is planned to incorporate in the data base examples of IK prac- tices in the urban areas as well. Partners such as UNESCO are supporting activities in some urban areas which may provide a good source of information on IK in these areas. 16 Matrix 1: Typology and Selected Features of Indigenous Knowledge at Community Level Category Accessibility of Area of Knowledge Manifestations of Knowledge Knowledge for Sector (examples) Bearers of Knowledge (examples) Outsiders Agriculture * soil and land classification * all farmers (accor- local varieties, cultivation techniques, plant * good, if manifested * cultivation, plant protection ding to gender or protection techniques in discernible prac- * plant sociology ethnic distribution) tices and methods * characteristics of crops under stress Animal husbandry * breeding * nomads, herds peo- * breeds * difficult, sometimes and ethnic veteri- * animal treatments ple, animal keepers * watering places restricted rituals nary medicine plant sociology drought resistant species * livestock routes * treatment of ekto- and endoparasites Post harvest tech- * protection against vermin * most farmers * storage systems * usually good, unless nologies and * treatment of seed and products * specifically women * food products related to rituals nutrition * food preparation * cosmetic products Use and manage- * sources and qualities of raw materials * most farmers * forestry products * fair ment of natural * plant sociology, underutilized plants / products * women * contour bunds, resources and * erosion control measures * crafts people * regulation of commons, usufruct, village environment * long term cycles of climate and environment by-laws protection * supply of raw materials and products Handicrafts * wood working, * specialist groups or * semi-finished products * good * foundry individuals * tools * weaving * art Primary health * iatro-botany, family planning, reproductive * healers, women, * herbal medicines, treatments * difficult care, (PHC), health special groups * child care preventive * preparations medicine and * botanical, animal and mineral products psycho-social care * integration of mentally and psychologically ill members in society Saving and lending * risk assessment * savings groups * group collateral * difficult * saving in kind * money-lenders * conditions * risk sharing Community * power sharing * elders * rituals * moderately difficult development * networking * local leaders * by-laws, regulations * lobbying * advocacy Poverty alleviation * risk aversion strategies, neighborhood assis- * elders * rituals * fair tance * local leaders * dependencies, * village by-laws, integration of marginalized, * kinship Source: World Bank staff. Indigenous Knowledgefor Developmen_t__ Matrix 2: Increasing and Improving the Available Information on Indigenous Knowledge Area of Action Status Action Required Approach Record and * numerous anthropological studies with * participatory tools for ana- * field studies document information on indigenous knowledge lyzing and packaging in- * literature studies indigenous * growing number of field and literature digenous knowledge in a * workshops knowledge studies and workshops devoted to the user-friendly fashion: * cooperation with CBOs and subject * systems for database NGOs * majority of studies descriptive rather than storage analytical with little feedback to local communities Test and apply limited number of methodological studies * studies on how projects can * methodological studies field method- some projects involve testing by means of assess and apply project- * analysis of projects that record ologies for participatory approaches relevant indigenous knowl- and use indigenous knowledge recording few projects integrate the recording of the edge * learn from successful applica- andtrec ansustng use of indigenous knowledge * support for NGOs to docu- tions and transfers of indige- and transfer- * substantial number of small NGO projects ment and analyze their ex- nous knowledge ring indigenous uses indigenous knowledge but very few periences * study successful amalgama- knowledge experiences have been documented, not to * systematic studies of trans- tions of indigenous knowledge mention exchanged fers of indigenous knowl- with foreign knowledge ed ge Validation of * limited efforts so far (with the exception * field-testing and on-station * glean assessments of users indigenous of research on medicinal plants); informa- research by national re- * field testing knowledge tion on effectiveness is scattered and diffi- search institutions includ- * on-station research cult to access; limited information on suc- ing economic analysis * laboratory tests cessful transfers * study records of early cen- * record