-2558+ 1I1c6 WORLD RESOURCES A G U IDE T O T HE G L OBA E NVI R ONt 'ilEFNT - The Urban &. r - -1~~:z- -- - Eniom t 01 a A --I'l 1: ~ ~ ~~ -T . .. .. . I'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . _____ ___ ORDER FORM World Resources 1996-97 Database Diskette To order, indicate quantity, total cost (including shipping charges), and method of payment on the lines provided below. QTY DISK FORMAT PRICE 3.5" IBM compatible Cl I attach purchase order no. high density diskette $99.95 0 1 enclose my check for: $ Subtotal $l Please bill my VISA / MasterCard / Shipping & Handling $ American Express (circle one) US orders: $2.50 for one diskette pack; Account # S1.25 for each additional pack. Expiration Date: Non-US orders: $15.00 for one; Signature: $7.00 each additional. CA & NC residents Please note: all orders from individuals must be add sales tax $ pre-paid by check, money order, or credit card. TOTAL $ Libraries and institutions may use purchase orders. 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Containing 450 essential variables for 170 countries, the World Resources 1996-97 Database Diskette is equally suitable for fast fact finding or extensive statistical analysis. Professionals in business, government, industry, and the environment will find this an invaluable research and reference tool. These .wkl files are compatible with any spreadsheet or database system. The IBM-compatible, high-density diskettes require a hard disk, MS-DOS or PC-DOS 3.0 or greater, and 300K RAM. Order now by completing the coupon on the reverse side. WORLD RESOURCES 1996-97 Program Director Senior Advisors Allen L. Hammond, Resource and J. Alan Brewster, Senzior Vice President, WRI Environmental Information, WR I \Yalter V. Reid, V ice Presidleznt tfo Progra1n, WRI Tlholimas Fox, Vice President Landcl Director. World Resources Center for International De'velopm'nent and Leslie Roberts, Ei ditor-in-Chief Env'ironment, WRI Debor-alh Farmer, Ma7n7a7inlg Editor Ralpli Schinlidt, Senior Programme Advise, Robert*Live mash,Senior Editor Sustainaible Energy and Lnironmient Robert Liverniasli, Seizio0r Eciitor - G regorv Mock, Contributin- Editor Div'ision., UNDP Harvey Croze, Assistant Executive Director, Carolina N.I. Katz, ASsncI,7te Editor Divisio of Environment Information and Eric Rodenbrtg, Research Director Assessment. JIN'EP Dirk Brvant, Research Associate Michael Colhen, Seniior Acdliser, Olfice of tbe Vice Presidcnit. Enviaironmentalt711y Sustalinl.71)e NI arilvin NIl. Powell, ProduftctiOn1 Coordinla7tor Dev'elopmnent, Ti'e WVorld Bank Roseannie Price, Production Edlitor Changhua WLI, Factchecker Special Advisors for The Urban Sharon Bellucci, Production Assistalt Environment, World Resources 1996-97 Elizabeth Glaspie, Prool-eader lMike Douglass, Unmil'versity' of Halwa ii at Malnoa David Foster, Ui.S. A-ciicy t°Or IlstCl-1LItioslL71 Editorial Advisory Board FN Dev.elopment Dr. M.S. Swaniliatlhan (India). Chairmlan Hilda Herzer, Centro Estudios Sociales His Excellenicv Abdlatif Y. Al-Hamad (KuLWait) Anzbwmztak's The Honoral)le Serge Antoine (France) Gordoi McGranaha, Stockholm Enviroment Ms. Elizabeth Dowdeswell (Canada) Institute Dr. QLI Geping (People's Repuiblic of China) jay NMoor; United !N\ations Cenztre for Human Dr. Nikita Glazovsky (RUSSia) Settlements The Honorable Enrique V. Iglesias (Uruguay) Jonas Rabinovitch, UNDP Prof. Hirovuki Ishi (Japan) Carole Rakodi. University o 'Wales, College of Mr. Maximno T. Kala-w, Jr. (Costa Rica) Cardiff Dr. T.N. Khoshoo (India) Raqtiel Rolik, Ilnstitutto Polis Dr. Thomas A. L anibo (Nigeria) David Satterthlaite, International Inistitutte for Prof. Istv.in Ldng (HunLigarv) E1n1iiron1-1ent anld Dev!elopmient Mr. Jonathan LLashI (United States) Car-olvn Stepheis. Londcloni Schbool of Hygienc M9lr. Robert .\'IcNamara (Ulilted States) Tropical AMedicinel Dr. Liberty MNhlaniga (Zimbabwe) Dr. Jose Sarukhidn (Niexico) Dr. Ismail Serageldini (Egypt) Mr. James Gustave Speth (United States) WORLD RESOURCES 1996-97 A joint publication by The World Resources Institute The United Nations Environment Programme The United Nations Development Programme The World Bank New York Oxford Oxford University Press 1996 The cover shows an inner city area in Buenos Aires, Federal District, Argentina. Photo by James P. Blair, National Geographic Society Image Collection. The World Resources Institute, the United Nations Oxford Universitv Press Environment Programme, the United Nations Develop- ment Programme, and the World Bank gratefully ac- Oxford New York Toronto knowledge permission to reprint from the following Delhi Bombay Calcutta Madlras Karachi Kuala Lumnpur Singapore Hong Kong Tokyo sources: Nairobi Dar cs Salaam ( ape Town Melhourne Auckland Part 1: Figure 1.3, Table 4.2, Figure 5.1, and Table 6.1, The arid associaited companies in World Bank; Box 3.1, Figure 1, Scientific American; Berlin Ihadan Box 3.2, Figure 1, National Academv of Sciences; Fig- Copyright © 1996 by the World Resources Institute ure 3.2, Asian Development Bank. Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press Part 11: Box 7.1, Figure 1, The World Bank; Figure 8.4, United All rights reserved. No part of this publication may he repro- Nations Development Programme; Figure 8.6, Figure duced, stored in a rerrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or 8.7, and Table 8.1, World Health Organization; Table hy any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying. rccording, or 9.1, Figure 10.3, Figure 10.4, Table 10.3, Table 10.4, otherwise, without rhe prior permission of Oxford lUniversity Press. and Figure 13.1, Food and Agriculture Organization of Data Tahles mav he reproduced with the permission of the the United Nations; Table 11.1, United Nations Envi- World Resources institLute. ronment Programme; Box 12.1, Figure 1, British Petro- leum; Table 13.2 and Table 13.3, Population Action ISBN 0-19-521 160-X International; Figure 14.3 and Figure 14.4, Intergov- ISBN (PBK) 0-19-521 161-8 erumental Panel on Climate Change. Library of Congress Cataloging Number: 86-659504 JSSN 0887-0403 Printed in the United States of America on recycled World Resources is a biennial puilication of the World Re- paper. sources Institute, 1709 New York, Ave., N.W Washington, DC, 20006 Printing (last digit): 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 iv Contents Preface vii Executive Summary ix Part I The Urban Environment 1 Cities and the Environment 1 Forces driving urbanization; urbaan environmental problemzs; economtic costs of environmental degradation; uirban povzerty; challenges to governments 2 Urban Environment and Human Health 31 Physical and social threats to huiiman health; differences among cities; socioeconomic inequities and health 3 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources 57 Land convtersion; depletion of natural resources; disposal of urban wastes; threats to coastal ecosystems 4 Urban Transportation 81 Urban transportation trends; impacts tcongestion, pollution, accidents, social inequities); managing travel demand and supply 5 Urban Priorities for Action 103 Strategic choices: water and sanitation; water resources management; solid waste management; inidoor and outdoor air pollution; land use planning 6 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability 125 Involving local governiments; community initiatives; cities and sustainable development Appendix A. Urban Data Tables 149 A.] Urbain Indicators, 1975-2025 A.2 Access ro Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, 1980-95 A.3 Air Pollution in Selected Ciries, 1989-94 A.4 India: Citv Indicators, 1993 Part 11 Global Conditions and Trends and Data Tables 7 Basic Economic Indicators 159 Measuring economic progress; economic growth and the environment 7.1 Gross National and Domestic Product Estimates, 1983-93 7.2 Official Development Assistance and External Debt Indicators, 1981-93 7.3 World Commodity Indexes and Prices, 1975-94 v 8 Population and Human Development 173 Trenls in population aind he7alth; focus oni emerging inflectiOus diseases 8.1 Size and Growth of Population and Labor Force, 1950-2025 8.2 Frends in Births, Life Expectancv, Fertility', aned Age Structure, 1970-95 8.3 Mortalitv and Nutrition, 1 970-95 8.4 Education anld (:hild Heailth, 19-0-93 9 Forests and Land Cover 201 Stalte of thlbe w'(rldS tr'opical ad temperate forests: /oC&is O1n Ruissia and Sutrinzamc 9.1 Land Area and Use, 1981-93 9.2 Forest Resources, 198 1-90 9.3 Wood Prod luCtiOn and Trade, 1 98 1-93 10 Food and Agriculture 225 Trends in gloub ,agricuittural production; getting f6o(d to tbose wi ho need it 10O.1 Food and Agricultural Production, 1982-94 10.2 Agricultural Inputs, 1981-93 10.3 Livestock Populations and Grain Consumed as Feed, 1982-94 10.4 Food Trade and Aid. 1981-9.3 11 Biodiversity 247 Coastal ecosystemls and marine hiodiversity unzzder stress; pressures anzd policies I 1.1 National and International Protection of Natural Areas, 1 994 11.2 Globallv Threatened Species: Mammals, Birds, anld Higher Plants, 1990s 11.3 Globally Threatrenied Species: Reptiles. Amphibians, and Fish, 1990s 11.4 Marine Biodiversity 12 Energy and Materials 273 Energy trenzds; projections of futuire energy demand; available energy resources 12.1 Commerciail Energy Production, 19737-93 12.2 Energy Consumption, 1973-93 12.3 Reserves anid Resources of Conimercial Energy, 1993 12.4 Production, Consumilption, and Reserves of Selected Metals, 1980-94 12.5 Industrial Waste in Selected Countries 13 Water and Fisheries 295 Marine t/isbing trend1s and managing water resources 13.1 Freshwater Resources and Withdrawals 13.2 Wasrewater Treatiient 13.3 Marine Fisheries, Yield and State of Exploitation 13.4 Marine and Freshwater Catches, Aqu.acilrure, and Fish Consumption 14 Atmosphere and Climate 315 Trends in carbon dioxide emissions; -osts anl benefits of stabilizing greenhonise gas emission7s 14.1 CO) Emissions from Industrial Processes, 1992 14.2 Other Greenihouse Gas ismissions, 1991 14.3 Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse and Ozone-Depletilig Gases, 1970-94 14.4 World CO2 Emissions from F7ossil Fuel Consumptioni and Cemiienit Manufacture, 1950-92 14.5 Comimiilon Anthropogenic Pollutanlts, 1980-93 14.6 Inventories of National Greenhouse Gas Emissionis, 1990 Acknowledgments 339 Index 347 World Resources Database Index 363 vi Preface lhe World Resotirces series is published to ing the urban environment and at community-based meet the critical need for accessible, accurate approaches. information on environment and develop- Part 11 continues the tradition of examining in each ment. Wise managemenit of natural re- volunie hasic conditions and trends and kev issues in sources and protection of the global each of the major resource categories, from agriculture environment are essential to achieve sustainable eco- to water resources to atinosphere and climare. Many nomic development and hence to alleviate povertv, of these chapters focus particularlv on future trends; a improve the human condition, and preserve the biologi- brief review of these issues can be found in the Execu- cal systems on which all life depends. tive Summnary. In a change that should make the report WVor/d Resouirces 1996-97 is the seventh report in the easier to use, the core data rables from the World series. Recent reports were prepared by the World Re- Resources Database are now also found in Part 11, at sources Institute (WRI) in collaboration with the United the end of each relevant chapter. Additional informa- Nations Environment Programine (UNEP) and the tion and data can be found in the Human Development United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). For Report, which is published annually by UNDP, and in this report, UNEP and UNDP have become full partners the World Bank's World Deuelopment Report. with WRI and have been joined by the World Bank. We In an effort to make an expanded set of data acces- believe that this new partnership will significantly sible to policymakers, scholars, and nongovernmental strengthen our efforts to make this series the most organizations, WRI also publishes on diskette the obljective and Lip-to-date report of conditions and Wlorld Resources Database-expanded to include addi- trends in the world's natural resources and in the global tional countries, variables, and where possible, a 20- environment. vear data set. Part I of this volumede'votes six chapters to the urbani The audience for the World Resouirces series has environment in support of the June 1996 United Na- steadily expamided, with English, Spanish, French, Ara- tions' Habitat 11 Conference in Istanbul, Turkev. Ur- bic, German, Japanese, and Chinese editions now in banization is a major global trend with a complex print, as vell as an Indian edition, which is published in varietv of impacts. It can have manv positive effects, English but printed in New Delhi. A Teacher's Guiide to such as improvements in productivity and access to World Resouirces is also available to make the series services. As we examine in the first three chapters, accessible and useful to teachers and stuLdents. however, it can also have a wide variety of adverse We commend the WYorld Resources staff for its efforts impacts on both people and the environment. Many of in assembling and analvziig this unique collection of the most difficult urban issues cut across political, eco- information and for producilIg the volume in a timely nomic, and institutional boundaries; one such issLie is fashion. The Editorial Advisory Board, chaired by Dr. tramisportatioin, which we examine in Chapter 4. The M.S. Swaminathan, provided active advice and sLipport concluding chapters look at priority areas for improv- at all stages of the project. Similarly, the senior advisors vii for the special section on the urban environment pro- Spanish edition; the Netherlands Ministry of Foreign vided invaluable assistance. Affairs for assistance in distribution of the report; and the We wish to thank the U.S. Agency for International Swedish International Development Authority and the Development for its support of the urban chapters; the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for support ro Inter-American Development Bank for support of the expand and strengthen the World Resoturces Database. Jonathan Lash Elizabeth Dowdeswell President Executive Director World Resources Institute United Nations Environment Programme James Gustave Speth James D. Wolfensohn Administrator President United Nations Development Programme The World Bank viii Executive Summary T h his volume devotes special attention to the urban environment, a major focus of Habitat 11-the United Nations Conferenice on Human Settlements-scheduled for June 1996 in Is- tanhul, Turkey. Urban environmental conditions are imporrant to the health ind quality of life of a city's inhabitants and can impose siginificant costs on economic and social develop- ment. The impact of urban areas on the surroundinig environment is also aii issue of grow- ing concerin. More than half of humankind will live in urbani areas by the end of the century, and 60 percent by 2020. In most nations, cities generate a majority of the economic activity, ultimately con- sume most of the natural resources, and produce most of the pollution and waste. Thus, urban environ- mental issues, although often overlooked, are important both locally and on national and global scales. Neglect of these issues could compromise larger econonmic, social, and environmental goals in both de- veloped and developing countries. This volume also survevs a number of current trends in the global environment and their implications for the future. Most of these trends show worseninig environmental problems, suggesting that maniy na- tional and international environmental goals will not be met withiout extensive policy reform and signifi- cant changes in current practices and strategies. On the positive side, however, this volume also reports a significant environmental milestone, the partial phaseout of production of ozone-depleting chemicals. THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT Cities embody the diversity and energy of human pursuits. They are iti many ways remarkable engines of economic and social progress. Cities offer employment opportunities, entertainment and other amenities, and potential efficiencies not found elsewhere, as well as advantages in the delivery of education, health, and other social services. On average, urban dwellers have higher incomes and live healthier, easier lives than their rural counterparts, althoughi these advantages are often not shared hy all urban inhabitants. But cities also play a central role in degrading the physical environment and in shaping the social envi- ronments in which most of the world's people will soon live. Dysfunctional urban environments have high costs, making more difficult the economic growth needed to improve living standards and helping to perpetuate inequities. The developed world is already largely urbanized. In the developing world, the rapid urbanization now under way will increasingly concentrate both popUlation and economic growth in cities-as much as 90 percent of future population growth and a maijor share of ftutire econonlic growth-intensifying the problems of the urban environmient. (Chapter 1.) In recent decades, urban areas in developed countries have made manjor progress in cleaning up local environmental problems, but theyv remain significaiit contributors to regional arid global enviromnental WVorld Resources 1 996-97 ix bLurdens. At the same time, the urbani social enviroiinment in developed coun- tries-which includes factors such as violence and drug abuse-poses major Urban Population Growth rhreats to hlinian health and productivity. In developing couLitries, urban ar- (population in billions) i s ura eas often have huge populatiois living n poverty and facing the same urban 8 U rban Developed social threats that conifronit residents of cities in the developed regions. Dis- 6 _ Urban Developing parities amonig different income groups are often more extreme in cities of 4 the developing world. In maniy cases, for example, overall improvement in 2 uirban health indicators masks a widening split between the poor and the 0 well-to-do. The problems of the urbani poor are similar to those of the rural 1950 1975 2000 2025 poor-lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and adequate housing-com- pounded h; overcrowdinig and exposure to industrial wastes aLid urban air pollution. (Chapter 2.) Burgeoniing cities are expanding into fragile ecosvstemls-nearly 40 per- cent of cities larger than 500,000 are located on the coast. Cities sometimes deplete nearbv areas of water and firewood, renedering them less capable of supporting ruiral populations and thus adding to the pressures fot urban mi- in] ll/U Il( , z les/willf gration. Air pollution already exceeds health standards in many megacities in developing countries. Sewage and industrial effluents are released into water- '/layvs with minimal or no treatment, threatening humain healtlh and aquatic 111 I)i.d/lxllll( ',1 ''( ''l r life. Some urban enviromnental problemils such as access to safe drinking tiinlcr l 1U Iv 1 ill vwater improve with economic growth, while others tend to worsen. Thus in iII(TC,1,;1SIIv1 the absence of policy reform, stronger instittitions, and enlightened political -o( ^JI/(l; ;, s1 bw leadership, economic and population growth in developing countries in the ,/)i )/)/Iafi,, Ill/ near tern may lead ro a detcrioration of the urban environmeint, both physi- 0()l 1/C'Ii cal and social. Stresses on the global environment fronm urbani activities are also likelv to accelerate. A malor share of greenhouse gas emissions already -li/iS. i;z/~'si/\comes from the use of fossil fuels in wealthv urban areas, especially in the de- /)1 1+'/n' 4lis x 't //h veloped countries. (Chapter 3.) Itl) r1 IIliI l'/ )7//Ws 1/i. Transportation issues illustrate how enviro[inienital, social, and economic factors interact in the urban environiment. Transportation demanld and mo- tor vehicle owniership are concentrated in urban areas, and energy use for transportation is rising faster than that for any other sector. Motor vehicles in turn are a primary cause of congestioni and local air pollution, which are posing a growing threat to econoinic productivitV and humnall health. Yet the dispersed form of many urban areas makes motor vehicles virtuallv es- World Motor Vehicle Ownership ... World( MotorvVehiclesOwnershipnsential. It also contrilbutes to social inequities, for examiple, limitinig access (vehicles In millilons) F] Developed countries to jobs and other opportunities for those who cannot afford vehicles or re- 80O Developind countries 800 Developing countries quiring long trips by pLublic transit or on foot. (Chapter 4.) 60 and Eastern Europe_--_-- qu 600 400 Priorities for Action 2000 _ _TFhree issues emerge as particularly critical: water supply and sanitation and o water resource management, solid waste managemllent, and air pollution. In 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 each area, there are compelling ccononilc, social, aind environmental ration- ales for changC. Successful efforts, however, art likely to require significant clhanges in urbLan practices and strategies. x World Resources 1996-97 Improving access to clean water and sanitation, for example, has been cited as "the single most effective means of alleviating human distress." Past experience shows the need for a shift away from centralized systems and to- Access to Water and Sanitation in Urban Areas ward more flexible, comiimunity-oriented strategies. In hopes of cutting the (population in millions) costs of solid waste management while improving service, many cities are ex- 1,800 D Unserved perimenting with public-private partnerships and informal, cornmunity- 1,500 r Served based approaches. Focusing on pollution prevention and on energy 1,200 Serve conservation, in part bv fixing distorted prices and using other novel eco- 900 - nomic tools, is lilkel to be central to reducing air pollution. Underlving 600 vs an many urban environimental problenis-from congestion and air pollution to the lack of affordable housing to urban decay-are land use patterns and 1980 1t994 1980 1994 practices. Morc effective land use planning is critical to improving access to urban services for the poor and to reducing resource consumption and im- proving the quality of life in more affluent communities. (Chapter 5.) Community-Based Strategies Beyond the immediate priorities for improving the urban environment lies the need to strengthen local governments, to implement new approaches to al- Itt il/ i 11/ X/1 leviating poverty and supporting communities, and to develop more environ- /)1 /1('s IX 1I X mentally friendly cities. Virtually all of the policies needed to improve the 111/nI (I '( I/IJlulll urban environment require more effective urban governance. That will re- til, 711Ml11/UC(11 1CC/I1 1,1 quire not onlv strengthened governmients but also the involvement of many / , / I' dl other actors in the urban environment-including the poor and the private ., I11,011 ( .' sector. Communitv-based approaches are essential if urban services are to reach those who need them and if there is to be broad-based support for lilt !ii li needed changes in strategies and practices. The sheer size of urban popula- 1110h1 ".11 b'i 1 '1 bei/1 tions and economies means that cities must lead the way toward more envi- 11i p /n r( u 111t ronmentally sustainable practices for the world as a whole. (Chapter 6.) P 1-11t'11t' .C ch /- IMPLICATIONS OF CURRENT GLOBAL TRENDS Population Growth Current population trends are cause for both optimism and concern. Some developing countries are moving rapidlv toward population stabilitv. But other countries are experiencing rapid population growth, usualiv accompa- World Population Growth nied bv high levels of poverty, limited progress for women, and high levels (population In bilions) 10 the word popuation s in- Developed regions * of internal and international migration. Overall, the world population isDeveloping regions 8 creasing bv more than 86 million people every year. Such rapid growth 6 places enormous pressure on natural resources, urban infrastructure and 4 services, and governments at all levels, especially in rhe poorest countries 2 where growth is most rapid. 0 Global population will continue to grow for many decades to come, re- 1750 1850 1950 2050 2150 flecting the demographic inertia of countries in which a large fraction of the population has not yet reached child-bearing age. In the U.N. medium popu- World Resources 1996-97 xi lation projectioni, world population reaclhes about 10 billion by the middle of the next centul-y c fore gradUally leveling off. IMUch of that growth oc- Rapi/ / /)t/)iI/tio// cuirs in the next few decades iand is concentrated in a few regions, such as Af- *i4 a n /b /t/c-c'S rica and Asia. In these projections, fertility is assumiled to declinie from 'uIc ol Illol/S /)YCS sIt/c ( current levels in devcloping regions of the world. Pro jected fertility rates can- M II /1/aII -III t I)C 1/c 'S . i nor be rtakeni for granted, however; policies that inifluenice fertility rates-pro- vision of family planinilig services, alleviation of poverty, and improvements in educatioll, health cire, and cconioicic opportunities, cspeclally for .ll)(l 5(1 I 'ices, Lc .lI(t v,women-can have a marked effect on future population levels. (Chapter 8.) ,,U'(/l' 'I'/?II?c'///S . Iallt tic ls. Freshwater Supplies Oine environimiental conisequenice of growing populatiOlns is increasing pres- sure on natural resouirces. Demand for w ater is growing rapidly as popula- tions and industrial activity expanid and irrigated agriCulture (the largest use) continuies to increase. From 1940 to 19990, for exainple, withdrawals of freshwater from rivers, lakes, and underground aqJuifers inicreased by a fac- tor of four. Manyv currenit patterns of water withdravwals are clearly unsUs- tainable, such as pul11mp1ing from1 subsoil aquifers at rates far greater than (population in millions) they are recharged. Viater shortages are already critical n solie regions pos- 2,800 ing obstacles to conrinutied developnment and threats to freshwvater habitats. 2,000 g Lowestimate [ The future availability of Water for huIman use depends on how water re- 1 600 sources are managed; water can, in principlc, bc reused many tinies. Future 1,200 preSSUres ol water resotirces can thus be seCIe as a measure of the malnage- 800 _ ment challenge that water-short regions will face. According to one esti- 0 as _ _ mate, between 1 billion and 2.4 billion people ( I U3 to 20 p ercent of the 1990 2025 2050 projected world poplullatiull) Will live in wvarc- scarce countries by 2050. Af- rica anid parts of westerin Asia appear particularly vUilnerable. Policies that improve the efficiencv of wvater use, avoid waste, and preserve suipplies (by coiItrolli wg water pollution and mainitainiing watersheds) can markedlv ex- I 01?Pg il)~ 1(sl/c /t - ftend the avallahilitv of scarce supplies. Particularly important are more effi- cient irrigation1 sysrtlms, appropriate water- pricing and reimioval of harmful subsidies, upgrading anitd improved mailnteln ance of urban water distribution svstemis, control or treaitmenit of industrlal wastewater and urban sewage cf- i/i1 1i/l/i/V 4 s /)( 0 fluenlts, anid cooperative management of shared watersheds and river basins. !/iiX islit /) lP\' /c (ChapterI 13.) /()1101 inzpc.r'/s a ()/ Ia rn- /;uuilh ic< 1 )1/ Food Security /()o/ 11/CANIIS /'ll Water scarcity has a direct impact on food sectirit. Inldeed, manv countries fl/JIV pa'i c/tic' 11// facing water scarcity may not be able to support irrigated agriculture at lev- c( mc'c';zuct /cc En) els necessary to feed future populations from domestic agricultural activi- f//}/ } A ties. Soil erosion and degradation, especially in fragile tropical and subtropical environmeniitrs, also threaiten the conitiniued productivity of agri- cultural linds. Overfishling threatens to damnage fisheries alnd lower future harvests, denying many developling regiouns an important source of protein. Xii World Resormoes 1996-97 These trends may put severe straiis on the world's ablility to increase global food productioni in parallel with population growth. Nonetheless, most re- cent assessments suggest that global food production-the supply end of the Estimated Chronic Undernutrition equation-has the capability to keep pace withi rising global demaid. (population In millions) 800 El All Other Regions There is less optimism ablout the prospects for reducinig unldernutritionl 700 U Sub-Saharan Africa 600 and improving food secuirity. Even if global food supplies are adeqquite, the 500 inabilitv of poor nationis to pay for food imports, along withi anl inadequate 400 distribution infrastructure and the inability of poor families to buy food, 200 means that maniv people will continue to go hungry. For 1990 to 1992, the 100 0 U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) identified 27 coiiltries as 1990 2010 having low or critical fooCd security indexes. In sub-Saharan Africa, for ex- ample, FAO projects that the numbli er of underinourishied people could rise from 175 million to some 300 million lK 2010. Food trade is projected to nearly double between 1990 and 2010, but trade and food aid may nor fill the food security gap. Policies that strengthen agricultural research and extension systems, promote sustainable intensification and more sophisticated manageminent of agricultural re- I '/,c dl/;//et'n/1 sources, and develop more effective agricultural markets in developing coun1- stIn's (- )lti A' //,j tries could play a major role in helping these countries to meet their owni food needs. Policies that increase rural employimient and access to land and credit and that strengthieni the capacity' of developilng couLtrry governimienits l st-1iit/ 'iil/Ž.sit/ canl also have an importanlt indirect impact On food security. (Chapter 10. )11/ §rfliibt ti/SC >.tsc's 5ii 'i-/"il/V! Energy and Climate t c r i.iif) liSC Energy use is already high in the developed countries and is increasinig rap- C tiS/i lilclr V I1I idly in many developing couLntries as they industrialize. Three differenr srud- ( ; th'tuitlt's ies of future energy demanid conclude that glohal energy use is virtually certain to rise considerablv in cominig decades. These studies find plausible increases in the range of 34 to 44 percent by 2010 and 54 to 98 percent by 2020. The projected growtih is concenitrated in Asia (a i 00 percent increase from 1990 to 2010) and Latin America (a 50 to 77 percent increase over the same period). Moreover, most of the expanded production will come froml Projected Increases in CO, fossil energy sources-coal, oil, and naLtural gas-in the absence of specific Emissions and Energy Demand policies to alter miarket incentives. The so-called "inew renewables" such as (percent increase from 1990) solar, wind, and farm-grown energy crops are expected to provide otnly 2 to 80 4 percent of global energy supplies from 1990 to 2020 if current practices and strategies continIue. 60 These projectionls imply that local and regional air pollutioll is likely to 40 increase significantly in rapidly developling regions and that global emissions of greenhouse gases will increase as well, greatlv increasinig the risk anid po- 2010 2020 2010 2020 tential impact of global cllimate change. Emissions of carbon dioxide from Co Emissions Energy Demand industrial activitv climbed 38 percent durin- the 2)) years prior to 1990 and U Low [ High Estimates are expected to rise another 30 to 40 percenit by 2010. These projected trends make cleair that significanit changes will be re- quired in energy strategies and practices in all major regionis of the world to W`orld Rt'sorrces 1J) 9 97 Xiii stabilize global emissions of greenhouse gases. Even greater efforts and, al- most certainly, a transition to nonfossil energy sources will be required to .\/ui/t (10) /prct71 1 ('0/ eventually reduce emissions and hence stabilize atmospheric concentrations, t/.'( !.llUI.lI /))I)lIl1I( 1 the ultimate goal of the Global Climate Convention. Policies that encourage liv ( s u iil.i;: I () ) more efficient use of energy, that tax energy-based pollution or provide mar- /(JOIL 1' IS / /ic1' ket incentives for the introduction of renewable energy sources, and that fa- -Wa.ls/li/h'. \IU jl)Z(t .1/ cilitate use of the best available technologies for energy consumption and I11/ (I.c 1u1'ulIs production are well known, if not always easy to implement. Given the growing scientific consensus on global climate change-reflected in the find- H hl s>/,/l (H i( Y JSIt Ilks ing by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that there is "a dis- II/P/)(".Ir I C( ) U cernible human influence on global climate"-these policies deserve far sl>l/!.!II// l/I s/s1; /w(1// greater attention. (Chapters 12 and 14.) Critical Ecosystems at Risk Coastal habitats, some of the richest storehouses of marine hiodiversity, pro- vide one example of how critical ecosystems are increasingly threatened. About 60 percent of the global population lives within 100 kilometers of Percent of Coastlines at Risk the coastline, drawing heavily on coastal and marine habitats for food, (percenl) building sites, transportation, recreational areas, and waste disposal. Ac- 100 __ cording to a new study by the World Resources Institute, 5 1 percent of the 80 world's coastal ecosystems appear to be at significant risk of degradation 60 r from development-related activity. Europe, with 86 percent of its coastline l l l r -- ; at high or medium risk, and Asia, with 69 percent in these categories, are 40 the regions most threatened by degradation. Worldwide, nearly three 20 fourths of marine protected areas within 100 kilometers of continents or ma- jor islands appear to be at risk. (Chapter 11.) 0 f Europe South Asia Africa Forest losses are continuing at a rapid rate. A new FAO study shows that America fully 20 percent of all tropical natLiral forest cover was lost from 1960 to 1990. Temperate forest cover, too, has declined, primarily in developing countries. Natural forest cover declined 8 percent in developing countries during the 1 980s, although this loss was partially offset by new forest plan- tations and growth in wooded areas outside forests. Forest losses in developing countries echo earlier deforestation in devel- oped countries. North America has lost an estimated 20 percent of its origi- nal forest cover; the countries of the former Soviet Union, 35 percenit; and V1(isl lu)sses ,11( Europe, 60 percent. Many remaining undisturbed forests are at risk from m )/I/llIli/i I1/ I r alpi t logging, and fragmentation of forest cover is widespread. Air pollution and i /~.1 .111(t 11R("LU is still fire suppression practices have also contributed to declining forest health. rlB (l 1 l hI/i Jll/ zThere is still no international consensus on how to protect forests, nor is it clear that the world community is ready to move forcefully toward managing (-iIIM'/15/L' /I qc cleat tmto forests on a sustainable basis. Manv efforts are tinder wav to explore policy /1 f )1( *-1 i /i j I '( sl instruments in areas such as forest maniagemenit and trade in forest products; others are focusing on improving information about forests and developing greater consensus about appropriate practices. (Chapter 9.) xiv World Resources 1996-97 Part I The Urban Environment -_s: -A I _ K --- .,i~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ L i, - ' , t o' , --- '- , t 's,;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~N 1. Cities and the Environment lie world is in the midst of a miassive urban environmenltal problems defy easy categorization, they transition1 unllike that of any othcer tinie in cani be grouped into two broad classes: those associated historv. Withiln the next decade, mio-e than with poverty and those associated with ecoiomliic half of rhe world's population, an estimated growth or afflueice. The two often coexist withini the 3_ 3illiol, will be living in urban areas-a sane cityo change withi vasr implications lboth for hiuir[ in well- Some of the worst problems, in terims of human being and for thc environiiienit ii. As recently as I 975, Sfferiig ocuur in the poorest cities of the developiiig just over one third of the world's people lived iI Urban world. Especially where Population growth is rapid, areas B% 2) 025, the proportion will have risenl to alillost local governilments are unable to provide for even the twvo thirds most basic iieeds of their citizens. Throughout the de- Tlhe most rapid chalinge is occurrinig in the developing veloping world, the urban poor live in life-threatening world, where urbail populations are growing at 3.5 conlditions. At least 220) miillion urban dwellers lack percent per Year, as opposed to less thani I pericent in the access to clean drink ing water; more than 420 million miore developed regions i ;. (ities are also reaching do not have access to the simplest latrines c(i. Between unlprecedilitccl sizes-Tokvo, 27 mlilllion Sao Pat.110 unprecedetedsize -Tokyo,27million;ao a one and two thirds of the solid waste generated Is not BArazil, 16.4 mlilhlon, Bornal1iv 11d(a,3 15 n flisoll-p 1R- collected (-. It piles up on str-eets and In driiais, contrib- iig eiiorillOLISs tl zlills oil te IliistitLitioIlal aiid flatLiral rgenormuces strainSuppon thie ii sti4ut ma ad natur l utillg to flooding and the spread of disease. The prob- lems of ur1ban povertv exa1ct an enormnious toll in la rgelv Historically, cities have been drivinig forces in eco- O r~~~~reventablle deatils and d'se3ses. on(nic and sociall developilment. As ceiiters of Industry Eniviroliiileiital probilems aire also sevcer In tl ose anid coiimmerce, cities have long been centers of wealth and] political Ipver. They' also accitint for a dlispr-opor- ldeveloping world cities exlperieiciilg rapidl economliic tionlte share of national ilcoelic. The World Blilk growth. Economic growth brings needed revenues to estimaltes that in the dleveloping wvorld, as nuich as 80 Cities, hIt, if proper safeguards are not in place, it all percent of future economic growtvh will ocCLien rIwI S too often occur-s ar the expenise of environmental qua l- and cities iV. Nor are the lbeefits of urbanization solelv itv. More than 1 .1 billion people live in uirbani areas economilc. Urbanization is associated withi higher in- where ai- pollution levels exceed healthful levels x) In conies, imlipr-oved lhealtli, higlier literacy, anid imiiproved cities across the world, domestic anid industrial efflueiits qlualitv of life. Other benefits of urban life aire less are released to waterwavs with minimiial or nio treat- tangible but iio less real: access to information, diversity' meiiet threatening both human lihe,lth and aquatic life. creativity, and iiiilovition. Thesc cities still harbor huge populations of the urban Yet alonig withi the benefits of urbanization comile poor who are shut off fromil the benefits of econlolilic enviroinienital anid social ills, some of staggering pro- growth. Marny live in vast squatter settlemeilts, whiere portioiis. Thcse iiiclude a diversitv of problems, from they are exposed both to the hazards resLIltiiig fromil lack of access to clean drinikinig water, to urban air economlilc growth, such as industrial emissions, and to pollution, to greenillouse gas enissioiis. Although i rban the hazards that accompany poverty. W,o'th Resourcecs 1996-97 1 Cities and the Environment I ^~~~~~~~~~~~" Worlds apart Cities are diverse, as are tl7eir environmr7erntal problerm . In poor commiinities and cities. stuch as this newly colonized region of La Paz,. Bolivia (left). the worst probilems tend to be associated with lack of ade qtuate water, sanitation. and garbage services. By coniast. wealthier cities. such as New Yorik City (right). con- tribute a disproportionate share of greenhouse gas etmiissions. In the wealthiest cities of the developed world, cnvi- used in cities in developed regionis; thcse approaches will ronmental problems are related not so miuicl to rapid involve not only technological advanices biut also efforts growth as to profligate resource consumption. An urban to address urban poverty. dweller in New York ConIsLimes approximately three A second, aid reliated, challenge is for cities to reconcile times more water and genierates eight times more gar- the often-conipetinig demands of econotmnic growth and bage than does a residenit of Bombay (91 (io). The massive enlviroiinmental protection. For cities in developed CouL- energy demand of wealthy cities contributes a maijor tries, that means reducinig their excessive conistunption of share of greenhliouse gas emissiols. nattiral resources and its toll on the global commons. Such This special sectioni of World Resources 1996-97 straregiesarc equally importanitforcitiesintheLdevelopiiig examines the range of environmental problems alid the couLitries, if thev are to avoid the pro)bleins of affluence so forces contributing to thenm in cities of bioth the devel- pronlinent in the developed world. oped and the developing world. It then explores the ThougIl sobering, these challeiiges arc not insur- nature of the eivironniental challenge faciig rhe world's mountable. Because of their conicenitriated form and cities. The most immiiediate and pressing challenge is to efficienicies of scale, cities offer maijor opportunities to improve enviromilenital coiiditions for the urban poor reduce energy deimanid aiid minii ilize pressures on str- in the developing world. Given the constraints of rapid rounding lands aiid natural resources. If cities can har- population growth and limited financial resources, dif- ness the energy and c-eativity of thcir citizens and build ferent strategies will be needed from those previously on the inhereint advantages that urbanization provides, 2 Wor-,ld Rcsources 1 990-97 Cities and the Environment thev can, in fact, be part of the solution to the global ' . , . ~~~~~~Figure 1.1 Urban Population Growth, problems of poverty and environmental degradation. F r . b P l n o 1950-2025 URBAN GROWTH PATTERNS (population in billions) URBAN GROWTH PATTERNS ~~~~~~~~10 9 Between 1990 and 2025, the number of people who live 8 in urban areas is expected to double to more thani 5 7 billion people il). Almiost all of this growth-a stagger- 6 ing 90 percent-will occur in the countries of the devel- 5 opinig world (12,. (See Figure 1.1.) 3 In the developed world, the most rapid urban growth 2. took place over a century ago. By 1995, niore than 70 1 percent of the population in both Europe and North °1950 1975 2000 2025 America was living in urban areas o. Urban growth Rural * Urban Developed * Urban Developing continues, although at a much slower rate on average than in previous decades. MMuch of the population shilft Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization now tinder wvay involves movemenit away fromii conicen- Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), pp. 86-101. trates urban centers to vast, sprawling, metropolitan aNote: Urban developed regions include North America, Japan, Europe, trated ubncltrtovs,srwigiitooianand Austmalia and New Zealand: urban developing regions include regions or to small- and intermediate-size cities. Sonie Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin America and the Caribbean, and of the most rapidlyrowingctiesareinthesutOceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand). The European of the most rapidly growing cities are In the souithwest- successor states of the former Soviet Union are classified as devel- erm LJited States-but because this growtlh is fueled oped regions, while the Asian successor states are classified as largely by urban-to-urban migration, it does not affect developing regions. the overall level of urbanization. In the developing world, Latin Amiierica and the decades. Both Asia and Africa are expected to he about Caribbean constitute the most urbanized region-with 54 percent urban by 2025 c17t. (See Figure 1.2.) more than 70 percent of its population living in urban In some respects, the patterns of urban growth in areas in 1995 (14). Rapid urban growth is continuinig developing countries today a re not much different from especially in small- and intermediate-size cities (is5. By what occurred a centuiry ago in Europe and North contrast, Africa and Asia are now only about 30 to 35 Anmerica. Many of the forces driving urbanization today percent urban (16). It is in these regions that the inost are the saine-chief among them the shift of jobs from explosive growth is under wav, at roughlv 4 percent per agriculture to industry and services and the concentra- year. This trend is projected to continue for several tion of economic opportunities in urban areas. And Figure 1.2 Regional Trends in Urbanization, 1970-2025 A. Percent of Population Residing in Urban Areas B. Average Annual Urban Growth Rates (percent) (percent) 100 6 90- 80 70E 4 - 60 fU U 50 U..EU 40 -UE2- 320 II IIa .10EU Afrca Asia Europe Latin North Africa Asia Europe Latin North America America America America U 1970 La 1995 U 2025 U 1970-1975 I 1995-2000 U 2020-2025 Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbanization Prospects: The 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), Table A.2, pp. 78-85, and Table A.6, pp. 110-113. \\'urid0 Resour(es 1')9(,-97 3 Cities and the Environment Box 1.1 Abidjan: A Portrait of the African Urban Experience quality, the AIDS epidemic, and grow- ing social tensions-problems renidered ing thmiore intractaible by the extensive 4 .' ' . .It j poverth of the regioni. In part, the uirban crisis in Africa can t l - I ; 7X _ be attributed to the regioni's poor macroeconomic performiance. Cote d'Ivoire's gross domiestic product, whiich grew ait an average rate of 9.2 percent between 1975 and 1979, pluniged to niegaitive levels in 1980 anid continnued to decline by an averIge of I percent between 1986 andi 1993 u(.. Within Abidjan itself, aiveriage h1ouise- hold income declined nearly 2.5 percent betweeen 1985 and 1988 in. In receint years, this trenil secims to havc been ac- centuated bv the effccts of structural ad- __ justinent, which has had a greatcr _ - _ | t -, _| U negative impact onl urban dwellers than on ruiral residents (s sgi. Yet, doespite its cconiomiic woes. Abid- Shantytown. As in many African cites, unplanned settlements on the outskirts of Ab&d- jan-like manv other African cities- ian are mushrooning. and increasing numbers of the urban poor are crowding into continiues to grow at pheinolioenial r ares. makeshift housing. The rapid urbanization sweeping the continent secims unlikyikl to slow soon; AlthoLIgIl initially a small lagoon vil- tively large industrial base. In addition, fertility ratcs remaini high in both rural lage, Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, emerged as Cote d'lvoire has beiiefited from a sta- and urban areas. Migration has also a prominent urban center in 1891 when ble political history: Felix Houphouet played a dominant role in Abidjan's the French chose it as the hub of rail- Boigney ruled the Countrv for the first growth. According to 1988 census data. way liies linking the Atlantic Coast 33 years after independence, stepping 37 percent of the population of Abidjan with Niger (ii. For much of the 20th down onlv in Deceinber 1993 ro Konani is foreign born c(i) Recenit growth rates Century, the city flourished as a main Bedie B.) His regime stands in marked have dropped to about 5 percent, com- harbor and seat of trade. Since the re- contrast to those in countries such as pared with 12 percent in previous dec- gion's economic downturn, however, Angola, now entering its third decade aldes; still, an additional 400 urban Abidjan's prosperity has faded, and the of civil war, anid Rwanda, torn apart by dvwcllers are added each day n i) city is now faced with growing urban ethnic strife i4). Growth has been fastest on the urban povertv and deterioraring environ- In other ways, however, Abidjan is fringe, while the Plateau (the colonial mental conditions, grimly represenitative of the urban crisis center and busiiiess district) has lost In sonie wavs, Abidjaii is not repre- emerging across the African conitinent residents u l.) sentative of urban centers in Africa. On i). Abidjan's problems niirror those of This rapid growth has far outpaced a continent svhere niost urban areas are cities as disparate as Nairobi, Kenya; the governmient's ability to provide or- nio more thaii large villages, Abidjan Lusaka, Zambia; Kinshasa, Zaire; and baii services. The number of people had an estimated population of 2.8 mil- Dakar, Senegal. These and other cities without access to piped water grew lion mm 1995, making it the third largest are confronting rampant urban popula- from 80(),00() in 1988 to almost I nil- citv in sub-Saharan Africa (2. Unlike tion growth, a breakdown in urban lion in I 993-roughly 38 percent of the many cities in Africa, wlhich are priinar- services such as water and sanitation, a population (i n3. Around 3(1 percent of ily market centers, Abidjan has a rela- deterioration in urban environmental the population is serviced bv sewers, 55 although cities of the developing world are growing at uLindergoing rapid urhanizatiomi. the numbLer of cities least twice as fast today as those of the developed world, worldwide that are growing rapidly, ald the sheer these rates are not unlprecedenited. A number iof EuLo- numbLIerof people involved i)i. RoughlIy 150,000 People peaii and U.S. cities sustained very rapid growth in the are added to the urhan population of developing COeul- early 20th Century, as fast as that now uinder wavy in the tries cvery day' 2m. BeCauISC of thle huge population b-asC developinig eouLitties iX. in developing COlintries, eveni a relativelv slow rate of What is unprecedented now, however, is the absolunrte Urban growth can mniiL an enioriiious increase in abso- scale of the change, in termis of thc number of coulitries lute numbers. Giveni the huge size of the world's pmpu- 4 World RcsouMr.(s j 996-97 Cities and the Environment percent is served by septic tanks and la- community-led projects designed to in- 8. Lioniel De:icrrs, Core d'lvoire: Fentred trines, and 15 percenr must resort to prove hoLIsin1g conditions and provide Adijistienr. iii Adjoutemet ii A/lma: Les- open defecation. Most wastewater finds dwellers with commonal toilets and s51s troi i. n C:intrv Case Studle,s Ishr.it its way to the city's lagoons, which are piped water , s. In Accra, Ghana, the Huis:iin and Rashid Faruqee. eds. IThe highlv p0o1ted. Mulnicipal, industrial, development of urban market gardens World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994), highly polluted. Municipal, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~p.II . 122. and hazardous wastes are combinied be- has improved nutrition and created em- 9. :aroilne ON. Moiser, Aliciai J. Herbrt, fore disposal, increasing the dangers for plovment and supplementary inconmc for an Roza E. Monerlai P. in . . *. ~~~~~~~and Roz.a E. M:likonneti, UrbanS Poeriv itz scavengers working at the site l 14 X the poor, in addition to providing 94) per- the Context of Struc tural Adjiustmien:t: Re- Deteriorating quality of life has had cent of the city's fresh vegetables (I. In ce:it Evi'dcce ald Poricy Responses (The adverse impacts on health, such as a Ndola, Zambia, Habitat's training pro- World Bank, Washiingtil:, D.C., 1993), marked increase since 1978 in citywide gram has helped residents start microenl- p. 123. mortality rates for infants. Conditionis terprises such as brick-making, not onlv 1i. Philippe Anrioiie and Aka KoLidile. "Core are the worst for the very poor in Abid- providing income but also producing d'lvoire," in Urbaniziation ii A/rica: A jan. In the shantytowns, mortality r ates high-quality building niaterials at lower Handbook, Jarnes D. T;irver, ed. (Green- for children are almost five times as prices than normally available 2(2). wood Press, Westport. ( on:iecicti:t, higlh as in the richer districts (Is). 1994, p, 147. Health infrastruCture has also suffered References and Notes 11. Op. ct. 2. pp. 1 33, 145. from neglect. While Abidjani has the 1. Koffi Atiil, l'Pla::niiig aiid Manageniieiii 12. Op. cit. -, p. Io. higlhest concentration of traiiied health iii Large Cities: A Case Studv if Ahidlan. 13. Josef Leitin.inii lUrbaniz.iioii and Emii- personniel in the country, there are still CoIte d'lvoire.' in Metropolitan Pl.ionfng ronmelit iii Sub-Sahar.nii Atrica: Aui lipi:i only 2 doctors and ¶ paramiiedics per anil Managemeniit iii the Developing to the Post-LINCED Urban Axis," drrft p.:- 10,0(10 inhabitants. Costs of medicine W,orld: A.-bideia ,i:id Quito (Lliiited Ni- per (The World Bank, Washiigtoi, D.C., anti health care are prohibirive for the tions Cenitre for HUimiall Sertleniienis, Na:- 199SI, P. 18. majority of the population. The need rois. Keny., 1992t, pp. 35- 36. 14. Ibid,. pp. 19-20. for health care is beconming more urgent 2. Ljiitred N.iious iLU.N.) Pipulation Div- 15. Op. cit. I0, p. I i4. in the face of the AIDS epidemic. In sioii. Worl/ Urban:z.aolwt. Prospec ts: The I 6. Erik Eckholiii and Juhi Tieriic., " A I)S i n Abidjian, an estimated 10 percent of 1994 Rev'isioni (lI.N., New Yiork, I995), Afric.i: A Killer Riges Oil, N iti York adLilts carry the virus. One study of rec- pp. 1.32-13). Times (September 16, 1990i1, p. A 14. ords at city morgues showed that AIDS- 3. Hoivard W. French, 'Alidl,JO loirral: NO 17. Cooperative Hoiisiig Foiiid.iiion C(HI. related illness is already the leading .lo re Paierna,:l siit Pubuic ExecLl- partnership oat i Lii'able Fnvironm:'nit cause of adult deaths in Abidjan 16). lioiin'' Neii York' Tones ( klay 15, 1995)1 ((HF, sh:ngtiii 1.C., 1992) p. 26. As bleak as the picture seems, how- p. A4. IS. Wachir.i Kiggoiho, 'N.:irib': SIiiin Upgradl- ever, several pr-ojects involving commu- 4. lohii Dariioii, "Alrica Tries Deiiiocracv, Nog Mahire, The trbrld AgB, Vnl. 3, nities and nongovernmental Fiiiding Hope ind Peril,' Nei: Y,.rk D.C., luiie I 995il, pp. 13-14. organizations are demonstrating that Ti:iies (J:ine 21. 1994). p. A9. 19. A.J. Annorbah-Sarpe; Urban Market improvements in living conditioFis are i Richard E. Stren .iiid Rodine% R. White, Gardeis: Accra," Urban Eiisiron- possible without great financial outlays. eds., Afr:c.ii: Cities ini Crisis: Mananeng meiir-Poveriv Case Stiudy Series (Thc Sonie of the most promiiising strategies Rap.l trba,in Crth (\Wesrviesw Press. IMUg.1 Cities Projeci, New. Yiirk, nd the in Abidjan and elsewlhere are those that Boulder. Colorado, anid Londin. 1989), Cenier for C.oi:niunirt Studies, Action & link economic opportunity with envi- pp 1-3 12 Deselorpmienit Accra, 19941, p. 20. ronm1enital improvemeints. In Abidjan, 6. The Wo'rld Ban:k, A/ri, an Dev':e.lopment jIn 2(0. Unired Naiions Ceiirre for Hurn,ii Settile- an innovative trash collectioin scheniie in fiicatorS 1994-95 (Tlhe World Bank, Wash- inenti (Habit.ii) C:intuniuty Participation the conmmuniitv of Alladjan not only uigtoll) D.C., 199i5, p. 33. in Zamibia: The Danl,i/dL`'N'CHS Training helped remove garbage along the coast- 7. Arelher d'ArchiectLire dUranisieetde P(Habit Nairbi. Keiv heipe but 9.3so provided ste9.dv eniplov- Topographic. Pro/il E:iiironnienital ment for commnunity meinbers ( 1c. 'A4bidj.:ii, Voliniic I, dratr piper iThe Other programs, such as the Mathare World BLink, Washiigtoi, D.C., ALugUlt Sluni Upgrading Scheme in Nairobi, are 1993, p. 22. lation, even at these somlewvhat reducedl rates of growthl growth. Each has vastly different iniplications for the the LIrbanii population w ill coiititle to increase dranliiati- Irbhan Ciivlirolnilielit anid (qL il tY of life. In the le.ist call', slowing dovwn significalitly onl' we!ll iito the 2 [st developed coutnries-, Urtan growth rates are amnong the CentLiry l. highiest in the world, at nearly 5 percenit per Year (22. Althlough rates of growthi varv draniatically frotni Betweei 1 990 anld 1 99.5, some i of these coonll- region to 1-egioli and city to city growth is generally tries-Btirkiiina Faso, Mozambique, Nepal, alid .Af- Imlost rr otiiiriced in twot contexts: iii the l)rLst regions ghan istain, to c ite a few- rt I e s owere experiencing eVe higher a nd in those regions that are undergoing rapid eeontiouic urban growtlh rates-niore thaln 7 perCent per Vear 23: WoirIti RFs'osiurces 1996-97 5 Cities and the Environment Box 1.2 The Challenge of Environmental Deterioration in Jakarta cent of particulates, 89 percent of hy- -. ti I drocarbons, 73 percent of nitrogen ox- , 1~~~~~~- . . - _| ~~~~~~~~~~ides, and 100 percent of lead). As the I _______ : ] -- : _ demand for motor vehicles rises with economic growth, attendant pollution is likelv to worsen (6). The residential - -_u1 E t ^ 9 : . . sector also contributes about 41 percent i ! xs_ of particulate matter, largely from the burning of solid waste bv households and by refuse recyclers; industry con- tributes the greatest share of sulfur ox- -_ ides (63 percent) (7I. Jakarta's air pollution is associated with high levels of respiratory disease. Respiratory tract infections, for exam- ple, account for 12.6 percent of mortal- °itv in Jakarta-more than twice the 9a national average (C). Ambient lead lev- *i __,_ els, which regularly exceed health stand- ards by a factor of 3 or 4 (9), are ' associated with increased incidence of c hypertension, coronary heart disease, Worst of both worlds. In Jakarta. glass and chrome skyscrapers have sprouted up and IQ losses in children (ioL. among traditional kampung villages. While the city must increasingly grapple with prob- Jakarta's water quality is sufferinig un- lems of air pollution and industrial wastes, residents in these settlements still face der the combined stra in of domestic threats from polluted water and inadequate housing. and industrial pollution. The backbone of the sanitation system is still an open Jakarta. Indonesia, embodies manv of concentrated in the metropolis :2). Per ditch system that serves as a conduit for the contradictorv forces at play in rap- capita income in Jakarta is 70 percent all wastewater. While this system may idly industrializing megacities of the higher than the national average 3). have been adequate for a city of less world. These "engines of growth," as With economic growth, Jakarta has than half a million-rhe size of the city they are so commonlv called, play a vi- made major strides in improving overall wheni the system was plannedt-it can- tal role in national econtomic develop- health and quality of life in the city. In not cope with the wastes of the current ment. Yet at the same time, worsening 1989, mortalitv rates for infants were 11.5 million residents In In 1989, an environmental problems threaten eco- lower for the city than for the country estimated 200,000 cubic meters of nomic prosperity and human health. In as a whole, 31.7 per 1,000 live births wastewater per day, largely untreated, Takarta, city officials have begun to compared with 58 nationaliv (4). Coin- was disposed of ito he city's water- 9 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ways ( 121 (13L Domesti'c wastewater is es- grapple with these problems in earnest. bined male and female life expectancy timated to conitribute 80 percent of Like many megacities, Jakarta is the was 66.5 vears compared with 62 vears surface water to aough indus- countrv's center of government, finance, nationally 5). trial catrg ire algroigh cncern * n w - .................... ~~~~~~trial discharges are a growing concern. commerce, and education. The city is Yet economic growth has had its In some areas, groundwater is polluted leading the country's incredible eco- costs, most notablv in the form of in- with nitrates and microorganisms from nomic growth-Indonesia's gross do- creased pollution. As with many other domestic waste and toxics leached from mestic product (GDP) increased 5.7 megacities, Jakarta faces a serious prob- industrial landfills. percent per year berween 1980 and lem of air pollution. Ambient levels of Water pollution has impacts on both 1992 ni). As much as 7 percent of Indo- particulate matter exceed health stand- human health and aquatic life. Diarrhea nesia's GDP, 17 percent of domestic in- ards at least 173 days per year. Vehicle is responsible for 20 percent of deaths dustrial production, and 61 percent of emissions constitute the most important for children under age 5 in Jakarta (14L its banking and financial activities are source of harmful pollutants (44 per- Organic pollution has also contributed Local governments are often strapped for cash and do Growth rates are also extremely high in the rapidly not have the resourtc-es to provide even the most basic industrializing cities, located mostly in Southeast Asia environmenital services for their residents. In 1994, and Latin America. Cities in these regions offer several some 30 percenit of African urban residents were not advanltages over rural villages, havinig both more nu- served by municipal water services in any forml 24j. (See merous job opportunities and superior infrastructure Box 1.1.) and living conditionis. Even so, infrastruscture facilities, 6 WVIor/ld Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment to the declinie of coral reefs within comes primarily from the goveririneiit lure The W/orld Bank, Washington, D.C.. Jakarta Bay (5 i) [l6). In the Angke estu- and donor agencies, although in some 1994, P. 73 ary in Jakarta Bav, the mercurv content cases coinmunitv members match these 7. Ibid. in commercial fish species far exceeds investments. The communities them- x. op. cit. 6, p. g l. World Health Organization guidelines selves are responsible for operation and 9 .r Ostr, "Estimating the Health Effects for human consumprion o-i. mainteniance of the facilities 2, of Air Pollutants: A Method with an Appli- Jakarta's aquifer is also suffering from To protect natural resources, the gov- cation to jakarra," Policy Research Work- overextraction and salinization. At least einrient passed a 1992 'spatial plan- rug Paper No. 1301 (The World Bank. 30 percent of Jakarta's population relies ning" law designed to restrict Washington, D.C., 19941, p.44. on the aquifer for water. Because the development in environmentally sensi- 10. Ibid. p. 47. city lacks a system for registering and tive areas. The government has also controlling water extraction, more been actively trving to set emission 11. United Nlromsp (t I.N.), W1 orld UrsnL.z- water is withdrawn than is naturallv re- standards for cars and to introduce un- Neio YPropc 1995: Tr 1354 charged. Parts of the city have sunk 30 leaded gasoline. Already 2,1)00 taxis es or, 9, p to 70 centimeters in the past 15 years and buses in Jakarta run on com1pressed 12. K.C. Svaradimakrishrnan, Metropolitan due to Jand subsidence (1JS Urban ex- natural gas, and planners hope to ex- Management (The World Bank, Washing- pansion into the water catchment areas pand the program to 5.),000 vehicles na- ton, D.C., 1986), p. 197. southwest and southeast of Jakarta is tionally 21). The Prokasib (Clean River 13. Op. cit. 6, p. 7(). further threatening the aquifer. Program), a cooperative agreement be- 14. Op. cit. 2, p. 35. For Jakarta's 1.4 million poor, how- tweeen local communities and the gov- Ii. Tonimv Firm ever, the greatest environmental threats erniasent of Jakarta, has managed to iian andId gys ra Dhar- nitipatni. "The Challenges to Sustainihle still occur at the household and neigh- reduce the pollution of the Ciliwung Developmenit ini Jakarta Metropolitan Re- borhood level. One recent survey found River within just 3 years, from 1989 to gioii," Habitat Inter'national, Vol. 18, No. that in the poorest wealth quintile, 3 1 1992, although much renainis to be 3 11 994), p. 88. percent of households have neither a done (24). For Jakarta, continued invest- 16. Op. cit. 6, p. 91. piped water connection nor access to a ment in e nvironmenital managenment is private well, compared with 12 percent crucial if it hopes to contain and even . op. cit. 6 p. 91. for the city as a whole (19L In addition, reverse envirolinmental deterioration. 18. olin NMcBeth, "W.ter Peril: Indonesia's the poorest households were less likely Urba,nizarion Nlay Precipirirea Warer Cri- to have neighborhood waste collection References and Notes sv," Far Eastern Econormic Rev'iew (June and more likelv to share toilers and 1. The World Baink, World Dems'elopnment Re- 1. 1995), p. 62. have problenms with flies both near the port 199'4 (Oxford University Piess, Ness 19. Charles Smirladi et al., Housebold Ent'iroin- toilet and in food-liandling areas (2),. York, 1994), p. 164. meniital Problems in]Jakartai (Stockholm Jakarta officials have taken a number 2. Giles CIlrke, Siihaid Hadiwinomo, and Josel dEn. ronme,it Institute, Sto26kho. Swe- of steps to reverse environmental degra- Leitniairn, "Eiivironmenral Profile of dation. One of the most successful pro- Ilkarti," draft paper (The World Bank, 20. Ibid. p. 9. grams has been the Kampung Improve- Washiiigton. D.C., 1991), pp. I, 7. 21. The Jkirrta Regional Development Plan- ment Project, which has improved liv- 3 .Ibid., p. 7. iting Board, l.akamrta Our Ctoy: Imiprove- ing condirioris for mnore than 3.5 mil- 4 Other ata sources sh very difereni tim ment in ihr St.zdd trsl o Living (The lion people. The program has been hers tor itfint mortality rites. The Deitii- Jakarta Regiolial Developnient Pluaning duplicated in 2(00 cities throughout In- graphic Health Survev places the national Board. Jakarta, Iiidonesia, 1985), p. 1. donesia (2( i. In partnership with local Indonesia infailt niortality rate it 74.2 per 22. lohn Silas, "Governmnent-Community Parr- cominunities, the government identifies 1,001), vith 44.9 per 1,000 for akartr. The iterships in Katirpung Iniprosenment Pro- prioritv actionis such as water suppiv WX'orld Batik reports a n.irisiil iiif,iiit mor- grammnes in Surahaya," Enin tonment and networks, which include a standpipe Tairy rare at 64 per 1,000. Houwever, in ill Urbaniamiii Vol. 4, No. 2 (Ocrober for each 25 to 35 families. Other in- cases, data suggest that infaliti mortality in 1992), pp. 3i-36. proveinents include paved footpaths Jakarta is lower than iri ruril Itidonesia. 23. Sheila Tefft, "It Searclt ol Solutions for a with side drains, sanitarv facilities, gar- 5. Op. cit. 2, p. 35. Polluted Jakarta," Cbristian Science Momt- bage carts and waste collection stations, 6. The World Bink, IiioniesiaLi-ionoie,ii tir (Septetiher 19 1994) p. 10. and public health centers. Funding and Deielopmnenet: Cl'lenl'ges ,r thIe Fu- 24. Op. cit. IS, p. L)I. such as road ietworks aid wastewater treatment plants, tips, vast numbers of poor people still live in illegal lag far behind what is needed. The result is congested settlemenits with conditions nearly as dismal as those in city streets, mouiting air and water pollution, and other the poorest cities. Thus, residents of these cities face the citywide problems. In addition, although many urban "worst of hoth worlds": the enviroiinmenital problems dwellers in these wealtlier cities live in comfortable associated with econonic growth aid the Vet unsolved dwellings with piped water and( weekly garbage pick- problems of salnitation 1s5. (See Box 1.2.) Wrtm'ltl/ Re'osuorecs 1996-97 7 Cities and the Environment Box 1.3 What Is an Urban Area? By the year 2010. well over 3.7 billion nation of criteria, such as population For all these reasons, comilparisons of people will be classified as urban dwell- density, political function, or predomi- urbanization levels, urban growrh rates, ers-more people than inhabited the nant activity of the region. or city size may be highly misleading world just four decades earlier I). These definitional differences can lo0u In addition, while rhe United Na- While some of these urban dwellers will sklew inrernational comparisons. If the tions' urban popiulation figures used in be living in such megacities as Sao Indian government adopted Peru's defi- this report are the most e xtensive inter- Paulo, Brazil, and Shanghai, Chinia, the nition of urb an, India would suddenly narional data set available, theey shouil(d majority will live in a kaleidoscope of become one of Asia's more urbanized neverthieless be viewed only as best esti- settlements: from large industrial cities nationis (5). This, in turn, would change mates. to small mercantile towns and villages, the regional urbanization levels for While the term "urbata area" is tvpi- South Asia (6). References and Notes cally used as a synonyin for "city," the Even within countries, the definition I. Unijed N.oioiis (U.N.) PopLul.tioii Div- two are not the same. All cities are or- of urban may vary. In 1990, the World sion, Woril Urbanizatiohn Prospe its: The ban areas, but not all urban areas are Bank reported that China's urbaniza- 1994 Re/is/in (U.N., New York, 199i5, cities. "Urbani" is a statistical concept tion level julimped from 18 to 50 percent p 8,. defined by a countrv's government. A between 1 965 and 1 988 c). While some 2. Jorge E. H.irdoy and D)asid Satrertihwaiie. city, on the other hand, is more than of this urban growth could be attrib- tLIrhan Change in rhe T hird World: Are just large numbers of people living in oted to economic growth and migra- Recent Trends l iseful PoLinrer to rhe Ur- close proximity to one another; it is a non, it is largely explained by the bai[lre"' H,ibitat linterna,tioiial, Vil. complex political, economic, and social 10, No. (1986), p. 34. eitity. Cities around the world symbol- government adopting a new definition 3. 11 id. enty. of urbani in 1986, which included manv ize their nation's identity and political agrarian commullitiCS Since 1986 4. °r cil. ,. pp. 40, 4i-4,, 48-49. strength. Cities are also centers of eco- agr c nities Sne 1 ,O t.p4io8 nomic production, religion, learning, China has agami changed the definiton s. op. it. 2. and culture ~~~~to be more accurate-in 1990, C hina's h O i dcatuse. each country sets its owndefi- population was considered 26.21 per- ' O Becausc each country sets ItS owni defi- cen Ura 8.7 The WYorld Baik. WKor/ad Dere1loplmicult Rc- nition of "urban," there is a bewilder- cent utrbat Is. p:. rt i99i aoxford llnivtrsirv ireis, Newi itg array of definitions around the Defining urban is further complicated pork 1990)ord. i P8 world. Governments of small or rela- by the dynamic nature of cittes. In both tively rural counitries may sinaply de- developed and developing couintries, ur- 8. U itited Nititions UI.N.) Fconoin ic t ad SiiS ciiil Cotniitissioin fuir Asi. and rhe P:tcilic, clare one or more settlements urbata. ban activity tends to move beyond es- State of rbiztatimi ini Asia arnd tlsi Pa- regardless of size or function (2. In tablished urban boundaries. Depending ci/bc 1993 (LIN., New Yiork, 199.3). manay countries, the definition is based on the bountdary used, Tokyo's 1990 p 2-2. ota a threshiold number of inhabitants; population could range frona 8 2 mil- 9. Roinaij CvIriwsky, 'Toky0," (it/.c. Vol. when the population of a region ex- liot people (in the 23 wards of the cen- 10, No. I (Fehrui;ry 1993). p. 3. ceeds a certain threshold, that regiota is tral city) to 39.2 million people (in the considered urban (i0. This threshold National Capital Region) (9i. At night, n0 Uitied Namirns Centre Uor HuWiiirh Sette- ratages from a few hundred, as in Peru Tokyo's central city population may ac- Ghl Rpirepor on Human S.ittlle'enis and Uganda. to more than 10,000, as in tmally be nauch lowver, as conamuters 1996 (Oxfird liiiversiiv Pres', Oxiiord, Italy and Senegal (4i. Other goverta- leave the downtown area for their sutb- Uliiiied Kingdiimt. aiid New York, (996), ments base their definitiota on a combi- utrbati homes. p. 1-IS. The raipid growth rates of matla cities in developing Any such rankings andd conmparisons, however, Iust coulitries, coilibined with their hug1 e Population bases, be approached with caLItionl, because the POPLI latiena of are pushing Cities to unliprecedentedi sizes. In contrast to a given city depenids Otn how its bounlaries are cho- earlier in the century, most of the world's giant urban sen-for instaice, whiethier the historic citv hoLIndarv or glonleraltialls arc now and Will contilLue to be in the the bouLndlaries of the exteinded metropolitan region are developling world, used (2C). (See Box I .3.) O(ne coM1monly used naetric for measuring urban Table I. I shows the world's 25 largest cities and tleir growth is the "megacity, defined as a city with a recent gro\wtrh rares. \Vith a few notable exceptions, populatioai exceeding 8 imillion. In 1 950, jusr two siChl suchi as Dhaka, Banigladesi, anad l iagos, Nigeria, the nIlegacities existed: New York, with a populatiota of 1 2.3 aninual growthi rates of manly of these were relatively millio, and I Ondon, witl 8.7 million (2(6). Bv I990, modest during the early 1 99()s although it is unclear ther-e were 21 riegacities, 16 of thenm in the developing how niucli of this apparent slowdowin is dule to tile world 2-). In 201.5, there will be .33 megacities 27 in dispersioni of the population to areazs right outside offi- the developing world Ž. ciall IouLIdclries 8 Wonl/d Resources 1 9) 6- 97 Cities and the Environment Table 1.1 The World's Twenty-Five Table 1.2 Population in Cities with Largest Cities, 1995 More Than 1 Million Residents, by Average Region, 1950-2015 Annual Total Population in All Cities with Growth Rate More Than 1 Million Residents Population 1990-95 (population in millions) (millions) (percent) Region in millions) Tokyo, Japan 26.8 1.41 1950 1970 1990 2015 Sao Paulo Brazil 16.4 2.01 Africa 3 16 59 225 New York, United States Latin America 17 57 118 225 of America 16.3 0.34 Asia 58 168 359 903 Mexico City, Mexico 15.6 0.73 Europe 73 116 141 156 Bombay, India 15.1 4.22 North America 40 78 105 148 Shanghai, China 15.1 2.29 Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Los Angeles, Prospects: 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), pp. 12,14-17. United States of America 12.4 1.60 Beijing, China 12.4 2.57 settlellmenlts cai swell to huge proportions-beconiing Calcutta, India 11.7 1.67 Seoul, Republic of Korea 11.6 1.95 Cities UlltO theinscives. These ulllnntentled" cities, as Jakarta, Indonesia 11.5 4.35 they have been called, niay be rechnicallvy ith il the Buenos Aires, Argentina 11.0 0.68 boundaries of a metropolitan area but are bevond rthe Tianjin, China 10.7 2.88 Osaka, Japan 10.6 0.23 service doiiini or taxatioil reaclh of the local govern- Lagos, Nigeria 10.3 5.68 Tnent [;4). Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 9.9 0.77 Alonig with populationi growth have collie cha nges in Delhi, India 9.9 3.80 Delar;hi, Idistan 9.9 30 the physical dimensions of cities as tiey sprawl ilito Karachi. Pakistan 9.9 4.27 Cairo, Egypt 9.7 2.24 wider regions. Somzetiniies called "exteiided imetropoli- Paris, France 9.5 0.29 tan regions" or 'functional urbani regiois," these in- Metro Manila. Philippines 9.3 3.05 eIU(de smnallel- uLrban centers and eveni rural areas outside Moscow, Russian Federation 9.2 0.40 of the urban core whose populations aid activities MT Dhaka, Bangladesh 7.8 5.74 Istanbul, Turkey 7.8 3.67 clearly part of the functioning of the city Lima, Peru 7.5 2.81 Th is phrenomenon of urban sprawl h,is been espe- Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Urbaniza- ciallv nianifest in the lInited States. The traditional tion Prospects, 1994 Revision (U.N., New York, 1995), Table A.1 2, pp. 132-139, and Table A.14, pp. 143-150. dointoxvli has beeii replaced by urlban regions such as Silicon Valley in Califoriiia. wlhere enterprises are coii- ceiitrited alolng m1a or roads a1iid higlwayvs, tra nsforiii- Ntlalv Ililtei-iiieLilate-size cities niav ac 1ttall% he rrowv-l -any iitrndaesz iismy ta b rw ing the urbaiii hrandscape iiito a stril1g of 100-in ile nig faster oii average than the largest cities, at rates well " t, ci~~~~~tite. In1 tlzc developin1g wvorld, iii;iily cities renia;li over .5 pereniit per year. As a result, there Is a prolifera- compact because inf-rstruCture aid labor are still con- tion of what have b een called "miilloni cities" (with centrated in city centers and transportation a11 COIn- poPLilatiolns of between I milioil andl 10 nulliion) ii, munications systemis ar less developed w. Yet cities (See Table 1.2.) B 2015, there will be 516ofthesecities, sch as San Paulo Mexico City, Jakarta, and BombaX conipa-Lred wvith only 270 in 1 990. Snia ll cities, home to Lire all eqy erlen1ting Increalsing dlecntra;lliation. Wlile more thani half of the world's urban dwellers in 1 990, some expal1sio1 results frong tle slburbanizatio n are also experiencing exre-niely rapid POPU la tioii high-inconle groups, a large share can be attributed to growth ;2. These cities are often especially affected by atteimipts by low-inicomiie groups to escalpe the highi land inadequate investmlenlt in envirolnienital infrastructure pr-ices in the citv's core. The speed of this decciitralital- or services, because many cotiuitries di-rect their re- tnoln .1ad its spatial coifiguration vary greatly from city sources to the larger urban centers. to citvy Sonie of the liost rapid Lirbil growth is occ-urriig ill Sprawvl is not ioncomliitant with rapid Oplolationl distincr parts of cities-either within the officiall urban growth, howeve; altrhough it ml ay seemil rhar way ill a tea or on the periphery. The Urbaln friiige of lakarta, North America. Whereas Bangkok, Thailand, Manila, I]idonesia. for inst;ance, is growinig iiuchi faster than the Plhil ipplies, and Ja arta have spreadl like citics in N orrh city itself-in some areas at niearly I 8 per-cenit per year America, Shanghai, Clima, aiiid Scoul, RCpubliC of Ko- ( ;; Spontaneous, or squatter, sertleiileiits in particular rea, remain iii iclc more comipact. The densities in parts tend to grow nmuch faster thlan the rest of the city. These of Shanghai and C alcuItta, India, rminge between 80)) and Wuorll Resources 19')96-97 9 Cities and the Environment urbanization brings health and social benefits thatcould Table 1.3 Urban Versus Rural be achieved in rural areas onlv at far greater costs. The Demographics and Health in Kenya, data are sparse and not always reliable, but access to 1993 drinking water, sanitation, healtlh services, and educa- Urban Rural tional opportunities is often dranmatically higher in ur- Residents Residents ban areas overall than in rural areas. As a result, life (percent) (percent) expectancy is usually significantly higher and infant Household population with mortality significanitly lower in urban areas overall than no education in rural areas (39Y t40). These benefits, however, often do Female (6 years and above) 13.5 29.1 not extend to the poorest grouLps within a citv, as is Male (6 years and above) 7.0 18.2 described below. Household possessions and amenities Radio 67.7 48.1 Urbanization and Economic Growth Television 22.0 2.4 Electricity 42.5 3.4 The steadv increase in the level of urbanization worldwide Drinking water piped to residence 55.8 10.7 since the 1 90Ss also reflects, to a large degree, the enor- Flush toilet 44.9 1.6 imous chaniges in the nature and scale of ecotionolc activity Health of children worldwide. Urban growth is inextricablv liniked with eco- Mortality rate of children under nonlic growth, although it is not enitirely clear which fuels Infant mortality ratea 4545 956 which. Aggregate and per capita incomiies tend to be higher Percent of children between 12 in more urbanized regions of the world (41). and 23 months with all Cities provide a natural locus for economic growti. vaccinations 80.9 78.3 Commerce and induistry concenitrate in cities because of Underweightb 12.8 23.5 the economies of scale they offer. "Cities are extraordi- Maternal health narilv efficient," notes one commiientator. Thev "opti- Women receiving tetanus toxoid during pregnancy 92.9 88.8 xmize the use of human and mechanical energy, they dumenreceiving pregnancy 92.8 allow for fast, cheap transportation, they provide flex- Women receiving prenatal care e rv from a health providerc 97.6 94.5 ible, highly productive labor markets. They facilitate a Women receiving delivery care diffusion of products, ideas, and human resources be- from a health providerc 77.6 39.2 Total fertility rate 3.4 5.8 tween urban, suburban, exurban, and rural spaces" 421. Source: Institute for Resource Development. Demographic and Health In a self-perpetuating cycle, coinmmerce anid industry in Survey Data Archive. Columbia. Maryland. turn attract the ancillarv services needed to support Notes: a. Deaths per 1000 live births. Mortality rates by characteristics themn. Such interdependenicies give iurban areas a clear such as place of residence are based on the last 10 years prior to competitive advadntage for industry anid comnmerce; few the survey in order to ensure sufficient sample size. Mortality rates are based on a minimum of 500 live births. Industries can survive elsewhere (4;1. b. Underweight is defined as the percentage of children whose The efficiency inherent in Urban areas translates into height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-height z-score is below -2 standard deviations from the median of the International Refer- ma or gains i prodtivity. In developing countries, ence Population (WHO/CDC/NCHS). urban areas produce as much as 60 percenit of total gross c. Doctor, nurse, or trained midwife. national product withI Lust one third of the population 144,. These economies of agglonieration, as they are often called, are especially importanit when a city's economic 1,000 people per hectare, and in Bangkok and Seoul base rests on manufacturing. Yet cities have held their between 300 and 400, as compared with 70 or even allure, even flourished, when the economic base shifts fewer in most North American cities s As is discussed from manufacturing to services such as finance and in Chapter 3, "UrbaLn Impacts on Natural Resources," banking, as it has in much of the developed world. urban form has important environmental implications. Despite predictionis that cities would he rendered obso- lete by advances in global telecommunications, for in- stance, the opposite has happened. WHAT FUELS URBAN GROWTH? Indeed, many scholars argue that such econiomic changes are giving rise to a new class of "world cities" Cities are growing because they provide, on average, that are the nerve centers of an increaslingly global greater social and economic benefits than do rural areas. economv (45). And it is not just New York, Paris, Tokyo, (See Table 1.3.) The higher capital investment caused by Los Angeles, or other powerhouses of the developed 10 World Resourccs 1996-97 Cities and the Environment world that dominate this global scene. Cities as diverse between 40 arid 60 percent of annual urban populiition as Berlin, Sao Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok, Mexico City, growth in the developing world {il. Migration is ex- and BLudapest, Huungary, are emerging as world powers pected to be a major factor in the coming years in in their own right. Transformed into "traisinational regions with large rural populations, especially those spaces for econonic activity" i46), these world cities have where ruiral poverty is rampaut, as in Africa and parts more in comnion with each other than with cities within of Asia. their regions or natiolis. Despite the dual role of natuiral increase and migra- While these trends can bring enormous prosperity to tion, manv countries still tend to view urban growth as certain locales, thev also increase social and economic a "problem" of niigration alone. Concerned about bur- inequities. Globalism's sweep is far from uniform. As geoning populations, a number of governments in both Barcelona, Spain, and Singapore flourish, other cities, tie developed and the developing world have adopted especially old industrial or port cities such as Detroit policies to restrict the flow of migrants to cities. Few anid Liverpool, United Kingdom, are left further and Policies, however, have met with success. further behind. Disparities also increase among cities in the same countrv. Sao Paulo, for instance, has emerged Ing rural-to-urban migration are coniplex. Migranits are as a major bLSiliess and financial center at the expense not onlv pulled toward cities by the prospect of jobs and of Rio de janeiro, once the most important city in Brazil h A4-. Within cities as well, globalism exacerbates in higCher icomes, they are also pushed out of rurlll areas equalities, astedispariteswdeamong the icomes sch factors as poverty, lack of lnd, declining agr of hligh- and thwdsare wider cultural work, war, and faniine. The favelas (squatter ofhi andilow-wntag workeratoils. of these ecotiotiiic settlements) of Rio cannot le understood Withlout ref- The environmental1 implications of these econloniric errctoheLfudaaisyemnrrl ri , , .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~renice to the latifttEZtdia Iland svstenm in rLiriil hra7il, changes are significant. As cities compete with one landholdings concen- anothier to attract manufacttiring and other services, the wrich is har d by a rge bargaining chips are soinetlimes cheap labor and lax deIn to e to a n uani parta cor phe enviroiinenital conceris. Thus, globalization mav well household survival strategy, in wic faniilies mioiniamilze lead to greater environmental deteriorationi and aggra- v'ate existing ineqtuities of income and access to basic risk by placinig menibers in differenit labor markets (i4,. services (4X). Nor is migration alwavs permanent; many migrants circulate between Lirban areas and their rural home (is,. Considerable diversity also exists amolig migrants Migration and Natural Population Increase themselves, for instance, in their age arnd educ.ationl (is, In addition to economic activity, major demographic Various studies suggest that the vast majority of forces underlie Lirban growth. In the earlier waves of migrants feel that relocationi to the city' has improved industrialization, rapid urban growth was largely fueled their situation, even if not as milich as they might have by rural-to-urban migration. In the developing world hoped (-). In New Delhi, India, a survey of poor mi- today, however, the natural increase of the urbani popu- grants froiii rural areas found that their incomes were lation is at least as iniportant as migration (49). The high 2.5 times greater than they had been in the village, rate of natural increase in these cities, however, does primarilv because thev could find ahout twice as man' tend to follow niigration, because most migrants are of days of work in the citv (is). reproductive age. Another contributor to urban growth Other migrants, however, are unable to find work or is the reclassification of citv boundaries, which can are forced to take ill-paying or hazardourS jobs. Unable result in dramatic changes in urban size (io). to generate enough inconie to meet their basic nceds for The iniportance of migration varies considerably by food and shelter, thev join the ranks of the urbani poor. region, and migration flows in all directions, not just rural to urbal. In sonie countries, rural-to-rural flows may be of a larger scale than rural to urban Si). What Employment Opportunities is often overlooked is the role of migration in the growth Unemployment is a significant problem in most cities in of cities in the developed world, where fertility rates are developling countries, because the formal economies of relatively low. In the United States, muchi of urban Africa, Asia, and Latin America are unable to absorb change now under way sterns from the movement of the enormous influx of workers. Given the urbanizationI people from one city to another s2. rates these cities are now experiencilig, the demand for Figures on rural-to-Lirban migration are notoriously new jobs will be intense: Starting in 1 990, it is estimiated difficult to pin down, but it is believed to accounit for that an additional 35 million jobs per year will be WoJ7Idl Rcsources 1999-97 11 Cities and the Environment required to provide employlment to all new labor force million 71). In Asia, large decreases in the proportioni of participalits (59) the population living in poverty were reported for the As a result, a substantiall nuLimber of the developing rapidly growling economies, such as Malaysia, the Re- world's Lirbail poor make their living throLugh subsis- public of Korea, and Indoniesia 72). However, South tence activities or inforimial jobs-namely productionl Asia is expected to conltilnuc to hoLisc a large share of and exchang- outside of the formal market. These jobs the world's urban poor rLll the galmlut from01 providinig services such as garbatge Reliable data are lacking on the scale and intensity of collection anid domilestic help, to providing goods such urban povertv in Africil, although the proportion of the as food and building materials in small stores, to sniall- popLIlationI living below the poverty line is likely to have scale clothinig manufacturing. Inforimial jobs iiake tip a growni because of the region's poor macro-economiic estimated 75 perceilt of urban employniciit in many perfornce (7) The incidence of ruL-al povertv is still coulitries in sub-Saharan Africa and between 30 and 50 significantly highier- than that of urban poverty, i ut that percenit In Latin America emii iet. difference appeiars to be narrowing (-i). Debate oni the role of the so-called informal sector in Povertv has also risci steeply in the coulitries of natiolial econiomiiies is ramipanit (2' (). Until recently, Central and Eastern Europe as thev struggle with the inforimnal jobs have been viewed as Llisconnected fromi the transition toward a market economny ei. Cities that real" econiomiyv of a city, yet evidence suggests that relied heavly on industrial production are experiencig infor-limal jobs are well integrated and contribLite directly record numbers of unemployed as factories shut down to the urban economv as a whole e64l. In addition, a p led aiicl pr odLICttlOI IS CUrtallced seenilylgiv iiforimial jobs often have direct ties to a city's I ~~~~~~~~~~In Nortlh Americal ad( niiduistrl.al ELirope, most of thce formal enterprises. For instLnce, scavengers In Hanoi, population, and thLs imost of the povertv, has been Viet Nam, obtainL and clean chicken bones that end up c in parmciesIn tal as ilgi-picedCZICILIII tiple- conicentrated III urbaln areais sliice the beginninig of the n parmiiaces in Italy as high-priced calcium supple- Ientury Is . The chiaracteristics of urban poverty, how- ments e6S). ever, ire changing. As the mianufacturilng base of many Witho some exepth ions howev inhriitle jobsrte cities has decilined and the middle class has flecd to the t(o pay less well than formal ones and offer little security or benefits. In Latil Amilerica, iicomlies fr-omii informal suburbs urban poverty has becomeconcentratedin the jobs wvere on average at least 40 percent brelow those ninner cities and among ethnic miniorities, especially in earned In formailLl emiployienit; in the 13 countries stud- North America. (See BOx 1.4.) ied, the average incoile received by those emnloved Il In developed regios as well, uneployment is a in forma.l jobs w as \vel Ibelow (official poverty' lines c. ^ primary factor contributing to urban poverty. However, in contrast with cities in the developing world, the gro0wth in Lirban nilemiploymilent in cities in developed regEions is the result of a combilinatioln of slow macro- URBAN POVERTY ecOlOInoic growth, techinological change, export of Historically', poverty has been conventrated in rulrail manufacturing johs, and increases in the female labor areas. Yet as the bulk of the world's populatioii shifts forc r'ons me oppanufacturinig os are transported to from rural to urban areas, poverty is becominig an other regions, few opportunities are left for inner-city increasingly urban phenioniienon. The \Vorld Banlk esti- pior who tenid to be geographically isolated in the mates that in 1988 approximatelv onie quLarter of the urban core and are often uLinable to reach jobs in the developing world's absolute poor were living in uirbanl suburbs. Especially in iiner cities, the mismatch he- areas ef.) By the year 2000, ihalf of the developinig twveen the education levels of the residenlts and the levels world's absolute poor will be in urban areas i. Several needed for the locally available jobs greatly contributes factors, including structurLal adjustment programis, eco- to poverty. (See Box 1.5.) In New York City, 33,209 new noiic crises, aild mIassive rural-to-urban migration, jobs were created between 1980 and I 990(-nearly a 10 have conitr-ibuted to an increasing numibiier of urban poor percenit increase-but 162,7319 nianufacturing jobs since the I 980s ew were lost durinig that same period (5(6. Urban poverty is especially pronouniced in Latin Available poverty figures are likely to underestiniate Amierica. In this region, the absolute nuiber of urban the extent of urban poverty, because global data are poor already surpasses the numblher of rural poor -in). scirce. The issue is compliCrted by the fact that defini- Between 1970 and 1990, the numeliir of urban poor tions of poverty differ from countr-y to CoLuntry. In increased from 44 million to I1 15 nillion, while the addition, absolute poverty figures describe households numiber of rurail poor increased fronm 75 million to 80 whose incomiies fall below a set level, LIsually deteriined 12 W%`orld Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment URBAN VIEWPOINT Box 1.4 Sharing Responsibility for Inner-City Problems Protecting the environment has usually dency, rising crime, and public health in terms of broader regional or metro- meant halting the encroachment of de- problems too numerous to mention. politan-wide units. Here in the United velopment in pristine areas. And envi- There has been an unfortunate ten- States, that requires greater acceptance ronmental protection has most often dency in this country to blame these of mutual responsibility by local govern- been defined as something outside of, problems on the urban poor. But it is ments and increased cooperation across and mostly unrelated to, the concerns the sheer number of poor people and traditional jurisdictional lines. For ex- and interests of our cities ij. the density of poverty that have eviscer- ample, in the seven-county Minneapo- Those of us who have been grappling ated these communities and turned lis-St. Paul region in Minnesota, 188 with the problems of U.S. cities have thenm into places where there are few vi- municipalities have been pooling prop- been concerned with jobs, housing, and able businesses and no job base-where erty tax revenues since 1971. They have transportation. We have been con- there is virtually no chance to lift your- been redistributinig those revenues to cerned with public services-schools, self and your children to a better life. achieve greater parity in resources fire protection, law enforcement. With Spatial separation by income and eth- among jurisdictions. The city of Min- the exception perhaps of air pollution, nic group can spur environmental degra- neapolis, which was once a net revenue environmental concerns have been too dation. When better-off people abandon recipient, is now the region's largest net often perceived as a luxurv reserved for communities, thev also abandon their revenue generator. the suburbs. stake in the physical well-being of those No amount of enlightened regional At the same time, the poor, especially places. Thus, places where the poor and governance, however, can succeed oln- poor minority U.S. residents, have be- politically dispossessed live inevitably less we reduce concentrations of pov- come increasingly concentrated in inner become places where environmental ertv. We must dismantle the barriers cities. Once the anchors of the United problems are too easily ignored-where that separate poor minority people States' industrial manufacturing base, sewage systems break down, where from the rest of society. Those people inner cities are now paying the price of water purification is inadequate, where who live in these isolated urban pockets years of environmental abuse. Busi- vermin infest garbage-filled lots and in- must be enabled to move into the wider nesses have moved to the suburbs or vade dwellings, where children eat lead community where they can find jobs overseas and plants have been shut paint from walls in deteriorating apart- and gain access to better services. At down, leaving behind "brown- ment buildings. the same time, these distressed commu- fields"-empty buildings on containi- We are beginning to understand in the nities must be restored as places where nated lots that no one wants to United States that withdrawal from the people of all ethnic groups and income develop. This legacy of industrial pollu- cities is no answer. Middle- and upper- levels can choose to live-because there tion contributes to the poverty in these income families may flee to the sub- is decent housing, because the streets communities by imipeding revitaliza- urbs, but the problems of the inner city are safe, because the schools are good, tion; it leads to communities that liter- are sure to follow them. because there are jobs, parks, libraries, ally cannot sustain themselves. The problems of the inner city may and other amenities that make urban Clearly, environmental concerns are follow in the form of increased public living attractive. In a diverse commu- critical to the future of our urban com- outlays for welfare assistance, indigent nity where everyone has a stake, envi- munities. Today in the United States, as health care, and public safety, draining ronmental concerns are addressed and in other countries, many of us are wres- scarce resources from other needs- the quality of life improves. tling with the concept of "sustainable schools, parks, libraries. And they may -Henry Cisneros communities," trying to develop new follow in the form of expanding concen- ways to integrate environmental con- tric waves of crime, drugs, and violence cerns with issues of economic and so- that spill over into neighboring areas, Henry Cisneros is Secretary of the U.S. cial equity. eroding their stability and threatening Departnment of Housing and Urban The U.S. experience has shown all too other, more removed areas in turn. Development. Washington, D.C. clearly that while social and economic Evidence has showvn that there is a di- divisions are inevitable, they are poten- rect correlation between the economic References and Notes tially devastating when they become health of greater metropolitan areas 1. Box is excerpted froni a speech presented spatially fixed in urban settings. When and the economic health of central cit- ar the Second Annual World Bank Colnfer- poor people become concentrated in ies. When central cities flourish, sur- ence on Environmentallv Sustailable De- precisely defined geographic areas, their rounding communities flourish as well. velopment, Septeinber 19, 1994, problems are sure to grow almost expo- Where central city economies stagnate Washingion, D.C. nentiallv. We have experienced this first- and decline, the economies of surround- hand in our most populous cities, ing greater metropolitan areas stiffer. Yet where the concentration of mostly mi- most cities remain politically divided nority poor in inner cities has been ac- from their surroundinig communities. companied by soaring unemployment, Part of the solution to the problems increased and prolonged welfare depen- our cities face is to think of governance \\W or1t Rcsourcses 1 991_ 97 13 Cities and the Environment by how muchn money would hypothetically be required more likely to face pressures that either contribute to or to buy a basket of basic goods and services. Poverty exacerbate conditions of poverty (X21 iS ). Women face a lilies, however, are ofteni set unlrealistically low. In some number of social barriers that limit their access to couLitries, the poverty line is set at the same level for incomiie-earning opportunities. In many countries in the both urban and rural areas, not taking into accounit the developing world, for instance, girls and women still do higher costs of living in cities. not receive the same amount of schooling as do men (841. Nor can poverty be adequately described as just a Within poor households, girls and women often receive lack of econonmic resources or access to basic needs. less food than males and inconme-earning adults (xsi. In Poverty also involves relative deprivation or inequality coLlintries where womeln do not have the right to owni in access to income and miaterial goods anid serv- property or gain access to credit, sudden loss of a ices-anid in1 most coulntries, icoine inequialities are partner or job cani leave the houIsehold without anv wider in the city hanl in the countryside. Another miieans to stay afloat. shortcomi-niig of inicomie-based mieasures ot .poverty is Children are also especially vulnerable to poverty. that they do not describe the nunibers of people who According to World Bank estimates i the year 2000 hover juSt above the poverty line anld who cai easily be hAlf of th hildret bornl in ulrban areas in developin g throwin into poverty hv any number of setbacks, such I wIl be in poor families %6. Child poverty i as tne loss of a lob or s'uddeni llless (s8i~.cuirc i IIi stronglv self-perpetuating. Poor children are more likely Certain g-roups within cities-iii particular, women, to be underweight and malnourished and to suffer ill childi-eii the elderv, nmigrants, aind minorities-are tob newgltadmliushdrdroufril children, theelerly, igrant,and inoriteshealth and earlier death than their wealthier counter- parts (87). Many poor houseliolds rely on child labor for survival, yet this work is often at the expense of school- ing and the health of the clild, makinig it difficult for the next generation to escape from poverty. An increas- ing number of clildreli are also facing new danigers iassociated with homelessiness and street life-an esti- :,~! m iiiated 100 million cllildren struggle for survival daily on citv streets S!) iX91. - . I ~~~~~~~Ho'useholds bieaded by womieni teild to be dispropor- ,,:. ',, , :l:!l' :::!t1s 6 7 - 3 tionately poor, and their proportion appears to be gr-ow- ingo especially in large urban areas 1 ()) (')i. In poor households in the developing world, women often take oil the triple role of incoine eariling, clild rearing, and houselhold Imianagemi-nent (92T. When wvom1eln 111USt spelid - ~~~~ a signiificant proportion of thieir timne collecting water or fuel, they have less time vaillable for income-earning rativities. However, the iincrease in feniale-headed households has positive aspects as well. loor hotise- 1 ; _1holds may be better off when headed by women thani i;men , 31. Numerous studies have shown that womeni and 3| ^ i childreni in female-headed households tend to have bet- ter diets than those in male-headed houscholds of simi- lar incomes, and children are less likely to be withdrawn from school at an early age 94). Environmental Implications of Urban Poverty The urbanization of poverty has implicationis for the urban environmenit and quality of life. For one, the Relative deprivation. hI hItost coiinit,itS incme, ineietialities afe urbani poor bear the greatest burden of urban cnviron- mnute app7oiei?t in the city tthal ti ti 0Ll1tlVM. Iit Naiuhi mental risks because of the situations in which they are (cbo vc) inuO ut/W CtleS, the ;)ou l IvtO11 lve lQ017/IS/lCtO tc IVod/t1y. forced to live-whether in the sprawling squatrer settle- 14 World7 Resources 1990-97 Cities and the Environment ments of developing world cities or in the blighted urban given housing security, these same individuals often centers of Europe and North America. beconie substantial agents for environmental improve- Throughout the cities of the developing world, any- menit. where from 30 to 60 percent of a city's population lives Similar trends are evident for the poor who reside in in substandard housing (9s). Unable to afford even the many of the thriving cities of developed regions. Al- lowest-cost housing, many of the poor build their own though the environmental health threats they face pale makeshift shelters oLt of cardboard, plywood, or scraps in comparison with those experienced by their counter- of metal. Overcrowding increases the risks of airborne parts in developing regionis, their burden is excessive infectionis and accidents. Many poor neighborhioods are nonetheless when compared with circumstances of the often unserved by water and sanitation facilities and wealthier residents of the same city. garbage collection. In sonie cases, local governmenits are Manv of the urban poor lack access to safe and unable to pay for extending services to these regions; in affordable housing. Extended families crowd into one- others, they are reluctant to do so because such action bedroom apartments, often with rodent infestations, might be seen as conlferrinig legal statuIs on what thev gas leaks, and broken heaters. In the United States, consider illegal settlements (9). Whatever the reason, the elevated blood lead levels, often from dilapidated apart- lack of services increases the risk of initestinal infections imient buildings with peeling lead-based paint and poor and other communicable diseases (97. In Manila, nior- venition, threaten the well-being of more than 1.7 tality rates for infants are three times higher in the slums million children. The most vulnerable are low-income than in the rest of the city, rates of tubercIlosis are nine imiinority children in central cities 1lO71. Cold, damp times higher, and three tinies as maniv childreni stiffer honmes impair the health of poor Lirban dwellers. In from malnutritionl 19X). Britain, hypothermia results in approximately 30,000 the urbanl poot are also forced to make trade-offs to 60,000 excess winter deaths eacih year, especially between affordable housing anrd environmental safety among the poor aild elderly who live in poor-quality bewe afodal h.Ili a,devriietlsft housing 1(io8s. As is discuss'ed in(.hapter 2, "Urban and protection i(99. SqLuatter settlements are often lo- h cated on land nlo one wants-whether on flood plains Environment and Human Health, some of the major or on steep hillsides, where they are vulnerable to threats to the health aiid well-being of tie Lirban poor flooding and mudslides. are emerging from the social environment of cities. , ; . . . .................. In the United .States, studies emerginig from the new Proximity to induistrial facilities, often the result of the fIeld , "nvir talesustuice sugiges thahardu desire of the poor to live near places of employment, poses seld of ien c vroitimeintal 'tusticei suggest that haardeLIS another set of risks. The 1984 accident at the Union waste sites, inciierators, and p01l.tng ldustries are ,. , ., . . , ,. ~~~~~~~disproportionately located near poor aild miniiority coni- Carbide factory In Bhopal, India, caused 2,988 deaths and at least 100,000 inijuries, affectling mostlv residents of the munities, whether urbani or rural, althOigh these studies shant\.towns iieiir the chenilcal factory (i .oo). are controversial mom Methodological differences aside, The townsonear theo chemicalbtfatory local enviro nmthere is little doubt that poor people and mi-norities are The poor also conitribute to local environmental far more likelv thani their wealthier counterparts to live degradation, mainly becaulse the city fails to provide L, e ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~i b liEghgted ileighborhoods niear iuldustria I sites, exposed them with the necessary services. If solid waste is iOt to a variety of pollutants. collected, for instance, people must dispose of their own garbage and often do so in inappropriate dumping areas (]o(). Denied access to suitable land for housing, families may settle in protected areas of the city, on fragile ecosystems such as wetlands i02). Disposal of human As centers of population and human activities, cities wastes from the over-water settlements in cities such as consume natural resources from both near and distant Salvador, Brazil, and Manila can be a major source of sources. They also generate waste that is disposed of water contamination mooi. When low-income groups both inside and outside the city. In the process, urban engage in environmienitally degrading activities, however, areas generate environmental problemiis over a rainge of it is usually b ecause they' have no alternative m0)o (m0i). spatial scales: the household and workplace, the neigh- The poor are understandably reluctanit to invest borhood, the city, the wider region, and the globe i io). heavily in improving the household or neighborhood Urban environmental problems also create a range of enviroinienit siiice they could be evicted at any given social impacts. Thev may impair humani health, cause timie (I1)6). As is described in Chapter 5, "JUrbani Priorities economic and other welfare losses, or damage the eco- for Action," and Chapter 6, "City and Coinmunity: systems on which both Lirban and rural areas depend. Toward Environimiienital Sustainability," however, once Most urban environmiental problems entail all three of Worldt Resousrc-es 1996-97 15 Cities and the Environment Box 1.5 Detroit Battles Long-Term Effects of Suburban Flight In 1915, Hcnirv Ford's Model T auto- Current statistics are a stark contrast. struction allowed plants to be located mobile rolled off the firsr moving assem- In rhe past two decades, Detroit has at grcater distances froin materials i n). blv line and catapulted Detroit, lost 32 percent of its population. The Today, the lack of public transportation NMichigan, into international renown as suiburban exodus of jobs and workers facilities limits job opportunities for in- the birthplace of modern industrial pro- has trapped Detroit in a downward eco- ner city residents. Four in ten Detroit duction. The assemblv line revolution- nomic spiral, leaving the local govern- residents between the ages of 18 and( 65 ized manufacturing. When Ford melit witlhout sufficient funds to do not have a car anid are unable to announced that workers woul(d make manage the city. In addition, the per- reach the jobs located primarily in the $5.00 for an S-hour shift-in contrast centage of poor has more than doubled, suburbs (ItL to the standard wage of $2.75 for a I 0- from 14.9 percenit in 1970 to 32.4 per- Many other cities in both the LUnited hour shift in the countrvside-crowds cent in 1990 (6). Infant mortality rates, States and the United Kingdom face of eager workers lined up outside fac- though far below their 1920 level, are similar problems of suburban flight and torv doors i). Detroit's population three times higher in Detroit (21 per industrial downsizing. While in 195(0, quadrupled in onlv 20 years, from 1,000 live births) than in the neighbor- 60 percenit of the U.S. urall population 285,704 in 190(0 to well over 1 million ing suburb of Warren (7 per 1,000) (-a lived in central cities and 41) percent in hv 192 1 ln (3. Bv 19.50, Detroit's popu- The murder rare has risen steadily, from the suburbs, by 1 99), the proportions labtion WilS a st 1 Detritn popu- 32.7 per 100.00 population in 1970, to were reversed-60 percent lived in the anosnwas Walmot 2 million. tinspied by 45.7 in 1980, to 59.3 in 1991 s) (9! (ltuL suburbs and 40 percent in central cities planners were buiibding roads and Detroit also faces its share of orban I ii. Yet many of these cities havc manl- houses for a eity of 8 million a41 environmental problems. Neighbor- aged to temper the negative impacts of Forty-five years later, hiowever;, De- hoods are lined bv abandoned buildings these trends through new' partnerships troit' population is again hovering and garbage. One of the most pressing with the private sector, with neighbor- problems is the emergence of "brown- ing suburbs, or through commnunity around the I miliso mark. Ironically, field" sites-land and buildings con- leadership. Newark, New Jerseyv for cx- taminated bv previous industrial ample. has activelv recruited recvcling new urban transition: one of suburban activitv that now stand emptv. While industries to the ciry, promoting eco- flight. In 1911, one writer aptly oh- the presence of brownfields does nor nomic developnment and jobs at avail- served that the city had "the possibility translate into huriian exposure to toxics alble sires zoned only for industrial use of almost unlimited expansion, with or land contamination per se, it does de- (14. The city of Leicestcr, Enigland. is us- ealsy access to places of labor. It is sig- tract from the economic value of the ing a grant from the national govern- nificant that practically all the automo- land. Companies are hesitant to invest ment to clean up vacant land in the citv bile factories, which have been built in the land because of expensive center anid is broadening the city's econi- within the last five years, are located on cleanup regulations. omy witlh the addition of a new re- the outskirts, where before there were Further exacerbating the chasm be- searclh science park iisi Jacksonville, great tracts of vacant land" (i. tween inner citv and suburb is the lack Florida, has consolidated its citv and This suburban flight has brought of an adequate public transportation county governments enabling the citv to along with it a new set of urban prob- system. Before World War 11, most fac- share resources wvithin the region uJ,, lems. far different fromii those Detroit tories were located along railroad lines, Detroit, however, has failed to attract faced ar the dawn of the Automobile and workers' homes were clustered new businesses, such as bankinig or Age. In 192(0, with waves of migrants near train stations. As motor vehicles other service industries. Attempts at es- seeking jobs in the new automobile in- became less expensive, however, indus- tablishing metropolitani-wide planning dustry, the city lacked adequate shelter tries began to use trucks instead of have failed, and polirical decisionmak- for m(ore rhan 30,000 families, trains to move materials. Freeway con- ing often breakls down inrto debares be- these im1pacts, either directly or indijrectly. For examipie, a citv's size and rate of growth, inicomie, local gtogra- r-1ball air pollrtion hals a Lirect im1pact on h Linlall h', cliniate, anld institui[ional capalhiIities. Especially health, iniceasinig the inicidenice of respiratory disease, where local governimnilts are weak or underfinanced, Its inimpacr on rhe economiiy is mia inly indirect, arising rapid econiomiiic or piptilation growth can exacelrbate largely fromi prodLIcti vity losses dine to ill lealtlh 'ln. these problemns. Environimental managernent tenldis to b)e n)iore diffieult in very large cities. For one, the Determinants of Urban Environmental financial resontces needed to provide services to tells of millions of people alre daunting. Compounding rhe Problems idifficulty is the fact that the largest cities ofteni are mladle Environniental prolblens vary from city to city anid nLpof mllal local rtirisdictionis witlh overla ppinhg respoin- r egion to region and are influenced b)y suclh variables as sili lities i 1t) e It 16 World Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment tween the wvhire suburbs and the black 19ia, 38th edition (U.S. Governineiit 12. UIritred States (U.S.) Bureau of rhe Census. inner city. Whereas in 1950. polities Printing Office. Vashiiigton. D.C., 1916), County and Cit's Data Book: 1994 (U.S. were *dominated by a strong Demo- p. 40. Governmelit Printing Office, Washington. wvere donminited bv a strong Demo- cranec party and Active labor unions the 3. Op. -it. 1, p. 106. D.C. 1 994), pp. 75, 764. active engagement of civil societv in 4. Ed Hiisroles, "City Life, Scene,, Feelings," I I. David Ruisk, Thin.kinig Regionially. government is sorelv lacking 1i1) in Detroitt Livies. Robert H. Mast, ed. Stretching Central Cities," in The State of The election of a newx mavor in 1994 (Temple Lniverstir l'res, PIiil.delphia, tbe Americant Communtity: Entpoueernnent has htought sonic hope to the city. 1994). pp. 156- 157 fi,r Local Actionr, Roben H. McNulty, ed. Spurred by the belief thait the citv gov- 5. Myron E. Adams%. "Detroir-A Ciry /P,Wrttiers for Livahle Communittities, Wash- tackle Detroit's ills.on Aswake," Suriev (August 5, 19 11), as re- iitgtonD.( D... 1994), pp. 42-43. ernmient caninot tackle D)erroit's nis on erntseon the cannot 's office is vw orkin priiired in Detroit Perspectlives: Cross- 14. Newark Public Inforitation Office its owen, the miayor's office is working ts. Wilma \VWoid. (NPIOI. "Cirt of Newark to Attract Recy- to facilitate partnerships with commu- ed. (Wayne State University Press, Detroit, cliitg Businesses to 'Planet Newark?'' press nity tmemnbers and private businesses. In Michigaii., 1991), p. 289. release (NPIO, Newirk, New Jersey, Jlne addition, Detroit recently, won a $1(00 6. United States (U.S.) Bureau of the Ceiisii, 13. 1994), pp. 1-3. miillioni urban redeveloptnent grant Piii'ertv in,, U' [(nitd ealies 1992 (U.S. I S. Depirtiineiti of the Fns ironnient, City frotia the national govertnieint to en- Governmncitr Prinirng Office. %X%tshirigroi Challenge: Partnershtps Regenerating Fng- courage tiew busitnesses to move to the D.C_ 1992). p. 46. (mnd's Urbani Areas (United Kitngdoin De- central city Ix1. 7. Office of the State Registrar arid Dtvisiin partment of the Ettvirotittent, London, The zone marked for renewal encom- of Health Staristics, -T,ible 7: lhilitt 1994), p. 12. passes the far east side of Detroit, Deiths. Live Births aitd lnTtailt De.ath through the Woodward corridor and Rates: Selected Michigan (lities, 1992 and 16. Op. cit. 1, Pp. 48-49 into southwest Detroit 19c. Median fam- 1993," unpubisched dita (M,iciigait De- 17. Hatik V. Savitch and Paul Katitite Urban ilv income in the zolce is under $10.300 partittetit ol Pitblic Healih, Grand Rapids, Mobilizatioii of Private Capital: A Cross- a year. and 47 percent ofresidentslivelMichigan. 19931. Natioi,l Cisnipa rison," Occ;tsion.tI Ptper za yeari and 47 percent of r-esideiits live Seie No' WorwWlo nefa below the poverty litie (20(. The redevel- s. United States oU S.) Bureati of the CeTistis,. Series No 3 tWoodtosvWtltn nterns- .Statstcal fitr,it o thet lttedStaes,tiotta Cetiter toir Schoila rs, Wash ingtiii, opmtnt proposal covers a range of ac- 19-2 93rd editoil (U.S (iovernnieiit D.C.,1994), p. 2n. tivities from jol) tsraning to buil(ling Pointing Office, Washinigtoii, D.C.. 1 972), IS8. John 1Lippert atid Roger Cliesley, Juist a renovarion to classes on paretnthood p145. Niiodest $2.2-Billioit Proposal." Detroit [21). Bv the year 200)5. Mayor L)ettiis 9 l. United State, [U.S.) Bureau cit the Census. e Net' and Frce Press (No'etnber 1 3. Archer hopes to create 5,800 new jobs Statistical Abstr.act ,the United St.tes. 19941, p. IF. in the area ,22L Cooperative ventLires be- / 91). 1 02nd editiiini (U.S. (.overtitient 9. 19 foiL tween banks, schools, and aOLto compa- Printing Oftice, Washington. D.C., 1981), tites are expected to puInp an additiotial p. 175s. 20. Op. .-t. 18, p. 4F. $1.9 billion into the cotoimunitv over I 0. Unired Stares i U.S) Bttre.iu of the Cetistis. 2 1. Sain Walker, "Detroit Battles Decay. Job- the next If) vears and generate at le,sst St.tti,ct,l Abstract o/ the Utieild States. le6sness in tUiltim.ire U.S. Tesr uf Re- 3,275 mnore jobs (2 it. 199i. 113th editiot iLI.S. Government nesval," Christian Science Monttor Printing Olfice, Wasqhingron, D.C., 1993), IFebriL.try 9, 1993), p. I8. References and Notes P. I95 2. Op. cit. 18. 1 Airlitir Nl. Woodford, Detroiet: Apn(rwn 11. Episcpal DLiocese otlMichigin. "Ihe 31 Op it 21. I. An i-e R itnaI.Woo(oed, Detroit:nei-al H4ertc.in Emerging Pattern: A Regia.li Perspc- L½ banZ R civitss.wg,i (Ciiiiti neiir.t I Hentel-ge. riye," is repriTIted in Detroit Pi'rspectses;: Inc., Tulsa, OklIa honma. 1 9791, ps. 91 . :Ci,rossro,ids apid Terztig Points. Wi)nma 2. llirte(l States ( U.S.I Bureaiut if rhe Cenviis, Wood, ed. I Wayne State Ui.iiversitv Press, Slt,itstz,al Abhstra.if ./the Umiled Staltes, Detroi NI ichigai, 1 99 1 , pp.544-54s. Iniconme InI poor cities, and partictilarly their poor neighbor- Onle of the ilost inliportant deter-milialits of a c*itvs e:livi- hoods, the imost tlireateniig enevtroninieiital problems ronlelta l pr-oblemiis is its incomlie level. As the wealth of z3 arc LISLIal ly those close to iolnie I 14I. The dangers of eitv grows, iluan types of eivit-oniietital degradation first expostire to elivirotinlelltal risks are high, especiailly for iiicreaise and then eventually diminish. Other environi- woinieli atd childrrcH, Ina .dequate hoLsehold water S11p- mlental problems increase withi wealth. (See Figure 1.3.) plies alre typically iiiorc crucial to people's well-being The inicomie level at which a City undeL-goes these than pollLuted waterways. There is often imore cXposurc claiaiges differs videly. \'astlv different envirtonlIlaeIital to air pollution in siniokv kitclienis thain outdoors. Ctonditionis Can lie foutnd in cities of compara ble wealth. \X/lste aCcuniulating, ulnCollected, In the neighiorhood Policies, as well as demiography iand geogr.aphiy, caii poses illore seriotIs problemns than the waste at the city mnake ain enorilloiis differeiice, dumps. I-I uman excreta is fre(luelitly the mlost Critical World R( sotrtccs 19996(-)7 17 Cities and the Environment pollutant, and unsanitary conditions in the hoine aiid Consumed aid greenihouse gases emittedto support even neighborhood are generallv more of a thl-eat to health the cleanlest cities in developed counltries are, on a per than industrial pollution, cipita basis, far greater than those associated with the These problems, so prevalent in cities in the develop- poorer cities of developing regiois. Indeed, the largest ing world, stem frommvriadcaLises, including the inabil- per capita urban con1tributors to global environmental ity or unwillingness of local goverinients to provide for problenis are the wealthy, living preponderantly in the basic needs of citizens-whiclh in turin stems froml a lack urbani areas of the developed world. of revenue-generating capacity. Another key factor is the Not confronlted with the direct impacts of their ac- poor's lack of access to suitable land for housing. tivities on the global environment, wealthy cities and As income increases, urban households and cities as countries renid to have fewer incentives to addrcss them. a whole consuine far more resources, suclh as energv In mauilifacturiig, for example, relatively little progress water, and building materials-and generate far more has been iiade in introducing "clean" productioll in the of certain types of wastes. Yet the rich devote part of broadest sense of the termi or in shiftliig from the linear their wealth to measures that protect thiemi fromil enlvi- ima Iterial flows that chiaracterize most modern technolo- roiniental hazards. The problems close to hlomiie are the gies to rhe closed cycles that mrnanys advocate (l I i). As first to improve as wealth inicreases, genierally because with global wzariimig, the costs are often seen as too they are the most threateninig ant] requlire cooperationl uincertain or too distanit to compel action nlow. oni onlv a relatively small scale. However, while these In its broad outlines, the transitioni sumllinarized improvements redduce personial exposure, thiev ofteni above suggests an association amiionig a city's wealth, its simply shift the problem elsewhere. Waterborne sewage environmenilt, anid the health of its citizenis. Generally, sysrells, for example, reduce personal exposuire to fecal the poor create enviromilenital problems for themseives material. However, if sewage is discharged withouit aind thieir neighibors, while the wealthy create problems treatment, it can lower the quality of a city's waterways for a wider public. and strain water supplies. Electr-icity is a cleani fuel where it is used, but electric power plants cani be an Natural Features important source of amblient air pollutioni The niatural featurcs of a citv anad its surroundinigs-its ThLis, even as household and neighborhood environ- mental problems recede from prominence for a growing deranso t he atu re al prob- number of a CitV's population, citvwide anid regional lems. Clate or tance, dtermin ic dIsa lenis. Chinate, for Inistance, dererm'iles wvh'ch cl'as problems, such as ambient air pollution, water pollu- s ^ ^ ~~~~~~~~~~~vecto's canl tlhrive. london has lieeil spar-ed froni nia- tion, and hazardous waste generation, miLv increase. LI laria niot because of ItS weailth bhut because It is too cold These problems tend to be severe In rapidly induLstrial- fOr the mosquito veor to survive Mexico City and Los izing cities of the developing world and in the transition I AngXeles are especialli pla1gued bN air p ollutionl not only, economies of Central and Eastern Europe. wlhe-e indtis- from the number (f cars per capita-associated with trial activity often occurs withlout adequate concerni for income-buit also because thev are bounded b y moun- its environmental implications. (See Box 1.6.) Lack of tains that prevent dispersal of air pollutants Cities in investment in urbai Infrastructure, suclh as Increased cold regiois oftei conlfroit air pollution pro(blems stenii- road networks and sewage treatmenit plants, and weak ming from eniergv use for domestic hcinlig, especiallv environmental protection laws witlh lax enforceilient, wlhere low-Luality coal is used, as in northerni ( China and exacerbate these probleiiis. E asterni Europe ( 1i(I. In high-income cities, such as those in Europe and When natural featur-es are combined witlh the level North America, manv of the worst city-level probleins andl type of econiomic activity they can be used to have been addressed. For instance, malv cities in the predict wlhichi types of problems are likelv to be severe developed world have imiproved the qtiality of their in differelt tvpes of Cities (I ). For exaiiple, air pollu- ambienit air and water over the past decades. A weealthy tion problemns trend to rise with temper-ature extremes. city can more easily afford the public finanice anti ad- In cold areas, iore fuel is used for heating; in warm, ministration needed to regulate the more perceptible sunny areas, contributions to ozoine formation iiicrease forms of pollution. ovving to the release of hydrocarbons and nitrogeni But while the ambienit enviroinmenit of high-inconme oxides, particulalyv fromll motor vehicle fuel. Air pollu- cities may actually be more benign in term1s of the health tioin also rises with inconme level IcCause, ilS is described impacts of pollution, these cities exert a far greater toll above, levels of car use, industrial production, and fuel on the regional and global enviroiinment. The resources consumption are higher in wealthier cities. 18 World Resotirces 1 99'(_97 Cities and the Environment Figure 1.3 Environmental Indicators at Different Country Income Levels, 1980s A. Population without B. Urban Population without C. Urban Concentrations of Safe Water Adequate Sanitation Particulate Matter (percent) (percent) (micrograms per cubic meter of air) 100 100 1\8001 90 90 1,600 80 80 1,400 70 70 1,200 60 60 50 50 1,000 40 40 800 30 30 600 20 20 400 10 10 200 0 0 0 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) D. Urban Concentrations of E. Municipal Wastes F. Carbon Dioxide Emissions Sulfur Dioxide per Capita per Capitaa (micrograms per cubic meter of sir) (kilograms) (metric tons) 60- 800- 18- 50- 700- 1 6 40 ~~~~~~~~500- 12- 30 400 1 8 20- 3006 200 4 1.00 1,00 0,00 10) 2 100 1.000 10000 100,000 100 1,000 10,000 100.000 100 1.000 10,000 100,000 per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) per capita income (U.S. dollars, log scale) Source: The World Bank, Wormd Development Report 992(The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), Figure 4, p.1 1. Notes: Estimates are based on cross-country regression analysis o data from the 1980s. a. Emissions are from fossil fuels. The Brown Agenda rthan, say, the destruLCtion of tropical forests, and in Althugh ost f th word'spopuatio wil soo be immiiediate human termis, they m-ay be the MOSt uirgent Alhvinghi deeopin ofteworld'ctis, p ulthei enirlsonm ena of all wvorldwide environmental problemis d1221. This Is problemsn meeostproinen inothes cities, thae ofternnbeena not to arguie for less attenitio)n to global concerns, but croblnispic ously rnleti hscte aeotnbe for the recognitioni that urban and global concerns are coniSPICUOLsly absent from the global environmental ageida. Inideed, over the past two decades the global ilitertwined and must loth Ie addressed This section agenda has shifted away from local anid regional prob- focLses on the "brown" problemsso proinent in many lems such as air pollution and inadequate water supplies of the world's cities. toward vast global concerns such as ozone depletion, climate change, and the loss of biological diversity (I W8 an Aware of this disconnect between the "green" agenlda One of the greatest threats to human health in the and the problems confronting cities, a number of re- developing world is the lack of adequate water and searchers, international donor agencies, and nongov- sanitation services. The International Drinking Water ernmental organizations over the past few years have Supply and Sanitation Decade brought significant pro- advocated a renewed focus on the "brown" gress-the number of urban residents with access to an agenda-that is, the problems of pollution, poverty, and adequate water supply increased bv approximately 80 environmiental hazards in cities (ii') (120) (1). As one percent-but those gains were overshadowed bv rapid scholar noted, "The adverse effects of household air- population growth. In 1994, at least 220 million people borne and water-carried wastes on child mortality and still lacked a source of potable water near their homes female life expectancv are of no less global proportion (i2i). (See Table 1.4.) World Resouirces 1996-97 19 Cities and the Environment Box 1.6 Pollution and Health in the Transition Economies One of the primary challenges for ur- lead and nitrogen oxides as more peo- sometimes exceed 40 micrograms per ban areas in transition economies is to ple gain access to cars. Between 1986 deciliter, especially in city centers with clean up the pollution resulting from and 1993, per capita car ownership in- heavy car traffic (ii). Bv comparison, in decades of uncontrolled industrial pro- creased bv 34 percent in Hungary and Vancouver, Canada, where unleaded duction n u. Since World War 11, these 64 percent in Poland (s (6). Many cars gasoline is mandared, average blood lev- countries have promoted heavy indus- are old and inefficient. In Katowice. for els among 2- to 3-year-olds is roughly try, a resource-intensive and highly pol- instance, 75 percent of lead emissions 5.3 micrograms per deciliter. luting economic sector. The lack of come from cars that are 10 to 30 years High levels of air pollution have also sufficient environmental regulations old and still burn leaded fuel 7). been linked with acute and chronic ill- and incentives to conserve resources, in- Recenr evidence suggests that the re- nesses such as asthma and bronchitis, crease production efficiency, or reduce gion's pollution is one of several factors as well as increased mortality. In waste and pollution has greatly exacer- adversely affecting human health, al- Krakow, Poland, an epidemiological bated environmental degradation, though exact cause-and-effect relation- study showed an increase in lung cancer Since 1989, the region's economic ships remain unclear. In contrast to risk- among residents of rhe city center; downturn has led to reductions in both usual demographic trends, life expectan- in the past, especially, the central area industrial production and pollution. In- cies in Poland's urban areas are lower was heavily polluted bv the extensive dustrial production in Bulgaria, for ex- than in rural areas; pollution is also con- burning of coal to heat buildings and ample, fell by more than 50 percent centrated in urban areas s8x. In the homes (i2L between 1989 and 1992 (2). Annual Czech Republic, life expectancies in ur- At the same time, urban residents in mean sulfur dioxide concentrations in ban regions affected by heavy air pollu- the region are facing increasing risks Prague, Czech Republic; Bratislava, tion are significantly lower than for the from crumbling infrastructure and dete- Slovakia; and Warsaw, Poland, declined country as a whole (9). riorating health services. Throughout by 50 percent between 1985 and 1990 (3. In several cities, especially mining the region, there has been a resurgence Despite such declines in industrial towns, ambient lead levels are high no). of "poverty diseases" such as diphthe- emissions, however, both short-term Exposure to even low doses of lead can ria, tuberculosis, and hepatitis, provid- and long-term sulfur dioxide exposure cause subtle brain damage and learning ing graphic evidence of the decline in in the region still regularly exceeds problems in children. Average blood lev- sanitary conditions, hygiene, and nurri- World Health Organization guidelines els among exposed children in Central tion il). Housing stock in particular (4). New threats ro air quality are emerg- and Eastern Europe are often greater has suffered from neglect. In Russian ing as well, such as rising emissions of than 15 micrograms per deciliter and cities, 20 percent of the housing stock These statistics probablyl uliderestimate the actual urban residenits in the developling world have ai hoUse- numliiber of people inadequately served. Definitions of coniniected water supply, oiily IX percenit of low-inconie what constituites an adequate amoulnt of safe drinlking residents do, I 1'. In niany cities in developing Countries, water and sanitation vary fronm country to couLntry. per capita water availalbility in marginal scttlenments can Although maniy goverinimlenits classifv the existence of a be anywhere fron 3) to 1(0 times less than in better-off water tap within 100 mieters of a house as "adequate," neighborhoods (12h' 112911 (I . Those withotut access to a sucl a tap does not guaranitee that the individuIal house- safe water supply m ust buy water from vendors at costs hold will be able to SecurIc enough water for good health. of anvwhere from 4 to 100 times higher than the cost CommunLInities of 500 inhabitants or more are often of water froin a piped city supplv (Iii). In Lima, Peru, a served by onIIe tap d 24i. Communal taps ofteii tlilCtiOil poor family pays morc than 2() times what a milddle- onlv a few hours each day, so residents muist wait in long class famLily pays for water I lin lines to fill eveii one bucket. For example, in Lucknow, The proportion of the urban population covered by India, a city with alniost 2 miillion people, water is sanitation services is even smaller. Morc than 420 rnil- availale only 10 hours each day 125). In snialler cities, lio1n urban residenits do not have access to eveni the the situationi can be muchi worse. In Ra jkot, India, for simplest latrine X i. Many resort instead to open defe- example, a city witil a population of 60(0,000, the piped cation on land or in waterwa vs. As with the statistics water ruiis for o(ilv 20 min1Utes each dav i 26r. House- on adeqjuate water, estimlates of the number unserved holds cann(nt obtain sufficietir water for washing, laun- are probably lowv because they do not reflect the actual dry, and perso(ial hygiene if it takes too long to fetch functioning or use of the facilities. and if the water has to be carried long distances. These figures also hi'de considerable ineqUalities Statistics on national coverage also hidle inequLalities amionig the rich and poor. In developiing couintries, 8 witlhin a city. Altlhough 80 percent of high-incomIe percenit of urhan low-inicomlie dwellers have a house 20 W'rld Resources / 990-97 Cities and the Environment lacks running water, sewerage, and cen- sian Federation, the Republic of TaIiki- World Bank, Washingtoli, D.C., 1995), rral heating 1J4). stan, the Republic of Turknienistan, p. I In response, many municipalities are Ukraine, and the Repuhlic of Uzhekistan) 9 Ibid. implemienting broad-based strategies to aid the couintries of Central Europe (Alba- 1 Op. ct.3 p. 269. curb i ndustri al pro llution. In Kat o wice tonia, B uilgaria, the Czech Rep uiblic, H u ni- curb industrial pollution. In Katowice, gary, Poland, Romaniii, and the Slosak 11. Op. cit. 8, pp. 20)-2.5. for example, the Minister of Environ- Republic). 12. Op. cit. 3, p. 302. mental Protection, in cooperation with 2. Janiisz Cifalil, "Energy Reform in Cenrral 13. United Nations Children's Fuind local officials, prepared a list of the and Eastern Europe," Enzergy Polico Vil. (UNICEF) International Child Develop- most polluting industries and ordered 22, No. 6 (June 1994), p.490. inient Centre. Crisis in Mortal it'e. Health, them to reduce emissions. Katowice has .3. European Ensironmenit Agenlcy, Europe's anid Nuitritiont. Economies in Transition also expanded its air quality monitoring Eio'-ironz,netnt: The Dobris Assessment. Studies Regional Moniitoring Report No. system, which is now the most exten- David Stanners and Philippe Bourdeau, 2 (UNICEF. Floreoce, Italy, 1 994), p.54. sive in Poland I i). eds. (European Environmenit Agency, Co- 14. Op. cit. 3, p. 274. Novokuznetsk, Russia, has forged a penihageli, Denmark, 1995), p. 268. 15. Wo1ciech Behlo, "Katowice, Poland: Indits- partnership with the LU.S. citv of Pitts- 4. IbOd. trial Air Pollution iand the Air Proteci oni burgh to exchange information about Prograim," in The Huimani Face of the Ur- the linksbetween pllution ad health S. Motor Vehicle Manuifacrturers' Associa it bani Eni.'ionment, Proceedings oftbn' Sec' he links bet een pol luion and heaelth (MVNMA) of the United States, MVM -Af4 ooid Annual World Bank ConlferenLce on and to learn from Its experiences In .4otor lVehicle Facts &I Figures '86 Enviironimentally Sustainable Detl sop- tackling industrial pollution (16L (MVMA, Detroit, Michigan, 1986), p. 37. mepit Isma7il Serageldin, Michael Cohen, h, American Automobile Maniufactiirers' As- and K.C. Sivaraimakrishrnan, eds. (The References and Notes s>ciatiLMn (AANIA), Motor Vehicle Facts World Bank, Washington, D.C., Seprein- I. The term 'transition econiomies" lacks a C? Figures '95 (AANIA, Wa'ashington, D.C., her 19-21, 1 994), pp. 66-69. fornial definitioin, btut is used here to in- 19951. p. 47. 16. Viktor Zimovievicli Koltin, InstirtLre for clude the successor states of the former So- , Bok I E Advanced Training of Doctors, No- vier Union (Armeiia, Azerbailaii, the Jle BorKiewice, etaht " ireiraT vokuznetsk, Russia. 1 994 (personal coin- Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Estoi- Profile of K,towice,' draft paper (The municatioti). nia, the Republic of Georgia, the Republic p. 9. of Kazakhstan, the Kvrgyz Republic, the P Republic of Larvia, the Republic of Lirhii- 8. Clyde Hertnzman, Eniironment and Health ania, ihe Republic of Moldova, the Riis- ini Central ,nd Eastern Europe (The sewer coliliectio(n, compared with 62 percent of urban Wasteu'ater Disposal high-inconme dwellers ( 1 ;4,. Low-ilicomiie fanillies often share liatrines witlh 1 00 or mor-e other conlIlinitv Illelil- lIn the developing world, it is estimated that nmore thain hers, and lonig linies or overflowing tanks dleter residenits 90) percenlt of sewage is dlischiargedi directly illto rivers, from usilig them at all. Likes, andl coastal Watels without treatmiliiir of a nv kind Poor sanitatioin poses health hazards throLigh several I ;x). Of India's 3,1 19 townis and Cities, oInlv 8 hlVe full rolites- ilcldinig direct expostire to feces nieilr hollies, wastewater ctollectioii and t-eatetlint facilities; 209 have contaminated drinking water, ingestioin of fish from partial treatimienlt facilities i1 ,-). Even in higher-income polluted waters, and ingestion of produce that has beell Countries such as Chile, where sanitation services are fertilized bv wastewater. Inadequate access to watel and relatively well developed, domnestic wastewater is still sanitation facilities is the maini cause for rhe initestinal the maill threat to water- quality. Santiago hals only one diseases, traismilitted by feces, that are so prevalent in small pilot wastewater treatmelit lplait, wlhichi processes developing coulitries. Two of these diseases, diarlhea a mere 4 percent of the city's wastewater; the rest is and intestinal wormTn infections, acouLInt for an estimated dumliped iiito the rivers that run through the city i 140). 1)0 percenr of the rotal burden of disease in developing Disposal of donlestic wastewvater renmalins a problemln coulntries I I5) although by no means as severe, in wealthier regions as An estimated 2 million fewerchildieni would die fromn well. In memiber countries of the Organisation for Fco- diarrheal diseases each year- if all people had access to nonic Cto-Operation anid Developmeniit (OECD), ap- adequate water and sanitation facilities, according to proximately one thir-d of the population is still not the World Bank j is. Diarrheal diseases alone killed served by wastewater treltilicilt plilalts 4,. Many older more than .3 million childreni in 1993) and cause some U.S. cities have outmoded sewer systemns that collect 1 .8 billion episodes of illiess annilallV (I -. wastewater and storm water togethier, so thait when Wor- ld Rcsouracs 1996-97 21 Cities and the Environment rainfall is heavy, untreated wastewater is released through overflow drains 1421. Table 1.4 Urban Water and Sanitation Coverage, 1994 Asia and Middle Latin Indoor Air Pollution Service Africa Pacific East America Water Indoor air pollution from burning of Percent of population covered 68.9 80.9 71.8 91.4 low-quality fuels, such as charcoal or Percent served by House connection 65 48.4 89.7 92 animal dung, has been largely conisid- Public standpost 26 24 9.3 33 ered a rural problem. Yer many urban Other 9 27.6 0 4.7 residents of the developing world rely Sanitation on biomass fuels for cooking and heat- Percent of population covered 53.2 69.8 60.5 79.8 Percent served by ing. In many smaller urban centers in House connection to Asia and Africa, between 50 and 90 sewer/septic system 53.0 42.7 100.0 91.2 percent of domestic energy supplies Pour-flush latrine 3.0 43.1 0 2.1 come from these materials 143i. Expo- Ventilated improved pit latrine 13.6 2.7 0 0.9 tends to be highest for women Simple pit latrine 22.4 8.5 0 5.4 sure tends to be mghest for women and Other 2.6 3.0 0 0.4 young children, who often spend many Source: G. Watters, Health and Environment, World Health Organization, Geneva, 1995 houirs indoors and cooking over open (personal communication). fires; indeed, they face greater exposure to pollutants from ilndoor than Outdoor air (144). aninualiv, reducinig the chance that these children will Data are scarce on the number of people affected by face permanient respiratory damage (i5i;. Improving indoor air pollution, especialiv urban residents, buLt iI uran air quality shld a r t i 1992 the World Bank identified indoor air pollutioni as hronic and infect respiator dieases. one of the four most critical global environmental prob- Urband airfutyin tesmore dieveln Urban air quailltv In the miore develop)ed coLunrries Ihas lems (145). Indoor air pollution contrihUtes to acuite ems ,,, Indoor air pollution conrhtestoacute generally improved over the past two decades, largely respiratorv mnfectiotis II yoling children andl chroiii'c - I from advances in controlllig emissions from stationarv lung diseases and canicer in adults 1461. Acute respiratory i soLurces such as power plants. Rising motor vehicle use, infections, principally pIeLlmonia, are the chief killers in part reflecting the increasinglv sprawling form of of young children in developing countries, accounlting for an estimated 10 percent of the total burde, of many cities, now poses the greatest threat to air quality infec- . .4) H i 5 (I 6). By contrast, Lirban air quality has gener- dilsease. Smoke contributes to acute respiratorv m fec- dionsethas Smokse conetributes to acuteon respator y a ally deteriorated throughout the developing world and tions that cause an estimated4milliondeathsannally the formerly socialist econonmles. The reasons are in- among infants an(d children 1147l i 148)... ..... . . icreasing power generation, rising industrial activity, and rising motor vehicle use-especially of poorlv main- Urban Air Pollution tained vehicles that use leaded fuel XI si7. Worldwide, more than 1.1 billion people live in urban Air quality seems likely to worsen with rapid urban areas with unhealthful air (149), exposed to a cocktail of growth unless rigorous pollution control measures are pollutants released from industrial, energy, and vehicuL- puIt into effect. In many cities in developing countries, lar sources. Air pollution is particularly severe in motor vehicle use per capita is relatively low, so cars are megacities such as Beijing, Seouil, Mexico City, and still a minor contributor to air pollution Car owner- Cairo, Egypt, each of which exceeds WHO guidelines ship, however, is sparked by both increasing incomes for at least two of the pollutants that WHO monitors and urbanization and is expected to skyrocket. In 1990, (Iso). In Mexico City, suspended particulate matter from the global vehicle fleet (excluding two- and three-wheel vehicles and others sources contributes to 6,400 deaths vehicles) totaled some 580 million, but this will grow to each vear, and 29 percent of all children have Linhealthv an estimated 816 million vehicles by 20 1 0 (1 5). Most of blood lead levels X Eii . The World Bank estimates that if this growth Will occuir in the developing coLintries and particulate levels alone were redLIced to WHO guide- in C entral and Eastern Europe. lines, between 300,000 and 700,000 premature deaths Lead is particularly hazardoLIs to human health, and per year could be avoided globally i.52). That is the cars that still rely on leiaded gasoline account for tip to equivalent of roughlly 2 to 5 percent of all deaths in 95 percent of airborne lead pollution in cities in devel- uirban areas that have excessive levels of particulates. In oping couintries i i91. The World Bank projects that addition, chronic couighinig in urban children under age Linder an "Lunchanged practices" scenario, lead emis- 14 could he reduced hy half, or about 50 millioni cases sions could increase fivefold froni 1990 to 2030 (16,). 22 Worldl Resources 1996-97 Cities and the Environment Even witli efficienicy reforms andL polluriotia baeet -batem mealsuires, lead emIlissioIns WoLIl I not Llisaippear uIIitil a fter 2010) 1 1 , For nian v cities in developling cotinitrie, stic, as '-_i Cairo and Ba ngkok, ambient lead levels of 1.5 iliero- *4 graims per ctil)Cbicete are coili[oni iiC01) 11)11 1164). In lI contrastr, leadl levels typically ramuge fromi( 0.2 to 0.8 MiC ogranims per CiC mlletel iHI iimost Northi A niericin andE Ftiropeaii cities i Along roads with high rra ffiC | * i ' deiisity, lead levels tend to be especialaly lvigh l1l(. Resi- A - ; denits Of tIle LnuimeroulS informal settilements that are located next to nimlor roadis are rh us Subject to high r A levels of exposure ,r Urban ailr polllution niot only impairs human health bLt also damage,s rrops, vegetation, .l n a iin-made - structures, including historic MoInum isII. These effect- , 't are mIore diffiCLlIt to (lLuanti fyt Howevei acid rimi and . transported air pollkitamuts from automobiles and h-av ' - iiidLtistrv 1hve conitri bited ro thle dec inc of foiest trict's A - j~ J downiwiniid of Lirbail areas ',h-) is5. As iS no0ted above, '. ciries are also among the m jor contributors to regional ' aid g_lobal atlmlospherI-iC Polttiol . (11. (Se( Chapter ' Ut- V' bai Imlipacts oii Natural Resources.' I) Solid anzd lihazairdous Wastes ..- - ( ities genierate tr efllell(ious amIlouLIts of solid waste, and - those a mooints increase witii Incomie. In cities of the - developing world, ani estimiated N) to t 1) per-cenr of the 4 solid waste generated remailns uncollected, eveL though tip to oIIe hlalf Of local operationa1l expelidtltres often Scarce resouirce. 1 1 iO;t .;ti it .1! l '('1kV )cyr;iti goes towxn ard waste collection ii ) I . In) Guatela -/I I ',' ,Th' ; c/filc th, Il l-, lI%li>(' ci) (o0(f Cr ciciiciit i s. . _ . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tic'> AIl,¼ c' zI 11i 'i1i I' II H Ai U.11 t , Ic /0-.1 l l. 11'UIt.l' 'A1 .111 ('/flAI City, tor Instance, just (65 pierczent of mtinLiCiplal waste is , collected; the rest is disposeJ of in iiiiofficiail locationis in the metropolitan regioii 1i7. In low-income or squat- metric toins of garbage gciierated each day; as a result, ete settlements, garbage col leeth is often1 onex isteiit, 1officia Is a re biildi ing islk ds of wazste in Tokvo Bay, either because these settiilemits fall outside "official whilch threaten both the shipping aiid the fishing indus- service atreas (ir because trucks are ii viable: to inalietiver along narrow, unpaved streerts. liicollected domestic v I veli if collected, nuLIIIIP,1 WaStCS remania a problCll waste Is the i1ost C0111111011 i cluse of blocked urbaJ. ICi ill nllllvi cities in developring coul1itries. MlIil solid draiiage clhaiiiiiels In Aslani cities, mncreasing the risk of flooding aiid vectorborne diseases i-m. In soiiie cities, waste sircs often handle both domestic and Industrial refuse Is ofteii mixed withi uman excremwt, which wastes, including hazazrdLIts wastes. Wirhotit proper facilitaites the spread of disease, especially' aiiiong clil- disposal, toxic chillicals Can leach iiito water Supplies. dren and wastepnick;ers Few data exist on the comimposition of hazardoums waste d Iriimost OFI) comiitries 100 perceiit of whe Lirbanil streaiiis in developing counlriejs. The ()O i) hlas comn- popnulation is serviced by munic]ipalrll walste collectionl Priled- -oughl estiiImates of tile volinies of industrial ailid v11). However, with their 11 ighlr conTiSmL til1n Ievels, hazardolis wastes generated worldwide, vet n0 such they c inifromit ever-incr-easiliig mot11iCis of gagirbalge. Simce data exist oii their disposa l m. Effluteii ts froiii hemical i 980, the geiierationi of i1i1umnici pal waste per ca pita has production, ptilp and paper factories, mining inidustries, increaised in all ()ECI) coniiitries except Germlany (1'4) and Icaltier aid tanining processes are playing an in- (t-i. I)espite massive recyclimig and incineratioii proj- creiasing role in eniVir0inimuelital poIltiLti(i. If cuirrent ects, Tokyo is Uiable tto pe( with tie more than 2 2,000 trends are aiiv i nL.ict0oni, the volime of toxic heavv Wu`orhd Resou rces 1996-97 23 Cities and the Environment metals generated in counitries such as China, India, the sial because it rests on assLiiiiptionIs about the valiue of Republic of Korea, and Turkey cotuld reacih levels coni- a huma ii life. parable to those of France anid the ULlited Kingdomli A handful ofsttIties in receit yearsgive all indication withinI 1.S years (1s7. of the econiomic losses inCLirrcid by urban environimental The lack of emissioiis standards or enfor-cemiient of degradation. In Mexico (Cit, econiomiic danmages due to regulationIs in miany developing naltionls compounds tlhe health i Inpacts of air poollutioni are estiniated at $ 1_5 pollution problemis. Illegal doiniping and iiiipr-opcr dis- hillion per year. Plarticulates are estimateLI to cause posal of toxic and hazardous wastes are coiiniomo. In 1 2S(OD extra deatlsanlJ 1 1.2 million lost-workdays per addition, industrial activity in the developliig world yeair, both lie to respiratory illnesses. hccausc of exces- tends to be concentr-aited in relatively few locations, sive exposuL-e to lead about 140,000 children suffer a often close to city celntelrs 1-t Three qul rters of all Thal i red cLtioii in IQ and a;gilitv-with imiplications for adu lt factories dealinlg with hazardous chiemiicalls are located podLIuctivitV :i S. Probilemiis of iniadequate i1 frastructure witl in Bangkok's mietropolitan area; and the neigh bor- shiow uip in direct ectmlomi ' ccosts as well. in [akarta, ing provinces. This includes five of Tha lland's seveni lead households spend more than $50 million per year to boi smeltinig plants and miore than 90) 6 t of its chlerni- vwater for drinki og-an arniocuit equal to I percent of cal, drv-cell hIatterv, paint, pharmaceutical, and textile t c i n - ' ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~the ct IV'S gross doniiestic pl ol u.Ct (1I6se nianuufacturinIg plants six). The concenitration of people -ii ii ore vexing is ga-uging the monetary costs of close to these industries Increases the risks of exposure. theimpactofcitiesonistrotindi ig ccsystems."Yetthey', Exposures can be severe in the cIse otf industrial accIdents or dumnipiig. Even so. thev tened to be localized, Too, appear to be sobstani I. Ozone ciiiage to U.S. to the ''* crops, for exa lple, is estimatc( to cost several billon In conitrast to the citvwide problems of air and water dollrs per Year Often the cciioiiic value of the pollution is ). The health effects of hazardous wa.stes remain controversial, yet are ooeri beliu. ,services ecosvstellls provide are apparent Only after they reima'lll coiitroversl;ll, vet are generally bellevedl to pose a farsmaler treatthan hose- It Pos have b(eei lost. III East Calcutta, for instance, the filling afar sni liler threalt clian thiose associalted witi biol0lgt5C.li I of 4 000 hectares of lagoonIs alld wetlainds not oiilv paitilogeiis n the urban ieivironimiienit cIs2. In the devel- resutedv( iii an1 animaWs if somel % 000)f meltric toins oped wvorld, where the miost egregious exposules to ofsfish bu al caused loca flooding after trinS hazardous wastes have largely been remedied, coceralso aISC local floodig aftr th railis I) isn'nin bu xpsrstoee mut eesof ' ,st)). More difficult still to calnture in moileta rv teriiis Is moutiniilg abrout eXpOSulrcs to evell nlil Lte levels aotui mnt OSSaSCMCIwtiLriiielvl(1 tioxic wastes (Is .1 alrt the anieenity losses associated xv it urbanl envi run- uzelitalI degradatioii-for instaice, the pleasure that is lost wlheni a view is degraded or a pristinc beach is ECONOMIC COSTS OF URBAN spoiled Impacts on h tin-a i1 health and degradation of the ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION natural resourCe base combine to undermine a city's In addition to their toll onl humlanl 1lieaIth and: natual reconomic prodLCtiVitY. In addition to the Increased cost reSotirces, urban environmental problems exact ecu- of treating iJliless, health problems re(ucet- produictivit no1imic costs as well, some direct som1e indirect. Al1 told thirough lost workday's, lost edLiCatioIa I opportUllitius. these problems cai significantly' uniiderminie the produtc- and shiorter workinlg lives (i '8. Whlein tile natiral re- tivitv that urbanizationi fosters. Somiie of these costs are sou srces inl the surroulnding area are ehaltstcl or de- relatively sim pIe to calculate, slch as thec niedlical costs gradledl, cities must draw' on them froiir furthier- away, at of treating pollu.tion-related ililnesses. BuIt the majority iincreasing cost. prove far miore problemiatic. The prOdLctixVit' Of ciries also depeln)ds on a reliable Environmental problemils thait affect 11uLIman health, aind well-rinain ta in ed Urhabii infrastructure. Wl'cii for instance, are often measured in termnis of lost' worker womienl have to devote ConsiderLablCe amouniitS of their proLuctivitt. But econiomilic losses enicomipass more than timie to fetchioig water froiini distaiit sricadpipcs or dis- losses in produLtivity' or-output as coliventlioalAv Incas- posing of housChlold W*astes, thse have less Tinie for tired. A loss of a woirk iig day dtiLe to pollotiomi-Cilused iincomive-eairuilnig act-1 ities. For business as WelI, depenld- hiealth problemls is an econ1omic Cost, but so is ill health able stipplies of powel- alnlI witer, Col nilUiiCaLtiOnlS, an1d unrelated to work loss, as well as the loss of an amenitv traiisportaitioil inetworks caii raise output atLI lower such as the pleasure of a natural area, or lost lcisure tiiiie produCtionI Costs. Infrastructure shortages, or intermit- spenit in traffic Jans. ValLIing lealth svmptonis ald risks reint failur-es ill tieliverv, bv coiltrast, cail exact severee of niortality in econiomilic terills is especially controver- ecolloinic losses i I1 24 Would Resources I 99h-9- Cities and the Environment One norable examiple of infrasrrUcrture flailtire is con- gestiori. Congested city streets slow the riiovelier of Table 1.5 Estimated Losses Dueto goodis and services arid generallv increa se the price of Traffic Jams, Selected Cities doing buisiless in cities. Not oilv does traffic congestion Annual Cost Percent of allocate tiiiie to tinlproductive Waiting, but it also resUIlts of Time Delay Regional Gross in inefficeiet fiel uSe arid worseriirig air pol.l' . . ri City (million US$) National Product .et o eto lordcspoL t. dBangkok 272 2.1 recil, cong estionl also redirces prodctivity by aldding Hong Kong 293 0.6 to worketrs stress arid aggravation. Jakarta 68 0.9 The cosrs of conigestioni are significant,; however, as Kuala Lumpur 68 1.8 Manila 51 0.7 with all cost estimates, they vary widely accordlinig to Seoul 154 0.4 the asstrLIlrtinirs LISed to CalCLlate therii. The cost of Singapore 305 1.6 traffic congestion in Bangkok, for instance, varies froiir Source: Euisoon Shin et al., "Valuing the Economic Impacts of Envi- $2 7- nil I I loii to iiiore tlia n $ 1 NI I loii pci- ve r, depeiidi Ill, ronmental Problems: Asian Cities," Urban Management Programme $2 /2 nirllrori toriiore thlan $ Iblrlilronrn e Yea r, dependlinig Discussion Paper(draft)(TheWorld Bank,Washington, D.C., 1992), on the valure iriptirted to timie sttrck in traffic 1 212. p 139, as cited in J. David Foster, The Role of the City in Environ- mental Management: 1994 Edition (U.S. Agency for International (oriservatrve estrrvrates for losses due to corigestitiri in a Development, Washington, D.C.. 1994), p. 20. ntmrber of Asian cities a re showvn in Table 1 .5 l 5 In the Lliited States, estimiates of the cost of congestion Even In the developed world, addressing the linkage (from traffic delavs anid wasted fuLel) in tirbalr areas between pv'erty e arid the erivi r lnert sholird be a iop range lietweeri $35 Hllion ard S48 hillon 194) (419i, I 1*i' t-I Co~~~~~~~~~~~~nircern. A lthourglit~ strChi basic hiealthi threaits as feces- Otlher estilniaircs stiggCSr that the Llniited States loses Othe estmate srrgestthatthe nite Staes Iises containiiriaed water haive long, been addlress;ed, even for- roughly 2 percent of its gross nrationial prodLrct to Con- gestiiiri arid that he .Jriitd Kirigdoiloses abuiurt the poor In high-iicornii Citres, probleris ilr the riralia gestloii iiiid rliat te' Lniiltecl K olilgcioii loses abOLIt 5 social erivrriririieiri arc posing an Increasing threat to percent j li.lihunriariealth arid well-einCgalrld, urlriniatIly, rn social sraliilitv. A secondl and related challenge for cities worldswide CONFRONTING THE URBAN is to develop strategies tO recon.cile economilc growth ENVIRONMENTAL CHALIENGE with envirorriiterital protection. Sonic of the worst ex- ariples of envrorironiietal de,gradationi can riow be fotirni The eOrilorriors toll urrbari erivi rtrirOiiiiCltaI p hi-bleniS t'X- In anrd a rourind rtle ra pidly iridustrializirig citis of rlic act-in terriis of losses to hbuniril healielthid qil ruality of' developirig world, wlhere ecorioiilic growth is proceed- life, rIatriral resotirces, and econiomilc prodtictivity- irg without adequate coricerii fur its ei\ iroriientaI riiakes a conipellilg case for action. iriipact. Thesc cities riced to find LWays to both encourage On a glohal scale, the iiost tr Lrgerit challenge is ro ecorionlric developriierit and provide foi the increasin ri provide for tile basic ieeds of the urban port arid therel)v demtinds of citizetis for ncirgv, water, arid other re- alleviate the toll of Ihumriiari mliser-y associated with de- sources-ii ecologicailly sound waxs. For higher-ilicorine graded urrbari eriviroririieilts. (Sec (Chaliter 2, "Urban cities in Norrh Arierica aind h-uropc, rhc priority is to Erivirorliliicit and H1uiiari1 Healti .") ThrouiglnOut the redLuc their excessive draw on the world's naturraIl re- cities of the developing woorld, riieetiig tl is ch allerige sour-ces. Global probleriis suiciI as greenlllLouse gals Clelrs- will entail activities rangiig from providing fuindarieri- siins will wuorsen if policies are riot enacted ro cturl) the tal ur1-ha ri sCrViceS strci as water and sanritationi arid excessive resource conisoLiiptioll of urbariites I i devel- garbage collecriori to reforriiirig land renitlre policits. oped r'egiOllS. Mucli is to be gained frorii cricoLrragirig iricoriie-gerier- FortUnriarel, tIhc d'inalilisIll and creativirv that cIlIs- ating activities, suicli as wasre recyclirig, thit sinmultaile- tel- in Cities provide al soUrrce for sol rtioris to these oursly iiiiprove livelilioods arid the local environililerit. probleriis. Cities ren id ro devon re a higlier percentage of Bydoingso, cities can capitalizeon whatals been cal led furids tioneivirorirnierital protection than do rural areas the "incidental greening" of cities-the efforts of the r '191 The coircentrationr of p opulatioi anid activities in poor toni,ariagetheirelivilrolilrielits 1s). EqirlIlyVi riipor- cities offers inipotmlanrt econoinlnies of scale that cani tant is the recognitiori anid support of the rights of the redrcc nort onlyV the uriiti cost of providirig services such poor to know the risks to whicli they are exposed, to as edtirationi or healthi care, btIt also the cosr of provici- detcriulilic thicir priorities, and to rnieer their owni needs irig vital infrastructurre. Similirly, en forcinig environI- throUgil common l111litV initiatives. nelirtal regurlatioris arid Collectirig taxes art easier in World Rcsources 1990-97 25 Cities and the Environment Box 1.7 Designing Sustainable Solutions for Cities Hyderabad, India, where I serve as com- lem, allows one to define the necessary ciation matched that amount. This missioner of the Municipal Corpora- infrastructure and services needed to ad- amount is much smaller than what it tion, has had the distinction of being dress the problem. An understandinig of would cost for the Corporation to oper- one of the fastest-growing cities in India scale also helps to clarify which govern- ate its own door-to-door collection serv- during the past decade. The population inent departments should be involved in ice. Since the success of the initial test has increased from 3.2 million in 1985 providing the solution. neighborhood, 170 neighborhoods have to 5.2 million in 1995. It is said that in For example, the impacts of inade- set up residents' associations to manage 1591, Muhammed Quli Qutab Shahi, quate garbage collection are greater and garbage removal. the founder of Hvderabad, prayed that more immediate at the houseliold and On the other hand, problems such as the citv would be filled with a popula- commuinity level. Garbage, then, is one traffic congestion require more coin- tion as numerous as the fish in the riv- area that can be addressed at the local plex, comprehensive actions. The im- ers. His wish seems to have come true. level. In Hvderabad, people place their pacts are many-time delays leading to As managers of rapidly growing ur- garbage in communal bins located losses in productivity wasted fuel pol- ban areas, our primarv challenge, and around the citv; these bins are then emp- l a a t the ultimate challenge, is not to allow tied bv the municipality. However, the luton, and accidents-and transcend events to overtake us but to plan for city began receiving complaiints that gar- the woldave o be uide. ry ac- and manage growth in order to ensure bage was not being removed from the huns ldve to be netake a sustainable citv of tomorrow. When bins regularly. Garbage was overflow- higher level, modifying road networks discussing sanitation, we should be ing or being dumped illegally on the and land use patterns, increasing the di- looking not only at conveyances for re- streets and in drains. The bins were con- versiry of transport options, and in- moving sewage but also at low-cost stantly being moved, further hindering creasing the costs of owning and technologies for latrines. Or, when fo- collection efforts. drivig a motor vehicle. cused on questions related to a city's Hvderabad decided to involve the However we define our urban environ- water supply, we should be linking dis- community in solving the problem. In mental problems, whether they are sim- tribution systems with issues of conser- one pilot neighborhood, the citv helped pie or complex, commoni to the whole vation, recycling, and the protection of residents form an association that region or confined to one neighbor- water sources. would be in charge of the garbage bins. hood, the challenge is primarilv a hu- Designing sustainable solutions also re- In addition to picking a permanent loca- nman one. quires us to look at the spatial scale of tion for the bin, the association ap- -Rachel Chatter/ee each urban environmental problem. De- pointed one person to go from house to ciding whether an environmental prob- house to collect garbage and deposit it lem is limited to specific households or in rhe central bins. The city paid this Rachel Chatterjee is commissioner of affects the entire city, or whether it is a person 5 rupees (lUS$0.13) per house- the Hyderabad Municipal Corporation regional, national, or even global prob- hold per month, and the residents' asso- in Hyderabad, India. urban areas than in dispersed rural areas (200). The job But these benefits of urbanization will not be realized creation potential of cities can be critical in reduciiig without the concerted efforts of the stakeholders in- poverty. volved-national, regional, local governments, the pri- In other wavs as well, cities have the potential to he vate sector, international agencies, communities, and far more environmentally benign than most are now. As citizens. Achieving this will require changes in govern- described in Chapter 3, "Urban Imlpacts on Natural ance, from imiproving the formal regulatorv and fiiianc- Resources," the spatial concentration of humatis and ing bodies of national and local governments to finding their activities can minimize pressLires on surrounding new ways to encourage the full participation of civil lands and natural resources. C:ompact cities such as society. Saarbrucken, Germany, and Copenhagen, Denmiark, Environmental managenieiit is colilplicated bv issues use approximately half as muchi energy on a per capita of jurisdictional comiiplexity. By their very narure, urban basis as sprawling, low-density ciries such as Minnea- enviromnental problems often require strategies that polis, Minnesota, and Denver-, Colorado, in the United span jurisdictions and sectors. This is true whether the States (201). Well-designed cities can channel develop- issue is delivering water and sanitation services to low- ment away from wetlands and other sensitive areas. By income conimunities or protecting coastal ecosystems integrating land use and transportation planninig, cities from environmental degradationi. (See Box 1.7.) With- can reduce both congestion and pollution. (See Chapter out adeqiuate solid waste management, urban drainiage 4, "Urban Transportation.") sysremiis will not work, because garbage is the most 26 WorldI Resouirces 1996-97 Cities and the Environment common cause of blockage 12025. Similarly, strategies to managers. In the name of decentraliiation, local govern- reduce air pollution will not work without addressing ments have been saddled with additional responsibilities both stationary and mobile sources of emissions. Some for environmental management, but these often come of the most promisinig approaches to reducing coastal without the necessary aultonomy. In many cities of the pollution are targeted at the entire watershed that feeds developing world, the local capacity to generate reve- into the basin-often stretching over many thousands rlies, through, for example, property taxes or user of square kilometers. charges, is rudimentary. This inability to raise funds Yet, in both developed and developing couintries, contributes to the failure of local authorities to properly responsibilities for urban environmental management operate and maintain those environmental facilities they tend to be fragmented among different agencies and do have, suich as wastewater treatment plants (20i). juLrisdictions. The problem is especially pronounced in As is described in Chapter 6, "City and Community: huge metropolitan regions, which often spread across Toward Environmental Susrainability," strengthening multiple jurisdictions-in the case of Mexico (ity, 42 in local governments will be critical to improving the all (203). In addition, lines of responsibility and authority urban environment in the developing world. EquallV are sometimes blurred among the manv actors. Munici- important is an informed citizenry that demands envi- pal authorities, for instance, tend to focus on the envi- ronment.al quality and holds governments accountable. ronmental concerns of local communities, suIch as Indeed, some of the most innovative strategies for im- garbage collection, while paving little attention to prob- proving the urban environment are emerging from the lems that affect adjacent mu;nicipalities or cities located hottom utip, from neighborhoods and communities that downwind or downstream (204). have the most at stake, he they in Karachi, Pakistan, or Problems of jurisdictional complexity are coni- the Bronx, New York. This special section of World pounded in cities in dleveloping counitries, where local Resotur-ces 1 996-97 describes some of the ongoing ef- governments may lack both the institutionial and the forts to create more livable, humane, and ecologically financial resources needed to be effective environmental sound cities. References and Notes I .United Nations (UiNi lPotpuilatittt Disi .sio, I13 N. ttional lIIstiriite of ['rbain Aff.iirs (NliIA), 22. Op. c-i. 1, p. 23. it'i rhi I irh,ittic.tsii si Prospects: Tin 1994 1 rhanii Ftiir,onniti/ w lMips: Dc/ln. Roan-m Reiisn iiLtI.N., New York. 1995), p. 87. hi.v. V'ad./iLijr.t, A/.meittb,id (NlUA. New, 2. ()p.--It. I.pp. Il(l-I. 2 (hi.L pp. 96-8 112- 1(3. Delhi, India. 19414. pp. .-I12.2 4. Op. it. 6. 3 ( )p . 1 p. 2. Op. I. . 25. A. Rosi--Fsp.tginet, (G.I. (,ildstein. -id 1. )p. cit. i - ~~~~~~~~~~~1 2. O c.1P.T,ibih,.ideh. "Urbait7,1ttjon .ini) Heti1th ini 4. Op. it. I. pp. I 32. 1 3.5. Op ct 1 Deelorping Countries: A ChalIlenge for II. p. Ur.-t I, pp. Rl,9 85.. He.lIrhIlor Al)." Wolrldl Heal/h Sr.iltis) ic S Carl Ktu-itle et,11.. "Toward Ensironinentd I 3 Str.ategies for (inies: Policy Considerattion 14. Op. ct. 1, pp. 91, It7. Qi,lr/tr/v, V-l. 44, Ni. 4 I1 991) p 2OX. for Urban FEiriironineiral Manageineien in IS. lorge (.avidi.a. "Hoiislng.d I .iid ITI I irge 276. Cp. it. rr pp. 4, 6. I/el)o opinig Cniintries," Urbai Managementi Ciries tl l .I tilt Aienerc.,." in bi ti/dl.tiicin the )7. ( )p. it I . p. 167. i'rogr.aimtte PoIice PRper No. I8 (The World Mapiii,ii'itemiint i/ Metropolitan rito.' Ftii I- B.aiik. \V,tshiigtnnn D.C.., 1994i, pp. 9-1(). rmiiintents it 1 ,ttin 4mtie-a (U 'nired Nourt.to 28. (p. ilt. I. p. 6. h. (C. ':lr ters. Hca )lrh .intl Ens ivnut ntenit Wi irld C entre (or Regemnsr.i) I2evelopol tel itm N.igiiy... 29. ( )p. t. 1 8, pp. I -I 6- I - I -. 6. G. zirtes, Heath an Enviwinien, Word J.ipatn, I 994), p. I,). Health Organ cizatiots, (weeiet, 1995 (per- 7() P p. cit. I,pp. 1 19, 1 21. snon.l corninitnicationI. IF6. t)p. ct/. I, pp. 8R, 89, 13, 0 I 1I )p. 0.. I. p. I-I. - orge E. Hardoy. Di.anai Mitlin, .tind [3asiD 17. p. clt. 1c pp. X 89, 10 . 12. Op. it. .. P. It). artterthwliite, Fnrir ...imeittl/ Prbltemts In I 8. tInited Nations ( 'enire for Hritn.i il Settle-. Thief World Cities (Ftrt hscani, I ondoii. iiients tHalbir.iti, A4i U!r/itptlztt )Xc,rul/: 33 . The World Ki.n k, iiltoll(SJ,7 F.tw'ironimieitt 1992), P. r iqC ,e,e,l R epe ote i Hi .1tt .Sett/enrtnts / I'i)6 ind Devc/teopmueniit: C hai/leinges for the Futufrr R. Dietrich .hswel.a, "Pblhhc Heallth mpl (0 rd I. in sersitr Press. ()xtoird, I 'ii red i The World Kinuk. W.ishhigtion. D.C . 1994). 8. nietrich Schsse)a, Pu ) ic Het It H I m plus tK i ngo) tin ind Ness Yt rk. iii press), p. I 57P. II. tioni of iUrban Air Pit)l)iitin in Devrelopi ing o(tittltries," p)pe. preseitred .it the Tenth 19. (h p. 1-2'- 1-2X 4. K.( . sivaranmnakri,shti .in i ( h.anges iTi the IIr Woirld ( lea ii Atr Congress. I:rioi, Finl)and, 70. )p. ci. I, p. 217. [ I .Ii ndscape: Froim Ha.bitat I to H.bhta M.iy 28-}line 2. 1 99s (Wor)ld Health Orr 11. Issues of (iovernance: I its.cl Reaittes,- g.111173tioii, Gcncs.i. 1995). 22 I. Nick Dev.is .titd ( mirile R ikdit. The I lrh.mii drlrft paper prep:ared for the Woodrow Wil tihalrleenge" in VItniigmitig Fist (;roiln'tuig Ct- siu hltrrtriiatiinml C enter for Sshol.irs. Mliv 9. Wiorls Resotirces Instltilre, 7The 1994 lntfcr- its. Nick Deva s .ind ( .irole R.ik odi, eds. I 6, I)) i, p. 2. matint/lit P/ces( Fitiroine itit tal -A lmatLnac ) I n uiigm.in (rnotip. Fsssx, Itini ed Kingdoni (HoighToll Nii (Mliinpoapan, Bostoni. .ind liohi W¾ lev & Si ItS. I u.., Ness N'iork. . it... I S. P. I - IS. 1 994). pp. 205, 209. 1993), p. 2. *6. Op. cit. Ix, p. 1-22. World Resouirces 1996-97 27 Cities and the Environment iT. AIim I(eri.i,iJ. "lint) Resources: Dilleruig '~~rest1. ('islird, I hliireJ Kiig(hiiiii, I1955, 74. ( )pI. ,II. IS, p. 326. Persp,ectiir oi clie slhape. o Fituire ( - . ; '5. I niiiedl N~irionis rD'vclopiiieiit IProgrMniinct irs-( ) er tie%, " i n Tic Hunt,, F,I`i' oftbc' ss* up . p. S~ 7IINI)PI, (ius Piwi. uiertv: UIrban (fr/i,, F.,, ii) iiiiiiiit, iiii/iii,.i if (i IC 59. G,,i rg~e F. Peicrr-ii. (I. Thoir111 K ii ilev, f/ Xi c,'i meineii/ ... ipiir.tiin fi r tih' I )990t ii k ( -~~~ i/c un, ii Lii- ~.i nd 1 t//r ev P. ieli_.i rsk y, Urban ,, m.iii, ici s iULNI)P, New Yii-rk. 1 99 1), p. 1 9. i'nil sii riii'it iiii nstMidii, l/Ali' I)' i'' vii'iit.1 .ciiii .Ndtiiiii1 i'-iioli 1.S. Agency fu,r 76. Unitetd N:ioini (Childrenu's FliiuiI (((NilI-F KA . Sir,ir.iiii.krislin.iin, cdi>., The Wiorldj iiigrlilt)ilJrl'.ii Prig rniruist \V ftliiifgiiiii, DL:l,"I 1r:sis Ii1 l1irhild Dlevelioi,entl Nentri- I1)94, p. 2 '3S.I99 I1 ), . 7rilb 1.cii niciiit iii Train.sitioin Stuidius Re- nS. ( )p. ii,. .34, p). I . hi). Tile WwIld BaiL. k.-r,i D1'i.'ii/ip i'ii Ri- guioin l Mlinuoirnug Repourt No). 2 JJNICEFF .i9. DR. Phillipsiiiu) V. Vcrli.uteli, edt.. HijithpinrI '199: IU,ir,kieri, ina inicgr,iiing Wi,?r Floreice. lt,ily, I994), p. 3. 3 L).F). . P l i 11 i p -i d V, h,i,e 1 , (I., j ltb \H i iWrILt oink, W.itliiigioii. I I. . l)95.8. 7 Ibidi. 0,we,) J i'co/icn/ ( R,ILlIuitg', New% rk., , Sj 7. ( I/i. ot. 69. pp. I ti2 I. I994). 4)). lisiiiuie Ii,rResiiirce l)rel,ipiieiii [(cii, I- 6. Uiniretd N.:iriiis ciiiii i c oLi nin iisiii tir 79). MIC1hue I lAie,-T, 'The Hylpiirliesi ofi Urban 40. In,timic f(,r Rcsmirce Deiii- La.iiiii Aii,rric.i itd it, ( ;irihhl,iii L( L.A( I, .wiinergi'ice: Art, L:iiicsin tilL Niirth indl graplhic ,ind Hc.fihi Snrvevs~. tl:ii:1 ciliripilt'ul S... 1.P1,1 raiii -iitin .Allm ai,i ( 9)i4 S1iilij llciniiiiig Nitore Alike"' clr;ifr piper. mimi t9el,iiiiri siirrrt cmiutliicitl licieeii ELAL. S.oli:igo.I liSt,1~1)4c r.t2r. 2hrii 1i 9i. W195, \ i,i giiigriii. Cl)... p.22 4 6~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~(2. Nick l)t'.it1 "Fiirii Appri.,ich-e," in SO). "iiiI.K srl, Citics is PLies \Vhere I . The \Wiirltd R;ink. (orum P(l'i uiF aml -Mai,;.1, FitJohniii (/'1 ii'-/i lri . Keint.rdl W ik Lriii hn e.i ii)fl5 The WX'm1r1d 3iuik, \V.ithiiigiiin. D( C., ftii. iU-/,iii,iin .ii.AiiwiNeghih,irliiiid I)itrrcs,", iii 1In)eriv,iiiin Hi's- 1 991 8. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~im',i/ in f/I. Dci.iAqminigX,i rmilid. Nitk D I e i tiiiiis H-eiirN Lisiucris, etd. (W55W. Nir,,rii /i 42 H nkV1)1) 111 min H.H ' 11iii .lirilt R.lkod1i, eids. (Li igiui.ii LSiiiip. jI miiip.iiiy, Newe Yi'irk, 1 994). p. 8.3. 42. H,iiuk . Sariutli nS HviiiiuKi Ali,i lite,U I. INi ). pp. -7-X. S.Pii iit.i~ Ii,l iud,"llauP ''I hinge Siiice Hlbl,liiiu I: :\ P.ur,tdigii.iric lIn- I PliiAii md(a eR kch " ran ov iiiiirv,' 3i.pl'r pr ei-mniir it itic \Xii-drimw 63 A.S. 01)lieim, Pi puidatii,m Grnut ii. wpu//i- cr1): lt kii't r Rstirc;lil suit Policy," Iiuir- \Wil-in iir mii.iiiii:l I cuter ii)r Scioil.irs, niii .iiii/ mi im/ in Ji.ic/. Wi),) Mci,. buif cnirii,uliimai1 DmI'Itm pI'/i/ ent: P['u/ny, \W.ithiiiigriii 1D.1 ., I-erLii:.ur 2. 1 )~ 995 p. x. (Ci/ii's: AnSi/n-11 ii ill P,,In, Islus. Is - c(Y imuiiioIsII mi ii In! u'eniu/ioli Rib/nu"ns, Voil. Nl:iutiil's Pret,, Nets )Yumrk. 199 , pp. i,2-6T. 6. Nii. 5 iSe)ptiiriblr-I )ciiilir 1994), p. 63(1. p. (,4~~~~~~~~~h. I,. Yiu.[i,ir 1L I litii.i. 'The-(I I lci.mlig ii) I ½ ' - 5 2. I/iii. 44. Pe Ljitiig .iiid .itlherinuirIi uu. A) iii1 ~ uii sic,'i IrmS;. 19 it. 610,1, P~. 4.3-48. drettiiig hlit' UJrbani L I.uIIcgc,: A5 Ret i, w ii)A,i,s,ii'i:Iiiiw ii ii,iii u)ii5.1Iitt .tiut(.. JsliuitrVi \Vu Ird K3iink FY57 Wirer SLiuppk .iiind rLInIii De'l' iiig uIiiiirics (I. SImbi.i>i I licer.i, 8 .U ie ,in L.. )M plt11 ' D)euelupHiuiciit IVipe tuiumis.'' RepmmrT I NI-1I 'ed. i Pr.t'gt'r, \vesipuirr, IT)iiiiitc titit Andi~ gr:nimi i JIiNDPi, Hiuman Do'ii' pIuinci'i Ri'' (The Wmorltd l:iik, W ihiloi,I u. ., 1955x , L)ii.I9 3 .1 .j r I9) ('') (hif,rt) lIi ice rity Pres, I Ox fiord, us curt) ii I *eiirge 1)9P3 P. 12. Th imsLuiliiiLI Kiiigdiiiiil, lit Nt'w Yiirk, I1998). Kiu:gslc,N ad .iilet'tri I' . Telg;irs ki . I;lfdl 6ii. Nlichu.uil [)iuiul:utt C Imii.n c)p.runciiii p,1. 6i6i- 6mS. F, umouimuuim' an) Nathiiui,i) Di'u'i)Iiii',Iit L .S. mu) Llrl1,,ii sit Rr; muu iii, kL10,1P Iii111g, 1 luli%ersity - .(;mic0 N oc lca..H ret n Agence h)i Iniicriu,tmiuui:ul IXslmiuuiu > ml H-.iw,ii .t NL mi, Honlmuiluli H,iwts', S Rimlli F .NM.ik Ioter, hlUci,; PovIeIert , intl lice oif HImiumtum .iind L[l .iii Prmg:.uui,. W,ish- I191)5 pc'utoiu.ll LiiiiiiiiiiiiiL.UItiii). oniiuu t (Ii Scriucitur:l .Atliusiuui.1it: Reentii iiigriiii, D3. ~., 3t)i1 I* p. I -. hili. 1 )/. it. 6 1. Eivuileuuc ,iid Plilics Rcspiinse,'' Trinspiorr.- 4.8. S.utki.i itil i/ucs inl .i WmI'm Fimiuiomn h7. I e %\/irltl uItml, 'i/on, /nn.il .Aujnsmeiul u ? Eil, W,iiei .ini1 I Irbu:ui Dev'eloupmtent De- WPine I-urge Prrtt. Tlum-I5.uui 1/its, I ;lituir- S.5t.01~111. Gih u t/i : Tb:e I ciri uui Wm'iu /1,ufr p.iruiueiuu )iscuussion P~iper Nii. 4 (TIht i,,1 9941, P. xi,i. 1/si' I u/us i Flic \Vuourdll (itk, \Vi,luiigiigion Wuirl,S Kunk, Waushiiigtiin, I).C., 1 993) 4An. bi/,t D).L... 1 9901, P. 3, us c itet) iii CUnteS Naitionus p. 22. A'_. ///i). ii). 48 i P. S. (Dti lu10)1Uiiei Piugr.iiiuiil' NIP)P, Tihi I 'r- 56. 1Iii,iietl Nirwiiiiu I)tvi'lopmente Priigr:miniue 49 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~IUlNDP1, Newr 'Lurk, I 1)92: jiP. I I. ,ii/ig (.,i,inrii' ( INI/)P, New' Yourk, 1 992), / I/i. uP IS, r. 1-24. 65~~~~~~~~~~(,. TIe World Ban, i ?it, \/ iuiiu. .Aui;us/uinci'i jiii, p. I6(. >1). Te'renice I MJcIie :iiid ( J..) Iruri t itb, .ss.u,ii Grwit/i: Dvm, U!rimal y'iii ir 57. liii)., p. IX8. ''I 11mm Llrh.uii,.uuiuuu: Fiu.urils iie TieeiD.- 51 iim/fl.I Dlie 5orldI I.uink, \W;:sluinigtmn, xs. / 9I. , . 28, p'. 2085. First I :iiiirr." iTi Pii/nhu/ui /,1 /oin/iun /1.., l1j,779ul i) , p. .8 j ,u icurt) ii I nii-Irl N.iiiiiii on/ Miu,r.utimii. di,if pruceediligs ml ilie DrelmI0p1uue:iT Priigr;ininie ilFINIVH, Tb.ii Ur- 59. I UT'piitiiigL I'll the Cieli' liii liu Litt'd, esinnu t,ie Untc N,tiiii Ft xpert MIeetuuig i01i Puipljji- /u.ai Li, miriuini'ui w 1 cu i/mill (inirics ii ihue iiuiiuiher m-l sireet children ringe froiiii Cluz Bolvl:l I.1lk1.r% I8-2 1)9Y;Wiic cct'pt'd II) iiiillioiii it .i re;utouu;bhe esliniii.ic Natim~im, New 'I rk. .Aulugir 19944, in.'Ln'rini)ii)I'/.iciiui .is'i,ii ;ir seuut uirin tlie noresbyip itir philrein pp. 61,63. 7. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Nom. I (April li/i9sI. p. I I. ti ut)ic iumoliutu-rniruiug oppourrinitries, chil- 5 1. op it. IS., p. 1-24. -0 /i). cit. 6 1. p1. 1 5. drr h oU'.iybei te il hi I X, pp. 1-2A- I --' / /i..11.6).p. ur iuuls or see' ilCieIoi v iin l f trcqiienily. :iid o,r- 83 )IP. Ill. 8)), P. 601), . p1cmI It. 54. Ip it. 2 I. p. 24. '/O. 1 ,inri Ii l o M er, (G;ntler PI' niniiuin5 d u ie/1)' 5.5. Nifike li,irniwe)), P, i/iii,iii iii ci i nun/s ,u T (m -I. i (idig ss A ppri iiches. itd il'/ "/ilii'i/: I/.co'l3, Praitiiianod Tr.umnin III1' Ti.'irl X8 ic/if IRiuut' Iiiiliiii'rig I0lslruge,"ii TII/r/uu P eRiiHiuletgt, Nt'w Yourk, 1993), p.17 1 99 ;), pp. 1 8 i24. and 101. s1Iiris ii/in Sunrvi,s Ill .4si.i znd? tb,- Pa, V(I. 1. Pr . . ..... lin9). lliiiedl N,iriiiii ILJN.). Tin' Wiiirld/s Wtine'it 3.I~ rio 1. I C Picfc,('s).I./ I, Rcu' .- O-1)70.1)1)/: I r.'-it,Is indSt 8i/istics( 11 tN., 56 7 )i .I5.p -4 ~,ufvmli .S ni'u,ii,. Manila.. P1hi/ippincii iiiiian, New '(, irk, I 1/9 I) p. 17. >~ lioscf Ugder. -/0 erturbuuint:u,riiun RIle1euidu - 2UU2K (9i/1 )Asmi:u IDeveloupmuenti Biluk iiid ered" 'I Il Ur/idnaiiij nII if &,, Tui)Ij, FL01lu miuuc Develum1ptmrutiiishiiiiire, N.iiiil.i, 102 11i it. 58S, p. 4. 3,5 irhl, joset Id; igler- ,ic). (O/t1rdiLrt l liuurcrsitiv1111 Iiuumi Ic I I)1, p. 38. 93 I/ I. . I8 s,P. 1-1. 28 Wort,! Retsiurc'cs 1996-97 Cities and the Environment 94. (lIP. iii. 18, p. 1- 13. the' (Unt'!l tatic: A .Natiwin.i Ri'piiit Oni I/Is' I 2is. Ariiiikiriii.ir Bhliri, "Riilksi: (. hroTIii Stiar- 95. l)aeid Sarrerrhswate. 'lHe.ilth isvd Levisioil Rad' d an,! .% ,r- F i-l ii i,mzri,' C har,i tc,st'istii cir .' TI,, I/taus `,t Si,c'iv'/ I/Is' I ri'i-r, sunii'rt iinita,l Problems in tire (lities oii D)t`e/opsilg sf I "'wsrini/iiirtri' it/III i1dzir,!.i vs icti' Siic/'t94 ) NIis 3 1. 199-4Is, pp. I I ( I 17 Couintries," in Populst,ion Distr/ibutiorn an (lnited f,hurth ol ( hirsim New 'i irk, I 4978 21 2 V rldl Heslil I fg.isit.ii/ iiii W H )i inid AMigratiorn, Pre, ssedlngs if tb' Usittd!Ns- a,Iiid RueIs ir1 Bry m a ri ud PausIr N Ir ILIr. eds.. Uijiied N.ris I iis ( IlisIIsLIrCT I FtIrIid FLINI I(-F) ttions (LI. N.) Expert Mcutsing Oin P s/in!dit in l<,sI' ansi the lr, iiiiii'ici'r/ Liiiiesiiicii'tita rnt Wi.ii, Su`,pply urul `,.itr.irrion Mnlitioir- Dietrei/butirr; atii, .'el ats,i ,ieii .5m ( TriiQ, 8o- Phi curlj`: .A Tins'ic /ii Iit,', Ou,, e I' WL-,r% sc%i i ig PlIi .5 iiitilev, (S' ite' Sn/pi/iv , iind ,i lit-id. 18-22 Ianuan 199 ?i L/.N., Ness Press, Biiiildlei , iilor,td, I. 199.>. t/It .5'i,1 Ii .Xli.nr, Ineir~ 1< i,>sI t 9'// (NV W (I York. Auigust lY9f4f, p. 18.3. 1 I/i. (_irlo, N. l.nrsr.re. D),imil A. jtIiii iit .id sirs I Nli, Lb Iiiiii Mnlsiiror ing Prigrirsimire, 96. Michael Douglaissv'The P'olirt.il Ftssuisrsrv Dxiritl B. THiiisi,rl, ''Deseliipiiit (tho Errs' Ness )rii Ind (eI'a 199;, hearst' I, ofi U/rin Povert> and Ens ronirrrurerr l Mnl. roinuieslsirl id),iro.tii sIni Thin) WVtrld ( it- p r . 10 . .geinentr: Access~, Ernposeei'isert and (lrii es,'' drAt hi ml rLporit /5essidtrL S .. sti .irsr I csriri n iii usu.11riys Bived Altere,irrset," Eivrrssrimn'rt Agents~ (or lrrciieritiroril I teselopinreri 1 ini-O for A.4.. oil the Plicihilt %si' arns U/rili,iiz,iirirrt Vol. 4. No. 2 rOtriiber W orrld Resrirm cys Iisirtirie. \W.si,hirgrsir,if/'/.itttii itAta/!i'l rri I)i 1 992). pp. Ili- I 6. D).(.. April 26(. I 993,), n. i tN. ,/U 1Ncss ir- In A,ia an. 2-45.1Pd )' 97. The Worlsd Baink', loe!h! Dci're/pinrrt Re- II I. I/ii ., Pp - 1 29. 1 ,irokIs is psellieils ,I .z.. I'm ri'i,imrnti/t .ini! puni 199/3: Iittenltrn in Hcs/th (TIle World 112 ,CI/. IIt. 'i. 1. 22. Hc'dt/' sIn Vir i-/isire C ,iron c': (it Air/lv Bank, Washingioin. lD.., I1993). p. 90. I13 le rnm ," ea(I%\.nICr-l ,O n" ra if l,1,1 1w X' 98. LUimred Natiioins [)ve'tloipmentt Pirogimrirrie, sirds 11 OViris.1tisii Sir.iregies: Regioisi.l Viewse,' tie,' !),itr (I Oiiildssni SLleeso i I-I H ii'ii' &s Humnrt, Di't't',sr/on irt Re/tint I i)i5 )('i\tird xin . Afc -Cuv Gtiiu-i/' run thw Prune', Rit- Tiopi5.rl \/, il'e nir tsll.rlsir,iti niii ss ir IIs rr- Lniiversity Press, Ness 'Yurk, I 990r, P. 86. irid J. Fmiths it it.. Ads. UnitCLI N.oJIM11 F/sri- tl.ls.iis SkAhI 4. sir (,li,is, \/iiiismrN isl Iri%is- 949. Tins Camipbsell. ''Erisionmitent,il Drlerismsm eerirts 'revs. Ncss i rk, I 9if45, p.2 I rr.l(ilsnt'sil. I orslidisr. I 49f4), pp. 2'I, 9"'. iris tilie Urban Poor." iii -'itrteirt...rini' n/ .54/rdi!GA11111 Mio - I'1.NainIK"'ITl ucl A ,d.u el 1/re Potor: fevl'pu' es/ titn Str.tte5'e fir i C-iir riresisil P'roblemrs iii I iiw-lntoiimi ILIs': Ass Is c,is et i'4i nii ( seirsns .r. A.