transfer successes tury scientists and practi- tioners, missionaries * study records of technology transfers of indigenous knowledge Make * over the past years, the amount of records improve regional network- * production and dissemination information and exchanges has increased (documents, ing to promote exchange of documents, audiovisuals available newsletters, videos etc. the number of con- between indigenous knowl- and artifacts ferences networks), but analysis is still edge sources, projects and * arrange conferences limited actors * support existing and func- * considerable (academic and descriptive) * increase public coverage tioning networks, clearing- information is available on web-sites * establish accessible data- houses databases demo plots * use-lists are in operation bases exhibits museums etc. * some databases on traditional ecological knowledge * mass communication coverage related to indigenous peoples and bio-diversity in- creased * in developing countries information ac- tivities not well coordinated * museums traditionally exhibit local arti- facts as manifestations of indigenous knowledge Source: Mathias, E. (1995) with minor adaptations by World Bank staff. 18 A Frameworkfor Action Matrix 3: Increasing the Awareness of the Importance of Indigenous Knowledge and Enhancing the Application of Indigenous Knowledge in Development Activities Area of Action Status Action Required Approach Raise awareness of the * activities still few but increas- * external involvement to help * projects value and potential use of ing communities to record * workshops video- Indigenous knowledge * some involve local people as document and use their own documentary among partners or actors indigenous knowledge * prepare conferences, audio- limited integration of indige- * participatory technology visual and field visits * local people nous knowledge modules into assessments a exchange visits; develop * field level workers and regular training courses on rural * personal exchange between "How-To Manuals" for organizations development practitioners recording sharing dissemi- * teachers, scientists and * information on indigenous * integration of indigenous nating other academics knowledge is not suitably pack- knowledge modules into cur- indigenous knowledge * policy makers and aged for policy makers and de- ricula of schools training produce briefs; establish development planners velopment planners institutes and universities cost-benefits for indigenous * some policy papers recognize * information packages for knowledge applications or the value of indigenous knowl- politicians decision makers transfers for national econ- edge (such as the World Bank and development planners omy guidelines for working with in- * country or sector guidelines tools for project planners digenous peoples) experience and implementers on how with practical application not to recognize validate and recorded incorporate indigenous knowledge Provide tools and methods * field- worker handbooks how to a increased user friendliness of - adapt manuals to different for the recording and use record and document indige- manuals audiences and purposes of indigenous knowledge nous knowledge by means of * coverage of specific topics a field testing of manuals in development projects participatory approaches are (e.g. indigenous knowledge available for manual and com- and the conservation of crop puter use prepared by IIRR and genetic resources) and CIKARD cultures * case studies are available but could be packaged in a more user-friendly form. Train GO and NGO field * limited availability (courses * courses on methods for the * research stations and com- personnel in tools and offered by University of Edin- recording and use of indige- munity colleges to adopt methods burgh IIRR) nous knowledge courses * extension and education a twinning arrangements; materials on indigenous * package training materials technologies user-specific for extension workers, NGOs develop- ment workers etc. A training of trainers * improve communication between actors of indige- nous knowledge exchange Source: Mathias, E. (1995) with adaptations by World Bank staff. 