(_ ..,iid A,.]e- /urn .Ai'inida,i H. Jeffrey Lei ,irirs, ud. tIter- OsireinseL ut I'r'oblemsu indl Pfuoees sr Ins- iniiii N,mit isr de Isigemisi rn. A\.(_. Aer- seais D4eeelopnriimii Coiun ii. \5,'ishs ingrn pr'nilr"la a lbic ai m,V I 7 t) i,,IIu px I p" n'-M 1 DIc.. I 9891, P. ' 77 Ni. 2 199/), P. IO ff5 / /.'. kfir \is.rrr/iis N.iiinri.il A,.itl,iim 100. tlmimmed Narinuirs. Eiis'ri snmmnrerim Pruigi'.ieriiie. ('risc, \'t'.rsliiiigiiPsii,W Itt .. (9O4> I ),9 p. 'r. s. 100. liiitd Natons E viionicnt roprainie. I I 5. )(P. 'it. I ((8, pp. I-IA4. Ern'trr uiemrsnit,l BDtta ReP/riit ) Ii,ilv I'Bil-i k- I 31. Irs:1 F l/iti'"AFlrr1 Cilr( rip) Is H.rltI ('ill: seell, 0lisord, U/nimtes IKrrgdOriii / 99 1)(6. I ft/i. iti S Is.I Isipuiss% tIg I \',sti eir ids S.rmimIt . inim s',rs ItsI's Irs1 P. 8. I I" Cl. itt. li,P. I16. Wlo ivsilu/sim 'r Idl.' I nIn'-roirns/n'rrt Vol. 1ill. PareitrI ScIsCarimey. ''Urbirm ReseariCh Ills i I I X_ )/P. Itt @1. P.9I. i~ Ni. 4 r I/993 ',.p IrI. Dlevelopinrg WocrIld: Fiirr A4pproaches iii the I(. Ii, Enrvieronmiieimt of Cirties," is Lrbanti Rea I19. -\isiusi TIhe miiTermr.Trres.l surg.siimz.smssis N%ok- III the De'e/su/sntg Worlds: T7wsrrie! .tn rig iri tlie br//sn .gngiid.i ire Tlie Wi rld I 'I3. ( I~ I it. h. A. ei.sutda fur f/re j1990/c Rihrd/.ns Siren, ed. Brisk, rIse Unitedl N. otsiis (.etrii' Iot HLrlIr:as I 4 i/i it 2. Fi't-rir 2, (/.I' I. I 9,1. ik/misiersiry sif Tor-oimss 'Etroistti, IL)iy4). S'[esilerisirs I H.rlrt.r) the Lniried] Nit/tin' I S )/.i 9". p. 4I. Dl)e'sliiprrrni P'rigrmirmnin,is' nrt rIseU.s 1 02. Janiiis DI. Berisrtei n, "Lanrd Use (.o sidviu-ra - Agen' is i er-risi/ is lsii'ii s Thy' 2: l )chmi' 1 (',sci/ /m th'r'r/ ms/ rf/' it 5- trions ini Urban LmrvrrtunminTetrrl \I.isl.ge- ( 20. TIrt riisiflst:r Of reseirsh HIs 1 sis tiss isriss nieisli3 rsr /5The W Irld li/ilktr Wts, i/nilgbttn 'Deuit iiferi Lrbiit," NUr .iniMan gemienti liriigi..iris isn ihe' bsiiowns igt'ild.r ire toor rr11in 'ricr:' is 'I92)1 P. 40. D/stsnssisii P.rpee No. 12 lThse Wosrldl Brisk ent1er Isere. Isii it lttlei ssAsrrisIr 1iirr Jt si.ls i Washinsgtonmi Dt.., I1994p, p. 17' trei Uniiversiry iot Tisrisrii, C,eirrr lie 1 Irlmn 1i 37. WVirlid HeLdth tlrI_.lriIJi,.iis (WHO)l, T/he 103. El/s. itt. 99. rutd ( osrlintimriii StisldIeS: rIs D)ep.irrrreis usf ('s.rhI! Hr'.ri/' Ri/s..ri / u9i: Birrukri,t, tbe' Cirs indl RcIgionrrl PI'L.inissri, FI:vesrsits isi Gai/i 5\ Ho . WIIJu'mer 1')9S), p. I1ff. 104. Op. cit. 101. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Wiles. C.rrdnit: the- N.itiisirml 11rsrtri'Le if 15Ir- 135. 1 /.it.I , P5. I S. 105. Porus Olpadwal.i .tid Willim.ri Ws(. (.orld- sinr .AIt.rir. News Deli,lli. m: J Ist' line r 1tlii smith, ''The Sumst-ainai,blirs' of P'ris'ilege': Re- iisil Instr/sile sir F.it%rs'iu/isiri sisl ' 39. ( ..rtrtr Br rlssdon sits Risies-h R{.iin.iikstt). flecriscis osmrihe ETivsiroirnieiit, ilt' Tlssrd Develoipmienti, Biteimu, .Aires', .Arge,sriinr: .it 'Iss .1snrd s'siiri'r.l .i'sIi 'World Cuts, .iid Psiverms,'' Wt'sr/i! I)(s'ss'/s/- ilie NI.zrisgsr. hrisirimic, NL.irobli. Nests,i Asli," Woulld Pink DI Iistrsioil P.ipser Nis. nricrit, Vol.' 20, Nit. -111 992 1, p. 6 Wi. 2124 I lIre WinYk Brisk, \Watshingiton, D.C. 12 1. Fist .5 p.itillsrri ing sit morssi rnite imrsimil H iLsIr- I/i I) 1); s . 49L. 106. OAp. (it. 96. ga z,ii ioLiissi strkir npri isi slt' lrriws'r .sgtsd , lAO TIme 'sNirll Brisk. (.ilcnt. rI/iMan,'ms'bsn'e/ 17 er.i . Prodv et al.. "B/sood Lead Levels in see LliiltLed Naioiins ('ctirtre (sir Hrri:.sii Settle- i/irta /',/!'sc hI "nIir ,rr .Arnr.is'I.5 sf `,t- tIre U.S. Popiilamioin: Ph.,le I of the Third Ni- siserlis Hairi,Iir'sr fOi' s/ Nsin C Li'srn- s'r'I citic (tVse Wosrud Bansl. W.rsliiigiuiii, rsosial Health anid Nurtrir itn Lx,msrsssissirio lr/i'/ltl I )r'y.5tiicaitrsus III i/i' bi I/ 'I 11tsirr,s/ D I .. I h ,i'5 eilir I 99),f P. 9. SLrmvsey / NH.ANES Ill, I 988 ni 199/r ,"- Iiirm- `.Sl'tt!i's n/ts ;Hibitit, Nit-irli,Net.r inalolsthe / is' nctrt,arr M'ls'drr11 .'ssie,tsit99(1). I he JOsArieil 1- ris'i sirsms'rtt ,stni Ui- 1 l. 1 )in.iiis1.11is0i1 fir1 F.OT/ riOIs11t ( p im \Vol. 2 72, Nit. '4 (jirly 271, I 994i1, P. 277. ni,iri.tnim arlsis regis/irIs' pumlslisie pi'otiles .1id1 DI t''IsisieitpIIIII IO ' D)I. bi'riisits 1 08. Rordimer R. Whirte, LU /,rba Ert'risiitrimsstill sif tIcIigOss'srsrrIlt'iIs.sl srILg.srsis'.sirsrrs ss'rki'Lig Inj.si- rs if )b'( (). l'.rris, I0941. p. 4if Managemetl'net: b/ri trsi/t/li'i/il/ '/h,ntie' ,rIn Olhist lriss.iin t,'iR'iCICtei . / 42. Njsisis.l Rs'si'.lrLt Ir (t /iTiLil, ( sIi/iiiiitceL On U'r/bant Design (John WilIcy & Son se v. , hrihes' I 221. tIP. itt. 99), P. I - i,(P. witseirrt N Irsirgrsciiin ti,r . o .i,rit U Irlsint tee, Uniied Kinmgdomi, I1s941, pp. 7 , 7.A rct'. , A5 l,rrnts,iing-( W ,,sci 's/si sir C.ai,srt. LUe- 109. bir te iirrhs.r readimng sir ens irosiirrlir.r!lali' j .( is.it.6 /tr '(rsca I N.rmiim.i) At.idisemt Press, \\V.slh- tice. see Rioibert D. BillrdIlin. I )/fslpsts/ sIt 124. / p ar. ", spp 43;-4 i. irigisros. D.( .. ( 993/. PP. (2. ts 9.62. Bixri': Ra,e'e C/ass, art! FIi'iesiitsti'ti.i Quii/- (25. P. K. Rue', "-Luitkisisss: SlIss% D,eih Oi si .i /4/ D)igL.is F. K(sris's s/ .t/.. '' rlsirl Fise-gs its, (Westvewn Press, Botilic]r, t olorir.sr, 'Wirer Sistr-rte. T/,, Hindui/ Swirs in i/ tL'be sIz- I r.sifs:ii sir. P'seenns, irs1i/s Fe viirrsu11iie1r: (994/, Uliitred Chusrchi iOf theit ( oniiiiri-issrin tr'iri/sn s'iu I 5 4 (Ma 'sr ' 13 I. I 4) irs/I/si'rscrt.siisndw sirs' (Rile is'Ise 1 I rl.ii Hoiist'- fori R.itial Jutiscje, 'Tsxis' W wIts' ,i/i 1/is's c,In pp. I I9- 1 22. ru/s(lI I iit sII D)s'silipsisg ( siirrricn-si'.'' tlsl \W"orltd Rc'soiurces 1996-97 29 Cities and the Environment paper (The World Banik, Washington, D.(.., 166. tiP. tit. 16 2. (Tlie World Bairk. Wdshinigton, [).( ., 1994), Sepreniher 1994), P* I'i. I 6~~~~~~~~1. hun L. luies, P,,ri'st Health: It, Aseis.n,'nt pp. 25-26. 144. tip. cit. 97. p. 9 I . anid .Stati (CA B littemr it . i titi: I. xon. 192. J . [Divid Foster, Tbe Ru/i'-i the i't:tv in Eini- 145. tip. L1i. 97. p. 9)1. Uniited Kittgdotti. 1993). p. 42. rwimiin'tai Manargement: 19r94 kLr/ttii c... ILJS. 146. Kirk R. Smiith aiid 'toucheiig Liu, "Inidoor 168. WVilliamn I. (.iesl.i .ird Edwin .ii r. D .rb1 iiierC. Agenicy for Ititerirnatiiiial [)eceliptreiit. Air PollutiuioInit Developilig Cotirirtrics." iiDe iute ad It) Libac k i/ Tier .ini I-,erls: A \Csttgii,D(. 94.P 9 Fpidciniolog-c of Lunig Caiti ir. joirt.tth.r ii X. Glribal tO)'irv'ii'wi Foi estrY Paper Ni. 120 I 93. FriISiiirr Sllill Ct a?.. "V.iuiiig the Fcoiioiiri c Sairtiet ed. (Marcel Dekker, tInc., New 'turTk, luiF,d itiid Agriculture Oi.tg.rrti.rtiior it tIre Impicts iof Etiivirmiitetril Proiblemts: Asiaii l 994). pp. 154-163. iurned Nriroirrr, R,inrir, I)994r, p. 6,1. Cities," Urbatni M.iiagetirerICr Pruugranniite Dis- 147. t p. Lit. I3 36. p. .52. I 69. t ip. it. 95i, p. I 84. curssimin P.per, workirig draift (The Wi Id 148. tip. cit. 137. Table 5. pp. 18- 19. I Ti. tp ~ itt. 5. 1). 26. Batiik, Wishitigriti. ID.( ., 1994), p. I 19. 149. Li/. c it. 8. I 7 I . (,ai) Riirhe aiid Eduairdii Pr tez. "Iliaiit triig I 94. Apogee Research. Inic., "lire Corist if Trtails liii. 'WorlId Health titganztt.iioni iid Lrriied N54 tcir Grhuii Ftisiroiiiictiettal Heailtlh Ilrograiirs port.itiont: Final Rcpoirt," prepared fur 'rire Mills FlVI-TIcretu trtei Progranirrec, Urban Air iii (eutral Arnire i,.- WASH Field Recpiirt COnisercatrirt Law Fouiindation (Mircih l'lNihirir ini Meigaactties if/ the lim rId (Black - Nit 42cc t.Lit ired Si ates Agetic y loii I ire ini.- I 9 94), P. I 2. well Referetice, Oxfiird, Unitied Kuirigdoinri tiruttl D)rveluoptenir, W:tshuitotni D.( li.. (c- 9.DaiShrik,hwnT rie rdTni m I992), p. 19. ioc 933,p (.Luunax, "Trenids ii LUrhiti Rruadw.tv 1:ig, 1.5I. tiup. cit. 5, P. I I. 172. `[ irk-sltiLt I. [ -L,[rbTh i Piliiriring indl Vec- r1o11-1982 tii 1991, VOilMirtr I: Auitiil(i R, I 52. t )p. cit. I .16, p. 52. tie (.i~~~~~~~~~rii C nTil in souintheast Asian ( itic's. potir," Research Repiirr I I131I-6. Vii) I 152. Op. cil. 13(,, p. 52. K~~~~~at,,hsinug /tIiinial if Mcd/i a) .5. rr'ni. VOL. (Texais Trantspourtattion liistitrire, (:ileg a- 153. tip. Lii. 13 6, p.S52. 1 0 c 1 994), p. S-44. triii, Texts. 1 994). p. 32. 1.54. tip. cit. 14 1, p. 75. 1 73. LJiritei Nitiruit Fttrvimint:tet Ptrogrammitte, 1.55. J a:qcqelirec Aloisi de Li rdrel, "The Risks i f bittmiii u niiutal IData Repii rt 1 99 3-94 c BI.ck- I 96. R icbard A triiorr aiid Ken riet h SimallI. "The Expuistrie: The (hallerige Oit [Irbaiti Air PoIlti- %vrll Pirbltsices, tistoid. LUnitted Ktingdiii. Econoiiiiics iit Traffic Ciingesriiii," Amirri- rIoiI- VC I-eer eW,- iii The Hl-ltoaan Face if t/nt' I 99) l). P. ; I . cap Scientist, Vt)I. 82. Nii.. c Sepreniblie / Urban Fin'iroutuneirt. Proceedings of the.Sir'- I 74. Thei sni .ilII dec lire ini .irs is i errit Lri October 1 994). p. 446. und A4 nuua/ Wtr/i/ Batik Cwiitferen e iii In- lie exp(latinetd by iv thr iTIrcu's in the sep.irite I 971. jrines J . .81 icKeiare, Ru ger I.. Di uw. er, .idt~ i'ir uittetta// .Sntatnhh'Dceine/on/iuiin Cele,[] c II Ii oi Ii ecCC bIble III. re Ii [Is I Litch as DoinaId [IT. hen, The' Gmnbg Rate: W'/htt Isiiia il Sciageldiii, NA iclbael A. Ciihetr. atiid gliss .i id p.tper. It Re.tllx' Costs ti, r ive e c(Wiorld Resoi iirccs K. C. Sivair r.m kkris htsitn eds. (The 'Aoii d I 75. tiP. ' it. 14 I. P . Iiistriture, Wish r rgtoi Di . I... I 992), Bati1k, Washtintgont D.C.., Sepretilieri I 9-2 I , I6.L grLndn "N gcits'Tiu'Vi)pp. I 8- 19. 1994c, p.60. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14 1, Nri. 2 Ijirrirry II1. 1991c, p. 16. 1 98. Christmine [tuedy. "Int dcudeutl ieell- 1 56. tirganitisatini i for Ecouituin ic Cu-Opera ti Ii7)i.it-3 p irig-Saving Resiirtrcs iii Asrit Cities,- III alid Dcveloptinerit c LCI)) anrd Furioipean it I7.ri ct 7.P (2 Ciis E.Igi I S,,iun Ap-' tortfeirince iof NAiii itiers oufTr. irsport I 7S. 1OP. it. I. .6. (n. i . pJimarbe's iti iUrbiin.S/pace'. [tavid (iordoiir. Ft.CM I ), Ur/rain Trari'?arid Sutaisttnabi'lieDe I 79. OP/. it Tplp. 6 (-64. c-d. Blaick Ruse Bi iiks, Mont retal, 1 990, 'e/itpmrent c EIM1T arid 0)FCD, litris. I 995). I Xci. ti)/i. it. -,p. 64. pp. 43-54, as cited in Patrriciar McI artier, pp. 33-63. I 8 I. t p. itt. I116. P. ii. .'Urbi.ir Research iii the Dere),iinrg W'Y rld: 157. tip. Litt. 97. p. 96. FuuLAr AXppriiaches toi trei I'nriirorinic'ir i) I it 158. Asif Fart arid Surhid Caurani, "Moiroi izia' 2 ia,i. P 2 ics"i, iG/atR'er' ntn ii5t/ri tioti, U rb.rniastIi)fl. aiid Air Pollutitt," d is' I 8 1. C hei vl Sirmonii Sil(te at( DaleU I S. Riothintani, Woirld: 'Tmvurc'tis ,tn Agenda for the 1i)i9ts cussioni pa per (The Wiorld Baink, 'I cix ics .rid Heal rI: The Prteniaelrr. Long- Rirchatrd Srreni, ed. (GnirtersitY cil Tirinito Washi iigitoit. D.C.. I 994). p. 8. Terrir Et Iccis ot Itndustrirl Acticity." .t report 1 'rontoi i, I1994), p. 22. LS9. 01). at. 136, p. 124. on~~~ii ''' W,rrksh,,p wit the Effects f Irrdursni.lc) 9 I 59. (i/i. cit. 1.16, p. 124. ~~~~~~~~~Acitrivt ott Hkitiaiti aird I'coi su.s nsiert eltlh," 19. p. , it. 1 92, ). l. 160. tip. it. I136. p. IS8. The Itt 0 Pci cci'', ` rIlce, Flu irid,r, May (10). Diivrid Sr tierithrwmtie,."1he Ptrex err bis D~e is- 16 I . tip. cit. I 36. p. 18. 1 9-Itc. I 994, p. 4 I . ease BLirdrii ~i :i ties," rivrirwi iiertt alit tUr- 162. Alliance to Enid Childhiiid Lead ,iNoirsirrg 1 84. LJ.S. Envinirr cirr trrril Prtutcctiot Agenicy bi,rrizttrini,t Viil. 5, Nii. 2 ltOcrouler 199.1), arid FitsirolinrelitalI Detenise I-itrid. The'~ EPA) ItOffice o f A ii Q ualt Iry '' FA Air Qua) 1-P. 5. C/ut/al Dinrr'nsions of Le'ad Pioifntitii,: Air itt Trends." F11.A-4S,4/F-95 001 )IPA. ,\Vaish- 201 Rap Iori,Fidig ndPlc m ia Inittta/ A4nalysis cAllianice to F'rid 1. lrldIlrcI0d itigiont D.C~.. Sc'ptc'rrblsr 1 99.5, pi. 1 2. 2 tI ilpt 1I f irric' "l'tUrdanCi. tRiduPolic Prirpic Lead Poisoning, WiishitIgtuuTi, D1.1., 1994), 1 85. tJ)). ,it. 5. P. Ini ect,'' hirerntartuit.l tiiortcil fur Loucil P. 26. 1 86. iJp. ' it. i, p. 42. Envtriitron etial Irnritiatie's dICLEII Papcr I63. Unitied Stares Agenrcy for Intrerrrarioniit l Devcl' 1 87. tip. itt. 184, p. 8. (IL:LFEI, Tiiriirrtii. J anIIrat I 1 I)991), P. 7 opirrerit (U.S. AID), Ci ititpartng Lotirnun Inrtital He,tith Risks ini Cairn. Lgycpt. Vi/. 1 88. ti/i. itt. 128, P. 5-28. 202. tip. cit. 1 72. II: Tec/unic'al Anini'x'es. drzift p.tpc'r ([(S.AID, I 8. Gritted Nauiriii F5uniniiit rird Stic rl Cumtt- 20.1. Execpiie FcI E tIerrs rrd Marist Miczrn- Washirigioti, DiC., 1994), p. A-;. rrisiii- rrti' .iAsia.i .rd Ireli.c Paihc IESt APc, Hiriantr, "Are M'egat-t iries Vitlnl? A CALI- 164. Ui rrc'd St.r cs Agenicy foir hit erntr.ririrrl De tel' .Stati i h, bt 'in itririni i ,Aslrltdii the Pia- oayFl ri c1oCt, topirrri I.[S.AID), Ratnkinrg L,trritir'i/i'fir'. I 990ts rEstAlP. btrgo.' hrti.tiiir ie rir Acr u, 99 p. 7 1 gkok, I hadxid~ ~ ~ ~ ~I-:sr 'Etntiroi'mnt, VolI. 38, Nir. I dhrnru.rrsffcbrti' Hea/th Risks III Bantgkruk, Thazi d,ir/ 'it Il: I 9 2.p.v .st 99', P. I I. Te'hnti',tl App'nd/iie c UL. S. Al). W.tsh inrg- I 9t1. t5/u. iit. .5. p. 2. 24 p t tori, D.C., Decenriber I1990)c, (. A 8. I I . The Word1] ii B k W,l! I)e, l inn Ri' 24eii i.II5 I 65 tiP. itt 162. port I 994: Iirft'.isIti' tit,'tii ft Oie erb'/nPnti'it 20t5. O p. 'it..S, p. 14. 30 World Resouirces 1996-9 7 2. Urban Environment and Human Health rhanization is one of the major social ousimpactsointhe healthiofurbandwellersevervwhere, U T changes sweepiig the globe, especially in but especially in the fast-growing towns an d cities in the developing countries, where urban developing world. growth rates are the most intense. Soon, This chapter examines these negative impacts of a majoritv of the world's people will be urbanization and the urban environinent on human livinig in urban environimients quite unlike the rural health, particularly in the developing world. Indisput- settings that have been home to most of human society able evidence ties ill health to deficiencies in the physical to date. Urbanization brings fundamental changes in the environment, includinig inadequate water and sanita- ways people live-in the number of people they see, in tion, flimsy, overcrowded housing, air pollution, uncol- the places they work, and often in the quality of the lecred garbage, and dangerouIs workplaces. In poor water they drink, the air they breathe, and the housing cities of the developing world, infectious arid parasitic in which they live, diseases related to these deficiencies continue to exact Such changes have profound implications-both an enorinous toll on human health. positive and negative-for the health of city residents. Now there is increasing evidence of the role of social On the one hand, urbanization and economic develop- factors-including alienation, high rates of unemploy- ment have brought dramatic improvements in health, ment, ethnic tensions, and urbani poverty-in influenc- largely because of environimienital improvemients and, in iing health as well. The effects of the urban social part, increased access to health services. Health statistics environnient are by no means independent of physical show that in the more highly urbanized countries, peo- conditions; they are interrelated. The political and eco- ple tend to have the longest life expectancies and chil- nomic structures within a city fundamentally determine dren under age 5 tend to have the lowest rates of the distribution of and access to the physical, biological, mortality i . Even within countries, urban-rural com- and social benefits that cities provide. In other words, parisons of indicators such as infant mortality and the poorest groups within a city face the greatest expo- vaccination coverage show that there are significaiit sure to physical and biological threats and have the least advantages in urban areas. (See Table 2. 1.) acccss to protective services. However, urbanization can also have many negative These social factors affect health indirectly; through influences on human health. For much of the world, changes in behavior. But the urban social environment growth in urban poplatioLns is synlonymous with also contains direct health threats, such as urban vio- growth in urban poverty, both in absolute and in relative lence, drug abuse, and depressioni and other psychoso- terimls /2). Increasingly, cities are becomiing the world's cial illnesses. These problems are of increasing starkest symbol of the maldistribution of resources, importance in cities across the globe, Indeed, through- both physical and societal. These inequalities have seri- out the developed world, physical threats have largely World Resoutrc-es 1996-97 31 Urban Environment and Human Health Table 2.1 Comparison of Urban-Rural Health Statistics, Selected Countries, 1991-94 Kenya Senegal Bolivia Bangladesh Indonesia Indicator Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Urban Rural Mortality rate for children under 5 (deaths per 1,000 live births) 75.4 95.6 101.8 184.2 104.0 162.0 114.3 153.2 83.7 116.4 Percent of children between 12 and 23 months with all vaccinations 80.9 78.3 64.9 40.4 44.4 28.4 70.4 57.5 65.2 40.9 Total fertility rate 3.4 5.8 5.1 6.7 3.8 6.3 2.7 3.5 2.6 3.2 Percent of females over age 6 with no education 13.5 29.1 50.6 88.7 11.1 33.0 34.0 50.0 15.5 28.7 Source: Institute for Resource Development, Demographic and Health Survey Data Archive, Columbia, Maryland. Note: Data are for the following years: Kenya. 1993: Senegal, 1992: Bolivia, 1994; Bangladesh. 1993; and Indonesia, 1991. receded and social factors are cL 1ergiilg as the greatest broad categories of developed a11d de:veloping counlrl-cs, threatS to publiC hIlealtl. citics differ- Widel in their healith profiles. Profiles die- For these reasons, the t-rmii envzironinent is defiled pendl broadly oin several factors: the nix of en viroii- 1here to inClude not ju ist the physical elei1ilrcs associated nentral risks faced (physical, b)iological, aill social), rhe With trle bUilt environlmllenlt but sociai factors as well. p-roportioil of rile po01Ulation facinig differenit risks, the (See hox 2 I ) This chapter examiin1es, iII partiCul1ar, (denlograpilic lrofile of tile city aild of grotLps within it, evidlenice linking sociocconolllic inetIuities in ciries with and access to healtlh services. All of rhese tend to shifr inleqtiiries in healiltl. First, the chlaprer- dcscrilbes liow with developmient aIlld incireasing wea ltl. hea Itil problemS Stemming frlom tile Urban eivi rolleiit Slic e ile ill il- I 9th ( ellturv, vllni ln provelilenlts ill vary dramiatically fromil city to City, dLependling iilrge the hianldling of Urbain water and sewage hegaln to take part on a Lity s developimental status or wealtl. Nexr, it Ioid, the bL rden of comillunilcallec diseases has steazdily exa;1minies the dramiatic differences bletweenl richl and declined througilootr Illaily cities ill tile dLvelopCLe poor wvithin the samze city. The chaprer thieil explorcs in world. The mla jor CALuses o(f deatll aec now cltronlic aild greater detail how elemiienits of both the phlysical cilvi- degenerative diseases-priniarily hleart disease anld Can- ronii1eu1t anid the social eniivironillieilt ilteract to inicrease cer-that ar-e related tro sueII soCial factois as cliet, tihe burden of ill health. stress, anLI lifestle. An,l receitlv, violence aili acci- Attentioni to the social factors that affect the healthl delts hlave become increasinlgly significalnt c aisCs of of Urban dwellers is relativelv nelw. Past ailalvses have death in cities. tended to focus on elemiienlts of the p1hysical eIiviron- Thils shift fronii coiinitilnicilble to nonconln1i1unicaIlble 111eilt, LIsLiallv in isolatioil. If policies to iiilprove healtli diseases las leen described as thl "epidenliological traln- are to succeed, they mioist recognlize the interconniectionis sitioni" or the "healtli transition" ). Tliis trailsition, Iervweell phiysical alld societal factors a1nd1 strive for ani Wvil Cl is nor uliq Lie to u r5bai ar-eas blit wvlich typically integrared approach. In short, siniplv providilig better occurs first anid fastest there, is related to several factors. pIlysical facilities sucilas imiiproved sail itatioil and avater One is expostiel- to tIle risk factors for disease, which supply-although esseiltialI-is not eloUghl to address cliallge as ConIltries urlanizeiic and develol. Access to the serious healtIl prolblenis tliat plague utrban rcsidelits. effective lealtil services is clearIv a seconid major factor I4% Fiiallv, tile aging of the I)opulation, wv i l is iil tinIri related to iliortality and fertility rates, is also a criticali HEALTH IlROFILES OF URBAN DWELLERS deteriiriiallt, since the incidelnce of chronic aild degenl- erative diseases tvpically inicr-eases with age (ii Sigils of this healtil transitioni are 1o1w appareilt Differences Among Cities throughout cities of the cievelopiig world. In somze Urban residents in developing countries hlave a far cities, especially rthe economlically adva need ones, heart greiter- Iburden of preniature dceati and disease thiail do disease and cailcer are enilerging as iiajor cauitses of theil- coulterparts in developed Coulintries,i reflectiig deatil, as they already have in the developed world. broadly thilr relative povert-y and inadequate access to Indeed, inI cities as diverse as Sao Paulo, Bra/zil; Cape blasic serviees aind opportunities. Yet, even wihinil tiose Towin, South Africa anLId Accrai, G(halla, hlcart disease 32 Wlo rld Resmurcr's i 996 9- Urban Environment and Human Health lJRBAN VIEWPOINT Box 2.1 Can We Improve Neighborhood Quality in Neglected U.S. Cities? Webster's NewrZ World Dictionary de- tor that exploded in 1980 still stands va- other areas must contribute hoth indi- fines the word environment as "all the cant, surrounded by a 2.4-meter-high vidually and collectivelv-along with condirions, circumstances, anid influ- chain link fence. The neighhorhood also husinesses and communities-to finding ences surrounding and affecting the contains clusters of abandoned build- ways to improve the environment and development of an organism or grotip ings and numnerous littered lots. Police qualitv of life in multiple-hazard neigh- of organisms' (i. In other words, every- wvarn visitors not to venture into public borhoods. thing we see, smiell, feel, or hear as soon housing projects located in the center of -Micbael Greeniberg as we walk outside our home is our East Elizabeth because the area is said neighborhood environnment. This in- to be the local epicenter of illegal drug cludes not onilv trees and sidewalks activitv. MiAcbael Greenberg is a pro/essor of ur- but noisy neighbors, litter in the street, When surveved, the citizens of East bian stitdies and conmnunity health at abandonled hooses, and polluted air. Elizabeth, as well as local government tie Edward /. Bloustein School of Plan- In policymaking. however, rhe United experts, recognize that there are Multiple sling atnd Puiblic Policy of Rutgers Uni- Stares, like many other nations, has a sources of environmental risk. They also iversity. New Brunswick, Neit' Jersey. much narrower definition of cnviron- sav that solving one or even two of these ment. In local, state. and national gov- risks is insufficient to substantially im- References and Notes ernment. environmental problems are prove neighborhood quality c >)s6. 1. David Giiralinik, ed ., Webster's Nera equated with air, land, and water pollu- At this time, however, the U.S. gov- Worltd Diciohiarn'. second edition (Siimion tion. Crime is left to the criminal justice ernment does not assess the cunmulative and SchUister, Ness York, 1980), p. 468. system; blight is the responsibility of risk of living in neighborhoods with 2. Patul Porriiev, ed., Piblic Policy for Enzi-t- hotisinig. comniiliitv developnment, crimc and other behavioral hazards, se- ronmnental Protection (Resources for rhe police, and firefightinig organizations: vere physical blight, and multiple forms Future Washington, D.C., 1992), pp. traiffic noise, congestioni, and access of pollution. Experts well-versed in air are left to departments of transporta- pollution modeling and epidemiological 3. RichGrd Sinlih, Richard Alexader, aind tion. stdies have neither the manidate nor Trenids in the Nation's Risers," Science, The U.S. Environmental Protection the skills to assess risk from other pollu- Vol. 235 (1987). pp. 1607-1615. Agency's narrowv environmental man- nion problems. 4. J.G. Calvert. it al.. "Achievinig Acceprable date has not prevented the agency and Furtherinore, crime, uncoiitrolled Air Qcialiry: Sonie Rellectioiis on Control- its state progeny froni improving the dogs and rats, abandoned andi unsafe hog Vehicle Emiiissions," Science, Vol. 261, enviromninent. Nationally, despite SUb- buildings, and various forms of antiso- No. 5117 1993), pp. 37-39. stantial increaises in popuilation, produc- cial behavior and phvsical decay are 5. Michael Greenberg acid Dona Schneider, tion, aid consumption. eniissions into not included with pollution in risk as- "Hazardous Waste Sie Reiiiediation, the air, land, and water have decreased sessments. As a result, mitigation ef- Neighborhood Change. and Neighbor- 12)3)(4). But this single-agency mandate forts tend to be piecemeal and hocod Qiialiiy," EIn'rocnmiental Health Per- does not work for inner-city neighbor- tincoordinaned and thus unlikel tum specties. Vol. 102, No. 6/7 (1994), pp. hoods, wlhichi face a multitude of haiz- markedlv reduce the risk these neigh- 54254. ard s. borhoods face. 6. .Michael Greenberg and Dona Schineider, The inner-city neighborhood of East I cannot offer a realistic and simple so- EnLircncne'nially Devastated Neighbor- Elizabeth, New jersey, exeinplifies the lItion to the multiple environmental (Riirgers UPeiversios Press. Ned Brunsetik, array of problenms facing declininig probleins of rhese neighborhoods. How- New lersey., 1996t. U.S. cities. Residents conifront deafening ever, if efforts to rehabilitate our cities noise fromi Newark Airport. the 10th are to succeed, we must redefine the busiest airport in the ULnited States, concept of environment in a way that located just 1.6 kiloineters away. matches the realities in multiple-hazard The New Jersey Turnpike, the most neighborhoods-in a way that is closer heavily trafficked road in the United to Webster's definition. We caninot set States, runs directly thiouIgh the priorities for actiol uiiiless we under- commn1unity. stan)d the full extent of the risks these The largest petrochemiiical complex on commn nities face. For now, those best the Last Coast, which, according to equiipped to ser priorities are the resi- toxic release inventory dara, is the sev- dents and local officials who live and enth largest waste-producing site and work in these neighborhoods. eightlh largest emzitter of toxins in New It is also clear that no single agency Jersey, is located on the southlwest can play the heroic knight. The agencies boundairy of rhe neighborhood. The site responsible for environment, criminal of a fornier hazardous waste incinera- justice, housing, transportation, and World Rcsoirsrcs 1996-97 33 Urban Environment and Human Health in developing counitries, the burden of Figure 2.1 Causes of Death in Three Cities communicable diseases, related to pov- A. All Ages B. Ages 0-14 Years erty, coombines with risks of chroniic diseases, assocciated with social condi- (percent mortality) (percent mortality) tions, to create a double burden of ill 100 100 health (161. 90 90halh 61 80 80 These changinig patterns of health in 70 70 urban areas can be seen by examining 60 601 50- _ 1 50- data on the causes of death in three very 40 40- different cities: Accra, Sao Paulo, and 30 30 _ Prague, Czech Republic. (See Figure 10 20 2.1.) The health profile depicted for 0 A 0 _ each urban center reflects not onilv the Accra Sao Paulo Prague Accra sao Paulo Prague impact of environmental health policies C. Ages 1544 Years D. Ages 65 Years and Older pursued in the past but also the impor- tance of the demographic mix in par- (percent mortality) (percent mortality) i u c 100 100 ticular urban centers. 901 J J " 90 5E3 E E In both Prague and Sao Paulo, two 80 80- economically advanced cities, the pro- 70- 70- 60 * 60- portion of deaths attributable to infec- 50- 50- tious and parasitic diseases is now 40- 40 - extremely low for the overall popula- 30- 3 20 20- ontiO (0.3 percent in Prague and 4 per- 10 c10 cent in Sao Paulo) (171 s). To a great Accra xtent, these statistics illustrate the level Accra Sao Paulo Prague Accra Sao Paulo Prague of wealth of each urban centcr and the iE Infectious and parasitic diseases * Respiratory diseases relative success of past initiatives for U Circulatory diseases * External causes * Other improving urban health conditions. Both lrague and Sao Paulo have made Source Carolyn Stephens etal., Environmentand Health in Developing Countries: An Analysis efforts to p ro vi de comprelhensive water of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical and sanitation coverage, along with Medicine in collaboration with Fundacao SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Health and Ministry v i o gis pv ta of Environment, London, 1994). vacctnl.tioil progrillls for preventable Notes: Data are for the following years: Accra, Ghana. 1991; Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1992; and infections and basic hicalth services. Prague, Czech Republic, 1993. External causes of death include violent deaths-mainly traffic accidents and homicides. In Accra the picture is somewhat dif- ferent: infectiolis (largely diarrlieal dis- eases, malaria, and mneasles) account for and cancer are nlow leading causes of death, just as they 18 percent of all deaths i ). Limited access to basic water are in London and Washington, D).C. 6) (7) (8) (9). Vio- and sanitation facilities explains part of the profile lence has now reached epideemic proportions in some withiln Accra. Yet, demographic factors are also impor- urban centers in South America as well as North Amer- tait. Of the three cities, Accra colntailns the largest pro- ica (o1) (II) (1 13) (14) (IS). portion of children under age 5, and young children are The health transition, however, is by no means com- most vulnerable to the risk of death from infectiols. plete in most cities in the developing world. In fact, the Respiratory diseases are significant in all three cities, image of a smooth transition from communlicable to accounting for 12 percenit of all deaths in Accra and Sao noncommunicable diseases as developimient progresses Paulo anid 3.5 percent in Prague (211 2n. does not seem to fit the evolving health profiles of these In both Accra arid Sao Palo, diseases of the circula- cities, many of which are struggling with high iiicidences tory system are the primarv cause of death in the of both types of problems. . population as a whole (24 and 33 percent of all deaths, Although data on overall causes of death in urban respectively) Q2?. In Prague, as in most developed areas of the developing world are sparse, they preseit a cities, the proportion is even higher (54 percent). general picture of urbani populations in developing Accidents and violence emerge as more important countries suffering the "worst of both worlds" in their than infections or respiratory conditions in both Prague mortality profiles. In other words, for residents of cities and Sao Paulo 2312 24). 34 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health Differences Within Cities Figure 2.2 Infant Mortality Rates in Bangladesh, 1991 Perhaps as striking as differences among cities is the variation in health (deaths per 1,000 live births) among different groups within the same 160 city. This variation within cities flies in 140 X the face of conventional wisdom about 120 - the effect of urbanization on health. 100 * Until the late 1970s and eariv 1980s, 80 - urbanization was viewed as a consis- 60 - tently positive force for improved 40 - health, largely because it resulted in 20 - better access to health services. 0 Comparisons of average urban Total Male Female health figures with average rural figures Ci National * Rural U Urban U Urban slums suggest that this is so, but such com- parisons conceal gross health inequali- Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Bangladesh Demographic Statistics and 1991 Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, as cited in Marcel Tanner and Trudy Harpham, ties within the urban population 12i) (26) 'Features and Determinants of Urban Health Status," in Urban Health in Developing (2'). In many ciries in developing coun- Countries: Progress and Prospects (Earthscan, London, 1995), p. 36. tries, evidence now suggests that health Note: Rural and urban mortality rates were extrapolated from 1991 data. tres, evidnenwsgetthteah coniditions for the urban poor are some- times worse than they are for their rural counterparts fivefold greater risk of contracting tuberculosis than j28) i29) (30). (See Figure 2.2.) their better-off neighbors, (4,. In London, there are two- In the developing world, mortality rates are signifi- fold health differences in rates of heart disease, tubercu- cantly higher for children in squatter areas of cities than losis, and other respiratory diseases between those living for children living in nonsquatter areas (3l). For exam- in poor areas and their wealthier neighbors (35. Similar ple, in Tondo, a large squatter settlement in Manila, patterns can be discerned in social risks too. In Kansas Philippines, infant mortality rates are nearly three times City, Missouri, in the central part of the United States, greater than those in nonsquatter sections of the city. In African-American adolescenits (12- to 1 6-vear-olds), addition, the incidence of diarrhea in Tondo (adults anid who tend to live in poorer areas, have a I 3-fold greater children) is two times higher and the incidence of tuber- risk of injury from firearms thani white adolescents (541 culosis is nine times higher than in wealthier sections of compared with 42 per 100,000 persons per year) (361. Manila .32). Urban violence tends to concentrate in particular In interpreting environmental health differentials, it areas of cities and towns. In a 1990 study, mortality is important to keep in mind that poor people in general rates among African Americans in Harlem were found tend to be more vulnerable, both physically and eco- to be the highest in New York Citv-and 50 percent nomically. With their greater levels of exposure to poor higher than those of all African Americanis. The study's sanitation, overcrowded conditions, inadequate niutri- authors conclude that the mortalitv rates among people tion, social stresses, and environmental pollutants and in Harlem justify classifying Harlem as a natural disas- their limited access to health care, they are ilmore likely ter area. Survival analysis showed that men in Harlem both to get sick and to remain sick. Moreover, the were less likely than men in Bangladesh to reach age 65 economic consequences of illness tend to be more seri- (37). Data on the distribution of violence within cities in ous among the poor, often unideriniing the already the developinig world are sparse. In Cape Town, how- fragile finances of the household. The financial loss that ever, honicides account for 19 percent of deaths in the occurs when an income earner is ill or when medical black community, but just 8 percent of deaths in the city bills must be paid can help create a cycle of poverty and as a whole (38i. chronic ill health (33). Nor are the health differentials between wealthy and The Special Vulnerability of Children and Women poor confined to the developing world. In cities in Even among the poor, certain groups are more suscep- developed countries as well, the poor show dispropor- tible to both biological and social risks than others. The tionately high rates of death and disease for a range of very young and the very old, for instance, tend to be problems. For example, in New York City, children in more susceptible to infectiouis diseases and are more overcrowded poor households in the Bronx have a likely to die if they do become ill. Worl/l Resourc-es 1996-97 35 Urban Environment and Human Health x I i [lil l railitels thc lli 1it rapidi Llisseitilltililt of respi- rIa.tor-V (diSCeas 4-i. _ _ ..... Inldoor- Midtl outdroor- air pnolliitait.till Cii d111iltta' eClhil- d rei's In. ng tiSSueS. pred i -i is O si )S itgL thlliit to viral OI-r lIactt- rial ilfectiols. Th .re is also didi.lee that iiraim n . w _ 7 } u t~~~~~~~~~~~lII' MM:lllI1tiltll lC;ltol'S IlSSoCiItC>t1 Wvltl l(} 1W Higl"oHI - c5''+ '* 9tttii vi rlgm nal lftiC rlsa t stilli tIiwer-IIlCtlil setig caiagr tt, andIL perhap;jS eVenl ii1iitiat, child1.- hloodi astliiiia. Thlese tfCtors 111CILC inclu oor pOlluiililtts tfro lIl ookin,g tires, co0al-fired hlarelrs, SeoitdhaiLd11L. ciga1- rette simioke, aidli Other sotires, als we11 as a Ilergt ls associated withl i iJust IImites aiid cci ikr iclics 4;. 44' (4s. i ; 1 rInifantan; liildll deili iII poor settleitielits is Oftenl lor y) W j _ _simply the resuilt If a1 diSCrete dIiseaIe bLIt tI1 oLlteCilic t i a series o(I lwalt ILh problmnis. This tvpicaf li ilnlvlves aiin itIrp-laTz11 of MilillitlritiOll, a VsllaetV Oft iitt1CtiOils kis- eiases, and, pitssIh1l1, xlostire tl liio tiiical pollitallits. lack ot Ifha1t1 care iItCraSeS vutillcralbilits& Social flctors, too cii hle itlillrtailt ill iilctlasinigthe: halclr1i risks tl at ii trhilt clil ird ril tace. AdI Ilesceilts scceit L tul he poitll-ti.tilarlk aIffCtedL by illiladcLnairt Lirltaii soliia i ei_ tiviruiiiiiits. l)tta trii siili cities iii Notirtli aitd Souti AiiienAica-l siggeSt stri kiig, age-speifitc P I blitis wvitIi lioIitiicitl1s ;tii0Iilg o0111ig eIIlI aid1 ItOs. 11) publiC Ih;ltlh trterms violIcco 1i ) iversiltlO ws iitfeictlOins dl sa lses als a cau1 tse ot (If death anioiig hIdert- childC eit1 iIl s0111o i lbilh _citvirh)ii tieiit.s h, 4,. Yl- orOeai tie, vilciice-i0tsrly lloni icid ts-aC i nnC tedfohir Xf v6prcenit of All deatlhs if boN's algteS Is to I') iII Sa ltPaulo III M9L9 iii.C2 rirltal hal, Of ;ll cidelaths aiiiong S- to 14-ya-old-O11l bOy's 14si At risk. P(?r uc?ien ani ci/dwin iw '.spltt' I' "''d U: b' ' Urban, Wuililil a Iso face ilnCreaISed lita irisks, lal-gel /54!;} 1/)1?V.#(Sil1§1( lcd 1'w soc ia TOats 0^ i/I;' ,IlJ11 111O 'i}ijiw l'O,'' 1t ,) '1! becus iiftltt (thi tl s oc(}ial andt ec)liioilitc rhile s. svhilit cx- !;oii;olrs> (''( ts {91Xw 1 507(0 a o2lvidto Cs) ( 1 .;t. ~1)0>t trlhlni to grelatelr iiniiters otf eiilviliiliitital hla.- JrdlS. \W0111tt allrC usually responsille for torakiig CalreL Ot StuLdit's show rhalt rhe inc ireased lical ri rsks thiat sick clilidretli itcreasiiig theirdtiR-er x p uO ilc to IJisaise- iiipuove -islied Cl11iirell ffaCe Ill cities enall be sigilific i itc a;LIS1L'g orgainis s. They usually take pri r [rs it,01- ( hlildrenall eCXposedi tO al ni-rage of inifectionls agents sibilir t o linilig Wifrt aicl Washing liltiry- allL toxiC CoIitii1iinaiitS dtiirinig play, at nmeals, antd at activities that cali 1rt be ha,raLotd s wvhre sanllirtationl is poor, schlool or othler coitimnitlzall acttivities [ '; Intestinall Xstashin g facilities lreilnadeulalte, aiLt waterl-suppliesar iSol-trdi trs such aS severe dLinarrlic, causedi bNyI a allnetst C(Iltiiit lliltnIt ted m,. As, theC hIiSeiiOl fOO1u 1 r ar r, uif bacrteriia viruises, 11t1 Ic;l' p sites, are tig the most bai womenii flit (develllpiitg Wo d](1 alr oft(ii -xphisOCl pFrCeivlent 111C] serioIus ilClii risks to elili(reit expOsedL to very higl levelsot sitoi e fromiicitksroves svliiclt illso to poor sainita tiont or conitaiilited water suLIpplies. (0r ) it rithim at risk of receivilig liii rits. rite 5 itilliiincliildritwho ar eStiiliItedLt die a iiiLil' Plhisiological ftLicrrs also play- a parr in iiiakiiig of ali;arl-lcal cliseases ini the dlevelopiig vIOirld. rtih mllai- woitien's lw-a lthi itlroi vuliierable. \Xoiltie tie parrtiel- juIrirv conte tfltil prl r bin fmlln.'lii lie 4i) . Iriv alt i-is k during pr-gnialicy altla flrfrclliIdliirr-ifl, bcilig lRespirtitrvn ii[ecrttiols, whlicih are the seOnLid iinosr itOre vnliiera ble to solite Acliitticl toxins andi(I Ilnont eOIIIIIIOII Cliise of deaithl aitto0ig chlilLireil iII rlth de-el- sLlseCti Isle tuo certa it diseases, suLchi as iililalhari i,t, (si oupinig wsOrldl 41i, lso pusti a1 p aIrrtilC1i- i risk ro eliildi-eli The kindis of eittllo itteitt that wvoiieii bavs iccess to ill Lirbaii setrings. switli Overui o-e- tlisig andi air pollht- OfrtL-n pit thiciti at i-isk as ssell. Mainy uiri;tin woiteii ili tioiii-1orhi iIlOOIurs duld ol tdooi-s--eing two signitii- dexeloping cthIiitiies work it siialil-SCAhel indusirrics uoiitt coittribuzntors to this risk. ()vc-rcriI\vo.e eciiw t ions wxlure roxi c deliiiiea arc l itctin tisudl witloiuir adCpi;tlat incr the l evels IOf exIustire toiXSL- to i ii fectCLiiid ivida 1 IC s , safegiard.1s. Pvlec-work dIone lltie, suLIch ;ts, falbricatilig 36 Wo;/h/ Rcswerfr-s I )")-9) Urban Environment and Human Health san1;dals or articles of clotlilig is a onimii soutr-ce of thie threat fromii thlese uiLihealrhfu)C l rrlaii coiiditioiis was t inCOmeI amo10nlg urban women nld ca involv t uIL Lse of inidLed Public and reLired(l ;a plblic respoise. dangerous alidhesives andLI othier- flamniniahle or toxic mal- Thie environnitalr concerns of the wvorklds wealthy terials zŽ. Risks to w\oinen (duec to cheical e xposLre, Ilhave iiioveCC on. aLn international atrteLioln h as fol- repetitive iliotioli, or stress are highi eveni in many miiod- lowed L sLt. Now, comparisons of average 1Lthanll ai cI-iL rban inl dustries such as microelect r oiics,s ain. Ia 1ge- t-o1111 iortalitt rates dI(o iilt dlisplay the sanei ur,rlai sea Ic ga riment iiianufactmriiign where w iia.11ke up a d1islad altal, eveli iII cotilirrics wlihere urbanl sailit.tioii high percentige of the work torte W tlostitiitioi witl is p1'or. HI eVr, as illustrared III t1h pre [ iOnS seCtion, its predominantly .ita foctis. is assocMiatedI witil a hlosr aserages hicid gross (dispriatit s 1ii tlhe leailth staturs of urbaii dlwellers. \laii city resIC-idens la1ce eiis Iitoniiieiital if hieailthi risks. -rom sexually traiismiiitteLl (diseass Schl I als AlD. LO and gonlorrhlea to phlvsica Ia ;lMie. CondLitio11s roughl0 v l c ni,iprabtae to thlose that slIoncked Social factors are especially impl3,3ort-allt contribuztors to thle loLirgeoisie in the I 9thl ( letiit. Alrhiomigh tIle li mi- ,I'Miillieital Ilellth bur,1-len, tor the iii-haii poor, ioi the 1I;>a Inric_l halliri VII)I-ab lilirl tII;)t 11dlr111 WO11101 liII)Stl\ iIIfilt thedevelo g pi llltHieS, 1iii1\ iOt be as hligh experience. Violelnce aga inst Wiollell-witl1`iii 1aliL oLut- als It oiice Was, Ill POM- Ilirn gllhborhoodis ii1I,ideqtiaI.lciCS Ill slide of the hiomie-has beeni Ilicreasinglt rccoggiiizd a-s a t iroiiiliciit r-iiiiii > ~~~~~~~tile plysica;l (lxrlell" II rll;lzi mit iost Impro-rtant Plrime thIreait ro wotilelis healrh ill hotl- rle dlevelop(edh ;11iid the developiiig wvorldl i-i Altlhouglh rltis is by Io ) - - mleallns 1 strictly urban pliellomeoit,o its iiicidence is high in cities a ntl may he iniicreascl by psychoSI icialI factors slchll as stress associated.] with pinr Lt lball holusi g, illade- - 4 , plte iicoOlle, ali lack o(f CLIl (oPl(rItLIiiit-\ to eniploy- iit ot edIuICatioi, athiouglih the precise Ii iiks brct\eei - these stresses a rLd V ioilenCe are hi0t Well LhtfiViie t* A aS THE URBAN PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND s - HEALTH - Acent- ttr a-id a half ago, average urball miortality i,ites '-;t iln Eut oipea n Cities Wete oftteIl tar Ih igher hla Il rtIs. ill the sLurroLun.ing ru1ral areas S ad sallitatiOll, Whih t then referred tO a raigc of poorh 111v iCii StOOLi eCiviroin- 4 1 llental heallth hazLrIs rtll'et `ha ii juLSt dlisposal of ex- ccrta, was increasuiigly seenl as being repolsiblec for ti is ; - - - uLrbaii LisaslitLa1Irge. Promiiinenit s.ciclitists studied siii- tar-v cioiiitioiis and1l health, aiid refotiriiers ill r-1aii - colitetrs atllotild the Wortld discuLssedL lhoth the til tc -I,I IC'I ,id thie lilora l aspects of u rban saiiiry i-eforili. Ii viarny savs, thie- so-cal ledl sail tars revi olutionil tha-t result(ed ttfroin tlhes it-forms wais tle eritir-o niils *t ii-it illoiveulcliit of the I 9th Cl( ituir. As ill ens irolillital r discussions toda1, oie of the most hearted. debzates was _ abou(lt the apprropriate -ole foi giverililetald w tlerl- - g i attCiiipts LI) i1liose saltlrar\ Ilproveiiets collrstit(rcid an1 iifriuigelllerit on what vwoull ilow be callek ie -l - tIn va te sectiO;. e itiial y, tlhe reformiiers \ ioi. ()ine rea - _ . sOnl is tIlhit, altloLgll rthelicta Irl r(llriweproble v w r worse - a- ill poor aieas, tIle svaltliv svere also at risk. Politicians Shaed stanrpipe I ! 1'' AUG >Uf>/)IIi'> 1/v i eveii WorriedL thiat tIh lMlita ry str-cigtli of thc-it liatiouis 1 V. I F i Fn , - )t (Ill' hut /n. IN svas Iicig Ihi deruil- ld byv u-baii lltalthl problellis i-T. Ixmilt- - Un F iii'1'I /01/ tIflmis ci JSIm ,(1(I!hnn The Poihitic;lI powefufilI g rad u accepted thlrl facr that - 'i F / , ' ' Xo (-/, C'MI-On I R(Op-UT 37 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.2 ASHA Works To Improve Health in Delhi Many health problems of the urban mosquitos. One study found that al- there were repeated recurrences of pre- poor arise from the poverry and the de- though latrines were available in 46 per- ventable illnesses. Realizing that the graded environment in which they live. cent of the settlements, most were community's health problems were intri- However, conventional health delivery poorly maintained, and nearly 41 per- cately linked to poverty, pollution, and systems in most cities provide curative cent of the residents still defecated in environmental degradation, ASHA be- services to people, whereas environ- the open. Jhufggies are often located gan to focus on a broader approach to mental improvements or social services near garbage dumps, power plants and dealing with health, directing its efforts are the responsibility of different gov- factories, and roads, exposing residents toward improving the environment, em- ernment departments. Because these de- to risks from chemical residues, toxic powering women, increasing the liter- partments tend to work in isolation, wastes, and car exhaust fumes. acy rate, and educating residents about they seldom make a coordinated effort Not surprisingly, jhuggie resi- the links between environment and to improve the qualitv of life of the dents-particularly women and chil- health. poor. Even existing health care systems dren-are especially prone to respira- ASHA began by forging a partnership are ofren beyond the reach of the poor tory and waterborne diseases. The in- with the public agencv responsible for because of cost, inconvenient locations, fant mortality rate in ihuggie settle- delivering services to squatter settle- and overcrowded conditions n. ments is 100 per 1,000 live births, ments. Acting as mediator between the In Delhi, India, a local nongovernmen- compared with 40 per 1,000 live births public agency and community mem- tal organization, Action for Security for the city as a whole. Roughly 40 per- bers, ASHA managed to get the govern- Health for All (ASHA), has spent the cent of children under age 2 have not ment to implement site and service past 6 years trying to improve the received all immunizations; 40 percent improvement projects. ASHA also health of poor residents through com- of women and children suffer severe helped community members form coop- munitv-based programs that address malnutrition; just 17 percent of preg- eratives. The cooperative objectives both poverty and the environment. The nant women receive at least three prena- were to improve local environmental challenge is daunting: more than I mil- tal checkups; and 80 percent of all conditions by acquiring land rights and lion of Delhi's residents live in ihbuggie deliveries are conducted by untrained establishing long-term leases, providing shelters, temporary structures made of midwives. home improvement loans, maintaining miud, thatch, plastic, and other dis- ASHA began in 1988 as an emergency and repairing common spaces, and ex- carded objects. Jhuiggies are small and health clinic in a slum in south Delhi to tending coverage of basic services such devoid of ventilation or natural light; deal with a serious cholera epidemic. as water and sanitation facilities and many are susceptible to fire, dust, During this period, the clinic staff ob- roads. smoke, and noise pollution. The streets served that although treatments were ef- These initial efforts were marred by of jhuiggie settlements are heaped withi fecrive in curing patients, the incidence difficulties. The site and service upgrad- garbage, attracting dogs. pigs, flies, and of disease remained unaffected. Indeed, ing schemes had mixed results as news Most of the following discussion centers on the In one of the few attempts to conipare systematically physical environmental conditions that pose a large risk the environmental health risks in low-income neighbor- to health and also on the question of who bears the hoods with those of a city as a whole, a recent study of burden. In poor cities, and particularly poor neighbor- Quito, Ecuador, found that all inhabitants faced a high hoods, the most threatening environniental problems risk from microbial food contamination and outdoor are usually those in the household or neighborhood as air pollution, whereas the inhabitants of low-income opposed to the broader city (59). Inadequate household neighborhoods also faced a high risk from had water water supplies are typically more damaging than pol- and sanitation, indoor air pollution, and occupational luted waterways to the health of urban residenits. Expo- hazards (60). Roughly, the better-off citizens of Quito sure to air pollutioll may be higher in smoky kitchens could do little to avoid buying locally marketed foods than outdoors. Uncollected waste in neighborhoods or breathing the air outdoors. poses more of a threat than waste at the city dump. (See Although the aggregate health effects of such city- Box 2.2.3 wide problems are typically less than those associated The wealthy, by contrast, can avoid some of these local with poor sanitation or other problems affecting poor threats by buying better houses in safer neighborhoods or households, the more articulate and politically influenl- buying water from safer sources. However, many environ- tial members of the public often perceive them as the menital problems, such as air pollution and lead contami- more important health threat. The result is that re- nation, are spread over large areas, and it is difficult for sources are often devoted disproportionately to address- households or individuals to buy their way out. ing these problems relative to their public healthi impact. 38 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health of slum improvement attracted addi- Recognizing that women plav a kev more affordable than formal medical tional settlers and increased land mar- role as health care providers, ASHA set care for the urban poor. ket values, displacing the original up a training program for female com- Even now, ASHA's work is not obsta- residents. Local power struggles arose munity health workers called basti sevi- cle free. Factors such as heavy work- over access to the improved facilities, kas. Selected through a process of loads, resistance from husbands and and the cooperatives ultimately dis- community consultation and aptitude families, and personal inhibitions pre- solved after ASHA decided to withdraw testing, basti sevikas are trained to pro- vent women from participating in Ma- from the daily tasks of running them. vide basic health care treatment for hila Mandals. Residents resist paving Through this experience, however, colds, fevers, coughs, and diarrhea, and fees to basti sevikas because they are ASHA learned that women play a far for more serious diseases such as ma- not formally trained. Still, by approach- greater role than men in managing laria, scabies, and worms. Each sevika ing health care at the community level households and the community. is responsible for 200 families and and encouraging residents to take Women's health is a decisive factor in charges a small fee for visits. Basti sevi- charge of their environments, ASHA the well-being of their families; thus, kas also provide health education about has helped to improve the health of they have a much larger stake in im- environment-related issues such as hand many jhrggie residents. Between 1988 proving the living conditions in the com- washing and boiling water, encourage and 1993, ASHA increased its reach munty. A clear disadvantage of the first pregnant women to go for prenatal slums and about 115,000 people. Em- cooperative structure was that it had ex- care, and maintain health records for pirical data are lacking, but a commu- cluded women from an active role in households in the settlements. In ex- nity sure tatktrout aSHns community decisionmaking. change, the basti sevikas also receive a programs, child morbidity and malnutri- In response, ASHA helped form Ma- monthlv honorarium. tion have decreased, residents are more hila Mandals within some of the Delhi The use of basti sevikas has proved to likely to seek treatment for minor ail- jhuggies. Mahila Mandals are commu- be an effective way of improving health ments, and overall environmenral condi- nity-based women's groups that meet care delivery to the urban poor. By select- tions in the slums have improved. once a week to talk about community ing women from the community, ASHA issues and that also serve as a forum for ensures that health care is available to References and Notes health education sessions, income- the community at all times. Basti sevikas earning activities, and loans. ASHA acts reduce the load on the formal health care 1. This box was taken front Pratibha Mehta, "Ac- as a facilitator, helping to inform the systeni by taking care of illnesses nor re- tion for Securing Health for All," Mega-Cities as a ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Urbani Environnental Poverty Case Study Se- communiry about relevant government quiring the attention of a doctor or hospi- ries (Mega-Cities Project and National Institute policies and serving as a communica- tal. Although the basti ser'ikas charge a for llrban Affairs, New York and New Delhi. tion link to the formal svstenm. small fee for their services, they are much Ilndia, 1994), pp. 1-40. Even in cities that have excellent water systems, Household and Neighborhood Problems relatively clean air, and most other features typically associated with environmenral health, there are serious Water and Sanitation health hazards that fall heavily on the poor. As described below, many of these involve more social than physical Various diarrheal and other diseases are spread via the threats to health: stress, depression, chemical depend- fecal-oral route, and this route is far better traveled ency, and violence. Others, however, such as crowding, where water supplies and sanitary conditions are inade- clearly have a physical aspect. quate. Although contaminated water can carry many The following discussion distinguishes environ- infectious agents, it can nonetheless be a critical tool in mental health problems both by their scale of impact maintaining good hygiene: Washing, even with water (for instance, at the household and neighborhood levels that might be better not to drink, can help curb diseases or the city and regional levels) and bv the principal spread by the fecal-oral route as well as a variety of other environmental mediLIm through which people are af- health problems ranginig from scabies to louse-borne fected (air, water, food, and pests) or proximate cause typhus. (e.g., traffic accidents). However, there is no truly satis- Better sanitation can lead to less contact with fecal factory way to classify environmental health hazards, material at defecation sites and less indirect exposure which do not respect boundaries, either physical or via water, insects, food, or human carriers. Given the conceptual. That, in part, defines the challenge of envi- number of illnesses and deaths attributed globally to ronmiental mainagenient: it is not possible to deal with diarrhea, it seenis fair to say that human feces remain each problem in isolation, one of the world's most hazardous pollutants and that World Resoiurces 1996-97 39 Urban Environment and Human Health related water and sanitationl inadequacies still conlstitute chole ra epidemiic, for examiiple, the ingestioni of seafood one of the world's mnost serious health prolenis. contaminated by sewage canl he all important trranisiliis- In mainn poor urbiani neighborhoods in the developing sion route. world, other hazards contribute to the burden of dis- eases spread by the fecal-oral route as well. Indeed, the Houisintg boundarties between waiter, saniiltaition,l food contarnii- ~ The qual itV of housinlg is a significant factor affecting tion, insects, and solid wiste problems are blurred. Althoughl it is difficult to determine which routes are the opngwol C sh Sth amcs l30 ct I0 perclentlo opilig world tshow that as n u.-li as 3() to 6r0 pecrceilt of most iiimportant, the most cominmoni techliiological I iter- the ti ra i popu lati n Iivys in sibsra idard housi ig ventions involve providing new facilities both for sIp- although this perceirage may be less In smaller cities -1. plvinig water andl for saiitation. Epidemiiological stu1dies Housimig qLalIitV extends beyond the availahility of have conisistenitly shown that improving access to such water or sanitation facilities. Overcrowding, damnuess, facilities caii reduce the incideince of diarrheal disease inadequate inIsuIlationl from the extieilmes of heat and substantially-more than 20 perceit, according to ; cold, pest iiifestatioim, noisc, dust, i1aIdeqaLtel drainage, recenit review (i). anid insu fficient veitiolilii ll contribute to the healthi In the developed world, these problems wer-e solved, risks assoCiated withi substandard housing. \Womeni and or were at least displaced, by lrovidinig indoor piped chlildrem, mian y of win speitd considerable tie iiin the water and flush toilets to virtually all uirban residenits. houSe, are eslpeciallV sub.ject to these haZal-rds (65s. The samie is true for the wealthy iln developingcouLitries. Overcr owcd iig is particularlv colillmOll a iiiloig pi or For the poor majority, however, comilprelhensive techiio- Urban ri-esidents, nivny of whomi live in clcihea boardilng logical solutionis like these are no realistic. Neithier low- 11ouses or tenemiienits. In L)elhi, Imdia, a caSe study of a incomle resi dents nor their fiia mnci ally strappecd typical two-stor-y teilcilieilt found . I X pople (constittir- governimlenits canl afford anything likle comnplete cover- ing 106 sepa rare households) living in 49 rooils, allow- age with indoor pl umbiming ing approximately 1 .5 squaLr-c mlCtCl-s prcl pcrson1 fWe1. I n cities of the developing world, households withiout Overcrowding cani aid the trausiliissioii of a variety of indoor pipling ofteii obtain their water from a umniber in1fectiotis diseases, particularlv' airborne respiratory of Souirces, sucI as overcrowded or distant comm11iintal diseases sucicls colds, PrIel.inia, and Mucrculosis in5i standpipes, expensive private water vendors, or heavilyv Overcrowded conditions, where privacy is an tiaCCuS- polluted wells or opein wvaterwavs. Those Without fhush tomied luxury, caii also be detrimental to iicltaIil hcalth, toilets miay end up using pit latrines, pani latrinies, or adding stress aiid contributiig to depression aid other latrinies located over ponds, streains, draiiis, or opemi psychosocial diso)rders (fN). sewers-all of whilch demiianid far ilmore rigorous hygienle Also contributin1g to the psychological burdein of behavior thani is required for rhe inore standardized inadequate housilg for imaiy is insecure teiliurte. Fear of techinologies of the wealtly. evictionr is a ciimniiioii worry aiionlig ollOst low-i ncoile Techniical iiipr-ovemiienits ar-c ainiportant part of the tenants or residelits in illegal settlemcnts and causes solutioll, and ther-e has been somiie suiccess with relitivelv considelable stress a, simple b)ut more hygienic latrines (&2). For examlilele, the "ventilatedl improved pit" latrinie developed in Zim- Food CotntaminattionI babwe is desigined to eliminiate flies and odors while Food, like water, can transmit infectious diseases anid providing a iiiore li vgielnic and com fortab le facilit't harm fu I chem ica Is Ivifectious bacteria calil mliti pl ini Overcrowding, however, coibined with poor maillte- food, aMiid Some1 of tIlh bacteria and funlgi tlat grow (On nanice, can and ofteii does dcefeat sucIh desigin improve- food produLIce toxins. The mia jor healtli bLurdcil arising ments. Public latrines are difficult to manage aClI, w\heii fr-om food contailiiiationm is almost certainly its coiltri- overused, can becomc puiblic health hazards-less hy- lUtion to rhe diarirlea and dvsciterv thait figure s gienic and conivelnieiit for thc user than dcefecitionl in thc higlhlv in the illness and premature deathil of chilidren iin open. Even when private latrinies are availahble, sharinig the developing world. them aiimong severial families semlis to inmircase sanita- However. the exteint to which food cmiitamilli1atioi is tion problems 1 i'. involved in the spread of these diseases is lioorlv uiider- Poorly treated tint untreated wastes releaLsed into (Pell stood. Epidemiological studies give little indic ation of waterwvays caMI also hia ve healthi inipacts oii Water users the relative iiiPporttaince of food colitaiiinination, and onit downstrearn. Although the overall burden on healthl is of the few atteivIpts ro Cstiliiate mindirecrly rhe share of relatively sinall, it cani be qlultc severe locally. Durinig a diarrhea involi ng food contamination giVeS a strilk- 40 Wortil Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health inglv wide range of 1.5 to 70 percenit -71. Even so, it is species of these insects in rural areas. In addition, the safe to say that microbial food contaminiation is a health opportunities for controllling such disease vectors are prohiele th.at is more severe in poor coulitries than in generally greater in urban areas. However, Some tvpes wealthiy ones, althIough some klinds of contamination, of disease-hearingn mosqluiros and flies have adapted such as saIlmonlellla, may be niore cominoni in the latter. well to particular urban habitats and find themiselves Food hanldlinig and storage practices are critical fac- relatively free of comiipetition c7-; tors in food conitamin nation, and the dan,gers of containi- The Aetlcs aegypti miosq lt breetds in smiall conltaill- niatioii are heighitenied where wvater and sanitation are ers, sLch as flower vases and water druLIs, and has heen inadequate. Washing hanids before food preparationi carried from its Fast Africiian hoime to every tropical and avoidilng contact between food and flies are two continent, often following the oisetl tire tratle. Its Asian obvious examples of preventive meJsuLres in the home, relative, Aedes albopitufs, iS nIOW USinlg the salimc trick They are also practices that are easici; althoughi less and lias receiltly invadetl Northi and Southi America, tile imlpolrtant, in hoies withi good water and sanitatioll Meiterranean, and West Africa. Both of rhese species facilities. tranisitlt dengtIe, a tlisease of increasing importa nce in Contamination can also occur- durinig transport or latin America and Southeast Asia. (See (Chapter 8, processing, before the food is purchased, which is tliffi- "population and HLuinall D)evelopmnentr.) cult for the conIsuminer toi monitor. Finally, urban coni- In African and Intdian cities, malaria is the most su tiaten aic rbUte to footd containii l prevalenit mosq oiito-biorne disease antI is oftein a prille problemis. In a stutdv of Monrovia, Liberia, it was fot iid caiuse of hospital a(idmissions anld deaths, particu1Iarl'-V that most poor urban households storetd cooked food, amfnong clilldren. In Accra, for instance, mualaria ac- anid 63 percenit of the stored food samlples weere heavily c f ) a r iles C OLIntedl ror imore thnal 40 perceiit of reportedl Ililnesses contaminoated \with enterobacteria (8 I percent for hahb at outpatient facilities from I 9X7 to I1990 (74). In both foods) '-H . On the other hand, rural hooiseholtls were , ~~~regIOIIS, Urbanizaltionl has crealted important iilw breed- less incllned to store cooked food, and only 39 percenit of their food smiples were conraminated i-in. mgsteu. be in orhead te storae tank s. In wealthy cotintri es, complex reguilations antIi in- Jmosqtilto hreeds in overhes d walter storarge taninsa * ' tn ' ' ~~~~~~~~~'illSt as Ul -Iall i-nosLliltO Dr-Oblel1lS are It' IIItCntlv spectioni procedures lielp to conitiol foodi-hnzdl ing prc- iked t water, urban fly problems art' liiiked to waste. tices at the point of sale in restaurants and markets. Hoevr .n poo CO.tis Stc.eLlrosaeot V;irious fam ilies of flies ha ve adapted to tht opporruiiil- H owever, in poor coun1tries, such regula1tions are omtten too) costly to enforce. Inforial ineaos of avoitiiog bad ties of urban ecology. The most obvIoLus health risk Is .' ' . r~~~hat thev provl(de a shortCiLt oil the fec;al-orall rouite, tood proovide ani important alternative ro regLlatiion. For althoLIgh the extenit of thell contributiol Is still notclear. examiiple, the econlomilc tir-e of future salles and(1 th1e The houIseflV, along with severail otlher- species, is a filth pDsvchology of pDersonal colltact call IlndLCt' a vendor to psyco Iigy o perolnaI cotactcan nduc a vntio to feetder anIL breeder. Given pioor sanitation, somle filies ar1e avoid selling conitai iiiiatred food to regular cuIstomiers. ket tn rat'r with houmao teces anIlater lavaC H0vwXcrstiil lifrilil Ilexlalisns a-egnal es likelv to lbe il1 contact wirli 11,1_1111al feceS andt I;iter land( However, SuIChI iniformaiLl oiechiaiisoiis are genierally less effective in an urban cotext. In any case, measuires rlirit 00hmn1l fOOd drink, or ski l'lets of garbage ica * . * - ~~~~~~~flv populations. Open foodi preparation andic food stor- help to prevenit food spoilage are likelv to be far more effective thann mealsulres thalt attem1pt to stop spoilet age areas provide oppo)rti.ilities for flies to land ol footl. food frofiv heinag sold. S0me 1diseases are transin itretl by inlites, fact flies, or other pesrs rha1t thrive in dwvelliigs or neighborhouo)tIs P(7). Chagas' disease is carried by triitoiiiie bugs, leish- Pests 7 inanlmasis hy sand flies, schistosonilasis by snails, scabies Rats, fleas, and the blubonic plague firmlv established v nites, and yaws by face flies. Globally, rhese diseases pests in the annals of urban environmental heallth. Even are less serious urrban heailth problems than those spread(l today, a millor outbreak of plague can q(uickly make by mosqLuitos or the fecal-oral route diseases transmit- international headlinies. (See Box 2.3.) However, for ted by flies. In manv locations, however, they cani1 be 0ost wealthy urbamites of the developed wvorld, diseases critical problems. tranisimitted by pests are no longer a major conceri. AntI Some of the measures used to coiitrol insects and in urban areas in the developling world, mosqllitos anid other pests indoors create their owVI einvironmt'ntal flies are far iilore important health threaits than rats or health threlats. MosqLito c'ils antd other substances fleas. burned to repel insects caLuse air pollution. Inidoor spriy'- Neithier miosquitos n01 flies are particularly urban. ing with aerosols and pump sprays exposes residents to Intdeed, there is a far greater variety of habitats and potenltially damraging pesticides. There may1i well be Wortld Resourcecs 1996-97 41 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.3 The Black Death Revisited: India's 1994 Plague Epidemic In September 1994, nearly .30 years af- people through the bite of an infected Action Force of police to stem the exo- ter the last urban outbreak of plague in flea. In urban areas, rats are the pri- dus and to prevent frightened patients India, plague struck Surat, a city in the mary source of plague-infected fleas. In from abandoning the hospitals where western part of India I i). The Surat out- parts of Asia, Africa, South America, thev were being treated. break, which killed 56 people nation- and the United States, wild rodent popu- Fortunately, the Surat outbreak was wide, did not have the devastating lations are persistentiv infected with the diagnosed quickly, and widespread impact originally feared, but it did gen- plague organism, serving as a natural treatment with tetracycline was begun. erate considerable anxiety worldwide reservoir for the disease. About half a million capsules of tetracy- while also exacting a heavy economic However, the outbreak of plague that cline were distributed in Surat alone. toll in India (2) (3). It also served as a occurred in Surat was pneumonic The death rate dropped dramatically, chilling reminder of how rapid urbaniza- plague-a highly contagious form of from roughly 10 each day from Septem- tion and deterioration of the urban envi- the disease that kills 100 percent of its ber 21 to 23 to none at all after Septem- ronment can bring people into contact victims if left untreated. Pneumonic ber 28 (8). Not a single case was with forgotten disease vectors. plague is caused by the same disease or- confirmed in Bombay, the nearest large Plague has long been a scourge of cit- ganism that causes bubonic plague, but city. ies. The disease, caused by the bacterium it infects the lungs rather than the Yersinia pestis. is best known for its role lvmph svsrem. Since the disease invades WHY AN EPIDEMIC? in the Black Death that swept across the lungs, it can be rransmitted to oth- Why did plague reemerge in an urban Europe and Asia in the Middle Ages, kill- ers in close physical contact through ex- setting after manv years of relative qui- ing roughly one fourth of the population haled sputum droplets. Crowding and escence? Evidence points to two princi- of Western Europe-an estimated 20 mil- poor sanitation can provide ideal condi- pal factors: the squalid conditions in lion people. Yet, its roots mav be more rions for the spread of this type of much of Surat and the occurrence of ancient still: as early as 1190 BC, plague (6) (7). two recent natural disasters in the area. Homer referred to a plague-like disease Because it is so contagious, and thus Both of these factors contributed to that was associated with the movement easily portable from one location to the bringing a plague-infected rat popula- of rats into populated areas i4). next, the pneumoniic plague outbreak in tion into contacr with the human popu- The lasr major epidemic occurred Surat caused panic botli locally and in- lation of Surat. Even though pneumonic early in the 20th Century in India, ternationallv. In Surat, hvsteria fol- plague does not require rats and fleas where it killed more than 10 million lowed reports of the rapid and painful for its transmission among humans, the people (5). By the 1970s, although a deaths of seven people on September 21 Surat rat population is regarded as the number of small outbreaks continued to and the preliminary diagnosis of plague. original source of the infection. occur around the world, plague as an The fear of an epidemic was so in- A year before the plague incident, an urban health threat had been largely tense among Surat residents that within earthquake measuring 6.4 on the Rich- relegated to the past. Or so the world 4 days, one quarter of the populace had ter scale hit the adjacent state of Ma- thought until the Surat outbreak. fled the city. This exodus fueled anxiety harashtra, killing at least 10,000 people throughout India, with the fear that and causing extensive damage (9). Re- Two TYPES OF PLAGUE plague might be transporred far and searchers believe that the disturbances Bubonic plague-the form of plague wide by Surat refugees. On September and resettlement associated with the that ravaged Europe-is transmitted to 25, the government brought in a Rapid earthquake helped bring the wild ro- cases in which the health damage caused by using such ation, many users of smoky fuels are exposed to disturb- measures outweighs their sometimes minimal effect on ingly high levels of particulates and other pollutants ^76). the spread of pest-borne disease. Rough data suggest that, on average, indoor air pollu- tion tends to be a problein that is worse in rural envi- Air Pollution from Domestic Sources ronments than in urban environnients. However, in the For muich of the 20trh Clentury, air pollution has been homes of the urban poor, especially those ini small identified with urban sniog or smoke spewing forth tons,particulateconcentrationsarelikelytobehigher from factory chimileys. In wealthy couintries, these im- than urban averages and to exceed those of rural house- ages can seem outdated amid discussions of invisible hiolds. pollutants. In the developing world, however, smoky Three major health risks have been associated with household fires probably constitute the largest air- the domestic use of polluting fuels 77). First, by irritating pollution health hazard, with women and children be- the respiratory passages and perhaps through other ing the principal victims. meanis, pollution from domestic fuels may facilitate the Studies of personal exposure and indoor air pollution spread of acute respiratory infectioni, a major killer of levels indicate that althougil there is considerable varn- children tinder age .5 in poor countries (75(. Second, 42 Worldl Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health dent population inhabiting the forested plague in greater detail. The National 2. Centers for Disease Control and Preven- area near Surat into contact with the do- InstitIte for Communicable Disease's tion, 'Update: Human Plague-India, mestic rat population, introducing the plague research unit has been modern- 1994, Morbtdrty and Mortality Weekly disease into the local rat population in ized to make diagnosis easier. In addi- Report, Vol. 43, No. 41 (October 21, the process. tion to activating plague control units 1994), ' Surat's sanitation problems then all over the country, the national gov- 3. Molly Moore, "Plague Turns India into helped the rat population grow dramati- ernment plans to set up a more sophisti- Region's Pariah: Outbreak of Disease cally. Surat, a city of 2.2 million, gener- cated national surveillance system(ioL HOrtsouri,cTrad," A29. Post ates close to 1,250 metric tons of This reemergence of plague is a strik- (Octobe 2, 1994n, pp.rA29g A33. garbage each day, 250 metric tons of ing reminder that infectious diseases 4 Insttute of bedilTheats to Healt in the which remain uncollected. To make have not been defeated. Malaria has United States, Joshua Lederberg el al., eds. matters worse, floodwaters inundated consolidated its strength as a major kil- (National Academv Press, Washington, the city during the 1994 monsoon, par- ler, although it had almost disappeared D.C. 1992), pp. 16-17. ticularly in low-lying slum areas near a few decades ago. Cholera and tubercu- 5. Ibid., p. 16. the river. Surat residents complain that losis are donning new faces with drug- 6. Tom Post et al., "The Plague of Panic," nothing was done to remove the great resistant strains. Newusweek (October 10, 1994), pp. 40-41. piles of rubbish that remained after the Bv comparison, the health toll of the "The Old Enemy," The Economist (Octo- floodwaters receded, offering an ideal Surat plague was relativelv minor. It bet 1T 1994). pp. 40-4 1. habitat for rats. killed just 56 people, whereas the ma- laria epidemic in Rajasthan in 1994 8. J.C. Gandhi, rPague Outbreak in Surat. LESSONS LEARNED killed nearlv 300 people (I L. By anv Gularat," presentaton at the World Health Organization Interregional Meet- An international response followed in other name, the plague probably would ing on Prevention and Control of Plague, the aftermath of the Surat plague out- not have caused the kind of panic that New Dethi, India, March 1995. break. The World Health Organization it did during this outbreak. 9. V.K. Saxena et al., "Earthquake in Ma- (WHO) announced plans to establish a In financial terms, however, the harashtra: Impact Assessment on Comnmu- Disease Intelligence Unit that will func- plague's toll was much greater, costing nicable Diseases Potential," Journal of tion independently when such out- the Indian economy in excess of $600 Basic and Applied Mediciiie, Vol. 2, No. I breaks occur to help diagnose the million. More than 45,000 people can- (1993), p. 77. problem quicklv. In addition, WHO celed their travel plans to India, and the 10. Government of India, Report of the Tech- asked the International Civil Aviation country's hotel occupancy rate dipped nical Advisory Committee oni Plague (Gov- Organization to tighten its health con- to 20 to 60 percent. Many countries ernment of India, Delhi, India, 19951. trols at all international airports and to stopped air and ship traffic to India al- 11. World Health Organization, "India Ma- strengthen quarantine measures that together. In total, exports from the laria," Weekly Epidemiological Record, seem to have lapsed since the eradica- country suffered a $420 million loss (12). Vol. 69, No.43 (October 28, 1994), p. tion of smallpox. 321. India has also taken steps to prepare References and Notes 12. Kai Friese, "The Norning After," India for future plague incidents. In response 1. John W. Anderson, "Plague Deaths Re- Today (October 31, 1994), pp. 30-39. to the outbreak, medical school course cede in Stricken Indian City," Washington work has been revised to address Post (September 27, 1994), p. A10. long-term exposure may contribute to chronic lung such as mosquito coils, waste burning, and tobacco diseases such as chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and smoking. Generally, the women and children who are asthma, which are significant health problems among more exposed to air pollution from domestic fires are adult women. Third, long-term exposure is a risk factor also likely to be more exposed to other environmental for cancer. hazards, which could also account for ill health. As with inadequate water supplies aid sanitation,the Household fuel choice in the developing world is extent of ill health actually caused by exposure to often described as an energy ladder, with dirty fuels such domestic smoke is difficult to determine. Cancer and as crop residues and firewood at the bottom. These are chronic respiratory problems are likely to be the conse- followed by charcoal, kerosene, liquid propane gas, and quence of long-term or past exposures, which are hard finally, electricity (8o). Generally, the higher up the lad- to assess. There are many other risk factors for respira- der, the less polluting the fuel. The cleaner and more tory infectiol-crowding, poor ventilation, malnutri- convenient fuels such as kerosene, liquid propane, and tion, poor sanitation, and lack of immunization-and electricitv are usuallv favored by wealthy households. thev tend to be interrelated (79). Other sources of domes- Although wood and crop wastes are less common in tic air pollution may relate to respiratory illness as well, cities, charcoal and coal are fairly common. Charcoal is World Resouirces 1996-97 43 Urban Environment and Human Health clectrified ieighl1hIOrhOi Cod. cnnake a significint Ldiffer- eice ill theI level of CI1 iCIII's CXjpoStilt re partictILa tes .S4i. Exposure to prolluir. Stileits of Coal Lis iS (ll(nal InaxT rodtOCed garba5lge, iniwver(, Carillso tinS tbll urtet iirelictly to sOn IOf theL IIIOst IConIn Vi gTI e v iteLie C f a link bLtw eenl 11ig0ig h l)1io0d eiiXiroiliiiciit;tl hiea th liprobleniis iy pro-) dinwiinsric furel Stis 1t' aridcancer ,s;*. vid irig finl or bir-breedlirig sitcs foir flies a ridl Other rsts. Somniie iidloon air- pOlltitioi probherils arc specifically irbarl. A large riuriiiber of domiestic isetrs ot siiiokv fiels Citywide Problems cani create a neighibirir-hioOtl h it polluitiril pro(ihIeil a11Il A Itliontigli the erivironniieiital thirets opleO are e-xposcrsed Laii exvii cotitrikir te to city wviti aiir poll urtii prolblerris, to ill thilr ionites atlI itigiig hirhootlss teilnL to PoiS tIle allshas I1hlapp1L1 ill Beijilg. Studlies ill SOititli Afric-a greatest 1ilita i isks, somic citywide problemiis ptOse sig- inthica;t that whether thte neighlbOrhooil is electlifietd 11 iificanit risks as vhll. These i,richCl tid occupatiOIn;l expo- allht.1 perhaIp1;S tVt11 Wviletltrl- thli ScIhOOI is ho tcl Ill ct Ml stires, a iIIbieiit aitr poll untioi1, tra ffiC aclCiCtLits, and 44 Wjrc/d Rcswt)II('SJ ,I9)'(1)- Urban Environment and Human Health eXPOSurIe tO lead. Box 2.4 CNplores whilch types Of hiouirs. fictrqu itlv dieniadiiedi by employers ini the decvel- probleiiis tendL to he loust severe-h-oulsehlold or- city - op)ing wo rld Or opted f it byv thli workerst dIlItISCl CesI iOr WIdle-hyv wealth alld City' s'ize. fi ilaiclcalI reaso ns, Call pla v a pa rt III IlicreCasing x p sLures to eheincall,l toxinis or increasing, accident rates duLet Occutpationial Exposuires to tat-9igu o. OCCupI-ationlal hIa/IrdS are a part11Ciclar IrI iit Ciii Hazards In the workplace call l)e a slign ieianii additiOtu smlall-scale Or hloime-basedI industries. Smlall eniterprISeLs th le hiealthi bu rdleis that iirai- Im lfe Im poses. Thecse Call make Lip a surprisingky large2 pIrCenCtage, of thle indulstrialI neltideICL contaCt Withl aI wide irange of toxic stibstances base i iiimansx' natioiis. I-or Le\aiilelll, siiiall-SCale indtIis- anld coi itiln tnicalhle di sea ses, unISaIfe machiiner, unl- tries withi fewer than Sf) LllplIOveCC" COnlSrtitut liiore thlan hecalthful nIOISe levels, JinadequLate igh)rIiit Or venitilati.onl, 40f percenit of,all indus11'tries Inl Si itlheast Asia. However, and1c ext remes of heat i r COILd. Thiese haairdls are offte'n Conditions' itl the(se, settings are iOittnl it uliCI wirse t ha it made woirse iy a lack of protectie clo thling or- eq u p- toeiiI griidtsre,wt wrpyia aiiis In narnv dlevelolping Cil.untrie1S, theC prOhlem Of ocenl- equipilleilt. anld a1 lower primrity given to Worker pro- parional ihaZards is compounded by the lack of anuv sick rcctioii aiid( safe operating rI'iCeLILires -i;in Pay or comlpenlsation for wiorkplace inuieIIIS, as well as Smaill workshiops and in1formlJ Or liniMe-liased enter- a lack of adeqiiate O CCLipati(nal I halthi care- 1)iw. Ill -rises are Of reii the wi r"t in terms (iti OcciiPa ti maII developing nations InI Asia and A frica. less thlan 25 expoSIIreS, frequentIIV ly ak iitg uIse i) it r ixc L1chemiCals percenit of the wor-k force is thouighlt to haive access ti0 Withlout the pro per equiipimeint or I)r CuIt ions and si mie- anly klind of occupJatl0ioal hlealthl serVice 91. Inl addition, tie sp ain cotiiait ito h om esir - appropiate CCuIpationlal hlealthl Stalida rdIS hIaVe htCII ilieiit. For x i\, pl e)I, aLut1i mIhieI IItIeChaiti,1cs aiid g1as nieliter uniiversa lv adO)pted 11or en for-ced. venldors in man ii tbtanl settings are 1o ititiitel LA xiIOsed OCCUp)ationlal eXp)OSLIIts are thoutghit to hie widlely to heuizenec, a gasoidine additis , andL stiffer Ii igh1 rates of tiiderdiagitosed and tiiderreportted and thecrefore to bie a icini1a anld o)therl diSeaSe`s a`ssociated WIth henCiie C\- a gre~ater problemI thanil government sta tiStics soilicti m(cs ps c nJmia okr nstaI nepie Indicate u.For exa mple, research)ers foundi( thiat thec that repair andit recycle lead-acid b)atteries iiftCii sLiffer ittinber f heath-ipaire orkrs ata sigle \exicii foml lead Cimtainiit'ationl, whichI can Almo affect theirl steel null was roughly twice thie ntiimber otficially ri-- ClistonIierS anld familI'IIes rII) corded for- the whlole iof Mexico Iii I 988; thet- resa rclhers reportedi that miore thiai So) percelit Of the mill1 workers Ambient Air Pollution werec exposed to extreme hecat, nIoise, aild toxic duLst ( ) The miost cominiii ti tiCCupatioital diSea`ses m tideILC Ill tho(Se cities Withl Iigigh air poll tiltionl levels anld aI respiratory diseases CaulSed lbV partiCtilItes, suICh as aS- comb-inaIItionl tf geographyN a1) ilWeatherI tha~t preVeilts b)estos, siliconl, and1c cottoii; 1ctal poisonling froml leaid; piolluitaiits fronli dispersiiig, ali ciiheit air polliiti"it canl Pesticide Poisoninig; hleari iig loss fr-oml excessive misCl"; p ise a siglnificanit liea ti-h risk to richi aild pi ir aIi ke. Thiat aiid skiii diseases dtie to chemnical exp)OSures '141 n: Ili risk is Coiop)(iitinde Ill Citie, Where- air- 1piillitiiii rTegla- soiii linstanices, disease rates anioiig1 v'\p(lSed workers tions, Or eiiforcemntit Is wea k. WXOrldidW eI, an esti1ilated canl bie very Ii igh . [In asbestos factories inl Bc im ba, India, I . I biIOll iiiiraIi residents ate ex pOSed to p1artiCLI late (It oine third of workers Sti ffereCd foiii1 aSbesNtos-related lung11 soIftir- dIoi\iide levels Ill eceCss Ofthle gtiidl-iiieCS set1 bN theC disease, according to a I 983 rt'polrt Is. \v rld Hea r-Im O rgan i/aitioii WHO ) f ci Heailthi hazards Ini the wor-kpilace may be exacerba,ted Althioughi air pollutioni tradiltim iia lv lias beenI I iiikedl II ma1111LIttritioii oi- thel b)tirden of cli roi nc diseases t1hat to HiCiid ustria I1eimissi ins, iii ott r seCli ides ha;ve iiows lie- workers already SLiffer fr-oml, bioth Of whilch may loweir ctime a major souirce of pollutionii Ina Icie. Ili resistance to toxic inistiltsO (Itnifectiotis dliseases enlcOtiui- pirilileit Is partictilarthr pr IiOjIiiiced in itis Wdit Ilarge tered at woirk. Ftor exa iinpIe, rimalcoi h lic Ii ver diisease mini iihers Of po orlv ma Ji i'jtt i ted veli ides aido' widespread IS wkidIespr-ead among Africains and Asiaits and Mail uIse of leaded gasolinle, whlich IS Still coitittIoiiii I Latiii mike workers whio su ffer- front it less alfle to detoxify, Amnericat, Asia', anld Fistrri-i l r ipc. the poisons thazt thiey enicountter- In the wvorkplace 9-I. StUdiesCOIiifi-ilt theC Illefctoftidirarpiliiii Hazards mayv lo i IttIsfelb c Imai onI- Onl healthl. POIllitIuii at tIme lesels typ)ically foiuitdl Mi the tionIS, SuIch as huot aitd huidLIIL weathier, whichi make it air of lare c itis as been i imll Icated Iil both1 act aLid~1 miore di fficti t to CdInVIItCe workers to tise protective cl-iri niic ilt sss isclh ,ts .tstIimva and elm mou ic briitltli ris. clothlinig sticli as respi ratoirs or a prioiis. Long woi-k i ug TIlos Isei ,ti rIstvil nra l)l art cliiIdrteit, the1 eILdr_lv. cigariette \\' old Rcman,ur-e J '9e) ' 45 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.4 Household Environmental Problems, Wealth, and City Size Very large cities are often portrayed as Recent studies of Accra, Ghana i), When rescarchers coompared a series environmental disasters, offering the Jakarta, Indonesia !2t, and Sao Paulo, of holusehold environmental indicators worst of health conditions. Certainlv, Brazil (3j, confirm that bigger is nor nec- (e.g., the availability of piped water or these so-called megacities suffer from se- essarily worse. Sao Paulo (9.6 million the presenct of flies in the kitclien) in rious citywide health threats such as air population) is larger and wealthier than Acera, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo, the pollution. But there is evidence that Jakarta (8.2 million popularion), which household conditions improved based household-level problems suclh as sanita- in turn is larger and wealthier than Ac- on1 the relative wvealth of the city. In all tion or indoor air pollution, which pose cra (1.2 million population) 4). Even Ac- cases, household conditions were better the most direct threat to human hiealth, cra can be considered relatively large, in Sao Plaulo than in Jakarta, and better in Jakarta than in Aecra. (See Table I.) are actually less of a problem in mega- since about two thirds of the urban Other detailed housholdstic als cities than in many of the smaller and population in developing countries live Confirm this trend. The most obViOuS poorer urban settlements, in cities of less than I million residents. epnat Is trelaThe wealt of ulie explanation Is the relative wealth oft the three cities. Table 1 Household Environmental Indicators in Indeed, as indicated in Table 2, simnilar patterns can be observedl by lookinig Accra, Jakarta, and Sao Paulo, 1991-92 across different ncighborhoods of Ac- Percent of Sample cra. The wealthy neighborhoods of Ac- Households era seem to have roughily the saime Indicator Accra Jakarta Sao Paulo access to water and sanitation as the No water source at residence 46 13 5 Sao Paulo average, whereas the middle- Share toilets with more than 10 households 48 14-20 <3 class neighborhoods are roughly compa- No home garbage collection 89 37 5 rable to the Jakarta average. Wood or charcoal as main cooking fuel 76 2 0 Flies observed in kitchen 82 38 17 References and Notes Source: Gordon McGranahan and Jacob Songsore, "Wealth, Health, and the Urban House- I. George Benii at.. Em'irotnetil P-tt hold: Weighing Environmental Burdens in Accra, Jakarta, Sac Paulo," Environment, Vol. /evis anid flt' Uirbant Houc,;hetld ccn it 36, No. 6 (July-August 1994), p. 9. Grcate ill Metropolit Area Note: In both Accra, Ghana, and Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1,000 households were surveyed; in Greater Atera M'trtssttlican Art',, Jakarta, Indonesia, the sample was 1,055 households. (GA,.MA)-;Gbana iSrockhohlt Enlvir rtn- ineit Institiire, Stochbolhn, Swdcie;. 1993). 2. (haIrles Suirj.pcdi et *l.. Ho,,isebt l Ernire, c- Table 2 Household Environmental Indicators in men;n;i-;t Insijitj, Srtockhotlm. 