19 Indigenous Kno-wledgefor Development Matrix 4: Formning a Global Network for the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge Area of Action Status Action Required Approach Strategic alliances X few initiatives ongoing (PICTA, X agreement on sharing of in- X establish regular Bellanet) formation (electronic) exchange X limited resources * reconciliation of activities forum; * isolated NGO-activities with international agreements sponsor international con- . research directed at documenta- (agenda 21 bio-diversity etc.) ference tion and recording not at ex- * cooperation with NGO and * twin activities of research change private sector NGOs donors and private * private sector interests focused on sector single technologies or products * link up with existing networks, such as the IK Network Clarification of out- * dispute on property rights not yet * implement or amend existing sponsor international standing issues resolved agreements conference of experts and stake holders Installation of regional - not yet established on interna- * databases . compile methodologies and intra-regional tional basis some regional centers - exchange framework * assist existing, effective clearing houses with limited capacities * operational and effective cen- centers in decentralized ters locations Establish "Peer-to- e knowledge exchange mostly e direct exchange between pro- * decentralize networks Peer" exchange South-North-South: some prog- viders and recipients of * registers of knowledge ress on connectivity knowledge * pointers and centers of excellence * semantic transcriptions * quality standards * quality monitoring * improve communication _________________________________ structure Source: World Bank staff. 20 A Framework for Action Matrix 5: Sharing Responsibilities in the Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge Actors Area of Action Activity Key Partners Local Communities * maintain and preserve IK * "document" practices (not only explicitly) * CBOs, NGO * record and document IK * validate practices * extension services * transfer IK * identify key knowledge sources * volunteer services * develop preservation strategies * share with other communities CBOs, NGOs * maintain and preserve IK * provide and operate documentation and ac- * governments * capturing and documenting cess space (libraries, databases, info centers, * private sector IK tele centers etc.) * research * transfer locally and regionally * produce information material (print, radio. * donor community * disseminate TV, plays etc.) * advocacy * organize local exchange (advise, exchange visits, theater groups, use of media etc.) * organize regional exchange by networking National * provide legal and institutional * protect (intellectual) property rights * international Governments framework * facilitate information access and exchange organizations * facilitate networking * include local knowledge in national curricula * donor community * facilitate regional travel * facilitate access to media Research * acknowledge indigenous * improve methodology for study of indigenous *governments knowledge resources knowledge X donor community * validate indigenous knowledge * provide access to research findings * disseminate findings * include findings in teaching * facilitate exchange with public and private institutions Private Sector * acknowledge rights of indige- * purchase of rights or licenses * donor community nous knowledge sources r NGOs Donor Community * acknowledge importance of IK * create intemnal platforms of exchange add * NGOs * disseminate information on IK cooperation * raise awareness among * network with sources of IK and partners partners * include indigenous knowledge aspects in as- sistance strategies and approaches International * recognize special requirements * provide for special clauses in international * donor community organizations of indigenous knowledge agreements on IPR, trade, cultural exchange * NGOs etc. * provide access for protagonists of indigenous knowledge to international fora World Bank * raise awareness within the * provide internal information on 1K (web, * NGOs institution print, dare to share fair, include in database of * donor community * raise awareness among part- expertise ... ) * governments ners and stakeholders * provide information to partners (conference, special partnerships such as PICTA, support local initiative) * foster and advocate project approaches that build on local knowledge * call for international conference or workshop * advocacy at international organizations Source: World Bank staff. 21 Matrix 6: Traditional Means of Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge Actors and Mode Sectors Means and Media Context of Exchange Content Potential for Direct Involvement of of Transfer the Donor Conmuunity' I Parents -children * environment a oral * hierarchy * traditional skills l limited: * agriculture and animal husbandry * practice * common practices unless through adult education * nutrition * artifacts * values * handicrafts Trainer - * local medicine * oral * hierarchy * specialized knowledge and * moderate: apprentice - village based crafts * practice * reputation skills TA, volunteer services * PHC * individual training * expertise * values Public exchange * environment, agriculture * oral * parity * news, * moderate: (Markets, gather- * nutrition * artifacts * reputation * products by supporting campaigns ings etc.) * markets * expertise * awareness * Handicrafts * authority Informal groups * environment * oral parity * news * low * agriculture * artifacts, reputation * specialized knowledge and * nutrition * practice * expertise skills * Handicrafts * hierarchy * awareness Local organiza- * environment * oral parity * news, * moderate: tions and tradi- * agriculture artifacts * competition * specialized knowledge and training, support to NGOs and tional authorities * nutrition * practice reputation skills CBOs * Handicrafts expertise * values * conmmunity development * hierarchy * awareness Story tellers * unspecified, community devel- * oral * reputation * news * moderate opment * sketches and plays a specific technical informa- songs tion * values Spiritual leaders * environment * oral * authority * values * moderate: * agriculture * community development cooperation, co-financing * health * comnmunity development Productive activi- * Handicrafts * oral * reputation, parity, * news * high: ties * agriculture * artifacts competition * specific information if targeted within sector approach * environment community development I Migration * environment * oral * parity * knowledge and skills * moderate: crafts * practice * competition * values in refugee and settlement programs values * expertise Source: World Bank staff. I Direct involvement of donors in the local transfer of knowledge depends largely on approaches chosen. Working through local intermediaries along participatory principles makes such processes more accessible. Matrix 7: Modern Means of Exchange Indigenous Knowledge Context of Potential for Involvement of the Donor 't Mode of Transfer Sectors Means and Media Exchange Content Community Primary and secondary * unspecified * teaching * hierarchical * knowledge very high: education * skills curriculum development, provision of , awareness teaching aids, TA Universities * unspecified * teaching * Hierarchy * knowledge, aware- very high: * practice * Parity ness research funding, classification systems, * excursion * Expertise validation, TA * ICT * Demonstration * reputation Vocational schools * crafts * teaching * hierarchy expertise * knowledge * high: * practice skills curriculum development, funding of exchange * excursions programs, TA, training of trainers Adult education * unspecified * teaching * work * hierarchy * knowledge * high: financing exchange programs, training * excursion shops * parity * awareness of trainers * simulation * radio * reputation games * TV * role plays * tele- centers Advisory services * unspecified, * oral * theater * expertise * knowledge very high: * mostly health, * literature plays * reputation * skills training of trainers, extension support agriculture, and * posters * meetings * parity * awareness programs, research funding environment * radio tele- * TV, video centers * ICT * excursion Missions * agriculture * oral * demonstration * skills * moderate: * health * practice - long term practice close cooperation, since many denominational crafts services propagate indigenous knowledge Advocacy groups, NGOs, * unspecified * oral * parity, reputation * knowledge * high: CBOs * mostly community * meetings * skills cooperation, support, training development a awareness Distance education * unspecified * radio, TV, * parity, transfer on- * knowledge * high: * mostly technical * tele-centers demand * awareness if modernization of ICT infrastructure * literature feasible, support of media development, TA Specialized information * unspecified * radio, TV * transfer on demand * knowledge * very high: services * mostly technical * tele-centers * skills new applications, need research, high * literature potential with modem ICT Source: World Bank staff. Matrix 8: Exchange of Indigenous Knowledge Category Identification and Sector Recognition Validation Documenting and Recording Storage Transfer Dissemnination Feedback * proprietors of knowi- * proprietors of knowi- * proprietors of knowledge * proprietors of proprietors of knowledge * extension service * depending on Actors edge edge * NGOs knowledge * NGOs, CBOs * information serv- phase and fea- * their representatives * NGOs, CBOs * subject matter experts * NGOs, govem- * information brokers ices sibility, all * experLs * experts, researchers * experts for indexing and ments * extension services, teach- * public and private actors in- * extension agents codifying data banks, li- ers media volved * governments * libraries, documentalists braries, archives * consultants, researchers, documentalists govemments __ * farmers, producers, practitioners, elders, clergy l libraries * information bro- farmers