5we- Poor, Middle-Class, and Wealthy Neighborhoods of tle;;, 1994). Accra, 1991-92 3. Peti;ro J,tctlcb, Fin 'irttcncent,ial 1'rI,lemsca Fac'icng ltbt i Urban Httttseht,ill in it' C t*-l Percent of Sample Sat Palo,i;, Brazil (Srtockholm Fnvirott- Households i,ceni ilnsriiute, Stockholt. Swede;i, 1994;. Middle- 4. These popu;lation ligigres cicffer trmn thoIe Indicator Poor Class Wealthy repirted it; Ulijied N;ations (lI.N.) Popul.c- No water source at residence 55 15 4 tico;i Divisiont W'orld Url,ctnczatiitn Pr,,s- Share toilets with more than 10 households 60 17 2 /pc,s: 1994 Revisiotn U.N., New York, No home garbage collection 94 77 55 1994). As dcsctissed iii Chapter 1, "Citic, Wood or charcoal as main cooking fuel 85 44 30 itnd the E;vt'irotimeni," city popc;lattion fig- Flies observed in kitchen 91 56 18 ures cai differ dr:ilctaticAly depending on Source: Stockholm Environment Institute and University of Ghana households survey. the ;t,111cTlisrroivc bomndla;ries Used. iTO unpublished data, 1991-92. itOt iin in the consistence ol t iiis he;ilh Note: The sample was drawn from the greater Accra metropolitan area and included 790 study, these popul.ation ligitres i;stea(il of poor households, 160 middle-class households, and 50 wealthy households. those putblished by ihe tJ.N. crv hbeilg used. simiokers, anid those who already have respiratory diffi- Receit stLudies give stroig evidence of tle relationiship culties. Most research has conicenitrated on particilate between particulIte air pollution and premature dealth miatter, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The Imtost i (hi (1t). One U.S. study that followed scIIe c550,0)0)0) dangerous pollutants appear to he smiall particles under people in ISI cities over 7 years found that residents of 10 microns in diameter, which cani be easily breathied the most polluted cities have a 15 to 17 percent higher into the lungs 10)4i (io5;. These arise mostlv from mottor risk of premature death from all CauLISeS than residenlts vehicle exhaust, coal-fired power plants and boilers, and of the least polluted cities t l,s I (i)) Since the late I 970s, certain manufacturing industries. epidemiological data fromi cities in the United Staites 46 World Resources 1996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health have consistentiv suggested that air pollutioni kills-pri- important source of dispersed lead in maIny urrban areas. manrly through respiratory or cardiovisctila r dis- Industrial emiiissiois, particularlv fromi smicitersand bat- ease-about 30,000to 60,000 peoplc per year, accoulIting tery rec vcling plants, are also a signiflicant soLirce. directly for 2 to 3 percent of all deaths i nI) ' i I i). HuLimans are exposed via the inhalation of contaniii- Suchi results have been replicated in urban areas ill nated air, ingestion of contaminated water and foods, other coulitries as well. Studies in the Czech Repulblic and, especially amonig chilldreni in North America, in- aiid in Poland, parts of which stiffer from ver hig-h gestion of lead-based paint. Contact\t with and ingestion pollutant levels, suggest that, as in the ULited States, 2 of contaminated soil provide another importanit route to 3 percent of all deaths there could be attributed to air ocularly among children. Serious OCCu- pollution ( 112),111 i . A similar srudy i lnakarta, Indonesi, r ~~~pational exposures occur amionig adults inv olvedl in where conicentr-ations of particulates are also very hligh, nietal ixdures eLeronic ndustS constructin estlimnates that redLucilng airborne particulates to the level trades, and battery manufacturing. recommlienided by WHO COUld preventr 1,400 deathis, The adverse effects of lead on health have been about 2 percent of aniual deatths In the citV 1141 .i) Although these data suggest that air-pollution-related recognized for centuries. LandIs prlincipal threat,other deaths are onilv a iodest contributor to urbannimortalitv than actite lead poisoning is neurological damge in rates the role of air l ollrichlildr-en. A 1988 stuidy in Mexico C(ity, where amlbient urbanites, air pllutwine inr cxausin ill healkth among lead levels are high because of the use of leaded gasoline, urbaniites IS muILch wider. For example, In jakarta, re- " searchers estimated that comipliance with WHO gLilde- founid that imore thani one quarter of newborns had lines could prevenir sonic 600,000 zasthimia attackFs and blood lead levels high enough to imipair neurological 125,000 cases of bronchitis in chilldr-eni each year (1 16. and motor-phvsical development (121). Studies conducted in North America, \Westcrin Traffic Accidents Europe, and Australia report that elevated levels of exposulie to leald in hiifancy cause Intellectual i11pMri- An estimated 885,000 people per vear lose their lives in nment, althoLIgh quantifying this impairuilet is still 'dtc ctents, accorditilg to W HO, i i-1). The maljority traffic accidents, acri to WOC i the mority soniewhar controversial '122,. Children withi elevated of traffic accidents (70 percent) occir In the low-and dentile lead levels are reporrted to have a deficit in middle-income conres of the developing world, even though private vehicle uisage is miarkedly lower there intelligence scores, speech, and lan,guage procssing than in wealthier nations i is. The differences in risk skills compared with children with low lead levels I12t. per vehicle are dramatic: in several Africall countries, A 199() study in Bangkok Tha land a City heavilv fatality rates exceed 1)00 per 1 0,000 registered vehicles polluted with lead, suggested that W(,000 to 70,000 conipared with fewer thain 4 in Westeri Europe. ln childreii risked a loss of four or niore IQ points because Kenya, 40 perceiit of road accidents hiappeni in citiesand i)f high leIad levels, and many miiore risked lesscr reduc- 60 percent occur in rural areas. tions in intelligelice 124). The rate of fatal injuries per registered vehicle has Moreover, it has been suggested that exposuLe to high climbed 30(0 pe rceuit since 1 968 in Africa, whereas it has lead levels in childhood mayiv be associarctd withi drol- dropped slightly in the developed world (119). One rca- ping otut of high school, reading disability, absenteeisill, soin for the higher fatality rate is that each iiicident and ieurodevelopmncitil deficits later in life ,2). Sonic frequenitly affects many people, for example, when an studies have also liniked increases in blood lead levels in accident involves an overcrowded bus. Inadequate adults with elevated blood pressure, althougl this find- safetv standards are another contributor to high fatality ing has notr been borne out in all studies (I11) (2 Ia. rates. The findings of neurological iiipairmcilt in chilldrein In developing coUlntries, pedestrians accouLnt for sparked theeffortlinthe 19 ()sand I1980storeducCelead about 40 perceint of deathis froin traffic accidents, conm- levels in gasoline and other sources in the lUInited States pared with 20 percent in developed countries (121)). A and Europe-an effort that has resuilted in lower anbi- major reason for this is the concenltrationi of different cur and blood lead levels in these areas. lOOd lead road misers Jostling tor space on croWdel city roads. (See conicenltrLations in the United States, for instance, have Cha pter 4, "U rlan Tra nisportatioii.") dropped substantially since the late I 970s, wlhen thc esc of leaded fuel was phased oiit. Many Countries in devel- Exposur-e to Lead oping regiois, however, have yet to enlaclt such regula- Lead is ubiLltqitous in tlc urrban enivironnieit. Emissions tions, and the risk of exposure to lea(d remains from vehicles b urning leaded gasoline constitute an dangerously high. Worldl Resources I 996-'9 47 Urban Environment and Human Health THE URBAN SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT AND implicated Il thec developmencit of asthmna iii children, is HEALTH str-ongly, related Ii0 theirl sCi)ealCZS I class ii The uirlhaii social1 ciiVIrollliIeTnt, however. alsoi iiiflul- Ailthoughi overcrowdin1g, alir poIlltIOn,1 unicollected gar- eCeICS health III leSS obVIOuIS ways. The Ii igher rates of bage, and othier deficiencies In the phyvsical environmiient socin lk related health iconditidoniis aii-iong the clis~adva ii - freLqueiitlv represent thle miost ob-viouis mnaiiifestations of rag,ed are of teni traced to r-isk hehaviors such ais siiiok rig ur-hiali enliroiiiueital health prolileins, cities imoist deal or drin-iking, whiclh. In tuirn, are often responses to social conicurrentlv w,,tit the less, xisi le problemis of the urlaii,1 or CCc 110111ic strecss. [or I nstance, InI the 1) ii ited Kinig- social environmentA-i. Although dehaite continuecs, it Ps dim, rates of smnoking, drnkng lad, in) somec ICase, likely that differential's In m1ortality amlong urhanl resi- druig abuse areC higher ;inioiig iciieiiphiycd aduilts, gnod dciits fromiiilouiconinIu III1CaIble diseases SuICh aIS leiellrt these blihavimrs contri- liute to t le Ii iglierl rates of henait disease and cancer are related to thec socinaI rather thm n disease foIi iiil ailmogtecnm lye thle physical elivil-roineiclt Withinl cities. LAotli hen rt disease and cantcer- used to liec coniisidered Thle COMitri hutioii1 Of thle urinSi CiaI enirVlonnlieiit to diseases~ of affluence, been uLSe theCy arie Ilinked w.,tit beC- Ill henaIthi is i ncreasinigly xrecogni/coed In (lie developedI ha vii rs stich- as sedeiita rv li festy1e, stress, and diets hiigh worldc, where ma iivin physical r-isks have liecoi largely In fnat a iid sdiuR 11tm tha are typicaly;)i' ssi cia ted wvith t lie addressed-. bot insrn nec, Wei rec-ent Helsinuki DeclaratiOn wen Irthv. Yet, recentl dntn SIgge'St tht1 nior1taIlirv rates Oii Action fur- Fiivironiim-nt and Health In Furope t'iii- from elihroinic di'sense 'In oth develop IIIg and developed plinszes tat te excptioally igh evelsof uieiiiloy- iintioiis alre higheLSt amlOnlg the. poor I1+ mient (especially n no iig yo unig Pepipe) enaused byv eConiiii1C anod tchn1Iologicl-J clliniigeS Can have adverse: effects on physical andl iiientalI lien Ili. Thei declnaratio n Social Marginalizationi also wa riis that a laick of action on thecse issuies. w lien Urliani areas are Ofiteii d.i ver-Se ethIII ica l, Culturn,IlIV yz and coiiibined Withl alreadCI unacceptable levels of deprival- economilicall v. Residen-ice timie Ini the( city also varies tionl aiid qunI ri Inn nIIV plaCtS. Co iiild thirea tein "the WIdLy,I fromIii mogtinme residenItS to reCenit In IIII ig ira LIItS. very cohesioin of societV" (I 'Vil Te close initeractioni and iiiterIdepeiide-I1Ce of these di- teeogii itiuni (if thle riole o f sociali fact.irs In pliiMic verse gnoups wirliiii ct-ites andlL towns cnii ei11il;iCe siclinl lien Idnl is slower Iiipn irOer cities III theU deeoigWorld, coliesii oi. Clouversekly dIiversi ty In Li rb)ni popupllatiolis whiere pliesicnl risks still eoiistittite a inalor' helthli CanI lead to SOCIal sItreSS, alienation1 or d.1SIefriMichise- tbrtent. L-veii si), socially related lien hti proMbeinis are~ liiien t if some gri i01-ps, and foliisif Insecurity by ;ISSt.iil1"iing iCren~`sin'lv I nr pioportions. As is t le case: iiivdal r CiililiitiiiitieS w1 W ill ith OViCi-al soik(v. withi physical r-isks Ini the urbaii enivironiieiiiit. it is thec All oif these contribKiter ti what is kiiowii as S(1cm II pooirest grioups wboii are the iiciost sever-ely a ffected. inarionI una tic muO. Grouips Iii cities Canl b-comeo. rimrgiliiahved ini 'co)- Socioeconomic Status iiimiiic termlis or thirough cultural di ffe-remmce.s froin doiu- As is clear- fromi enarlien sect oils, sociioiciciiomliic statuISI is miant griiups. The two tend to wor-k tuigetlier: arIei-CC.lar tie illiust i ibyiuiLis social - ~~CUltural- groupll'S Ill cities iiiay lie dis~adyamitag'cd iii terilms heron iiivuulved deonercesniinuctin iiig IlI-)ON.IIII thelie Iatl Ii isk thMan ni Lirtbaii esideiit faces, been uLSe It 1c deiiliiiioprtitis largely determiniiies his or licr- exposurie to physical eiivi- Iiicreasingly, social mnargimia hization is hielieved, to exact riminneilt,l threats and to ainmiliiies such as adqut a toll ciii hi unman health, largely thircughi hiehavioral hi(insi iig. It is iii siurprise thait access to sa iiit tic01 ii aid chiniges suich ais seek iniig relie'f thiriouighi sniokiiig oirac- rni-.1 iiiig water, for- examiiple, is closelv related tioi cnici * hho c it c ut aiid edi.eCnioii levels. In Saio Paulo1, Brauiil, districts with Stud(ies ill Seattle, \V"ashiingtomi, Ill theI. mUnted Stae,17S the lowest iic omean d Iic literncv rates hinid five ti nies lower suggest thie coiisequienmce uif soialm anmd econoiiic liii ungi- per enapita CcISiis tiiptun if Water than diStri-Cts Withl the( in limation for- NaLtive Amecricails alnll Alask a Natives iii highiest inicomie anmd I iteracv rates, 'I i;. UirIm im areas. Bi ithi griou ps invoe iliiucli hi Jighir dent Ii rae HloLSimig COiiditiools Ill the dleveloped wor-ld are dif- fr-oni inijLirft's niid alciiliol-rehliech Causes thanll ur1hiai ferceiit fron tholi se In de% elopi ig couni itries. I-ii n (le geii- whiites o r rralI Native Aniuerianis nod Alaska Naitives. cralI pa rterin-thiat miorec si ciank cIv eprived gro uphs are Bc it griou ps aIsi in ve a hiighier inCmiedeiCC iOf ha 1VInig illoire exposedl to poor- liviiig cmumditioiis-hlmods trueJt. In bah)iies withi low hiirli-l weighits. Tohiacco and alcohol uise, Lign-uid, fur- example. rlthe priopcrtinii uif household's JdOihe-Sce'iit pregiiaii1Cv', amid 1,1iCmJAdqite Prenlatal care are rcpoirr litg dmu jursa iolds, bioth iif whichi are- I II kedi to loiw b)i-rth weight ( i 48 \\orluI Rc'sucmcrLs 9'9(i'-ti Urban Environment and Human Health Relative Inequality Figure 2.3 Age-Adjusted Mortality Rates by Socio- AlthouZgh.absolute poverty isonvioislv Environmental Zones in Accra and Sao Paulo, 1991-92 a critical factor affecting a person s ac- cess ro the goodls aind. opportunities es- sentital for a healthy, prodLictive life, A. Accraa increasing evidenice stiggests that rela- rivc poverty or relative ine(quality hlla (deaths per 10,000 population) e juList as im1portantIr l .4s. Relative in- 242 eqnualiry or social dcrpivationi is nore 20 broadly defilned than absol Lire povertv 18 encomllpass iiig not onil the lack of ecuo- 16 n0omic resoLirces hot also the inahll tv 14 - to acqtire the same aneiniries anid tyes 120 -_ . _J of services that typicall accrue toI other, nior e pri1viLgLeLi, nienibers of so- 6 - ciet (I *-- * * Relative iniequa liry refers to the way 2 - ., in whilch a petsoii sees hiiiisel for herself 0 - Infectious and Respiratory Circulatory ini-relarioi to neighbors or otler groLIps parasitic diseases diseases diseases in sociert. Ir inplies thrat the social J Zone 1 * Zone 2 * Zone 3 F Zone 4 nca n inigs attacheidI to iniferior fa1cilities, (worst) (best) joh opportullities, or orher privations b are ijist as important as exposuLre to the facility or rhe loh itself in determininlg (deaths per 10,000 population) healtli I ;w. 24 - IntriguLiiig evidlelIce to sLipport the 22- notion1 of relative ineqtial ity as a naljor 20 - determ inaioii t of health comi;es fromii re- 18 - CeiLt studies sLggesting that it is coLic- 161- tries with the narroxvest gap hetween 14 . 12 rich andc poor i that ell oy the [lest na- 10 i tional he alth-not those that speCILI the 8J ro Illoney per capita otii health in 6 -J a bsol tite tLrills i, I 4 - 4 [)ifferential rates of Urhant violence, 2 describeLl earliler, have also been lilked Infectious and Respiratory Circulatory External to relative deprivation. This is perhaps parasitic diseases diseases diseases causes ii(t so surprising, siIce riclh aolLi poor j Zone 1 * Zone 2 *Zone 3 j Zone 4 often live aniil interacr closelv wvith'n (worst) (best) cities, naking rhe cliffereiices betxeen themil ohvionis tO each group. Source: Carolyn Stephens eta/, Environment and Health in Developing Countries: An Analysis of Intra-Urban Differentials Using Existing Data (London School of Hygiene & Tropical Accra and Sao Paulo Medicine in collaboralion with Fundacao SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Health and Ministry of Environment, London, 1994). The niportance of social eniviron- Notes: tileiltal ~~~~~~~~~~~a. Data for Accrs, Ghana, are for 1991. In Accra, residential areas were grouped into zones niilr;tii factors ini urban health is borne using three indicators: household income, population density, and age/ethnicity of ihe ouit bv (litau on Ldifferential mortality community and community dwellings. Zone 1 represented a high-density, indigenous mo tog di ent so ci tect til tiO ic ~sector; zone 2 represenied a high-density, low-class sector; zone 3 represented a medium- rotipsng tlifeelt ()density, indigenous sector; and zone 4 represented a middle- to high-class, low-density in SaO Patilo, Brizil, anil Accra. (Ghana. sector. Paio t s111 eSla IC,tivelx xvealtlIy city Of b. Data for Sao Paulo, Brazil, are for 1992. In Sao Paulo, an index that ranked the 56 districts Sa o Paul ar at v xe t citVsOfand subdistricts of the city was constructed to form four zones with equal numbers of till re rh a ii 9.6 ii ill1 i on people, whereas districts and subdistricts in each zone by level of education, income, percapitawater supply, Accra is a rapdly Lheve1oping city of I . access to sewage facilities, and population density. c. External causes of death include violent deaths-mainly traffic accidents and homicides. mzilliotn PLtPle ir IR.s,rI I 9 97 4 XVo r/a' R e so/rocs / 996(-')7 49 Urban Environment and Human Health Box 2.5 Community Perceptions of Urban Health Risks Understanding how a community per- banks of canals and rivers that good crop yields. leading to a positive ceives health risks such as polluted crisscross the city and on land located perception of flooding. water, inadequate drainage, or lack of in the city's flood plain. Monsoon wa- In designing a project to improve garbage collection is essential to design- ters frequently flood these communities, health conditions in 157 of Indores ing effective programs to address those submerging city streets and destroving squatter sertlements, city planners iden- problems. Individuals perceive risks to homes. tified flooding as a major health risk rheir health through a lens derived from Residents of the slums are well aware and constructed closed drainage chan- their cultural, economic, societal, and of the health risks associated with this nels in an effort to reduce flooding and educational backgrounds and respond flooding. Although thev might not upgrade sanitary conditions. Despite accordingly. For example, a squatter in know the epidemiological details of pol- these improvements, many community a slum i Calcutta, India, might happily lution and contagion, they are all too fa- members now perceive flooding prob- boil water collected at a public rap miliar with the symptoms that thev lems to be worse than before. rather than move to a house with piped suffer. The names given to differen't One important source of their dissatis- water that was located far from job op- floodwaters illustrate their perception faction is that the new drainage system portuniries, a middle-class fainily in Los of health risks. Each type of water has has reduced the ability of the commu- Angeles would probably make a very its own name. Dirty water that is con- nity ro apply its own risk reduction Until recently, these differences in how raminared with feces is known as strategies, thus increasing economic tJntil recenty, these diferences m ho C da p d hlosses from the flooding. Because the people view and respond to risks were Ganda pani and is seen as the worst drains aromte losed,eidnts Bcans noe not part ot formal health risk analysis, kind of water, containing "small unseen longer predict the severity of the ap- which has traditionallv relied on statisti- insects" (kitanrth) responsible for caus- proaching flood. With the previous cal correlations between exposure to ing stomach problems and other ill- open drains, communitv members risks and the incidence of various ill- nesses. Even wading through such would adjust their level of flood re- nesses. Now, health planners are begin- water is recognized to be unhealthful. sponse depending on rainfall lotensitv ning to realize that using such objective On the other hand, Maila pani (dirty and the volumie of water that thev could measures of risk to design public health water without excreta) is unpleasant to see in the open drains. projects without accounting for how walk through, but not dangerous. Pineh e In lighr floods, structural adaptations the affected communitv itself views the ka pani is water that is clean enough to including high internal shelving, raised health risk being addressed is a recipe be used for drinking, storage platforms for valuables, and for failure. For these poor communities, however, electricitY connections at head height the advantages of their location-close were enough to minimize damage. Food CASE STUDY: INDORE'S DRAINAGE to the city center, with easy access to supplies, electronics, and mattresses IMPROVEMENT PROJECT jobs, low land costs, and strong commu- were moved to ceiling-level platforms The importance of incorporating com- nity ties-far outweigh the health risks for safety. muniry perceptions into project plan- associated with flooding and contact When community m1embers antici- ning can be seen in the case of a public with dirty water. In addition, although pated severe floods, all valuable posses- project designed to relieve flooding in city planners view the flooding only as sions were moved to higher ground. the slums of Indore, India. The majority a recurring problem, local residents as- Children, the elderly, and livestock were of Indore's 183 slums are located on the sociate flooding with heavy rain and evacuated first, while clothes and uten- Case studies in these two cities examined differences tors of poverty and environmental qjuality. The indica- in mortality from circulatory diseases, infectious and tors included incomc, education, age and ethnicity of parasitic diseases, and respiratory diseases among dif- the comnmun1ity, per capita water supply, access to sew- ferent socioeconomic groulps across all age groups. In age facilities, and population denlsity. (Sec Figture 2.3.) Sao Paulo, the study was extended to include external As Figure 2.3A shows, in Accra, age-adljusted rates causes (homicides and traffic accidents) because they of mortality from circulatory diseases wcre more than account for a significanit share of deaths. Consistently, two times higher for the 46 percent of the city's popu- the disadvantaged have higher rates of mortality than lation in the worst zone compared with the mortality their better-off neighbors from both infectious diseases rates in the most affluefnt zon.c Mortality from infec- and socially related conditions such as heart disease. tious and parasitic diseases was likewise about twice as In these studies, the cities were divided into four high in the worst zone as in the best /one, as was zones, from worst to best, according to several indica- mortality from respir-atory diseases (14UI. 50 W(orlcl Resuirces- / 996-9' UJrban Environment and Human Health sils were generally moved last. Ulnable products canl he derived. In cities developing countries, health is a luxury to implemenit these coping strategies throughout the developing world, scav- thev cannot afford because their immne- with the new drainage system, residents engers collect waste such as plastic, pa- diate economic survival is at stake. fear they may now lose manv of the per, glass, tin cans, and bones, Aware of their limited options, they de- valuables on which they depend for contributing greatly to garbage collec- sign innovative ways to trv to oprimize their livelihood. tion and recycling efforts in the citv. their conditions. The slum dwellers in Residents also believe that the closed Of course, scavenging is hazardous Indore, for instance, haive developed in- system does not drain as effectively as employmenit. It is poverty driven, und(er- tricate strategies that attempt to mini- their previous open system. UJnlike the taken by the most vulnerable peo- mize the economilic damage done hv open sewers, which were wider, the ple-often women and children. In the fl T closed sewers are easily blocked by plas- process of sorting through trash, scaven- reduing.vulnerability to natl an d tic bags and other trash. Water backups gers expose themilselves to serious health tlood the area, in some cases affecting hazards such as in juries from broken man-made risks. houses that were previouslv outside the glass and cans and are disproportion- Second. It Is clear that a better under- flood-prone area. In addition, because ately exposed to disease-carrying pests standing of the culrural perceptions ot residents can no longer see the water that breed in garbage. community members can help in the de- flowing, they do not have confidence Nonetheless, implementing a modern sign of local programs that both reduce that it is draining adequatelv. Finally, garbage collection and recycling system risks to health and respect the choices the open drains had the added benefit in many cities in the developing world of the people living in these cities. The of washing away rubbish and excreta, is infeasible and would take jobs from challenge now lies in developing a reli- which now remain on the streets. those who need them most. Thus, city able means of ascertaininig community officials are starting to realize that this views on local health risks and incorpo- INCORPORATING COMMUNITY "informal" approach to waste has its rating theni into the planning of envi- PERCEPTIONS INTO HEALTH benefits. Rather than trying to eliminate ronmental health interventions. SOLUTIONS scavenging, governments are working -Anton Baare and Rajesh Patnzaik with nongovernmental organizations Can risks to health from environmental and communitv groups in an effort to hazards be reduced in a way that inte- reduce the health risks to scavengers An,1ton Baare is a social antihropologist grates community perceptions and pri- and to make scavenging more profit- uith Nordic Conszilting Group in Taas- orities? Some recent efforts to address able. For example, in Cairo, Egypt, trup, Denmark. and Rajesh Patnaik is a the health problems surrounding solid wastepickers have built special areas waste collections argue that this ap- where thev can sort waste, rather than research fellot' in social anthropology proach can succeed. bng the waste to their homes, as in the Anropolog Departet of Although the "formal" urban planner thev did previouslv. In Manila, Philip- Andhra Uniersity In Visakhapatnan considers municipal garbage a health pines, wastepickers are given masks, India. and environmental hazard, many of the gloves, and boots to help protect them poor who earn their livings as scaven- from injuries. gers look upon urban waste as an eco- Two lessons emerge from these exam- nomic resource from which marketable ples. First, for many urban dwellers in In Sao Paulo, while the overall rate of mnortality from These studies indicate that for urban aduilts living in infectious and parasitic diseases was muLchi lower than poor coniditions within Accra anid Sao Pallo, the health that in Accra, the same differential exists between the risk of commillLnicable diseases appears to be conm- affluent and the disadvantaged, with those living in the pounded by high risks of circuIlatory diseases aid, in Sao worst zone being nearly twice as likely to die from such Paulo, by epideinic rates of tratumiatic health problemis an infectious or parasitic disease. The differenitial in such as accidents and homicides. Such findings suggest mortality rates from heart disease between affluent anid the comnplex nature of health impacts inflicted by the disadvantaged in Sao Paulo was m uch smaller than that "web of insecurity" 14Ž entailed in the deprivation of in Accra. It was still significant, however, as was the many cities of the developing world. differential for respiratory diseases. In Sao Paulo, the Both cities are clearl caughlt in an incomplete health death rates from accidents and homtlicides were also transition, witi chionic and infectious diseases coexist- nearly twice as high in the worst zones of the city as in ing, and the disadvantaged most subject to this duial the best zone f 14T. risk. \V'orll Reswurces 1996-97 51 Urban Environment and Human Health MULTISECTORAL STRATEGIES FOR as water and sanitation servl:ics, along with provid ing IMPROVING THE HEAITH OF URBAN helalth prograims, preschool e'duCLation, and inlcOIlie- Celnelratinlg scienies. To the extenlt that these projects are DWELLERS proactive In addressilig Urban poiv'erty and achieving The compleix determinanl;lts of uIrbanil h1ealthl and2 the tcoordinated action, they repriesCit a step forward in linkages aniong themii uniderscore the magnitude ol- the urb i5ani pSlannin1lg. health clihallenige in urban a.reas. Throughout tile d Hiwever, there are n;ian obstacles to in uCVtiseoraI oping world, the blurden of death and disease related tO strategis for improvilg uLrban health. Chief aiiiiiig thel the urban environnient is great. In terimis of global is the diffictuilty of integratinig disciplines ais diverse as imllpact, the most pressilig nieed is to inprove the heallth elIgineerling, nedicine, social wcfare, and ecolloilimes. of the urhani poor in their local civironimiiciits. In cities Ml uirisectoral appr acilIS to Urban envirOninc nintalI - of the dcvelopling world, this will eiit ii both technologi- agernent p ose a ma jor challenge ro hioth local govern- Cal imprroveinents-chief ainong then, providinig water ieuits and initerinationlma lending agelcies, wicIIh mIust amid sanitation aiid reducing CxposL re to air iol1LIt- coorrdinate responlses and overlcoile the political diivi - ants-and, eq naillv important, institutional refornis. SiOns Witlilln cities. (See Chapter 5, "Urbani Priorities for Actioii. ) In the lo SUcceed, ainv st-rategy i1ILst addrcss the aCtual inore developed cities, technological reforins are of concerins of rhe li immniniitv affected, wvlicli mayv not lesser imporrtance rthc fumndainental problems appear to iniatch the priorities of the goverinimienit or rhe deLcvelop- be those of social juistice. mlelit ageiicv sponsorinig the project. (Sec, Box 2.5.) It Iimprovilng heailth and qullity of life will rcqLmire a has also blecoioe clear that an1 successffLlI attemiipt to significant departUre froiii the pliecenieal approich that address tht health conicerins of the irbailio p"" iiiist has domiliniated urban inanlagenient since the I 9th C(en- acilknoWledge the cemitrail role that womilell play ini eivi- tLiry, in wlhicll each problem is considered in isolation. ronniental nimamiaeciirt alrimoId the iolic, and therefore Most discussions of ulirball cilvioilomeiltra I iiiaiageiileit in thieir fail lieis' hlealtl. [)ifficulties aside, an integrated, still resort to a listing of priority problems, as it each equity-driv ppriial appears to be esscmitial if we are exists indepeildeitly. Buit the past few years have secil ro aLchievCe adequa lte qualitV of life ill an icict-asimigly an increasinhg recogn itioin thiatr the problemis of cities thai wiOrld cannot be adequately dealt with bv UsinIg Victorian approaches i 14;) In other words, even though providilitg water or shelter can make z'an ei(ornilis differenice. ieithier alone is stofficieiit to alleviate the bLirdeln of ill This chaptcr was written by Carolyn Stephenis of the health. London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine Recogiizilig the svyiergistic fLictors affecting the qLialI- (LSHTM), Gordonz McGranabhan 0 the Stockbolmn lin- ity of life of the lIrba ii poor., some cities in the develop ing miirotnmCnet Institutc, Martin Bobak (LSHTM and the wiorld have deIvised integrated strategies, somTtimiles University College London Medical School), Antonv called "slumii and sqLuIatter ini proveiient projects" 144). Fletcher (LSHTM), and Giovanni Leonardi (LSHTM). These projects tenid to incorporate diverse i1-uiiiicirpal Box 2.3 was w, ritten by Suhbadra Muown. a correspon- agencics, oftell under all Umbrella strLcttiure, that work dent i,m Newu, Delhi. In1dia. withl comi0iiullnities to imiiprove local infrastrUicture sLch ___ 52 W urhl Resomircoes J 996-97 Urban Environment and Human Health References and Notes 1. D,R. Phillips and Y. Verhasselt, eds., Health 22. Op. cit. 7 pp. 14. 52. 44. Ruth Etzel. 'Indoor Air Pollutioni and Child- anzd Development (Rotitledge, New York, 23. Op. cit. 18. hood Asthimia: Effective Environmental Inter- 1994). 24. Op. Cit. 7 vellttons," Ent'ironmental Health 2. Ellen Wratten. 'Conceptualizing Urban Pov- Perspectives, Vol. 103. Supplemileiit 6 (Sep- erty," F.nironment and Urbailizatiin, Vol. 25. Treidy Harphain and Carolynl Stephens, "Ur- tember 1995), pp. 55-57. 7 No. I (April 1995), p. I1. hanizatioi and Health in Developing COiun- 45. Floyd M.alveaux anid Sheryl Fletcher- 3. National Research Couincil The Epidemi- tries: From the Shadows iinto the Spotlght," Viniceiit, "Envirotiniental Risk Factors of ological Transition: Policy and Planoninig Im- Tropical Diseases Blletin, VOl. 88, No. 8 Childhood Asthma nin Urban Creiters," Eni'i- plications /ir Deielopiig Counztries i I 991). pp. 1-35. rowrnental Health Perspectives. Vol. 103, (National Acadeyilv Press, Washington, 26. ()p. cit. 16, pp. 186-247. Stipplemenit 6 (September 1995), pp. 59-61. D.C., 1993), p. 1. 27. Jorge F. Hardoy, Sandy Cairricross, anid 46. *Homilicide Deaths by Age & Percent by Fire- 4. Ibid., p. 2. [Divid Sattertlivaite, eds., The Poor Die arms, Nesv York City, 1993," Bulletin of Y',unig: Housing aitd Health in Third Woreld the Netw! York. Acadetmy of Medicine, Vol. 5. )p. cit. ,r p.H . Cities (Earthscan, London, 1990), pp. 1-309. 72, No. I (Sumnmer 1995), p. 152. 6.Pan American Heal1th Orgailti*szarisinz the A*lzerl- 28. TruLdy Harphal, Timl LLIsty, and Patrick 47. Op. cit. 15. pp. 2-3. I PAHO), Health Conidititots in the' Amern- Vihn d. nteSao fteCt: 4.O.ct ,p 4 cas, Vol. 2 (PAHO, Wash ingron, D.C., .iValtiuhati es.lnthe adt eo 4P. Op.cit.7 p 4. 1994), p. 7. (Oxord Univerity Plress, Ostnird, U I.K., 49. David Sarrerthwaire, "The Impact on Health 7. Carolvin Stepheis et al., Etvir'ioiitentand OxotUveiyII 198 7s8) pp . I-237. of Urban Etivironments," Ent'ironmienta,ntd Health in Develorpimng Counitries: A.4 Analy- ; . 7rbatization, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October 19931, 29. World Health Organizationl (WYHO), C.otil- (\ sis o/ Ilntra-oUrhan Differenitials Lsitg Ex-ist- p. 107 utiissitin oil Health anid Environ wient. Reporte ing Data (London School of Hygiene &o 1the Pantiel on irhbantzatison (WHO, Ge- 50. Ibid.i pp. 106-10)8. Tropical Medicinte itn collaborstion wtili Funev- 1992) pp. 5I-i4 S].Jacquehne Sims, ed., Women. Hed/th and daca.o SEADE and Ghana Ministry of Eine Sims.,ted., gyomen l Health Health and Ministry of Enivironment, I on- 30. World Health Organizatitan (WHO), The tlr- Eni'rc,imemtt: A i Anthology (World Health doni, 1994), p. 52. ban Health Crisis: Strategies for Health[ for Organizatioi, Genieva, 1994), pp. 24-26. All in the Fac e o/ Rapid Urbatiizatit,t 52. Jorge Hardov, Diana Slitlin, and David Sat- C8 pe Tvn 1992 (OMffr o Health, AttHtih Cape (r:WHO. Geneva. 1993), pp. 1-4. terthwvaite, Ent'iro,tmental Problems in Towii, S0itih Africa, 1992), p. I 0. 3 1. The World Bank, Wor/d Developmemit Re- Third World Cities (Earthscan, Londoit, 9. (p. cit. 7, p. 14. port 1')9 9: ltit'estintg in Health iThe tWorld 1992), pp. 50-. l. '. Paulo Piiiheiro' "Reflections on Urban VBaik, Washitonoti, D.C., 1993), p. 40. 53. Op. Cit. 51. pp. 126-13S. 10. Paulo Piiiheiro "'Reflectitins tin LIrba i Vitt......... lence," The Urbati Age, Vol. 1, No. 4 32. Op. cit. 29, p. 55. 54. Ulitied Nations Developienit Programme, (1993). p. 3. 33. Jane Pryer. "The Impact of Adtilr l11-Health Human De'eloptmetnt Report 1995 (Oxford I 1. Aritf H a,ait, "Karachi and the Glotbal Nattire oti Household linconie anld Nuirition in Lliiiversity Press, New' York, 1995), p. 7. of LUrban Vitolence," The Urbami Age, Vol. I, Khulna, Bangladesh." Eutiirtnmtietnt anid Lr- 55. Op. cit. 49, pp. 99-100. No. 4 11993), pp. 1-4. hanizatioi, Vol. 5, No. 2 (I993), pp. 3549. 56. Pail Bairocli, Cities mitiii Eccnomic Dev'elop- 12. Mademha Ndiave, "Dakar: Youth GroLtps 34. E. DruIcker et a. "Childhootd Tuberculosis mnent: Fromt the Datii z of Historv to the Pre- anid the Slide Toswards Violenice," The' Ur- its the Broitx, New `tork," Laimncet, Vol. 343, semit (Mansell Publishing, Lioidoit, 1988). baia Age, Vol. I, No.411993), p.7. No. 8911 (June 11, 1994), pp. 1482-1485. 57. Ann-Louise Shapiro, Housilig the Poor of 1 3. Rodriget GLuerrero, "Cali's Iniiovarive Ap- 35. Megan Landon, " hIrra-Urban Health I)iDfer- Paris, 1850-1 912 (Unirversirv of Wisconsin proach to Urhan Violence," Tbe Urban Age, elrials iii London," Master's chesis, Lotndon Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1985). Vol. I, No. 4 (I 993), pp. 12-1 3. School oif Hygiene & Tropical MedILinc, 58. Op. cit. 31, p. 90. 14. Jose Carvalho de Noroiihta, -Drug Markets Londoin, 1 994, pp. 1-33. 59. Gordon McGraiiahan. "HoLusehold Eniviron- .and Utrban Violence in Rio de Janeirto: A 36. Deense Mi. Ditvd et 1l., Pediaric Firearm mnital Problenms in Low-Inicome Ciries: An Call for Action," The Urbant Age. Vol. 1, lInIuries, Kaiisas City, 1 992: A l'optilation- Overview of Problems and Prospects for liii- No. 4 t 1993), p. 9. Based Studv," Petliatrics, Vol. 94, Net. 6 (De- provemetit," Habitat lnztertiatuiutal. Vel. 17, 1 5. Pan Americani Healili Orgaiiizatioi *cVio-eber 1 1994), p. 867. No. 2 (1993), pp. 1Oi-121. lenice: A Grotwing Ptblic Health Problemii in 37. C(ohl McCord atnd Hartold Freemiian, "Ex- 60. Gustavo Arcia et al.. "Environniental Health the Region." Epidemiologtcal Btilletiti, Vol. cess Mortalirv in Harlemii," Neiw! Eniglandl Assessment: A (Case Studv Coniduicted in the Il, No. 2 (1990) pp. 1-7. .l'iurntl etMedlicie, Vol. .322, No. 3 iJanu- City of Quito aiid the Coulty of Pedro Mon- 16. A. Rossi-Espagnet. G.B. Gtldsrein, and 1. ry 8 1990i, pp.l73-l77. caiyo Pichincha Province, Ecuador," Field Tabibzadeh, "Urbanization and Health in 38. Op. cit. 8, p. 13. Report No. 401 (Water anid Sanitationt for Developing CoLututries: A Challenge for 39. United Nationis Childreni's Fulnid (UNICEF), Health Protect, Arlington. Virginia, 1993). Health for All," World Health Statistics Eniiroinrmtent. Dei'elopmnent amild the Cbhld 61. Stephen A. Esrey ct al., "Health Benefits Q)uarterly, Vol. 44, No. 4 (1991). p. 208. IUNICEF, New York, 1992), pp. 19-44. froin Improvemenxts in Water Supply and 17. Op. cit. 7. 40. Op. cit. 29, p. 67. Sanitation: Survey and Analysis of the Litera- tuire on Selected Diseases," Technical Report 18. Czech Statistical Office, CoImpulterized re- 41. World Health Organizatioi (WHO), The Nt. 66 (Water and Sanitation for Health cords of deaths in the Czech Republic in World Health Report 1995: Bridgling the Prolect, Arlington, Virginia, 1 990). 1993 (Czech Statistical Office, Prague, Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995). p. 9. Czech RepuIblic, 1994). Cotinpiled by Martin 4 l ct 2, p4 62. Gehan Sinnaramby, "Loug Cosr Sandtaton, Bobask, Lliitversirv College of L.oidel, 1995. in The Poor Die Young: Huisilzg and 19. C)p. Cit. 7, p. 14. 43. David Bates, 'The Effects of Air PolilLitioi Health it Third World Cities, Jorge E. Har- 20' 'p. Ci'. 7, pp. 14, 52. on Children.'' Environmient,al Health Per- doy. Sanidy C airencross, atid Dasid Sat- 20. O)p. cit. 7 pp. 14, 52. spectii'es, Vol. 103, SuIpplemlient 6 (Sepren- terthwvatre, eds. (Earrhscan, Lotidot, 19901, 21. Op. cit. 18. her 1995), pp. 49-51. p. 133. World Resouirces 1996-97 53 Urban Environment and Hurnan Health- 6,3. WIilitn H,,igrew, , Sietce 1). Joyce. ,iid Iiisiiruiic Siccckliiliii, SweA drll, 1 992i, pp. r,It,,n lbs,,seas, Vol. 144, No. 3, ("Sepreiilmr Eduiiido A.- 1 erez, ILe Ubo.,jc ( :t'.,lc'nj ,- 4-4. I. I991 ), P. 66$S. Iilp/rclinig Pco-Ut!eh ai z . ir.ltlc,l \mvier K2. Ni-k R9. \i 1ik ii? 1 ciicheiig Iit], Iiildiiol 1115. I )o,iigl.i s W. I)i,cke-rr ei i., "A i Asscx,i:iitioii bit1 Sanitiaiion fon H-calrhi Teclnicii,i Repori Air Poclutiloi in IDe%elopiiig I Ioiiitries," in erwct-ii Air PIlcililoj ,ii11l Nii,rralliev ini Six No. 86 (I.S. Ageiicy ocr Inierii ioital D)csl L/iiemuiicdic)' ,/ LIOg can r. lon.iiiaii Nl. (1.5. 1 ili-s, Niiw I igl/,ni /ccnotat of Mist-1 cipmllni, . V0 1iniigtoii. I). ..ll 99.o, pi. Saiiier. ed. (NEiricei i)ekker. In-.. New% York. cont, V"Ii. 3129, No. 24 )I)eeitiher 9. I 19 ),1 44-47. ~~~~~~~~~~1994). P. 154-. V1 181. 64. Up. cit. Ž9, p p. 41-43. 8. (ht.P. 1 6.1(6 IIiIi. 6.8. 1)/i. It. 29. pp. 41 -47~~~~~~ 84. AIlma i.S. f-rhIichiii tli a l.. "FXPOsiire to (I) Ardlei IPopc II 1 t c!.. I'P.iri ICHIJIii A ir Piii- 66. 1 o.,t. 29. p. 42. Air 1 1Li'o ilir i froii 1 raniioilcci,l Hoiiseiholdl Iiiliiii 15 .1 Prr licnr or ci ortril in ii:i Pro- 6'. I p w Ž, .44Fels in ,r Siciiri Atrxi-i: Popiii.iioii. 1air- 5(11-dve Sotly4 of I IS. Adiiits'- *Am ieijln 68. Sioliliaii Iiii, td.(-J . sil' Hiatt/c: itall, if xp-.ep Si,re .4 alvi,i)i .ind EII Iiiiiiir ilte / iiOl ,l Rcf spiri/iat, ire and it naTo l Cat n, Wiiniin ccucit(I ilisaciw Fllirhy IlIe l'O- h/itc'Icciicchc11, V,ii. ;, SiippITie itei I I 1991 Ni.Vi,'cin,ii Vol. I181. No. 31 (N1.r,h 1 998) p. atcl (iia.sgii . Scotland. 19)94), pp -1.8 . IS)),. t646p 1 1 -. 6 94 . f69. ( lp. ,it?. Ž9, p. 47. 8.8. (V (p. Res, 49 - I v t,p ,-II. 11r18 iut.. I p. 66. .I 5 70. Stepheii A. Fseer. .11111 RihAird (;A. ~ ~ ~ R-circ ltlii i ci.ilrliii 11.I/.ct I.p 78 1-e,iciieii. t,itiiac'iiticiiu fiie iii cm/nd if sill k I tli t U iiie Nitriiis F-iilircinic riin P'ro. I It It/i. cIt1. 1 (7 p. 6 -2. Diirrhceat Di.,casi-, Acim~iig Vccmio 13ild gr:oonic and Ihe IUJiiied Natiiii I)eeelop- I I I. Phillip J. I hIts., "Siiidlie Say. Siooi Kills rip toi idren:i P hi...icinictc of F"iccIllFtgicine. Do) ir-fiti Progr.miiiiie. Rie/l Rtsi ,eaicrc- f6030(0 in U.S. Iell )ecr Newi i-ik neian WHOA/ 1)M)/8. 10(IlWi rld? He.i rk (Ii )'t9 - 3 (Olxfir Irs 1liiversi I Preycs New FicWs 1 irkli I 9. I 993). p'. A I. Oreg.izti noiini Gencyi, 1 9891, pp. 1-22. ork 9 2,I.19S I1Ž. NUaeek J.l.kiii'iwsk i. Ailiiieilli A ir PI1ii (i iirii I K. hie Moiihak it a/.. -h.ictici-i,l ( ccuiiaiiii.i- 87 ilad N Aidrscit.(iiceii.frOd Hieiiih F.Itci," iii Aie Pcct/iiti in )l C ii- nu(ll (Iif Sioied \V.ie ,iid Siiiredl Focid: A Po- lipcl rW,ci-ieaitS/t( sttealalo I/ ai-.scrnI u-iro,p: Htstt ,li c/ InllP c/ic Initial Scurice Tit I Imiarhkci,i [)ise,rse n -i .Xcaiagccliun. Warer lind S,lii,ior l ln Pc/i-y Maiiai.g-nrm ir ierices liir l'Ic.iirii Af/rica.-- Upidcmiii icc/i x-ndc tnfeli.cp. Vcii. Heilt.cii Te miii.liI Repicri No. $8 M.S. RIlsoqcn, I99 I). 10)2, No. 2 (I 989) pp. 1149 -116I Ag1 li hu inirreii,iiciin,il D,elpnv .t I I . N i.iri huiocik iind RicIiidu ( A. F,i.il1eiil1. 72. lid W,ishiiigiccii D. .. Aiugiii,i 1993.). p. i. AlAr Pl uiioin and1 Miiri.ilm 'ii Cjuririil mid 88. ( Iinl [i.iriccilr ci i.. 'PrieATT. SCdop1 ii.rr,itp.i- Ii in Euriope: Au siii F imie- Tiith Iiiij.i .3. Jii Linies et .t/.. -Teric.(I, IiriicrrtiL.s .iiil Piiiic tion1 ii Niuciircpal S(Ihld Wiiste Servic: Fxspr- F iiu/c'.lwa fiiurcalt ii Putiti I (clthi. Vii.l D)irectiiis lin dii ( Ticmiic oif \Vcne-Scerionn iiciice' iii I .ciii Aiiirric.i,- 11.31 as1998j., pp. 82-86. Diseases ii I rehin Fill ironiiii1riis," fli, / tiIyI.i1. 1111/ lngie . (,scall, b) Viii. 9) I LI'i).I I ( 4. 1K.rei ( tici. is uiiiiiitig iliy He:idth Flikcrs P'otie ,icint Plnit,i giil Viii. 9, Nii. 2 )j1994, i,. 4118. P. I I _ .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~f -Ae1cirPo ir.cnis: A M\etihid wilrlii ;u .Appii- ( eorge Beim h ct al., Fit mmmcufal19. Ikhccii- N,i iii Olig), Jeeri) Jee:ie:ii ii.cii~i i. d ctiicil tc j.kai:.'iIiicv. Reseaichl Woreking .4 . (icrn Beii( ti. IirIIic/i ecl ).iei1l Ikciii -Fm,r lIP 1`S ii ilieiisu tin Asses. Ii.iprr Nii. I 11(1 (TheL Worldi l8k, W.ihiikriua lcmii hnt tin Ir )ntculitclllic ill t/le ienyl .id I Iiltrcil ,i)I 0)ccpaiiciil Hi,ie.rd,I icoii D1.1.. I 99)4), P. 47. (;rliatcre .Ac,ra c\ictrci/cic/t.n Arc.t i(;AA4A -(;f:.tl,l lSii1kiicliii FieiriiiilIliiIn] IDr hiipliiig COcl111rres." Finliei/iniiIiit,l I IS. ljrr Ilsiric Iinu, Air Iiiiciicigy. ;inid iG AIAsiii li , mSlikcri (Swc elh l.i 19vi)1). e. R.. scesarch. \Vo~l. wii, Nic. I (I.iiiaary 1, 1 991.:pIsiliH Iiii .liiiiaIiiei- ( ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~1(.I1-Ž.iiieiiiai1 ieiiircitiii Agen cy, ISerkele. I ,i litoi- . . (I. SCI'llelI eis t .11., .TFie (ole oli Hoiie Der 90) lIp. . it. 82-, p. 49L) nia. 1)11.8 iersloii:l cMITLlIHICiiic .iIii). sign ii i. iiiiting VectcrBioriie I ies. ii Thei Pici .... ' r iiiiYmm : HcilslIiI ,Iidc Hccltbl 9 1. / )/c. cit. $9, p. 1 14. 1 16. 1 i.:. 1 14. in Ticiit Wcctt (JUls. Jcige F. 1 LaIiidcv. 9". I )e-iii1 B Iiukee .nd PITijiiP I .niIrigali, ctip:i - I117. 1 p. cIt. 4 1 p.)S Sairdc.v Iiancrilc us, ,iiid Dei1-i, Satterthvsally. ticllil Ex1iicsires mid( HlUliaIl Heailr(l," inl I 18. 1.1.D.Jickhs. Ricid S:uleiy in rue IDs-a.iop- eds. (E.irlih-ii, I ccidic, I 199t, p. 1911. 1 :riticd I cii,htiti ci: Hamanll Vi-c,i/th aiic tik- nipi Wiceid.," in (h-a/tlb at the- llCi,s,R ,dc,c/: 76. Kirk R. Siiniti, "Fuin ICoitbustiiicii Air Poiii) I-m iiflII/ii/ Eric Chkii:i l al .2/ edJc. fMXiT U;r/ban Hcaltb Il 7ilc radIsplcrt /I/hev limi Expciusir., .11d Heaiih: Tke Sntii:rii ini Press, C.iluiridir, M1.issachiusrtts, 19913), pp1. I . Fitciter tiid T. McNiici;ci. ssds. J,mindoli Deveiloping Clui riitees. Ainuilul Riicii icf 1,7 Schiooil ut Hyiy eine &5 Ticpicii \lhi'dciiic, LiEe,cri lni/ itb- FiIIlec ic,lci/, VcIi. I8 9.3. I)P. fIt. 8 2, p. 49. I .widitli, iii press) p'. I. I 99 1i, P. 52Ž9. 94. 1)/c. ,it. 82, p. 49 11.I f/lill 77 1H. C hell ut it., "Ildicleo A ir 1Pociiutioni iii 98 1)It. cit. 92, pp. 1 47 121O. LIc ct I8 IS. . II1. Deeeloiipig up ouilt ries," Hic//Uca/it Statii-21 /I t.4 .IT 3 ti, s Qu1)rferiC/, Vi I. 4 3. NI. l 1 9901). pp. 96. 1//c. it. >2. pp. 49-810.I2I.It.ci.4. . 12$-I 14. 9'. i/ cit. .99, 1,I. II 1- I114. 1Ž22. lPeter igihuirst cit ,it.. "Enirlniiinelt,i I xpoc- sIlee tii Ividi itid I :kildreius hiiteliiprniic ill 78. 1 )/i. c it. 4 I . 9 )c It. 89, pp. I I 6- I I .7h p I eeiY. s. Ni ;i,/ic ie '9. Srpeiierin biell1iic ctA ii 9 p. cit. 894, p. i 14. nai ,u/1 Mol,tiu. X',V,ii. 127. Noi. 18 ( l 992j. RStphiritBiuny i -Fe pi deis inmIluidei cit Acevil- 1) kcsprato~ IneLtin' I Chidrvi .f e%d 10(1. T11 it. .Ž. P. ill. pp. 1279-1Ž84. 151513i1. VIcI. I31, SillppIelenlm 6 I Mie-1ilili I11 l/. i. 81), P. I 18 1Ž1.L herOiLe iNdeiL mni i otri icl I)efrniciis ' I 91 )1) pp. S4i4-S460). 1102. )1 ). it. S82, p. SI0. I hililirei witit Fievjited Di)eiinii I.eld Ice Xii). Kiek R9. Siiiirh ct a.1. "Air IiolIiiluioni .1d tIle lI O. Eletricli Schwe),. H~ici -ealthc Inipiic.i .is Nui-l b.ng/7livt cIM1oc. I/ Iif A iccLlnI.'I- Eiiergy [ .Iddee iii Asi,niilIes 1LIcTev Tlions , ( eF Ur i Air Piliimonici iii DevellipIng VoII. lIt), Nic. I 1 II 179), pp. 6X9-6,98. Vol. I 9. No S M;ie I. i 94 1, p. .87. 1 Cciilmies. p.ipee presented it the 11(11 1 24. U.S. Apeilcy fccr lInturnii.iil Ia Dvt)eeiupiiiei Xi1. ATiders FlIepard Ilid fimi1 F.pneiis. "I le~ilii Wcorld ( Jiii Air IIiiirees., ELe ,1c`s. F 1lil1d, W.S Aill)), Office cit I ilmi,mg i d 111 U)rlcii Effects if I hiircial Illd Woodlii-i Use ini MI.ir 8-jiiiie 2., I 99.8, ITP Iiriipr,inis, RanIlking I.liliciiIu- imet.l IIccdth LoIw-Inicinii Holiisehoildsi, insLcuki, Lill 1114. 1. Aedeii PIcpe IlI l "I A.. "RnsiH or.lce Rsk., i ;nc t kut,kiik i/lcdalclt. Vcu. 2. Ti,cklli- Ina,'' Eiierizy FIiIirimclilile it lls DI ,)epI eiIu;l F1 miti P/si- I0l PiiiillIil: A5 DI).i Tirnic-a A1/ plcclct/cs 1U1S. All), \Vilhiniuiuli munit Serisc 1 4 iStccckhlmlltI irircniiiueiiIu SeresAiv , il s .AIlicriuln )ii)yeontile steep gri wotii 41). Itich of this growth wi ll th wll take place in slopfes surriouiniiiig the c1itv iiistrb tiliia tiral IICV-ileve -l pi igiltiolls; iveli nlow, groiwtli rates iii mlaii 5 tio>n aldtl ilestablilize tile hillside soils, leading to iiteilsi- coastail cities in the dieeoiling wiorld su bstantialily ex- fied uidlslicies that claiil hunidirteis of lives adiil thar cecil those in suri'oiidiing rti-ai regions 42). Fvei ill CleaVC thOi LiSaidS Of peoplIC hiOiiIeiess eacIh VeCi d ilevelopedl c(2t.11r1tics sll as tie LJ nirtl States, soiiie of Natural areas are also sacrificed ro fornmal Urban tile higilCst vIelS Of tUri x). groiwti are occunririg iln saIllI LdeVC[OpiIeiilt, StiCI alS resiSlnni.a Ie'statCS, i niltiLStry, a 1 il Ci lastll citics :4U. Accortlii)giv. irlbaI iiiipacts along the tOllitill is,. FOilests, wertllilans, ahInci other cciOs%stemiils iolasts stalild to increra s viarkedl v in the yCears aIleadl. Figure 3.1 Changes in Land Use in Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1930-1988 A. 1930 B. 1965 C. 1988 * Urbanized area [ I Water basin U Forest area V Other natural vegetation Source: Prefeitura do Municipio de Sao Paulo (PMSP), "Plano Diretor de Sao Paulo," brochure (PMSP, Sao Paulo, 1990) and PMSP, "Sao Paulo: Crise e Mudanca." 2nd edition (Brasilense, Sao Paulo, Brazil, 1990), p. 83. 60 W"or'II Rc's m)IiiL'S I 99%-V Urban Impacts on Natural Resources In coastal cities, the higher vaIlute plaed on- shorellile locations. in- creases the econioinic iricnCI- tivc,; to ceIvelol) rlhere. , >- - Thus, as coastali cities grow - - and ( e xp and (, o riginaI n a coastal ha hitlat is inlcreas- P _ inglv coniverted to other ¶ %,x,' Uses. Landl coniversion1 ac- - tiviries range from draiillng and filling of marshes anid or her wetliand s to ion- srructin'g homes or resorts o11 hv.aches or duines, to n ! i i I,s p i-a b)Uildrilg seawall Is, t tin dertaking large-scal I Ia A1~1_ ni a1 tI rh n proe)i ccts t h .1rt extend( thec shiorel ilie into thle seal. Accordl irig to a ricirit Double t/ i.,t. study by thec World Re- stiti'ces Inisitite, roughl"v half of the world's coasts are threa(ltIeLn Ivy develop- In addictiori to haliltat loss, sioreillon dVe0lopu1ierit nireitr-related aCtivities 4t4. (See (ha ir I1. Iiodoiver- call intelnsitf coaltal errosion, alter the hvidnrology of sitv.) In Siga pore, for i nstalICC, deailaid for Ianrd is so estuLal-ies a rid otherwise (isrti nt at raI proiesses. 1:or great that the islanid natimnIr has addeLd 6.000 hucatres ro instarince, beachcs, sari di lie, Ia rsle ,1 r ii gIoxve its land area tv filliig alorg the shoi-reliln, increasing its saiValiips hai-rier islai ri.d anrid reefs all act as physical area onric 10 percent frorii what itr wias three decades barriers aglillnst Srto-il da lnlllge X. CeuI these buffers alrc ago 14i. Along the Sari Franciscuo Bay, tIre ihiist Iligil loist ro devulopirienrt, tie 1 r cast Is lioe vulrieralble to urbanized estuarv ill the Unt.ed Startes, filling has re- erosirn. The protctrive StruCtrilreslty pica l n Ilt to dis- dUCed the ael extelt Of thetlbc bay hone third in the past sipatc stloli elergy Iin turLn1 call disruLpr the nrrior I 1 50 Vears -i4f, processes Iv Wllih slkl is re,lerished, leadig to fLir- Table 3.1 Distribution of Cities with More Than 500,000 Residents in Coastal and Noncoastal Areas, 1995 Number of Cities 500,000 to 1 Million Residents 1 Million to 10 Million Residents More Than 10 Million Residents Region Coastal Noncoastal Coastal Noncoastal Coastal Noncoastal World 124 214 108 159 6 2 Africa 12 31 13 14 0 0 Asia 61 102 59 88 5 1 North America 8 12 4 4 0 0 Central America 6 9 3 8 0 1 South America 17 10 12 10 1 0 Europe 16 20 8 15 0 0 Former Soviet Union 4 30 4 20 0 0 Oceania 1 0 5 0 0 0 Sources: Compiled by the World Resources Institute from the following: World Cities Population Database (Birkbeck College, University of London, London. 1990); United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Urban Agglomerations as Assessed in 1994 (U.N.. New York, 1994); United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization, Urban Air Pollution in Megacrties of the World (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1992). Notes: City population data are standardized to a common year (1995). Urban agglomeration data reported by the United Nations often include several cities within a defined agglomeration. In this table, these agglomerations have been subdivided into their smaller administrative units. Therefore, the number of cities of a certain population may not correspond to United Nations urban population data used elsewhere in this report. ~\ ())r/(/RLScllircl I('/)()O-') - 61 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ther erosion in adjacent areas (4') (4X) (49]. Expansion of brought into the c*it eachi da, altering natural drainage the port in TaLfgiers, Morocco, has altered the coastal channels and increasing the level of flooding of large profile and modified local current patterns; as a result, areas in the region oss. In Jakarta, Indonesia, 1.2 millioln nearby beaches are now eroding at a rate of 5 meters cubic meters of wood, mainly from the nearby rural per vear i5c). islands of Kalimantan and Sumatra, is imported to the C.ities have been a particular locus of coastal wetland metropolitan region each year s(,. The process of re- conversioni because marshes, mangroves, or other wet- source extraction can also have negative environmental lands are apt to line the estuaries and bays where most impacts, altering natural habitats, increasing land deg- coastal cities are located. Of the estimated 80,940 hec- radation, and indirectiv leading to pollution, such as in tares of coastal marshies that originally fringed San mining discharges or saline intrusion into aquifers. Francisco Bay, for instance, 80 percent have been lost to The range of inputs that sustain city life is enormous, development s 1, and a discussioni of all of these inputs is bevond the scope Wetlands scrve as spawnlilng grounds for nmalny of this report. However, a discussionI of two re- aquatic species as well as habitat for waterfowl and sources-water andenergy-illustrates how thescaleof other wildlife. In addition, they filter ouIt manly water- urban demiand canl deplete local resource stores. borne pollutants and provide extensive flood protec- tioil. Often, however, the importalnce of urban wetlands Energy Resources is apparent only after their services have been lost. In East Calcutta, India, 4,000 hectares of lagoons and Patterns of Energy Use swamips that had been used to raise fish were filled to provide home sites for 100,000 Tniddle-class families, Urbanization has a profound effect on the amount and resultillg in an estimated aninual loss of 25,000 metric tvpe of eniergy consumed. Along with population tons of fish and contributing to local floodinig problemns growth, econiomic development, and industrialization, 2i 5s3). Even if wetliands are not imimiiiediatelv filled or urbanization is one of the principal forces driving the drained, they frequently suffer from proximiity to devel- global increase in energy demand sin ss. (See Chapter oped areas, acting as a receptacle for citv wastes and 12, 'Energy and Materials.") Although traditional ru- runl off rhat Iliay overv9hcep talei citur'l absorpti ral societies rely heavily on human and aiilinial energy that may oveturwthelm their naturalabsorptiv and on nearby wood for fuel, todav's urban societies a re characterized by their reliance on fossil fuels and clec- tricity. These differenit patterns of energy use lead to different environmental inpacts. In the developing world, per capita energy consumnp- NATURAL RESOURCES tion remains low. For mlalnV urbani dwellers, especially in smaller cities in Africa and Asia, a large share of Cities require vast quanitities of resources to run-both e n a - i econmic ctivties energy needs are still met by biomass fuels 59) (6))). As for urbani inhabitants and for the economic activities these countries uirbanize, however, demand( for energy that are clustered there. In conitrast to ruiral coimmuni- iicreases and traditional, bulky fuels such as wood or ties, whici are immediately dependcnt on the land that charcoal are replaced y oil 'and electricity (6l 62). supports them, urban communities are rarely con- Energy consumption tends to be greater in urban areas fronted witlh the impacts of their resource consumnp- in the developing world as urban houselholds acquire tion-advanced tranisportation networks allow mnore appliances, such as irons, televisions, and refrig- resources to be tapped fromi distant hinterlands. Rich erators (6h3). Urban dwellers are more likely to travel to cities, in particular, draw on resources far from their work via energy-intensive modes of transportation, and boundaries, food and other materials consumed in uirban areas must The demanid for supplies for cities is much greater be transported across greater distances i64). Urban and moore complex than ever before. These supplies manufacturing and industrv are more energy' intensive range from sLIch basics as water, fuel, sand, and wood, than traditional farming (h). Building the urban infra- to minerals such a3s aluminum and steel, to advanced structure necessarv to support the high populationi den- plastics and synthetic materials. For instance, urban sities in cities requires eniergy lnot typically expended ill expansion creates demanids for construction materials traditional rural settlemients (h(.) (6'7 s16]. such as clays, sand, gravel, and crushed rock to make By contrast, per capita energy' use in urban areas of conicrete, cement, and road stone (541. In Aligarh City, the developed world tends to be lower than that in rural India, approximately 1,000 cubic m1eters of soil is areas 69. Part of the reason is that industries are no 62 W`orld Resourccs 1 996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources longer located strictiv in cities (7-), bIut much has to do creases but new problems emerge! often at considerable with the efficiencies of scale possible in cities. For exam- distances from the city itself. The enviroImental im- ple, attached housing and apartment buildings require pacts of, for example, coal mining and oil and gas less energy for heating and cooling, and mass transit drilling and transport can be severe (x;). In Katowice, requires less energy than transport by personal car (7n. Poland, for example, local coal mines are causing water Far greater amounts of energy would be required to and land degradation. In 1992, Katowice's coal minies provide similar services to dispersed rural populations discharged more than 4,80() metric tons of salt into the than to concentrated urban populations. Vistula River each day, leading to major declines in aquatic life (841 ,85. About 20,000 hectares of land in the Impacts of Resource Extraction region are degraded (up from 9,500 hectares in 1975) by mining excavations, tunnels, land subsidence, waste In the developing world, biomass fuels provide betweeni dumps, and flooded areas. Each year, 500 to 600 hec- 25 and 90 percent of domestic energy supplies, espe- tares of additional land is degraded; in 1988, onIv 74 cially in smaller urban centers (7)2. Although urban hectares was reclaimiied (8hl (8-h. consumption of wood as fuel is neither the primary use for forest products nor the major cause of forest loss globally, local impacts on niearby forests can be severe. Even in cities with low levels of per capita consumptioni Many' countries, inclutding those with enorinous of biomass fuels-Bangkok, Thailand, and Manila, amounts of available water, face urban water supply Philippines, for example-the large number of people problems 88,. Local water shortages are especially' acute concentrated in a small area can place considerable total in the world's megacities, although they are also appear- demand on forest resources W. ing in smaller urban agglomilerations such as Dakar, The growth in demand for wood resources around Senegal; Lima, Peru; La Rioja, Spain; and Lucknow, cities has caused deforestation around some urban cen- India. ters reaching 100 kilometers and more. In India between The growing demand for water, along with poor 1960 and 1986, the closed forest cover arotind 18 urban water resource management and moulitilng pollution centers decreased between one fifth and two thirds (74). levels, contributes to water supplyV problems in and In Africa, urban regions are now experiencing rapid around cities. Although municipal water use accounts rates of deforestation (75), as in the peri-urban region of for less than one tenth of the world's overall water use Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, and the subhumid (89), urbanization increases the per capita demaind for wooded savannah around Dares Salaam, Tanzania 76). water for domestic purposes. Part of this growth in Deforestation also contribLites to a variety of indirect demand can he attributed to better access to water environmental impacts, includinig soil degradation, supplies in cities than in rural areas. Induistrial denianid water siltation, and the loss of indigenous plant and for water also rises. As the number of people in urban animal species (7-7. However, since forests are a renew- areas grows, so does the demaild for food and, hence, able resource, proper management can help mitigate the for irrigation in agricultural areas close to the city. These impacts; indeed, in sonie cases the scarcity of fuelwood pressures can quickly result in demands for water that has led to additional tree plantilIg (78). surpass local water suLpplies. As a fuel source, charcoal is often preferred over Poor urban water management practices exacerbate wood because of its compact size. However, pressures local watershortages.Wherewaterrigihtsarenotclearly on forests can intensify when urban households switch defined, users may claim supplies well in excess of their from wood to charcoal because charcoal is produced at needs to deal with future uncertainities. Water is usually low conversion efficiencies from wood (79) (80). In priced much lower than the actLial cost of securinig, Senegal, for example, charcoal production accounts for treating, and distributing it (in part because of govern- the clearing of between 18,000 and 33,000 hectares per ment subsidies), leaving little incenitive for households year, or between 11 and 20 percent of total estimated and industries to conserve water. Inefficient water svs- annual deforestation 181). This percentage of annual tenis are another major source of water loss. In manLy deforestation can be attributed primarily to urban re- cities in the developing world, leaky pipes and illegal source demands, since in urban areas charcoal accounts connections waste between 20 and 50 percenit of public for 91 percent of wood-based fuels compared with 8 water supplies 9g0) (91n. (See Figure 3.2.) In developed percent in the rural areas i82). countries, aginig infrastructure is contribtitilng to similar As cities increase their reliance on fossil fuels and problems. In the United Kingdom, as much as 25 percenlt electric power, pressure on surrounding forests de- of all water used may' be lost because of leakage (,)). lVorhl Resources 199o-97 63 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Box 3.1 Water: The Challenge for Mexico City Mexico Citv's struggle to secure enough bottom was 2 meters higher than the water is a good example of how urban Figure 1 Subsidence in the city (12L Expensive drainage channels growvth can quickly oUtstr ip the natural Center City Area of Mexico have been built, but flooding remains a resources of a region and lead to envi- City Due to Groundwater problem during heavy rainfall I i ronmental degradation. Sprawling over Extraction, 1935-85 The aquifer is also at risk from con- 3,773 square kilometers (1), the citv is tamination and faces expensive and dif- home to more than 15.6 million people ficult cleanup. Currently, 90 percent of 21. The city's location-in a high, natu- Surface elevation the municipal and industrial liquid (meters above sea level)thmuiiaanidsraliqd rally closed basin-uniquely challenges 2,241 wastes from MCMA are discharged un- water provision. The absence of an ade- 2,240 treated into the sewer svstems (14). In- quate nearbv surface water source 2,239 dustries generate an estimated 3 million means that the city must depcnd largely 2,238; metric tons of hazardous wastes per 2,237 on the local groundwater source, or im- 2,2367 year, of which more than 95 percent are port water from several hundred kilo- 2.235 process effluents or treated effluents dis- meters away. However, the high 2,2341 charged directly into the municipal sew- elevation of the valley makes water im- 2.233 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 age system (151. In manv areas, this portation an expensive alternative (3). In wastewater travels in unlined drainage addition, continued urban growth and canals (IS). There is the potential that poor system financing have limited the Source: National Research Council, Aca- pollutants may leak into the underiving demia de la Investigacion Cienrtifica, government's ability to expand service A.C., and Academia Nacional de In- soil and leach through fractures (from coverage, repair leaks, and provide genieria, A.C., Mexico City's WaterSup- land subsidence) into the aquifer, con- wastewater treatment (4). ply: Improving the Outlook for taminating the water supplv (17T. Other The largest problem, however, is the SustainabilityNational Academy Press, identified threats to the groundwater in- depletion of Mexico City's aquifer. To- clude hazardous wastes illegally day, almost 72 percent of the citv's dumped in landfills, pesticides, arid sa- water supply comes from the aquifer ceptible to dewatering and compaction line intrusion i18l w)). that underlies the metropolitan area (.). m. Over the past 100 vears, the central Demand for water in the region contin- The groundwater level is sinking by area of the Mexico Citv Metropolitan ues to grow. Overall, 94 percenr of about 1 meter each vear (61 1). Although Area (MCMA) has fallen by an average MCMA's residents are serviced by either overdrafting of the aquifer has been oc- of 7.5 meters. Neighborhood children a piped water connection or a standpipe curring at least since the early I 900s, mark thit height on well casings to see 20), but coverage varies widely. In Tlal- the problem has intensifiedi liegh recently.ins t se the problem has 12tehisified recenvlv. whether they are growing faster than pan in 1990, for example, 14 perceint of rhe aquifer showed a net lowering of 6 the ground is sinking io). The result has homes did nor have access to ay formi the aquifer sliowed a net lowering of 6 ~~of public water supply (21)i Mexico to 10 meters in the heavily pumped been extensive damage to the city's in- Citv's urbati peripherv is growing zones (8). frastructure, including building founda- quickly, and providing adequate sup- Because of this overextraction, Mex- tions and the sewer system (i L. The city plies of water to these residents poses a ico City is suffering from severe land is also especially vulnerable to flooding. further challenige. Average per capita subsidence. (See Figure 1.) In part, the In 1900, the bottom of Texcoco Lake water use is still far below that of devel- city's location is to blame, because the was 3 meters lower than the average oped countries, indicating the potential clay soils in the region are especially sus- level of the city center. By 1974, the lake for increased demand. The Federal Dis- Water scarcity is closely linked to water qLalitvy cause struIctural damiiage to buildings aind roads aiid can Freshwater lakes and rivers provide affordable arid conitribLite to urban flooding. For Bangkok, which over- easilv accessible water, but unconltrolled dischaiges of draws water froii its aqcuifer by a conservative estimiiate domestic sewage and indlUstrial effluenits have left many of 0.6 million to 0.8 million culbic meters per day, the Urthan rivers heavily pollited and their water unsafe for comIpacting of uLinderlyilig soiIs h as led to land subsi- use. Consequently, cities must search for waiter supplies dence ranging from 5 to more thani 10 ceintiiittetrs per well beyoid their boLIndaries (931. vear throughout the region ()7). To alleviate this land Other cities rely on groundwater, bLut mianyv of thenm subsidence, Baligkok would have to reduLe its grouind- are withdrawing waiter from aqluifers faster than natural water extraction rate by at least one half-a foriIIidable rates of replenishinient, leading to salinizatioi arid suib- challenige becaulse water demand is cxpected to grow sideilce. (Sec Box 3. I .) Saline intr-usioni is co(ilion in rapidly in rhe comiiing decades (9ss. allmost all coastal cities, from Jacksonville, Florida, to Water shortages anid conflicts alilolIg urban, indLIS- Dakar, Seniegal, to the Clhinese cities of Dalian, Qing- trial, and agriciltural Lisers m;iay becomiie cspecially se- dao, Yantai, and Beihai 144) 0'i) (96i. Land subsidence cani vere in parts of Iricdia, China, and the MNidcile Eastern 64 World Resourcecs I996 -7)7 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources trict uses 364 liters per capita per day water per flush; older models use 16 Ii- look for Sustaznabzlttv (National Academy (22) coinpared with New York City, ters (27). By 1996, this program alone is Press, Washingtoit, D.C., 1995). which uses 680 liters per capita per expected to reduce water consumption 8. Op. cit. 1, pp. 12-13. day (21'. by 4.3 cubic meters per second within 9. Op. cit. 1, pp. 6-7. Mexico is actively pursuing new solu- the Federal District (281. (Total water l0. Op. ci. 1I pp. 13-14. tions to meet these demands and to pro- consumption in the MCNMA is approxi- 1 Op. cit. I, p. 14. tect the environment. Aggressive efforts mately 60 cubic meters per second (29).) 12. Op. cit. I, p. 14. are under wvav to protect the aquifer re- The State of Mexico recently began a charge areas from urban encroachment similar program. 13. Op. cit. 1, p. 14. '24) Officials are attempting to institute Despite these efforts, the financial and 14. Op. cit. 1, p. 40. new pricing systems that wvould ensure environmiental costs of supplying water 15. Op. cit. 1, p. 41. that the full cost of urban water use in- to Mexico City are expected to increase 16. NM. Mazari and M.D. Mackay. "Potential cludes the cost of developing sewage as demand continues to outstrip sup- Groundwarer Colttamination ha Organic systems and wastewater treatment facili- plies in the near term (301k Compounds in the Mexico City Merropoli- ties. Currently, oniv $0..10 is collected ran Area," EnVironment. Sciezce, and per cubic meter of water, even though References and Notes Technology. Vol. 27, No. 5 (1993), as the marginal cost of supplying water to 1. National Research Council Academi.i de cited in Nional Research Council, Acade- MCMA is estimated at about $1.00 per Ia Invesrigacion Cientifica, A.C., and Aca- mia de la lnvestigacioin Cientifica, AC., cubic meter 25). In 1991, the MC(MA demia Nacional de Ingenieria, A.C.. Mex- and Acadexia Nacioital de Ingenierit, A.C., Mexico Citv's Water Suipply: Imn- began a new rate structtire that charges ico City's Water Supply: Improving the proving the Outlook for Sustainability more per cubic merer as consumption Outlook for Sustainability (National Acad- (National Academy Press, Washington, levels increase. The goal is to provide einy Press, Washinigton, D.C., 1995), p.6. D.C., 1995), p. 39. metered industries with the incetitive to 2. United Natiois (U.N.) Populatioln Divr- 17. Op. cit. 1, p. 40. conserve water, evenitually leading to sion, World Urbanization Prospects: The 18. Op. cit l,p.4I. full cost recoverv-an amtbitious goal. 1994 Revision (U.N.. New York, 1994), Now only 53 percent of the users are Table 1, p. 4. 19. Op. cit. 1, p. 44. metered, and not all meters function 3. Op. cit. 1, p. 7. 20. Op. cit. 1, p. 20. properly. To achieve full metering, sev- 4. Op. cit. 1, p. 1. 21. Op. cit. 1, p. 58. eral million additional meters would 22. Op. cit. 1, p. 20. have to be installed at a cost of roughly . . p. ct p 23. World Reso..rces Institute. The 7994 lnfr- $>101() each 2i.). 6. Op. cit. 1, p. 17. niatizto Please Environmental Altnaniac Sonme more modest conservation ef- 7. For a detailed discussion of these calcula- IHoughtoti Mifflin Comp:inty, Boston, forts are already showing success. tlions. see 1. Herrera-Revilla et al., "Diag- 19941, p.209. Water utilities are making routine re- itostico del Estado Present de las Aguas 24. Op. cit. 1, p. 53. pairs part of their overall strategy, and Subteraneas de 1a Ciudad de Mexico y De- 25. Op t I i tnore thati 3,8010 leaks in the MC(MA teritiinacion de sus Condiciones Futuras," distribution system are fixed each and AIC-ANIAC, "El Agua Isl Ciudad de 26. Op. cit. 1, pp. 55, 65. minonth. In 1s989, the Federal District in- Mexico," both of which are cited in Na- 27. Op. cit. 1, pp. 63-64. itiated a program for retrofitting large tional Research Council, Academia de la 28. Op. cit. I. p. 64. Ilivestigacton Cientifica. A.C., and Acade- office and apartment buildings with inia Nacional de Iigenieria, A.C., Mexico 29. Op. cit. 1, p. 21. low-flow toilets that use ot4ly 6 liters of City's Wlater Supply: Intproi 'ng the Ot1t- 30. Op. cit. 1, p. 70. nations. MucI of sub-Saharan Africa is likely to face flicts are emerging In China, where about 30(0 cities similar pressur-es, althoughi data for the region are alreadv experience water shortages 10 n scare.e Already struggling with unieven distribution of water resources and local water scarcity, the urban populations of these regions are expected to douIble inI URBAN WASTES less than 25 vears I991. In India, total demiaind for water is projected to The increased levels of consumption characteristic of nearly double by 2025. Although agriCulture will still the populations of urban areas lead to the generation of claim the bulk of water supplies, demand is growing copious quantities of wastes. The impacts of this pollu- fastest in the urban and indutstrial sectors and is pro- rion are experienced both locallv and at great distances jected to cliiil 135 percent ove- the liext 40 years (io). from the source. Domestic and industrial dischiarges Already in Hvderabad, liidia, the nieed for irrigatit)n contaniniate air, land, and water with ntitrients and water during low-flow years is in direct conflict withi toxics. In turn, degraded air, land, alid water har-m flora the need for water withiin the city itself. Similar coni- anid fauLLa. World Resource's J 996-97 65 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ties of domestic sewage harmless, yet thev are no match Figure 3.2 Percent of Water Supply for vast quantities of urban sewagc. Urbanization itself Unaccounted for in Selected Asian reduces the assimilative capacity of the enviroiniiment by Cities, 1990-91 removing vegetation, slowing the flows of a ir and water, generating heat, and reducinig the infiltration capacity Singapore z of the land (ii)2). Bombay - ,'- This section looks at only a few aspects of pollution: Beijinga 1 air pollution, especially the formation of urban ozone; Delhi - ' muiicipal solid waste; andl water pollution, in particLI- Bangkok _ lar, the problem of urban sewage. Calcutta Seoul ;6- Urban Air Pollution Hanoi ; Jakarta 63= - .--; Despite the poteintial for energy efficienicy in cities, Dhakarta K , . urban energy demanid and fossil fuel con1sUIlmption con- 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 tinue to grow. Already, the concentrations of airlborile (percent) pollutants in and around cities far exceed those in rural areas. In addition to their toll on huliman health (see Source: Asian Development Bank, Water Utilities Data Book: Asia and Chapter 2, "Urban knvironrment and Hu man Health"), Pacific Region (Asian Development Bank, Manila. Philippines, No- these air p0ollutants cani damaige terrestrial and iquiatic vember 1993). p. 30. Note: a. Dataarefor1988-89. Unaccounted-forwateristhewaterthat ecosystems. Not all of this damage can be attributed to is treated and distributed at public expense but that is not accounted uLrban activities. Nonetheless, sources of emiission s are for by sales. concentrated in or around urban areas-especiallv in developing couIntries, where industries still tend to be Much of this pollution stems from economic growtlh located in cities. In addition, combustion of the fossil and industrializationi rather than urbanizationi per se. fuels used for urhan transportation is playintg an ever Cities, however, concentrate these wastes in one place, greater role in air pollution problemis. (See Box 3.2 and straining the ability of local ecosvstemiis to assimilate Chapter 4, "Urban Transportation.") them. Wetlands, for example, can rencder small qtuanti- Air quLality standards are typically set with human health in nmind, but some forms of eco- svstem damage cani occur at far lower levels. Table 3.2 compares health-based Table 3.2 Comparison of World Health Organization standards with the levels at which eco- (WHO) Guidelines Versus Critical Levels of sVstenm daniage has been documented. Atmospheric Pollutants Known To Cause Ecosystem In most nortlherii Europeani cities, for Damage example, sulfur dioxide concenitrationls WHO Guidelines Critical Level rarcly exceed World Health Orgaaniza- (micrograms per for Ecosystem" tion guidelines, yet sultur deposition cubic meter) (micrograms per still exceeds the levels at which ecosvs- Pollutant I hour 24 hours cubic meter) tem damiage can occur. In fact, some Sulfur dioxideb 350 125 1Oc-20d,e efforts to reduce the health effects of Nitrogen oxides 400 150 30d1 urbanl air polltition in developed cooin- Nitrogen oxides 400 150 ~~~~309 Ozone 150-200 100-120 (8 hours) 80'h tries have actually increased damage to Sources: 1. United Nations Environment Programme and World Health Organization, Urban ecosystems. The tall snmokestacks built Air Pollution in Megacities of the World (Blackwell Publishers, Oxford, U.K., 1992), pp. 222, 225-226. 2. The Swedish NGO Secretariat on Acid Rain, "Environmental Factsheet No.6 to disp6rse pollutants m cities SLCII as Critical Loads," AcidNews, No. 2(April 19,1995), pp. 4-5. New York, Philadelphia, and Pitts- Notes: a. Critical levels are defined as the concentration of pollutants in the atmosphere above which direct adverse effects on receptors, such as plants, ecosystems, or materi- burgh in the Unimted States u ltimra tely als, may occur, according to present knowledge. b. Guideline values for combined expo- contributed to the acid i ficatioii o f lakes sure to sulfur dioxide and suspended particulate matter. These may not apply to situations in which only one of the components is present. c. Annual mean. d. Both an- Il the Adirondack MoL1t11S 00;1. In nual and half-year mean. e. Forest ecosystems and natural vegetation. f. Agricultural moist developed counltries, however, crops. g. Maximum annual mean. h. Threshold concentration. Critical levels are now ex- pressed as cumulative exposure over a threshold concentration, using the formula x parts stringenit polultiron con1trol laws anid per billion (ppb) (2 micrograms per cubic meter = 1 ppb) for y hours above the baseline new tech ii logies lhave reduced sul fu r ppb. pbemissionis dramniatically since the 19S0s. 66 Worldl Resources 1 9')9-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources In China, where urban uise of high-sulfur coal for cooking and domestic heat- ing is common, urban emis- . . - - .- - sions of sulfur dioxide-a precursor to acid raini-may double or even triple over the next two or three dec- ades j104). Alreadv, damage to aquiatic and terrestrial ecosystemils has been docu- niented downwind from :;'-> most Chinese cities. In the W'ianxian District down- , wind from the city of: Chongqing, 26 percent of a 65,000-hectare pine forest - has died, at least in part be- . cause of air pollution. Fx- o rensive soil acidificationi in the region has caused dam- E v rrs,o, Ia19 Cr ' ' I' At age to farm produce and a drop in harvest yields, I0)s. tions of 60 to I 00 parts per billion for several hours is Urbant Ozone sufficient to cause significant plant, tree, anid crop dam- age [io8. Once injured by oZolle, planits are more sus- Whereas in most regions of the world problems related ceptible to insect attack, root rot, and other diseases. to acid deposition stem more from industrialization In the Unite( States, ozoie is responsible for inost of than urbanizationi, ground-level ozone-which dam- the crop yield losses from air pollutants ()9). In addi- ages both human health and vegetation-is a distinctly tioni, ozone has been implicated in the declines in the urban problem. The combination of cars, pollutanits, numbers of ponderosa and Jeffrey pines in the San and meteorological coniditions unique to cities is key to Bernardinio National Forest east of los Angeles, where ozone formation. Ozone levels seem certain to increase daytime average ozone conicenitrations of 1)00 parts per as the number of cars (a primary souirce of the pollutants billion are typical dtiriig the sumnier months, and in that produce ozone) in cities continues to climb. (See the white pine in the eastern UJnited States, downwind Chapter 4, "Urban Transportation.") from the urban industrial centers in New York and New Urban ozone is a particularly difficult problemi to Jersey i ino. address because no one polluter actually emits it. Ozone The declinie in the numbers of trees near Los Angeles is produced wheni nitrogen oxides, czarboni monoxide, sends an importanr message to other expanding cities. and hydrocarbons react with sunlighit, a process that Withiout policy interventionls, ozone will become a takes 8 to 10 hours. In addition to cars, other sources pro(blem for virtuallv all mid-latitude cities where motor include the production and use of organic chemilicals, the vehicle traffic is increasing. Forest damiiage associated use of natural gas, munuicipal waste disposal, and waste- with ozone is already apparenit around Sanitiago, Chile, water treatment plants. and Mexico C(ity ei i il l, il . In Asia and the Pacific, ozone The greatest damage to ecosystems froni urban ozonie damage is likely to be occtirrinig in forests downwind often occurs many kilometers from the city itself, al- from Tokyo and Osaka in Japall; Bei jilg, China; Seoul, though inversion layers can trap ozone within city limits Republic of Korea; Taipei, Taiwan; Delhi, India; and and cause health problems there as well. Plumes down- Karachi, Pakistan (I I I, 1 14,. wind of large North American cities canl have ozone conicentrations of between 70 and 200 parts per billion, Greenhouse Gas Emissions often over distances of several hundred kilometers (106) (io)71. Ozone concentrationis as low as 40 parts per billion Although the upswilIg in fossil fuel consumption is not can injure plant leaves, whereas exposure to concentra- due solely to urbanization, there is iio doubt that major World Resources 1996-97 67 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Box 3.2 Los Angeles Copes with Air Pollution In the past two decades, in the face of tion jumped from 2.3 million to 10.6 tionary sources of air pollution, whiich sustained population and economic million its include about 31,000 businesses ranging growth, air quality in the Los Angeles In an effort to improve air quality, from large power plants to small gas sta- area has improved dramatically. (See state and regional agencies are imple- tions and which account for about 40 Figure 1.4 From 1955 to 1992 the peak menting a stringent and innovative pol- percent of the area's pollution 1-!. Also level of ozone declined sharply from lution control effort that targets under the District's purview are con- 680 to 300 parts per billion. Smog lev- industry, transportation, and consum- sumer products, such as house paint, els in the early 1990s were the lowest on ers. The political arrangements have charcoal lighter fluid, and products COn1- record i). evolved over many decades. taining solvents. The District's air quality Despite these gains, the citizens of Los As earlv as rhe 1 940s and 1 950s, pol- plans nmust be approved ba rhe Califor- Angeles suffer from the worst air pollu- lution levels in the city were bad nia Air Resources Board (CARB) and tion in the United States. Pollution enough to prompt public outrage and then by the U.S. Environmental lrotec- reaches unhealthful levels on roughlv political action. The Los Angeles Times tion Agency. CARB also was given juris- half the davs each year-as opposed to published dozens of editorials demand- diction over mobile sources of pollution 279 days in 1976-causing irritation ing action to reduce smog, and several such as cars, trucks, and bLuss s:X. for many and illness for some (2) (3I. A efforts were started to study the chemis- The region has used a variery of strate- 1991 study fouLid that those living in ar- try of the atmosphere above Los Ange- gies to curb air pollution. For exainple, eas where particulate pollution ex- les (6. By the mid-1970s, each of the programs were initiated to recover vapors ceeded government standards for 42 four counties that niake up the metro- that escape when gas or other petroleum days per year or more had a 33 percent poliran region-Los Angeles, Orange. products are transferred and to eliminate greater risk of contracting bronchitis and parts of Riversidle and San Ber- industrial solvcnts, which play a major and a 74 percent greater risk of con- nardino counties-had its own pollu- role in the formation of ozone. To help tracting asthma (41. tion control program. But it was combat the region's continuing growth, Several ingredients contribute to the already apparent that local programs officials in 1976 issued "neW source' city's air pollution problems, including would not be able to solve problems regulations reqtuirinig industries to use the a bowl-like setting, abundant sunshine that were regional in nature, cleaniest technology available for any cx- that drives photochemical reactions, In response, the California legislature pansion or new construction 9!. low average wind speeds, and rapid in 1976 created the Soutil Coast Air Even so, if Ios Angeles is to meet fed- growth in the numbers of people, cars, Quality Management District and gave erail health standards by 20(10, morc and factories. From 1 950 to 1990, the it jurisdictioni over much of the air qual- stringent requireniits wvill be needed. region's population grew from 4.8 mil- itv throughout the four counties. The lIIvdrocarbon cmissions must be cur hv lion to 14 million; the vehicle popula- D istrict was given responsibilitv for sta- about 80 percent, nitrogen oxidles by 70 Figure 1 Number of Days Ozone Exceeded 200 Parts Per Billion in the Los Angeles Area, 1980 and 1991 A. 1980 B. 1991 ardino ~ ~ \~~ ~ ~~ ide Pacific Ocean ] 0-20 days E 20-40 days * 40-60 days * 60-80 days Source: James M. Lents and William J. Kelly, "Clearing the Air in Los Angeles," Scientific American, Vol. 269, No. 4 (October 1993), p. 36. Note: A 1-hour average of 200 parts per billion represents a Stage 1 alert according to criteria established by the South Coast Air Quality Management District and the State of California. 68 World Rcsoufrces 1996--97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources percent. sulfur oxides by 62 percent, gram was expensive for businesses, ing an elaborate network of recharging and particulaites by 20 percent. The however, costing about $110 per em- stations in Los Angeles, but few other benefits will be immense; meeting the ployee, or $17,421 per metric ton of power companies in the United States federal standards for ozonie and particu- pollution reduced. In April 1995, the are making simiilar plans (20). lates could provide $9.4 billion in District revised the program bv allow- health benefits every vear 191L The pen- ing firms to voluntarily substitute emis- References and Notes alties for not meeting this target could sions reduction meaisures. Alternatives I Jap Ni. Leaits and William. J Kelly, be severe, however, including the possi- include scralpping old, high-polluting "Clearing rhe Air in Los Angeles," Sles,r- ble loss of millions of dollars in federal cars and trucks to earn emissions cred- tofic Ane rican, Vol. 269, No. 4 (October money for highwvay and mass transit its, using remote vehicle sensing equip- 1993), p. 32. construction. The California (lean Air ment to identify high-polluring 2. South Ciiasi Air Qualiry District Govern- Act also requires steady progress-emis- emplovee vehicles and earning credits ing Board. Final 1994 Air Qiality Manage- sions reductions of 5 percent per for repair of the vehicles, or paving ment Plait: Meeting the Clean Air year-unril the stanidards are met il. $110 per emplovee per year into an air Callenge (SouthCoastAirQualityMan- To meet the 2010 deadline, the Dis- quality escrow account, which would agemens Dsctri and Southerii California trict has devised an elaborate two-stage be used for other programs such as the aliorniao 94) ernmento 2-i. air quality management plan. relying on purchase of clean-fuel school buses. B Cbif 1 pp both current technologies and sonic that Some of rhe alternatives provide stib- 3. Ibid., p.2-I. do not ver exist. The first stage includes stantial savings to businesses. For exam- 4. Op. t. , p. 38. some 135 different measures, all using ple, old vehicle scrapping costs $2,755 5. Op. Lit. 1, p. 32. existing technologies that cain be to $6,102 per metric ton of pollution re- 6. Op. cit 1. p. 3.3. adopted by 1996. For example, electric duced, which amounts to a 65 to 84 7. Op. cit. 2. pp. 1-5. companies will install new burners and percent reduction in the cost of the pro- s. South Coast Air Qiality Management Dis- catalysts that will cut nitrogen oxide grain (14. trict, "Introductiig AQMD." March 1994 emissions. Reformulated charcoal Perhaps the most ambitious plan to (public iniformation brochure). lighter fluid will help cut pollution from cut automilotive emissions was a 1990 9. Op. cit. 1, pp. 35, 37. backyard barbecues. Manufacturing statewide mandate that required that 2 10. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. plants and construction coimpanies are percent of all passenger vehicles sold in 11. Op. cit. 2, pp. 6-1 0o 6-22. using newly forniulated paints, solvents, the state by 1988 he emission free, in- 12. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. and adhesives that minimize pollition. creasing to 5 percent in 2001 and 10 13. Op. cit. 1, pp. 38-39. The seconcl stage will take advantage percent in 2003 1t5L For more than 5 14. South Coast Air Qualiry Management Dis- of technologies that are just entering years, the mandate has been driving trict, "Air Qualirv Officials Approve Major the commercial market, such as a new technology advancement in electric cars Oserhauil of Rideshare Ruile," April 14, house paint that does not release hvdro- (16). However, in Deceinber 1995, the 1995 (press release). carbons and auroniobile engities that California Air Resources Board decided 15. MarIa Cone, "State Paiiiel Puts Electric Car run on methanol, natLral gas. or orher to ease the mandate and proposed stis- Mandate in Reserse,' Los Angeles Timies, alternative fuels. The District has in- pendinig current requirements for zero (Decembser 22. 1995S, p Al. vested over $40 million in seed monev emission vehicles until 20)03 ti- citing 16. Ibid. to support new teclinologies (1 /c technology constraints as the ma jor con- 17. Electric Trainsportation Coalitioi, "Califir- To ease the financial burden for the cern. Yet some believe the Board is sub- nia Air Resoitrces Biiard Proposes toi Sus- business coinintniti; the District has mitting ro pressure from the auro and perid ZEV Mandires Unnil 20.'3 mud to provided free techniical assistance and oil industries (mI. liistitute a 'Cal/Big 7' Tecchbology Develop- has offered loans for the purchase of Promoting widespread penietration of mtu'nr Partnersbip, " meniorandurn from pollution control equipiment. The pro- clectric vehicles will he complicated by Kateri Callihan, Executive Director, Elec- gram also enables firnis to adopt the other factors as well. The current price tric Transportation Coalition, nr Board of least expensive ways to cut nitrogen for miiost such vehicles is $25,000 and DiCr, Decetor her a 7 , 1 s99 t, p I. and sulfur emissions to meet standards, up, which is too expernsive for the aver- 18 Marla Cone, "Air Panel Bending tinder In the first mitltipollutant emissions age U.S. buyer. Coivsentional lead-acid Pressure," Los Apgeles Tibnes (Decemlier trading effort for an urban area, busi- batteries take up to 8 hours to recharge 20. 1995), p. A3. nesses can either reduce emissions them- and must be changed every 2 to 3 years 19. Girv Lee, 'Californi Recharges Electric selves or buy emissionis credits from at a cost of $2,000. Most prototypes Car Development," W.a,hingtion Post companiies that have reduced their emis- have a limited range of 96 to 121 kilo- (April 18. 1995), pp. Al, As. sions below the standards (uc. meters. Research is under way on bat- 20. Ibid. In 1 987, the Disrrict implemented a teries that provide twice the cruising carpooling program that by 1994 hail range and can be recharged in an hour increased the average number of per- or two, though such batteries currently sons per vehicle by 13 percent since the are twice the price of lead-acid cells 11it. program's inception. The ride share pro- Somitherii California ldison is develop- Worldl Res'isuc-cs 1996-97 69 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Figure 3.3 Comparison of Per Capita such as Los Angeles and New York are vast producers Foigur 3.3te Co artison ofd Percapita oof solidwaste,whereaspercapitasolidwastegeneration Solid Waste Generation and Percent of Is still low in cities such as Calcutta, India, and Accra, Waste Collected, Selected Cities Ghana. (See Figure 3.3.) As per capita incomes increase (kilograms per capita per year) in cities in the developing world, the qLuantitv of solid 1,300 1,246 waste will likely grow in tandem. With increased 1,200 wealth, the compositioni of wastes chanlges from primar- 1,100 ily biodegradable organic materials to plastics and other 900 synthetic materials, which take much longer to decom- 800 pose. When solid waste is not collected and disposed of 600 efficiently and effectively, it pollutes and degrades land 500 and water resources. Managing the voluine of solid 400 321 352 300 200 281 3 3waste can pose a major challenige for city governments, 200 2 l from ensuring that all waste within city boundaries is 1000 lf_j collected, to reducinig health impaicts, to acquiring va- Abidjan Quito Bangkok Sao Washington, cant land sites for landfills. Paulo D.C. fIn developing countries, the environmental impacts C] Solid waste collected of improper solid waste disposal are especially severe. U Solid waste not collected In maniy cities, only 30 to 50 percentr of solid waste is Sources: 1. Abidjan, Cote d'ivoire: Joseph Leitmann, "Urbanization and collected; the rest is either buLrned or dum ped in uii reg u- Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Input to the Post-UNCED Urban Axis,' draft paper (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), lated landfills Uncontrolled disposal of urban waste pp. 14, 20. 