and producers * target groups * proprietors of Participants * experts, researchers * media profes- kers * firms * stake holders knowledge * museums, shops and markets, information networks sionals * students * recipients of * archives knowledge * surveys * natural social and * studies * documents * feasibility studies * information cani- * exchange vis- Methods, * studies economic indicators * surveys * data bases * teaching paigns its neans and * panels * evidence * tapes photos videos libraries pilot applications * adult education * repors r PRA * comparison * products and specimens photo video * demonstration * story tellers * royalties for * remote sensing * peer reviews * remote sensing tapes * training * theater plays proprietors of * measurements * standards product * measurements * processes and * exchange visits * word of mouth knowledge * reports of last century quality * production processes practices (in-situ observers * field or laboratory tests * resource persons and ex-situ) * artifacts and products Constraints * partial lack of meth- * lack of methodologies * lack of personnel trained in methodologies * projected transfer times * interference of spe- * hardly imple- odology related to tacit knowl- * prioritization underestimated cial interest groups mented so far aernd *ob lack of personnel edge * widely practiced project financing for NGOs ig- * top-down approaches * lack of supporting l legal implica- trained in method- pre-conceptions and nores role of documentation and information activi- * technology choice policies tions not yet ologies mystification ties (overhead cost not covered information activi- * lack of technological com- * rate of adoptions settled ties curtailed) petence not sustainable poor quality of information * poor quality of in- traditional one-way North- formation South transfer * identify areas with * assist in developing * assist in developing methodology with particular * capacity building * policy assistance * leverage and Role for methodological gaps methodology and reference to women as bearers of knowledge * provide for pilot ap- * assist established demonstration Donor * train personnel in training m change financing and co-financing principles proaches and phasing South-South net- Donor*nprsnennuriiga rpgteadsppryok Communtity proper methods * create platforms for propagate and support works unbiased exchange on South- South transfer IK * introduce information _quality standards Source: World Bank staff. Examples of IK Applications Country Nigeria Application: Postpartum maternal and child health care rites and observances among the lgbo of Domain Southeastern Nigeria Health During a four-week period after birth called 'Omugwo"' the mother and the child are secluded and relieved from Technology all other chores they are cared for by the grandmother of the new born. The new mother is given a stimulating Child Care hot soup made with dried fish meat yams plenty of pepper and a special herbal seasoning called 'udah' which makes the uterus contract and thus helps in expelling of blood clots. The diet helps to restore blood lost during Bearers of Knowledge childbirth to restore energy facilitated the healing of wounds and restores normal bodily functions and promotes Igbo Women lactation. For a first time mother the time is utilized to receive parental and house keeping practices from her Source: mother. Dan S. Obikeze (IK Monitor 5(2) 1997 CIRAN Lesson: Health care programs need to acknowledge the 'Omugwo'rites and integrate them in their as- sistance strategies Country Tanzania Application: Transfer of the Washambaa agricultural system to Rwanda adaptation and re-transfer. Rwanda The Washambaa of the Usambara Mountains in Tanzania had developed a land use system emulating the cli- Domain Agriculture max vegetation of the deciduous natural forest a multi-story integrating annuals and perennials on the same plot. The principles were transferred to Nyabisindu, Rwanda in a GTZ assisted project; special multipurpose contour bunds with trees shrubs and grasses were added to the system and re-transferred to the Washambaa Agroforestry once dense population and demand for firewood had depleted the soil cover. Bearers of Lesson: Emulation of natural vegetation is a valid approach to soil conservation; transferring and add- Knowledge ing elements to address new problems adds value to the original land use system. Washambaa farmers Source: GTZ various reports 1980 - 90 Country Application: Re-introducing traditional Egyptian architecture Egypt Following e re-orientation of national energy policies the Egyptian atomic energy commission started to re- Domain search energy and material saving construction methods. A regional exchange of experience was