2. Quito, Ecuador: Gustavo Arcia etal., Environmental into water bodies, open dumps, and poorlv designed Health Assessment: A Case Study Conducted in the City of Quito and the County of Pedro Moncayo, Pichincha Province, Ecuador, WASH landfills Is a prinocipal cause of surtifce water and Reprint, Field Report No. 401 (U.S. Agency for International Devel- groundwater contamination. In Manila, the biggest opment, Washington, D.C., 1993), p. 46. 3. Bangkok, Thailand: UnitedNations(U.N.)EconomicandSocialCommissionforAsiaand solid waste dtinip Is Bal ut, Tondo, which receives ap- the Pacific, State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific 1993 (U.N., proximatelv 650 metric toils of solid waste each day. New York, 1993), p. 2-55. 4. Sao Paulo, Brazil: Josef Leitmann, "Environmental Profile of Sao Paulo." draft paper (The World Bank, This dump site has reclaimied 34 hectares of Manila Bav Washington, D.C., 1991), p. 10. 5. Washington, D.C.: World Re- and has created ani enormous mountain of refuse tow- sources Institute, The 1994 Information Please EnvironmentalAlma- nac(Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1994), p. 205. ering 40 meters above sea level 1121,. Many cities dispose of household wastes along with industrial wastes, exacerbating pollution problems. In metropoltaon areas have the greatest conacentrateions of China, for example, inost toxic solid wastes are dis- population industry and energy use and henceithe posed of in the MuniCipal waste streai without treat- largest amount of pollutionl and the highlest greenhlouse metit leading to c(itainati(n of soils and water gas enissions. (See Chapter 14, "Atmosphere and Cli- bodies with heavv metals such as mercurv chromimtin, mate.") une recent StLidv estimates tnat almiost 40 p er- lead, and arsenic. These toxics can threaten or destrov cent of total carbon dioxide emissions froni North America come from 50 metropolitan areas (I.I). Al- marine life (12%1 i124). thouh tis sioud b conideed oly rOigh pprxi- Disposal of solid waste In legal lanidfills, as is the thouigh this sh1ould be considered only a rough approxi- nornm throughout the United States and Euirope, averts mation, it demonstrates the iieed for policy interventions to reduce urban output of greeinouse gases. In develop- ing couIntries especially, the rapid growthi in energy de- managed, however, runoff and leachates cani contami- nate Suirface water and groundwater supplies. Landfills mand in urban areas (i.e., from electricity and transporta- are sorface increand experisupes Landfills tion) is projected to greatly increase greenihouse gas are also becoming icreasinglyexpensive owing tothe emissions ( 1 l6o) e 1 1 UTh ull S). (Globa l wa rm ing is predicted tO risling costs of conscrucction and operation 'isi Incinera- emisios I 1) i1 7) I ~.Gloal ar-nig i peditedto tioni, which can greatly reduce the ainiount of incomiiing cause a rise in sea level, placing coastal cities at risk 11i9 micia solid waste, is the s nd mot ommon munlicipal Solid waste, Is the seconid most common method of disposal in developed cotintries 126i. How- Solid Waste ever, incinerator ashes may containi hazardous materi- Solid waste generation, both mun1icipal and industrial, als, includinig heavv mietals and organic compounLds continues to increase worldwide in both absolute and such as dioxin (127) i)125. Recycling plavs a large role in per capita terms 120). Wealth is a primary determinant solid waste maniagenmenit, especially in cities in develop- of how much solid waste a city produces. Wealthy cities ing countries, and should be encouraged not only to 70 World Resources / 996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources reduce the need to dispose of vast amounts of waste but also to protect new raw inaterials from extraction _ - and use. (See Clhapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Ac- tion.") a. Water Pollution a. - ___ Water pollutioni probably beganl with the foundation - of the first cities 7,000 years ago along the major river systemils of the Tigris- ,2 Euphirates and Indus [129). Cities have long used rivers, v lakes, and coastal waters as receptacles for diluriiig and _ . dispersing wastes. The - naltural processes of wVater Urban sewage. T1 ji)i(tlit te dl cit U C ' 7 '9 >ol t 91t p ' ,'/It 1 or J (0 1.> IoP,7SP id 11 flow help to break down tc'i ,lisii.stX/V 1 to.?i /tdU' l t,0 I 'oo Gi j'1r00tc9 o i fi0.l.i5/ iiU , iIr,iilai/0 101/ wastes and render them O,HtOCIVO pll//th. mkin ici,f l .it ti f 1, 0,) ,C, ii!il'.'4..1' . I hi r llii' iitii,i/'s wholw harmless. Evcr-increasing iii at',1UPi0r Is (i- u fnl Iiq(o/Illi Urball populations anld their growing amounts of wastes, hiowever, have over- the sunlight that other organisins need. As plants die taxed the nartiral recycling capabilities of local rivers an(d decompose, the dissolved oxygen in botrom waters and lakes. In cities close to coasts, untreated sewage anid is depleted-a conditioni that is deadly for fish and other industrial effluents flow into the sea and damage aquatic life (i ;). Those fish and otier imobile species that beaches and inshore waters. can survive may nonetheless lose critical habitat, their Although there has been significanit progress in con- food supplies may he disrupted, or they may be forced trolling water pollution in developed nations over the into shallow areas where they are subject to increased past three decades, pollution1 has continued to rise in predation n it2) (11 i 14i t SI i). most cities in the developing world and remains high Nutrients come from several sources, including run- around cities in the transition econlomiiies of Russia and off froni upstream agricultural and urban areas, particu- Central Europe, posing a threat to human health and to larly silt, and air emissions. Atmospheric deposition is the health of aquatic ecosystenms. In some areas, entire thought to be responsible for about one third of the estuaries and even international water bodies such as nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay, which is surrounded by the Mediterraneani Sea aiid the Caribbean are affected. several large urban populations i I c6e. The biggest single Urban-generated pollution conies from both local- source of nutrient loading in urban waters, however, is ized and dispersed, or point and nonpoinit, sources. humani waste. Even after conventional wastewater Major point sources include municipal sewage, indus- treatment to remove much of the organic material and trial outfalls, and air emissions from power plants and pathogens, humanl waste still contains copious amoLints heavy industries. Nonipoint sources include silt from of nitrogeni and phospphorus-the primary ingredients earth-moving activities; storm runoff from roads, home in fertilizers. gardens, and industrial sites; infiltration from aquifers Nutrienit enrichinent problems are especially severe contaminlated with sewage or indtistrial cheinicals; and in urban estuaries, where water flushing is minimal and automobile eniissions. inputs, often from numerous cities, are large I ;7) / 3s8. Of the many' problenms associated with urban efflu- The Baltic Sea, for instance, receives the effluents of ents, nutrient loading, or eutrophication, of local waters inore th1an 70 million people and related industries in is one of the most serious ( io). Nutrients are essential dozenis of cities. Since 1980, it has manifested increasing plant foods, but excessive amounts cani cause radical symptoms of eutrophicatioin, with a lengthening list of plant growth-often miassive algal blooms-that blocks hiological effects, from declining lobster and cod Worldi Resources 1996-97 71 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources catches to increasing numbers of nuisance algal blooms is hoth toxic to aquatic organisiiis in its own right and 1139, (140) (141). Without a major restruCturing of how can also coinbine with some organic comp ouLnds in the urban wastewaters are hanidled, nutrient loads in waters effluent to form organochlorines such as clhlorofoirimi seem certain to rise as urbani populationis increase and and various chloramnines, whicih maya be carciniogeniic or agriCultural prodLIction expands to feed urban residents directly toxic. Moreover, convenitionial treatilient resuIlts i1421 (143). in the acCulimulationi of large quantities of sewage slidge, which often containis heavy metals and other contanil- Urban Sewage nants and which caLn have a variety of toxic effects if it is disposed at sea (I5-). Given its sheer volumIle, sewage is a major threat to local urban waters, as well as one of the most vexinig prob- Industrial Pollutants lems for urban managers charged with its safe disposal. Not only is sewage the major source of nutrienits in Especially in the developing world, industry is conicen- urban waters but it also poses a significant risk to health trated in urban ceniters, resultilng in severe wiater pollu- from such sewage-borne pathogens as the cholera bac- tion problnems in most large cities. Maljor sOuIrCes of teriurni hepatitis viruIses, salmonellae, and shigellas 144) water pollution inClulde chemnical-intenisive indCUstries (14i) 114fi. such as tanneries, metal plating operations, pulp milIs, Most of the world's sewage is still disposed of uii- and refineries. Typical contaminiants incLide organo- treated. In developling coulitries, 90 percent or mo)re is chlorines such as polvchiloriniared biphenyls (I'( Bs) and released withotit treatmenit of anv kind-usuially to a dioxins, pesticides, grease and oil froi a irtomlobiles and water body, whiether a river, a lake, or an ocean (147- (148). shipping traffic, acids and caustics, heavy mIetals sucIh Even in niany developed counitries, oniv a portion of the as cadmiumii and lead, sewage sludge, alid a long list of sewage receives conventional treatment 1149i. synthetic orgalc compounds. In countries where a higher percenltage of sewage is Urbani runioff is anothier source of industrial pollt- treated, building the infrastruCtuire to collect and treat ants. A 1990 study foulid that a single veiir's runlolf from wastewater has required a concerted anid costly national the Washington, D.C., metropolitani area cairried with it effort, and polIltion episodes still occur li s. Manv 3.8 imillion to 19 million liters of oil, I 8() metric toiis of older cities still have outmiioded sewer systems thart zinc, 29 merric tons of copper, aid 10 merric tons of collect sewage and storm water together, so that whieni lead (Ii8s. For somile po1llutalntS, Urban runiloff rivals or rainfall is heavy, the capacitv of the treatnient plant is exceeds the outpuIt from industrial sources and sewage overwhelmed and untreated wastewater is released treatment plants and is often mucih more difficult to through overflow drains i in. track and contr-ol i i ). Increasingly, fisheries are being damaged or de- Industrial releases of toxics have declinied in mny1011 stroved bv the volume of urban sewage 1 Q2) j ic*. Major cities thaiks to stringenit poIlltioil control measures) li6) declines in fish catches have been documented in rivers i 61). On a global basis, however, toxic effluents are still and estuaries around cities in India, China. Venezuela, a maijor threat to urban waters, particularly in miany and Senegal (l i4). In Manila, two rivers carry vast quall- developing countries where industrial growth is rapid titles of the city's sewage into Manila Bay; fishery yields (1I ) (16h ). In Jakarta Bay in Indonesia, whicre untreated there declined by 39 percent from 1975 to 1988 ii s. In industrial wastes are dischiarged by somie (30,000 smiall addition. fecal coliform counlts in most urbani rivers in industries such as batik factories, heavy metal acCuLInLl- developing counitries far exceed health standards. For lations are alarmingly high. In fact, shrimp raken froml the urbanl population that relies on these rivers as a JaIkanrta Bay hav levels of mSercur contamination sec- source of drinking water and food, this poses severe ond only to thosc of shrimp taken fromi Minarnata Bay health risks. The Tiete River downvstreamii from Sao in Japan i14,. Paulo, Brazil, is heavily contaminated by the city's Cleaning up contaminated sedimiienits is extremely wastes, yet it is still used as drinking water by several diffictilt and costly. In the United States, where sedililent rural communities in the interior of Sano Paulo state and cleanup is being conitemiiplated at a numb.11 er of harbor as a source of irrigation for nearby vegetable farms (15S). sites, costs arc estimated at from $14 3 per kilogramn of Even the release of treated effluenits to waters is not PCBs remioved in easily accessible areas to niore than without environinental repercussions, Iecause these ef- $6,600 per' kilogram for miore disper-sed colntarillinatioil. fluents are a prime source of nutrients and suLbsequent Such costs mean that, once conltalilillnated, most sedi- eutrophication. The chemicals used in wastewater treat- menits are likely to remail so for years, despite the effects ment can also liave toxic effects. Chlorine, for example, on the local environmentinc. 72 Worldl Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO PROTECT THE RESOURCE BASE The true impacts of urban activities on natural resources . . 5 cannot be captured with a media-specific approach-in 4N other words, looking first at air pollution and then. water. Natural resources are linked, so that the degra- r w dation of one resource affects not only the resource itself , but also a wider resource base in and around the urban area (166). In Tetuoan, Morocco, for instance, peri-urban - . deforestation not only destroys local habitat but also 3- increases soil erosion, which in turn leads to heavy siltation in downslope water reservoirs; 50 percent of . the Nakhla Reservoir has already been lost. The con- - - ' struction of new dams to meet urban water demands has in turn reduced river flows, affecting riverine hahi- tats and wildlife and reducing the capacity of the rivers to process sewage wastes (167). j ;' As the Tetuoan example makes clear, strategies for environmenital management need to consider the entire ecosystem and the range of insults it experiences. lIte- E grated coastal zone management (ICZM) is one such 7 strategy. Its premise is that a coastal ecosystem must be , considered as a whole, even though it may be subject to o an array of dissimilar threats and under the control of many separate governmenlts. ICZM is also a participa- , tory planning process that seeks to involve all the af- E5 fected parties-from city residents, to industries, to the @ different levels of state and city governments-so that i the problems at hand and the possible options for Stem the tide. An erosioni control proJect on the Chesapeake addressing them are widely understood and the choices Bay ises mats of Bay giass staked directly Into the sand at the for action are broadly supported 165 i169 070) 071. shore! me toslow wave action and restoie habitat This approach relies on scientific assessments to help . . . define the scope of impacts, the natural tolerances of Chesapeake Bay: Regional Mitigation ecosystems to stress, and the benefits, costs, and trade- Efforts Bearing Fruit offs of control options. Even after a managemiient choice The effort to reverse the decline of the Chesapeake Bay, is made-perhaps to treat sewage to remove some but the largest estuary in the United States, represents both not all nutrients-scientific monitoring is used to evalu- the promise and the difficulty of a regional approach to ate the impact of this action, which may then prompt coastal zone managemeit. In 1983, Maryland, Virginia, further action in the next planning cycle. In this way, Pennsylvania, and the District of Columbia-all of ICZM evolves as environmental conditions and the whilch are part of the watershed of the Chesapeake attitudes of the stakeholders change i 172m 1I73i. Bay-entered into a formal partnership with the federal The two profiles presented below provide a more government to restore the Bay, which has suffered seri- comprehensive view of the variety of impacts that urban ous degradation from more than 300 years of heavy areas canl have on coastal ecosystems, from land con- exploitation and pollution (174). version, to land-based pollution, to urban use effects. In the years since the Chesapeake Bay Agreement was The Chesapeake Bay profile illustrates how an inte- signed, specific restoration goals have been wedded to grated approach to environmental management has a comprehensive set of actions designed to improve begun to pay off. The Hong Kong profile dramatically water quality, restore aquatic habitats, regulate devel- illustrates the range and severity of pressures on urban opment, restrict overexploitation of the Bay's resources, coastal waters and the difficulty of addressing them in and develop a monitoring program to check the pro- the context of rapid industrial development. gress of these efforts. This Chesapeake Bay Program has World Resources 1996-97 73 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources resulted in measurable improvements in the Bay's stressing the blue crab fishery-the last major commer- health. The health of the Bay remains quite threatened, cial fishery in the Bay. Waterfowl populations have also however, and aggressive action is required if the recov- diminished substantially as shallow water habitats and ery is to continue (I-5). wetlands have declined 12 (18i2 The Chesapeake Bay is both extensive and ecologi- In the mid-1970s and 1980s, the U.S. government cally coniplex. Stretching nearly 322 kilometers in undertook an extensive research program to sort out the length, with a shoreline of some 11,263) kilometers (1-6), factors contributing to the Bay's decline. The research the Bay is fed by 48 major rivers that drain a combined revealed the central role of nutrient pollution, providing watershed of 1 65,760 square kilometers. This gives rise an essential basis for developing a recovery plan. Later to a range of physical enviroinents and salinity regimes modeling studies indicated that nutrients would need to as fresh water and saltwater nix, creating conditions be cut sonie 40 percent from 1985 levels for the Bay to that support more than 2,500 species of plants and recover. in 1987, this 40 percenit reduction goal was animals. The traditional productivity of the Bay has officially adopted as a centerpiece of the Chesapeake meant employment to thousands of crabbers, oysterinen, Bay Programi 184}l 415. and fishers, and has been one of the main attractions for As it stands today, the Chesapeake Bay Program is the Bay region's flourishilng tourist industry (17-). the most ambitious attempt at integrated coastal zone The productivity of the Bay, however, has been badly management in the lJIited States. The program grew compromised by ox eruse, pollutioni, and habitatconver- out of extensive discussion and negotiation among all sion. The very size of its watershed makes the Chesapeake interested parties-including state and federal repre- vulnerable to humani activities over a vast area. By far sentatives, industries, local goveriiments, environ- the most serious threat to the health of the Chesapeake mental and sporting groups, and private citizens-and today is the tremenldous influx of the nutrients nitrogen now has wide public and private support (i86). and phosphorus from both urban and agricultural Achieving that consensus was impressive, consider- sources throughoLIt its watershied. Whereas forest pre- ing that more than 1,600 separate coimnilunities in three viously covered 95 percent of the watershed, agriculture states and the District of C:olumbia surround the Bay now accounts for about (30 percenit of the land use and and its tributaries. A regional executive council coordi- is the largest source of nItrient pollution. Urban devel- nates the program, receivinig oversight and direction opnment, which covers about 10 percent of the water- from a citizen's advisory commiiittee, a scientific and shed, is close behind as a sourCe of nutrient pollution technical advisory committee, and a comimittee of local and is growing quickly. The situation is worsened by government representatives. State governments and the suburban sprawl, wlich causes the loss of wetlands and federal government have lent legal and financial support riparian forest cover, both of which, in their natural as well as enforcemilent powers and monitoriig capabili- states, provide important nutrient buffers I178). ties (187) (18X). Damage to the Bay from nutrient pollution became Although goals for nutrient reduction and habitat evident in the I 960s and 1 970s and provides a classic restoration have beeni set for the Bay as a whole, more example of progressive eutrophication. At first, exten- detailed goals have also been developed for each of the sive algal blooms appeared and the Bay's clarity de- 10 major tributaries. The actual actions taken to achieve clined. Eutrophication in turn led to a serious decline in these goals vary widely depending on the location and sea grasses and other submerged vegetation, whose loss the nature of the local threats. They include efforts to affected the numerous species that used the vegetation encourage better methods of farimilig and timber har- as habitat. Finally, a buildtip of organic matter in the vesting throughout the Chesapeake watershed, manage- depths led to a progressive decrease in dissolved oxygen ment of fish and shellfish harvests, stream revegetation levels in extensive reaches of the Bay; leaving anoxic and marshland restoration, regulatioll and monitoring dead zones along much of the bottom and stressing of toxic releases from industry, and mitigation of the maniy of the organisms in shallower areas 1-9) (iso) (181). effects of shoreline development through such means as In addition to nutrient enrichment, other pressures vegetative buffer zones, setback requirements, and other on the Bay inclide industrial effluents and urban runoff, zoning restrictions (is,)) (19)) (191) 192) (19i). which have left toxic contanlinants such as heavy' met- The results to date have been impressive. Phosphorus als, pesticides, and chlorinated hydrocarbons in sedi- levels declined 16 percent from 1985 to 1992 through the ments. Overharvesting of fish and shellfish resources use of a combination of banis on phosphorus-containing has contributed to the demise of important species such detergents, upgrades in municipal sewage treatment as striped bass, oysters, and shad and may currently be plants, and soil erosion controls and nutrienit manage- 74 World Rcsources 1996-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources ment on agricultural land *>.w 194l Progress in controlling - . i nitrogeni levels has come niorc slowly, but it is still sign ifcant, despite the in- creasing population In thie watershed w.)i) These gains - in nutrienit control have led to dramatic improvements in the abundance of sub- merged vegetation, which increased 75 percent frromm 1978 to 1993 o(9o,. The striped bass popuIlation has E _ rebounded, thanks in part 2 s I!ImiaIIl - to improved hialitat and X strict liits on fishing 197m. CS F\Aen so. a significant ef - 4 fort will he required to Inect G 'A I ' the goals of a 40 percenit redLuction in nutrielts and a 7 significant improvement in habitat quality throughout the Bay-especially since the area's population is ex- urban growth. Filled land now accounts for more thain pected to grow nearly 20 percent over the next 25 vears 25 percent of the urban land area, and seawalls armor (19X). So far, the Chesapeake Bav Program has proved to much of the reclaimed shore. This has radically altered be a flexible mechanism for improving the quality of the Hong Kong's shoreline ecology, eliminating most man- Chesapeake Ba%; and area leaders are hopeful that the groves and reducing the diversity of shoreline habi- gradual improvement in the Bay's condition will fire tat (204). public enthusiasim for the difficult steps ahead (199) (200). Aside from the direct destruction of intertidal, sea- bed, and coral commuiities, extensive reclamation 'H'ong Kong: A Study in Multiple Impacts around both Victoria and Tolo harbors-Hong Kong's two main harhors-has restricted tidal flushing in the Pressures on Hong Kong waters are far greater than harbor areas, exacerbating the already severe poliltion those on the Chesapeake, and reversing them promises problems there i205,. Construction of new airport and to beeven niore difficult. Hoig Kong is the mostdensely port facilities has required sonic 500 mi11ion cuhic populated urbani center in the world. The Hong Kong meters of sand fill, most of which has been obtained by conilrbation consists of several adjacent cities on the stiction dredging from inshore waters. Dredging has Kowloon Peninsula and ncarby Hong Kong Island. It is stirred up clouds of silt that settle on nearby sea grass home to 6.1 million people and more than 200,000 beds and coral communities, significiailtly reducing their large and small industries whose hyproducts flow ilito original extent (206) (20)T. two maljor and several smaller marine embayments (2oi). Raw sewage from some 3.6 million people flows into Located in the subtropical climes of the South China Victoria Harbor, giving rise to severe effects from nutri- Sea, Hlong Kong waters once boasted productive coral ent loading. Despite generally good water circulation in reefs and mangrove stanids and yielded abundant tile harbor, water qualitv continues to decline. Fecal catches of fish and shellfish. However, extensive recla- coliforni levels from sewage contamination, for in- mation projects along the Hong Kong shoreline, inas- stanice, are extremelv high, and shellfish contaminated sive pollution of the harbor areas, and heavy fishing with human pathogenls suIch as salmonellae, shigellas, pressures b oth in nearby coastal waters and in the more and hepatitis viruises are common 20in. In 1998, a distant wvaters of the South China Sea have exacted a hepatitis epidemic involving nearly 1,400 people wias major toll 2021 k2031(. tracecd to the consuimptioni of contaminated shellfish Because inuch ofthe HongKonigcoast is rathersteep, (2719). Dissolved oxygen levels have steadily declined in reclamation has played a major role in accommodating harbor waters, and some areas where water circulation World Resources 1996- 97 75 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources is poor stiffer from permanent or intermilitrenit anoxic project. The first phase, now under way, involves reconi- coniditions. In nearby Tolo Harbor, a smaller em-bay- strucrioil of urban sewer lines. The seconid phase will ment with very restricted flow that receives the effluents inivolve conistructioni of a large sewage treatment facility of I mlillion people, coniditions are nticci worse and on a former islanid in Vicroria Harbor. The final phase anoxic waters are mctih more extensive 211)). will he conistriuctioni of a marine outfall to transport Firtiher toxic insult to the harbor areas conies fromli treated wastes well bevonid the harbor waters. Marine indtIstrial wastes-solvents, oils, acids, heavvy metils, s warn, however that until the marine outfall is tannerv wastes, and other compounds-most of which built-ca - t ln~~~~~~~~~~~Uilt-which is ilor scheduled for aiiiotiei- dlecLide or h ave been, Llutl recently, dischiarged through the sewer liave~ ~~~~~~~~~~~oecesv been,li lodm ro swgevt1co systen. Agricultural ciemilicals and animal wastes from sonetoegratleng Kong urban wate w coi - ~~~~~~~~~~~~tminie ro degrade Hong Kong's urh ln waters ili nearbv farms also flind tlheir wav into the waters arounid Tta Ilong Kong. Shippiilg traffic is heivy in Victoria Har- bor, bringing with it associated hydrocarbon pollution. lenges the Hong Kong government is moving toward As a result the coastal watres are signlificanly ctnltami- integrated coastal zonle management. The planning de- nated with trace metals sucih as cadium1i.1l1 and organio- Ipartimieiir has issued maps thar broadly identify regions chlorines suchi as dichlorodippielyltrichilor-oethianie where development should be coilcenitrated anid is now (DDT)22 ?. comnpiIing a data base on the ph'sicaI and biological Marine life in Victorlia and Tolo harbors has reacted characteristics of the coastal zone for tise in future predictably. Severe pollution has resulted in long-terilm planning efforts (220). c.haliges in community structure, species abundance, At the same rime, however, conitinued expansion of an1d species diversitv of the biottom-dwiellirig orga nisils, the Hong Koig urban zonie threatenls to degrade coastal intertitlal organisiis, coral comm111u.nities, and fish. Toxic areas to tile east of tiC urban core where environmenital algal blooms, prodtucts of the persistent eutropilicationi stresses iave previouslV been light. In responise, efforts also kiiown as red rides, are commiiiioni in Tolo 1arbor. are tllnder way to esta blish several marine parks and In 1 9717, 2 suchi reti tides occurred, but in the peak year - ~~~~~~~~~~~~reserves to afforcl somie pr-otectioii to these easteri of 1988, the numbler rose to 38. The incidenice has waters, whiere coral reefs and other comilponenits of the dleclined somliewhat withi imiiprovemienits in wastewater iimarille c0omm11uni.tV are still healthy 221) ,2221. treatment il ( i [214) (II 2 1le,i. Honig Konig authorities are tryinig to mitigate thecse To the west, Hong Kong lies adjacenlt to o(Ie of the Hong~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~evlpn areas ofiort China Chinesenligteths po1llutiol problems in several w\ays. Alrealdy in place are Imlost rapidly deeloping a reas of China. Chese a number of laws that restrict effluent discharges fromi athorities have alreatly commenced port construction, industry and ships antI that reguIlate the d1lum1ping Of altil proposals arc in bliad for conistr-uctionl of an auto- dredge spoils and sewage Sluldge at sea ,2 I m. Local mobile manufacturinig plaiir antd other heavy industrial autilor-ities have conistrtIcted a chiemical waste treatmnicit facilities in nearby coastal are-as. These potential threats plait, and efforts ire l being niade to collect and process give weight to the argument that regional coastal plan- animal wastes as well 2 si. ning is urgently neetedt to avoid catastrophic declines in To address the largest threat to its aquatic environ- coastal ecosystenis not just in Hong Koiig but along the menlt-sewage-Hong Kong has laulichied a three-phase entire southeren coast of Clhina 22 i2 References and Notes 1. 1liii-1 N.iiii,i itiN.i Pl.eeiliioi OIm, shee, ;. Ijmgu . H.iId(it Dil. Nliriji. mid 1.ieitl Ii 1Ts. U gAiit) [eer Ilnvii liel lD'telepilit W'I e.el I Urlkmi_ctce Iielec Is: Ih' 1(99-4 :t iii'vil i.iiwe', Fee'treeeeeeeeential Puel ten jeti ([S. AllI) (I) Of h1tfeel Ftirmimeeetnc ti dr- Re''cte ec IN.. N.,e N,erk, I ni k , I lot.Th) ip. Ihll , I anrnl C [ n tii. I i e5t lue F I 0tes IeeTe1 Preegre,ii. The' Rule' eit lc (ilj ine Fe'- 2. ll/e, p'. 1-. I 99 ' ). Ii). ,ieeetettttcnial Maeeg(metee. 1 994 'litcit (LIN. .1., Dlieie le, ''Hu .ini 5tt i n..'' itt /. (-eerdle \cU I hiieiiii tee) i:ielS o h oi c. All), \f.isbIigioeei D.C.. 1994), p. C i.e'. It l.eel 1(Se' lie! L.e,,,l C(e''' '' Wcililt. ,1li.ilht, e 11,1',,, 1 I,II i 111 Ieee'telcl: . 1 ( l. 11, (. j). S (NeI,al Mi F'/it'. tile' m \ Bjlli.eit R. NXI, r e, \Vriglmiieg ii.4 ee imimeitt.il Klird,i, it A:., I . 11. ti/i it. i. t FeiritL- LI 11d'. it . tlei iel9e 1111t1 I.tk.ert.i. t1' Nil eP ie' l;e, - it 'emeetet \Vel. I-1. Pc1 e.ek it id Nittlie'l C'. i]ee,ck. lrC s m ( itie. d L.K., 1994e. p. I S (6, N.-. h Iilt/Aiegetoi 1'c)c4jp 1'1l. 4-x're epeeliitil 'eertliteld lIrRlei N:eerai 4. I1/iil. '1, I 1i4-1 . (/i. eit. S 1p. I te. R(Ne-iec 1' Ire iii. n Tbe Th e/e'i, l(al': S. ( )j. it. S, ii. - -. I'te'ce't'it.!' i111- R.'sieerieen2 Uerlbeat Hmieelii'e'r- 76 W''iurl'd Resom-o'ees 9 )96-97 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources arty, Rutherford H. Plait, Roswan A. Rostis- Conservationi Service, Washinigtoni, 1).(C. 44. Dick Bryairrit tai.. "Coastrlines at Risk: Air tree. airdi Pamela C. NMuick, eds. (I he Utirirver- 1995. Iindex of Piotertiral Des elopmnent-Relared sity of Massachusetts Press~,.Ainhersr, 2 6. Erri ted Natiurls Cenitre for Hit roanH Settle- Threats ro Co~astal Ecosy stems.' Woirld Re- Massachusetts. 1 994), pp. 251-26,8. ients. Globral Report otn Huttani Settle- SOLurces lisrsirute (WRI) Indicator Brief 13. Iirrernational Council for Local Ernvrronr- meneta 1986 (Oxford Uiniver-sity Press,. )WRI, Washrirgton. D.C.. 1 995), p. i. nicirral Inrriatives (ICLEll, "Crtres for Cli- Oxftird, U.K., 198-7), p. 130. 45. Chia Liir Sieri, Stirgajr... res Urbain Coastal mate Protection: An lIrterrrarionalI Ca inpaigri 2 7. Cle so N.E. C) rserra and Josef Lertruranrir, A4rear Strategre.s 1fr MAnairremtentrt Assocra' to Redrrce Urbani Em iissrons of CGreen house 'Sari PatiO," c:rticS. \'il. I11, Nit. I i 1994i. trrrrr (If SIOUtrheast Asra ri Na tions/Unir ed Gases," ICLEI paper (ICLEI, Torornrtot, P. IO. States CriastalI ReSriurces larragemnscr Prot- 1993). 2 8. Errired Na tionrs li. N.), FPrpultiroin Cr'rtd, Iecr Techiri cal Pub)lcatrrions Series 9 (TIre In- 14. Developmeirr agenicies are rutiw begrnnrrting to .tnd Policies itt m-Iega-Citri's: Sao r aitds erratrorral Center foir Livinig Aquatrc sponsior srrrdres on the r urpaCtS Of u rbaizatsa- ( U.N., Nets York. 199 3), p. 16. Restotrrces Manrragerrentr. Nl.r i it, Pin)iip trion oiii the surrouirdioig natrirral resoLurce 29. Ibtid. P is,192, .7 Ease. See. for example, U.S. Ageticy- frr sInter- 30 IS gic o [tritoilDvlpet 46. Sari Fiancisco Esttuary Project M-ans.gernetse nationial Development (UI.S. AID). The ltin 30 i .Aei o r eri aIIeeIirtn on nnr tre, Stir Ft,icrsc Estaritn Prroject: /pact oif L'r/banization sir Natutral Rcsourtrres: i SAID). "Urbarsizarion ITTthre Develoipiog C uttrprebensrr'e Cruisers 'atrrir .ind Mainage't- Tetourati. Mroroccot UL.S. AID, Washringtorr. CouInrtrrcs," r urerirus report ito Ctorgress (itS. rtt'nt Plair iSari Eranrciscot Etl.ra ry Prtoiect, D.C., 1992i). AID, Washintgtoo. D.C., 1988). as cited irs Slan Francrsco,. 1992), p. 52. IS. Op. cit. 5, n.p. E~~~~~~~LrrSrOiir Sllrri e't d.r/. "VaIrrrrlg ili Ecoitioninic 47.Matthew Auer, Uir/ban ltmprcts itt tben IS 6 U. Ro[e ci. Whr5 ra Evrnnna Imparcts iif Envr itronmersa iPIroiblenms' A sr:ran Coasta/ Zrires of Develop/iniig Ciountrtires: A6. Rdnig K.e hite, E r/raron istnnl riritregt,t/n Crires," UIi nam Matnagement Proigraii nr % PrbeUI iscain~ilRclnnn Urban Designr (Johni Wiley' & Scins, Chiches' :i,shronigaper. d.C., 994e P.IL B3 nk trais for Alirtrg.tirits (U.S. Agerrcx ftir Inter- ret, U.K., 19941.go,DC. 94P.s3artiorial Deseloiiprteiit, Washinrgrtonr D.C., 3 1 - World Rcsiirrces Insi~tutue iri collIabori raint I 1)91 , P. 6. I 7. Richard Siren, Rodirey White, arid Josephi with the tnintier] Natiorts En vi roi rtrrerit Ptroi Wliitirey, eds., ,Sustarina/ile Cities: Ur/ai,rrz,- gra trusts' arty] the Untired Natrotrs Dci clip 48'p.vriv fRid sin osa e tliri andt the Env'ironmtient int Internrationa tedi 'oraine Vrl co e sr1.trceS Ceirter (URI.RCi)/U.S. Ageircy for Perspectiv'e )Wests'iewv Press, Bioulder, Co l0- I 99t4-95 )i3'%frd U'riisersrrrP ltc-, New Intiernat ionalI Des elctprnent. Central/ Amtier' rado, 1992 i. Y'trkt. 1994). p. 7 1. h.t' S ('rsts: Pltt~i/ies .tndi n Agr -3.endah fr Ac - it' i i URIC RC, Na rragarnwtt, Rhodtei Isl.rnd, 18. William E. Rees, "Ecologrcal Fiotoprints and 32. op it. 3, p. 162. i 9'92i. p. 7. Appropriated Carrying Capacity: Whrat L.ir. 33. Dorrald W.. Jories, "Hows Ur-bailizatiotin Al- 49 opci.7,p.-7 ban Ecornomics Lea yes Out," Envit irteiotncsmeegn le i esl t 4rgCrnrc.90%Oplcd iterra trat En. 6iritrciltc7nc arnd Ur/banizat'ioan, Voil. 4. Nit. 2 r Ocrtoser Erergv' Pta/icv, Veil. I 9. Nit. 7 i Seprertrber .NchrraelEniom tlTcnclAs 19921, pp. 121-130. I91 Ii, P. 622. sitsr.nrce Progr.r ir, Tangit'rs: Mrtnriip.l Pitt r- I 9. Carl Folke, Jonas L.arsson. a rid Julie 34 avdE D wlttdGie laktMaigr,:mintal Autdit ttndt Str.rtegyi r,rnnrris,stion Swer tzer, ' Reticewable ReStiarce A pprrtprrai- o3.DyilE rw IaidCIsCak akn f ric Eirrorpe.rio C:rirrr1rn 1iri ies/Errred Nsa- tioni by Cities," Beiler [)iscussiotn Paper Sc- Urthan Larrdi Markers Wiark," rI raft pa per titans Developiprrrert Progra tnsirrc/W rld Batik, ties No. 61 1 Bi)er Internatioal Institute inprepared fori rlic Llrbisati Ma nagriureurt Pti Washringttonr, D.C ., 1993), p. 2 ries No. 61 (Beiier Internartionalro, TIr Word Batk, a pit edoi Ecoilogical Ectilstinics, Stuck hitl[ii. SwedeTn riine, TeW rdBn,a toe n5 I - l)a id Sal vesen. WY'irhtlr/s. -I rt,atiigri/ Jants D. Bertisteirs, "'Laud Use Co:tirsde ra- Ret/rigDt-l pier gractsng 2nded 20. P.M4. Holligais and H.- de Bootrs, Lantd- trm siilanEr irrrrriINIrrg-(TIre CUrbani Lanrd Institute, W.tslrirgtigtol. rneirt." Urbnsai NI iangerIen t Proi,gr.rnitt rite199),p 21 Ocerair l,rterac tronts itt the Coastal Zoite 1)rSCLISSIair Pa per Nit. I12 iThse Wiorld Batik, )C. 9) s I LOICZ( Scietuce P/tim, International Washinrgrton, ID.C:.. I 994), p. 2 S. 52. United Natrorm iLl.N .1 Ecoivnomic aird Social Geosphere Biosphere Prograiurinec ( GBP r 3 Janlis D. Berniste[ii, " Lanld Lise (.orrsrdcr.- Cot misirsrio forsti Asia aid thie Pactific, State' Globial Change Report No. 25 1IGBPt. Stock- ITIVg- i UrEaiz/,rrratir itt Asr.t aird fbi Pa(iri/ hoalm, Sweden, 1993/, as cited in John LinjnUbn niomnilM ng-193 (U.N., Neiw Yirk. 1 9931, is. 5-2S. Pernerra and Dan try Elder, Cross-.Sectiira,t stieit," UlaIs argser r ri s DisCrISsItin Pa per No. 12 (Tire \Vorld Batik. Ž3. Erritecl Na rtions U.-N. i Econorniirc .rndc SirciaI Integrated Cosustal Area Planittitg (CICAP): \Washinrgtonr D.C., I 9941, p. 26. Commrrissitin for Asia ,rid the Parcific State Gtuidelinres alytt/ Princeiple's fir Coasstal A4rea Dev'elopmrenrt t World Coirsersvartion Urn ii 36i. I/rid., p. 12. f the' livir'riiitentr Int Asr. aird f/t' Pact/ic, Gland, Switzerland, 1993). p.27. 3 7. Op/. cit. 35, p. 1 7. 19 L.. ago,TaLn,19) 21 . Ariialf Grubler, 'Techniology." to C/aattges 38. O)P. cit. 35, p. I]3. 54. Oip. cit. 3, p. 162. iii (anid Use rnd Lant] Covrer: A4 (Gloa/l Per- 39). Op. cit. 3i5..5.CntftrciieaidErvrnicuadth spectrrve, Wilihain B. M-ey er arid B. L. Tuirner 4(.D rt d .Fel tt..C.se ettts fIsenriar fosa Siencsrute a fur En rvirrtnmrent rindth II, eds. I Cam bridge Err trersirv press, CITor- 40 e Dona r'd W.SrFtes: Air a.4 Coastultrt cti nd[ ofri I)nvelrnaipnlIsittir iii(iient.IirddsyOeea DecItip brridge. LI.K., 1994), p. 32 3. i/t/c U'mtedtrn tia Aeitsie AcNaountrin CfceVaitc sire1OAdFrinrstrnfrtded b)O I C .vlrgash Feveln- 22. Ala in Brta ud, "Ovesiew'." in Tle Hirniartand Atsitaospheric Admtos trsratinrr ini cuoopera- 7oititu'it Stut/y i ()DA, Li sOTUt, I 995r, p. 64. Face of the LUrhat Environmeltnrtt. r'i ie-nt t with she CJ S. Fish arid WilcIdlife Scesvicc. .56. Mlctrt tsiihtart FuEsvironmesnna1 I irrprervernrctr itugs of the Seconid Anntunal World Batik C' ntt Wasisn gtnirr D).C., 1991 ). pp. I - I . Pri-gra ni, "Tire Envirronmrental Iprofifs Icof ferettce' til Envtr'rrt nenltel1tt Stustarina/ile 4 I. O p. itt. 31I. TabIle 22.6s. pp. a3s4-3is. Ia k.ir ri 1990)." d raft psaper (Tire Woi ris] Dev'elopmtent, Isniail Serageldinr, M-ichael A. Crihein, aird K.C. Sisa ra nrak rishniarit, eds - 42. Oip. cit. I, pp. 1 14-I I 7, 14 3-I 50. Ii.aik. Waishinrgtnti, D).(., 19'51ti, p. 12. iThe World Bank, Washington, D.C., S,ep- 4.1. Wiliranm H. Frey arid Alders Speav,rc It,Thie 57* ( ip. c it. 3 1, p. 17 1 teouser 1 9-2 1, 1994). p. 234. Revisval of Metropolitan POrpLa111iro (rowsthi §8. LINS. Coitigress, Office oifTecititology Assess- 23. flIp. cit. .3, p. 162. siri rIse Uii ted States: ATir Assessmernt tif Firt]k- tiiilter nOTA., F,irirgv rut Devenlo pring Cairn- 24. Op. cit. 1, p. H 3. ~ ~~~~~ings frtm tintie I 990 Cen'sits." P'/ri/.Uitiiitt .titd trie, IOTA. Warshingitor, 1).C.. 1 991), p). I I . 24. LIP. cit. 1, p. II ~~~~~~~~~~~~ fi~evelotpmenr t Rceview . Vol. 1 I8, Nit. I i9 MO..~~ p. 16. 25. Data froin thec 1992 National Resou1rces InT- (iNlarcb 1 9 9 2, p. 1 35. senitory', U.S. Depa rriirenr o f AgricL1tiisre Stitl 610. DitUgias F. Barnes eci al.. "U.rbari Energy Trai,rmnttrn, Povserry. and tire Firs rirorirriern: Werrild Resouirces 1 996-97 77 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources Undersraniding thloeo h r: iH'ue ormrtunce Review' if"Pi/aird: MXinii (Iopt,r cu eision Parper. dfraft (The World [Biaik, hind Errergy iii D r,elOpiiig Ciountiries," dra ft (OIEC D, Paris, Oacr/er 1 994), p. 89. WVa diiigiori. D .C.. I1994), p. 7i. piper (The World K.ink, Washnigton. D.C.., 83i. lerzy Biorkiewi,ez it 5., "Etiviroirinerotal Pro- I1O3. Joior P. Bi ker e-t ,t., "KBitltigicrii Et fccts it 19941, p. I i. file of Karutwice,'' draft p.iper (The Wirrid Cha nges in surifrace Wilier Ac id- Base C:hicii ,- 6 1. Richa rd H. Hoicis e. --Edit0ries Introiduct ion: Ban IIk W a shirgi TI t)II, [ ) .C 2. , 199 1), P. IO). try, N APAIi Report I ;," irl Natiiiiai Acid LlJriaii Errergs arid the Ensvironmrernr iti Af- 86. Op. cit. 84. Pirei.ipit:rrtiri Assessimeiti Pringrrrin I NAPiAII, I c.,- Priey-c Prircy, VOLI 2 1, Nii.5 (May 87. Up. it. 8-5. p. I 1 - idi/ia Ve ,iii. n2 ( NaItAP , W irsl crrrird T.c, 62. ( p/. c it. 3 1, p. 6 2 1 me8 ni a lr Sni ii, aidota S.cir/gy ute Fei iiiy IR t 9911), p. I 3 129. 6 f3nrsef [irlln, EergyE m rnii ii- ledge, Lond(on, I 9913), p. 66.10.PrEvn, , Aifk:umL mng sI- iges iii tire Lirbair Sector." tirlirir Manage- ~~~~~dListry Expanids," A, td Nieiis. No. 2 (Apr-il rieirii Perugrirtitme Paper Nor. 2 (Tire World 1 p 4 995/). P. IO. Kink Washirngtonr, D3(1.. April l 991(. p. I - 90 'iik-shru F. Lee. "UrbliririiWaer Supply tird 11)3. Erivironrrrenrtal infiirirariiin Center. Fli'rvn's 64. U/n. cr1t. 3.11, p. 62 . Sariiinrni In Developi rig Counitries," iii Met- Dem)l~~id FUr,,t lTOlN i n? in'rmimitii'iti hit- 6.5. lp. it. 3 ;, p. 6 2 1. ru~~~~Tp ,i/fair Wattt' Li;i Cr itt//r ts Ini Asia atnd pirt fit Chinai. (Ens'fv iiiriuerti ili nfi rirrtio 65. Isp. it. 1;, p. 621. ~~~~~~~~~the Paci/ic ..1trIes E. Nickurn and K. Wfl (Cleiter, Torkm i ti. rch 1 994). p. 55. 66. 1/. cit. 55', pp. 29-130. hiarn Easier. eds. (Wesreiew Piress. BoLulder, 16 i-oa eerh(Mn l ebnigi, 67 Up. (itt. 33, p. 62 I . Coloirido, I 994), p. .1. 1 06. N ea Pir I eserc (i ii Ubnc m Airit/ttit,, / 611. lyirri Pi.rilkhr aid Vibhh otu i Shlkla,i,"l rf 9 1. Niriphysfi,al lisses, unih .is illegal coirite-c- PI' ut/riirn Narim iral Ac.idemiy iress, W;ish- zaitioiri, Eniergy Use arid (ireirihtiiisC Lffecrs tiotis ie irriltiirctitimiiii irerecrs, ciii ilso ic- igoi A. 91,p 9 iti Ecnmu nc iir Develriprienr: RcsriIrs (irain a clii ir tirr . large share i f pub)lic watieir hisse. 0 bingdi. DC. 9/,P (TirOss-Narrfiii,l Studys-I Ii)CYl 1gC07. h2/lrfogasdr.csmO PyiclGega ers Gl;ob/a/ Enr,ifri esentlopnige(.isir 92VarD ngi,PiOsLeu / felGig 105. David .-Rie idAftrr(frrii.A1 tric,, ~ nrrint/G/rig' V .phi'. LIn)imeesity r ifm.ricliesrer, Mancehester '1 D/riRo er car d Ai,itr'/.mr Gil/rmtirtr /tsi, 5. No 2 11I)995). p p. 8 8-89L. UI.K., (1995 (persmiral crmrr niii ciiarniiti. urenpSt Letrit a ir? fPn,l/t/i Atirt ir /i r,r,'i-: 0 6)9. Rilphr TOireie, " Fiiidriiigs and Pioliee Implfca- 93-. Ismarl Seraigelditi. "Wiurer SLupply. Sanifra- iit/( lnsrvtrTrtirir fir Earsteern Asfa tint tre tiiiis fruin the Lie/tnt I O, Rediictiiiii Prri- tfioii, -rnd Eniviroinmenital SLisr,riiabflitv: The Wr'str'r Par/lic Wo'rrld Widei Fiiinr toe Nil- jcci'f FIelrrt her iiian iual Corunceil fort Local Finaincinig CihalleiTge.' a kevriute aiddress tit tiire Inrernratfional, C lard, SWItLerlarid. Ntin Enrefironinierir.l niritaliVes, Tiironito, January The Melnrisrerrail Conference (iTi Dritikirig 1 99Th 1P. I1)0. 19 9 3), p. 7. Water and Einierriitinenral Sariraririn: liiiple- 70. f/rid. iiieiit rig Agenrd.r 21 (The World Knit k, Wa sb~ 1l09. Waltecr W. Heck, "Assessnieri rut inrop 'O. Jbid, niciitiiig Ageiid.i 2 1 (The World B:ink, Wash ~ ~~~~~Loisses feint Afr Pollutanirs in the tlirieid 71 )/. i. 6 9. firgtrri, D.C.., Niaibh 1994). p. 6.Stes"iArPohtn'Td wFOcl 94. NatiOnA Rcs,arh COL1111:11Si re," ir ir lit/rit iisjui/ irrWaterst 72 Op. cit. 60O, P.. 9 altiiaIRsa i oiic .Crtnt?W r atnd Grips, laritrs.l. NLicKenur1 nirlL Nit 7 )p. , it. 60~~~~~ p. 8 7. ~ ~ ~ )ua/its Pr itterrii,r: Sltae arid Lorca/ Strafe- h.i tier T. El- Ashen', eds. / YCrlc I. [iiivrsiry I. Cl/i.ill. 61) p. 87.gil's iNnfiriri Acarleire Press W,rslrnigtutti Pircss New Haiven, Connrrectficur, I 9149/.p 24 B. Brrwrtcnrder, S.SR. Prasad. arid N '.V.\i. D.C... 1986/. pp. 48-49. (( Lliinui. "D[yr ia tie o t FLi`iWhsOtd Ptk5ii iCS IIIt1 95. A rider Pr t orierw ski, "A Taste ( if Salt," I Ii). I.S. L onfgre,ss OIIfice ott Technoi ii gy Assess-, dia," Wtrr/d Dr'r''/iprrrr'trt Vol). 16, Nit. 10 IUNG Reports. Vii). 18. Nit. 4 lOerobler inceur (IOTA), "Lir/rrba ircrn Ozn nid x'h ((u-in 119881, P. 1 218. Fur greatier derail tin this 1 990). p). I10. Air Act: Pin/bternis ud Ptropots.rds hit stride, see ,rsr Woie/i Resririres lirsttLrite III c,l:tILro:itr wtiteiiirdNttii e' 96. Cbiina Nationirl Enrvrtirriientral Perirectriri C haligu,'' staf paiper ICITA. Wa,shfigtttt, eionircirt Prorgeairiiiitie miid rite UnTiterd NafoTIrS Ageitce (NEPAl, Report lzibit/e Stafte , ifb tDr'C., April 1988, Pp.- 45i-47. DIlese iri/si ti Per rgr.iinine, Wiry/r R'smrctiers EFur '..eittnrst fit C/rite I 994 (NE PA, Beijing, I I I - Jrohit IL. iirues, E-rvs Ht'a/tl': /ts Asst'ssrmc'nt 1994-95 I Usfoird Liii) versi ry Press, New 1995 r, P. 6. aun?Stautis ((AK I iirei.T it ira,1 OI. 1sit, I.-K.. iotr k. 1 9 94(, p. 93. 97 . Rtr.iigdej Srivredliarta, "Wirer C/se Grin- I99.3l, p. 42. 25 . it.60 p. 9 1. flicrs ini Karrgkok MeitrorpLiliran Region, Thai'i 112. Wi/finm Ni. Ciresl;iandri Edwin Doni.irls:ucii, U/i. 6(1, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~ ~ ~Lid,rrd" ini Meteopol/tuita Whater LUst' Grit/flits "Decne) tic d DiN Imckiil i Tree, turd1 I-rLrests 76. Jorset Leitinirain. "Urfsanizatirrr and Eniviront- f ir,ta anid the Pac i/ic, fairies E. Nickurni A ( hloltI Overview." Friresre P,iper Nit. Ieinc fIrl Silrb-Sairl,nii Atirie: Air inpuLt iii rite inid K. Wi/hlitii Easter, eds. iWesrview Press. 1 2(1 /F id ani) Agrietilttruri 0rgamiiiarrrn OI PO,tr- LI NCEli LI-ri-bn Axis,"N err it Pa per i The Bouildlee, Coloi/ra do, 19941. P1. I .37. teUie)N i rs rtr.I94,p World KBriirk, Wash inrgtonr D. XC:., Fe/te TrY 98. Ibid 1. thIp Unite. Na)tiopp. R5 7-594. p 6I 1995r. p. 16. 13 p i.IOSp.5759 77. ( p. fti. 6i1, p. 80. 99. (Np. c it. I. pp. 87. 5'9. 1.L ite . tii rv u irrPirmiirt 78~. Tnrience C.. Berisel. "Rteal/ Wroitlucl Pert- 1)10. Cirter Briaidoni anrd Rarie,sh Rarian kurtm, dteW nnH, tht raii . ut rri d ricrt n toir Uirba Miiarekers: Pirribleni r aid "ossd riEniromer./Srirge fire A4ir Pri//rtfiit fir Mr-e,5,tritir's r/ lb"t WiOrh/i Opportuities n tlle ebu Pr,ince, hilip-Asi, -," Woirld Brirk. 1)iseiissioni Pnaper Nit. Blacjkwrel) Pubit shersbr, Usxfton)rd . I 992 I. )p Prir aii t ill. tire Cesira ltr iminec, Phi pnr 224 (The Witrid Barrik. WV ,hni hIgtoii, D.C ., p. 122. (t .ire," No./i I.in! 94,4tt p. rIO. ,/5 te,' 199.1 , p. 140. I I -1. Doiig ( .itliii, cit., Clntimatte I Lnge Pr Ii/ir N~Jesse Cf. Rfbi i, I''F rse-un v oicy anil Ch.rr 1).KiEenritnics TeChitinrl N atmirrl I'rird Regiriri Intr/itutek WoT irnt/ln D.C'_/te (lii 995, :lrira ciii) PrrodiLrtrrrru iTi Stiregi1," Ert"I'eg POI/CIrsIEiiriis P Cihln i llr ntrtraLl PIirniir iiong l Gru Irittre W.stigtri 11 95,/p Vrol. 2-1, N-it.i (Nit' 99/i p. i 59isti,PtmngKrri,.in Nrit.l9l) SIt. tIn. it. 6(1. p. ~~~~~~~~~~ Eimirir nterirntf Prrotectionr Agency. .init ihi- I 1 6. lirrerg-ie irnincr.itl Purr-I ii Clinmrii Clihrige SU. Up. if. 6 0, P. 9 9. ~ ~~~riese Aetdierr rrf CGerological hrrtorniatiorri, liirC'( , "(PC: Synthesis Repiret" fitly 29. 8/1. 11/1). it. 9,P. 56 1. "Niajsr Envrironmrreintal Perth/ruts iii China," l99.i drili) (Worrld Mitetiorotitgrenl O%ngrri 82. up. c it. 79(bftest' Eniro'nrms ntir .ndr Dr't-e/ra/prnr'rt. .':rm i/LIit)rrd N, t iris ErviCri iincTur Pert- 8 1. 1 )p. it. ~3), p. 8. Voul. 4, Nit. 4 (Wintrer 1993-19941, p. 28. grammnue, ( erct.i I19951, p. 29. 84. Ol)g.r ii ,is,r i n for Eciolim ft Co-I)peer,io 1012. Eu isrOn Sbhill ee a!., "-V,ulu trg the FErrirtII ic II F-. lIiterria iiirial Eniergy Agency, W re/rf Fpittrts' triid Des cltipirreri iCEC:I)) C rriuIP oii Eiivi- lrinpnrts of Envirtiironentanl Problenis: Asinn I iriIr-k. 1995) Ueg.rri.rrr n etruri rrrruirtt,rt Preirtoriminnric, Errtier,rrmr'tta/ Pie- Cities,"- hr/tan NIii,rn,geirenit Programr Dis- CXr-Cpt'ratiium Andi I )CVer1s0r1rerit, Pnreis, 78 Woir/d Resouirces 1 996-9.7 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources I 18. A sif Faiz n .d Stlrh id Gi taian, "Nicotoria- I 37. RLitger Rosenbherg el at., "-Marine Eurrophi- Pu/loition Biul/c'tn, Viol. 211, N-. 7 989), riont tUirba nizaition, aid Air Pull ittit n," dis- ca riolt (a se Stuidies in Swedeni,' A cnlic., pp. 297, ;O1--3t32. CLIssion paper I Ihe World B.ink, Vol. 1 9, No. 3 (1I990), p. 107. 164. Op. ,ict. 5 2, p. 5-I19. Washinigton, D.C.. I 994). p. 19. I 3 8. Scott W. NiXOTis, "Mla rite Eiturophicarloll: A I 65. Thoni.t (,rig.ilunts aiid l,imes Opa luch, I19). tip/. -tt. I16. pp. .35-36. 6rowing Imnernait ona IPIrobletm." Am/ino. "Ma ngin:ig Cc tat,tlii ared Matri ne Sed i- I 20. tlitiited Natiotis Etiviroiiitnettt Priigra i tin Vol. 1L), No. 3 (I1 990). p. / . ineits. Macrtnc' Pu/n v I cro her I 989), p. (LIJNEP), Eict'trccnmnifct/ Data Repicrt I 39. Op. it. 13 3. 32 /99 /-94/ tENEP, Nairobhi, Kentya. (994). p. 140. Op. cc/. 137, pp. 102-107. I h6. U.S. Agenicy focr lotertnatiicn.al L)evelicptnent .329. ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~14 I . Malti K.thrui, ti/rich Hiocrtnar ni, and Ose (U.S. AID) ".The Imrnpac citf U rbcaniza ttttt itt 121 . tip. cit. 5 3, p. 126,. R ttd, "Satellite Detect ioni of Itncreatsed Cvs- Nactutiral Resotttrces: Tetotiutn. Mtori cci. 122. Op. c it. IO 1. p. 34. tttcb,tcreri, BItlotms int the Baltic Sea: NatL w.vst rkttipg Jp.Tpe (1JS. All), W:i shiopt tn, 123. David Nitsitanot, Edttcci ttdo GaistIl.t s, .tntd ralI Fluoctuca tiott t r Ectosvsretn (.hantge?,--I).C.. Nix .Iy1 992), P. 1- I. C r.tig Haley, "Effects f Gin tamtc itated SeLili- A4ntic/lii Vol. 2 3, No. 8 (I1 994). p. 469). 167. IbAc!, p. 3- 3. inetits oun Viability, Lettgrh, DNA. and Prit- 142. Sctttt W. Nixon, "Coastil Mirine Etirrtcphi- 168. Stepheti Olseti and LynTite Hile. "Cicists: the rein Ciotcent oif I .crv.cl Stirf Snielt. cattioni: A Defitntticmn, Suicial Causes, antd Fit- Ethtical Dimeneitsic," Pe:p/c'anc/ i/cc' P/ancit, Hvpii..testis pretciistis "' Mac i,cc' F,ccircit- ritre Concerns,- Ophi/e/ic: /nccri'rtciiini, V,l (.3, Nit. I (I 1994), pp). 29- ;1 mnctta/ R esearicb, Vol). 3 7 ( 1 994). pp. 1-2. /ourntal cc/ M.rteti Bto/cigv, Vo l. 4 I I NMarch 169. Op. it. I130, pp. 74-37 124. Susanncie S.t iii, Nit h,i med F.c oil. .cndc Robert I 995). p. 2 14. 1 7(1. Siepheti Olseti. "Will Intiegrated (o.tctsta.l H tiggert, "Effects cf 1.tlbt r.i tiory Exppstcire icc 143. 0/i. ccit. 1 38. M arnei r iaiisB tsaintbe h Sed inteitis (Conta mi na ted %vith ItP'oiycyclic 144. Op. cit. I130, pp. 23-26. Couistit ieticv Pint tbleit," I tccci atci (ja tsa/ Arouttiat ic Hvdr-oc,trbt it ton t Ice Heittcc tes 145. Op. cit. 53, p. 60. A,iatagemitcI'tt V,ii. 2 1 1199-3. pp. 20 1-225. of the Amnericant Oyster I .r.,ot rvi i I iri gtinic.c.- Mariceiti Ei vcrcinctcti R1esa'crc/c, Vol. 146. Op. cit. 130. pp. 203-214. I 7 I . The Wotrld B.iniki Tib' N. rnm/il k (cifi/d'- 3.5 II1 993), P. 1 3 I . 147. j11hni Briscrie, "When the CcIp Is Hall FutIll /tne's fur /cttcgsr,tted Co astalc Zoittc Ai:to.ccgcc- I 2.5. World Wildlife ftun tiilWWH F)cnil The Cotnser- I mpros ioi Water cnd Stnitaiiitio Services in Pet(h ol ak ahnrn .. vaioin Foucnda tutn, Gfictitiga cihe SiourieC: the Developing, World," Encc'r ...i,centi VolI. I 993. 1t pp I - I U. Steaic'gc's furRec/cci;tg Alctcii c~c/ sn,i35. Nit. 4 11993 ). p. IS5. 1 72. Op. c it. 13)). pp. 74-87. Waste iWXWF, Washciigtonit D.C., 1 99 1 1 p. 6. 148. Carl Bartitne, "Water QLtaliryV and U'rhariza- 1 73. Op. cit. 168. 126. Op. ,cit. I 20, p. 336. tiiiii ini La ti i Amter Li," Watcr /,Ic'rncaii ,mca/. I 74. Chesatpeatke B.c Proigr.t n, F/cc ittc,' rit/bc I 27. tIP. c it. I 25. Vol. I 5 ( 1990), p. 3. Chesacpeacke /iy,c 19 9i (J1. S. Encvirnmii ientalI 128. U.S. Congress, Office if Techcnolocgy Assess. l4 9(ip.ci. 47,p.2. PtttiuttAccy .sitrtt 1. Titetir, Ficcin.5 A ntceri,t's 3Tr,b"/ W/hat Nexvt 1.5)). Op. it. 93, P. 9 I 995).h sp.ik i. in InoiaITlSrie fccr Mciiiii,ipal/ Sc ldi Wastctf (UI.S. Goivern- 1 5 I . ()p. cit. 130, pp. 12, 61-62. 17. C hes,tpeake Regi Pr t gr.t/Iunh A CitizServic, ntent Pri noiitg Ol1ice. \',i shintgi tn, D).GC.. I152. Op. cit. I (0, pp. 2 3-26. (ii tile" I hesa pea he R egioniail In fi rinticiii v 1 989), p. 226. 1 53. Op. cit. 53., p. 60. Service, Riclintioitd, Virgitni.atitti/tred parnt- 129. Niicha el MlenvEec D. [eborirah Chapmatnt i, .1nd I 54. Op. cit. 5, p. II16. pltlet- Rictclttr Hel mer, cds., Gb/u/lc /rcchwit 'cer Qubit/t: A F-irst A,sc'ssmii'nt (Lliitited Na tiots I 55. Op. cit. I 02, p. IO)3. 176. Timoc t hy Henniessey', "Gotvern,tice .t id Eisiv roniicent Priogr.tinin ie anil \World Hea llth 1 .56. Dacndto J. Atinton, T/cirstiv Cities: Urb/ani Eicci- .enis: lThye Nia~co nag hteit u s tpttc rula Fitvs Organ itzaticon, GeTItVY,l, 19891, p. 42. rwinientecs anci Water Supply cIt Latini Amter- 1.30. NaioticI eseircl (itittcil, Cttttittitee ~ ca Ilitternarional IDeveloipmetnt Rese.irc li (.istat1 SIcct.gttc'itt, Voul. 22 (I 994), p. Wastewater Mania.gemetie for Co,cst:cl Urbani Fletrre, Ottawna, 1 993). p. 7 I . I2 Arets, MAca(igitg \X'asteictvtir In :sta/ Ger- 157. Op. ct. IJ110. pp. 1 77, 3 46. 17 ii t.15 bcc, Arec'is ) Ntitonl .I.Ac.idiettiy Plress. Wi sh- 158. Enitc(rotnmtentatl Defense Fctnd ) ED F) ii col' 8 p c. 4 psI9 itigrtti. D.C., 1993), pp. I T5, 26 I . l.t oratiiOtt Sit h the World Wildlife Fciiiid 1 79. K. Price et it/., "N tirrietir Enrichnient oti 1 31. Ic!,pp. 1 77-179. (WWFp Hout' Wet Is ic Wec'/andr: Th.e liyi- Chesapecake B,cy cud Its litipicr tic the Hai/- 1 32. Op. ci. 130, pp. 177_179. p.ccta of the propiisei/ Rev'isioins to ti/c Fed- tat oif Striped Biss: A5 Speculative Hyptcthe- cral WYei/andcs Manulcacc IEDF/ 'IWAVP. sis," Tr,tntsctti,i:ic ci/tcc' A4intit ic.ntitPs/cc'eies 13.3. Suisaninte Bad len etalc., "E flecis tof Eiltrrophtica - Washi ngrton, [D.C., I1992), p. 74. Society.l Vii). 1 14 (I198 5), pp. 971, 1 00-105i. tioiti lin Betiltltic C ommiunities IticIilditig Fish: Swedish West Coitis," Ambit/,, Vol. 19. Nit. 159. Rotbert Adleir, "1Re.tIIthoiriznig the Cleati 180. Oh). itt. 134. pp. 22-27. 3 / 1990p, pp. I I - 122. Water Act: Ltikiing nit Taingible Values," 18 1. Op. cit. 1 74, pp. I16-12. 134. Charles Officer ct .1/.. 'C hesipeaike Bay An- WVctee Rc'siources Bu//c'tii. VoI. 30. Nit. i182. 0/p. cit. 1-4 pp. 20-2 1, 1 1-42. oxia: Origitii. Deselopipoeiii, .ind Sigitiifi- 11 994), P. 802. 183. K.crl Blan ketnship, -Bluie (.rah 'lirvec' Raises cance," Sciecli' V:o). 22 1 (I 984), pp. 26-27. 1 6)). Thiomcacs O'Ct iiiiio r, Mucsse'/ W.ctch: Rc'ccnt )Lilestiotis A hitit Stitch's Hle,diri," Bay' /miir- 135.(c. I Mticeria it ed. " lisi IveiiOvyeitTrends iii Ciaasta/ Encviriiic, nt'iiic Qctalciv ct,\'tI .Nt I(iac I95.p 135. Gill Mackiernall, L-d., "Dissolved NaOtiietiiiin ncetnic . indNo.1IittMs rhhnuc9Adtcii.iii the ClteSaIpeake Bay: Prccesses .iitd Effects," sirNationa Ocesnictgtti nd. At.,oIp992i, p. 26.i 184. Opi. cit 7 6, pp. 12 1-I 38 Niarv land Sec Grant tcPitbhIica t ion Ni. UN1-i -rto,W sigo,DC,19i p 6 8 p 4 p 4 9 St..-TS-87-t(3 (University oti M riryatid, Col- 1 6 1 .Stinsuke Tanabile et at., "Persistent Orp.rioc- 15 p i ,p.1-9 lege Park. Marvl/nd, 98)p.1. 14.chlorines tonj:parnese (oitisal Waters: All In- 186. Op. cci. 1-76, pp. 123-1 38. irtispective Sotnmnry troin a Par Eist I 8-. Olp. c(It. 1 76, p. 1 3 1. I 36. Thtiitlas R. F-isher .itic Rohcbrt I). IDoiyle, Develtiped Na titit," AMariine Pu//hctioni Bit//c'- 1.58. Gleit Etipsner, LU.S. En vi rouicitental P rotecti cii "Nultrient ( Vc/tug cItl Chesipeake B.iy.'- it tot. Voi). 20. No. 7 i 1 989), pp. 344-35 1. ASgency, GCiesipeake B.ty Progpranm Office, D3issolcved O-svyeni tIc i/cc C/b'sapeaki' Ba 12 p i.S.p.565':aoi,MIyau,Arl19 proa Peii. essesciti! F/fic'cts.(,, Ia 1. \M,kkiernitan. 6.0c i.5.p..65.Aiapii.N r/ i),5pi/I95 es i. ed. (M.rv'l.nid Sc' .i ruit (iollege, oCt/legs' 1613. D,ivid Phillips itid SiliTiSiike T,in.be,cititiic,iii( Putrk, Nia rylantd, I 987) 4-5 "A)cIa ticI Pt illcitiITIt in the F.ir E.asn," Milritie I189. 1)/. ,cit. I 74. pp. I - 391) Woar/cl Resoutrc-es 1996-97 79 Urban Impacts on Natural Resources I9t). Stjre i\l.r) l,tvh I, ()li liticofili Ii, (nvr i, 198. .). it. 174, pp. I(1-Ii. 21L1 1. Dti Idt1hilltp',. Vi.ttc Nri.tl. iul I l rg:ilt Ftit.l/,I .4/ 1t imliiit.is /ct AlarvLf.oiis Tribit I W ). Ni. IliZALt1) (idlluln, Ll.S. N.atit.iIl Nitrillt chloriies in the (.it:itial Watcr c( Hmig ti %11 ritg.Lii's: int11I .Itil c Ftii.I/int I/ cis Fisluici S'eprice, N:ittnm l OCLt1iiL aitl Ac- hmilg, ' acnitn I't,iiiicit I nl,ll \ ,1. 2(0. /i,I Rc'Is ,IIn ' t' u alu (SIltm. ci It-imllctii Ad. iikrisr tr int C1 1-liectpetk Ke N' 7 1 989);, it 12h. Nitr.el andl A i lls, I 99.S.. pp. I I-}^ 1 i. Omtie, Aoin.tip,lis.SlirM 1 .Litd. \I.1 rL1 1) 9 1 22. 1 (p. - i. 201. ( L1'Jpr L~.% PnxlrleK,? >gr.)m Of)^iLe, .41w.... . ............... liel"1.r1.11 .. . ... iel.l.l4lQllitt.-)O I p. ()/ I... i-i.().1 ;li 6lf. IL, (I .b-ls iLeEk lit; Nt eiii (;I/rls: .4 .Nv- 1)-0. () ). .it. I S. 214. Briat Nltirti c ItpairtlallLltet [iLccltgN ;midtl tii.c ;,/ Tti/ iidaity .i.itr ,ats ins !/iT Itt>' 21() lBrian Mlcriol hi ii i' f r1lll I (i tmihl VWI Lhitiiliver,irv. I IIL ll(nivtrsits ) lcn2g Kcnll., ,,w JI( flB,.l.S. .hikin'n. m,ni.il.1 leietz dr [ Hwilg M
  • tl Ana,n41ganm'i in til Asi.i-l'Pa,ilfi lit- (9:. 1. Istpll Rae lltt i. llu. 2_ ( I 2 1 a';,. 201 , r. U2. tLitit:iI NI.irtiii t-iieKel l.tt it1 l tititl It1Tt e.- 4t-.ai;t;ii: .1 N\''-. it: /.gis s littr 2 (p. - 1 21. p. . 1. tt.tdIi'tl. t . ipmi. 1 ' 2 I(4 H li I cttgr:Ll (tit P ir i AkiBi.tpclis. SlarilitIi-1 20 (. M. N) Lp I.t.l r2(t).1' w.t.. S ( ). 91)941. r i. (8. 207. >. Irr. ~(;c1 Thi*cii., Ltt SeigritA' V./ 218S ()p /it. 214. (94. (litiea.ke lrit ....,Pnitgr,iii. ILziititititii(.ilSl nu.. . ....Ilt 1 >.lliiiltii., Vt,z.i, ,l. 28. N~t 4 ' uift. t a1. /. 214. Pi/II(t,tI. : AI e.suiii (l/ (ut Pitti tSS (i , lt i 94L 2 ')')41 . r . 22( 1. 2. ti 2(4 euKe. 1-.1) P Oiigr.iimi i(1 , ) iht:.ipu tlis Start- 2()0. ( ) . 21 It . 'Iii ;t 2'21 . (pp.. t 211. pp. hI-H . '*Ac B . P. 2i1. 2i . )/i1, . ii. p.84. 22. (()p. t 2 it . 1(1'1 2(4-ppi. Lid 9 95) p. 0/o. !W).. 1p i 1 1' pS 84. 2 J.i.1 .p.241) pft. ti). l'~l, (1.8. 2 1(1 10). it. 2i(l/ pp. I.;- 14. 22. (if. cit. 214. 1 9n f t.i I 74 pp. 22-2i. I 9-( 1 1 7I4- 1'1' 'P I - '2. 80 Worl(l Resouratcs 1996.-97 4. Urban Transportation T e lie rapid urbanization occurringacross muchi 1,000 residenits) compared with that in ialnV deseloped of the globe means not only that more people cities (where owvnershiip averages aboLit 50() per 1,(00 than ever before wvill he living and vvorking riesidenits) ;2;. Fven so, 30() to 400 m( orec vehicles are being in cities but also that miorc people anid more added to the streets of Bangkok eveivy dav \Y'ill rapidly goods will be making miore trips in urban growing cities suIc as Surabava, Indonesia, and Manila, areas, often over longer distancts. Ho[w cities-espe- Philippines. follow in Bangkok's footsteps, or will rhcy dially the rapidly growing cities of the developilng be able to implemienlit sound transportation policies to world-m1eet this burgeoning demand for Urban travel avoid rhe problemns of gri(dlock and pollution A4? has implications for the environment, the economic The high costs associated with uirb ranisporra rion efficiencv, and the livabilitv of these areas. are inOt inevitable. Indeed, considerable opportuLity ex- Cities have traditionally responded to travel demand ists to desigin more efficienit tranisportation systems and, by expanding the transportation supplX. In much of the in the process, creare more lisable cities. A critical stelp dcveloped world, that hals Meant building milore roads for developcd and developing coniltries alike is to mlove to acconiiniodatc an ever-growing -iniber of vehicles, toward manlagilig urban travel demand rathet than silil- therclby creatinig a niew urban fori: the sprawling mie- ply increasing theI sLIJplV-in particuilar, bV redciniig or tropolis. Motor vehicles offer ULindeniable advantages averting overreliance on the privarely oWIned car. sucih as speed and conivenlcice; indeed, dLiriig the carly In cities in the developing world, the grcatest trans- stages of development, motor vehicles are vital to eco- portation challeinge is to improve the mobility of urban iolioic growthli . I However, the costs of increasinig de- residenits and the efficiency of transportation systemiis. pendenice on cars in the woorlds cities are becoming all In many of thcse cities, motor vehicle oiwnership is still too apparent. These iIcIlide expenisive roiad bUilding and loW and land use patterns are still evolvinig rapidly. miainteiinance; clogged, conlgested streets that unideriniiie These cities have the optioii of avoidilig the mistakes econloirlic productivity; high levels of energy consuiiip- made il the developed world and deSigiilig lllgUrban tra us- tion, with its attenldanit economic and environnienital portation systemis that facilirate Walking, bicycling, aniid costs; worseiing air and nlOiSe pollution: traffic acci- public transportation. However, doing so5 Will not be denits; and social inceqLlities that arise whiciie t poor fiid easy. To alter the Currenlt path toward motorization transportation services increasigly uLina fforda Hle. could be as politicailly difficnilt in develop1ing coilitries These problems are evident to varving degrees in as it is in the ilore developed world. Neverthelcss, given cities across the globe and threaten to becomile pra-ticIu- the dr-aniatic growth of the \world's niotor vehicle fleet, larly acuIte in the developing vworld, where urban popu- especiallv in developing couinitries and coLintrics in trai- lations are grow-ing rapidly and denanid for miotor sition, the case for preca iltioia rv action to Iiiiiicar USe vehicles is expected to skyrocket. Bangkok, Thailand, in cities is strong 5,. for examiiple, is already plagued with ilotoriouislv high In the developed world, mniiiy cities are already heav- levels of air polltioll and congestion, eveni though mlotoi ily dependenlt on cars and haive a fixed urban formi that \ehiicle owilnershlipl per capita is low , 72 vehicles for ever y wvould be diffiCtIIt and expecnsive to alterI For these cities, \`orld Rc'soiirc'cs 199I -97 81 Urban Transportation the challenge is to improve existing transportation sys- zation, increaslig population, and smaller households), to tems and maiage urbai growth more effectively, in part economic factors (higher inconies and declining car by increasing the efficiency of existing road networks prices), to social factor-s (increased Ieisure time and the and providing attractive alternatives to the car. Improv- status associated with vehicle ownership), to political ing the efficiency and cleanliniess of existing vehicles can factors (powerful lobbies and governmiients that view the also help reduce fuel consumlilption and air pollution autonmobile industry as an Important generator of eco- nomllic growth) 9). URBAN TRANSPORTATION TRENDS lMost of tile world's vehicles are n1ow conceintrated in the wealthier regions of the world. In 1 993, memiher The transportation-related problems of imianiv of today's countitries of the Organisation for Ecolonoic Co-Opera- cities stem from a numilber of interrelated factors. Grow- non and Developnt (OECD) had 70 percent of the ing urban populations and increasinig houIselhold iii- worilds automolbiles (ioU (ri. At the ligh enid of the comes have led to a rise in car owniership, which inI tuirn countries is the United States, wlhere 58 percenit of has created a greater propensity for travel and a demand households own two or more cars and 20 percenit own for more roads. Increasing btusiniess and ind istrial activ- three or more 1'. (Car ownershiip rates are higlhest there, ity has sent more service vehicles onto city streets and at 561 per 1,000 residenits in 1993; the average for has prodticed more freight traffic. The dispersed form of OECD couinitries, exclidinig the United States, is 366 manv cities has also resulted in a demand for more roads, cars per 1,000 residents (i . (See FigLure 4. 1.) In all which translates into longer journeys, miore congestion, OECD countries, car ownerslhip continues to rise stead- and vet more fuel consumption and pollution (1). I and there is little sign, as Was onCe expected of "market saturation (14). Growth in Motor Vehicle Ownership In the developing world, car ownerslhip rates are far lower-ranginig in 1 993 from an average of about 68 cars The number of motor vehicles worldwide could grow per 1,000 residents in Latin America and the Caribbean from 580 million in 1990 to 816 million (excluding to 29 cars per I 000 resideints in Last Asia and the Pacific, motorized two- and three-wheel vehicles) by 2010, ac- to about 14 cars per 1 ,0()( residents in Africa i i). Yet, it cording to recent estimates c) Ix). The forces driving this is in the developling couIntries and the transition econiomiiies level of growth raige from demographic factors (urbani- (16! that the greatest increases in the nunmler of mnotor vehicles are expected (17. (See Figure Figure 4.1 Passenger Cars per 1,000 Population by 4.2.) (Growtlh r-ates will be particuila;rly Region and in Selected Countries, 1993 high. in East Asia and the Pacific isc. Most of the growthi in motor velli- cle fleets in the developinig world will Africa 14.2 be concentrated in urban areas. Pri- East Asia & the Pacifica Fl] 28.9 mary cities draw thelargestconcentra- tioll of velicles; in Iran, the Republic South Asial 3.1 of Korea, Kenya, MCXICO, an1d Thai- Central & Eastern Europe 7 71.5 land, about S() percent of the country's Middle East 1 44.6 a Utoinobiles arc in thlc capital city I (2o). Santiago, Chile, had nearly 90 Latin America & Caribbean - 67.9 aLItomIoIbiles per 1,000 residenits in China 1.48 1 99 1, almost 70 percent higher than United Staties g-!,;. M ;|561 the national average (21.) United States 2. ~~ . . ~'Y: 561 In ml'uch of Asia, miost of the OECDb \ e. 4 366 growth in the velliclc fleet results 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 fr-oin increases in thie ililibers of ii1o- (number of cars per 1,000 population) rorized two-whieel and three-wheel vehicles. SuIch vehicles are miore af- Source: American Automobile Manufacturers' Association (AAMA), World Motor Vehicle Data. 1995 Edition (AAMA, Detroit, 1995), pp. 16-18. fordable than cars for largc segmiients Notes: of the population and often serve as a. Excluding China and Japan. b. Excluding the United States. OECD is the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and a steppiiig-sto ie to cLar owlership In Development. Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and 82 World( Resousr ces 1996-97 Urban Transportation Taiwan, for instanice, two anid three whielers itiake up Mllore than 50 per-cenit of all motor vehicles i22. The Figure 4.2 World Motor Vehicle number of two- and three-wheel vehicles is expected to Ownership, 1970-2010 grow most rapi'dlv in China and India and in othter (millions) detiselv populated, low-iniconim countries. In India, for 900- examiple, motorcvcle owinershilp is increasinig by 17 800 percent annually 700 600- '.>.,, Transportation Choices and Income 500 Incoelie levels greatlv influenlce which transportation 001 n1ode peopIl use and the number of trips thev make. 200 Walking is the primary means of transpor-tationi inl Nairobi, Kenya, for cxample, because of the relatively o high cost of public rransportarion. Only the highiest 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 inconiie groups, roughly the top 0 rperceilt, use pyrivatelv v Developed countries a ownied cars in that city 124:. * Developing countries and Eastern Europe In geiieral, as incomes rise, tlere is a marked increase Source: Asif Faiz and Surhid P. Gautam, "Motorization, Urbanization, and Air Pollution." discussion paper (The World Bank, Washington, In vehicle ownership :i) For those who cail afford the D.C., September 1994), p.8. uplfronit costs of Ibuying tiem, cars providle a fast, con- Note: a. Eastern Europe includes the former Eastern bloc countries velijeilt, and relatively Inexplensive mode of travel, However, incr-easedi aLutoimobile ownershi p leads to ini- creased travel. In London, a household without a car ablle residenits to make 30 to 60 percent of all trips by makes abour three trips per day, whereas a househlold walking and cycling ,;m The dispersed urban form of withi a car makes more than five with tile two additional Australian and U.S. cities, by contrast, encourages reli- trips being entirely ne9w trips or trips replaciiig those ance on the cat. Even witilin the United States, a greater formierly miade by foot or bicycle. Trips by Public traiis- shart of work trips are made by cars in sprawling cities portation drop accordilngly 2. such as Ph(oenix and HouSton1 than in deniser cities such IncreaLsed wealth also means more car travel in the as New York and Sanl Francisco ( n. (See Table 4. 1.) form of both new trips, primiarily social and leisure, aid An increasing numiiiber- of cities worldwide seem to be longer trips 2h1. In some CouLntries, tile inuilier of trips is develop ing at a scale that increases reliance on the privately growiiig faster thaln the lmiiiiber of c ars. In the United owied automobile. Dispersioni is taking place in manv States, for example, between 1983 andc 990, the nulilber differeilit tpes of cities, from dense, centralized European of cars increased by 14 per- ceint, while the nuinbei- of vehi-cle trips grew by 25 per- Table 4.1 Urban Density and Transportation Patterns, cent and the nuImILIber of v- Selected U.S. Cities, 1990 hicle miles traveled grew by Percent of Journeys to Work by 40 percent (2s x) These Means of Transporta treinds have implicatioiis for Density Average Number the developing countries as C (number of people of Cars per Drive Car Public tl1e developil1g coul1tries as City per hectare) Household Alone Pool Transportation well, especially those experi- New York 92 0.6 24.0 8.5 53.4 enciilg rappid ecoiionoic San Francisco 60 1.1 38.5 11.5 33.5 growth. Chicago 47 1.0 46.3 14.8 29.7 Boston 46 0.9 40.1 10.5 31.5 Los Angeles 29 1.5 65.2 15.4 10.5 Urban Form Portland. Oregon 14 1.4 65.0 12.9 11.0 Houston 12 1.5 71.7 15.5 6.5 The form of a citv greatly Phoenix 9 1.6 73.7 15.1 3.3 inflLu ences-and is iinfllu- Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Country and City Data Book: 1994 (U.S. Government Printing Office, eimced byw-travel patterns. Washington, D.C., 1994). pp. 650-837. Notes: The dense urban cores of a. Includes workers age 16 and over. in any Lu ro pea n a nl dii f a pa - b. Includes bus or trolley bus, streetcar or trolley car, subway or elevated train, railroad, ferryboat, or taxicab. nese cities, for cxailiple, nl- Voldd Resoiirccs 1996-97 83 Urban Transportation chailige is oCCurrinig at a slightly slower pace I-l. le same is trrLe for some large, niddlC-IIiCOiltC ctircs of the developiing world, sulclh as Sao Paulo, Brazil S]). l)eceu1rr;alizatIOni of people and activities reSLlts iII two con_trdictory effel cts: cor-ll vhich loow occur fromn sub- Ir1 t S.uburb, are sln Iorteetd, buIt iMost of rltCin are t Mad bV riv ately owned car- rather tlhl in Public transportation _Misr mtnrasit and I c a li ss stCils wrcc developed to fa- cilitare suburb-tn -city, rather rhaln subulrh-to-subui lrb coi0- inLriiig. AS a r-esuiIt, subl-ball Urban sprawl. Heavy reliance on private cars andlow-density urban form have created sprawling rimdwivis alrc of te nas coii- cities. especially in the United States and Australia. Here. an aenal view of Perth. Australia. tgo.Sted ;1.1 vt1;11|a] ro;dwvs.ls oIIes such as NIaildric, Paris, anil Zuricl, to rapitlly As cities contillUi ro btcomiie dLispersel, the cost of indulstriallZilig Capitals suIcIh as Seotil Republic of Ko- tildiing and0t operatilng public triansportation svstemiis is rea, anl BuLenos Aires, Argentina, to those experiencing becoming prohibitivc ['Urti critt orc, the tdispersetl resi- rampanit uirbaii growth, sucLh as Bombay-, Intlia . C( ars tientiilI pattcrn makes public transportationl systeims less alrc nlOt thc solc C uilSe Ot Urban expanslio-factors suctil conveniieit foir the alverage coiiiiiitmrCr (4m. Io New 'York, as piipuaniotn groiwth aid land mal rkets allso play a tiespire 10 years of i ovcstiieilt, ptihI ic tra iisit rider-sh ip role-but caIrs do make cxpasiunon feasible c i dec1 ellefi fron 4.8 Xn illion per cla;y in I 981) to 4.3 mill ion Iln thel mior-c levelopel regions of thte world, trh per day iin 1992 )41. historical cenitral biLsiICss tlistrict, oiice the primary in muILCh of the dleveloping world, tiplann1il0leci aiid destinaition of coiliiiititer-s ancl easily' serviced by pubhlic uicoortlinatctl lanti dcevelopmiuenir has lecc ro rapitd ex- trai-sportration, is being rendleired obsolete by cha nginig paiision of the u rani periphery. Pooiier residenirs are maliilti faCtrnuiIng practices, , 4,I. Whereas tradlitional 1 ma1o- oftrcii isolated in outli int, areas wvithioit access to affortl- facrtirinig depetietl on ecinra-lizetl work places aiicl abIe anti ConIvenlielt pLiblic traiislnro-tatioil i41. tranisportatioii schcimes, adtivainced rtechnology has rten- tleretd iiocieru intiustrv miore flexible. As a resllr, jobo oupportiiiities have shilftrl to the suburirbs. IMPACTS OF URBAN TRANSPORTATION D)ispersed Urbaii laud developuie nt pattcrns have TRENDS beeln p)articuLlarly mani fest ill North America, wlecre laud is abundtincit, rhe transportation costs for iiichviditll- These tirbanii tra nsportation trciilIs are exacting signitfi- als are hiw, and the ecoii0imv has become dominma tetl hb caiit costs in cities in both the tleVe(lpecl anti the service andt technology-hasetd iiiduistries sLich as sott- tdevelopiniig worlc. ()Oe is si iiply the dlircct fiiianciaI warc dcvelopimenilt and enterrainimiienr. In tht LInited cost of provicinig aid maintainiiug the tranusportation States, by 198) onlI 9 percent of thie mietropolitain infrastricrLtire. hiivestling in rthc transportation infra- PoU larnon workeLd in the ceintral citr andl only 3 percent striLctu rt is essent ia for economic growth, I ncreasing of subu rba nires comiititrc ldloivntrowin ;s In aiddini(mi, prdLIcLitiVirV aintl (ual i ry of life 4;i. Fspecially- ill the traivel has become relatively inexpensivecomipared wviti poorest develOpinlg couiitrics, where the lceigth of laniid, SO hOiSCehioIcS hIa C alii lilceitiSve rO bui liower- pnav'et roadway per Oiie illloioi residents is 25 tiiiies priced houlsing at thre Urba n perliphierv evein though Iss thlilan that iIn veIVlopCe cd CoUlitriCs, ilmprovilig the living thele ret]iiies iiulc miore travlel I . SitoilaLr Pat- tranosportation iniifrastrLuctI.C is a key factor in providi- ermils Can be fotlod in miany ti i FL prean citiCs. Lit the iiig acccss to jobs and tablishiig I raI and urii 84 W'or Rc/ orc (s - s 1J9')9.-')7 Urban Transportation trade links 44,. However, inefficienit operations an td inadequiate maintenance are translatinig into lar ge fi- lanclial expenditntres ithout the expeedc benefits. In r suIb-Salial-ran Aftrica, for example, roads vaIltLied at al- - _ 11hOSt Si. 11Ioiin ha se erodLed beCaUSe of a IlIck of 111maitelal.nce i Transportarion's environmicntal and social costs, MS althougl perhapils less q;lnatifhable, are no less illIpor- ranir, becanise rhey degrade quality ot life and tindcr- 4 Illine urban prodnLCtivirv. 1hese impacts inClude ig , r congestion, energy coiOSti mptiol, local and global air poll UiruOm, noiSe IpoIllutiOn, traffic acee;cidets, antSd so- cial inenitii s.cs ; Congestion Congestioni is perha ps the most visible maillifestatioii of - - the failtires ini urban transportation planning. It tindler- minles the central purpose of the aitornobile: readi ic- y access to people, goods, and services. (Clog 'Ced cirt * streets exact a major toll oii ccoinomilc prodLuCtivity anti - - _ 2 exacerbate air 111nd noiSe polltitiol. In many' citics iI apan. India, China, and Iidoniesia , peaik period (I-rsh hOLIr) speeds in itry centers cousis- tentl diccli nethroughout the I 95()s ththe pLoint that rt da' traffic creeps along at less rhani 1( kilomiictel-s per hour 14. rlaps rhe niost nlotoriolis eNxaiilpIc is Bang- - kok, whel-c peak period traffic speeds iti the city ceniter ' - declined by aii average of 2 kilomicters per hou r per year 4 _ in tile second halIt of the I 98)s. As a resiIlt, anavlerage - . ( call in anigkok is estimated to spenid the cquivalent of Gridlock. In citles of both the developed and the developing 44 - world. average traffic speeds have declined dramatically since days per year sttick iii traffic r~ the 1970s and 1980s. In Bangkok, above, an average car is esth- In deve )ped cotIn tries, congestioon afflicts large a in1 mated to spend tfe equivalent of 44 days per year stuck in traffic small cities alike. A study of cities in OECD) cointries fotinthar in virtual y every' city, Speeds in the Cceira-Ll Energy Consumption and Air Plollution buisiniess distr-ict have decl iied rlLl maritcak.I Since 1970) 414s. In the central blSilness district of cities as diverseta Transportation tetliireshuge amountsotnergy ( ashallv MNa nchiester, Uniii ted Kingdom; )iOla, itrlalyv LIt- 21) per'cinr of 1ll energy prt dtCtice is uIseL fol- traislportl- sniiom isia, lapan; andl Troiidhleini, Norway mioriing tion. ()f this, between 610 and 710 perceilt goCs toward peak period speeds were 21) kilomieters prel 11ouir or less iioVinig peopI,I anl rtIe rest toward moving freight (s i2. in 1 99 0 (4). In OFC L) countries, transportation uISes an1 cvcn larger C otigestioni is frcquently the restilt of an iIstSiffiCieiit shlrc: abotur t I pcr-ent of all enCIegy tise in I 99 I 01i. rotad network, aind thuis evenl a relatively few vehicles Transportation is heavily oil doiuiiated; ahour half of the Can CaIuse intenise gridilock i,. Yert, expzanding tIle road worlds oil is ct nstinied in the transrtation sctor C netw,ork is ;rarely an adequnate soltitioii. In iallny citics Energy consui mptnion in rhe transpi ortarion sector is in the developing wold-,t suich imlprovecnlits are beyond expected ro growv in botIl the deIvelopCde d atnd the dCvel- a city s fi nancial I resouil-ces. Ill addition, road conlstiu- opCing worl SS. FronI 9-r I 992, xvi rldwide energy tionl reqUires vacant lanldl: in very' dense cities sticlh as tise in the transportation Sector grw oni aiverage 7 BCangkok and Slhanghai, China, azdlitional roiad coil- perccit per vea; fastrCl than IildtistrV or other cncigxy end strlLtioll onvotild riequirc clestroi ilg cxistiilg buildings usesctors iwt i-). Tis energy conilptiottircotitiites anid/or displacing iniformlal settlements. M\lore iilpor- to iothi local and global air polltitioll and prcsents an tanilt, aniV iicrea se in roimd capacity' rends ro lbe qti-cklv ecollomiic bIrdlen, especially in Ciitinltries tllat i1)lo0rt eL11- sWvmrped 1b) new travel. erlgV resor-ces. (See Chapter 12 , "-ner-g a;n1d Materials.") ,r/d R cstourocc(s 19)9(1-_)7 85 Urban Transportation Indeed, motor vehicles produce more air pollution troduced in miiost Latin Americiiii counltries, Malaysia, than anv other single human activitv .ss. Nearlv 50 Singapore, Taiwan, and the Republic of Korea, al- percenlt of global carbon monioxide, hydrocarbon, and though in miost cities of the developling world, ambient nitrogen oxide emissions fromli fossil fuel coLmbustion lead lcvels still greatly exceed the health standard of I come from gasoline- and diesel-powered enginies 'i41. In microgram per cublic mieter c In ( air, for examiiple, city centers, especially on highl' congested streets, traf- aiblient lead levels of 1 . microgramls per cubic I eter fic can be responsible for as mucII as 90 to 95 percent of are con illotI &,, f,(,. lead levels tendL to be especialIV higi the ambient carbon monioxide levels, S( to 90 percenit or along roads witih heavv traffic densitv .r'si. the nitrogen oxides anld hydrocarbons, and a large portioll The impacts of nmotor vehicle emiissionis extentd far of the particulates, posing a significanitr threat to humnan beYond thlC local area. The transportatioln sector is the health and natuiral resouirces oti. (See Table 4.2.) (See Im(ost rapidly growilng source of' grecnlihoLse gas emis- Chapter 2, "Urban Environment lalind Humani Health," sions-rhat iS emisions of clica Is that hali,: the and Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on Natuirall Reso urces. ) pottlpotential to contribute to global warining i( These In the cities of the developed world, car emissions i r r n pose the greatest threat to air qualtlt. In the Ulited ide carholl nzocorofluorocarbons( ahouts States in 1993, transportation sources were responsible oXI for 77 percent of carbon monoxide emiisiolis, 4.5 per- percetnt of carbon dioxide e nlilsslois fromi fossil fue tise ,~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~c me , rCoitfOIl the traoSp)Ortaltion sector Ti.1 ()F.CIL) counl- cent of nitrogen oxides, 36 percent of volatile organlic e f o nsfortatbou rctt ofCDe couse compounds, and 22 percenlt of pirticulates h .In the tries ai-r rcspoI sl p European Uniol, pollution control measures have leen gls emilssloils attrired to ransportation 72. [low- initiated over the past 20 years to reduce nitrogen ever, the share of C1t1issioIIs froml developlng countries dioxide levels, bLt these measures hiave been offset by is expeted to rise U1 the future because of the growing increases in the numbers of vehicles on the roadc il l sizes of their innoroi- vehicle flcets and their use of less the United Kingdoni, for exa;mple, aver-age contceitraitionis efficient fuel-hliriling techin)ologiCs 7 i of nitrogen dioxide increased bv 35 percent froim 1986 to 1991, mainlv as the result of increased eimissionis by miotor Noise Pollution vehicle traffic 63.- Traffic noise-fronm the c nsrair drone of passing cars In the developing world, automotive air ptolltition is amitditrLucksrotolesoulnl(iofscreechilnigtires, blaring horns, mostly a problem in large cities witi high levels of traffic, radios, atd car alarmis-is extensive iii urhaii areas. such as Mexico City, Bangkok, and Lagos, Nigeria. In other cities, power plants, factories, Table 4.2 Contribution of Motor Vehicles to Urban Air and other stationary sources Pollutant Levels in Selected Cities, 1980s and 1990s still cstititute the greatest Percent Attributable to Motor Vehicles threat to air quality. However, Suspended even in some smaller urban Carbon Hydro- Nitrogen Sulfur Particulate centers such as Peshawiar, Paki- City Year Monoxide carbons Oxides Dioxide Matter Athens 1990 100 79a 76 8 130 stan, and Kathmandu, Nepal, Beijing 1989 39 75 46 X X air pollitioni from motor vehi- Bombay 1992 X X 52 5 24 cles is becominiig an increasing Budapest 1987 81 75 57 12 X Cochin, India 1993 70 95 77 X X problenm (64). Colombo, Sri Lanka 1992 100 100 82 94 88 Motor vehicles are also a Delhi 1987 90 85 59 13 37 significant factor in lead emis- Lagos, Nigeria"d 1988 91 20 62 27 69 Los Angeles 1990 98 62 84 68 lie sions. An estimated 80 to 90 Mexico City 1990 97 53 75 22 35 percent of lead in amiienlt air Santiago 1993 95 69 85 14 11 is derived from the cornbus- Sao Paulo 1990 94 89 92 64 39 tion of leaded gasoline. Recog- Sources: 1. Asif Faiz, Kumares Sinha, and Surhid P. Gautam, Air Pollution (rom Motor Vehicles: Characteristics. nizing the hiealth threat, iitost Trends, and Impacts, A World Bank Report (mimeo), The World Bank, Washington, D.C.. 1995. developed cou ntries haive re- 2. South Coast Air Quality Management District, Appendix It-B: Air Quality Trends, 1976-1993 (South Coast Air Ouality Management Distrct, Los Angeles, 1994), p.7. duced the lead coittent of gaso- Notes: a. Applies to road transport only; values listed under hydrocarbons represent volatile organic com- line over the past decade. pounds.b. Includessmoke.c. Percentsharesapplytoalltransportationmodes.d.Doesnotinclude biomass. e. Directly emitted particulates less than 10 microns (PMI 0). X = not available. Unleaded gas8oine has been i- 86 Wtorld1 Ressoulrces ')')-')- Urban Transportation Noise pollutionl can damage huLimani hearing and affect cation, recreationi, and shopping are often located in psvchological well-being, as well as decrease property wealthier areas in the citv center. In Santiago, Chile, the values (7is An estim;ated 100 millionl people in OECD poorest residents tend to live on the urban periphery. coulitries are exposed to traffic noise in excess of 65 The majilority of their trips are over long distances, and dB(A) (higher than the 55dB(A) conisidered acceptable) thev' must travel bv relatively inconvenient modes, either s(6. Althouglh data for developing coulti-ies are scarce, by public transportation or on foot For those in the data collected a long heavilv traiveled roads in Bombay, richest sections of the city, the ma joritv of trips are over India, indiciate soun(d levels of 65 to 85 dB(A) (-17 shorter distances and are made by privately owned automobile (X-l. In Sao Paulo, poor people can spend 2 Traffic Accidents hours or more traveling between home and work (88). Similar disparities exist in manv Asian and African cities. In 1993, an estimated 885,000 people died in traffic Members of poorer houselholds also tend to spend a accidents -s. The mzaj(oritv of these deaths were in the larger percentage of their inconme on travel than do developing world, and traffic accident deaths are a lead- members of wealthier houiseholds (s89. In household ing cause of death amionig people in economically active budgets, the cost of the breadwinner's trip to work is age grouIps (-9X. In India, for example, roadway death usuially the top priority, w*hich sometimes means that rates (road deaths per 1,000 vehicles) are 1 8 times trips for schoolinig or health services must be sacrificed higher than those in Japan, amounltinig to 60,000 fatali- ;4U). In Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, manv residents cannot ties per year ,s(i). In genieral, urban traffic and pedestrian afford bus fares, and even a bicycle costs, on average, accidenlts formi a higher proportioni of accidenits in devel- about four times the monthly minimnum wage (9i). Thus, oping countries than in developed countries , SI. access to affordable transportation services can greatlv Each year in the European ULnioni, 55,000 people are improve the welfare of mans' poor families. killed, 1 .7 million are ini ured, and 150,000 )are perma- nently disabled ias a result of traffic accidents (821. In the former Fast Germaniv after the openinig of the Berlin MOVING FORWARD: KEY STRATEGIES Wall, the suddeni Increase In automobile use is cited as a primary factor in the doubling of traffic fatalities AND TOOLS betweeni 1989 and 1991 ,s 1 Faced with rising transportation demand and growing Social Inequities negative impacts, urban areas require new approaches to addressing their transportation needs. Cities cannot The dispersed patterns of manyv of today's cities, made continue to expand their uirban transportation systems possible by the availability of motor vehicles, contribute forever. Although some expansioni is necessary, the eco- to social inequities as well-chieflv, limited access to nomic, social, and environmental costs of doing so are jobs by the urban poor as well as proportionatelv higher prohibitive. Instead, cities need to reexamine urban travel costs. These problems exist in cities in both the transportation demand and devise new strategies that developed and the developing world, althougih the provide maximum access at a minimum total cost. causes and symiptomiis are somewhat differeit. A numiiber of policy tools are available to reduce In the United States, suburban flight has left the urban excessive travel demand and create more sustainable poor concenitrated in city centers far from jobs, stores, transportation systems, from road pricing to increasing and entertainimiienit services that have relocated to the the efficiencv of existing systems, to expanding public periphery as well. lJnable to afford cars, many poorer transit. Most of these tools will have a limited impact if dwellers in the city center must rely on public transpor- they are used in isolation. Instead, improving urban tation that rarely adequatelV serves the suburbs. This has transportationi systems will require a combination of played an important role in limitilig job and incoine policies that reinforce each other and help to avoid opporttiunities (-4). In Detroit, for example, about 40 adverse side effects Y2m percenit ot the cenitral-city population does not have a car, yet most of the new jolbs in the regioni are in outing M a T suburbs 8i, I ~~~Managing Travel Demand suburbs s' 18I0Sr. In cities withi large segimienits of low-incomiie groups Lcz,id Use in squatter settlemenits at the periphery of the urbani area, similar forms of isolation and inaccessibility exist Perhaps the greatest opportunity to reduce the negative because opporttilties for employ'ment, advanced edu- impacts of current transportation systems is to influence World Rcsources 1996-97 87 Urban Transportation land developnieilt patterns. An integrated land use and Brazil, is a notabl le examiiple. By chaiinielinlg i than transpor-tation strategy cani increiase the accessibility of growth along pubi ictransit routes, the city h as managed johs, shops, and other facilitics witlhout increasing the to reduce privately owvned car use, despite halving the Ineedc to trivel by car. seconid highest per capita car owncrslilp rate in Birazil Many urbatn planini'ig models have proposed ways (one car for evcry three people). On a typiclal workday. to reduce rel ariceon the autOm1o(bile. Soime pointto the Ilmore thaii 70 percenit of all comili-Liters (I . 