arranged with the following observations: Curved roofs have a smaller surface area (and require less building material) for the Shelter, Energy same volume of indoor space. Computer simulations prove: the net heat gain of a dome can be 20 % less than Technology that of a flat roof; curved roofs allow the warm air to rise leaving cooler air at floor level. Openings at the top can Architecture provide " natural air condition" by very cross-ventilation; skylights on vaults and domes provide 4 to 5 times Bearers of Knowledge more light per unit floor area than low windows on vertical walls. Less window area is needed heating and cool- = Architects, builders ing loads are reduced; rooms with curved roofs have a pleasant psychological effect on the occupants: they _ Architects, builders seem less oppressive than rooms with flat ceilings. x Source Lesson: Create awareness among practitioners and policy makers by validating traditional knowledge 1 Schreckenbach H. BASIN with modern technology. z News (12) '97 z Indigenous Knowledgefor Devel ANNEX IV International IK - Research Network CIRAN Centre for International Research and Advisory Networks Dr. G.W. von Liebenstein, Director Cl RAN/Nuffic P.O. Box 29777, 2502 LT The Hague The Netherlands Tel: +31-70-4260321 Fax: +31-70-4260329 E-mail: lieb@nufficcs.nl LEAD Leiden Ethnosystems and Development Program Dr. L. Jan Slikkerveer. Director: LEAD. Institute of Cultural and Social Studies, University of Leiden, P.O. Box 9555, 2300 RB Leiden, The Netherlands (tel.31-71-273469: fax 31-71-273619 CIKARD Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development Dr. Norma Wolff, Interim Director 318 Curtiss Hall Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 50011 USA Tel: +1-515-294 7139 Fax: +1-515-294 6058 http://www.iitap.iastate.edu/cikard/ClKlntro.html ICIK Interinstitutional Consortium for Indigenous Knowledge Ladi Semali, Director The Pennsylvania State University 254 Chambers Building University Park, PA 16802, USA Tel: +1-814-865-6565 Fax: +1-814-863-7602 E-mail: Imsl 1 @psuvm.psu.edu 26 A Framework for Action African Resource Centers for Indigenous Knowledge Burkina Faso BURCIK Burkina Faso Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge (Centre Burkinabe de Recherche sur les Pratiques et Savoirs Paysans) Dr. Basga E. Dialla H(INNS), Director B.P. 5154 Ouagadougou 02, Burkina Faso Tel: +226-360746 Fax: +226-315003 Cameroon CIKO Cameroon Indigenous Knowledge Organisation Prof. C.N. Ngwasiri, Director P.O. Box 170, Buea, South West Province, Cameroon Tel: +237-3221 81 Fax: +237-322181/430813 E-mail: ngwasiri@ciko.sdncmr.undp.org Ethiopia INRESC Indigenous Resources Study Centre Dr. Tesema Ta'a, Director College of Social Sciences, Addis Ababa University P.O. Box 1176 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Tel/Fax: +251-1-550655 Ghana CECIK Centre for Cosmovisions and Indigenous Knowledge Dr. David Millar, Director c/o T.A.A.P. P.O. Box 42 Tamale, Northern Region Tel: +233-71-22000 E-mail: aispcg@ncs.com.gh (c/o Dr. David Millar) 27 Indigenotus Knowledgefor Development GHARCIK Ghana Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Dr. M. Bonsu, Interim Director School of Agriculture University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast Tel: +233-42-2240-9/2480-9 Telex: +233-42-2552 UCC GH Kenya KENRIK Kenya Resource Centre for indigenous knowledge Dr. Rashid Aman, Director The National Museums of Kenya P.O. Box 40658, Nairobi Tel: +254-2-744 233 Fax: +254-2-741424 E-mail: nmk@africaonline.co.ke or raman @africaonline.co.ke Madagascar MARCIK Madagascar Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Ms Juliette Ratsimandrava c/o Centre d'Information et de Documentation Scientifique et Technique B.P. 6224 Antananarivo 101, Madagascar Fax: +261-2-32123/20422 Nigeria ARCIK African Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Prof. Adedotun Phillips, Director Dr. Tunji Titilola, Research Coordinator Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) PMB 5 Ul Post Office, Ibadan, Nigeria Tel: +234-22-400500 Fax: +234-22-416129 or +234-1-614397 28 A Frameworkfor Action NIRCIK Nigerian Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Dr. J.O. Olukosi, Coordinator Institute for Agricultural Research Ahmadu Bello University PMB 1044, Zaria, Nigeria Tel: +234-69-50571-4 Ext. 4322 Fax: +234-69-50891/50563 Telex: 75248 NITEZ NG CIKPREM Centre for Indigenous Knowledge on Population Resource and Environmental Management Prof. D.S. Obikeze Dept. of Sociology and Anthropology University of Nigeria Nsukka, Nigeria CIKFIM Centre for Indigenous Knowledge in Farm and Infrastructure Management Dr. G.B. Ayoola, Director Centre for Food and Agricultural Strategy University of Agriculture Private Mail Bag 2373 Makurdi, Nigeria Tel: +234-44-533204 Fax: +234-44-31020 (box 5) Sierra Leone CI KFAB Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Fourah Bay College Dr. Dominic T. Ashley, Director Department of Sociology Fourah Bay College University of Sierra Leone Freetown Sierra Leone Tel: +232-22-7387 29 Indigenous Knowledge for Development South Africa SARCIK South African Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Alwijn Dippenaar, Executive Director The Institute for Indigenous Theory and Practice P.O. Box 2355, Sommerset West, 7129 South Africa Tel: +27-21-8543299 E-mail: alewijn@iafrica.com or alwyn © aztec.co.za Tanzania MARECIK Maasai Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge Dr. Nathan Ole Lengisugi Simanjiro Animal Husbandry Vocational Training Centre (AHVTC) P.O. Box 3084 Arusha, Tanzania Fax: +255-57-8907 30 A FramewarkforAction ANNEX V Methodology In implementing the proposed activities, the IK Initiative has to take into account the interests of the various partners, the potential of the contributors of indigenous knowledge, and resource constraints. This requires an approach that facilitates continuous mutual exchange of information during implementa- tion, building of local capacity, and a process that is open to new partners and contributors. An external advisory panel of IK and ICT experts advises the Initiative on strategy and key operational issues. Dissemination of information The initiative would identify pilot instruments for the capture, dissemination, and application of indig- enous knowledge. To this end, identified IK sources in various countries would be commissioned to report on a number of indigenous practices. These reports would add to the knowledge base on IK, and would also serve as a means to evaluate modes and methods for the capturing of indigenous knowledge. Methods that could be applied are field interviews, participatory community assessments or focus groups with NGOs. Projects of the World Bank and of partners of the initiative would contribute their experiences with the integration of IK into the development process. Also the initiative wvill contribute to the knowledge base of the World Bank and its partners. Facilitating information exchange among developing communities Reports of IK practices would be collected and summarized in a publicly accessible database that also connects to the original source of information wherever possible. Cases that are of specific interest would be published in a monthly periodical. The initiative would - on a pilot basis - help to enhance the capacity of existing IK institutions to improve their networking among peers as well as to capture and disseminate IK information. This would include provision of or advise on basic connectivity as well as support in estab- lishing access to the WVorld Wide Web. Further, (also on a pilot basis) communities would be identified that could be assisted in the establishment and operation of a village-based telecenter. Applying Indigenous Knowledge in the development process Awareness creation, pilot applications and "mainstreaming" are the three elements required for a suc- cessful integration of IK into the development process. Initially, the initiative would focus on awareness building among decision-makers in development organizations and the national governments. Apart from publishing special IK cases, the initiative will feature special presentations during partner events (e.g., Annual Meeting of the World Bank). A regional conference in Africa is tentatively envisaged to raise aware- ness of importance of IK among policy makers. At a later stage, the focus would shift to developing pilots and to mainstreaming through projects. The latter would involve using "success stories" to demonstrate that use of IK can bring value to the process. Careful selection of pilots (countries and projects) would in turn help to develop further examples to be used in subsequent stages to convince other colleagues. For the partners, collaboration around pilots and providing "visibility" by involving agency leaders in "sponsor- ing" the pilots would help create the needed "signaling" to the development practitioners. Establishing partnerships The initiative will seek partnership beyond PICTA members. Special emphasis will be put on establishing close working relations with NGOs, the global IK network and, wherever possible through projects and partner organizations, with local communities to learn from their experiences. 