3 mill ion compact city as the ideal, where high denisities facilitate people) travel byv bus. As a result, Curitiba's gasollinc Use walking or bicycling an(ld buses or subways are cost- per capita is 25 percenit lower than that of eight comipa- effective alternatives. The mixed land Use m odel, where rabl)e Brazilian cities, and the city has niie of Brazil's homzes, jo bs, and stores are clustered together, can re- lowest rates of am bient air poll tion i iC. I)ortland, duCe car trips and address the problem of deserted Oregon, is using an integrated transportation and land centra-ll business districts at night. Other m)odels presenit use strategy in an attempt to heaid off the probIenis of the ideal formi as many siliall, self-sufficielnt uLrban cen- sprawl aiid inner-city deeaiy typical of many UJ.S. cities. ters linked ly a public transportationi systemii. Gre-en- (See Box 4.2.) The iniportance of linking transportartion belts, greeiiways, and urball g rowthi boulidaries-large and land Use is discussed ill detalil in Chapter 5, "Urlia tracts of land on1 which urban development is prohil- P'riorities for Actioi. ited-are heralded ias effective mieanis of protectilng ftal-Ilaild alnd preventilng urban sprawl (9 ;) 194i iii. Liii- Fill-Cost Pricing fortunately, these measures are neitller easy to imple- One of the mai1jor factors contributing to urban traiis- nment nor guaraniteed to succeed. portatioii probleis is that people do not pay for the full Neverthleless, evidenlce liniking urban formi and trans- costs of their tra vel. Motorists rarely pray enough taxes portaitioi demand is Co11ipellilIg. Various studies suggest to sLIpport the investmencits necdCd to conistrict and that in cities with rclatively hi igh resideitial deiisities and repailr roads. Nor do car or gasol ine prices reflect less a balance of jobs anid housing, people travel less, make tangible Costs such as the negative heialthi effects of shorter trips, and walk and bicycle more often. In the autoniotive air pollutioMI or plroduCtivity losses incurred United Kingdom. for examiiple, national survey data Iv tra ffic delays. show that travel varies accordinig to deiisity. Travel These costs are substantial. At a national level in the demiiaiid quickly rises as deisity falls helow 15 people United Stares, valious studies suggesttlat iilotor velicle per hectare and falls sharply as density exceeds 50 use iiiiposes on society estiniated external costs of imore pcople per hecta re 9)W. However, evidence is not suffli- than $300 hillion mI(',) 'H(4; (Iu. Inll urban areas, where cient to recommiienid an optimal density or settlemenit negative iiiipacts are concentrated, the cost per velicle pxattern. (oniparative studies are generally limi ted by distaiice traveled is probably higher. Althlouglh Much has data constraints anid Coiifouiidiiig factors sucIh as fuel lbeen writteii in recenlt ear-s about estimating the ullpaid prices, levels of autoniobile ownverslip, and Cultural Costs of travel, estilmaiites of the fLill costs vary siginifi- Values (7)h. cantity are slI jeCt to much dispuLte, and1 sloio Id be Fu rtlrermore, textbook solutioils rarelv tramislate iiito coisidered oiiIv rougi a pptoxiliations reill-life successes. Loiidoii amid Seoul, fainouls for their Moving toward rccoverinig these costs wouild help to greenblelts, are facing ieCw tranospor-tatioli challeniges as reduce uiineconioilical travel arid wo mliI spread trips urban dlevclopimienit cxtenids heyond those boLindaries across longer periods of the day. These improvciiiemits and workers comllIllmIte eveii longer distaices to dowIn- Coi LI lead to a reductioii in coligestio1, aln increase in towln jobs i-5' '1W. ii Delhi, India, mlixed land rises and the use of ptublic tralisit, and, pierhaps in the lobg i-tii, Iiigli popiilatiol deLisities are thc niori, vet the city is miore efficienit land ise patternlS (1)K.;. Ill 01-D 1) COIII- faced witi congcstiomi, air prollutioiL, and limilted tramis- tries, raisinig the costs of car travel mayy be a miore portatiori options for its poor peoplc. (See Box 4. 1 ) effective way to reduce car rise and its rcliated probilciis Efforts to manipula re urblan form1 are furthier corn pli- than iiimproviiig public traniisportatioii service or lowCr- catet by iSSLIeS of land ownership and nimaket forces. iig fares (17). Additionally. aii integrated stra-tegy reqcuires coor(dinia- Although it is 1iuilikely thart drivers will eve- pay the tion between thre transportation and land rise seCtols full Costs of traispol-ttltioil byIV car, several policy tools across ai entire lietiiopolitaii region-something tlit is calil be used to at least recover sonIe of thcse costs, iiot easily aachieved i 'in i . ramigimig froiii road pricing to gasolime taxes, to increiased Still, cities that have ianaiaged to integrate transpor- fees for parking. These caii lie kev eleimeniits in a strategy tatioii and land use are reapilig the benefits. Curitiha, for maniaging travel denalld. 88 Worhl Rcsources 199ni-9- Urban Transportation Road Pricing. Ro ad1 pricinig entails charging dlrivers Road pricing can have unintenled impacts, however; directly for useig roacs throLgh a varietv of techliiques, For instance, it runls the risk of encouraging tr;avel oni SUC11 ilS the use Of tolls, areai licenisiig selielies, and roads on wlich a fee is riot requircd, increasing coliges- electronic road priciig. To he most effective, a road tion there and precipitating lurbari growth in new SL1b- pricing sclheine shoLird covet- all i m portaiit roads urban areas. Road pricing mlust be examined for its throuighotit an urban area, and the charge should vary equity iriipacrs as well. By raising the pricc of travel, according to demald, with higlher pr-ices clhalrged during peak period priCing n1ay Squeeze poorer drivers off the peak periods, as is the case for elecrric uriilities or road wlhile allowring thiose who ciian afford ir ro drive telephoneservice. The goal is toeIeourrage peopleto use on a miore efficieint road system.i In Sari Francisco, rhe alterriate nuiodes of transportatn rio ir tv drive duitring Baiv Bridge Congestrion Pricing pilor proiect pro rosed off-peak periods, a wav to overconlic this problem by rrsilg existillg Designfiig surCi a svstrri, however; is corInplicated hrw-irorie targetirig riechanisnls (i1 rhis case, all adniiiistratively, technically arid politically. In addi- electric urtilirt programii rtiat offers rebates to the poor) tiolln, road pricing will not smicceed if cities do nor offer ro provide discoLIltrs fol- prorer drivers ir ½ Alterria- artractive alternative transportation oIptions 1iS) Ac- tively, the funds generated could be used to reduce corlrliiglv, despire the dellIonstrated ad vantages of roadl r;r nsir farres arid inmprove trarisir service in low-incomie pricing, few cities have iripleiented sulch schieimes, areas. most practical applicartions have been a rtype of area Taxes and Pollutioni Fees. In addition to roadl pric- pricing, iI whlich drivers nursrt paV to eilter a specific ing, otlier variable transpolrtatiol cliarges tol -cover thle are l. Perhaps the iiiOst well-kniown of these is Singa- frill costs of tranisportatioln haive be en suggested. In pore's area licenisiig sclieriie, whicl seeks to reduce practice, there is already aln array of taxes on nriotor traffic into the city cemiter- by clhargilng low-occLparICV vehlicles in riiost countries, ranging frorii purchase taxes vehlicles a fee when they enter the area. Tor enter the on new vehicles to furel taxes. (overnnieits have loIng restricted a rea, a cilr riilst display a special wlindow ursed furel taxes as a mearis of ra1isinig reven1LIC for road sticker, for which a fee is also charged. Since its iiiceptiorl b1r .iding and mainteriarice. Recently, however, srlrle in 1975, the plain has both redLrced conigestioIn and Colilritrieshalvelbeguniitocorrsidertixlxatioril asi a im sto stimulited tlhe urse of pLrul iC transportation, at riiodest redurce vehicle ulse, corserve energy, and reduce carblon cost. The cirt is replacing the cuirenit system witl an dioxide eriissions I 14r. Hunga r, fort instanic, iritro- electronic scherie. (Camereas niILriited (in overhead gate- duced an erivironiriieital tax on fuel in 1992 as well as wvays w'ill aLtoriaticallv dduiLct entry fecs frorii stored a roadl rilianeriarce fee r i ii valure ccards r1rnu1lred on vehicle dashboards. The fee will Furel taxes can be an Impor ant policv trool in efforts be determiiined by both location and tiie of day rim)o. to chanrige travel behaviors. The direct i iipaCt of furel fii OLCD coLuntries, road pricing is being c(iisidered prices on the level arid pattern of tranisportationi de- seriolislv, atrhoughl in maost places it is still only in the rniaid hais been vividly illustr-aited( over the past 20 y'ears testing phase. A smart" card, which autoriiatically by the effects of increases in \orld oil prices on the iriposes a charge wvhen a velicle is stalled in triaffic, is overall volihulie of translport, in the seailrch for iniiproved being tried il Cambrillge, United K ingdomn, to reduce efficiencies in the use (of traditiorra I fuel SOlrrces, aild on1 conigestio(r (I I),. In the Norrwegiarn cities of Oslo, Bergen, the development (of alteriiativ e fuiel technolorgies (ir s. and TrOIideirCii, electron ic tol-collecrtilig Systems (ill- ThIi ig'il CoStOf frcl iC Ja paiild FLr rope has led perople itiallv desigined to raise reveniue for new roIad Corlstruc- in those COLtritries to drive Iess arId to drive niiore fLel- rionl) riay hax e the added benefir of redircirig tra ffic in efficielrtcairs than theircounrterparts in rhe ULrited States the city ceiter ( i r . I 17,. Reducing fuel surbSidies anid increasing fuel taxes In rthe developing world, the widesplread intrloduc- courild helpl irrliprove vehicle efficieicies inI developirig tion of elecrrli-ol rroad pricing niay n0ot be feasibHe COliuntrieS as well (I S. b ecCause of both the nip-front costs of the techlnology IPollutioni fees, whiicl i increase with the amoiirrt of and the poteiitial diffiCurlty of enforcenmeit. Yet, rorad pOHIl ioln prIoduiced by a vehicle, orr vehicle-rni'les-of- pricrnig can lIe cost effective-partiCUlarly in middle- travel (NNIT) fees also can be used tro recover Srorie of illcrlre ciries of the developilig world, where miotor the rrLre Costs of car transportationm. Such fees ca ii be velicle lrse is inicr-easiig rapidly-becaurse ir cari offset collected at aminuiIl vehicle i is"pectiolls and canr be or delay costly expianisiron of the ro(ad system. Grovern- based o0n odomieter re adings Research suLggests that iielnt officials in Santiago (Cl hile, are planriring tro im- a V MT fee of (0.03 pere kiloriieter imiposed in Sotirlt- pleriierit a road pricing scIllee I2 crri Caaliforni a could redtrce automorile trips arid World Resources 1 '96-07 89 Urban Transportation Box 4.1 The Indian Transportation Paradigm Conventional urbani transportation ment programs. Average speeds during phants, stray cattle, bullock-carts, rick- planning, as defined in the developed peak periods range from 10 to 15 kilo- shaws, and handcarts (9). In fact, cars do world, has heen applied to Indian cities meters per hour in central areas and not even constitute the malority of the such as Delhi for more than 35 years. from 25 to 40 kilometers per hour on city's 2,097,000 vehicles i10); motor Delhi's Master Plan includes numerous arterial streets 17). Delhi's traffic fatali- scooters and motorcycles account for "district centers" that provide residen- ties in 1993 were more than double nearly 70 percenit of registered vehicles. tial, shopping, commercial, and recrea- those of all other major Indian cities Anothier 4 percent are locally designed tional facilities (1t By some measures, combined (5). three-wheel scooter rickshaws; the rest the Master Plan has succeeded: Delhi What accounts for this mismatch be- are taxis, public buses, and trucks (I I I has high population densities and tween the Master Plan and the realitv The city's estimated 1,500,000 two- mixed land use patterns, resulting in of growing transportation problems? and three-wheel vehicles are heavy con- short trips, many of which are made by Much of it can be traced to attempting tributors to local pollition (12) (I 3x) As a walking, nonmotorized vehicles, or pub- to apply solutions for cities in the devel- class, these vehicles emit higher levels of lic transportation. Private car owner- oped world to a citv in a developing hydrocarbons than cars, trucks, or ship is low (2' (3) (4) (St. In that regard, country, with its very different vehicle buses. Three-wheel scooter rickshaws Delhi would seem to be a textbook ex- mix and socioeconomic conditions, also emit significant amounts of carbon ample of integrated land use and trans- monoxide 114). Because thev are a low- portation planning. DELHI'S VEHICLE MIX cost alternative to the citv's overcrowded Even so, air pollution, congestion, and Traditional urban transportation models public transporration services, the traffic fatalities are terrible and con- are designed to handle a homogeneous number of two- and three-wheel vehicles tinue to worsen. The World Health Or- mix of passenger cars, trucks, and buses on I)elhi streets continues to grow. Since ganization has classified Delhi as one of all moving at the same speed, but in the I 980s, sales of such vehicles have in- the 10 most polluted cities in the world Delhi, cars, trucks, and buses must com- creased by nearlv 20 percent per year Il). i6). Coingestion ill Delhi seems to be pete for space with two- and three-wheel Variations in vehicle size, rate of accel- worsening, despite local road improve- motorized vehicles as well as camels, ele- eration, and speed mean that often the best way to advance through the road Competing needs. In network is to dart lateraliv from lane to Delhi and other Indian _ _ - lane to optimize the available space. cities, motor scooters. *6- The suddel braking and change of di- animal-drawn carts,. rection that are required in this type of and pedestrians com-- . ";= ,- and pedestrians corn- '~~~~ -~ 4 9,~~ nra- traffic reduce overall vehicle speeds, in- pete with cars and 'I'' ¼ crease the chance of accidents, and ad- buses for roadspace, versely affect fuel consumption and leading to worsening emsiotaes1, congestion and traffic Becaulse there is no formal segregation fatalities. - of vehicles in Delhi and no enforcement - I,y _ of speed limits, nonmotorized vehicles 0'! M lgh|_ 5 -;I -- such as bicycles and carts tend to segre- gate themselves naturally onto the curb lanes on two- and three-lane roads. However, there is still a considerable safety risk (17). Pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists make up more than 80 percent of Delhi's road fatalities (x). One third of the pedestrian fatalities in- volve Delhi's buses, which are vastly overcrowded; many deaths occur when passengers forced to ride on running boards or hanging onto the outside of _ the vehicles are thrown off or struck: ' many passengers are also struck when Choarding or leaving buses. 9 DELHI'S SOCIOECONOMIC MIX U) M Nany of Delhi's transportation-related m problems have arisen because planners 90 World Resources 1 996-9) 7 Urban Transportation failed to provide for the wide range of to address the urbiani traffic mix and so- Analy sis ,/ A-Ietropolita,n (eities ill India socioeconiomic levels and especially the cioeconontic paternis characteristic of (TERI, New Delhli. India, M.ay 1993), p. 4(0. exrent of poverty within the city, cities such as Delhi. The challenge for 5 i,il., p. 46. Few people in l)elhi can afford the Delhi and similar cities is to accomm-o- 6. World Health Organization iiid Ulnited Na- cost of private motorized transporta- date this complexity rather than to trv riolis Einvironment Programme, Urbain Air tion, even for the jourliey to work. In- to minimize it or wish it away. P'r,tliltm, i Aiiil M/iycities oft/' Wlomll (Black- stead thev most rely on public Given DelIhi's socioeconomic miix well 'ublishers, Oxford, lI.K., 1992), pp. transportation. Even the slightest in- muChi of the population will he unable 99- 1)6. crease in the cost of puhlic transporta- to afford cars or even public transporta- 7. Op' cit. 4. pr 6. tion cain he a hardship. A recenit survev tion for sonic time to come. Mean- . "Berter Traftic Policing Urged," Indiall Vx- indicated thar nearly 61) perceir of the re- while, bicycles anti pedestrians press. Delhi. Indi. (Fehrii.irv 26. 19941. spond(leoits fouLid rhe minimum Cost of Con1tinue to share the roads with cars, National Institiite of Urbaii Affairs (NIUA). coMiUtilIg to work on public rranspor- wh'lere thev i 'pede traffia nnd are enx- Urban Fil iroinnenratl Mips: Delhi, B ii,- on~~~~~~~~~~ thy imectafi n ree-by Vadoilara. Ahnii',a{.had I(NIUIA, New tation (less thani $0.06 per trip) to he un- lpose(d to a high risk of accidents. Re- Delhbi Inda., 1994). p. 1.44. acceptable IGlon o2(n. A ride on public lquests to provide separate facilities for transportation-even at rhe lowest mii- nonmotorized transport are typicaillv rei Isu' S iid Prortetisn pe pnted mumil farrc-an conisu5me 20 to 30 percent met with the argument that scarce re- i the 74th Annual Meeting of tIe Tritspor- of a family's income for the lowvest incomie SOuIrces cannot be wasted for a mode i.tioni Research Board, Natioiial Acldenlm groups. A large percentage of low-iflon e that is going to disappear in the future. ol Scieies. Washingtn., D.C., lanuary people travel long distances and spend 30 However, if [)elhi and similar cities 1 995, Table 2. to 60 minuites on one-way travel (2Il. were to consider facilities for nonmo- II. op. cit. 4, p. 8. In responise to hoth the cost of trans- torized transport as an integral part of 12. Op. c-t. 4, p. 28. porrarion within rite city and the long a prograi to eniance road capacity, 13. op. ,it. 4, Tible 4.38. p. 78. working hours, many of Delhi's poor then the investment could be justified. 14. Indi.aii Institite of Petroleiiim ( I1P), sit' ',i ihave i1o choice but to establsil un- Not onilv are lanes designed for bicycle ibi Art Report oni Vebhile Enrissiwins lIP, autilorize(d settlenients in substandaid traffic less expensive to build than road- I)ehradUill, iidia, 1985i. housing on public land near their places ways, but they also will divert pedestri- 5. op. cit. 4. P i30. of employment. ti 1991, an estimated ans and slow-nioving vehicles from the 16 F.M.A. Ka rim, G wi inri, miiid A. Kinda, 1.3 million people resided ii these roadway, increasing the efficiency of Siniulation of Hetrerogeiieous Traffic jbtiggi-lbopri settlements 122). car and bus transport. Srream," drift research reporrt, Worl(d In the mid-1 970s, governllmenit offi- By accomnnodatinig the needs of all of Health Orgmiiizatioii Collahoratung Cenrer cials ma(le a conscious effort to relocate its citizens-including the poorest lor littury Prevenioiiii aid (Coiirrol (Indiii the jbuggi-jbopprt settlements to thu ones-for safe and affordable trans- Institute of Techitology, Delhi, Iindial, p. Io. outer areas of the city wvshere new devel- port, cities such as Delhi can create an 17. ldesh Ihi, Studies of Hererogeneous Trif- opnients had beenl planined. Because few equitable and environmetitally friendlv fic Flows for Pl3ntiing FaI'lities iI)epart- jobs are available on the urban periphery; transportation sysren. ment of Civil Enginieering, Indian InstiLi te however, residents in thcse areas now -oeetam Ttreari of TechnlolUgy Delhi, India, I99i) must coml11ute lonIg distalnces across the IG . Delhi Traffic PhIice. Firsi liforiii. nai i Re- cito in search of emplovment (l31 port: June 1993-Julv 1994 (Delhi Police Manv of Delhi's poor work in the so- Geetain Ttwari is a visiting fellowZ at the Departmllent, Delhli, India, 1994i. c -,lled infor ,iial secto,- ,s street vendors Tata Eiiergy aiid Resotirces Institute, 19. Central Road Research Institute (CRRII, c aled infoeral sector as street vendors Tata Energy ando Resources Instittte, lability Leveles ln Transport Problems of or a1S operators of pavemnent shoprs arid Arlingtout. Virginia. and is a menietber ot \ Vari-s PopiL,in,,, Griups (CRRI, New car or motor scooter repair shops the faciltv of tbe lIterdiscipliiiary 4p- Delhi, India. 1 98). p. 32. alotig roadways. (;overinient officials plied Systemns Research Programme at 20. Based on the exchainge rate Oll lDeceniber 7, call these services "encroachinents" the tcdialn Itstitifte of Techlnlogy, 1995. and comiiplain that they reduce road ca- Delh1i. 21 1 )p. It 1,up. pacityv Howevet; they are art integral 2 ita Shariii "Delli Profile: Transport and part of the Lrbati latidscape. providing a References and Notes Enviriineni, Rese,rh Piper NO x (The variery ol services at low cost and at lo- TRiriaes Research Foiind ruin o. c utti, (hi- catiotis where demand for these services I I )ell Devtrlopiniein ALilioriiy. A-lstir PAttin ies a seprcFdlinet A992M p. 3. is high. As a result, they cotirinue to mul- hr Delhi: lPiespciti 21)) ri 200 tkas Minar. Delhii, Iindiai. Agut I ~p.1- 3 p i.1,The51,p 8 tiplv along the arterial roads of the city,. 11,1d.i p.. 6-. t FINDINC NEW SOLUTIONS p3 op i (-it 1 r 8 4 Tat.i Finergy ,ind Resoi-urer I iisitslLre The tratisportatiotn platinitig tools ofi (TERI), Impact o/ Roil Trirsporfati'ii Svs- the developed world are not adequate ci,, ,iio Eieirgy aiIl Eitt ririinment: An World Resoitr-cts 1996i-97 91 Urban Transportation Box 4.2 Setting Limits Pays Off in Portland, Oregon IPortland, Oregon, is often considered were established to encoorage high resi- governnent has developed the Region one of the most livable and best- dential densities along transit corridors 2040 project to study how future met- planned cities in the United States f i. iE4 (is. At the same rime, the city im- ropolitan growrh can he accommo- During the 1960s and 1970s, however, proved the existing bus system and is dated without further extending the Portland faced problems similar to planning to offer bus service within orhan boundaries if i. those of manv other urban areas in the walking distance of all neighborhoods (6). Despite these efforts, travel in the United States. Urban sprawl was lead- Partly as a result of these measures, P'ortland region will still be mainly by ing to extensive suburban develop- the number of jobs in downtown Port- car, with its associated impacts il) ment, while the downtown area wvas land has increased bv 30,000 since the Nevertheless, by encouraging high- plagued with decaving buildings, va- I 970s, with only a scant increase in densirv development along transit canr lots, and social problems. Heavy traffic; in addition, 40 percent of com- routes and by limiting urban sprawvl, car use was increasing levels of conges- muters to the downtown area use pub- Portland is showing that at least some tiots, noise, and air pollution '2). Yet, lic transporration m. The numher of reductions in car use are possible. Portland has largely managed to re- days per year on which carbon monox- verse these trends throughl integrated ide levels violated federal health stand- References and Notes land use and transportation planning. ards has dropped from 100 to zero (8). . Kevin Ka.isowski, "Portland's llrban Growth A key component of Portland's suc- The metropolitan population is con- BoUndary." The Urban Ecologist, Spring cess was a statewide land use law estab- tinuing to expand at 3.6 percent per 1994 (Urbaili Ecology, Oakland, California, lishing urban growth boundaries year, and future growth threatens to on- 1994i, p. 1. around metropolitan areas. With onily dermine these advances (9. To guard 2. OrgaiisaliioiT for Economic Co-Operation a finite supply of land available for ur- against that possibility, both citv resi- and Developinenit (OECD) and the Euro- ban expansion, Portland was forced to dents and the government are explor- pan Conference of Miisters of Transport find ways to encourage development ing alternative urban development i ECMTM Urban Trai -el an/d Ssastaiiable De- within the urban boundary limits . options. In response to public opposi- tlopmteit O0ECD aind FCNST, Paris, To encourage revitalization of rhe tion to a planned bypass freeway, One , . a 17. dosvntosvn area, a segment of down- Thousand Friends of Oregon initiated p. town roadwav was replaced with an ur- a program known as Making the Land 4. JLdith Corbett, -Porrland's Livable Downi- I 1'- ' I I I W l T {E 1 1tl ll ~~~~~~~~~~Fronm Auro(-D)ependence to Pedestrin ban park, a limit was placed on the Use-Transportation-Air Quality Con- own: endene ToPtrian ,, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ak ,, adoae clusteringl pre.dll in " l.Surfalce Transportastion allowable number of downtown park- nection, which advocates clustring Pilic-v Pritie,I Resource Guide (Surface ing spaces, and road construction pro- mixed use communities around re- Traiisportarion Policv Project, WXashingtrol, jects were scrapped in favor of new gional rail stations to reduce reliance D[C., 1992', p. 2. transit lines. Then, zoninig regulations on automobiles (IL Portland's regional 5. OP. cit. 2. Livable city. Portland -. Op. cit. 4, p. 1. has made the down- 7 Op L It 2 town area more 8. Keith A. Barthoiliiiew. A Tale of Tlo Cit- friendly to pedestrians ies (Oiie Thousaiid Friends of Oregoii, Port- through the develop- land, 1993), p. 4. ment of an urban park 9. U.S. Buireaui of the Census, Statistical Ab- aorda "fare free" transit stra )if the United Stites 199w. 113th edi- mnalt The light rail tion UI.S. Gioverniiienit Printing Office. metro system con- W _ashingroiis,l).(.. 1993), p. 39. nects the downtown IC. Op. cit. 2. with neighboring H I . Mletro Counicil, Metro 204)) riro,ul' Co,n- suburbs. te cpt M(Nietro Coiluci i. Portla nd, Oregion, De- suburhs -o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ cernber 1994). 12. Op. cit. 2, p. 218. autinliotive air pollution lIv an estimiated I I pierceiit taxes fiay heconie less effective in rcduCiLIg travel de- and conld iinctrease pu,hlic tranisit riderslilp {; 1i'. nialid as cars hecomiie niore fuel efficjenit. However, the ObIjectionis to liighier taxes and fees are 111.1mleroLs. ma jor harrier to iiplementatioll is political oIppiosition. One concetril is that thev Wvould htirt low-iiicoiiie fanmi- People tentd to view thecse measures simply as additionial lies, who already spend proportionately Ifnorc of thlir un.vWelComeoC taxcs. Overconjiig this ha-rrier will reqLuire inCoile on transportatiol. In aiddition, taxes cdo not eduicating the pullic aihout the full cosrs of their Currelit influecice when a carl is used, so thle maxv havc little travel decisiols, as well as albout how the new revenuCs effect Oli conigestioI. Somlel anlalysts suggest that fuel will he uSeLd to improve the urban trtlnsportation systenll. 92 World Re'souiLrces 1996-97 Urban Transportation Parking Controls. Raising the price of parkinig in Improving the Transportation Supply certain areas can also deter the use of privatelv owned cars. If high parking costs raise the price of coniniuting F[veni though m1echilanismlis such as road pr-icing m1ay be to work, for example, workers will be more inclilned to able to reduce travel demand, there is still a considerable look for cleaper alter-niatives, either in the forrnof public need to expand the transportationi infrastructure in transportationi or carpooling. many rapidly growing urbanii regions, particularly in the This is especially true in the United States, where developing world. In many' urban areas, rhe transporta- parking has traditi onally bieen heavil' subsidized. In tion infrastruCture-including roads, sidewalks, cross- downtowwn Los Angeles, for examiiple, emplover-paid walks, and railways-is seriously dcficient. l'oor road parking increases drive-alone commlilluting by a' esti- surfaces lead to safety hazards coiigesrioll and prenia- mnated 44 percent. It also increases the total distance tLire vehicle aging, as well as increased fuel ConIsuLm1p- traveled as well as fuel ConsuL1mptiol by' 3 percentt per niol, pPolltiolln, and miniiitenanice costs. emnployee i 'n If instead, emiplovers were to offer work- The challenge, however, is to expanid and improve ers a comlimnuter stipend that could be used oii any travel the tralnsportation supplV in sucLh a way trhati the auto- alterniative in lieu of free or reduced-cost piarkilig, one mobile is only one part of the tralsportation systemll study foulid that drive-ailone CO111111Ltilig would decrease rather thani the focts. Tools for discouraging the over- by an estimated 20 percent and vehicle distance traveled rclianice on privately ownecd cars will n ot work unless WLould decrease by 17 percent (1211. people are given fast and effiicint tranisportarionl alter- Higher parking prices, hoowever, cal have the ullill- natives-whether bus, light rail, subway, walking, or tended effects of increasing illegal parking or increasing cycling. Indeed, travel patter-ns in a city miirror thit city's the length of trips (e.g., the additional tlime spenit looking col Inlitilnieit to providing roads, parking, and transit for parking places), thereby worsening conigestioni. Park- service i ). ing controls are most effective wvheln they are used as part of a more co-mprehensive programn aind wlhen Table 4.3 Capacity, Cost, and Emissions of Various strict enforcemenit is possible 1122'. Transportation Modes Traffic Bans Total Cost per Total Emissions per Persons per Passenger Passenger Instead of pricinig signals, many cit- Mode of Transport" Hour per Lane Kilometerb (US$) Kilometerc (grams) ies have tried to use outright traffic Walking 1,800 Negligible 0 bans to nianage travel demandic. Bicycle 1,500 X 0 Motorcycle 1,100 x 27497 Bans In the fornm of licenise number Car 500-800 0.12-0.24 18.965 restrictions have been tried in Ath- Bus ens, Mexico Citv, and Sanitiago Is a Mixed traffic 10,000-15,000 0.02-0.05 1.02 Bus-only lane 15,000-20,000 0.02-0.05 0.89 means of redLIcilg the number oF Separate busway 30,000 0.05-0.08 X cars in the city and thereby reducimlg Light rail transit, congestioni and air pollut i 2 (|.;. surface exclusive 20,000-36,000 0.10-0.15 Although these bIans have been sonic- Coas .13876 whhat effective, niany households Fuel oil 0.6261 boLight a second car or switched li- Rapid rail transit cense plates to nmeet their- mobility Surface (coal) 50,000 0.10-0.15 4.9651 needs. In Athenis, the number o`f Elevated (gas) 70,000 0.12-0.20 0.2307 households wx'itli two cars i icreased, Underground (fuel oil) 70.000 0.15-0.25 0.7102 Sources: ani1d motorists who were iot a Ilowed 1. United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat), Transportation Strategies for Human to enter the citV ceniter drove around Settlements in Developing Countries (Habitat, Nairobi. Kenya. 1984), p. 25. 2. The World Bank, Urban Transport (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1986), p. 53. tlle c I tv to gt-t to thei- tc|rlestiilil a til o ll 3. Asif Faiz et at, "Automotive Air Pollution: Issues and Options for Developing Countries," Working thereby' increasinig the length of Paper No. 492 (The World Bank. Washington. D.C., August1990). Table 20. p. 43. thei r trips xvlile also increasing Notes: a. Assumes high-occupancy rates and efficient operation. cmissioils 1241. ii audditioii, the ca.rs b. Includes capital costs, vehicle operating costs, and interest. b1oughlt for use On off-days are ofteni c. Includes carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides. sulfur oxides. aldehydes. and suspended particulates. cheap. second-lhan1d vehicles, wlhichi d. Includes two-stroke engines only. tend to be mo.0r-e pol luting 12i). X=not available. W,'or-/14 R'sfnirc's I 9)96-97 93 Urban Transportation Public Transit Expansion In Canada, the citv of Ottawa, Ontalio, is developilig For cities in need of expanding their transportation an extensive l usWay system rathier than a subwav sys- supply, developing a mass transit systemi, withi its effec- teni because of its comparatively low cost and flexibility tive use of space and lower per-passenger pollution iI serving low- to mediLil-deisity urban areas. In ad- levels, should he a priorirv optiol. (See Table 4.3.) Fr-omil ditioni to excILIsive bus lanes, the city is coinsiderilig a buses that provide flexible and low-cost tr-aiisportationi to buIs tunilel in part of the city center an d will promote subwayvs, cities have a wide arrav of choices. The optioirs the luSe of alternative fiels, iicldidig compressed nati.- best suited to a particular city depenid oni a num.1111ber Of rial gas anid electricity, to help alleviate rclated eIrrissiMis factors. including urban form, density, and wealth. problenis. The system has beel desigied so that it could Butses. Ini most cities, efficient bus svstems can be both be conVerted to rail transit if warranted ii affordable and effective. Buses Can carry as maiiv as so Rail Transit. Well-planned and Well-ulsed light rail passengers durinig thle peak period (anid tranis can carry systens can nove morc people than can bluses. light rail even more), yet they take uLp thle space of nio more thian systes also consume less energy than buses and, depend- tw(o privately owned cars 12Th. Indeed, buses are the ing on the power souIce, emit fewer pollutants i I ;ro. Light transportation choice of a nimajolitv of citv dwellers in rail systems such as trains and trolles, although slower developing countries, especiallv the urbani poor: In than heavy rail systems can carr' 6,000 people per hour 1980.anest ted 600 million tripsperdaywere being iin mixed traffic and Ly' to 36,000 people peI hour with miade in buses in cities inl thle dSeveloping world; tha lt five- or six-car trains, exclusive rights-of-way, andi grade- figure will doulble bIv the vear 2000 i12s'. separated intersections i Im Light rail system.s havecertain drawbacks, including systemi idilex.)lt ndepisv Yet, despite its vital role, bLIs service in many places I xibility and expensive falls far short of demindl; systems are often severelv track isnbeoteniangce ii crs sloever inatihe dilscitiesof Asia, overstretched, uncomfortable, and unreliable. potential g r is b g a p.lssenge increasinigly turn to; other modes of transpor- beRapid rail transir, Such as su bwa ys, often appear to passeng (erspe-al sicoc iead*ar rtft n be the ideal solution to clogged city streets. Tlesc rail rationi (especially ais incomes rise anid cars becom-e an option) or are forced to walk long distances. Buses also systems promise high mobility can be built ud a able urbanI land, and, beca use theyv emiit relatively few tend to be noisy and polluting. Regular maintenance can lutan are an envirnmeta lltrctivelterra hlelp imlprovetheir safety andreduce emissions. In some tive. Yet, costructioin and operating costs care lithuge and cities, buses have been retrofitted with engines that run often prove to be excessively bUrdenslomlC on City buLdt- on compressed natural gas !i 2 ). gets 4ror exa e, a dedted underOn rail As long as buses run on the samiie conigested streets as I F svstem cost S40( million per kilomneter in Santiago, (Chile, other vehicles, thev will never he an attractive alterna- k7 - $~~~~~~~~~~~~~64 miillion In Osaka japan,an Slt $1 17 mIl I 1n ( :ar ca s, tive for those who can afford a car. An effective way to e increase bus rider-ship is to give huses prioritv in traffic. Tuni,unisia, crison 2 million per kilometer 14i - ~~~~Tuinis, TLunisiLa cost on1v S29 nuiiilloi Ix kiloec 4! A dediciitedl hus laile (iiSSLininig higli-occtipancv raites A dedcatedbus lne (asumig hig-occuancy ates Cities Should resist the temptation to puirSue flashly and efficient operation) can move twice as. manv people adaned thology solu iton herower-cos ap- advanced tecxhnolo-v Solutionis wheii lower-cost ap- per hour as buses operating in mixed traffic anid 40 tilles 1 . as many people per hoLlr as cars , I i By givling bhuses proaches such as buses imilght be adequate. A phased as may peole pr hou as ars i;mn. y giing bses pproach-first idenltifyinig traniisPort Corridors well III priority' over car traffic, more people will turn to buses adacofcity growth nd their upgringsrvice acdvaiice of city gr-owthl anid thtni Upgr-adinIg services as a fast and efficlent alternative (I )ii. Manv European fb ri an ft-oiii dedIcatedl huLswa,vs to light rall andic finallv rncr- cities, includiig Zurich and Helsnlki, Finlaid, have de- haps, to a SubWay system-imay be the best way to signed systems that give priority to buLses alld trolleys at ensure the development of ccon liiill and fina ucia II intersections I121.si sound tr-anis't SVStelnIS ( 142 ,, Iln Abidjan, Cote d'lvoire, a system combininig exclu- sive bus lanes with a high-speed bLuIs nietwor-k has eni- Improv'iiig Existing Public Transit Senrices joryed considerable sticcess. It not oiily cut bus trip times in half and relieved congestion, but also enabled rhe Opportunities also exist to improve and upgrade existing goveriinmenlt to postponie planinied infrastructure invest- public transit systems. One option is to privatize and ments of US$120 million between 1 98 I and 1984 (I 3 1. deregUlate bus services. Competitionm among privite bIus One of the mosr effective bus systems is in Curitiba, companies can improve hus services aird reduce costs. In Brazil, wher-e the integrationi of gLuided land develop- Colombo, Sri Lanka, for examiple, deregiulation alloWeCd menit and a public transportation network created coni- small b1Ius owiners to couipete withi the public blus company, ditionis that natLirallv promote bus use (1341. substartially improviig service coverigc and quality '14;). 94 World Resoirc-es 1996-97 Urban Transportation At the same time, a completely deregulated and and encouraged, bicycles and walking can provide ac- competitive public transport market can have pitfalls. cess to shopping, schools, and work. For cities plagued Private companies may concentrate services in areas by serious traffic congestion arid air pollution, nonmo- with high densities and high-income neighborhoods, torized transport can be an importanit alternative to leavinig the poor on the urban periphery without ade- relying on private vehicles and can serve as a link in an quate services (144). In Santiago, Chile, the comiiplete integrated pLiblic transportation systen. (See Box 4.3.) deregulationi of the bLus systemii in the 1980s resulted in Bicycling arid walking are often the oily nieans of large numbers of poorly niaintained buses clogging the transportation available to the poor in many urban main streets, contributing to pollution and enclaigering areas-particularly in Asia. Indeed, more than half of riders. To correct these problems, the city reccitly the world's 80() million bicvcles are estimated to be in adopted a comprehensive schienie of auctioning down- Asia, with more than 300 million in China alone i town routes. Companies muLst be able to coniply with However, many cities have imposed constraints oni non- emissions, safety, frequency, and cost requirements before motorized nodes of travel, particularly cycle rickshaws, thev can be granted rights to varioLus routes. By promoting claiming that they cause congestion or unfairly exploit competition in the market in this way, buses are cleaner, huIman labor i n. In other cities, lack of access to credit fares are lower, and service is more unihfornm I 14l. inhibits the greater use of nonmotorized vehicles. Many Informal transit services that cater especially to the people are unable to save enough money to buy a bicycle needs of the poor, sucIh as the jeepnevs in Manila or the I i21. Yet, if their use is encouraged, nonniotorized vehi- kabui-kabus in Lagos, Nigeria, are an important part of cles can provide the mobilitv needed to improve the transportation svstemis in developing country cities. In ecoiionoic welfare of the poor. In additioln, they can Ankara. Turkey, dolmnus minibuses have been operating boost public transportation services by serving as a link for 40 years, providinig about 29 percent of transport betweeni outlying settlements arid public transit routes. trips. These vehicles, which operate without timetables, It is coniniioni to see thousands of bicvcles parked outside provide more frequent services than municipal buses. train stops in cities in India and China (i I). Their small size allows them to manleUver more easily In China, 50 to 80 percent of urban trips are bv on narrow, winding streets (14). In Africa, siilar infor- bicvcle. The governmient has activelv promoted hicvcle mal transit services fill a critical need for the urban poor comiimuting by offering subsidies t(; those bicycling to (147). However, these informial services are often pollut- work. It has also accelerated bicycle production and has ing and tend to conitribtite to congestion. They also allocated extensive urban street space to bicycle traffic reflect the failure of public transportation to meet the i i4). In Havana, CLuba, an ambitious governmileit pro- needs of city residents. IntegratinIg these services into the gram to encourage bicycle use prompted hy the couni- formal transportation network and improving the try's petroleum crisis has helped to reduce car traffic by safety arid efficiency of the vehicles could improve trans- 35 percent and bIs traffic by 50 percent. One of every portation options for the poor. three trips in the city is made bv bicycle. In addition to Improvemenits in public transportation services may sLIbsidies and bike lane constructionl, the city has re- also attract new users. In many Western European cities, duced car speeds on the most heavilv traveled roads to including Paris, Zurich, and Hanover, Germanly, inte- improve safety conditionis I il. Other importanit steps gration of fares and services across transit niodes (e.g., in making bicvcles an attractive alternative include sepa- bus to rail) has made public transportation use easy arid rated road space so that nonniotorized vehicles do not competitive with the a utomobile in ternis of travel time have to compete withi and disrupt traffic and regular aiid comfort 1148,. Although improvemenlts to public mainitenanice of bike and pedestrian routes. transportation systems bring in more passengers, they In developed couLntries, far fewer people depend on tend to have onlv a limited effect on the rise of privately Ibicvcles and walkinig as their primary mode of transpor- owned cars, and thus on congestion and emissionis, even tation. In the United States and Australia, for example, if transit travel is increased substantially. The majority oilv 5 percent of all trips involve cycliig or walking of new public transportation users tend to be former I i,. For these niodes of tranisportatioi to becomeillmore pedestrians, cyclists, or car passelngelrs ( 149). widely used, cities will have to promote them by improv- ing safetv conditions for bicyclists and pedestrians, pro- Makinig Cities F'riendb to Pedestrians and viding b icycle parking, aiid creating links with public Noniznotorized Vehicles transportation. Denmark anld the Netherlands have In the automobile age, nonimiotorized transportation is perhaips done the Imlost to proiiiote bicycle use, although often given short shrift. However, if properly promoted local cultuUre and flat landscapes have played important Wuorbl Resources 1996 -97 95 Urban Transportation Box 4.3 Nonmotorized Transportation: What's To Become of Bicycles and Pedestrians? My work has brought me into contact years governments have neglected all mote an integrated, environmentally with a number of local governments in- other forms of transportation in favor sustainable urban transportation sys- terested in forming a new and integrated of an automobile-oriented infrastruc- tem with a clearlV defined place for vision of urban development-one that ture. This is true even in developing nonmotorized vehicles. Transferring focuses on improving general accessibil- countries, where rates of car ownership the real cost of driving to car users in- ity in the urban sector and that includes have been low, stead of continuLing to subsidize car nonmotorized transportation as an es- This is not to say that nonmororized ownership is an important concept to sential component of a sustainablle transportation is an easy remedy for conisidcer. In addition, instead of con- transportation agenda. Lately, I have the urban transportation stalemate. We tinuing to expand road networks to come to the conclusion that it is very in- have to be realistic about the bicycle in meet the spiraling demand, cities need effective to try to convince cities to invest the context of today's increasingly to find ways to reduce existing as well in nonmtotorized transportation pro- global and westernized urban land- as future travel demand. grams in the context of a broader urban scapes. There are obvious limitations: Let's stop preaching to one another transportation reforin. Ir is clear that bicycles are an effective alternative to about technology modes, fuel efficiency; merelv building hike paths and pedes- cars and public transport only for dis- and other subsidiary issues. More in- trian w alkways will not solve any city's tances up to about 6 or 7 kilometers ii). portant than technology is the visioni! transportation problemis. Unless cities In cities in developing countries, the -Ricardo Neties recognize that nonmotorized vehicles pattern that is often seen is one in and pedestrians need to be a vital part of which residents abandon nonmotorized an integrated urban transportation sys- vehicles as soon as motorbikes or cars Ricardo Neves is the president of the tem, the value of this option is lost, become economically feasible-as evi- Institute Of Tfechnology for the Citizen Sao Paulo, Brazil, with its 15 million denced in China, India, and Indonesia in Rio delaneiro, Braz..il. metropolitan area residents and 4.5 mil- (2). One wonders wvhether this will also lion privatelv owned cars, recentlv an- happen in Cuba, where more than I References and Notes nounced plans to construct 300 million bicvcles were imported from R Organ d fotes kilometers of bike paths and lanes. Al- China in 1990 to combat a host of ()rganisiriovl for EcontmnEic Co-O)peration , . . . .~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~nd Developinetir tOF.('D and1 rhe Eulro- thoughl this is an ambitious program, transportation problems (3 ii4). peain Coniference of Ni linisters ot Trainspo rt there have been few attempts to coordi- The Netherlands is often used as an (ECMT), Urbani Travel nd. Sustainable nr- nate these efforts with those of other example of a country where walking veiopmens (OE(DOand ECMT, Paris. city departments. For example, a mas- and bicycling are well integrated into 1995). P. 86. sive road construction program is being daily life, and rightfully so. Bicycles, 2. Peter Mlidgley, "'Urhan Transport in Asia: conducted concurrently, and officials in hIowever, have been a part of Dutch cul- An Operaiional Agendai for ile I 990s," the city's traffic engineering division ture for more than a century, and evein World Bi.nk Technical Paper No. 224 (the contend that thev need every single cen- with the government's intense support, World Bank, Washington, D.(.., 19941, pp. timeter of road space for automobiles. bicycle use has been decreasing while 14- l l Thev even adnmit that, if it were possi- moror vehicle use has rapidly beeni in- 3. H. Valdes, NNIT: The Situation In Cu1b.a," ble ro do so, thev would steal sidewalk creasing is) in Proeeeindss o/ tbe lentena6m io,l S1.elii,7r on Sustainable Tratupertttionit.Strategies space for motorized traffic as well. Transportation policv is more than a anid Deu:eloptmewi. Report if the Earth Sumii- I sometimes wonder whether the cur- discussion about the effectiveness of ii it G lFri, Rio de Liro, Biail, iii it 1Elohal l Forumn, R io d1v Ja mei ri n, Bra; zil, rent interest in nonmotorized transpor- various transportation modes. Planners 1992). tation is really only wishful thinking on cani agree thar a sustainable city should 4. Manuel AlepLuz, "Bicycles Overtake Btus the part of cnvironinenitally miinded city be hicycle and pedestrian friendly, but Travel in Havana," The Uirbanz Age, Vol. 2, officials. Basically, nonmotorized trans- the central question is how are cities to No. I lFa 111 99 3). p. Ih. portation suffers front the fact that or- move from the present situationi to an 5. Ministry of Transport. I'ublic Works adi ban developnment and transportation urbain transportation vision that in- WiV;er Ntlanagerneit, Se,wnl/ .toriceturi Plait policies have heretofore catered to the cludes nonmiotorized vehicles /or fiTira/fi and Transport (Nlinistry Iof needs of motorized vehicles. Alnost Cities need to begin to develop pro- Transport, Public Works and Water Mani- without exception, over the past 40 grams that will curtail car use and pro- ageinent. The Hague, the Netherlands, 199 1). roles in Mainta ininig tlhe popu1.1arit- of rhe bciccle in stLtinM)s and b us and train stops, and additiom al saI1 furv those Countries. Despitc ail-eady highl levels of bicycle measaUres (Ivi-. Extensive bicycle lpaths have also bcen use, the DutcCl national transportation plan alimls to introduiced in several. cities in Canadai and AuIstralia increase rhe almlounllt of Cycling by 30 percenlt by 'O10 lIS'. In Seattle, all 1 ,250 buses in the mnetroipolitan by providing new hicycle routes, parkintg at railway transirsystemi are now eq nipped withbicbycey racks i(i 9. 96 Work! RcEsomnrce's I )96-9. Urban Transportation Reducing Vehicle Pollution ___ ___ , Ar the saute timle that ities- try to disCoura ge ca r Useand shilft the travel loid to ioi alternatives. tllc\ can lso take a nlumber of sreps tO _' improve air quality ly re- dL[C11'1' VCInII ,C eliliSsMiolis 1.. te2 - .S1- \ -, Tliis ca n beachieved bv clea-L ing ItIp thc fuels that vehicles b lril, piloiiiOti ug thlC (lesige* and market penetration of nlew vehllieltecl uolgies,gi 'ii itilprlovilig the performa iie s of the existinig vehicle fleert Cleaneler Fzels - Alternative fuels, ilcludhiliw ht Alternate routes. Co'tlua ''ma,s Iiis( ityu ,L,K ,:,'', 11 II,, )I 1io .' Ii,f 1 ' '.. 1f( it Id cof I coilipressed na 1ttiral l g iq- O'r a 7 sp't f(n - 1 IO- ,s( d)('Y.'. i- S ''7'U''1 *).(1' 'ii)! /V.11' hP'', ' jIf ,b, 'S' '-0 V liv uLi. perr0 lcL1li gas, ani1d ethal- 30 lrice,tl! hiV 21010 nol, are receivinig iiicreased attentionl as potentiall pOIIlutiol redutcers ;ih1). C((ii- Neu, Vehicle Tecbhnologies piressed natural gas, already being used in countries such as Callada, Italy. and New Zealand, is ail ab ildanlt fuel 0p p ort1ilities also exist to improve the efficnc and aild canbe partculari\ usefulill ~ ~cleanliness of illoitor vehicles. Onie promnisinlg alterna- reoucinl} emi'sios ' yeiv is the adoptioil o)f ii(otor vehilcles that rut) tin particulates ihi In Brazil, an aniibitiouIs governmeleit electricity powered by fuel cells, hydrogen, or soiile ilitiltive in support of ethanol reduced the share of combination thereof. 'Zero emissoin vellcles, while gasolille used f'or trailsportation ftroimi 56 perceint in I9 7 1t i ')'- :( B i 93 hlavinlg no effect on congestioln, Couldd greiatly i improve - o - F'ei~tIL iil I ''~ is2.. , 9() percent air quality, improvinig heaIltIl aiid the quality of urban otf all new cars ran oin alcohol Is;). As a result of this *liaiige III tlle fuel ili;ix eileit-gy efficiciicv inl rlict ranspor- Z"e1l 2 lhtg s)ic*tssadtultishleletl to replalce public buscs with electric miodels, the wide- tarioni sector grew signiielflcaiiv bretweeni 193 1 andtl te ration sector grew) s|(5ignifican'ltly Iletween I 971 aitgt ;tIle scale aidoprioni of electric velilcles reiilalils Lilcertaiil. In illd-1 980s ios-u [ihi,. Recently, alcohol shortages andi] California, an ambitious manildate reqJuiring that 2 per- poor road adcar Maliniteci e llaVC bCguln ro threatenl celt (If all cars sold in the state in 199 8 be eiission free the potetilial benefitis oIf tIle program i h) wOas recetntilv ameilided duc to political pressure and A lilgll priority for developinlg couiltries is to reduce the lead conlteilt ii ngasoline. Bcsidles beilng a di rect leil 1 th relervatio l e cu rre pter to rban impacts threar, lead In gasolilne preentts the use of caralytic I on NatUral Resources.") In the developing world, the coilvei'tei-s o11 gas-burninlg enigiiies; caralvtic coiivertecls iveers ong-riigeige atltcovt Iligl costs of these technologies miake It unlikelv that help limit vehicle ciliissiotis of hydrocarbons, carbon wt n 's rsdeiits wvell he able to affordl thlieii for i-niny i doiloxide, a iitrolgeil Oxides ( esto resi The costs of eliminatinlg lead fromil gasoline and of elil i nati ig older velicles Iiive viiade it difficult for Vehicle linspectioni antd Mainitenan1ce lower-nlcome countries ro swlitch to unleaded gasolinle. In Bangkok, lowever, the governienit 1las supported the Older vehicles account for a disproportionate share of introduoctioli of Linleaded gasoline throIigll a LiX sUtl- air 11011tiOll. A badly maiailnitled older vehicle cani emnit sidy By t,Ixil g Unileaded fuel less than leaded fuel, the 100 rimties the pollutanuts of a plroperly mnlaintaintied mlod- governimienit nmade it cost-effective for local refineries to erii %ehicle i-i. In Los Angeles one stuLy estiliiated that produce ulileaded gasolile. In Janulary 1996, use of pre-19717 calrs, which acCouLntcd for only 13 percenlt of ulileaded gasolilte became mialndatory I Ih>Sm the total vehicle nilles traveled, were responsible for () World ResouOlrccs 19 9'6-97 97 Urban Transportation of old and inefficient vehicles. In 13udapest, Hungary, the city governmenit will exchange public transportatiol passes for Trabants and Wartburgs. two brands of automobiles that are highly polluting hut widely used in the city because of their low cost. For each Trabant, the city awards foLir year-long passes; for eachi Wart- biurg, six year-long passes are issued. In addition, the prograin will buy these cairs tor a price higher than the _ going market rate if the monev is iused as part of a down pay-ment on a new, imore efficient vehicle. So far, an estimated 2,000 Trahants and \Vartburgs have been o taken off the streets of Budapest I 17'I. Two-wvheel vehicles pose an eveni greater air pollu- Healthy commues Inortes S(illped with bicyle W;smckt0 IC 'nl PoHltlhnd. oregosi, citiesuha wSttle. Washsgon i tion challenge, especially in Asia. Two wheelers are Portland. Ore nu, buses areequipped web bcyclentacbletfor a n'ority of rs al atCIae crease the distance that comn7uters can cover bv loit/i bicycie responsible a na o res iralle particulates in anc ptib/ic transit. the air of manyv Asian cities (179). Given the sheer number of two-wheel vehicles in Asian cities, imnposilig percent of total hydrocarbon emissionis i -)2. Effective strict emissioils stanldards is difficult. However, emis- inspection and mainteniance programs can reduice emis- sions reductionis are possible at modest cost by switch- sions from old vehicles and ensure thar new vehicles ingn froim two-stroke to four-stroke engines or by remain in good condition. According to U.S. data, a installing catalytic converters. In molst cases, the in- well-run inspection and mnaintenance program cani re- itial increased cost is offset hb iniprovemeurs in fuel duice the carbon monioxide and hlidrocarlbon eni]issionis ecomominv ISM. of an individuial vehicle by tip to 25 percenit - 1 Such programs are especially critical in developing c ountries and counitries in tranisitioni, because immuch of Putting It All Together the vehicle fleet is composed of older and generally Imlore Fach citV faces its owni imix of transportation problems, polluting cars. In Jakarta, Indonesia, for example, two and e I I o I o Iies andcl ech CtV wvll reLqLIre 'ts owvn combination of pohrl'c thirds of the privately owned cars are 5 years old or- to address theii. Heavily car-dependent cities, such as older 174. those in the United States, face significant challenges. However, inspection andi maintenaiicc prograrns face Extensive land tise changes, however desirable, are diffi- financial, administrative, political, and enforcemiient c.ilt to imzplemiienit. Given the extent of the existing barriers. Beyond that, the results of suchi prograins can transportation infrastructure-and the expenise implicit be mixed. California recently found that only a bout .50 in expaniding it ftirther-thiese cities must focus on maxi- percent of the repairs arising fromii inspections were mizing the access thilat their current systemiis provide anld effective in reducinig emissions iISi on improving the efficiencv and cleanliness of existing Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, India, the Philippines, vehicle fleets I is i. Still, these strategies need not preclude Chile, and Mexico have all implementedl at least rLidi- longer-terin goals of increasing densities in ciries. mentary inspection and maintenance programs i1-6. Cities in less developed regiolis of the world, whlere Quezon Citry Philippines, began an Auto Anti-Simoke- urban form is not strongly focused on the automobile, Belching Campaign in 1993. After a 6-mouth "benign have perhaps the greatest opportullitV to ensure that phase" that educated the public about the health haz- futtirC developiment patterns effectively manage the de- ards of air pollution and the need to reduce auto emis- mand for transportation. For these cities, the key issue sions, the programi movedI into its "malevolent phase." is anticipairilng the growing dernand for access and ad- Two teams ranidomly tested about 200 vehicles on citv dressing it biefore an irreversible comilimitimient is nmade streets each day. The owners of vehicles that failed the to an unsustainable lifestvle antI urban form (IS2). Yet, test (about 65 percent) were fiiied, had their licenses ant] they also have the fewest financial, techinical, anId insti- registrations taken awav and were given 24 hotirs to tutional resources. Historically, measures to address the have their velicles fixed. More thiaii 95 percent of environnmental impacts of the transportation sector vehicles passed the secon(d test (1-77. are not intrroduced until well after the impacts have Another effectivc mechianiisilm that can be used to become acute. For exainple, Banegkok, Londond i and reduce vehicle emissions is to accelerate the disposal Tokyo did not begini to address automllobile emissions 98 World Resourc es 19 1)-97 Urban Transportation unitilI residents perceived that the a IrpolI lution situation transportation providers (e.g., taxi commissions, public was dire I8i transport aissociations, automobile Clubs, and freight Perhaps thie greatest single barrier to effectively- solv- carriers). ing transportation probilems, regardless of city, size and The proper instituItional structures will depend on the locaitioni, is the fact that the responisibility for urban specifIc poItia an is Itioacnexofam r- tranporatio sytem resdeswithman diferet eti- politan region. However, without clear lines of author- ties. Tpclyonintttoisrsosbefrarqa- ity and strong coordination, any, attempts to Improve it lllgemienit, ano(ther is in chiarge of traffic urbhan transportation system-s will inevitably fall short. mnanagementt anid enforcemenit, a third m-anages public transportation, and a fourth m-anaiges the infrastruICture. T- scbperws rtt__b_brsope_Zgaso Th.isfrag entaion an b fLirher oinpiciied b thethe International Institute for Enzergy Conservationi, existenlce of several municipal anid political structures as Washington, D.C. well as the presence of various politically infiLuential _______________________ References and Notes I . Zitiar-A ftha 111zi and j' rs C:. _.ra rimo,-"Triue,- Netcr rla ids. New Zea laind, Norewi) Port LI- wient, The World Bank - Nairobi, Kenya. purr- Related Air P II liarri Sitraitegies: SWhSat L~ii I, pa in, Sweden, Siwiteerlnaid, Trirkev [y he 19941, p. 4. Lessons for De% eloping C .lliitries?.- disc ijs- I iurird Kiiigdorn~ .11d the I Jutted Stires. 21. Secrerarin, Ijec-itiria de ia Coimisioit de Plaini- ioipa per iTThe W'orId Banik. Wash i igtl ii, Mi es .o he1aine a niereiiher ITI Nt.i) 1 994. fl~iciLItM de In versleones en Inifraestr rituri de D.C., Seprenirihr I 994), p. I(,. Atl ti i'ciissii1 ii f OF( I) d.ita. priiT Ict, 1994 Trait piirte (SECTRA), Enucrs/a Origen 2. Philip) Sr vcg ,I ai., AssersmintitIfeasp i- dlCSi"L 11i rIIIdiCl iti IIJ f Irs NtXCI. Destinroh- Vhiti's del Grari Sanittagoi: 199I fi'ii (,, mi-tit In .Ai,ia ai Is 1F-./fic-rssii Fit- I I . Ameiirrcan Aiiitmiiibile Nlariiilficriircrr' ASso (SFCTRA. Sarittitgo, Chile. 1991)l , Table 7, vi'fl I;s,, IThc Erivir,minireiri. adrt,!caffi, cirioir .A ASiA). W',r/d Vre Vhide i'P. 20). rlgistil-lt: C *~v Study I lBaitgkok. l/lt Data. l9'if I'tdI,ir I AAMA, Detroir, 1 9951, 22. up. cit. 7. p. 4. /,iiid 1lict-rn.tirin,il Irisritrir,- for [-irrg (Cii- pp. 16-I1S. 2 3 Priter Mlidgley, UJrbhair Trrnrspurt iii Asia: Air ,el *r Lii Ut, Wa'hinrgriiii, D .( .. -I992). P. 23. 1 2 0 i. C. i, p. 15. 1 )/rerattira! Agenda fuir the I 99fls, World Vli,.1. I 4. it. I I. [Bnill Tec,hinicl Paper No. 224 (The Woirld 4. Paunli Bater cii!.. Tire C Imlt.liite of South- a4 D1. 9. p. 3. Ba.nk< Wachintigii, D).C., 1 994), p. I i. rist Asi.iC Rapidi kiiillriS.Irilii: Irriald I nll I 1 j.II 24 JiI,. itI. 20. p. 2. prir. jik,irta, Siirairyavan,rd \Maitilain an2S )p t 6 .6 liirern.itiori.i P1ersprctie... '. p.iper prceneirdi 1 TAir reriiu 'tranitsiron econoiiinies' lacks a tiit- 205 ()P/. cii. 6 . P 6'. .1i the Asian Stuidie-s Associ.itioni ot Auiiritilaa11. 1,0IirMniil1, but is irsed here iii iulirdelll the 2t.C/i -.S.pi. Biennial Colilercirce (994, Viivisririuniiei, %iicLSr stires of the tfirmier So% re Uniionr _27. ( )P. ai. 5. P. 9~. Srtit, and Siiciet) ini Asia: Tire I egicy ofi the I A ruinei ii.i Azerh,i.in., ti ile Repuibliic oi Be- 2h. LiS. L)eparnuttent uf Transpr rtatron, Federal If ss1tiiijt h (riurtiry, ho-ted It) the As a Re- l.r rli, teC R1epuilic lit Esriinii. thie Repril'lie: Highwary .Admiimitisr ion, The 199(0 Nationi- Seair-ll C.eiitre. \lurdiich Uliivcrirsit -1'ei-i-rh of (leorpi, ihe Repuiblicuot Kaz.rkhisr.mi, tIre ii ide P'rsonzal Trapispiortatmini Suirrey: .Srcnrr- Westerin Airsti.il. , AustralIia, ltily I ;-16, Kyrgyz RepirbIlc, the Re. pultlie ot LatI TIa ICth inrary' '4 Travel Trendis (Office oif Hig'hwaiy I '94, P. 2 I. Repiillic it Litlri.iii1.i, rlhu Repirlilic of Mil1- Iiloriii.rIiii Marnagemeneit, Washingtoni, 5.Orgirtisatonir trir E.clnoiiiic Coi-upcratiiit dun., tlte Rilssi.ii Federaitlion, the Reptilii DA_.. 19921, p. 6. iit T,rfikisr,ili. rhe Reptinlrlic of Tirrknietimisrri, .iid D)rselipinuein (O. DEL [ d ntl rIe FliirllLIear Uki,iiiu, otud the Rrpuihlic oif L_]7lsekist.n) 29) U.S. [Departitenrt- of Trinsportation, Federal In herriuc c. ,f .M irisrers iih Tea iii,l in i i liii minrries If Central huroirpe I AI h. . h 5w.r Admin itstrut ion, 7/a,' / 990 Na/inut- [EC NMT, I rbii-~~ C ciiic! .Ind!.Suraini,bnl' DI .e gir i Ii tilvi Icersoiial Tcansportattoni Survey: Trav'e/ ui/elnpiiit (tjE( I) ittd F( NIT. [Liri, I~ iM) PoLnd .R 11.111 id the 51(vk RePI'l,I. Be/an ir issia's In /bc 1 99Os (C)ffice of High- lit. .. .c . 1c ~~~~was Informnation Maniagemetnt, Wasbingtoin, 6. Tue \XAii ci Ba uk. klehari nrt (1 hr ~~17. >',iinic kirliilkoillij. Ait..-( mlnz ve'l /idtin/li D.(:. 19921, P. 1 1. Wo'irld B1r.ik NW.rshiuigirur, D.C., I 9Y56i, u-h,I-/ng (niuntrins. DiSc tission Paper Ni. 7 II Mlichiel Reploigle, "Norr-.liireiried Vehicles P. Vili nreriituiaimi,iil Fuinaice ( olrplir.iiilii The Ini Asi.ii Curies." Wo'irld Barnk Technical Pa- 7. Asi t ji,i and .iic urh id Gautini- i, Ni ortIi-17.i- Wiorld B.ink, W:rsihinigtioii. D.( .. I 99., p 4. pei Nii. 162, Asia Tccii ical D epartrment Se- illlii, hjrit,rriiyatririn. t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ies (The World B.rik. Washin1gt0Tn. D.C., CiiVn,iUrl i 2atio tan Air Pillnutionr.'' dli' I l.lth I .ssiiui). I)irectiir, D)RI/Nic,r.nc-Hlul, 19921, p. xi. cm npaper TIre Woirld Bitnk, WIsh- lilticillTt, 1 994 Ipcr-rlii.il covliitlniiiiciti1iii), LIs iiigtl i, DA. .. I1994;, p IS. citedlii II . I iiii.111, " Aiiri Pri.. itctl c l LIi ici the 31 L15. Hure,rmi ot tIre Census, 1 niyiir)and. Cuti S. M1,1jel 1' Wal \l iiii,r VehIicle PollulitioniRie ii Vital Sixuts I 99i: The Trind/s TfLrt Data Bal..k: 19114 IlS. CGovernictlri lPrinirtng 5. )cieiiell Ai' Whi,re i (Iritical Issuc' tire Art- ' C,pn iir Furtiire Wnirldwsaichi is,ti- Office, Washluiigtir, D.C., I 9941. pp. Decellipuing Cmliitric',," diiSIiisili piper [tiite, Wash'ington, D.C -. I995i: P. 85 6 ii)-X 37. (The World Baiik. Washiunuinult D).C .. 1 I94i. 1)/. 7i., p. 732. up. lit. 5, (1. 2 9. P. 2I I M~~~~~~~~~~~~5. F. Grit wrug., S. O thirri , ruud I. Niall nile. 33. 1)i -t ~p. 42. 9 P i . I . "NiiihiAc w ii PIl ii tile U rb.rn NMo~hilIi 34 Unit ed Stares i U.S.1I Congress, Office o f Tech- It). Flie OE )FCD iiieinbi- counritries ire Aliustr,li,u aiid Nonr-Molori/l-Iru TruiuSport,' ini PrurelC,- tnology A-sesslireir IOTAI, Saving Energy tIn Aus,triai, Belgtirii.i C aunadi, IDenitttrk. Furi- ini,(' 4 Ifs' ' V-I' Seii.ii..r Ii Urbanr Sill/Il- U.. S. TraIisplItat/ln: Summria-ry, OTA-ETI- lan,uii Frainrce, Gcrnsrrity., .cecr. Icelanr d, Ire- its' oil N i- A-I 'nr rizd C ranis/i-ri ut1 iSIli IOTA. Washinrgtonr, D.C.. 19941, p. 6. tutud, Iti) rapan. Liiseiiilouirg, NIr5lcll, the .SiilI-.Sih.rr.i A/u u,. (AlrrcLi Techiuucil I)eparet- 35. lhs. Worldl Resourtces 1996-97 99 Urban Transportation ___ _________ 36. Arithotty. Downs- Stuc k In Traffic-: C pirpzr 61. UiN. EnrtironrinenttIi Protcetiir Agenc,y (LI.S. 0l.irige." TrairSportitti-rr. VOL. 21, No. I With Peak-HI-our Triffic Cr rwifest ir n (The EPA). Natioinal Air Quar.litv and Fmrissir ns I 9) .IS r ir rigs, liit sictittiori, Wa slitngton, D.C.. Trendits Rep' ret, 1 99 iUt*S* EI'A, \Wash ing- 8. 5 re .Ai,I,i ~ iSfiI(sAf- atid rthe Litncoiln InsMtitteof Lind Policy. rrrn, D.C., 1994j, pp. 2. 6, 46, 521. Emip/ursmr'n Rates tint Ir,miciisi f lInner- Cambridge. MazssachLtsorrs, 1 992t, P. 11)I. 62. Comitissisrn if the Etiripeuit t .omniiurtitts. Cit y Rcsi.r'ttsn? i E.irtlh IsI.rrd IrisrtitteC, S;in 37. Ct)/i. et. 5. p. 42. The State of the utv'trriniiiwt It thc Fure- Fritilct ,-er. IDfecmIi 'r I 99 I). P. 9. 38. Littited Natiitios UL.N.). Populatioin Girirth pcan Crinmuntitv: Overircewi' VorI. , ((omi 83~. Op. ,it. .1 I pp. 1) 759 (, 4. .ind Prri icis ilmii lea-Citics: Sin Piutri missioni if tue Eroeriit (.orliitiiiuniitics. 8tr. Robert Fi. NI;is,t eci., / lt nit Iii r., i Feiitple UL.N., New N irk, .199 I., p. Io. Brirsseis. Bfeigiittii. 1 992). p. L)isrtr'rs,Iir,ci.IIri I9i5 .4 39. Peter Hall, -Car Ct :ries Be Sitterinr,rhi0?,- iii 63. U.K. l)eparrttmenit or rlite Fits irroin l it. The S7 1)i, 21, pp. 25 C'3 Thei' Humiian Faircoi the Urban nvii rerit- LIK Fitviriinrrint (UI.K. D)ep.irtroi.ei in irsl r"itor, VIii .edititr ifthi, se, nutdAnlimal Ettim irrinteir, Lorilsii. 1 99)11.i. 88. Lini Thtrrmiiri, 'EFIte 1 rtiispirt,uitirn Sys- gs ,/ u~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tnts ofi I .rtiii Ariivrtc,it Cities: Hirw Titer Worl,ii B,tnk Cr nfer'iiti orn Fill tri onirrI'- 6Ž4. op ii. 7, pp. 20-21 I . . I girt Bot, tee et e, the Needs ol tue Ioorr ir. lti/K .Siistai,airlr Dev'elrpmentii I sn izi Ser- 65. AsifI F.izi, K ttrn.ires Stirh,t .mr id Stirrh id GII- iii ri HitCti img thr Manaemnit,ir tr.t ri Alcitrni tgelditi Michael C irien. and K.C. t "rt'Ate POulittiOIrr Ch,teir.LCteIStic 11rrd IO .tii, rtiriii'isiiI.t Siv,iartiakrtsritn ,tt dis. (The Worirld Banik. Tretnds,"- dlISCLIssi1ri pape tl AiT a Worti B.trk. A cini,ic. LI.rtitotI N:itiiri ( .siitre' Iris Re- \Washitngtorn, tIC.. Septenmber 19-21, 1 994). Washinigrtoni D.(.. 1 994), P.23S. DLiiriI clirrpriettII UNCRD)) ReseCirLit p.i4. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~66. Aliii.rie fii End Chilidhoord Le:rd Prisirtimig Report Seire, Nrr. I W MtN RI), N.igrivi,jit- 41). Mairk [)err, . Beyond EffiCITI Cf." Atlantic .iid F.iiirtinMniit.1l [DenIIse Fuiiid, The part., 19'94i. p. 4 1. AlrrithIv. Viii. 275. Nit. I tj.riiuarv 19945). G,rlobal /)imntti.rtii if/ I.iaj Prrs'lnrii ; Ar it r. i. 4 P. Y0. Initial Airatrsis (Alliancc ito Erni Chtildhoodrt Gi. ian Thoi-riroi, -itp~iriring tl)irrii Firisporie 41. I/rid., P. 9 1. Leaid Porisoninig, Waishinrgtonrr iD.C., 1 994 . Loirs he IPirc.' in tf I'1 RCi lirtu " liJIteCil 42. J.nitt is . Bernsteiti.' "Lridni Use (Iorrsidee.r- p. Ž6. Nttim irr Emrrirniiii t ontrisiritio fur I [n Lionrs iii Urbani Enrvironmenrtal Mlnan:ge- 67. UtS. Agicic Fors Ittiiciamtioniai Dcreilsprmenit Ariner:ic, :rsldi ( rrlcC rise.rrm S:nirt;rigrr Chile. nreiiti, tiUrvirt Mantagemnent Perogeramtte )LU.S.AI[D), "Ciirp.irittg Ftsrrtirirnnir,iil April 19931), P. 14)). I)iscirsstoiit Paper Nio. 1 2 (The Woreld Batiik. Healtiti Risks (it Cairs, Egevpt: Voul. L". deift 91. T. RnsImirgiii ,iidi i. Niurit., I ).rr cs S.i- Warshinigtonr, D.C., 1994t, p. 26. piper )1U.S.AID, Wishintigon, DIC., 1 994). itr ciiiun ti ri lrrli ic 43. The Woirlud Hartk, Worlrd Dirveltopmentf Re- P. III1. Nonr-Nlrrtrir:ed Ti.iirpirit.- Pit Inin poet I 9ii4: In/rast ruiitet'for ee lo)t tpmetnt 6S. t )/. cit. 66. iif ti, .SSA4TI' Seminrtar r ni LUrbani 41 hi/itv )Oxfirdi Ullriveisirs Press, New York. 191)4), 69. htitergrirerirrttnttt.I'Pitel on S :h at, mut Nrni-A\Irrtiizet 3 Iran,refor .Siii-.Siibi- P. 1-4. Chainge, IPCC syinthtsis Ri/prir. Iiiiy 29. aniAl ma/ii (AfricaI Ii.eikilc;l Dl)eprrtiiiit. 44. Ibid.. p. 2 6. l 945, deaft (Wonridi Motentroingic:ii O)rgiiiii Tue \Wmild Bmirk, N:roierli Kelivri. I994), 4 5. (p. c it. 4 ; p. 27. zmitini/tcinited Nationis Envrironmienti Pro p. 4. 46. )p. ca. 23, p. 16. ~ ~~~graninire. tjnevi:i. I1998), p. 2'i. 92 (I/i. it. .5, pp. 13- 14. 46. 1 )(r. cit. 23, p. 16. ~~~~~7(0. t/. .Itt. 7. p,. I19. 93 'etoep Nesiti.it, lPIici LOi li[fIICTIecc LUrbani 47. (ii. if. 2)3, p. 1 6. 7 1. tip. itt. 69) Trari iv Dert.rtidi," p.i per presenIted to ctire Or- 48. (f/. ,it. .5. P. 8ia72.Op it 2,p )6g.mtisitiori toe FCriiiiiiriicI ii. t;sop itirrr xid 49. SIp. itt. 5. .18 tp t.52, p.S266. D(c cli 'pitte iit [1 Ft 1) If Proe,c ( nroip i it I Ir- 50. Op. cit. 4, p. IO. ~ ~~~73. tOp. cit. .52, p. 266. Irn Tre,iel rit is.ii.ilndcninstri 5)1. Cl/i. cit. 4. p. I C ~~~~~~~74. ( p. c it. 7. p. I 9. (((F I). P.r ri, M.i%rI~ 19 2). pp. I19-27. 5 irid' EV,rrrg Tsrun Realitiesg' foe R Ti Optii- 75. OIp. c ii. 5, p. 66. 94. ()J/i. cii. 5, pps. 8 th-9I. rtins. n uthf/i A,gindia f;r .ALhCintIintin 76. "Tratispsri aid tire Enivirionrenir: FaICTS MinI 9.5. Perer Ncismrii itidci Idle Keitis,reirh, (.it (Koga n Pt ge. Losndolr iii, id Sr. Mairtin's Figurres,` "Uniited/ N'atirins ii Fm ,iiinm't P'I-ri Ii',tir am nirctri/t/' 1/riiti c; Art Initerimi Press, Ne"`w oisk, 1 99.3), p. si . griimmii lmiistnrse' tn,/ I-itcivirIniici Vnil. I~ iiitiil/ .Siiii,t'biiiik It riwser Plrihihsiittg 52. ltiterrrirrna tinl Energy Agency. Woe/lt Enrtigy pr.12)Jttir-)ui 93 ...Cntp.tir,Aiiirst,t [K, i98 )it/nik, 1995 )Org,nirisrioiri for Econoimttic 77. N.ririit;l Itistitirre if Urban Affaiirs i NIJA). p ,912 t:o-Olper.tiriii and Developnireiri, Pairis, Uirbani Liii irtn nr'iit,i Mapsi/: Df,'/n, Borni- 96. Riryt ( oi rimirrissii oii Fir irontiic'irt,l Iri1iLti 1 995St, p. 248. liav, VU oaat,ii. ,Abiitti.bad (NILIA, IDelhi. tor,Ii. rtis/iir ..trir/m tbc I mii nmciitiirt (Her 5.3. tIp. itt. 5. p. 6'. ~~~~~~~~~~1994), p. 2.27. Mlijtesty,sStittrierrm Offtice, I onrjillrrr 91))4), 54 ~~~~~~~~~~~~78. Wirrld Heal(th Olsg:iiiz.itirit iWH(Oi, The p 9 54 f/i. at. 5 2, p. 245. IVore/i Healtt/ Re'port 1 i)9 5: /triclyimg the 97. Willii .rit I'. AI1dr ceri i, Pis I, iS8. Km.roi i loiirir. 55. tIp. cit. 52, pp. 2.52-25.1.1 ;GapŽ i WHO t ) c( evio.r I 995), p. I9. imd Fri . n . NIt ILT le. 'U)rIs,ii Formri, [incrg~. 56. p). cLt. Ž2, p. 24.5. 79 At iii ~ i Ros ad uk ii Mw ,irai, tRevic Andc ihe L.iisn nriiiet: A RIttViLW O 1tIssues 57. tIP. , it. .51. of Worird Bank Fxperien,c iii Ririd Safety.- EriciericeA, r111ti P'ni1tev" drIlr paiper t NIsMis- techirisl i piper ihlilrisrriLtUtCp irid1 Urhbri rep Ij1iVrirrit%. Hrrimiiriir, On)irrirrr Cirtdad, 58. \irh rid es U it ees NItinsrrEnvirITITiiei Itot Pr-Deverlopnieiit lDepa rrnerin, The Wiorlid Bairik,) p.I8 w(rh riTe M idi itetlNiitc( (c tsiEns Dev iin ciltprs- Wish ingtoni, D.(,., Mtarch I 992i, p. 4. 98 /.rit. ~, P. 99 nierit Prsogranmme. W0cr/t Rcosri ei' 8)t. TIre Worlrd Batik, ndti,i Teins/-riie ScOu1r: V9i.. Kstir1rg-Hcs.ri Kniit, "t ;iriite,r d ID)silrrp- 19`'2-9 1 )Otlxlrd Untirersite Press, Ness bLing Termt /ssirc' Reopirt Nir. I.3119221iN (in- iititii Aiis1 DI)etslic,itioiir: Seioil, Kirret,- iii 'trick 19~~~~~'( p. 203. t~~~~ra,tsrictiire Oper:itiriii Divrirrir. t ourttrN 1/ni Humii.miii Cue if t Un' Ce/r ut Fntrrr York, I 992), p. 203. ~ ~~~~~~Dep.rrrniorr 1II Vfi Woriid Burt. \8.nslitri- mciit't, /'-ri' iniiiri i f i/rn% iniiiii Arrri./ 59. S. B. S.ivi lie, "ASitointiorie Oiptionis andtt Air ro 1) .t I 19t5), p. is,. Woi,th/ B.tni t riinftii'cii i I run itirimyn QLIaiirV NLitnagemtett Ini Deveosiping Cortmt- IalvSIsa al 8c q mni ,ialSr- triois," U nitedt Nationirs bin l m iniviitit PIr- X . tIp. Itt. 7q. P. I . ti§ Sifii,ia /iriii,Iirt igei.i1ir. MII iClii t rhl-IeI, 111d Ks. g.iitpnii /indiistevI ant Einire,itrin.i. VOrI. 6 8 2. tIp. cit p.5 52. Sis,ivr.riimrakisihr.m. cc'. MTIre W itld lurk, Ni. 1-2 i.tittiary-junte I199.31, p. 32. 83.1 jh I'iiPther, "Mloddal Shiftr iii Ersternr (c(r- W.ishirigtirr, I ).t ., ~,poie hI.') i-, 191141 61 ()up -If 7'. p. 21). rttits: Tpimispitrtaiitio impli,ct if IPilitic,td p. 247. 100 Worldi Resources 1990-97 Urban Transportation I1On. ti)p. cit. 9 p.I Ic Si i t .oureo Clif itr;; (Fliviroii;; ie al 147 T ilp Bolkide, LIUr.;;; Tr.;nsport iii L.igos.' Ill. Ralph G,ikeiielriiier, "Laind LJseFTr.;iispora- I )veteis Feind, Oaikaind. (.l1ri,,I994}, Tbe Urbano Ag:'. Vol. 2. No. I Fjll 199 U. rio1i Planningir: News PosibisA lrrres for Dievelop- P' 2). P. 7 ing and Dcveloped COLn.i;uires. TrirNpor- 120 Doirtld1 C. Slroip aind Rich.ird W. \Willsorr, 148. 1 )p. cit. 5, Pp. 1)4, lo R). ral;; ))i0.r QU rerlvT I-n To Tr.irwpor mi.ir r FoLirn- -1.;iurirritiig. (h;gesrioin .ird PoIllutionT: 149 Op. cit. i, p. 8 7. il. IriIrr. T1 1. irrrsdo],wrrei, V irgo;;;i , Ap ril I~ ; I he Emiplover-Paid Pairking F onictreeilliTi p. 322. Wo¾rkrii;g Paiper No. 1 20 lLni;rersrrv of Cal; 151p i. 3 .I I1)2. lonris R.irhrrro itch. ' Cmirtirlml: Tirs i ird, Sris- f;rnir.r Tr.i; prrpir.iri;r ICenrer, Berkeley. F ali 15 1. ((p. cit. 101, p. 42. t,r11i,;h,le rrlv111 l)tvrel,Iprr;er;.- to;l Irri;iii';rt lorit;.;, 1 992;, p. r. 152. ()p. , it 311, p. xii;. aniui Urb.oriz,utr;;;: Vil. 4, NIl. 2 lOcri/lber 12 1. lbd P. 21 . 153. op. erit. 311, p. '1_. I 99 ) P. Ill;. 122. 1 ip. cr1. 6, P. I I. ISA4. )p. c it. 10. p. 42. 11)3. 1)o1 'ig~l.i s, Lee, "FriI I IN PFrl L IrIg o.f Trra Ti I121. Mui. I 1irne Brirk and II. C h risri;pher Zegrais, I 5,5. NfIl; irel A lepi;e. "Bicycles I(vert.;ike BLit pomraroni rN4.rir;irr.l Trimirpo;rir.rr i; Svs- Alor'irg Ti;r:.ir; I;rtegralcl Tt.inrpi;rt Plair- TraiVLI rir FLI-I;.ia"' The Ut!;,;; Age. VoII. 2, er/iis F en cre. C'.S. Dep;rt ireir I;1 Tira/p/It- II/rg:E ;'v,F rr;hIrltaui oiltv/ No. I i~ F,; 11 I 993), p. I 6. lrI;I;., M111iilo dge', Nl,1rss,;clrrserr, .\,ir-eh Fui; Asin; litves llinierrrtilrI.rl lsIr'iirt lIltr 156 Op~. cil. 9 Up. 1 . 19 il 1) P I . Ellrrt:g ( o;;serv,;;illo;, Wad;i,h rogIn. D.C., 10)4 LUrired Siaes( F'.S.;) Il//igress. Ollice ill 1 99 P1. p 9. 157. Op. cil. S. pp. 11)9-I I;. TedlimI/l/gy .A,Sess;neTtr . Sriy E egv it 124 rI. i. I. p. I I5S. tiP. iur. 9. p. III) (U11erS rier T m p,rraj.nirir OlfT e \\'.rslrrrIgii;r, 1 25 (/. it. 121. 159. ToddL Lirnmnr . D)ireili(r, Vi,ro; 1, Trar,prsIti G .,erninent Printing Offi,e, W.i,hiiigton, ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~Poh1k) hirsirtirre, Vierimti, Brirsli F .olumirrrr, D)3 .. I p.c 11. 1. I21i. I . ; 91, P)( _.,idi,i: 1 999 iper-IIri.1 LinIn uiiiir iri/rili. IllS. Todd Litrinrin, T;i;nsImi-itali;i; (."Ic .41/aINSIS 1 27. ) P. i/t. /, P. I 9. 160. Olfice III TediiiIil/gv AlIsse,siiv1i rOTAN, iVictor;, Tr.rriplri Pol/io/; 11isiRtt, Iico- 128. 11p. it. 6. P. 20. .Saririg Fncrr,,v In .5 Tt.nIp,;rtll m;: .Sion;- ra. Brrirsh ( Ilrt;a,Car1.d.;. I999i. 129 (1/. iti. 1 21', p. 68. marv IOTA, WavrirngionI D. tC., l 994r, p. I(( (1/_ t.IO;. or 11 PPN 91 -'6f 130 lIp. /if. 6, Talble A-;,, p. .93. 26. I107 o/p. i. i, p). I 9 8. I I1 (4. ;it.9I.~ pp. 13.114. 161 a 111eS J. MacI Kenczie. The Kevs 1i ltk :Car: Fie, It;i anl HIr V;IFIVeIiIli; lv /,re (lie 2 1st 1118. 1 ip. crt. 6, Pp. 8-9. 112 Op. ,if. 9. p. I (7. C( nt/lar (Word Re-lirtieN lnNtiiiute. W.ish- 1011 Iirenrvairroi.,il CIltnsei ion Lo-il Fl/m i//i- I )lp. ori. 6, p. I7 rngiIIi, DF.C.. 1994;, P. 24. iineuir.i lui;ri.irrs vs I LE]I, "I iriirriirg AM/I- il/Ill/iL Llis Thrr;irgli hlrregr-;ed Trxiripor- 134. nlorry R,bihi ir)ichlind JIll/i Hoehir. "A SLit- I162. 0Pn, lit. 92. p. I 12. tItil/ri leririri NIirreirrt tii;r 4i.rr.l;e tIrh,ii I r.ii prsp iitt oiti Systemn: the 163 Op. it. 92. p). 284. Sirigipoere. as tmm ,id iN i. r1 R p bi c of Surface NMetro In Cuiirit.iN, Brac il." Work- tl /.il 2 .II SIllIl/Irt;;,- ,ir.d,r 191191 No 1-9.IFf iirig Pa ie r Ni/. 19 (II pipar lireit rf A gricrl - 169. Aplioh . i 21)p11/ 41) ei;;iiIec)ce Toionto, ( 111.1.1, I 99i) pp. rurl] EIlir/117Irrrs, Nilrcrlgatl St,ite Urniversir;, 16 lo-lI 1 o4 ecn ioeetcei Ill). (i/. / it. 9. P. I I . Fas,t I..irisng. \lichigi.L~ll 1995;, It. I. th.in gasI/line dlepeniding o1; 'shether It IN III I )p. It. i. p. I IXS. 11.9 MolIraillred Nisar a;;d At.i NI. Klrai, "Train- ulsed Ill p/ri I/Itti orI/F Ii;. ini;in-rc withg.s- I 12 PiI.jr P~ezoi;, -Teepe.ije, L1 (trin FlIrNi/dlr,- s/rw,;': Ar; hlnt)Vr,iIitol Iii PUblic TrxirspIrt.i- liuel rILlI LhitllNiTitel tof grit/ ii; eticicrcyk L.i Nrc;;, NINircht 14, 1~99,. Sarii;;ill/ ITE /;;;;,al )hirst-tiire oII Tr.rsplr- UtIile;. P. Friglileers. Walhnigigon. l).( . Jill1) 1992~, 166. Op.er. 9 2, P. 113 . I13.. MIetropoIlutiin Tr.;rrspI;r.rn i;rr oIirnitissi;;n pp. 191.167. MIILhJiel I'. Wris,h. tslmoii Velrrile P1111;;- ( NIT( 1. Br Bridge I JmigeNrioIr PrrLrrIg l136..Asil Fi-irel ai .. "AiItoIriri ive A\ir PoIlItrilo;;: t;rio I oilrlrIl: Ai; Iricre.IisliVr~ F riticil 1ssirt DemttIritritilIii Prr;i;vci r \1T( , ),kl,Iid, Is ies ird Opt/its~ Ilt Developing C ouisi- lIlt D)evel0IIp l/g (IILuriiies,- disc ~ioisiIm C.difi;ririi, I.nnryii. 1991)5. tries," Worksing P.iper No. 492 ililfr.isruc- per (TIre WIrldl Baink. W,islriigti;;i ID1. 1 14. lIp. /it. 9. P. I I ). nirte ilid Urthan D evtlopmnent D)ep.;rtrrent. I1994 . I 15 le.in Air A,non Group, ~~The WIrltd Ba)nk, \Vashiirgion, D.C. Aui- 68. (Op. cit. I12t)/ 94. t1hLe.; AR,w T;,ilip Gril;f In H .it.iiti'ti5tilsAIf g`s; I )910). p. 43. 169. (if;. c If. 1 61, p. 2. a,ick igq Wcst;ri Capiitail 11cit' I nti I 41- (17 (p1/; it. 6, p. 14. 1701. Eleciri, Tr.iripi;rt.iiii; I irlirioi. -( .ilifiir- b,izat/.ithi, .I rohI Kiss, ed. iT.; leTt;;; I 38 (ip. i;t. I 2 1, p. 71 nmi Air Res;;irces B1o,1 rd Priop- ist ni, I Si FoLidiri0drtIt, Birilipest, HILiig.ity. iLiI; 1I9921, 119t. OP. If. 4. pvnd ZEV Ntird,iteN uintil 213111 indrit t Pp. 84-85. 14)). lip, err. 6. p. 3 11. mnsi[ii :r .1 F( .Il/Big 7' Teikhrll;gi IDevelopi II 6. Dry d Tlhrr1rhr, Li,lllIgic.rl1y Sristrrri.rhlv Triteri Pu crh mets;;;,i rtti IF, ditl rfl tri;rr Lie; CII);rirrri inl lie T.r;isp;rt SeIIt.~~141. (if. ,itt. 6. p. 921. lK,irer I .1ILlih.iri, Feiiutlee DiirecnIor, Fkecuric );dt;litrit iind F;iii-rto;;miict. Vl;. I16, N(. (41 (1p. /it. 4.1. p. 98. trotN aind \lembrers. \W.iNhringtiIr, DA. ., lDe- 1-2 Iiri.111iMri-JuryI 199II, P. Il7. 144. joil/i R.bi;iiivitch, Seniri; oIllih-irtnt. eiburie 22, 199i. P. I. I1I. Lee Selhipper ct at.. ..l:;l Prices, AntoniorI- Iliriuect N.utrons Deselo/pflen/ ProgrrIrMMe, 17 1. ( ip. iii. ili, P. i I. Nlile Fuiel F,onIiiriv, rird FuLC list lilt I lind New Y/Irk, 1q995IesIr. cii/ it n -iiri- 172. Op. err. in, p. .31.1 Trreel.,I Pu-errrinjr% I-nichdngN f(turn L,iliilIter. tiolilI. 1 73. ((p. lit. I 16,, P. 6 3. ri/ti-lnal I iIitp.iilIi," di.if; p.1(NeF l_iii%er- 145. StephnRvir IlI, P. Chrristopher Zeur.rs, andii 174 Sujarri Ro,iy;; I/lw//rd AI)ird.il;le aird Fir- ,itv oII F ,rrl;i,r,i. D,;rs C l/fol/ it;.;, 1 994). HeTnr, \I,llbran Rol.is, "TttiN- lIpttitionl Ond viroiri ntiei./l11V SiiLrrld IUthin Frm;ispiirr Niii- P -. 1-urergy iii San; .igi;. F In / It. Tt.ois~~ ~~ ~~~Pit P/Lgeni/en): The F :r ye of Jia art.;. d r.i t p.1per I IX8. TIre WI/tll B.i irk, IS/)it/i [ct Rli/i/i/ wvIt, Vo;l. I. No;. 4 11I994m. p. 2139. presented at thec hirermir.It irl Svimpi-sirirl pw//t I 'i92: I)v;r;// i c// i/ri lIt tl; Fni;irni;- 146 Unirted Nairri.n Ceiirtr lor H-uirmilr Setile- i/n Sustj,iri,ille I thKin Div%cllIpr iirtt tratir- mll/ (Tlire W(irld i nkur. \W sirhrgtiin, D.(.., i/nil/i Ki air,u I, Ptirasr; isiop / Tit,n i';/ i5 ges iii ihe 2sW F enloiry: UlIm;.; Tr.isNIIFrt I 1 PP.1 24-I 25~. .Spa,i fi / I!Urban P:;b;!; Ti/ i/s/itt.. rit Dlilt; ;nrs rthe NlotIlriZedI'/e/r ,. ici Ulnetd N.itrioni I 1i) Nincha.el F,urn;tr/Ir bl, Lf/1re;ti',inid F,liN;ess ilpN/g ( i;li/trtic Ribi-,l it,. Nai/roid . Kerrv,i, Fente lir Regiiiril Devell/pirreTIt, S.;g.11111- ii;1/Il Isisi-0; St;ia;ci;s /1FITrSI,tIiF le f I1991). P. 81 li;a i Ir , frr 4-8, I '194), p. - Wor/ti Resoutrces 1996-97 101 Urban Transportation 175. Michael Walsh. Consiilrant, Virgiinia, Jl11! a nd l(:LEI Sirtt Visim I[ QLie-ill Cuif, Phillip- iv, w(.iikiiig pilier (Universitr ii (r IhIfor- 1995 (personial communicatioiil. piies i El TI. riiTiro, Felbriia ry I99Si, nlii lr;miiipori.iritiTi c nirer. ierk,lIe ( alItiir- 176. Christiipher S. Weaver, Asif FEiz. arindM- Nniv. ii Nia> 19'), p. chaiel Walsh, "Emission Cointrol Measures 178. (Ip. ot. I 76, p. 38. IN. i . ( c. I for In-Lse Vehicles," disCussiLiS i paJper iThe 179. I r h-NI: hir:a.l LI id Chrio'phicr S. Wc,uier, World Bank Washington. D).(C., Sepremii ler A1-h1irv v/ Fiiiissi-?'Si wii/e/ oil bim- 1 Iiiiiiri.1.iii RI i l iiiii i l. li, iiUi Ni-sirs: 19941. pp. 28-30. sirii mtro iti T1 /i r1 3,lie 5 rld Id lik. Nlo r tiz d 1 h Ivirolillit N, : WJs1riTigriiii. D). :., 1 994M) . 1. I-Ani IlIrt-riiiiiriiii1 C.ciiip.iaiii Sruiilr oth 177. internatioiial CoiLincil for Local Envsiroi- diii, -liigk(u. N.ugiy;i.. a.i iiru igl ll(ikik nen ill Initiasives (ICIEI). M.aniuail ii 1The I8(1. IMid.. p. 2. MA-Iom r c i/ t(h S, n ....Sc u,i biir irz'. I/Vi. Oper.atuirald (Guidieltes fur it1 Iiiiptl'iiiil.eit- MXI. - Martiin Wais. 1 e.irmiiiig Ircrn I.- Ainge- 46, No. I N.nco.i I niversity, N.ig-.1. In- tiom of OPLAN Cleain Air Metric Naiiila Its: Tirinspirri, I.Irlmn iinn, and Air QL.l1- I' 1, Octoc icr 1994). p. .8 102 World Resouirces 1996-97 5. Urban Priorities for Action M ) _any of the enviroiinienital problems shared and actions taken by a host of actors, including outlined in the previous0chapters-and nationial govermnents, local governments, nongovern- their impacts on health, ecosystems, niental organlizations (NGOs), communlities, the private and econiomic produictivity- result sector, internationial donors, and otier exterial support from political and econlomiiic factors agencies. FuLture urban environmenital management rather than from the process of urbanizationi itself i,. shol1.d place a high prioritv on strengtheiiing the insti- lntermitrenir or inadequate water supplies, for exalilple, tutionlail capacity of local adminiistrators to develop and are rarely due to true freshwater shortages; more often, mlaintain these partinerships theyv canl he attributed to misguided priorities, inappro- Second, in the face of growiig responsibilities and priate pricing, or poor managemieint. Urban sprawl is liiilited funds, Cities mu1LISt make strategic choices about driven less by the need for more urban land and more which problenis to tackle fi-st. Setting priorities by by zoning regulations, land speculation. aiid political a a * ~~~~~~~~~a,,ess ng thlt scale of Impact and the cost as well as the i nterests. 'e.ase of the sol ution is an importanit component of good Even with strong political will, improving the n- mianagemient. (See Box 5.1.) Here again, local groups agement of urban environinleiital pro(blemis is far froii shiouLld be involved in identifying the key problemns amid easv. Goveriinmenits face a host of factors that hinider ttheir causcs, as well as the capabilities of the coiuLnity their ahbility to respond to Urb)an ctiviroliiiieiital prolh- thei ablit toresondto ubanenvronentl pob- to address the problems di. Urban managers wxill also lems. In the developed aid developling world alike, local need reliable and recenlt data on environmgental londi- government mandates are expanding, adding new tasks tiois Mos t data onr environm ental condit such as Industrial pollution control to the traditional responsibilities of water and sanitation provision. Often comes from a few lare cities-Mexico City Sao Paulo these mandatres halve not been matched w ith appropriate Jaakarra, New York, and Bomnbay-yet these cities rep- control over revenues and budget allocations. In addi- resent only a fraction of the urban areas worldwide tion, many governiiments lack the rechnical knowledge At the same time attention must be given to cost- or the staff to adequately enforce environmental regu- effective techinologies, greater econlomic efficiency, and lations. The relentless pace of Urban growthi in many CiSt recovery (;). Chargilng the full cost of water produc- cities exacerbates these problems, far outstripping the tioin and supply, for insrtance, cani be a powerful incen- capacity of governments to manage and responid to tive for coniservation, just as charging the full Cost of demands for infrastructure and urbaii services, driving can be. (See Chapter 4, 'Urbamn Transporta- Yet the picture is not all bleak. Many ininovative and tion.") In aiddition, improvinv strarcgics rO 1 x sLl)sidizeCd pubhlic ageIcics-Will niot worik in the iinprove coverage. Indeed, the prograills greatest developiig world. The lt1illberof people tiilscivedCisffar ach ievenielit, by s(some cotlits, ma v1 have b eenl tIl;' trii- too great, and city coffers far too snlall, to provide all formliationl iitll tiiik ingthat accompanp;lied it - 5s, residenits with piped water and fluslh toilets ii their Broadly, foLir key lessons emiergedi fromii the DCecIdC: houses. WhIereas SolilC parts of a city, suell as thc urbran first, svsrcilis shouild respoild to local dienialids nlltd core, may be covered byv colnvenltioinal sewerage, other Shold le ailS simlple. sturdy, and linexpensive as possilre; areas, particularly low-iiicnoili setteilleits oii the urlail secolid, the involvvement of th coil illninitv a ild hIiLse- periphery, wNould be T ticlI better served by lower-cost holds-particullarly wionen-iii systein desitgn aind alternatives 1 2. milailteilance is a Crucial collpollellt to a project s sue- Evideilce of the suIccess of low-cost solIitrolis cain rtc cess; tlitrd, govcrni merits need to iiniprove tIle efficiencv fou nd in cities art-u0iid the wi Orld, froi n large-scale pro- and sustai na ilivt of systemn operation and mnailite- granis for pour-fluisll latrines or veiltihated ilproved pit W'orlhi Rcsoiros 1')996-97 105 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.2 Forging a Combined Approach to Urban Pollution Control Cities have a wide array of tools at some coastal urban waters with poor means of achieving pollution control their disposal to tackle environmental circulation from pollution damage and targets. Economic instriments tend to problems. Regulatory tools, such as le- may be too strict for other better- be underutilized and are particularly gal restrictions on the quantity of pollut- flushed waters, resulting in expensive promising for developing cities that can ants a factory can discharge or overcontrol (3). Giving local govern- least afford high regularory costs (6i. minimum air and water quality stand- ments the authority to set their own en- Pollution taxes, which are levied on ards, have been particularly effective in vironmental standards can have the basis of the quantity of pollutants curbing pollution in the developed positive benefits (4A. In Osaka, Japan, en- released, provide a direct financial disin- world. Their effectiveness relies on vironmental standards for air, water, centive for excessive pollution. They good monitoring and enforcement capa- soil pollution, noise, and vibration are can be especiallv useful where govern- bilities-capabilities that are in their in- in some cases stricter than national ment budgets for environmental pro- fancy in many of the developing nations standards IS). grams are limited-a situation that where urban growth pressures and pol- Economic instruments can also be descre lmoities-because the p lution problems are greatest m (2). powerful tools for modifying behavior, descnbes most cites-because thev pro- Making the regulatory approach more often at less cost than regulatorv instru- vide a revenue source that can be effective and affordable in developing ments. Thus, making use of economic tapped to fund enforcement efforts (7). cities will require a more flexible ap- instruments such as effluent taxes, While pollution taxes are in fairly com- proach in setting such regulations, tak- sewer fees, and tradable discharge or mon use today even in developing coun- ing into account local pollutant loads, emission permits can help cities lessen tries, rhey are often set too low to have the characteristics of nearby water bod- the rigidity and expense of the regula- the desired effect (5) (9). Furthermiore, ies and air basins, and the community's tory, or command-and-control, ap- these instruments rely on strict monitor- water and air quality goals. In manv proach. These market-based strategies ing and enforcement to be effective, just cases, policies are set by national gov- do not specify the use of any particular as traditional regulatory approaches do, ernments and do not reflect local needs. pollution control technology; rather, so they are not a shortcut to pollution For instance, water quality standards they give polliters the flexibility and in- control. In fact, they are more likelv to may not be strict enough to protect centive to find the most cost-efficient work hand-in-hand with traditional latrines to commiiunity groups implementing small-bore that transports liquid wastes in smnall-diameter pipes sewer schemes. Each solution is unique, tailored to local was installed at one third the cost of a conventional conditions and needs, hut most rely on locally manufac- system. The system has been operating successfully for tured hardware (e.g., plumbing, sanitarv sheds, or con- more than 10 vears (I (i. crete caps for pit latrines) and the efforts of communitv Condominial sewers have also proved to be a cost- members to install, maintain, and manage the systems effective alternative, anid versions have been installed in 11). Systems using lower-level standard technologies can low-income neighborhoods in northeast Brazil, Paki- be effective and mucih less expensive, at only one tenth stan, and Yemen i -). Condominial sewers use a radically to one twentieth of the cost of a conventional sewage different layout, with smaller and shallower feeder sew- system. Most of the lowest-cost systenis requLire far less ers running from toilet to toilet through each backyard. water, and once they are installed can be upgraded The wastewater of an entire block discharges into the gradually (14). main trunk line at a single point rather than having to One of the greatest barriers to installing low-cost connect each house to the main trulik. (See Figure 5.2.) alternatives is political opposition to what is considered The Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Pakisran, illus- "low technology." In many developing countries, there trates the successes possible with low-cost sanitation s still a tendency oni the part of governments and alternatives. The community adopted a sewage system funding agencies to insist on standards that are higher that filters biosolids into a tank and therefore uses than necessary, sometimes doubling the cost of service smaller pipes and flatter gradients in the streets. The delivery (I5). In Cartagena, Colombia, for example, system cost one tenth of what it would have cost to officials proposed a conventional sewage system even install conventional sewerage. Most of the funds were though a high water table, impermeable soils, and land invested by the commuinity; evenl now the tanks and levels well below the city sewer mains caused pipes to sewers are paid for and managed by groups of house- sink and necessitated pumping wastewater uphill to city holds. The municipality is responsible only for the sewer mains. Once local officials were persuaded that construction and maintenance of the main trunk drains the lower standards of technology were not "illegal," a (15x (19). (See Chapter 6, "City and Community: Toward svstem that uses a septic tank to remove biosolids and Einvironmental Stistainability.") 106 World Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action command-and-control approaches programs seem to have achieved some ment (The World Baink. \Vashingtoit, o1 (I 1. success so far ( 12). D.C., 1992), p. 13. Izlmir, Turkev, provides an example of Few rools available to citvy managers .. Griniiar Eskelatid ond Eininaniiel Jiittetiez, a comlrbined approalch ro pollution con- will work without insritutional ability Ctltitig Pollutiti l eveloptg ( iii- trol using both effluenr standards and to enforce the regulations, or without rries, Fotwee and Developmwent, Vol. 28, an economic instrument-a sewer the staff to collect fees and taxes i *n4i. X* Ci)rer Bra1diNo I rir d Raine9sh Ra i ppki iiry charge. In attempting to address indus- Towaran Environtl Strategy or trial pollution. national effluent stand- References and Notes AsTia, orld Ban k DFsiiiissitota P.tper Nt o ards were adapted to local conditions I . Robert Adler, Rean1rhorizing rhe (lean 224 (The World Bank, Washingtoni. D.( and set out in a miunicipal ordinance. Wonej Aci: Looking to Tangihle V.IlLues," 1993), 6. The 17mir WVater anti Sewerage Autilor- Water Re,oiurc(s Bulletin. Vol. 3(, No,. i 9 (p it 7 (1994), p. 8(13. itv was cliarged with oniotiroring and 1i. Op. LII. 2. pp. 10-26. h ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~ a 2 i s I } ). Beriisreli ii .Ait' r.i ti, e Ap)pro)ac l(tis policing the ordinance, and, through tIm P)Blistto i Cntroil Allrntr Apsu Marnage- I 1. Wkilli.in Tkuohy, Neglecr of Market limen- threats of factOlr cl osLures and timnes, tent, Urban N1lna cenvien atid the Fin)- riVss ii Local Eimiroti ntet r.il Plantin) hg: A has proirtpted a number of larger indus- r(iiiiiieilr, Reporr No. 3 (Thle World Bank, Cise Snitdy iit thie Nationdl Estuary Pro- tries to buili pretreatment facilities for Walltoptn.V , D.C., 1993, pp i-s. grmii, (:Coastal Manaig(ement. Vol. 22 their wastes. The nituticipailitv also as- 3. ()p. cit. 2. 1994), pp. 82-83. sesses a sewer charge based on the vol- 4. Brendi Barrett. hinegrated Environ- 12. Jatt D. Bernstein. ;Alteritative Al- 4. Bred.in arret. "Iitegraed Eniron-proache, to PIilLiition Cotntrol and Waste unie of incdustri al w astes Lliscliarged ntaeit.tl N lariagemietit-Experieiice iii J.a- Mant.igemtentr: Regularorv a it1 Fnd iEccoitni into the sewer svstem. the idea being to p:iin." Journal ,/ F.nt'trionmental InstrUiTitletis," Urhati Malt.igeinttir Pro- motivate indlustries to treat their efflu- Man.utaen,i tt, Vol. 40. No. 1 i jan ary grainine Discussion Paper Nit. 3 (The ents theniselves to the poiitt that they 1994i, p. 20. Woirld Bink, Washitigion. D. ., 199 3), cart be disiharged to surface waters . I),,., p. 21. pp 0-34. rather than dumped into the sewer sys- 6. The World Bin,. Wiorl/d Developmient Re- I ()p *it. 8. P. p5. tem. Although in their infanc, rthese pinrt 19 902: DBechpnitut ,ul tt hen Lc irroui- 14. (p. it. 7. Low-cost svstems are not foolproof, however. Mtost corr-esponidinigly increased williigigess to pa y for a sys- rely oin the active participation of comiinimillitv nieniihers tem and help maintaini it 2 in miaintaininig the pipes. W\ ile this reduces the LtI1itV's In ChinaWuia, an informal settleneint in Guatemala opreratiiig costs, if the coriiLillity anid organizational City;, Guatenala I o. coim tiniits niemilhers asketi thic 1ii1- aspects are ilissling, tIle technology will wtork poorly (2it. nicipal water enterprise to install a single-source water tailik, CVC1 though Such units are typicill' used only involyVing the Conuininity temporarily. The coimniiiliity helieved that this was thc hest solution to its water supplv needs, and each famrily (.onimuiimty ilvt)lvenilent ill water aild salnitatIon proj- 111 ilt its oWIn pipe to the central soLurce. The local ects is key to their success. Not olilly Mliust coolniunities be tanght how to maintainl aid operate systems, they cnniuiiity aissnciatioi receives ti e large bill fromi the - ~~water Cormpany,ailid one resitdent chosell by tile C011illu- alsto ilitst ihe coilsitlted to determine what ty pe of system nity tm nalges the hilling and the collection of fees from best st Sits local coil itions. WAomiel, tile nilajor LiserS Of eac Ilisehoid While the tost of the single-soiirt' a systeml, can pioieVaiLiabfle iidvice abouLt the desigon iciloieild hl h otO tl ilI-oic a ssstems ean pr-ovidle vililialile atSvlte alrolit tile dCsigl] xlwater tank per famililv is more than for fanmilies directly atd nlianagenlent of a water and salitationi systeili. conneced to the cit's water suppiy network it is stili Failure to involve the Colllluillity Can lead to inefficient far iess than what they had been paying for water from systems. Ill Nicaragla, for example, new latriiies were priviate vendors. This ssteni is heinlg replicateti in othler l dil sed by wvnmen bcaus he feet ld esettlements in Guateniala (24). outside. tlelvilg them tile Cistomary privacvy Cl In contrast, when woomen are taught to mainitain lan- Improving Operation and Maintenandce pumps or other-wise allnlage collective water systems, they ofte n p erforml hetter trlail menl hecause they are less National and interilational agencies have placed far too likely to illigrate, more accustowned to voiuLitarV work, mu ch emphasis oil the conisrrtlctioll of new facilities at atid tian he bettertrUstetl to a(lillilister fuliids 2). Iinvolv- the expense of improvinlg operation and iiaititetia nce o1 ing colililiiiil ities has other beilefits as well, such as existing installatiolns ,i, In Mexico City, for example, greater commullllity acceptatice of a new systein and 5)) percent (7 out of 14) of the wastewater plants are Wom-bt Rcsource's I9)9_9 7 107 Urban Priorities for Action Figure 5.2 Conventional Versus Reductionis i'l tliiaccoLiilited-for water can allow in- vestmenits in new works to be deferred or at least Condominial Wastewater Collection reduiced in scope, withi sigiificanit savings. In additiol, Systems by improvinig the systemi of inercr readinig and billing or by detectling anld charginig for illegal coniniections, reve- Conventional System Condominial System nLue can be greatly increased to pay for water treatment I _ I an d distribution as well as operat ioni and maintenance. I I I-or examiple, in Urban areas in Thailand in the 1980s, |i| eachi 1( percenit of ulna1ccounited-for water saved WaS _Iestimated to immediately genieriate an additional $X lii I mllio per yea r fromi the 3.5 imilllion people served mi. I I Cost Recot'ery _ I With better cosr recoVel-r Ltirlities in developilng conLI- I I tries could imipr-ove the qualitv and availability of water, potenltialliy eveI in low-illcollme a reas. Water supply i _ ! I rprojecrs require huge capital investimients, yet cities are faced witlh decreases in funLLs for urban water supply Lpurposes and burgeoning urban PoPln latioIs. In devel- opi ng coUiltries, coIIsL11melrs paly oilV abouLt 35 percenit of the costs of supplyinlg witer, according to a recenit - Main sewer t Backyard toilet analvsis of World Baik-financed projects r vt Recover- - - - Street sewer Plot ing a greater percentage of these costs could provide cty Hlousesewer ma nagers with funds to expanid coverage in nlew areas Source: The World Bank, World Development Report 1992: Develop- or to maintain and improve existing facilities. ment and the Environment (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1992), p. 107. Drinking water, however, IS a basic human neeL 3nd sufficienit water tor good hygiene is a rerequnisite of public health. With these conisiderationis in mind, gov- operated at less thani their designed flow capacity aiid erilments have historicallv subsidized the cost of water. treat only about 7 percent of the cirv's total wastewater Unfortunately, these subsidies rarely reaclh the urban 256 2'- Thegenerallv poor performance ofpLIublic water poor; ilstead, thev most often benefit the better-off and sewage utilities in developling couiltries leaves a in- consuimiiers witlh houLse conllnections. In many caises, the ple room for improvement and is a ma jor factor coti- poor are actuially paying more than their wealthier tributin g to the highi cost of these services i2ŽS. couniterparts for less reliable service. Water from1 veii- Iln mialy cities, about half of the water that is treated dors costs substantially more (and miav be of poorer and distributed at public expcise is not accounlted for. quality) than piped water in the same areas. Indeed, the In Manila, Philipp[ines, for instaice, .58 percent of water poor may pay as much as .30 percent of their incoine for is ulIaccouLited for, as opposed to 8 percenit in Singai- water, wille the well-to-do pay less than 2 percent i pore. For Latin Amilerica as a whole, sucI water losses Evidence exists that poor urban residents wanit and cost between $1 billion and $1.5 bilion in forgone are willing to Pay for on-plot-if nti ln-houIse-water revenue each year (2')). supplies Of reasonable reliability. Unlike some other As muclh as oneI half of the watCr not accouLnted for environimenital amenlities that benefit the public at large, is due to unlrecorded usage or illegal taps. For example, it is the individual househ oldl that receives most of the in Caracas, VenezIela, approximately 30 percent of benefits of piped water. The pr-evailing assumption is water connections are not registered [wm. ReduCing sucih that houscholds are wvilling to pay ahout 3 to 5 percent losses is clheape- than reducing leakages, providcd the of their inconie for access ro clean water, yet actual utility has a sufficient inliliber of rrained staff. Ma or studies reveal that somle are willinig to pa' considerably strategies inctide installing, prom1ptlv serviciig, and more, some less N ;4)) . recalibrating meters; updatinig anid revievWing conIsumIer The I 980s saw a widespread comilillitment to adopt- records to estimate consuimptioni w-hen meiters are nlo- ing imiore cost-recoverv programs, especially amoong do- serviceable; and streamliniing biureauicratic procedures nor organizations. Yet most cities still do not achieve to assist -~~~~~~~~~~~flI ot eovr I l aer SuIPPloprtnsadetit to assist customners to make niewt legal coninectiois. full cost recovery in wiatt 108 WurId RcseoiiceS 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action concerns remain. There is n(o guarantee, for example, ure will provide metered industries with incenitive to that a financially motivated utility will invest the addi- conserve water 41. In Sao Paulo, Brazil, the imnposition tional funds in low-inicome neighborhoods rather thani of effluent charges induiced reduictionis in Water deilianid high-income suburbs. Furtlierimiore, the debate concerin- betweeni 42 and 62 percentr at three industrial plants r42). ing how miuch to charge and to whom and whethier- A study in Beijbing showed that a combination of water supply tariffs should cover only operation and strategies could reduIce industrial waterconIsumllption by maintenance costs or should also generate resources for about one third, at a cost substantially less than that of fututre investment is far from ovelr investinig in new supplies. The measures included in- creased recycliig of cooling water in nanfaicrturing; Promoting Water Conservation recyclinig of cooling water in power plants; and waste- water recvcling. Slimiiai-lv abouit I 5 lierceiit of domiestic For most cities, extendilig water supply coverage to waerreycing Siila aboutIS n eren conisumption could be saved thirouigh meaiSureS Such as current residents is challenge enotigi. Yet cities arc also improved efficiecy in public facilities, a leakage redic- facing pressures to expand thieir municipal water sutp- tion program, recycling (f cooling water used in air piles; demand for municipal water- could grow by a conditioning and installation (I water-efficient flush factor of five or mnore over the next foiir decades (in oC. Many cities already face criticall water shortages and t(Iilets (4 I high costs of stipplv. The usual response is to increase supplies through Reducing Water Pollution expensive investmenits in niew public infrastructure. Yet Byv reduciln water pollution, cities canl rcap thle doLIble evidence suggests that cities can also maniage the de- bernefit of effectively increasing the Water supply while manid for water by reducilg wasteful Lise (througih lessening the deterioration of the aquatic enivironiiiient. pricing and conservation efforts) and by preventing As the "'pollution shadow" spreads, cities must go pollution. A comprehensive strategy wotild include im- fLurther- afield to find ctlean wlter, wlich significanitlv pr(Iving the operatrionl and(3 maintenanve of wvater- supply1s increases the costs of waitet supply. Shanghai, China, for systems, removing subzsidies and price distor-tionis that inistaice, nioved its water intrakes 40 kilomieters Lip- encourage waste and public edDcaltinii ; Demiand streami at a cost of $300 nilllion beCaLuse of the deglal- management is a particullarly attractive optionI forcities datioi (f river water quality around the city (44 4S* in the developed world, where per capitai water coin- OfallthellItitalts.irbiisewagenay betheworst suniptiotn is manv times thit in the developinig w(Irl(. offender in near-urban ii wterS, Although induStrial poI- Recvcling, especially (f industrial wastewater, is ali- Itants caii be a ii;a jr sltirce In addition, up to ha If other attractive strategy, providinig companies witli a (If the coaminantsoreachin ura aters cI] from cost-effective and reliable soiirce of water aind at the on on rcm,n uct s urbaCrInlff ( CIIllI fii nonpoint sources, suich as Urb;an rLHofft (Controliling same time protectinlg the enivironmiienit cP(M. Lurb an runoff, although difficult, is essential if cities are In Boston, inipendinig costs of supplying water to the t i to mitigalte their iniipacts On neark. water brodies. city led officials to implement a Long Range Water Preventing pIllLtion Ii the first place may be the best Supply Program (LRWSP) to cur down Oii water use. longte-remsoltirion. onie StUI In Santiaigo Chile, foun dL Between 1 988 and 1993, LRWSP reduced the average dailv demand for water from 1.2 million to 0.9 million a bout $78 mill ast water theae nd hea Iri aDLItr $78 1111111011 annultally, tle ecoiioiiilc andt li.;Ath CUbiC m-eters i;)ty The program foctised on detecting andg ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~ b enefits resulrtin froil PAILMton preveiirloii couldt LItS- repairing leaks, metering, retrofitting showerheads and tifv this inlvestmenit (4(.). (Sec Box ; 5.3.) toilets with niore efficient techlinologi'es, protectiiig water sources fromii pollution, and building stipport for Urb S the program among city residents througIl outreach and education. These reductions eliminiated the need to de- In cities of the developling world, only a fraction of velop new supplies-saving huLndcreds of millions of urban sewage is treated, eveii in cities in middle-incomne dollars-and the water system is operating withlin its Counlies. Bluenos Aires, Argentina, for iistLince, treats safe vield for the first timie in 20 years (4M). only 2 percent of its wastewatcr 47,. The costs of In developing countries, several cities have been im- collecrinig and rreating urban sewage-typically, about plemeniting demand managemnent programis. In Mexico $1,500 per householdl for collecrioll and primiary treat- City for instance, the walter utility imiplemiiented a new nienir-are prohibitive for many developing countries rate structure that charges more per Cubic meter as Costs are highier still to mzeet the additional treatment connsumptioni levels increase. It is h1oped that this nicas- req iuir-ements of miost developed couilit-ies 145. \Worlh Resousrces 199/-9 109 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.3 Costs and Benefits of Water and Air Pollution Controls in Santiago The metropolitan region of Santiago, In response to the cholera outbreak, Bv their nature, however, these imeas- Chile, must cope with significant air Chilean authorities inmposed a series of ures relv on the cooperation of farimers and water pollution problens. But do emergency measures: a han on vegeta- anlld the public, as well as the political the economic costs of pollution merit hles grown with wasrewater irrigation will to conrinue monitoring, enrforce- large investments in pollution controls? and restrictions on selling irrigated vege- ment. and outreach. Already, public A recenr analvsis bv the Worldl Bank tables and fruits outsi(le of Santiago; vigilance and( inspections have lapsed as found significant benefits from invest- stepped-up water quality molitoriing; the thrcat of cholera fades from mumz- meo ts in both water and air pollition chlorination of irrigation wvater in en- ory. Recognizing that the only long- controls i1I nals; a public information cam paign term and guaranteed solution is Sanitation services in Sanriago are about the risks of eating raw vegeta- wastewater treatment, the World Bank bles; and a ban on serving raw' vegeta- conducted a cost-beiefit analvsis to de- vvell developeui-mioSt urban houise- bles nl restauranrs ~termline to what extent investm)ent in holds have access to potable water and bles in restaurants. a These measures helped control thc full wastewater treatment is justified on adlleqted wastewatera g i-but thdeq sal o cholera outbreak and significantly re- rhe basis of public health considerations. collected vvastewater is inadequiate. Ex- duced the incidence of typhoid andL The World Batik studv found that full cept for a smnall pilor planr thait treairs hepatitis. Tvphoid cases, which avcr- wastewater treatment would cost about about 4 percent of the city's wvastewater, aged over 3 , 500 per year fromn 1 98 to S78 miillion annually. However, annual mosr sewage is duinped unltreated into 1990, dropped to under 500 in 199 1; beniefits couild range from onie third to opell watercourses. hepatitis cases diropped to 1,430 cases almost all of the cost of treatm ent, with Contaminated surface water has been in 1992, from more than 4,000 per year the wide range resulting front differetit used to irrigate about 1 30,000 hectares before. Fronm 1985 to 1991, 45 to 70 assumptions about the probability of a of farmiland, including about 7.000 hec- percent of all typhoid cases in Santiago cholera epidemic occurring under cur- tares used to grow vegetables for raw v were attributable to weastewater irriga- remit conditions. These numbers greatrl consumption, resulting in high rates of tion; in 1992 only tvo cases-less than understate the true benefits, because typhoid, hepatitis, and a 1991 outbreak I percent of all cases-were traced to they do not include the health costs of of cholera in Chile. wastewater irrigation. other gastroenteric discases such as Eveni in the United Stires, wherc ma jot itivestimlelits thlt inay be especiiallv imivportant in areas wltere saltwia- in sewers and treatment plants have already been mnade, ter i11tltrtisSIO illtO COa Stal aIuifer-S has becomiC a probI tciii the costs for com7pleting anid rehabilitating the existiltg because of overdrafting of local groulndwatel- supplics infrastrrLcture are calculated at $108 billion, and this 5si, Sm n. does not reflect the full costs of remiovini nutrients froim In Kochlice, Poland, a dutckweed pond is being used the effluent streami 149). In the United Kiingdomi, the cost to treat wastewater fromi 3,000 residents, at a cost far of iiifristtlctrl-e tieeded to mneet the new European lower than that of a new wiastewater treatilienit plant. water quality standards is esritiiated at $60 billion over The duckweed pond processes the wasrewater, resulting the next decade, or about $ 1,)(00 pe) r residenit 'ino. in water qLuality at the otutlet that is higher than Polishi Lower-cost treatiient options are clearly needed. surface water standar ds reqluire. Additionally, the These options should have sonie capabilitv to reniove biomiass produced is halrvested rwice a veaLr and used as nutrienits as well as accomn plishi more trad itional treat- feed for livestock sis. In Caluctral 1ndia, 680,000 e( bic nienit goals. Alternatives ratige froui mtioderui miarine meters of wastewiter is discharged tailly into 12 2,000 outfalls that tratisport sewage into deep waters to the hectares of nearlby wetlainds. The wetlands are used for use of new low--mainitetiance equipiTment suchi as fine fish produCtion, anid the treated water is reCtsed for screetis and special biological filters. New approacihes irrigation. The E. coli counrt of the water etiteritig the to natural treatment sVstells suich as sedillentatioll wetlanuds is about 10) million organisms per milliliter, ponds and artificial wetlainds with nutrient-scrubbirtg whereas the treated dfflueIlt has atl l. (c(/i Coulint of 113 plants are promisilig for cities where sufficietit land is to 1)() per nilliliter I 9i still available (ii) (s ] 54, Iniiovyative technmologies alone will not suffice, how- Another promiilsinig approach involves the reuse of ever. Especially in the developing world, hel-e is a miunicipal wastewater. Biosolids caii be separated outr, critical need to develop the institutioIal CaplaCity to comliposted, and reused as fertilizer, for iisttlice, while plati, finance, and efficienitiv operaite and miaintain coni- the treated effluenit can be useLd to irrigate landscaping ventional wastewater treatmemit sysktnis. For niany cit- or crops or to feed aquaculture ponds. EffluIent can also ies, the volunime of waste is too large, and the purification he used to rechlia-ge grLoundwate-r supplies, all approach capability of wetlands roo sunall, to relv solely on these 110 World Resources 1996-97. Urban Priorities for Action hepatitis and diarrhea, the amenity val- mated that a 1-metric-ton reduction in the benefits of the control strategy ues of improved coastal water quality, PM-10 emissions would yield health would outweigh costs by a factor of 1.7 the impact on fish and shellfish produc- benefits more than 10 times those result- and that investing $50 million to $100 tion, or the value of water-use rights for ing from similar reductions in all other million in pollution controls would he Santiago's treated effluents. Nor does pollutants combined. cost-effective. Because these estimates the study consider the impact of futmre Out of a short list of pollution reduc- are considered conservative, it is likely outbreaks of cholera or typhoid on the tion measures, the World Bank study se- that substantially larger investments growth of fruit exports or on tourism. lected four as part of a control strategy: would also be cost-effective. For exam- Santiago suffers from significant emis- emissions standards for light-duty gaso- ple, the health valiation accotints oniv sions of particulates (e.g., PM-10, or line vehicles; a requirement that new for lost productivitv and treatment particles less than 10 microns in diame- trucks be equipped with diesel engines costs, while the estimate of health ef- ter), sulfur oxides (SO.), nitrogen ox- meeting 1991 U.S. emissions standards; fects considers only acute effects and ides (NO.), volatile organic compounds the use of compressed natural gas for not cumulative and long-term effects. (VOCs), and carbon monoxide (CO). buses in place of diesel engines; and the Vehicles account for about 85 percent conversion of wood-burning industrial of NO. emissions, 69 percent of VOCs, sources to distillate fuel. The studv then References and Notes and 94 percent of CO. Vehicles, indus- developed a dispersion model to simu- 1. Box is based on The World Bank Eniviron- trial boilers, and residential wood-burn- late the strategy's impact on air quality, ment and Urban Developmenit Division. ing all contribute to emissions of particularlv in heavilv populated and Chile-Managing Env'iroinmental Prob- particulates (in addition to street dust, a highly polluted areas The study also lemns: Ecouiom,izc Analysis of Selected Is- sizable component that was not fullv as- used a model to estimate the improve- sties, Report No. 1306 -CH (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1994). pp. viii, sessed in the study). Industrial boilers ments in public health resulting from x-xi 39-41, 50-59, 83-8 5, 96-98. account for more than half of SO. emis- the air quality improvements; a valu- sions, with vehicles accounting for an- ation of health benefits in terms of other one fourth. Particulates are by far fewer lost work-davs; and a cost-benefit the most serious pollutant. It is esti- comparison. The study concluded that methods of treatment. In addition, where wastewater cilitate pollutant monitoring as well as the recycling of also contains industrial wastes, new threats emerge industrial wastewater, which reduces industrial water from the bioaccuinulation of heavy metals and other demand and the volume of wastewater discharged. chemicals in fish and crops. Industrial Effluents PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: SOLID WASTE Cities are using a variety of regulatory and economic MANAGEMENT instruments to reduce industrial water pollution. Efflu- ent charge systems, for example, impose fees on induis- The growing volume of waste spawned bv the consump- tion inherent in citv life is a formidable challenge to trial facilities according to the quantity or qualitv of cities in developing and developed countries alike. For pollutants discharged. These svstems are often more low-income cities, the malin solid waste probleiii is how economical than regulatorv mechaniisms to induce firms l tto extend collection services to the poor-often 50 to reduce pollution loads {(o6. The Netherlands has an percent of the population Is without service. Improving effective water pollution charge svstem that provides a e n i * r ~~~~efficiency In these cities is key, because waste manage- strong incentive for industries to) reduce pollution. From ment often accounts for 30 to 50 percent of operational 1969 to 1980, it is estimated that 50 to 70 percenit of budgets, vet collects onlv 50 to 80 percent of the refuse the pollution reductioni in 14 indtistrial sectors was due generated (62) (6I). In middle-income anid high-income to effluent charges (61). cities, collection often reaches 95 to 100 percent of the Where possible, cities should encourage the separa- population, but disposing of ever greater quantities of tion of industrial wastewaters from domestic wastewa- waste emerges as the kev challenge t64) (6). ter streams. Separate treatmenit of industrial wastes-or The traditional approach to solid waste manage- pretreatment before they are discharged to sewers-re- ment-that municipal governments handle all aspects moves heavy metals anid other toxics so that thev do not of collection, transport, and disposal-has been at best contaminate domestic biosolids and wastewater that a mixed success in both developed and developing will be recycled. Separation and pretreatment also fa- countries. The search for more efficient and economical World Resouirces 1 996-97 111 Urban Priorities for Action solid waste collection programs has taken cities in sev- allowing for the production of cheaper goods from eral directions, most notably toward new partnerships recycled materials, and creating mLich-needed jobs (6-). with communities or the private sector and toward new Wastepickers are often highly organized and can types of economic policy instrumenits, such as recycling accounit for a large share of waste collection. In Indone- credits (payment to a recycler), landfill disposal levies sian cities, estimates suggest that wastepickers redtice (taxes at the landfill site designed to reduce the amount total urbani refuse bv one third (6X8. In Bangalore, India, of waste being landfilled), and product charges (a pack- street and dump pickers gather an estimated 500 metric aging tax to discourage overpackaging). tons of post-consumer wastes daily, compared with only 37 metric tons gathered bv municipal workers (691. Informal Waste Collection In addition, many businesses depend on regular sup- In the developing world, the municipal system hanidles plies of waste materials from the wastepickers. In Dar only a minor fraction of the wastes generated in a city. es Salaam, Tanzania, one study found that small-scale In manv cities, especiallv in Asia, more wastes are dealt industries received 50 to 65 percent of their raw mate- with by, a vast netwvork of urbian wastepickers 166. These rials from wastepickers workinig landfill sites (70). The wastepickers provide clear environmental and economic finished products ranged from buckets to kerosene benefits to the city: saving resources throuigh recyclinig cookers. More generally, steel, paper, and glass produc- raw materials, reducing the costs of waste disposal, ers in developing countries are heavily dependent on recycled material inputs. Yet in most cases, wastepicking is driven by abject poverty. Eor many, the only access to many of the resources thev need for housing, clothing, fuel, and _* _ work comes from the waste materials of the more _ -S affluent (71:. Socially ostracized, wastepickers-many of whwom are women and children-usually work in squalid, Linhealthful conditionis for long hours and low returns (7)). With the increasling recognition of the value of infor- mal waste collection to urban functioning, efforts are lnow Linder way in a nuLimher of cities to integrate these activities into the formal urban economy and to mini- mize the health and safety risks of waste collection for those whose livelihood depends on it. Manv of these efforts are driveni by NGOs or communlity-baised or- Iganizations and face the organizational and financial difficulties commoil to voluntary efforts. As a result, few projects have led to citywide programs, and many have 1not survived even on a small scale (73) (74). However, some efforts have shown a measure of success. In Belo Horizonte, Brazil, and Bandung, Indo- _nesia, for example, wastepickers are being organized in,to "unions or "cooperatives" (S! (76) (77(. Coopera- tives can improve the efficiency of collection by pooling finanicial resources (e.g., by using community loans to upgrade collection equipment) and by giving wastepick- ers a greater political voice. Unions can appeal to the municipality to allow them access to recvclables within the citv and the city's dump sites. In a few cities, these _ groups take on social roles as well, lobbying for im- Meager living. At Manila s Srnov Moolntait, a child sorts proved sanitationl facilities and schools. through gatage fof ltens to recycle. For many poor families. In Madras, India, one organization worked witlh wastopcking is an-Portant soirce of income.t blut much needs scavengers to integrate tlhem into the city's door-to-door waste collection service (78 79. Wa stepickers collect 112 World Re'sources 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action wasres froml households anid either deliver them to city (si). In Kuala Lumpur, the city provides detailed mulnicipal vehicles or deposit themi at transfer polits, gLuidance to bidders, including estimiates of the daily Wvith households paiiiig a fee for this service. In other alount of garbage to he picked up and rhe likely cities, the collectors cani trade the rccvclaibles for extra number of workers needed. The city also makes certaiii incomen, anid the oruanics cani be takell for small-scale that eachi conitractor's offer is sufficient to ensure satis- coinpostlig. II still others, wastepickers have been factory service and a profit for the contractor, but it given picks, gloves, and boots to provide protectionl reserves the right to terminiate conitracts at any time from ctits and exposiure to pathogenls jStl. However, should sert ice be unsatistactorr vs. wasrcpieking remainis a hazardous occupation. Reducing Waste Generation New Partnerships and the Private Sector In developed countries, the volume of municipal waste Opportunities exist to imiiprove the efficienCVy of inLu nici- generated far exceeds that in developing Countries, and pal solid waste collection services. Given the limited the costs of disposal are becoming increasingly burden- financial aind adicniistrarive resol rCes of local govern- some for strapped city' budgets. Mzlany cities are trying melits in developing countries. there is a grear deall of to find liew ways to provide incenltives for residenlrs to specLilationi about whletilhe privatization. whicll hals gen- red uce waste generation and increase recycling. Variable erillv worked well in Northi Amierica aiidl EuLrope, call garbage caii rates or pay-per-bagsystems have been verv bIe adapted to poore r cities si,. Solid waste collectionl effective in reducinig solid waste genierationi at minimal sert ices by the private sector are from )20 to 48 perceent cost to the city. In P'erkasie, Perinnsvyallia, for examiple, less costly thanl public services and cani be a great the introductioni of per-bag fees led to reduIctiols ill thc improvemiienit in terimis of efficienicy and quallity (s). volumni of solid wvaste by morc than .50 perceint; the cost However, privatizatioin should not be consider-ed a of solid waste disposal fell by 30 to 40 percent (8-. panlacea. private comiipaniies m.ayv only be inter-ested in Otther cities are fostering businesses vith inilovativc servicing high-incomIe areas of the city whiere service recyclinig projects. In Berkeley, Califoriail, a company charges ca n be higher and wlher e the vailue of reclaimied calleid Urban Ore conibs the city's trash for prodUcts anid or recycled miaterials is higlher. In addition, WithouIt a materials it can cleall up or repair an d theni sell. In proper regulatory stricttire and comiipetition, private Chicago, anothier coimpani' repairs car tires or reproc- companies mayI not have incenitives to provide the best esses theliml into products ranging froIml snowtvbowcr services or to dispose of wvastes according to environi- blades to conveyor rollers (SN). mental reguilatiolis. Paying more for garbage disposal or intensifying The ideall arrangement may be a mix of public amid recyclling efforts is onlv' a small portion of wivat needs priva re services-that is, contracting OIit the collectioni to be done, however. Reducitig the armount of waste of solid waste insmOmeziizones of thecity' whilee retaining genieralted will require fulidamilenital clianiges in lbow public ser-vice to the remininiiig zonies (SX). This systenii countries value and use IresoUrces 59* cani make city operaitionls iiioire cost-effective while still allowing the city the ability to take over solid w*aste collectioii if a private colitrtlctor fails. In the United PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: AIR POLLUTION States, the cirt of Phoenilx is div decl iiltO zones foi solid waste collection. The city's department of public works For healrh, ciivironimilenital, and economilic reasons, retainis jurisdiction over two zones and coinpetes with strategies to reduec air pollutioii are critical in niani privilte companies for 7_-ye.ar coiiltracts to service the cities of the developed and, especially, the developing other zones. The contract is awarded to the lowest world. Ambient air pollItioll einaiates from three ma- bidder; so far the city has woii about half of the ConI- jor sources-ener-gy g,enerarion, industrv, and transpor- tracts. After a decade of coimpetitive bidding, the citv tation-all iof which teiid to iiicrease with economiic estimated that cost savings amiounted to $11 million, groiwth. Strategies to cope w'ith automiobile-related ailr and cost avoidance ( fromii lower costs of contracts woii pollution, wvliich constitutes the fastest growilig c(illpo- back by the city' amounted to $9 million (I4). nelnt of urban air problems, are discussed. in Chapter 4, Similar arrangements liave also been successful in LI Urban Transportation. developing couLItry cities. Seoul, Republic of Korea; At the most hasic level, addressing urban air prob- K llaa Ipur Malilasil; and Bangkok, 1'1hilaaid, for lems reqUires ali understanding of the air basin in which ex linple. all maintain soImle forili of public solid waste the cit' is situated and the pollutioi sontrces that affect collectionl service whille privatizing soIlme parts of the it. Fortninig or participatiiig in an air basinii management Wmrld Resources I ')"%- 113 Urban Priorities for Action district or other regional regulatorv body is often the and funigi, and the release of gases from conlstruiction best way for cities to develop this uliderstanilding and to materials an d furinishililgs such as rugs and uphiolstery. coordiniate basinwide efforts to conitrol pollution, in- Several strategies are available to address indoor cluding the drafting and enforceielint of ambnient air pollution in higher-inicome settlings. Smokling indoors qualitv standards. (See Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on and in public places cain be discouraged through public Natural Resoul-ces.") Developing a local air monitoring informationi campaigns alertinIg residents to the dangers capability is essential to both policymiiaking and enforce- of secondhand sinoke. To miiinize combustion prod- ment efforts. In Bombay, for example, citywide air ucts indoors, city enviroiinmenital iianlagers can establish monitoring since 1969 has provided an exteinsive data- programiis to check hiomc heaters and stoves to ensure base that is used to assess both daily air quality and proper ventling andl mainitenanice. Local ordinaiices can regional pollution trends i4111. he enacted to restrict the use of asbestos ilisLilationi and In many cities in the developing world, however, the fireproofling iii new conlstruction. And building codes most critical health threat stems from exposiure to in- can direct attention to the provision of adequ.ate venti- door air pollution. ReduIcing thils thireat requires a dif- latio,l pa rt-ilarlv in new comercial b uildi gs with ferent set of strategies. closed-loop heating and cooling sstems Addressing Indoor Air Pollution Reducing Energy Sector Emissions For many city residents, air polluitioni fronii ildoor Cutting emissions froin the energy sector, particularly smnoke, usually from bioma1ss fuels, poses a greater coal- or oil-fired power planits, is critical to controlling health risk than outdoor air prollution. (See Chapter 2. otdoor dil p011.tioIn ianY urban areas Uifoi-tu- "Urban Einvironiiienr andtl Humllanl Health.") The opti- nately, many of the factors deterniniiing energy sector mal strategy to reduce the exposuIr-e of lower-incomiie pollItionI-suLch as the price of energy, the siting of residents to indoor ailr pollutanits is to facilitite their state-(iwiled powerplants thelevelofinvestillentin new switch from dirt fuLCIs, for example, by providing clean- technologie oralternativeenergysources andthepri- vatization (if local Litilities to imip rove their capitalization burning gas or by establishinig programs to ma;ke kero- a manageent-ar freently determed at a n sene~ ~ ~ ~~~~~L stvsmr fodheHoee o ilypo lnd iiiiinagilglleitr-ilre frequetlyrl (ieteriiiiied] at a nzi- senie stoves miore affordable. Hlowever, for- maniy p(otr tional or state level. Nonetheless, cities often have con- residenits of areas without access to city services, this transition to higher-priced fuels will not be possible for over the energy consumption patternils of city residenits. some time. For this population, the most promlisinig Redlucilg pollution froml coal- aid oil-fired power interim measures are the distributioll of improved cook- can coic via three routes: upgrading the gener- stoves plants te fostering of iiiproved h Lse desgi rheigpla stoves and the fostering (if improved house design with ating efficiencv and pollutioni-conitrol capabilities of the better venitila t](1 betterveilas to desion, aii(i disseilnate cleaner-bUrning plants themliselves so that they enilt fewer pollutants; Programs tom design and disseminate cleanler-butirninilg cleaninig tup fuels, either by cleaning the coal before stoves halve been under wVay for many ylears in countries rburning or by switching to cleaner-burning natural gas; such as China, India, Kenva, and Nepal. However, most or reducing the demand for power through energy stove programis are designed to improve efficieicy, not coniservation. (See Promotilng Einergy Conservation, be- reduce air pollution. Oine of the miost successful urban low.) Attentioni to proper operation and maintemiance stove projects has been the Kenya Ceramic Jiko iiiitia- proceduires is required in any ciase to keep the perform- tive. More than (500,000 stoves have been distributed ance of power planlts frtoni declining over time-an since the mid-I 980s. The stove is a modificationi of the acute proble in iImanV tdevelopinlg countries. traditional stove that carn be built locally froml easily These same strategies of retrofitting with new tech- accessible materials and thalt burns charcoal more effl- miology and cleaning up or switchlilng fueLIs call also be clently ( )u. Despite the program's apparent success, applied at the building or individual household level to penetrationi of this new stove was liimited to middle-class cut eiiergy-relared emissions withliln neighborhoods. Re- neighborhoods in Nairobi. In additiomm, ensuring the placinig or installing pollution control devices on aging quality of the new stoves has been difficult, coal-fired boilers in commercial an(d residenitial build- In higher-incoine residences and coimnimercial build- ings in templerate zone cities can iicr-ease efficienicy and inigs, in both developing and developed coulitries, in- decrease pollutants; coIlIvetilng them to gas can reduce door pollutaiilts are more likely to comiie froml cigarette their i iipaict on local air problemis still more, smoking, ulivented or imiiproperly vented stoves or heat- In cities where coial is used to fire individual Coal ers, airborne conltaiimianits such as asbestos or miolds stoves, as in mani (ih inese and Eiasterin European cities, 114 W`orhl Resuutrces 199t6-r Urban Priorities for Action upgrading the quiality of coal used for such heating can leaks in the steam heating systems in residential build- bring immnediate and significanit air quality beiiefits to ings can translate into reduced enlergy use 9i) (96). For neiglhhorlioods. For exa iI pIC, usC of Coal bri- cities in developing coiiiitries, reducing eniergy con- quettes-foritied froml pulverized, washed coal-can sLimption may not be a top priority, yet in rapidly imiprove combustion efficiency in home heaters by 20 growing cities whier-e new constructi)n is high, the to 30 percent and reduce carbLon monoxide emissions potential for cutting future energy needs through effi- by 70 percent and particuIlate emissions by 60 perceit. cielncy standards in building codes is large 19/). Building Addinig a sulfur absorbent to briquettes casi cut sulfur in eniergy efficiency dtiriiig initial construction is al most dioxide emissiois by about hlalf. Again, where possible, always less costly than retrofitting, and the energy colivertilng residenitial heating to gas provides further saved-and the power- plant emiissions prevented-can pollution relief. Recognizilig this, but comiiiiitted to be substantial. usling its huge coal reserves, Chinla is building several coal gasificationi plants to provide gas for urban resideni- Encouraging Pollution Prevention tial Luse ,)2E,.aig olto Peeto Onc of the most promising tacks to reducilIg industrial Promoting Energy Conservation emissions is to preVent pollution in the first place. PPollution prevention foctises on desigining cleaner pro- While energy policies are generally consider-ed to be the diuCrioin processes and material handlinig procedures. responsibility of national goverments, cities are inI a Tlis approach follows a natLural hierarchy of industrial position to help lower energy consumption. Cities can use several tools in their quest to lower energy demand, the first being a vigorous pulblic edducation carmpaign on the need for and benefits of energy coniservam ion and the options available to residential and comiminerciial energy _ users. Sucih options inclide the uise of niotre efficienlt V appliances and lighting fixtures, and, in coolerclinmates, the installation of weatherstripping and insulationr. The Urban (O Reduction Project, sponsored bv the International C(ouncil for Local Environmental Initia- tives, is a network of 14 cities that are workilig together to develop local strategies to reduIce energ) conisuinp- tion and carbon dioxide emissioins. The goal of the project is to show that emissioni reductionis are possible without harming the city's economlilc productivity. A preliminary study in the city of Toronto showed that the city could reduce per capit a emissions of cearrbon dioxide by 33 percent at net econ(omic savings even without consideriig the additional benefits of local job creation and the stimulation of new manufactu ring industries ;,w);. Policies adopted by the 1 4 cities ranige fromii economic instruments to regulations to broader strategies such as lauid use planning and improving publiC transportation. --. To achieve its target of 2.5 percent emissioin reductions, Hanover, Germany, has proposed the followVing meas- ures (among othiers): sWitChing fuels for electricity gui- a eration, retrofitting municipal buildings, strengthening energy perforniaiice staiidirds in the building codes for -z new buildings, modifvlig land use patterns, aind in- proving waste management. Copenhagen, Deiniimark, hias proposed a local energy tax anid utility rate reforimi Smokestacks. Algit i/iti5ii /iii 1 'iiCii7j i iiiis lo isiti to red uce eniergy ' co01S II1ptltl (I4i '4n. amient air p/olltioin iwd gcpini ohoore warn tig Clites can pI/uy .i The Urbanii CO, Reduiction Project shiows that simiple ona ic 11/ leini lii hitl? om IgIv ,(iitSiiiitii ii il iiid,istriu/ technical fixes sucLh as insulating pipes and repairing pinl/ioi'.! Winld Resiaurtcs 1 ')'-97 115 Urban Priorities for Action waste managemenit optiois. First, reduce pollutalIts at used to improve the urban environimienit by directing the source as much as possible. Secondl, recycle or reuse urban growth in certain ways. as mIuch as possible of the pollutanits or wastes that are Translating potential inito policY and theni into reality produced despite these efforts. Third, treat, detoxify, or has proved difficuilt, however. In part, the problemii lies destroyv what remains. And fourth, only as a last resort with defining the ideal urban form \. While high-densitv release pollutants to the surrounding enivironnienit (9Q). ciries can reduce the need for transportation, and The cenitral rationale for this approach is econiomic: therelby problems of energy conlsumptionI and po0llotion, prevenitinig poillutioni at the souirce both reduces polI1- witiloLit aidequaLte infrastrIcturc they may facilitiate the tion control costs aind increases the efficiency of prodLIc- transimiission of commun111Lllicablc diselses and increase tion, because fewer materials are lost as waste, congestion iit) r(U U. In contiast, low-denisity cities are Preventing pollutionl can also be a powerful mairketing land intenisive but may provide other amlienities sucIh as and public relations tool in areas wvhere environmental openi space. W\ithi,. a citv, a denlse cilister of induistries awareness has increiased and environmental heilth coni- may be especially hazardous if located near a residential ceins havei made their way onto urban ageiidas. neiglhborhood or a coastal estuary; ere dispersiig them Cities can be importanit catalysts and partiners in throughout the city coilid increase the need for trans- pollution prevention, mostly by helping to educate both portation and mia hinider pollution control efforts (1041. the private sector and the public about the advantages Even more vexing has been the relative failuire of of cleanier malnlfILctUring. Developling and helping to governmienits to successfulIly guide urban form, cveni administer information clearinghloLIses that offer details with detailed master plans a nd regulatory systcilis. Land on alternative technologies and their successfol applica- Use planning is notoroiously difficuir. In mosr ciries, tion in other industries are primne means of facilitating governments and/or private landowtners are unwilling a change to cleaner industrial processes. City govern- to rcliniqtish conitrol of land becaJuse it provides a source menits can foster a stronger environmental ethic aniong of Cash incomile and p)oliicall p Ivet lu.1 ( I0, r1117). Fuir- local industries by conductling public "greeni perforilm- thernmore, tlhere are no "decisiolliakcrs" deciding on auice" ratings of manufacturing facilities, by encour-ag- the shapes of cities; city forml is detcrmined by thc ing industrial maniagers to pt blicly coiniinit to inter-action of coontless dccisiolIS b individuals, house- pollutioni-reductioni targets, and by offering awzards for hol(s, and businesses on the one hald, and a variety of exem plarv environinentaIi performanice. government Interveitions designedl to infleiience or con- C ities cal enlist the support of the public through trol those decisions on the other rimxn. Regulatory tools education campaigns rhar mnake clear the uliseeni costs cani have unintended impacts. In the United Staltes, of pollution and that encourage consumers to "buy millilnimul plot sizes, initially intenided to preveint urban green." Enacting public disclosure laws that force local expansion, have achieved just the opposite by requiriLng industries to reveal their annual pollutioni emissions caan eachi house to occupy its own large lot r In cities ill also prod local firms to improve their environnienital developing countries, zoninig and reguIlationls have the records, lest they acquire a reptitation for being insci- ullintenided effect of purttilg the landl out of the finallcial sitive to local citizenis and rhe environimient. Such diselo- reach of the majority of residetrs. suire laws hlave been quite effective in altering corporate (Governinemit interveintioii in inland mar-kets is noniethe- bIehavior in some developed conlitries. Eni-couraging less warrante(d to mieet the land needs of the urban poor local nonigoverinimienital organizationis to act as watch- and to protect land on wvhicih settleenCilt would have dogs for industrial pollution pirobiems has also proved irreparable environi imentaiil ConseqLuenIces, suLIC as water effective in many instances t49!.l i()oL catchnienit areas I ino. This sectioni explores how land usc planniinig can improve urban cnvirotinmeniral qlualiry. Prescrliptionis for better urban land uise are not the same PRIORITIES FOR ACTION: LAND USE for all cities. In cities in developing couLnriles, land Use issues musr still focus on imprIoving access to serviced Underlving virtually all urban environmental problems urban land for the poor, for it is at this level that the is the issue of land use, from the lack of affordable greatest toll on the enivironimient and hlimanL health is hotising, to coligestioni and pollution from motor vehi- heing taken. How cities chioose to allocate and dlirect cles, to iniel cities mar-red by abandoned buildings. this land, however, cani have al im1pact on future envi- lndeed, urban form anid lanid use patterins withill a city ronnmental condcitions. In developed counItries, lanId use are critical determinants of environmental quality at.li issues should focus on reducing resolt-Ce con1sumIpFtion Tlhis coninection implies that land USe planoning coutild be and improving the qu ality of urbaln life. 116 World Resowirccs I996-97 Urban Priorities for Action Land for Housing Figure 5.3 Squatter Housing as a In niailv parts of the world, one of the iiamil was in Percent of Total Housing Stock, which the poor have obtained access to lanid has been Selected Cities, 1990 through Informial settlemienit, particularlv of fringe areas and hazardoLIs land. The squatter settleinents of the Dares Salaam, _ - urban poor are a Consistelnt feature of developinlg coun- Tanzania _ _ __ trv citics-from] New [)elhi, Indlia, to Caracas, Venezuela i Ii. (See FigLire S.3.) This process of land acquisitionl Pakistan __r an(d shelter provisioni is often illegal, hut in iani v cases it is the onlv optionl because goverinimienits are unable to Varazas,a Venezuela- provide suLffiCielli serviced lanid for housing. PubilIC housinIg projects fall far short of demiianid and oftenl New Delhi, benefit miilddlle-class rather- than poor households i I India __ As described in Chhapter- i, Cities andic the E.nvironl- Tunis, - ment," informnal settlemienits are rarelv serviced by water Tunisia | ___ or sanitation facilities or basic garba,c collection. As Rio de Janeiro, long as land rights remiaill lncleat; goveriniimenits will be Brazil u llwing to service these areas, even thoughi in many 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 cases these settlemienits are so large that the governilmen t (percent of total housing stock) has no intenitioni of dismantling thei. Antl as long as residents face the threat (f eviction. they will be unwill- Source: The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and The World Bank, Housing Indicators Program, Vol. 11: Indicator iug to nivest In theil ioliws (I I Tables (Habitat and The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993). Traiditionail policy responises hiave been to regard tlhis Note: Squatter housing is defined as the percent of the total housing lack (of infr astructure as the responisibrility (of public stock in an urban area that is currently occupying land illegally. works departments. A land-based strategy however, suggests that a mior-e effective way to improve the envi- owners and installs pulic infrastructure and then re- roiilineital conditions in these settlenients is to graint tains pairt of the land for pLubl1ic use (either for housing legal land tenure, either- in the formi of outright transfer for the poor or to sell to finance the cost of the infra- of land owinershilp to tenants or throughi long-terim struCtuire). The remiainiing land is returiled to its originial leases and residential righits. Experience has shown that owners, whio inow owni a smaller portionI of land but at with securitr of tenutire, the poor- Will build and inivest to a higher valuie I I I. improve the quality of their owni housilng (114) (II l In OuagadougouL, Burkinia Faso, for example, the govern- Protecting Land Resources itelit adjuISted tile lan(d allocation pr(ocess in an effort to Curb Lirhali spralwl and Iiit thc growthi of illegal settle- Usling land use tools to guide the siting of housing and ilieilts. Not onlyZ didl the numiber of legalized lots in- inidustrv away fromii environnieitalilv sensitive areas cant crease draniatical ly (60,00() plots of land betweeni 1 984 greatly iilprove cnvirollieiltal Luality icn ities. This is anld 1989), the regulIarization of land title ledl to the critical, for examiple, at the fringes of coastal I urban mobilizatioi( of local citizens aild resources in sLIpport areas, where developmenit cai resLilt In rapid deteriora- of other- public services such as wvater supplies anid tion of the nearby coastal eiivirolilileit as Untr-ated scliools Il i i. As urban land beconles imore scarce, Ilow- Wastes, erosloil, and (iilcontrollecd access to biological ever, it will become progressively iiorte difficuilt for the resourtces take their toll i I 1ig. poor to obtain land and housing in this mailiinier 1 17. Zoiiing, building codes, perillits, and ecoilonlic in- In additioIn to grantinig land tenure, several other strUlillents sucI as taxes an( fces are coninioii tools uised redistributionn mechailisnis have been tried to allocate by governi-nents to protect fragile areas and to preveilt serviced land to the urban poor, i(lICIldiilg land sharing, the titiiiecessary coniversion of ruLral land to urliall uses. land banking, aild land readLjustimient. Few of these These tools can be used to control idenisities, to separate efforts have been successfiil. Land read'Ustilient (also land uses, and to directly protect natural areas (1i)1. In klnowin as land conisolidatioin or land pooling) has been Costa Rica, for exanille. urban developmenit is re- soiewvhat effective in Taiwan, the Republic of Korea, stricted in a 200-nieter-wide marine aild terrestrial 7011C Japan, Colomiia, andl India. The gover-milileit (or ot(let along the coastltiie (121 i. Econoinic instrulients sLich as public authority) pools land from mainy private land- taxes oni vacatit land caii encourage owiners of land ripe Wo-rld Resources I 996-97 117 Urban Priorities for Action Ca racas, for examilple, 67 percent of the land area oc- cupied clby barrios is UlnSlit- able for houISing1 bcCauISe Of - geological st hlBit I It a 1i trCeLuCilt landslides. Yet tliis unstable terrainm is homle to mllon- tha il .550,000 peopl 1 27. Restricting thicse areas - 1 fronil developiuuef t will have littlc cffct if other housing options are riot available. _> C itr planners cani reduce _=__P 11 ) rh~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~lc lie 1th n1111 acts of O1ollu- S ion and the costs of abatc- nit it through str-Ltegic dcisioins oin he sitling and ; densitv of urb an induistries. _, t' Ill i;iiiv cities, industrial sites often abut rcsidential Squatter settlement. Lack of affoid hfe la/7d Ior hoisinqg rd.s to thle development of infornal set- neighb b orth oods r rare Io- tlenen7ts. liAe this one in Lte P7zL Ba/i Bl Won granted I tnd foijine 'na residenis vill uppi ie c ted in c vir on menital Iiv hotisifi(j omi fl/eit kl,wa sensltlve areas where the negative effects of pollutants for developmenit to build oii it, thereby redcriloI vaca;nt will be most pronouilinced. JudCicioUs usc of industrial land within city boundaries aid limiting the extcnit of zoning laws cain hclp relieve this problemii by relocating urban sprawl il 22. heavy industries out of the urban ceiiter arid into indus- Zoning laws or reCgulatiolIs that ban urtihan develop- trial parks. In Turkey the govern nient provides sulbsi- ment in specific regions of the city-such as cgreenbelts dized credits for relocating industries to industrial green ways, arid urbani growthi houndaries-can lire- parks, whiere existing infrastructure is better equipped serve open space and shape the form of the city. Al- to deal with wastes than in other parts of rhe city 1s). though few examples of successful greenbelts exist to Often, cltisterinig facilities in this way cani lead to date, interest is growing in riiany cities. In older devel- significant savinigs by allowing collective trea;tilment of oped cities, from Maanchesrer, United Kingdorii, to industrial wastes in a shared treatrniert plait. Otne suchi Philadelphia, large plots of inier city lamid, known as collective treatiiieiic facility, in SUrabava Indoiiesi;l is "hrownfields," lie abandoned as conupanies arid indus- ftull supported by the effluenr chairges collected fromi tries move to undeveloped land in suburban and rurall users, and is able to treat the wastes ir uses thoroughly communities ii2;. For these cities, urball colitainilerit ernotigh that its effluenit call le reused by the industries policies would restrict outward sprawl arid encourage it serves, helping rhern save oni water costs ! 12Ii. growth and redevelopmenit in existing urban areas. In Clustering facilities can le a particularly effective the United Kirigdoni, for examiple, the conmlination otf wav of addressing the nieeds of snialler businesses that stringent greenhelt policies aniid fuiding incentivCs is lack the knowledge or financial niieails to treat their Owi1 leading to the regerieratioli of riary ciry ceniters i i'4). wastes. In omiie eases, it niay be necessary to uLiderwrite Without regional coordination, however, these Coll- part or all of the costs of relocatling lower-iricoirie firiiis tainmemit policies are rar-elv successful. Greenhelts or to special cluster sites and conistrLnctlirig coiiiiion treat- urban growthi b oundaries can increase lamid prices in rhre ienit facilities for their wastes (i u. city and encourage sprawl beyrond theii, iaS is the caise of Seoul ls). In addition, political will and citizen Broader Strategies: Urban Form and activism in favor of green belts nieetl to ibe strong to fend off proposals thar reqluest houndary chaniges 11(s. Environment Furthermole, ecologically sensitive areas are impos- In addition tro direcring clevelopiinent away froni fragile sible to protect fromii urbhan ciuroachiment if pemople and lands, laid use plamiriirig has the potential to address industries are niot given alternative larid optiolis. In problems of resoiurce ConIsumption arid po(llitio(i by 118 World Resources 19(6-9)7 Urban Priorities for Action manipulating urban denisities. Nunierous negative in- infrastructire developmenit may be far more influential pacts are associated with low-density settlements. They in deternmininig where developmenit will take place than are often land intensive antd are characterized by high land use planiniiig i I7. The developielint of toll roads infrastruCtUre costs, greater relianice on private traiis- connecting Jakarta, Indonesia, with the nearby towns portation witih irs attendaint energy conisuLimptioni and of 'ulagerang, Bekasi, and Bogor has had a treniendous pollution, higih domestic energy use duie to the lack of impact on the physical growth of Jakarta, inteisifyinig shared insulatioll, and poor recycliig rates due to large housing and indLustrial developinent far fromii the city collection costs. itself and greativ increasing car traffic i ; sI. In conitrast, A coinpact citv with a coniceintrationi of jobs aiid in Curitiba, Brazil, where development was cihiaineled housiig in a central location is tylicalllv described as the along blus lines, car List is muchi lower (i ). (See Box most resource-efficient citv form, sling minimal land 5.4.) resources and saving energy through multistol- build- Directing urban growth alolIg public transportation ings anld reduced need for travel (i I, I)ebare conitinLues, lines can greatly increiase transit ridershilp and reduce however, oi the optlimal delsity needed to produce these energy consumiptioni. Recently, a numbliiber of large cir- desired effects. Even in cities in developing countries, ies-lPortlanlt, Oregon; Stockhioliii, Swedein; Toronto; where densities tend to be comparatively higi, large Vienna, Austria; and C openihaigen, I)eninark-have all tracts of vacanlt land within the city exist that could be atteinpted to conicentrate high-denisity resideletial devel- developed at high densities before expaniding outward. opuieinr near public traiisit stations (140i. Without coor- In Karacil, Pakistan, for example, where overall citv diniationi of landL use a1(i transportationi planniLig at the densitv approaches 4,000 people per square kilome- outset, chances are that cities will tcevelop increasingly ter (I 231, miiore thani 4,800 hectares of land withini the city car-depenidenit forins. In the Netherlands, for exanmple, bounda rv lies vacant a ; t the new town of Zoeterilieer did riot qluailfy for a As cities grow ro unprecedenited sizes, however, the railway coniiiectio(l until there were 50,000 inhabitants; centralized citv miiodel becomiies less tenable. First, while by then, car infrastructure was already in place and developmenit along mia jor lines of transportationi to and car-dependent travel parterils had beenl established (141). from the center of the city tends to be high density, the The differenit nature of the transportartioll altd land areas berween these "fingers" develop at low densities tise secto rs and general lack of institutionial coordillna- as the region attracts more people anild businesses. Sec- tion betwveen them have limlited the success of efforts to ond, concentrating several imillion people (and all the integrate the two in practice 14Th The effect of laid use economic activities that support them) in a central city policies on travel demand is also likely to depend on rhe can lead to severe congestion. Recenit studies suggest aldoption of econiomilic listrumilents that inicrease the real that a more efficient urhan form miay he multintucleatetd costs ot ciar travel. Otherwise, people may still chioose urban regions, where many siiall, dense no(des-satel- theircar over other modes of transportation. (See Chap- lite townis, new towns, edge cities-are liniked together ter 4, "Urban Transportation.") bv transportation iinfrast r ucturre I i4-i. In Berkeley, Czalifornia, a proposed land utse plan Institutional Needs for Improved Land Use adopts this "nodal" visioin rather than a centralized model for future urban growthi. By redeveloping exist- 1mm addition to the constraints to successful land use ing neighohorhoods at higher- denisities, the centers vill planning mentioned above ome of the key roadblocks become increalsingly compact and suirroDundlinig land can in developinig counitries is poor institutional capacity to be reclaimiled as openl space. Within eachi of these neighi- lanage uirban lanti. Most citieS in deL elopinig cous tries borhoods, zoniiig laws will require a comilbilination Of lack the informtion to carte out land tse strategies Urban mips are 'I to 30 vears oILd aiid lack any distan,e h i ad e description of entire sectioiis of cities, particularly the burgeon iing peni-u rban regionls (14 ). (o fflictilig ap- proaches ro lIand manragement-a forinal statutory svs- Integrated Land Use and Transportation teiml (often left over from colonial rile), an inforinial Studies oin whether high deiisities shotild be conceni- systeiii, and an indigenious systemll-CollnC together trated in one centralized location or in Imn;ly szmaller within the conlfined space of a city m1441. In addition, nodes for miaximtIm energy' efficienycv remnain imicomlcim- excessive and poorly coordinatecd rCgulatiois, inappro- sive (I 6 What is clear, however, is that neither strategy priate pricinig and taxation, antil land speculationi all will provide benefits uinless closelv coordinated with perpetuate lanti use problems. Improving laind manage- transportation inifrastructire. lIndeed, transportation Inlcut ill thcse cities is a crucial first step. ()nly thiei will World Rcsources 1 996-97 119 Urban Priorities for Action Box 5.4 Integrated Transportation and Land Use Planning Channel Curitiba's Growth Curitiba, l,razil, has received initerna- lems. From 1950 to 1990( (uritiba cial canals without consideration for tional acclaim as a city that works-a muslhroomed from a town of 300,000) natural drainage chalinnels conltlibutillg good example of sustainabilitv and ex- to a merropolis of ahlout 2.3 million 11). to frequenit flooding in the city center 1:. emplary urhan planning. In 1 950, how- NMigrants, pushed from the lanid as the HIow did Curitiha manage to turn it- ever, all trends indicated that Curitiha result of agricultiral mechaLnizationi, self into a positive example for cities in was likelh to become yet an1other city flocked to the ciry antd settled in squatter both dcvelopeLd and detve loping Coun- overwhelmed by rapid population houising at the urban periphery. Rivers tries? fI part, the city's success c ani be growth and urban environmiiental prob- and streams were converted into artifi- attributed to stronig lealdcrship. Realiz- ing that a static mzaster plan would not be adequate to deal with the dYnamic Figure 1 Curitiba Integrated Transportation Network natreL-e of urban problems, citv officials focused on developing simple, flexible. and a ffordable solutrionis rhar could he BARPEISINHA SANTA CANDIDA _ realizedl at the locial level ;and adapted to changing conditions. hI addition, the __ -s j,/ government promoted a strong sense of STA FBI-DD *ls A + V public piarticiparioni. Officials were en- STA FELICIDADE J B'ARM5SCALTO couraged to look at problemns. talk to the people, discuss the miaini issuLes, alid BRAL < 1/ only then rcach for the pen. This proc- zi \ / _ ){- _ \ ) ess provides insights that are seldon AMPNA DO SUEA ARBosA I ' self-evident at the drawing table CAMlNAD O SIO U9A j One of the kev actors in (Curitiba's sLIe- CAMPO COst7,D0 \t r cess over the past 25 years has ecen 1 \,Ar \)IA jaimiie Ler-ner, wlho served as imayor / - \: >-1 \ ¢\; \ three times, fIrom 1970 ro 1974, fioli D Integrated terminals IVOFNAS 1979 to 1983, and from 1989 to 1992. _ Express bus (radial) The must important lnifying featuLre - - - Interdistrict (orbital) / I of Curitiba's success is its emphasis on Feeder buses (conventional) - NAvP / CENTENARIC integrating transportation and land LS' _1 fAriiRAso r \ < X planning. The key conicept was to chan- r}| \ eCARWO \ nel the city's physical expiansioni away from the ceintral City aMid along five linf- H IVIINHO ear corridors or alxes. (See Figure 1.) cQUEIRAO Fh axis is h uilt arouitd a cclltrall or "_rstructural" road that has exclusive I / lanes for express buses for local traffic, 4 r and for higlh-specd car traffic flowing in and oiut of the CitV. Zoning 1WS encLour- age hiigh-density co mmiiercial develop- menlt along these transport cor ridors, Source: Jonas Rabinovitch and John Hoehn, "A Sustainable Urban Transportation System the while land awav fronm the corridors is 'Surface Metro' in Curitiba, Brazil," The Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training (EPAT) Project Working Paper No. 19 (EPAT/ The Midwest Universities Consortium 7ZneLd at low detisities. The central city. for International Activities, Inc., University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, May 1995), p. 18. where traffic congestioi antd noisc have cities be able to begin to t-esolve conflictintg demanids for plati iiiig, tiow being tried in a feW developed and the use anid protectioni of lanld, developing wuorld cities. Althougih each city ha1s different It is also beconling inicreaslinglv apparent that nii- needs and goals, the brotad telets of regional planning gatinig urtan envit-oniniienital imipacts will depenld on the are sinmilar; First, high priority is gIVCI to env'rollieltal cooptipationi of local and regionial goverininiieits oil land values. Lan1d is recognized a1s being valuable in its use issues. Yet to date fewn mechanisnis exist to facilitate nartiral statc and is tiot simply seen tas raw ilmaterial for suchi cooper-ation. One suchi straregy is regional land tise urbainization. Second, rather thaii tryilig to fix proNinls 120 World Resources 19'6-97 Urban Priorities for Action been greatlY reduced, has beenl returined facedl with growing mounds of garbage, poor, cani draw on the skills of its resi- to pedestrians, the citv was ready for a large-scale recy- dents to tackle urban environmental As a result of these efforts, the bus sys- cling plant. But such a plant was be- problems. What may not be transfer- tern is used hy more than 1.3 million yond city resources. Instead, the city able is the will to change, political corn- passengers each day. Twenty-cight per- launched an iniiovarive "Garbage That mitmiient, and leadership that Curitiba cent of direct-route bus users previously Is Not Garbage" program. The pro- has enjoyed over the past 25 years. traveled in their cars (4). Despite having gram relie(l on households to separate -loilas Rabzno,'itch the second highest per capita car owiner- garbage for the city significantly cut- ship rate in Brazil, Curitiba's gasoline ring municipal costs. A campaign was use per capita is 30 percenir below that also developed to educare cihildreni Ionas RabInnovitchb is a Senior Urban. of eight comparable Brazilian cities, about the importance of recycliig, turn- Development Advisor for the United and air pollution levels are anmong the ing themi inito "secret agents inside eaclh Nationis Dei'elopnient Programme in lowest in Brazil X5. home"; now more than 70 percenr of New York. The city also uses zoning and eco- households participate in the recycling nomic incenltives to preserve culttiral programi. In all, two thirds of rhe city's districts and to protect natural areas. trashi is recycled, inore rhan 1(00 metric I. Joniais Rahinovirch amd Josef I nioanatn. Strong land use legislation and incen- toins daily (Yv Fl9vironinleatl )Inovation and Manage- tives have increased the ratio of avail- In slums where streets are toro n arrow ment in nvoril," Urban ManageN nient Progr.in Workintg Paper Series No. able green area per inhabitant from 0.5 for garbage trucks to enter, the city I (The World Batik, Wsltiigroii. D.C I.( square meters in 1970 to 50 square me- found a was to get the garbage to come tiiiie 199 ;), Table 1-Il p. 2. rers in 1992 Ih). Begininiig in the late to rhe trucks. The "Garbage Purchase" 2. Ibid. pp. 2, 3i-38 I 960s, the city set aside strips of land program allows residents to trade fillcd . O i I1. pp. 8-16. and prohlibited them fromil developmeit, garbage bags for bus tokens, parcels of 4 Rabiitiirch, "CUritil: Towards In 1975, the remainiing river basins surplus food, aid schlool notebooks. SLirlitiable Urban DeseliprmetI- Eiit-i were protected by stringent legislatiomt The food anid vouLCiers cost no inore ioltt .ini Ur/.nizatotit, V,I,. 4, No. 2 and turned into urban parks 17. By pro- than hiring trash collectors to go into Octoher 1 992t, p. 6. tecting natural drainage chaninels, the the slums, and providLe the added bene- 5. lidl pp. 6S-66. city avoided rhe need for substaintial fit of improving nutrition as well as 6. lets R,ibiiiis'imdt tid Phi Hoeli A nesv investinet1ts in flood control, and public tranisit ridershiip antong the poor. Sustaitiable Urban Trainsportatuoii Sw steli: costly flooding has becoine a thing of An estimated (35,000 families have hene- thc SSrface Metri' itt (irilmii Brazi!,- tle past. fited froim this program ion). The Fnviroiniteniial .iid Natural Re- C(uritiba has also tianaged to avoid In all its projects, the citv emphasizes soLirces Policy arid Traininig tEPAT) Proj- problenms commoni to other developing low-cost prograins that help people to eci Wiirkiing Paper Ni. 19 IEPAT/The cities, stich as land that remains vacant help themselves. Instea(d of huge city natiotal .tisit;tes tic tlnisersitv it Wr1is- whiile ownership disputes are settled, outlays for row upon row of housing cl)lisit, Midisoti, Wiscimnsin. M.tn 1995)¶ lengthy wvaits for development permtits, projects, the city provides architects p- 37. and inefficient property tax collection. and loans, elncouraging people to build °p it. I p 3 The city mainitains a detailed laurd inveni- their own honies. ()Id public bluses are S. Op. et. 1, p.2S. torv that allows city hiall to deliver in- converted into mobile sclhools for low- formaztion quickly to CitiZetIS abouit rhe income families and are able to go to a 9. Op , t 4 pp. 67-68. buildilng potential of any plot in the different neighborhiood eacih day of the 10. 0p. cit. 1, pp. 34-36. city. The system is constantly updated xveek in i I 1 P or cit. p. 47 as rime city expaiids 5. The lessoln to be learned froin (uri- Curitiha IhaS fouLn(l other low-cost so- tiba is that creativity can substitute for lotions to urban problems. In 1989, financial resources. Any city, rich or after damage is doine, efforts are mnade to anticipate ani(d prevent envirotniniental damiage in the firsr place. Assess- This cbapter was written by' Mike Douglass of the merit of iimpacts, ci tlCiding aln assessment of the possi hle Department of Urban and Rcgionzal Planning at the' Uni- ctunum lative effects of urha n developineit, shotild pre- versity ofHaiu'ai at Manna, Ho0olulu, Haueaii, cede and guide land use decisions. Finally, to the extent and Yok-sbiuS F. Lee of the Programn on Environment, possible, planniig efforts should enicomipiass ecosystemii- East- West Center, Honolilue. hased unlits stch as w%atersheds 4i. WVorl Resources l 996i)( 7 121 Urban Priorities for Action References and Notes 1 .Jorge Hardoy, Diin-a Mitdini, and David Sal - proviing Wirer and Sa nitatio n Services in ihe the Developing Wi ridf. Env'ir,ineint, Vol. reerthwa ire, Enzvierowroi'tal Proh/b'nis in Developing World," Eni'ironnment. Viil. .35, 315, No. 4 NMi% it 99 ii, p. 10. Third Wor/ld Citiies lEarthscan, Lonidon, No. 4 (May 19931, p. 32. 3;7. op. cit. 4, p. I1)0. 19921, pp. 1 7, 2 3. 21I. United Naiiions Internaiioiial Research and 38. Op. it. I(,, p. I ). 2. Carl Ba rroreiie trl., "Toward EDivirrnrnent a I Training Intieiturte fir it h Advainceiientr of 39 k1.rssachiUsetts Watier Resouirces Authority Srrategies tore Cities: Prilicy. Consideraiionrs Woiriteri, "Women, Water, and Sanitairoit."N1 RA "M Alng ageWtrSp for IlJrba ii Env iroliiiieiraItNi Man agemenet in iii Wonui'rarid f/re, Envtironmetni': A Reailer. pl Priogtr ni." I'rogre,s Briefii ig (NiW'R A, Develoiripiu Conitiiries," Urhbani Management Sally So ritheiiiner. ed. IMoiirthlr Review Bosioi ii NlassachLrSer iS, Marech 9. 1I94) Programnie Piolicy Paper No. 18 (The World Press, New Yrrrk, 199 1i, P. 1 23.P.. Bank, Washingtoin, D.C., 1 9941, p 5. 22. Op. cit. 4. p. II13. 4)). Strphieir A. Lstes-Srnargiassi, "'Livinig Wirhiii 3. /hid.. p. 7. ~~~~~~~~~23. Yoik-shiiu F. Lee, 'Rethinking Urban Wirer Our Meanus: A Successfuil Denii.nd-Side 4. The \World Brnk, Wor/ld Deveeopmi'nez Rc' Supply and Sanitation Struregy in Develoip- Wafier Resourrces, PIin fire Boiston," paper port /1992: Dev'elorpment taiti theiEnFurw'eii- ing Coriiitries ii tIre Hnut iid Troipics: Lessolits prepa red fir the Ma.ssauchuisetts Water Re- ilont (The World Bank, Washington. D.C., frin ri he In ieriuat ioia I Water Decade," Earsr- iiiUrcc-s Airthrit ini(N IWR Al NIMWRA, Bris- I 9921~ . p. West (Center Reprints.,u Elivininient Series ririr. I 9)i4I, p. 2. 5. World Health Organizatiion (WHO), The lIn- Nro. 9 IEaist-West Center, [Ioiiilulri. I 993l. 4 1. Op. cii. 26, p. st, itornaiiiionr Drinzking WVater Suipply and Sank P. 5 5.3. 42. O/p. it. 4, p. 10)2. trrtiori Docarle (WHO, (,eruev:i, 1 992), P. 8. 274. Lair Espiniosa and Oscar A. Lopez Rivera., 43. f )p. cit. 4, p. I103. 6. G. Watters, Health arid Environirrent, World "U'NICEF's Ulrban Basic Services Pro- Health Orga i inizaion, Gerievii, 1995 I per- graimnie in Illegail Sertlenietits ini G rrArernal 44. 1 Ip. it. 4, p. IO 1. sontal cornmunirc:ituionI. City." Ent'irrinntonf Soil [Ur/ani zaf imi Voil. 45. ()/i. if. 2 8, p. 9. 7. Miaggie Blaick, Mi'gra-S/ims: Thie Comnirirg 6, Nor. 2 (October 1994), p. 1 9. 46. The Woirldi Bank Frivirriirrrenr and Urban Saniitaev Cerisis I WaterA id, Londoin, I 994 1, 25. l)einniis B. Warner anrd Loiius l.augeni. Develomnpiiit [Divisionr, (Crr/i-Managing Ent- P. 18 "HealthrIi for All : The Legiice orf the Water i ierr.. iciti-a/ Peroblrems: Err oinrni Analvsis 8. Sandy Catrrncross,.Sanitafiorn anid WVtzfr Sutp- Deca de, WVafer Intecrnationial. Vro. 16. No. Si/ hr/oh'd Issues. Report Nio. 1.106 I.) H pa'v: Practical Lessoins ferom The De'1ar/c 3 (1 99 11, pp. L35-14 1. (The Worrld Bank, WashingtonriD. C., I 994l, ITlie World Banik, Washingtoin, D.C., 1 9921, 26. Naiioru;r Research) Coruiicil. Acadenriii de Ia p. 8.3. P. I. Investigaciorir Cienitifica, A.C., and Acade- 47. Op. itt. 28. P. 2. 9. ( )p. cit. 7, p. 1 9. inia Naciorna I de I ugenieria, A.)C., Me.rro 48. i )p. cr1t. 2 8. P. 1 2. 10. Op. cii. 7. p. 19. Citv's Water Supplv: Imnprovring fbu' Outt- 49. [Jiii ied Sitaies GenreralI Acc(Liriitrg OffiCe II . Op. , f. 7, P. I 5. /orrk fire Siustaintabni/ity (Natrional Acaidenir vt (At)I, WVteir Per//i)inn: )in/filimatirrii in f/ri' 12. Op. cit. 4, pp. 106-107. ~~Press, Washinrgtonr, D.C.. I 995l, pp. .32-33. (list/, o/ihrnatiii Wastewate,ir' Tre'afmntin 2.Exequicl Ezcurra and NMarisa Mlazcar- Svystcmus. Reporir Nir. R( :D-94- 109 (ICAO, 13. Geha n Sin na taiii iby. "Low Coist Sarn itatiron." Hiria rr. "Are Mega-Cires Viable? A Call- Wa slint Onri, [).(., 1994), p. 2. in The Prrrr Dir' Young,.lorge E. Hardloy. tionary Tale front Mtexicor City," 5)). 1 p. cit. 28, P. 9. Sin tid Cairniceriss, aind Davrid Sa trerthwsa ire, Eviriio,nnieitn. Vol. .38. Nor. I I]a inia ryfFebru- 5I.NrtrsirIRs.ichtiniI.(cri ie eds. )Earthscanr, Lorndon, 199))),ar196,p 45 .NnoaRevrhCuci om teen pp.L-27-1_57.r 96,p 4 W~istewaicr Mna.i.gemnrrt for Corastal Urban 14. Op. iii. ~~~~. p. 130. ~~28. Ismail Serigeldin. "Water Supplv, Sanitattioni Areas, Managing Wastewiater hr Cri.asta/ lie- 14. Op. ca. 1, p. 1 30. ii~~~~~nd BEnviroirinenralI Susta i ii, tiltr): The Fr- b,ni Areras I N.tion,ilr. Acaideity Press, Wash. 15. Jlohn Pickford, "'Truiiriiig ariid Huniair Re- nariiciiig Chaillenge." keynotre addreSS TOi the iligiriri, IlC., 199 1), pp. 3109-127,. source Developnient in Water Supply and Mininsternia Cirtference trin Drinking Waiter 52. C:irl Ba riotr ii.Water Quality anrd LUrbcanizai- Sanirairrin" `,atr'r /nte'rnational, VI . 16. anid Envsirotnmentral Sanitationt: Iitiplement- turn iii L,rtirt Americi," Water lInferii,afir,ial, No. 31(19911. p. 174 riig Agendia 2 1 (The Woirld Bank, Wiishiing- Vol. 1(IS 1990)1, pp. 8- 14. 16. Tviiv Matia Solo, Eduardo A. Perez, aind ton, D.C., Nla rch 1 9941. p. I10. 53. 1)/i,. cit. 49, pp. 1313 l. Steveil D. Joyce, "Coisrsraitits in Providing 291. Mbill. 54. Roditrv Fujifr:r "New Approaiches toi Waste' Water rirld Saniiltairru Services tor the Lirban Prior," Water a id Sari tat ioni for Heailth Pro)- .30. Op. iti. 28. switer Tretinritrer," Sitrids Piper I Furverrini cci (WASH) Technical Reporer No. 85 31. Op. cit. 23, p. 550. itierial Deeiselll FLund, New York, 199.3). (WASH, Washiligtorn, D.C., Ma rch 1 993), 32. Op. cit. 4, pp. 103- 104. Ps. 0/. cti,pr1417 P. 8. 5i p i.i1 i.34;17 1 7. William Hogrewve. Steveni D. Joryce. aind 33. D.A. Okirir, "The Vatlue ol Watter Suipply .56. Op. ni. 52.~ pp. 1 2- 14. Edriardo A. Perez, "The LiiiqLie Chaillenges and Siatitarioin in Developnreni: Ali Assess- 57 of Iiii provitig Peri-Urbait Sa ni ataio ii," Water nient, ' A nerican Jraurnirl,if Pub/i/i Her/thn. Takashti Asiriro, "Reusing lJrhut ii Wastewiva- and Sanittimon fire flea lilt Peroject (WASH ) Vol. 78, Ni.I I 1 19881, pi). 1463-1467. icr-Art Alterrnat ire .ind a Reliable Waiter Resiourrce,' Watre /ntoritiofrna/, Vii). 9 Techniical Reporti No. 86, (\WASH. Wishing- 34. 1). Whittiipgtoir of a/.. "HoLusehiold Demnand 1 1994), pp. .16-42. toir, D.C., Julyv 1 993l, p. 45. for Iimproedrrr Sanitation Services in Kumtasi, 8 alsNcnztiwz,"ra W erPlu 18. Op. cit. 7, p. 2 I. (Gha na: A CrntinS gent VaIiLritiorn Stuidy-," -li icNenoioie,"Ueai e elIa Vater Resurces Resertb. Vol. 9, No. 6uion iii Der!lrrpll1g C(Luriirries," Watier Re- I 9. "Orairgi Pilot Peroifect," Envr'ionmnent arid lre- Water3) Repp.ee Research5 . Viii - 29. No.24 6cci br 94) brantiatirsn, Viii. 71, Ncr. 2 1 October 1 9951. p. 18. pp.228-2_30. 35. [livid Peairce-, Director, CESERGE, [Jniver- $59, united Nationis Ecounomirc indl Sorcial Corin- 20. J.C.R. de Nlelor, "Sistein:us Conrdominiais de siry College, Lonrdorn, Decembler 1 995 Ipee- m1ISsion fire Asiri arid tIre Pacific I ES( 'AP), Esgotos." EFugeoh.ari.a .Sauitari,i, Vol. 24, soiiural conriurr incation). Stafeo ri c Fi/ar-Eutilwimnni t ut A4sia .nd ib I/ Pa- No. 2 119851, pp. 2.37-238. 'is cited in haohn -36. Jouhn Briscoie, "When the Cup Is Half Frill: rnll,, 1Y99) ES) AP, Banugkoik. Thailand, Briscoue, "When the Cu p Is Hailf FillI: liii- Irmpreeving Watler and Sariita:ut ion Seermies ini 1991)), p. 2.14. 122 World Resouirces 1996-97 Urban Priorities for Action 6i). j.iiii [1. Bern,reri. ''Alierii m,ii Appritis iii'. se in Develiopinig C iiiinrirrc. V'oi. I: The IllS. (Uniretd N,iiitis (Cenire itir Eliiii.iiSen tol Po11iiiii,ii ( oiiiriil idt W isit- \limige -irTiiil Sesii'r," U rhiri \i,ii.igineiii Pr,,- niieiits ii-ahiit,ii, Fi',lii.itiiiiif/ xap,rieiiia mciii: Regiil;ior,, and Fctiiiimic Insrri- gr.miinie Diisciissionj Piper Ni'. I , Tine alky l7iiitiniiig nu/ibiig' Shi/tce .Strittgii's nicii T trl.iii \.iTiJrLgineiii i'rigi .iiiiie W otrid Rink. \V,ishrn oniir 1D.( .. i994i, iiH,iliii,ii Nniorihi, Kecta, 1 99 1). p- IS. I )i Piaon lper N,,. ; The \World Rink, p). IX8. I 0,. (irlierinc Eair%i cqiie indl Pirrick McAiiL.in. Wishiii1giioi, DI.( ., i99 i, pp. 101- I. 55i. 1 1,. -it. XI1. pp1. 2 l-2 ) Reforminiig [lirIi.ii [,indl Pol' iiii it nd I,iisiii- 6 1. Ibl/ti,! P. IK 8 tI. P. -/. N. 1,pp. 940 I. ilt0is ITi DeVeIlopIng ( mitilris.- 1]rIiii Mbiii 6 2. tii it. 2. 1) 26. 8 p , if 60 1. a .gemlen! I'rogram PliI'iiv Pa per N''. S (The 6' B I ii R.roiie, Tr.inspiirr. W.irer indtl LrIi.ii 9Iniiorrid. '1iiiiii and AaronNai'.D'lie Nes9 p I lCIclpirreiii IDcparirmirn, The Wiild R.ink. EPiitc c ii ii ern 1Sirii-l~ u /~ x W.nsrrriiiii. [11 ., 995 persinaiuiniiinrr-jife Mliterrals Econirni ,'- Wo,rlddvarsh P,i- per No. 121 (Woiildw.iisi lirrsirrie, I 09. NiLk Devrs. 'l-viilsring Apprioichic.- iii 6,4. 1Uiine-d N.inr''i, Eniiereiir irer P'rigr.irn irr. \Vis1iT]rirgiir D1.( ., Scpieiiibcr 19~44, p. 4&. Aiii.igini, Fist (;roiiiiaig ( ~itie New A4/i I 'it fooiniriitl (lit Ri,',/ ..it I '9 3'14 i M.ick- p9 ol idieF n \.\-)idT e(m-lr,,I i chi to, 1 rbaii Pliiiiiing aiii M,av w~ell l'iiiirsihers.( Iixtil,rii. K.. 199;, 11. .'ll 9. w\irjiiiWidn t F Fiiid.1111 W\X'itj~ .iii The, m''i- h t ii n.je Dick iw mii Wick!. N itk D ct-.i 6. it. ITs ~rt-i ,%rii'i EiiriRedoi,rr Gin'Atiir, itm tk Sniit intd ( antic R:ikiidr, etd,. (I irigiir1.iin .rtirip. 6(.Ihi i,rirre Fiirdv, 'uuohd \W,i'ies Ill diii Wlie (WW F- W,si6irgnioin,D 1 .,191 -,l9 li Nets1 'I irK, nid' poh Wilc s0ol, n p,iper preselrnnLI ii tiii Wiurksiip oni "The LI 0. Menroupdiiin.r Fimii niriiiieiii.ii Inipruvemineri09 Nbt/i' 1[)i/i I ow 2, I srr i cruwi, cIll. t' \Wasie F,on in ' N.itruTni1i liiniriire for 1wi lroiig.ii, ",Air (Qririir \i.iigeiiieii ii Srif h \V lVwh Iris2rrIrie. \Visrirgw n, 1d.1 eitiritr indl Techirriuri Foretisirmg, LUnitrsriy I hik. lnrnrcuirinrrry SIrii, Nit. I Tlire21 iii Ioiroiiirt, .iid lirrcrir.rrurnil i)L%ei-iurpinrern Word Rink. \V.rhrrngii,[.1.i9))I ip. 2 RCesearc1h (crItic, H.iii'i Vier N.iiii Arigirs p. 1 i). t/. go ,D 1 It l(N9 pp,1. 79-76. 22-25. "994, p. 9 3.tdNiin uelo i i iIII 1.I05 67. I/iid. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~incurs Rib-liii,in . Allpiliiuri- ,if Bio,uun.5- I 12. (/. it. I 15 6 h 1Irisrirt FIIL intO SuIsriI ApcIsIIt "Ii Su01t1Iitt1 Tuc/iio/ii.eie (l-lbiiirr, N,rriiribr. I I M, ii hidl [Diuirgi-i , 'lIrhe ['hit ,il Fii E 1i)iriri W.isic Rciiscrt in' Asirrii ( ire,- I-ipmiiie - Kcrm.i. 19)1;), P. 4 1. tif Urkini l'iuLerrv anti Frivivrr'iiieIinL1 Mii11 iiiire,i/ S,i hiiit otuu 5 BmigkNik. 3(11iAr,1i.iT li , Roblie l'erli,k mud \Milrton Ruit-cll. -Ericriz .igcriicu : A,Lc FinpuiweritiiinT tl an Coirn- sDtureifi, 1e99iuilug p. 17 iku.[i.i.rt. irid Frivuroiirrirrrril Puihiy ii I hint,- ' -(in11itriiir [Vised Alrerir,urse.' Hiri' initri nli l)tseriii'te 1911,)) ~~~~~~~. I. hunia Riari' w it!, I-iire)' i! f/u Finirr ir. and I 'r/i,iiizutiiin Vtoi. 4, No 2 ilrux 6. t/. it. ii, pcs.iuit. VolI. Ilh '1991 ) pp. l0-2'5 1. I1992n, pp. I15- 16. 711. MiChael- `1 irde''L, Sc:.rreCT.iigriz Stun Il isie'1C 9. I -1). [D.imui HirneN. -1.tkImg Uirhiri 0 I 1) 14. (1/'. i it. 1t02, pp. 94 5-546. iiIl i-s , 'u,iI.i.rr. ateaii, (itc- Maiin Fiuissiouns In l truntui,'' Fniiiiriiiiiii. \ii. I9 . [(1.9. Agent y Ii'r hruerTI.innurir II l)Velviipiirerni ,i(uiiiiiit iii!1 Is'uk'i.iii1I Vol. 'Q i I j9 Ii 39.i Nii. 7 1 IpitrirherI I 99' 3), P. 1 9. (I S. Ai If, hegiubriuii i /i lii/; uri!l I iii! Iiiuit. i,X, p4. 9. i . ,1 1purr- 111.9. All), WX',hirirgrur 111. 1)., iIi ~~~~~1. 1)~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6. Ui.9.1 ingres, O)1tice tu Te,. Iml i gi Assess- P i. .rIsrir F `nIetu, "(..Inrlm.iu,:: E xphoirurg Non- incuri I1 iTA), b-ii'eri,' P Ilfliut'iri Ti,-/'ri/J- I 1 6. Sniss 1.gui.l 'Why NMiu1s1r7e Tiuwn Dw~ell- Iruee%,cirlirin lr 0pipnrii Ill A,ramu I imie,' Liner- Lii'5 fir Ceiti,n lidi Faustc'rn Piieripi ers?-I''iii Muirigc renm ini 0ui.ig.uiduugoun uuirluui-nt .iur tIi/i,iiirz,i-riu VotI. 4. N:i. 2OITA F 562 1 ITA, W.rshlurrgrionr [DA. ii 19 1 ii Fitii,'rriii i;iit Liii!i rIum/iiiia- (0t)s bul r i1992r. p' 52. 1 993) p. 9. tii'. Vitu. 6, No'. 2 i(I .biii `c I994i, 74. tiiiit. I . p. i U . 7 lriiiiiiii iiiiiefr-eg tirs s:-pp. I [I 14. S.t/.iit. 61',, p. Ii.ronr (lIECU, -nipersi ndi'it Techiioiiigy 1. l/.ii.11,p 76. I 'si1 lnirru it: Fisr11rn for Lihiun Ernirurn- I c.ids toi Super S urg ''F-Note5. Vil. 2. I IS'. Nircirel Mtirtrigly, [Urbixun tMiurug neruu-r hl- 11TIE lErFF, "I I FE `irili Pruilecr Sixuru Re- Ni,. 4 i HE , WA.si,hmrri rluu D1.1 .N teuhrir irii i un N ,rss'iiA.uini porir-l miii Armenut I iiid ruie I ,ririb-,mn.' I 'i'2). P. 4. Fan! irtii-ing itrus; Niew A/i/reuuiur' to [ !r )Uniiied N,nniurs li-doeuprinil-m Priugrmrirmre, 99. Worind Rs,ouirst-s isiiiis- H 5iii 1.l..hTi on f iui P'kainingii and, A-i,,,gewi; wiei III t/re l u- N,-ti `1lrk. A imirsi 2',1 l99( p. 5.isri ithth I Hrird Narruur Fis rvrirrmt-mri P'r'o- (pi/rig W['tr/u! Nisk Dievasirmi ( aruile 7- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~rdh u ,muiu isci-R.ikuIdli, ciLs o .irgnmu.i (smiiup. Essex. 1lK., 77 uRir. Puio isr.o ''[ rIil Solid W,isit- Malrigs- gr.imirrr rutd [h,-iWilelint'stirsNNi'is Viiek.lop-) rlirilrii In murtdirnug: lii, iti in lrrgimred Re- inCTur pro'gramrmne W(s hr/ iRisrnuluror,iNnL Y i, 9 , siririe Rvtiir cr Si sierr," P ir-irs,iuiurui .in,/ 1'9'4'i5 (I\foied Umvirrerimy P'rcs-, Ne-ti P. 1 22. [ r/,mizai ... I. Voii. 1. No. I (A pr I I1) 9 1 Yoirk. 9`44). p. 2 19. 1 19. Sieplit ii 01sen, Dri-reT-rii (as R e .. tsirrri-, p'- 63 . 949. Ibid.. pp. 2 19-2)I1'). MNi.r.gerrinor (enrner Ui,mrreesim oti Rhr''te Is- 7 ti/i. i tj~ . 49. Ln rc rrri'iit amei .riikrn.indl. N.ir rigiisen. Klrii...t- [slmd, Mtirth 79). )i.iit. Is6, p. 6T. "T ..s,mud iii Err'viirrlii-irr.i Srraicgs l''r Sit). (/. i.6,p. Asrij,'' Wurd -ink Diu'cm ,iis- lr P.iper Ni,. I _2i1. innsl Ii. lifnt-rst-ii w,I rind LIse I mii ldsrti 91. 'm'ii -slimir . I se, 'Air listes reis. Sutlit224 i Tire Woirld 15.rik, W. hnsrrgniin. 1) (t.iiiiii ITT lli.-iri HivmsruiriroIn I.m1 \l.rnigt-- XI .k 5iF L AI0 v, wo wl '1)1 . pp. -~X .ilncur Iirhuii NIi.irrigcinrcrr Prungrmurirrs \W'.ire 1M. irgerirnir Iert.itrrz.i rior F s psri Dl)r-,1uusrur Piper No'. 121 (Ilre \W irltl Rnik. tite' Ini ,As,r, iid il is u hr,"- Easit-Wesi I 1)1. (i/p. , it. 2, p. I W.islirigiiin 1.1 DA _1I9941. p. 67. entrer '.pcn (Ersi \W si I curcer, Hiirriiiiiiir 012. Yo'k sirii E. l ee. lirsin P'irriring rird Vts,- 1 21. 1992r1, P. t.r'r I oilrurul i' S''rrhc'.rsi AslrinrCrime,'' 921. I/rI. Kiui/5nsiiin /iuriri.r of%MV-w.ns-r 12. 1 iioiie Rirkotii riis Nr,,k Dc~i , i -. midurii- 91 tii 8 it X, p. 22. 1 0( 1)994), p. S, 9. srir.Assesng tike New AXpprumus,hs. Iii A-laiagiii1rg Fist , ri 'iiring I /i( Ni'ii, A-.4i 94. `,sidri I oimrrur,'ur- L"Ie, ceit."' taeSsur IllS. ttp. cit. 2, . P preti-bin, ti liU.i,i I'/imiiiii dliii Mf,iiii..iu P'.rrurIP.mrlrnu ill Miiilicupml `ii,ih \W.rste Ser - 104. tii it. 21, P. I m. ncit m tIbcDc f l-i'pniiIg Wiekl.d Nit kil D(vIr WtirId Resources 1 996-97 123 Urban Priorities for Action .iiid (CStole R,ik,.di. eds. t Loilgimi Gmri urti I Sti. Op. 'it [([if . I p. -79. H,lt,i t I iit'tit lio a Vol. IXS No,. . EL,.x. ([K., and 1'Hi \Wiloe & Sotms, inc.. 1*,1. Mlicltel Rephligle. [test Pr.aictL l ii fruits ( 1994t, P. X;. Nevx Y'nik. 199;) 1 ' . 3 potrtirtit Modleihitg [o.r Air QitAlity Plan- I ;9. 1unix. , RztixiTIoviteC 1llt Ii 1lsef I e.ItiI]. IT)TI, " II- 123. IDo(itlud T. 1.i1ittlele 1reuleve lopitiig l[rhutit ttittg [.t4' et prcp:iel pre li te t'iptrdtr IIL v ir ueitil:I ItItII- riin MIIi N1iti:geitteti ii Rimkitfieldls." L tla lilutts. Vi. 7 N,. h tLi,t- EtCvir,rittteira.l i)leitsc Fund I Enviroin- ( Iitiilm. Br;i l," liI,.iii M.taiageiieiit Pr''- ofln lItisin r cit of i-,,1 P'oh,, C I.iilcridlge. 1iii,,i.I Drlietese Fit \V,liltll inW tti i).(: I.. l1). gDtitn WitrkiTllg P'iper Series No. I [Tih 51>.tss,nittt'ris, NiteN niber 199i5, p. 1. mLe1 er 199)1. p. 12. Wotirld Swik, W.tsliiigioiir 1D.(:. tiie 1[99i, 124. L i [irc si(itgdiiot Il.K.t [Deptritieiiii of riltc 1 2. lm[itted N,itioin, [Detelotpiet iio[ittL tttnuiite P' 2. Fiiuroniiititnti. lit (J'tlhlcgc: i'.uttit,-si'ps (LlNII'), Hiimitin ctllmttttitilt Re/i 1tt 1 4 I 41i. [,lg:.iiis.ritti itir F IT101t1io C (Co-peration Ree'n,t,- altnain Lit ml.oi,l.' l ilt, Ai s %; (lK. lNI I', Nes 't ourk, 994), p. I and D v1elee ItlIT1e IFS I)) miid F.iropeutii D)epirilelllor (I [Iti FIT tioiiiiiie[ir. 1.ton.don,. I l ()/p it. I()5. (biIkerIim l Nlitiisrers it Tr:iipori 1't944 , pp. I- 12. 1;4. W illm-l, 1'. A\niierxoi P. S''ri . Ft MT I u;m g/I let 7; A.ii! .Tast,iiiSu ilile 1).- I25. Ksimg-Hv.n ii ilK , '(' 0 reoll ed( DlCeltip- In , EJ), 1. 'lill 1r UrlIm Yor!7-t Ft'rlnl i -, ,/ ..,wll (()F.(:[) mid I(:NiT, Pirims '15l) iieil .111d DeIr ti,illmi: Sc,ul, Koelr.l.' ill mide tli, I'mimniel iletl: A Rc,ine of1 I-tw. p' S S. `1 A H ilz.z I1t v,/! [ri, I, I ,I,l /l I b,- I wI(lltb1 rb,ll /ilS >,i i Vs-l 141 i)gl:l( I -ir-- F iI TTc ,TTTIPoIT . I!T/,i TII,. V .....4... 0n s ion or E mo ic ( ol-Oper;milon 'tei, I'm,t ii't,Itit, os i/i / S,,-c ci,llinitiI ',; Nt. I I 9't9W, f,i rlmcttiiitig. .111tLI DeiC1IuipiIte )t F(DIN. I 'Ioirim,cc'ilci/ Wo rlZ V;.al& ( :wl"It-lul " oni Fzill millm' 01- I ;5. NlUrlk Ro-elalld, Towanil S iwsa.mab.hll Csmil- Poh, ,,wx, lor 'aw M,Zl 1t)e I 9s (( )F(1) tillh, S.lsl,i blt' l,c,ltqlttttitr. [suLit1 9cr- nititlltics:-4 )Sctc lr, i Ho, I - Mie mil,l/ P.] -is. I 9tt) p 41 igCleldti, Mlli cel l S ihei. iid KS.(. I- Gn ,imcn%; (Nititn.ml Rotttid 1 42. tt1c it.1 ;4. Siv.ii.tiii:ikiix ,it.ii, dcsl. (Tlime Wo-rld Baink, Tdfili t lthe I[mi tr,ltl-ttet .ii,1 mtIe [Ittlt "V.111l45 g 1J. 1c).