31 Indigenous Knowledge for Developmentt ANNEX VI Key Events and Conferences United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The conference stressed the need to develop mechanisms to protect the earth's biodiversitv. Manv of the documents signed at UNCED also reflect the requirement to conserve the knowledge of the environment that is possessed by many local communities. The resultant Agenda 21 is the starting point for sustainable development. Agenda 21 called for major efforts to be directed to the recording of indigenous knowvledge. The United Nations system agencies, have been responsive to these needs. In addition to the UN-family, other development agencies recognise the value of indig- enous knowledge (e.g. the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)'. International Conference on "Indigenous Knowledge and Sustainable Development" (September 1992, IIRR, Silang, Philippines). This conference, which vas sponsored by IDRC, was the first major international manifestation of IK among the development community. Conference on "Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development" (Washington, September 1993). Sponsored by the World Bank. International Conference on 'Adaptation and Development: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Sub- sistence and Sustainability in Developing Countries', (July 1994, Bandung, Indonesia). Sponsored by the Indonesian Resource Centre for Indigenous Knowledge (INRIK), Universitas Padjadjaran, in co- operation with the Government of NW,est Java Province of the Republic of Indonesia. WVorkshops on subjects related to indigenous knowledge and alternatives for development: "Rede- fining the Life Sciences" and "Intellectual Property Rights of Peoples" (July 1997, Penang, Malay- sia). Sponsored bv the Third WNTorld Network. Symposium on Indigenous Knowledge Systemsfor Plant Protection, (13'h International Plant Pro- tection Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands, July 1995). Convened by the National Institute of Public Health and Environmental Protection and CIRAN/Nuffic. Perspectives on Indigenous Knowledge Systems in Southern Africa (Preparatory Workshop, Zimba- bwe, April 1994, Field Surveys, and Regional WVorkshop in South Africa, 1995).5Sponsored by World Bank /IUCN. International Conference on 'Creativity and Innovation at Grassroots for Sustainable Natural Re- source Mlanagement (January 1997, Ahmedabad, India). Organised by the Centre for Management in Agriculture at the Indian Institute of Management. Global Knowledge for Development 1997 ( June 1997, Toronto, Canada). Organised by the Govern- ment of Canada and the WNVorld Bank. Considerable attention given to indigenous knowledge issues. 32 A Framework for Action ANNEX VIl Selected Bibliography Altieri, M.A. and L.C. Merrick (1987a) 'In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through mainte- nance of traditional farming systems', Economic Botany 41 (1):86-96. 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Amish Agriculture in Iowa: Indigenous Knowledge for Sustainable Small-Farm Systems. Studies in Technology and Social Change No. 15. Ames, Iowa: Technology and Social Change Program, Iowa State UTniversity. Newsletters/Periodicals Biodiversity Conservation Strategy Update. Biological Resources and Institutions Program, World Resources Institute, 1709 New York Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006 USA. CIKARD News. Center for Indigenous Knowledge for Agriculture and Rural Development, 318 Curtiss Hall, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA. GATE. German Appropriate Technology Exchange, GTZ, Eschborn Honey Bee. Newsletter for Documentation and Experimentation of Local Innovations Developed by Farmers. Artisans and Horticulturalists. Centre for Management in Agriculture, Indian Institute of Management, Vastrapur, Ahmedabad-380015, India. IFPP Newsletter. Indigenous Food Plants Programme, PO. Box 48108, Nairobi, Kenya. ILELA Newsletter. Information Centre for Low-External-Input Agriculture, PO. Box 64, 3830 AB Leusden, The Netherlands. 37 Indigenous Knowledgefor Development Indigenous Knowledge and Development Monitor. Newsletter of the Global Netwvork of Indigenous Knowledge Resource Centers. CIRAN, P.O. Box 90734, 2509 LS The Hague, The Netherlands. International Traditional Medicine Newsletter. Program for Collaborative Research in the Pharmaceuti- cal Sciences, University of Illinois, PO. Box 6998, Chicago, Illinois. La Voix du Paysan. Cameroun. Le Grenier. Service Inter Africaine de Technologiees Appropriees, Burkina Faso. Seedling. Genetic Resources Action International (GRAIN), Apartado 23398, E-08080 Barcelona, Spain. ITGIA Newsletter. Int. NW'ork Group for Indigenous Affairs, Fiolstraede 10, DK-1171 Copenhagen K, Denmark. TEK Talk. A Newsletter on Traditional Ecological Knowledge. The Editor, 135 Hawthorne Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada KIS OB2. I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2