( l DA_., .C... pp [44t 19-2 1 014) v ........O&>1 9`le,;1.,Itretitt 19 1 4 i. F11 Iir-cma. "Meg;i-Ciliy M.iliiigemictiir p. 24S. 1 * F .I oi rrm Striegies: Regiiiial Vien s." ' 1 2( gi. i 1 :1111 "(,0rCMl Edg ae, fo,r HeAkhNilx ( it 1-1,I' M hInltl .111i) tIIerge use. see \Viiij. rimu AlP.,A- l (t I (Grotetb and i/c Fitmre, ies '' Tt, I irlmn /S.,z th,- l.......gwt: Tl /{|1ill.l o / ........... ,Irrs<-1l. 1'1 zif gS im. ,, William P. Aii- K'111dRl l I.1. Fr uchs c !.t . cdx. (United Niticons {ies2.lil TI.', I i,,,lt L il',~~msi: TI' */i'tiptiiil '4 ilersi Pi. lo,,i ci S. K;miru .ldikru inid)l Few .1. iii l . isi Pe 5- I .,kvt. 19994), P. 2 S. I irb,,,,, U 'fi,g x Spring 1 't'4,. p. 4. NIIILer, -I 1liii, F-ori, Fntergi , titdl lie Eiii,- 12-7 Virgitt., J ititim ecl ii iz. -- I .,idlsli,s i thile roiiiticitt: A [(lleA it 1isses, FeIdeltlie. itti1 144. li6. cit. I(ih, pp. S;-7. Squi.rter Sertleutmcix 'ts ( iarmu.s: T wv.ird, s a r 1i, . ol it i . Nil. 4S, No. I 145. Rti1id I. Doeriing ci A.. Pl'niinig /I,e rSis [eriei I-Itierstm.uidiug oft S-.iis.iitt Fi.iti,-s. ( , 9"tt5 /icruli,cciliiig. taueutmtx; TIir icc/s iuutu'ge.ulungl-.ni'retuui- Fn,tt'ii,ut ,me'il Urb!l z. zltic., Vo.l, 4., N .-. I; '. it. IONts', P. XXN. mcmu P'rt',/ ',,,) lo I_ ,/-U.'s,' Planniuu, 2 5)Lmtui'er 14992). p. 84. I ',X. T''mnttte Fihit.u jitd Ida A,, ndil Dlii.irmii[ (tROVtI (S c111iijsj tt1 O ue th uture of ihe '2S. tIp. i)t. p2 P .ii.i.t. Flil (I1.1I.tilg1s to `iii 9tsel- fuiI1I1 r,-riouo \N.ireelfrci'tr Ti T rontro'. 1991). pp. )29 ()l ')i. 11)1(. pp. 7X--9. op'imueiii it l;ikk.irri: Nlet criplit,iwt RegiLton.- IC-iS. 124 World Rcstmrccs 1990-97 6. City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability M anaging enivironliliental resources dur- In efforts to iniprove the urban environment, local ing this era of global urbanization is governments are especially critical. Local governm1iienits / one of the greatest challenges facing are responsible for most aspects of civir-onmiienital man1- the world's cities. Witlh the fastest ur- agemrent at the city level, fr1om0 thc provisionI of urbanii ban growth oCcul-ring in the cities of infrastructuire and land usc planninig to local econiomiic the developinlg world, the imiipact of ul-bai andl iiidus- developmenit and pollution control. To properlv fill this trial growth on the environment is no longer Ilimited to role, local governments nluist develop their lcapabilities a handful of rich counitries. It is rapidlv becoming a far bevond 1 their Currenit levcls. In both the developing problemii shared aroulid the Nworld. In addition, the anid the developed world, local governmients are ulider growing problem of urban poveirv is a serious con- severe stress froi rapid Urban changeether 10pLila- frfflaidng factor in the effort to i-1ai age the Lirban i- founding factor in thetion growtlh or decnlie-fiscal pressures, growing de- enviroiinienit and provide essenItial urban services. mand for services, and Increasing pollution. ihey ofteii The previous chapter outlines a range of policy op- have neither the mandate nor the monev or resources to tions for tackling many of the direct environmental threats facing the world's cities. None of these policies cope with their Mounting problems. will work, however, if there are Insufficient administra- true In the developing world, where urban growth is sVIll~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~iis rapid Jowve gOe_1fIIt tnere to- bCutilel Underfunded tive legal resources, or insufficient political will and nIost rapid atntl gover ments tend to be underfunded public support to impleinenit these policies effectively and. nt wa Meeting this urban challenge will require the concerted Eg uall important is the need to build on the efforts actions of evervone with a stake in the world's cit- of low-income cimmumunitiestoimprovetheirown envi- ies-tgovernments at all levels, nongovernmen1tal O~r- roinmlienits. Community mobilization is by n0o means a ganizations (NGOs), private enterprises, CommUnities, substitute for governmnciit interveintioni; governmiiienit ac- and citizens. tion is essential in tackling th1e imiterconniected problems First among these actors muiist be goverincnt. A of povertv and cenvironmiiienltal degradation. BLut the powerful arguml1ent remains for a strong governmiiient potenitial for c01m1111munitics to help themiselves cani be a roJe in environnienital management >) Governments are major force for clhanige. Indeed, over the past three needed to plan for growtlh, to regulate pollutinge- activi- decades. most urban "success" stories have involved ties, to harmonize competing uses of the urban eniviron- projects that have incorporated conmmullitV action, ment, and to address questions of equity that purely from1 the ()rangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Pakistan, to market-oriented approaches miss. the Zabbaleen In Cairo, Egypt. W-,,I,/ Re (sou)r-cs 1996.-97 125 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Table 6.1 Structure of Political Accountability in Major Cities in Developing Countries City Mayor Council Bombay, India Directly elected Temporarily dissolved Jakarta, Indonesia Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Mexico City (federal district), Mexico Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Sao Paulo, Brazil Directly elected Directly elected at large, legislative power Seoul, Republic of Korea Appointed by government Directly elected, no legislative power Lagos, Nigeria Directly elected Elected Shanghai, China Elected by council Elected Source: The World Bank, Better Urban Services: Finding the Right Incentives (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1995), p. 39. As described in the previous chapters, some of the frastrLICture was already in place. In contrast, many m1ost severe environm1enital degradationi is occurrinig in cities in developing counitries are facinig new pollution cities of the developing world, with the poorest citizelns threats with weak institution;al structures, inadeqILuatc beinig the most severely affected. This is where the m11ost Capital budgets, backlogs in providilng basic infrastrucI- concerted action for urban environmiienital improvemiient ture, arid econiomiiies far less able to generate the needed is needed. For that reason, this chapter focuses primirily capital '4. oii the developing world, examining the challeniges fac- Part of the problemit is that, unltil recently, miiosr iiig local governmiiienits arid strategies for enhanicing tlheir goverrinienits in developing countries were centralized, capacitv as maniagers of the urban environmient. It tlhen oftenl aulthoritarian, regimiies ( ). In the lare I 960s and looks at strategies for empowering and encouraging 11970s, many cenitral governmiients established national low-inicomiie communities and giving thenm access to the housing authorities, urban developmiient corporailtioIs, resoulces they need to improve their own lives. Coom- and national land use planning authorities to conitrol inulnitv mobilization is by no nieans limited to cities in urban development as newly indepenldenlt regimes developing Counltries, however; This chapter also de- sought to consolidate their power- ,) These instittitions scribes related initiatives in developed country cities were believed to be better equipped to handle urb-lan sucl as New York Citv and Chattanooga, Tenn essee. developinenit arid infrastrUCtUre investinent because of Finally, it concludes bv examining the vital role that their muclh wider powers and greater financial resources cities must play in aclhievinig the goals of sustainable comiipared with those of existing local authorities. development. However, as thc num111bers of these institurtiolis grew, ConfLIsioll over levels of authlority, overlapping responl- sibilities, and vested political inter-ests grew in parallel. STRENGTHENING LOCAL GOVERNMENTS Metropolitan authorities woulId construct large, expenl- IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES sive infrastructure and then transfer the nmanagemient responsibrilities to local auLthorities, who had neither the Local governments play a central role in mzaniaging the financial nor the technical resoUrCes to operate or nianli- urban envirolilneit. They usLIalIVh bear primary respon- tai it. In additioni, metropolitan institLItionls, account- sibhility for urban infrastructure and land use planning able to the central governmeit, lacked adequate avenues arid are often directly involved in the provisionl of hasic for public participationl 7). water, sanitation, arid gar-bage disposal services. As a result of these arid other factors, by the lare Given the difficulty and variety of these many furic- 1 98X0s, a distinct trendc toward decentralizatioll tions, strong instituitionial capacity-including adequate cillerged, with a (niajoritv of ceiitral governme>nts trans- funding, efficient organizationi, clear litres of authority, ferririg somiie degree of political power back to local aiid qualified personnel-is necessary if local govern- unirs of governmiiient (Sb Yet, the scale arid extent of tlhis miieints are to be effective environimiiental manaagers. Jn- decenltralizationi have varied enormously. Inn ilany Latin fortunately, such capacity is too often lacking. Ini many American cotiuntries, for instanlce, decenitralizairionl has developling countries, local governniients cannot provide riieant a shift from a cenitr-ally appointed iiiayor to one basic urban services, let alone regulate and enforce directly elected by' the public i). In somiie counitries in elvironinental legislation ;, In Europe and North A frica, by contrast, decentirali/atiori appears to have America, wlheni air pollution became severe, the legal, ocCLirred only in name. The cenitral government Contiln- regulator', arid finiancial struetLires to implemenit enivi- Lies to appoinit n1vurirCipal officials and conitrol local roimierital manatlement already existed. The basic in- spendi ng decisions (o) (i I). In short, decenitralizationihais 126 World Resources 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability not always resulted in a real devolution F 6 S of poe to loa MLnciaite, no Figure 6.1 Sources of Municipal Revenue, of power to local municipalities, nor Slce onre has it necessarily increased the electoral Selected Countries accountability or fiscal autonomy of local authorities (12). (See Table 6.1.) Brazil The reluctance of central govern- ments to delegate full financial resources Chile and functionial responsibilities to mu- Colombia nicipalities IS understandable in politi- .1 cal terms (I n. Furthermore, there is no Kenya guarantee that local governments will perform any better than central govern- Philippines ments. Good local leadership goes far beyond financial resources and techni- Thaiand cal skills (14). For example, strong politi- Zimbabwe cal will is needed to impose a new . propertv tax, and all too often, munici- 0 20 40 60 80 100 .' ._ . . 3(percent of total revenue) pal leaders find it easier to ignore the needs of the citv's poor than to raise the needs of the city's poor than to raise the M Government transfers and grants H Property taxes taxes of the citv's wealthier constitu- ents (is). Despite these difficulties, a * Local fees * Otherlocaltaxes number of local authorities have al- Source: International Monetary Fund (IMF), Government Finance Statistics Yearbook 1994 ready begulii to address urban environ- (IMF, Washington, D.C., 1994), pp. 172, 202-203, 211, 388-389, 533, 625, 687. ready ,eg, 11 to Note: Data are for the following years: Colombia and Zimbabwe, 1986; Chile, 1988; Brazil and mental problelns. (See Box 6.1.) Philippines, 1992; Thailand, 1993; and Kenya, 1994. In other cities, however, there re- mains a distinct need to build a founda- tion for urban planiniig and governance at the local level for financial assistance is high (2o). (See Figure 6.1.) (16). Doing so will require enhancing local revenue re- Studies show that an average of 90 percent of public sources for planning and management and rapidly build- revenues is collected and spent by national governments ing the technical and professional competences of local in developing countries, comlipared with about 65 per- government personnel (il7. In this era of increasinig re- cent in high-income Countries (21). sponsibilities, it will also require forming partnerships Attention to urban finance is crucial if cities are to with other actors, including other cities and the private adequately discharge their duties as urban environ- sector. mental managers. Strategies to increase urban financial resources begin with basic reform, allowing municipali- Generating Revenue ties to initiate, determine the rate of, and better admin- Although local governmen1ts in developing countries ister taxes-be they property taxes, special taxes such often have levels of responsibility for services and infra- as business taxes or motor vehicle registration taxes, structure comparable to those of local governments in local surcharges on national taxes, or user fees and developed countries, their revenue bases are generally service charges for government-funded programs (22). much smaller-about one hundredth or less, according One critical area of reform is improving property tax to one estimate (l8). Indeed, in some of the poorer collection. Although property taxes are a common form developing nations, local governments must function on of local taxation, in many cities thev generate little annual budgets equivalent to only a few U.S. dollars per revenue compared with other local taxes such as auto- capita, which severely restricts their abilitv to fund mobile or income taxes (23,. Difficulties in assessing services or expand infrastructure t19). property values, keeping assessments current, and en- Low revenue bases result from many factors, not the forcing compliance have made tax administration a bur- least of which is the failure of central governments to den on municipalities. Also, exemptions to such taxes transfer to local governments financial resources along made for political reasons or to attract development can with management responsibilities. In most developing erode the tax base or distribute the tax burden inequi- countries, local capacities for revenue generation are tably. Moreover, tax rates and exemption policies are rudimentary and dependence on central governments often set by the central government, so changes in these World Resouirces 1996-97 127 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability I1o a I,S , 94to:iS :EEI S- Box 6.1 Cities Take Action: Local Environmental Initiatives Action at the local level is essential if The focus of rhesc Local Agend;i 21 own elected mnayvors anid couLncils. This the host of urban environmental chal- campaigns is on the process itself-mo- drarmatic deccitralizatioln of govern- lenges are to hc met and cities are to be- bilizing commiiunitv resources and com- ineit power meant that local governi- come nore livable and susrainahle in mirments, setting clear targets, menr decisions wvould lbetter reflect the the long term. Realizing this, manly cit- maintaining accountability, and measuir- neecis of the province's many small and ies have begun local environmental in- ing concrete progress-rather thaln on remote communities. itiatives or embarked on ambitious the conmmunity environniental plan that Second, a coinniittce was cstablishe(d planining processes to gujide their future results. Yet, these plans incorporate to devclop a Provincial SustainalIle De- development. The best of these efforts many of the elements necessary to re- velopimenit Plan. It conisisted of rcpre- are consultative in their design and ac- duce urban impacts on health an(d the senratives from the province's different tion, involving input froin residenits, environment, such as the provision of jurisdictionis, NGOs, the private sector. civic organizations, nongovernmental basic services. conser-vation of re- and kev comistituency groups. The com- organizations (NGOs), businesses, and sources, and pollution prevention. mnirtee esrahlished six "themiie boards' labor tmnions. A few of these initiatives Cajainarca, Peru, is one of the many in the areas of eduCation: natural re- are profiled below (i. cities that has successfully developed a sources and agriculturc productioll anldl emploviyment: cultLiral heritiage and tour- Local voices. In /ismi; uirbain enviroinment: and womnen's Cajamarca. ' v issues, familv, and population. After PerLu. deenotral- gairherimig local iniput fronti the va,rious ized govern- ' regions, each board developed a strate- gi ents have- gic plan for irs particular area. giver) community __ ,~, _The initiatives proposed by these members a voice groups reflect the differenir concerns of in totba; environ- rhe constiruents. In the rIural co tomiiilti- ,nenfal planning. ties, the plan included initiativcs for items such as terracing on steep hillsides, J seed banks, and woodvworking training b centers. \Varer deliver-y svsteins wvere con- ' sidered a top priority. Farmers' concerns _ _ tabout Illillillg pollution resultCd ill plan1s for nimoire rigorous environmental assess- DEVELOPING A LOCAL AGENDA 21 Local Agenda 21. Cajamarca ranks rents and a new tax system. among the poorest comImnilllities in the The urban hoard, in contrast, drew Agenda 21, the plan of action developed world. In 1993, the infant nimortalitv rate tip a strategy thar included developmlenlr in Rio de LC.aneir0, Brazil, at the United .was 94.7 per 1,1)00 live births, 82 per- ol health seivices, a refLuse collection Nationis Conference omi Environineiit cent higher thlian the Peruvian national prograil, anid a park improvemiienit pro- and Developinenr (UNCED). recognizes average and 30 percent higher than the graiii. The urban hoard is also consider- the importance of local authorities in average for low-inconie counrries. The ing rhe creation of an ecological belt plaining for sustainable development. Kilish River, a source of drinking water andl a land use plain that will guide the Local autihlorities often oversee planniing, foi maniv of the regiorn's poor, has been city's expansion. maintain infrastructure. establish envi- conltaminated bv miniing operations and In many cities, developing local indica- ronmenral regulations, assist in iilple- untreated sewage. Farming on the steep tors to measure progress is a key cono- menting national policies, and are Andean hillsides, overgrazing, and the ponent of the l.ocal Agenda 21 process. pivotal in rallying the public to support cutting of trees for fuel have resulted in The region of Hamilron-Wentworth in environnmental objectives. severe soil erosion, exacerbating flood- Ctanada is at the forefront of these ef- Agenda 21 challenges each local author- ing problemns and threarenimig the liveli- torts. Local officials used an extcnsive ity to woork with its citizens, local organi- hoods of the area's rural population. public consultiationi process including fo- zations, and private enterprises in In 1993, the provincial municipality cus groups, (luestioninaires, and coilmmi- adopting a "Local Agenda 21." Through of Cajamarcai, which governs the entire niry meetinigs ro design indicators that consultation and comisensus building, lo- province, initiated an exteinsive Local are now being used to assess progress cal aulthorities are encouraged to forinu- Agenda 21 planning effort with two toward rangible goals. late strategies that reflect the main components. First, Cajamarca environ-niemital goals of the conmmunitv. City was divided into 12 neighborhood TACKLING URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL Since 1992, approxiinatelv 1.200 lO- cou,ncils and the surroun(dinig countrv- PROBLEMS cal authorities in 33 countries have es- side was divided inro 64 "minor popu- N1iummicipal alurthorities are also making tablished Local Agenda 21 campaigns. lated centers" (IPCs), each with its great strides in improving urbanl envi- 128 WN orl(t Resources 19'96-9T City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability ronmental quality. Iniriarives address a erared by these companies has beein re- nent of successful urban planning con- broad range of problems, froni provid- duced by more thai 5O( percent. sisrs of public participation and consen- lig basic services such as water and Maniy local governmients are also real- sus buildiig. Third, although most sanitation in Quito, Ecuador, to con- izing the role that cities play in regional policy anialyses assume a top-down ap- serving biodiversity in [)urban, South and global environmental problems. Cit- proach in trying to introduce pollution Africa, to reducing ciar emissions in ies are banding together under the aus- regLltilaiols or carbon dioxide emission Quezon City, Philippines. These pro- pices of varioLus associationls to tackle reductions, rhese problems can also be grains prove that huge sums of money problems such as regional water pollu- addressed from a decentralized, commti- an d advanced technologies are nior al- tion (as in the Mediterranean). Parnier- nitv-based perspective. ways necessary to make loCali7ed im- ships among cities also transfer infor- Finally, urbiani developpment failures of provemeints. mation and techinology concerining ap- the past decades demonstrate that local In Graz, Austria, the challenge was to proaches and solution1s to common ur- governance cannot be replaced bv inter- find a way to reduce pollutioni fronii ban problems. national infrastructure programs, the re- snall businesscs (automobile and ma- O)ne of these partnerships is rhe CC)0 locarion of central government agencies chine production, shoe niantifacturiiig Reduction Programil coordiniated by the to secondarv cities, the establishment of brewing) Witliour underminiing their economic viability. In 1991, the cityin- Pollution itiated a partnership with the Institute c ; control. In for Chemical Engineerinig at the Graz Quezon City, nliiversity of Teclinology to work svith t Philippines, a sample group of s11all businesses. The impromptu road initial participants ilicluded thiee pririt- inspections help ing companies, a large vehicle repai_r to control vehicle shop, an d a wholesale coffee roastete emissions anld chaini store coImipaniy. After an initial training session, each company set up a projecr ream to de- velop a cleancr productioft program The institite helped the companies to re- _ view nevw techinologies annd a varietV of other wastc management mnCasures - _ hased on the major waste streams of each company. Identified measures were Inter-national Council for l ocal Environ- parastatal service conmpanies, private classified according to their economic mential Initiatives (ICLEI). More than coinpianies, or NGOs. Without strong payback. For example, the small print 100 local authorities front 27 countries local governinents, policies will nlot re- shops had 54 techinically feasible nan- have joinedl an International Cities for flect local priorities, programs will not agem'ent oprions for waste minimizationi Climate Protecrioti Cainpaigi. Partici- be responsive ro local conditions, budg- and pollurioni prevention. Twenty-tour pants pledge to meet and exceed the re- ets will not reflect local realities, the ac- percent would be profitable in 1 yvei; 30 quirements of the Framework Coniven- tions of different sectors will nor be percenrt Would be profitable wvithin 2 tion on Climate Change by reducing coordinated, and commiunities will lack years, and I 5 percenit would be econoini- carbon dioxide emissions b! tIp to 2(0 the consistent voice they need in na- cally neutral. percenr by 2005. As part oif this iniria- tional and international policy processes. As an additionial economic incenitive. tive, ICLEI wsorked With 14 cities to de- -let) Briiginann companies that achieve a threshold re- velop coinprehensive local actioln plans dIuctionl wn wastes and emissions are to reduce carbon tlioxide emissions. awarde(d an "ECOPROFIT Label" that let) Briogonann is the Secretarl, Genleral they can use for mar keting purposes for LESSONS LEARNED of the International Couincil of L otal I year. After I year, companies need to These examples represent only a frac- Lmu'ironmneotall,ritiatit's, Toronto, achlieve furtihe ivwaste reducrion to coI1- tion of the various efforts of local Canada. This conitribuitionl was conimis- tiliue to display the label. The biggest il- auLthorities. However, thev illustrate se,- stoned by the -arlh Council, San Jose, centive, howvever, is tlr-ect cost savings: eral key points. First, despire the seein- (h)sa Rica producrioni costs for participating comil- ingly overwlhelminig challenges, local panies have been retluiced bv as mudli as govermens are not stagnantand Notes 60 per-ceit. are making great strides in addressing I. Box is drvin fronim c.se siudies pbliishedi Since thu project's inceptioln, approxi- uirban problems th roughi partnerships hb the interi.amtonal CoLincil for locil En- marely 401 firims have participated, and With Iocal businesses, NGOs. and even 5ironimntIltii huiaiives, Toiroito. the voluLile Of troxic aid solid wastes germ- orher cities. Secontl, a crucial coilnpo- Wor~tl d Rcsouirces 199)6-_)7 129 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability rates and policies-even ro compensate for inflation or ing, effective urban enviroinmenital management re- to correct inequities-can he difficult to achieve t24i. quires personnel with appropriate managerial, techni- Maximizing the potenrial of property taxes for local Cal, and finiancial skills. Key skills spani a wide range: revenue generation w'ill require both chaniges in local the drafting of legislation and regulationis, environ- tax structures and imiiproved assessmenit and collection mental monitoring and enforcemiient, and cost account- procedures. This will not be easy. The hasic data on ing, to name just a few .ii). which property taxes are hased are lacking ini most In many developing countries, there is a severe short- cities. Disputes over land ownership, outdated citv age of trained personnel. Lack of training, low wages, maps. and land transactions that occur outside formial and limited career opportullities pr-esenit serious obsta- market structures all complicate tax collection. Rapid cles to attracting and keeping effective urban managers urban growth on the peripheries of these cities exacer- , io. In Indonesia, a recenit study foulid that the average bates the difficulties because new settlemienits musr be length of trainilng related to urban mianiagemiienit and constantly incorporated into city records if the tax base finance among more than 700,000 local officials aver- is to reflect the physical growthi of the city i2ii. aged only about 2 hours per year. Accordingly, the In the area of improvinig comiipliance, some relatively Indonesian government plans to establish regional ceii- simple measures can result in significant tax revenue ters for local personinel training increases. Delhi, India, for example, increased its prop- Building the capacities of environnenital profession- erty tax collections by 96 percenit in I year through a als in local governnieit will require a grealter comimiit- combination of measUres, including providing dis- rment to training and techinical assistanice programs at a C.ounts for early pavments, centralizing collectionl points variety of levels is,. National govcrnnients can play a for tax paynienlts, freezing hank accouints for defaulters, par-t in enhancing local professiona;il capacitv both by and requiring taxpayers to pay taxes before appeals providing granit mioney to support local trainilig efforts against their assessments cani be considered i2hl. and by establishing national technical assistance pro- Another valuable source of revenue for city govern- grams specifically directed at niunicipal enmplovees. In ments is the introduction of user fees for environinienital Brazil, a teamii of trained officials from the cenitral services such as water and sewerage (2-A. Few local government was sent on a temporary basis to local governmilents have either the institutional capability or governmnit offices to advise municipal urhan maniagers the legal authorization to set and collect user fees (28) and help them upgrade the analytic and technical capa- (29). In Bangkok, for example, the allowable charge for bilities of their staffs. Eventually, it evolved into a garbage collection is set by Thailand's central govern- permanenit extensioni service known as the Brazilian ment, although it is the city that imulst provide these Iiistitute of Municipal Administration 1 9). In Malaysia, services. As a result, city officials can chiarge only regional centers that offer course work in local plan- US$5.95 per household for garbage collection, even ning, budgeting, and other skills have been established thlOugh it costs theni US$9.83 ma 31;.n Even wbhen local for local governmient professionals 140). governmilents do have the authority to set user fees, these fees still typically fall far below the actul COStS Of Partnerships with Other Actors providing services, as described Ci Chapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Action." Whereas governments have historically provided the Attempts to increase the financial base of local guv- bLlk of irbian services themselves, the scopeof pro)lems ernmilents must also include reforiniig the direct transfer faciig today s cities are too large and city c(offers are too of funds fromi ceitral to local governmenlts. These trans- sniall for local governimients to handle them alone. fers, which occur through such mechaiiisnis as granits, linstead, local governmiiienits will needl to capitalize on the subsidies, and other payiments, are CLurrentlv one of the resouLrces availaible to them, be they private comiipaniies largest sources of local funds in the developinig world. providing capital and jobs, NGOs providing informa- In many cases, however, they are suJbjeCt to political tioni and grassroots nobilization, or commUnities tlem- manipulation, are not targeted well, are irregular in selves. their timing, or do not take into accounlt local circumn- In recent vears, there has been a trend toward the stances or priorities i 2 . privatization of public services t4-u. Awarding contracts for environmeintal services to private companlies offers potential cost savings. Where competitioni and adequate Building Professional Capacity accountability to municipal managers exist, privatiza- More revenue does not in itself guarantee a more effec- tion may net substanitial savings without degraiding the tive local government X34). In addition to adequate fund- quality of service. This has been the case with garbage 130 World Resources 1996-9. City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability disposal service in Buenos Aires, Argentina. wlhere pri- of the primiiary objectives of deceintralization was to put vate firms under municipal contract are able to offer the municipal governmenit in closer touch with the high-quality collectioi services ilore Cfficicintl than the conlinunity arid to facilitate a higlher level of citizen city itself can (42). For such partnerships to be effective, participationi in planning Lirban services, especially with however, cities must execute appropriate oversight (4 ). the barrio associations in the city's Iong-underserved Partnerships between indtistr-y and governmenit can south zon1c .47,. also be productive. Such partnerships ca11 stimulate Other miunicipalities such as Porto Alegre and San- developnment of cleaner manUfacturing processes and tos, Brazil, have established denmocratic planninlg and energy technologies for local Lise or can encourage the budgeting procedures using the inptLt of citizei CLuncils, adaptation of off-the-shelf techilologies to local circuIn- caclh representing a spCcific population group or urban stances ,441. service issue 4.:;. Some of the most valuable relationships tlhat govern- ments can cultivate are with NGOs arid corilioniiiitv groups. These organizations cani deteriniriie the special A COMMUNITY-LEVEL APPROACH TO eirCrunistances aild needs of neighborhoods, plan appro- priate projects to address those needs, mobilize funding, ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT arid g enerallv bridge the gap betwveen gover-nimiienit an d Go(Ioerrnmiients arid others somiietimies underestimate the the affected Comm tin lity. Partinersllips do not jList hap- albilitv of low-inicome coInmtlrrities to contrihtite to pen, however. To foster therii, city governments 111Iust solving the environimiental problems that plague them. actively prornote the involveinentr of outside grotips ill I0-o oine, thlc I1agIIitt(le of urban environrmentalI prob- environinenltal planning arid decisiorirna king. leiics-irnadeqL;Iatesewerrage, flooding, airpoll Ltion, aid groulid subsidence-are often seen as being too vast for Taking Charge comImunlities to address. Furtherimiore, commuililinities, especiallv poor ones, are seen as lackinig the orgarliza- In imaly ecities aiid towlis In the developitig w^orld, municipal governments are already involved in Lirban tinirial capacity or financial resoLirces to either construct im-proveriierits, establishirig participatorv plannling eoniiniuntv irifasrrtutttre or riianaeenr arid niarshaling their political and econoniie services SLIch as water PUMPS or Public toilets 49). processes adnasilntle-poiiaaidenni Evidence from- SuIcceSSful communi-tyntefforts COunters clout tO strengthien local authority over environmental mianagement. In 1992, citizeiiprotests about the basiifs thesc beliefs. AltloLighi ir is trire that rnanv environ- deteriorating air quality prompted Mtexico City officials metal prlenis such as air plti arid flooding to create the M4etropo itari Con limlissioni for the Protec- re-qLiire a citywide or eveni ai r-egioinwide iapproachi, many tidividual projects calrried oLit at the coinnitinity level momi of Air Quaility )4~). The local government has played11y c an conitribute to a solution. Nunierous exaniples have an active role in urbani alr quality conltrol, remiioving s, . . . .i. . D ~~~~~~~~~sliowil that uilcder 1,ulrP(I-ti\xe coiiditiotis, ineighbor- polluting industrial facilities from the city, restrictilig hoods and conirilunities can nianage laies, waterways, privateaLltOillOI)ileuse,developd cningauitids al)rm.nage lnes waerway private automobiloe use,developing artidbrinlging cleaner Xand waste disposal systems. In conimniunity after coni- vehicle fuels to the market, planitiig trees, and iivesting nri irv households have joined together to improve heavilv in public transit inifrastrtictLire (46o. TO pay for thlese initiatives, the niuilpzillv has cstablishe( 'its WI cdrailnage, coLiistrtuct roads and laiies for access, clear dii-etiatie the ninicipait haseestsh itreunwn land Lif refuise, or create oppei spaces where children caii dirctandflxile inncig rrnigninit \iti fregn play. (See Box 6.2.) banks and goverinments. In 1994, the city of Quito, EcLlador, took a simillar course and achieved the passage of national legislation Poverty and the Urban Economy to establish the Metropolitan District of Quito. This If governmienits and other actors are to pursue more legislationn provided the niunicipality w'ith control over sLipportive policies arid actions toward low-income all aspects of environmental policy. land Lise r egula1tionell C r1111iunities, they must begin by adiLusting their percep- transportationi planning, and organizatioinal design of tions of povertv aLid its relation to the urbani economy. the municipal governm1ent. Having established a local First, these actors n1iust abandon rlie notion that accel- goverinmenit with sutfficienit power to plan its ownI fun- crating econiomic growth in the city 'ill necessarily ture, the niayor theni proceeded to decenitralize the curT-e Urbani poverty or reverse environniental deterio- municipal adnmiiiistration into three geographic zones. ration. In fact, althougli ecoinomilc growth and strLuc- Each zone has its own local office responsible for for- rural chanige in the economnny h avc raised general niulatilig iiew service delivery strategies for its area. One standards of living in 111may countries, there has been no W'orhl Rg('rsnuces / 96-97 131 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.2 The Orangi Pilot Project, Karachi, Pakistan For well over a decade, a nongovern- small family enterprises, a low-cost plied to OPP for assistance, collected mental organization (NGO) called the housing upgrade program, a program money, received tools, and organized Orangi Pilot Project (OPP) has demon- to assist in upgrading physical and aca- the work i7). strated that, when community interest demic conditions at schools, a women's OPPI was able to drastically reduce rhe and resources are mobilized, low- work center program, and a rural devel- cost of construction by simplifyinig de- income settlements can greatly improve opment program. signs and standardizing parts. The cost their own access to environmental serv- Each program was introduced only at- of a sanitary latrine inside the house ices, health care, and employment. ter a thorough analysis of community and the underground sewerage linc in Located on the northwest periphery needs and identification of the most in- the lane was 1,000 rupees (US$90) per of Karachi, Orangi is the largest of the portant community actors. Each pro- household-ahout one fifth the cost of city's approximatelv 650 low-income gram has periodicallv been reevaluated similar improvements built by the citv settlements, known as katchi abadi (1 . and modified to respond to changes governnient s.}) (Si. Orangi was first developed in 1963 as a within the community. Three of these Each lane depended on its own small government township of 500 hectares, programs are profiled here. septic tank until the system reached the but migrants flooded into the settle- critical mass required to install secon- ment after the 1971 war that led to the Low-COST SANITATION dary drains. Although this represenred creation of Bangladesh. swelling the set- Until 1981, Oranigi had onlv primitive a gamble on the future expansion of the tlement to more than 3,200 hectares. forms of sewage disposal and drainage. system andi was discouraged bv interna- The ethnicaliv diverse population of la- Convinced that it was possible for low- tional development experts, OPP be- borers, skilled workers, shopkeepers, income people to install their own sani- lieved thar onlv such a decentralized clerks, and whiite-collar workers now tation svstems at an affordable cost, approach would empower residents to numbers about 800,000, living in OPP began to use the organizational ca- build their own sewage infrastrlcture. 94,000 houses (2). The average family pabilities of the local leadership in each When the svstemii successfully rcached income is estimated to be 1,500 rupees lane to adapt and implement simple the scalc required to integrate the lane per monrh (about US$59), but spans a sanitation technologies. svstems into an overall communitv svs- range from under 500 rupees per The greatest initial obstacle was the tem, the lane septic tanks were covered month (US$18) to more than 25,000 ril- Orangi residents' expectation that the over and did not become the sanitation pees per month (US$980) (3) (4). government would supply a sewer svs- "time bombs" predicted by outside ex- OPP's approach is based on the con- tem without charge. Onlv when all ef- perts. viction that people organized in small forts to petition the government for Waste from the Orangi sewers runs groups can help themselves, and that if services had been exhausted was OPP into open waterwavs that flow to the social and economic organizations able to work with the community to de- sea. These waterwavs are overburdened within a community are strengthened, velop alternative solutions. by waste from Orangi and from Karachi services and material conditions-such Although poor, Orangi residents were in general and still tend to overflow dur- as sanitation, schools, clinics, and job motivated to pay for improvements to ing heavy rains. The miain sewers re- training-will begin to improve, as will sewage systems because their houses quired to prevent this flooding are the employment opportunities (Si. represented a significant investment. responsibility og the Karachi authorities. In Orangi, OPP organized residents Health concerns were another major OPP has developed designs for main into groups of 20 to 40 families living motivator; mothers in particular saw a sewers and is lobbving the Karachi Mu- along the same lane, with the thought clear coniection between unsanitary nicipal Corporation to build them. that these families will generally know conditions and disease. Homeowners Under OPP guidance, berveen 1981 and trust each other. This principle of were willing to assume responsibility and 1993 Orangi residents installed small-scale organizationi, along with for constructing and maintaining in- sewers serving 72,070 of 94,122 houses careful research on the needs and capa- house latrines, sewer lines in the lanes, 'o0. To achieve this, community niein- bilities of the communitv and the use of and secondarv or collector drains, per- h spen more thaS$ million of appropriate technology, has govcrned forming between 8(1 and 90 percent of ets speint more thand US$2 illion ot OPP's community development strategy. the work needed to build the system. t US$150, and Oex OPP started its work in Orangi in The Karachi governnient would then be tension of new technologies and 1980 with a low-cost sanitation pro- responsible for the provision of the gram and spent the next 4 years work- main drains and treatment plants (6). HEALTH AND FAMILY PLANNING FOR ing with all segments of the community OPP personnel prepared models and to build trust and confidence that OPP other visual aids to demonstrate how LoW-INCOME WOMEN was going to be a permanent part of the the sewer system would be laid out. Research conducted by OPP showed community. Thev drew up instruction shects and that Orangi residents suffered high inci- Once the sanitation program had posters for each lane to ensure that de- dences of typhoid, malaria, dysentery, gained momentum, OPP gradually de- centralized constructioni planning none- diarrhea, and scabies, as well as highi veloped other community efforts, in- theless resulted in a coherent and rates of infant and maternal mortality. cluding a basic health and family workable system. Each lane selected its Surveys reveale(d that Orangi residents planning progranm, a credit program for own lane manager. who formally ap- spent a substantial portion of their in- 132 World Resourccs 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability come on curative health care, but paid In its program, OPIP chose to address particular service. Rather, the cominu- little attention to preventive measures. the largest category of women's employ- nitv provided the service to itself, with Therefore, in 1984, OPP began a pilot nient, vwhich is stitching clothing for appropriate assistance from OPP. program to provide health education contractors in Karachi. Women stitch- This approach to community develop- and family planninig information to ers in Orangi complete piecework ment demonstrates the flexibilitv re- poor woomen, bound for export to international mar- quired for successful NGO intervention Realizing that conventional clinics kets. The system of contracting for this in low-income urban settlements. OPP were ineffective because traditional gen- piecework was exploitative both finan- worked methodically and sequentially, der segregation made it difficult to cially and socially. Male contractors developing its organizational and techni- reach woomen through suchi a puiblic fa- paid xvomeni substandard wages, often cal capabilities in each particular prob- cilitv, OPIP introduced mobile health mistreating and sexualiv harassing them. lem area before moving on to address training teams, consisting of female doc- Eliminating the contractor, OPP set another. As a result, each OPP project cors, health educators, and social organ- up \Y/C's that deal direcrly wvith suppli- can stand on its own. Taken together, izers. These reamns contacted groups of ers and customers. The WWCs, located however, these projects demonstrate the women throughi selected activist fami- in family homes in the neighborhood, effective long-term role that an NGO lies in their neighborhoods, providing a xvere lenr machinery and supplies bv can plav by working in a single commu- more discreet and effecrive source of OPP and were assisted in contacring cli- nity on an ongoing basis. healhri education. ents. The families running WWCs were -Akltar Badshah OPP also developed a system in which allowed to charge only minimal over- the neighborhood health activist deliv- head and were required to earn most of ered medical and birth conitrol supplies. their income through their own piece- Akhtar Badsbah is Director of Pro- An intimate neighbor, the health activist work. Reduced costs enabled the grams for the Mlega-Cities Project in was a permanent and confidential WWCs to pay a fair wage to the work- New York. source of supplv for the members of her ers. The WW'C daily wage was 20 ru- group. The healith activist also arranged pees (US$0.80), compared with the References and Notes for womliien to receive intrauterine de- srandard daily wage of 15 rupees 1. Arif Hasan, Sealing-Up rifthe OPl"s Loie- vices or rubal ligations from the mobile (US$0.60). W\W(' managers tended to Cost Santittaon Progranm IOrangi Pilot heallth reaiil. be women and to treat the wonien Project-Research Traiiiiig Instirtte, Kara- Orighealth team. healrh alid famil workers fairly since they wvere also chi, Pakistan, 1993), p. 1. Originalyitesee hthaiid fi 'ly neighbors and friends. 2. Arif Hasan, Replicating the Low-Cost l,an00 low-income faw ilies in Orangi. A Initially, the WWCs required substan- Sanitation Programme Adininistered by 3,000 lw-incom familis in Orngi. A tial financial and mnanagerial support the Orangi Pilot Project in Karachi, Paki- survey of the tairgetred farnilies demoni- from OPP. aver time, hiowever, WWC stan, in The HumaIn Face of the Urban strares the effectiveness of the program: managers learned to weed out untrust- EArviromorlde. Procoerlecg e ofnth Second more thani 95 percenit of the children worthy SupplierS and customers, to io- n Annal Su torid nablk Conerelcp opi EiitI- are immLunized, 44 percent of the fami- zors uplr n,zsoes om-ronm^sentally Suffstainab)le Det elopplielt, Is- lies practice birth co entrol f epidemic dis- tivate their workers, and to increase mail Serageldin, Mtichael A. Cohen, and quality control. WWCs, operating as K.C. Sivarainakrishnaii, ed,. (The World eases are onitrolled, and hygiene and supportive community orgatnizations Bank, Washington, D.C., Septeriiher nutrition have improved 't2t Infant rather than exploitative contractors, 19-21, 1994), p. 152. mortality fell from 130 per 1,00() live have proven more efficienr and reliable 3. The exchange rare in 1995 was US$1 = births in 1)982 to 3 in 1991 (i ;i. In rhan traditional contractors. Clients in Rs. 25.45. 1991, OPP revised its model to reach Karachi actually prefer to use WWCs 4. Akhter Haineed IKhan, Oraugi Pilot Pro- our to a larger nmibiler of families. OPP because of their greater productivity, ject Programs Oranigi Pilot Project-Re- inrroduced a 3-month health curricu- and individual wvorkers prefer to work search Traiining Institure, Karachi, lum rhat covered the preveritionl of dis- for WWCs because of their higher Pakistan, 19941, p. 3. eases common in Orangi, merhods of wages. s. Op. cit. 2, p. 150. family plaritiing, and improved nurri- By the sixth year of the program, the 6. Op. cut. 4, p. 7. non and hygiene. WWCs had become self-suisraining. 7. Orangi Pilot Project," Ennirrnzment anid OPP continues to provide loans for the 7jranrzaun Veil , Nit. 2 (October PROGRAM FOR WOMEN'S creation of new WWCs, but these are 1995l, p. 229. EMPLOYMENT paid back with interesr i5i, s. Ibd., p. 228. C)PP initiated its program to develop 9, op cit. 2, p. ISI. Women's Work Centers (WWCs) in AN ONGOING ROLE 9. Op. cit. 2, p. 151. 1984, beginning with a survey of em- OPP's approach to communiit develop- If. Op. cit. 2, p. s plovment patterns in arangi. The sur- ment offers a model of how communities vey revealed that the rising costs of can assume responsibilityv for services for- 12. Op. cit. 4. p. 24. living forced wives and daughters in merly considered the responsibility of 13. Op. cit. 2, p. 151. Orangi to work to supplement familv governmenit. In none of these programs 14. Op cit. 7, p. 233. income (141. did OPP see its role as the provider of a 15. Op. cit. 7, p. 2.33. WJorld Re'sotrels J Ct6)_7 133 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability -1 hoods, where a substantial share of incoime is generated ;5 §. *,, in the hom'e aind neighbiorhiood itself. O(ne of the most conisistenit findings abour urban squatter settlemelniits is - ii;l 'iEthat the strolngest motivaitioni for conitinuing to live in lithemi, despite the environmental degradation, is access to the variety of economliic activities fouLid nearlby s,iS. In circumnstainces in which the comimunity itself is the locus of stibstantialI emlploiment, an improved livirig enVironment can generiare important new economic op- p-_ort(unities. For examnple, in mran low,-incomle settle- ments where environimenital infrastructure such as pathways and covered drainage channels have beeni constructCd. these improvemnents have led to a prolifera- tiio of comniercial enterprises-food stalls, beauty salons, zland general stores-where few existedl before (S ih i-. An important corollary is tha fact that improvinig the environmenit wvithin low-income coniniuiiitics contrib- u tes directly to the health of rhe urban economiyi ixo. Too _ (5_> .ofteni. the poor are assumed to contribute to an undif- S fereitiatecd 'irformali sect)or that is mistakenly pre- sumeld to havc Tio linkaiges ro the rest of the urban, national, or internatiomial econoinv In rca litx', this inifor- mial sector is integrated into andi contributes Lirectly to t I rhe urban ecoinoiiv as a whiole SQ) on.oi The informal sector- stipplies goods (recvcIed materials, tools, smnall m_lachines) anid services (repairs, transport, sales) to the agricultural, livestock, fishing, and forestry sectors as well as to other businesses vitrhin the city (II) i6. Such intercolnectiolns underscore the criticaLl necd to address CunmmLunitV problems in an integrated fashion Community action. 1 //114 ;//! ) I .l //7 /1 that deals witih both income generation and environ- S/Ilt I 1 I I It), it( II, 1/1/(i 1 I(!r IPI[ II ') I 1t I i '1I)III 'It en II t 3taI II ia 1 ia genIIenft. I f wl / i/tl/, I (ISII(711 7 (1V to11~ ci In h, ( I,. III !; (! i ~ i- %-, I/d1i I lit] II,' IF (l//I/(I 1ItS/sI /C >1/. Elements of Success in Community instanlce of poverty taking care of itself in any city vi a Management econiomic growth or market forces alone ith i. Several lessons have einerged from studies of how poor Not only is poverty a per-sistent featLure of societies at urban households arld their communities cope with all levels of per capita income, but accelerated econlomiic environmenital probleriiis. Taken together, these can be a growth brings its own forms of environmieintal crises, basis for rethlinikilig how govermilienlts, NGOs, and the social dislocation and alieriation, anti heighitenled social initerniatioallll developmlient commilg unity can besr aom ig- and ecoononiic inequities that the imiarket h/is niot cis- meit rather than undermne grassroots enviromental played anfy capacity to resolve (i2 5 ;. (See Chapter 2, mlanagement efforts. "Urban Elnviroinment arid HI Lunian Healthi.") TliLus, en- vironinental ifiiproveniieits for poor neighborhoods Integrcting Environment and Livelihood at thze caninot simply wait for better econiomic tilies but muisr HouseI:od Level be an integral pirt of the strategy for econiomitc dlevel- Oftel, rtiroujghi no chloice of their own, low-income opment within the citV s54:. househiolds are do fl$cto managers of the local environ- Especially in the developinpg world, governimienlts Imerit u6t. NManv of their dailv activities revolve around must also accept that environimental factors are closely using and ma naging na.tural resources such as water and interwoven with cruciail econiornilc factors such as eiii- fuclwood. The ahility of pooir houselhol(ds to manage plovment. This is particularly true in poor neighbor- thesc resources and reduce their exposure to envilron- 134 World Resources 1 990-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability mental degradation (either by boilinig water or by re- enable household members simultaneouslv to earn in- moving garbage from their communities) is largelv de- comes and to obtain essentials, such as clean water, terimiined by how mulch effort they must expend on other food, construction materials, and health care (6 s69). necessities, such as eariniig sufficienlt incomiie or securing The experience of the Zabbaleen iii Cairo illustrates access to health care and education, the potenitial of this approach. An ethnic group living in The size aiid comliposition of a household are critical several large settlements, the Zabbaleen have long to its ability to manage the environment. The poorest earned their incomes throutig wastepicking. This infor- of poor households are those with only one adult or mal means of waste collection provides a substantial parent who cannot perform the manyv tasks needed to benefit to the local government by reducing the amount sustain basic levels of existence [r4). When a large share of solid waste that needs to be officially collected. Yet, of effort and time is spent on basic survival, it is less the health and productivity of rhe Zabbaleen are threat- likely that sigiificant attenitioni will he giveni to environi- ened by the environmental conditions in which thev live mental management. Poor women in the barrios of and work. In the early 1 980s, for instance, most settle- Latin Amierica, for exainple, spend up to 80 to 90 lours ments had no water supply, sewerage, or electricit. per week earning cash and buinviig or otherwise obtain- Residents made a liviing by sorting garbage, often within ing essentials such as water, food, clothiig, and trans- their homiies, greatlv increasing the risk of illness from portation s. Expectiig them to mainlage a community disease vectors as well as injuries from broken glass and sewage system is unrealistic. meta l. Households do not live In isolation, however. Where Starting in the 1 980s, several international and local community-oriented sentiiient is strong, a poorer groups began working with the Zabbaleen establishing household often looks to neighbors, frieids, and rela- programiis to improve environmental coniditions in the tives in the conitliyuitv for help. Stuidies also show that settlement and to facilitate the collection and recycling households negotiate issues such as responsibility for of garbage Asmallindustries proIect,for example,gave cleaning neighborhood streets or sectirinig fuel, as well loais to families to bcuy machines that can convert as how resources withini a commiuinilitv w:ill he distrib- garbage such as rags and plastics into useful secondary utied, materials. This not only has reduced direct contact with These findings suggest two strategies for improving tihe garbage, bUt also has increased income becauIse the Thes fildigs sgget to stateiesfor nipovig materials fetch a rmuch higher price thian the rags would. environmental conditionis. First, it is possible to btild Theconsftructo of lcl compost plants has gven oiicoiimuiit newoks s atilansofiiibilzin laor The coiistrtiction of local coinpost plants has given on communilty networks as a1 means of moblizingT labor reiet h biiyt ev (as inl the Orangi Pilot Project), as a way to reducecosts residents the ahiliry to rccle organic wastes as well, obc o(as IntheOrangin Pilot project) as dS wa reduechanism creating nl employnment opportunities and reducing of basic goods (as In Caili, Colombia), or as a miechanism- the amonOLit of garbage left onl the streets 7j to inipt-ove the efficeielcv of se rvice cieliverv: In Buenos teaitlto alaelt ntesres ) In Mexico City, the squatters of El NMolino have also Aires, for example, the governmenit has been building on cotiniiitinnitv nietworks to improve its distribLutioll Of y earning opportunities. Household wastewater, garbage, food aid through its Programa Alimnentario Integral v and sewag are conducted by above-ground rubber Solidario (PAIS) plan. Unider the PAIS plan, beguIn Id o or ruhel 1989, grotips of 2(0 to 100 residenits form multifamily tubing intoa isirdo an alternative syste organic wastes. The sirdo dries and filters wastes pro- kitchelis; these kitchens then receive a subsidy from the ducmig water cleain enough for aquaCeulture aiid commu- governmelit to purchase food thcmselves 66. This form - e d f of distriutioni proved to have several advantages over the previous svstem, which distributed boxes of food to , , ,, , ,, . . , , ~~~~Houisebold Stabliztv anid Conitnztinitv Menmbersbip individual households. By forminig a pool, the famillies in the kitchieni are abile to buyV food in bulk at reduced Essential services such as water suppiv, sanitation, and prices. More importantly, the fanilies are able to decide gairbage collection in low-income settlements are not for themselves how to spcncd the subsidy. ly 1 994, 6,700 readilv provided hv individual action. Nor do increases multifamilyl kitchens were operatling in Buellos Aires (6&7. in individual family income necessarily lead to improve- Second, one of the hest avenIues for improvinig menits in ncighborhood living conditiois. Instead, these household enr ironmnental management lies In combin- are neighborhood and coInmmunity issues requiring col- ing it with income-generating activities. This can be lective action (72). However, if people do not feel a sense done through activities based directly on environmental of security in their households or that they are members manageiment, such as recvcling, or indirectly, through of a community, they are not likely to devote their progranms thiat create cominUllity-based enterprises that energies to iiprovilg environilmenital coniditions. W,)rld Resources 199(-97 135 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability to improve the quality of their own housing 176) (77i. (See Box 6.3.) The Role of Women in Environmental Management In low-income communities, womien are invariably the principal managers of local environmental resoul-ces. They are responsible for keep- ing the house and the neigh- horhood clean, disposing of household garbage, and ob- taining fuel and water, among other things. Women also plav a critical, if largely unrecognilzed, role in coin- Competing roles. Many poor wornen work within the home or neighborhood. where they juggle munity planninsg and man- competing demands of jobs, childcare, and household management. agement. They seek to ensure the provision and mainte- nanice of such basic collective First and foremost, security comes from land and services as water, health care, and education. Women housilig tenure. In many squatter settlements, however, also come together to confront and solve common prob- the status of residency is uncertain. Official policies lems such as inadequate housilIg or infrastructure (751 i79). often declare these settlements illegal, whicih means that Yet, in many instances, women are given little voice residents are subject to eviction without warninig (7. in decisionmaking (s. Local authorities and planners On the other hand, at least in selected areas, governments rarely consult withi women or work with them as equal have given implicit recoginitioni to such comiluities by partners. The consequences of not including women in providing them with basic services, limited infrastruc- comm unity decisionmaking range from inappropriate ture, and even quasi-governimienit officials (74) i75i. infrastructure designs to poorly coordinated services. Even though land or housing tenure affords a sense There are innumerable examples of projects to install of stability in a community, it is the perceptioni of being toilets, water pumps, and washi basins in which no able to stay on the land rather than having the legal right attempt was made to consult women or understanid to occupy the land that often matters the most. This what would be culturally acceptable or practical for perception can arise from othier indications of continu- them. In the Yucatan, Mexico, squat-plate latrines built ity, such as the length of time that the community has on the recommendations of engineers were rejected by existed, the extent of goverinment investmenit in commu- women who preferred pour-flush latrines, even though nity infrastructure and services, or whethier previous this necessitated carrying water s8i. efforts to avoid eviction have been successful. Consequently, involving women in community pro- Although perceptions of stability appear to be more jects has two very real benefits. First, tapping into important than the legality of land occupation, this women's knowledge can greatly improve the likelihood should not be taken to mean that land security issues of a program's success. Second, improving the urban can be ignored. To the contrary, one of the most critical environment can translate into direct benefits to needs in cities is a coherent land titling process for the women's health and thus to the overall sustenance of the poor and low-income commullities. The long-term sta- household. Where womilen have been given access to bility of low-income communities depends on the ability credit, a voice in decisionmaking, and educational and of households to gain clear title to land for housing. (See employmenit opportunities, substantial improvements Chapter 5, "Urban Priorities for Action.") in living conditionis have been documented. When given security of tenure and clearer legal bases In Nairobi, Kenya, for example, female-headed for property ownerslip, the poor will build and itivest households in the Kayole/Soweto slumiis east of the city 136 World Resources 1996-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability hayve made tremilendoLus progress in improving their Cominunity Organization livlilg coinditoions liince 1988. the IM ultiig f)(tin;) !e?ln oping wvorld, these exercises 91Pte11 space to inenercities. pmv'd;'w A,- f/ lri/f.l! if0 z ff [z/ GpO , /0( CL /r .1 1('I i.sii?sscs t generailly focus tii identify- 9? l>ape' ing the worst environmental threa1ts to he alth. A range of to 5 years. More than 1,70I ( hoLiseholds have brenefited I I A I technILiques Is being LuSCe to iedntify priorities, and some from the i iiiproveineiits 9Z of thesc are niore participatory and iniclisive than oth- ers. Somei emphasize datai collcction in concert with Co -ninunitv Credit Programs public CoiisUltatrotns; others foCLus nltre on1 conisensLus The lack of finainicialI resotu-Ices is a ma 'or obstacle ill bluilding to reaclh eiivironilileital goals. fostering coiniuniti-based dcvelopment. However, There is no agreeiiieiit on which azpproaclhes work iiaiiy xperieiices sliow that, once tlhce are orgaiiized, best. As the Urban Management Programme (UMIP) e iii titiiities can ani d will begin to contribkite their ownl ft tid, tihe priorities deterniinecl by public consultationis fn lanC;al -CSOLII-CeS andz wvill repayl loans. A cotiiiiioi 1 may be very different fromi those Identified by rapid featuire of nmaii SuCCeSSful1 pr-ogr-aiiis is the princ'iple r scieitific assessments. (The UMIP a joit priugram of the grouil resptnsibil ity; wli cli is ofteii accomplished by' n atii e ep Prtigranio e, theH - ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~llnltcd Naitioiis D)evelopmencit Prlogramme,n the Habitat otrga iiizing borrowers ilito siiiall-sCal csLIbgroiLups withil international Coalition, anl thc World Bank, is ii1- rlieC z1111111.111tv. (See Box 6.S.) volved in developing environmiienital action plans in a nuimb er of cities.) In Sao PaLalo, Brazil, for examiple, Iinlted greeil space was identified as a high priority ill SLi rVeVS I111 IlaiV COliLntriCs show that relatioiisliips be- the cotisLiltaitioii process bLit did not eveii make it onto twceil envirtonuieiita I poll ntioii and h Lima ii heai lth are the data-based probleiii rank iig in. (See Tahle 6.2.) The otfteii poorly Liiiderstood. Simnple acts stich as waslilgo t, t tl , 0LItCoIl1eS of both1 of tnese p rocesses are largelv dlepleld(- hands, which caii significaitlyv break poor environi- enlt oil wl o is mtvolved; a Pool- tailivl maLv have a LIltitc nient-poor health cycles, are not practiced. M°odet sro- different set of pritirities thai a rich oiie Even in1 the graliis, sticl as poster or radio cailmpaigls, and working d data coellectiosn prrocess, the blases of those collectiiig wirlt leaders or designated coinimiiiiiitry enviromtiineitmal ll iiterpretlig the data iiiav be a factor. health specialists caii begin to address these issuies. a urtermre, tl tais rema abor FLirtherniore qlUeStionis remain1 aboiit whether and howv these exercises canI best be translated iito action. SETTING PRIORITIES l)Priority-setting StLidics provide Valilable informatiO1i but miay have liiii ted iiiipact if they ignore public sell- A ke' elemicir iti the mnyl' efforts lt lider way to create tituieit or the partieCaltr political, financial, anid inistitu- butter cuiui tuuti .ities aid cities. fri-oiii Caaniiarca, Petrt, to tiotial coiitext of a cit. They m;' lie less effective if 140 W 'wid R'soit-cs l')r)(-')7 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.4 Citizen Participation Leads to Better Plan for the Bronx, New York In the summer of 1992, residents of the plan includes a variety of more defensi- more for the enrire project to he com- downtrodden Melrose Commons neigh- hle spaces for differenlt ages and differ- pleted. borhood in New York City's South ent purposes (2j. The Nos Qtiedamos Comilimiittee has Bronx discovered that the city was plan- The original city plan proposed a identified a first phase of the project ning to revitalize the neighborhood and middle-income community wvith 4,000 that encompasses an eight-block area. that many homes were slated for demo- units of small, attached houses over 30 The development includes proposed six- lition. blocks. The plait developed by the Nos to eighit-story mixed-use huildings, foulr- As it turned out, the City Planning De- Quediamos Commiittee envisioned a low- story toWnhouses, two-famnily homes, partment had been working on the plan to mid-rise mixed-income residential restorationi of existing residLential huild- since 1985, hut with little comniunity community with about 1,500 new ings. off-street parking. a 4.000-square- participation. Like so many other such dwelling units, 80 rehabilitated units, meter park, and various other opeit plans, the "revitalization" would dis- 16.250 square meters of commercial re- spaces for comniunitv gardens an( clhil- place many community residents froin tail and office space, and 18,600 square dren's recreation. The area inIcludles all their homes, apartments, and businesses. A few residents were otitraged that We are staying. members of the commullity who had In the Bronx, local stayed througIl thick and thin would be - f f>- leaders helped rewvarded for their fortitude svith the ' A- fr41 convince city offi- loss of their homes. They were also frus- -' cials that commu- trated that the plan was developed by nlt A\/,'A/r ^ my input is crucial people who did not live in or know the tJfl/"\YI/'l': to the success of neighborhood. I plans to redevelop At a series of public forums held by ° '_ decaying urban the Bronx Center, a comttiuxiity-based < . ' neighborhoods volunreer planning effort for a 300- 2 K _ . block section of the Bronx that encom- 7 passes Melrose Commons, long-time > residents angrily denounced the plan. Stung by the public reaction, the lead- ' ' I ers of the Bronx Center and the Bronx borough presidetit activelv encouraged meters of space in community struc- of the bunildinig tvpes proposed for the Melrose Commons residents to get or- tures. larger (ievelopimient and canl thus serve ganized and involved in the revision of One key to the plan was the use of six- as a model for subsequent developmenit. the plan. The Bronx Center provided to eight-story mixed-use buildings witli NMost of the la.nd is city owned, which the services of two community organiz- stores at the street level and apartments will miniimize the need to acqUire pri- ers, and a longtine resident provided of- above. Residents felt that such build- vately owned sites. fice space. Two architects donated their ings would provide enough people on The work of the Bronx Center has at- services to the group, known as the Nos the streets and in the stores to help tractedl the atrenition of community ac- Q sedainos (We're Staying) Commit- make the neighborhood safe (;I. tivisrs, public officials, husiLness Icailers, tee. ml. Another kev was to minimize the dis- professionals and academics from mainly In 1 year, the group had 168 meetings placeinent of residetits. Under the origi- cities in rhe United Stares artd abroad. and each week sent out about 250 faxes nal plan. about 78 families and 80 and international institutions such as to city officials. The original plan was lbusinesses were to be moved out of the the 'orld Bank. withdrawn by the city, and the Nos area; under the new plan, about 55 Quedamos Committee became the focal families an(d .51 businesses would have References and Notes point of a revised plan. to move, but nost wvould be given top I. ti C-[v z.ild:7, "Revohirmiii -if l'topeC The residents' insights produced many priority for new homes and stores (ouer Wclls Urp it the Broi'.. Ne )twk significant chamiges. City planners had within the communitv. Timuis i Itijy 8, 1'i)9 S, p. Bl . envisioned the center of the community By mid-1994, the new plan had heen 2. Mter-yn Rothisrteit, A RemcL,il P1.i1 itl as being in the south, bitt residents said approved by two local conimunityv thru Broit' AIvoicATess,. Nct Yo,rk Titms the center was actually in the northeast boards, the Bronx borough president's (lkl Ir), I'J94i, p. [R. quadrant, where many people lived. office, the New York City Planning i. Ii'. The original plan called for an 8,00)0)- Comminissioni and various other city square-meter park in the middle of the agencies. and the City Council. But project, but residents thought that such manv of the designs for hotising devel- a park would be indefensible and opmnents in the proposal do not fit into would immediately become a havemi for any current government housing pro- drug addicts and crininals. The revised grams, so it could take a decade or Wr(,rld Rcsoiiurs l')')u-'( 141 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustaioability 2^Q- ";t: V ] r> million locallv in spending on air pollution conitrol equipment and a new local ma nufacturer of air pollu- tion "scruhlbers." The city's husiness and political leaders ailso saw J" . ! itimprovemnciits in the city's elivironlilielnt as a marketiog Opportunitv that could attract new businesses and new inivestmenits. The city's electric buses are made by a new loc al firml that has also received orders from cities in several other states. The cirt wvanits to traiistorimi a decrepit old inidustrial area, the Soutil( Central Bosiness District, into a nlewv mixed-use conmmiiunitr of neighbor- hoods anid environimentally pristine bLusinesses, which Participatory planning. In Chattanooga. Tennessee. clizer.-s would allow emplovees to live near their workplaces. leadlers, andplaniners vvere all given a clhrce Into pick p a ie un Environmental iim provemenits gained fLurther coiln- .anud help redesign 140 liectares of untderutilized land mullnity suLpport in 1 984 durinig the Vision 2000 project, whichI bloIght soine 1,700 members of the comninUllity those most affected (the poor) are not given the meanis together over 20 weeks to ralk about their vision of the to articulate their needs. Political support, timing, and city in the year 200(0. Th meetinigs rcsulted in 34 an emphasis on cost-effective solutions are also im>por- conicrete goals, which in turni generated some 223 cite tant if these processes are to be tranlslated into tangible projecrs. The projects included the conlstruction1 of thc liprove lien rs. TeIniessee River Park, the Tennessee AquariulIl, and a In the wealthiier cities of the developed world, prior- c(onirmitnient to upgrade the citv's substandard hoLisilg. ity setting catn take on a different guise. Rather than By 1992, 85 percenit of the goals had been met. Somc foCus ol life-threatening environnienital problems, somne $739 million was invested in the citv of which about comliniuties have the luxury of thinking about the two thirds camie from private sources. By 1993, rhe future. In numtierous cities across North America, for comlimunity \wvas ready to start all OVer again, launching instanice, com1mullities are using public foruins to de- ReVision 2(000. velop a visioi of the fuittire ainrd theni decide upon1 collaborative strategies for getting there. Table 6.2 Methods for Establishing Environmental Indecd, the experience of Clhar- Priorities, Sao Paulo, Brazil tanooga, Tennessee, shows how large- Problem Data-Based and Criteria- scale comm1.1unitV participation can add Priority Consultation Processa Based Problem Rankingb extra impzetus to a cityZ restorationl pro- High Substandard housing Surface water Lack of urban infrastructure Environmental hazards gram. Only three decades ago, aui pol- for the poor Forest/agriculture lution in Chattainooga was so bad that Settlement of risk-prone areas Hazardous waste drivers often had to switch on head- Limited green space Poor sanitation lights in the middle of the (aiv. Tubercu- losis cases were three times tile national Medium Inadequate sewage treatment Ambient pollution Water supply not protected Solid waste average. Flooding Noise pollution The city's political, business, and en- Coastal pollution vironmcntal leaders, along withi the Indoor pollution comlminunlity as a whole, all played a role Low Vehicular air pollution Rural ecosystems in the turnaround. The ciry's political Poor transportation Cultural property leadeis cracked diown lOn air pollution management Source: Josef Leitmann, "Rapid Urban Environmental Assessment: Lessons from Cities in the in response to the requiremiienits of tile Developing World, Volume 1: Methodology and Preliminary Findings," Urban Management 1970 federal Clean Air Act. Meeting Programme Discussion Paper No. 14 (The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 1993). p. 33. Notes: the llCVV law' s liealth staidards meaint a. A public forum that reaches a consensus on priority issues. This process does not requiring local industries to install air necessarily reflect public opinion but is based on participation by interested stakeholders. polluItion contrrol equipment. Blut the b. Using data collected during the rapid urban environmental assessment phase, urban problems are ranked according to the scale of their health impact, economic losses, im- req u i reienits also prrov ided local eco- pact on the urban poor, irreversibility, unsustainability of resource consumption, and de- nomilc stimulus, generating some $40 greeoflocalsupport. 142 World Resources I 9)9-97 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability URBAN VIEWPOINT Box 6.5 Nigeria's Community Banks: A Capital Idea With a small loan, many low-income tecting forged currencies, and so Most loans are for less than N5,000 workers and craftspersons in Africa forth-as well as a minimum working (US$200). could expand their informal businesses capital of about 250,000 Naira The community bank program has far enough to provide some security for (US$11,000). Communities raise funds exceeded the country's expectation. The their families. However, it is difficult, if for the bank in much the same way as annual general meertig of these banks not impossible, for most people to ob- thev' finance other cooperative efforts has become something of a community tain a bank loan because few have hold- such as building a school, a clinic, or a festival, with drums welcoming the conm- ings, such as land, houses, or livestock, church. This entails mobilizing every- munity members, who often come out that could be used as collateral to se- one with strong ties to the community, in their Sunday best. The chairmen and cure a loan. Without such leverage, a including sons and daughters living board members of the banks have ac- large segment of the populationi is con- abroad, to pav a charge or make a do- quired local respectability and feel a signed to persistent poverty. nation. This sense of ownership by the deep sense of accomplishment in the A popular alternative in Nigeria is the communitv has contributed to the pro- changes they are bringing to the eco- community banking program, in which gram's success. nomic fortunes of their neighbors. one's honor and standing in the commu- The community is also responsible for At a few community banks, some mi- nitv can take the place of collateral in appointing a board of directors and nor problems that required intervention securing a loan. The principal function staff for the bank. According to irs char- by the National Board have arisen. A of collateral is to ensure that the appli- ter, a communitv bank must be owned more serious problem, however, has cant does not renege on the commit- primarily by a community development been the exposure of some community ment to repay the loan by the due date, association although overseas relatives banks to the crisis in the financial sec- In Nigeria, in places where strong coin- and collectives such as trade associa- tor of the economy. This has particu- munitv ties exist, a peer sanction system tions, farmers unions, marker women's larly affected those communitv banks has been used to ensure correct behav- organizations, cooperative societies so that had placed funds in disrressed ior in credit transactions. The commu- cial clubs, and corporate bodies can banks and finance houses in Nigeria. niry's basic system of trust creates a also be shareholders. It is still too early to make a definitive climate in wvhich residents can pool The only government involvement is a statement of how much community otheir National Board of Community Banks, banks have contribured to resolving the other. Iwhich develops, monitors, and provides problems of urban poverty. Examples Although primarily designed to de- provisional lops, for these banks, of specific loans, however, illustrate the liver credit to the rural population, Ni- ThevNaional Board.can provide a com- potential of these tvpes of credlit ar- geria's communitv banking program m tinitv Ban a h loan rangements for improving people's , , . , . , ., ~~muinitv bank wvith a matching loan has been launchied in urban areas with . g i.ves. For instance, an unemploved large numbers of poor persons whose equialent to Its working capital after it young man got a loan of N7,500 livelihoods depend on infornal jobs. has been operatng successfully for 3 (US$340) from the Obeiudu C:ommu- More than 35 percent of Nigeria's com- nionths. The matching loan must be nity Bank in Uromia, Edo State, to buv munity banks are in urban areas-with paid back within 5 years. Community a maize grinder. Because he paid in one fifth of these in the Lagos metro- banks may apply for a final license is- cash he got a discount that enabled politan area. Most urban community sued by the Central Bank of Nigeria Af- him to buv a wheelbarrow as well. He banks are located close to urban mar- termploved another young man to use kets, where they cater largely to the nity bank can apply to the Nigeria De- e anothero manoe the wheelbarrow to help miarket credit needs of market women, food posit Insurance Corporation to have its women and customers to move their sellers and wholesalers, drivers. and me- customers' deposits insured against a goods around. With money earned chanics, many of whom, although not bank failure. from that activiry, he was able to pav well-to-do, own some small shares in By December 1993, community banks back the first loan and to take out anl- the bank. had mobilized more than N2 billion other one to buy a second maize The first community bank in Nigeria (US$90 million) nationwide-more grinder. When he paid back that loan, was commissioned in 1990 in Tudun than half of this as savings deposits. To- he took out yet another one to buy a Wada, in the Kaduna Local Govern- tal assets had risen to more than N3.2 portable electric generator, and he has ment Area of Kaduna State. Within 3 billion (US$145 million), and loans and not looked back. years, some 879 community banks had advances of nearly N750 million -Akin L. Mabogunle been established throughout the coun- (US$34 million) have been made. Some try. Currently, 1,052 community banks 40 percent of the loans and advances are in operation in Nigeria. were for commercial activities. Manu- Akin L. Mabogunje is a chairman of To establish a community bank, a facturing accounted for more than 18 the Development Policy Center in community must provide all of its own percent of loans, agriculture and for- Ibadani, Nigeria. He formerly serv-ed as banking equipment-a building, safes. estry accounted for 17 percent, and Chairman of the National Board for office furniture, ultraviolet lights for de- transportation accounted for 8 percent. Conmnmunity Banks in Nigeria. World Rcsources 1996-97 143 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability Box 6.6 International Urban Environment Programs There is growing recognition among UN[)P's Public-Private Partnerships works, includinig programs in Australia, agencies that their role should be one of Programme promotes the collaboration Canada, and the Unired States ;s. institutional strengthening-helping cit- between the government and private The International Council for Local ies identifv their worst problems and de- companies, with the participation of Environmaental Initiatives, which is for- velop local means to address them. To nongovernmental organizations mally affiliated witih the International this end, many of the multilateral and (NGOs) and the scientific-academic Union of Local Authorities is the inter- bilateral programs dealing with the ur- community, in the provisioni of city serv- national environimental agenicy for local ban environment are focusing on re- ices such as water and sanitation and authorities, working directly with mu- search, capacitv building, and infor- wasre managemenr. The objective of nicipalities to develop tools and nan- mation exchange, as well as trving to the program is to help foster commnunii- agement approaches for enviroinmental find new ways to foster participation by cation between local authorities and the protection and to implement local ver- local commnLillities and political leaders private sector at various levels, creating sions of the Agenda 21, the plan of ac- in the process of assessing environ- concrete opportunities for technology tion developed at the United Nations mental problems and developing priori- dissemination and investments that can Conference on Environnmental I)evelop- ties for action, produce social, economic, and environ- ment (the Earth Sinimit) -i. One of these programs is the Urban menital benefits. Numerous NGOs arc also forming in- Management Programme (UMP). which UNDP also has creared the Local In- formation exchanige networks. The is funded jointly bv the United Nations itiative Faciliry for Urban Environm1ent Habitat Interniational Coalition. tor ex- Development Programme )UNDP) and a (LIFE) prograin, svhich is an attempt by ample, is a coalitioni forimed by overI number of bilateral agencies. The UMP the international communitvy to provide 200 NGOs from 56 Countries working is executed by the United Nations Cen- direct support to local groups workinug on housing or related issues is). Other tre for- Hunian Settlements (Habitat) to improve the urban environment. A networks include the Asian Coalition witr te foroHuniank Se s (Hiasscitat) committee composed of a diverse grouip for Housing Rights, the Arab NGO ageicv The program focuses on five ar- of local people looks for proposed pro- Network, and the Center for African eas: urban land management, the provi- jects that involve collaborative action Settleineiit Studies and Developmcnt. eas uba lad iaageen, heprovi- among NGOs, commnunity-balsed or- sion and maintenance of urban infrastructuire, miunicipal finanice, the al- ganizations, local authoriries, and, po- References and Notes leviation of urban povertv, aniid the pro- tentially, the private sector ( 1. Carl Birrone et a/., Towird Finviruri- teviation ofthe urban poverty,oandthepro- The Sustainable Cities Programmine. lci StrilreSgies for C(itirs: olicy (otilsd- receion of the urbaLn environmelnt which was launched by Habitat and the erarions for Ulrlbain Eiviroitinenil Sfince 1990, theIMPirnniea hastaele ies United Nations Eiivironment Pro- Management in Developing C.oiintries. define broad environten tal strategies gramme in 1990, focuses on capacity LUrIsa it Mantagenient Prograititne Pa per and build the capacity to manage urban building at city, country, regional, and No. 18 (The World B.unk. Wxshingion. problems :. The program is operation- global levels. In individual cities, the DLt., 1994), p. Xi. allv decentralized (vvith four regional of- program uses broad-based consultation 2. 1 he MetropoliMamn Eitironnient.l Improve- fices in Accra, (Ghana; Kuala Lumpur, processes to mobilize local resources for ment Progrni (NEIP.) MFIP Pro&grrss Re- Malaysia; Quito, Ecuador; and Cairo, the development of environmental port 1993 (The World Bank, W.ishiigron. Egypt) and attempts to bring together strategies and the implementation of pri- D.n . 1993), p. 1. the creative expertise of the interna- ority projects. More broadly, the pro- .3. United Nations D)evelopmnent Programnie tional assistance cominunity. grain promotes the sharing of infor- (UNDP). Local Ilniti:irive Facilirt for lir- The Metropolitan Environmental Im- mation among cities in different regions Iran Enviroitnment (lIFE): Reporr oii the provement Program (MEIP), a UNDP- of the world and also marshals techni- Gloa.lI Advisory otninitiicei n dfll D)oiior funded effort managed by the World cal and financial resources from bilat- Workshop: First Year Review arid Siraie- Bank, focuses on environmental im- eral and multilateral sources. mc Planning (lNl)P New York. 1994). provements in Asian cities. MEIP works Denitonstration activities are tinder way in cities such as Beijing, China; Boin- in cities in 20 countries. including 4. Liiiited Nations Centre for Hu ittait Settlc- bay, India; Colombo, Sri Lanka; and Chile, China, Egypt, iehana, Mn1ozam- iiiencs (Halitlt). Sustainable Huimanin Settle- Kathmandii, Nepal (2. MEIP assists bilue, Poland, and Tunisia 4to zm menits De;eloptmiet: Impleientinig Agenda 2/ (Hahrtta, Nairohi. Retviva member cities in the development of en- In 1986, the World Health Organiza- 1994). p. 9. vironmental management strategies and tion devised the Healthv Cities Project action plans, the strengthening of the in- to serve as a forum for city officials, Prolc. T: Pilog CioititHe-Based Health stitutional and legislative framework NGOs, and others to exchange ideas Prorirorion Stairewide, Natoiitl Civic Re- for environmental planning and enforce- about a wide range of issues, including view iSpriiiJSuiirnier 1992), pp. 105-106. ment, the identification and mobiliza- traffic, housing. tobacco uise, AIDS, and tion of resources for Ihigh-prio-ity mental health es). Initially limited to 6. Ibid. p. 05. investment projects, the promotion of Europe, the project has since become an 7. Op. it. 1, p. 84. community-led efforts to improve the interinational movemeit involving hun- S. H;hitr;r hlrternamiontal Comlition," 1 vi- environment, and the sharing of infor- dr-eds of cities around the world. There r.ompzent and Urbaniza.tion. Vol. 2. No. I nation among member cities, are 3 international and 17 national net- (April 1990), pp. 1)5-1 I 2. 144 WXorli Resources ) 99f-9- City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability AlthoughI the process vvas soniewhat ad boe, it nev- Wide, city-based producers and conisuimers a1reCady ac- er-tiheless was drivei hV all U erlying cosenisus in the count for Most of the renewable and nonrenewable late I 960s and I 97(s thar the cit\ was tailing, both resource consu i ptioll naid waste generation I D;). econorimcalkly and environimentally 1 'har dirove the IMally of the priority actions cal led for in this reporr process alhead was a tacit agreement bctWenCI hbusilless have been foCused on thie f'irst part of the Cequaltion: leaders and the community at large about the value of imieeting,, the cirretir neecds of rhe U rba n poor. As previouS environmcn ral i improvemcen ts; ill addition, rhere was chapters hiave mnade clealr, this involves iot itjist p-ovid- stronlg community uppor resuilring from1 the VLisio ing physical necessities such Ls food, fuel, and wAater but 2000 process "S adeq iatC livelihioods intd other SOCial, cultural, rihealth, and political nleeds as wvell. In wealthier cities, the seconid part of the equation, CITIES AND SUSTAINABLE DEVE..OPi\IENT sustainllable developmnleIt, assuLiics increasing inpor- tance, ani rthe priority actions center- on reducilIg both NM-ally of rhentc sarnie Ideals ab.our *Irizenl partjicFatol(n a1ndcl coni iniri\ mnobi ilization are embodied in the excessive consuim ption of nattira I resoti rcs and the broader concept of -sLstainable cities," which has gar- buirden of wvastes oi th globral environmenft. As cti- nered increasing attenitioni over tihc Iast few years-es- sebried in Cha prer , Llra Priorities for Action," pecialiv but niot elisively intheleveloped world, As stLich initiatives incluide reducinig fossil fliel CoiisuiniIp- yet, howcvr. there is little agreement aboti what c0i tioni, tor examiple, throLigig cinrgy coiiservatioin and stirtites a 'sustainable cityv" or whether, i11 fact, slch all iiiore efficienit transportation sVstCllms and redlucnig rhe ciltitv is possible in the via rrt)w sense of the worcl A a tilnllt of Waste throtig pul)lution pre\xention. narrow foCus oni sUstailable cities, for- instaiince, cain leaid These loiiger-te rmii ecological coniccrns are relevant to to the ideil that citics shLild only d raw o)il nltural cities in the developinlg world as well, for ais thecy grow resources froim with in the in lilediate regionl, whichi and prossperi theirconmsuniption of resotirces andi genera- seems incrclsilniglv at odds withi the globalization of thle tion of wastes Will rise accordinIglV Linless actions are world econ0om1vy. taken niow rO proiniotc the e fficielt Lise of resoLIrces a lC SoLilie commentators ha\e argutd persLiaisivelv that a th miinlizationl of Waste i 1)4. The challenge for all nlore tisftiI fra mework is to foCus instead on rthe role cities is to seck iiew management approaches thar both of cities il stistainable developImlent mLum. imi) Here, provide for the needs of urban residents and protect the sustaiiablt' development" is defietid as meeting the environnmentral resoum-tees On which h1111a life depends. nceds of the prescenr WvithOit undermining the r-esource and ecological base for future generations. This defini- tioii is in keeping with that used in ( ) Cor (Xnmwu Future, the report of the World Coni1iissio11 011 Fonvi- This chapter eas written b1y Mike Douglass of thc De- ro(ninncr and Developentr (also kiiowIl ais the Bri mLir- partment of Urban and Regiontal Planning at the Uziu'er- land Coi mmission! I I 92 (io2). sity of Ha'zia at M1Manoa Hooidltu, Hawaii, azd Cities are clearly central to mieetiig thc goals of Yok-shim F. Lee of the Program On Enviironnment, East- sustainable development. The mnajority of the worldls WYZest Center, Honiolditu. population will soon1 live in towns antI cities. World- Worl/d R csourL s 19)969-9 145 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability References and Notes I .Nick [)evasa id Cai-ole Ra kod i, "The Urhan MiNI,tecr's thesis, Un i cer it y ot Hawaii, Hoite - 5 I . Niicha iele tiglt 1S, "Urha n Povertly iii Asia: ChalI erige," iii Mani sing Fist Grccteing Cit- ILili i. I1995, pp. 22-2s(. A5 Sitniin.i ry ee/ Issues atitid Pcolicy Receenintei- ic's: Nefi A/i/cec.thes to Ucrcan Planniing aimd (. Op o-. 20, p. It.itioisii d..~isctissio ii pa per (Depart itieiitt, Manaitgemnicet in the Dev eloping Wt.irld, Nick UlrIin anid Regioiel PI.1iiiiing, I Jijiversity of Devas anid Carole Raikodi, etds. )Loeetgieine, 26. 1 p. c it. 24, P. 24. Haiwaii, 1-oilii. 9951, P. .5. Fssex, LIR.K. ind Joihn Wiley & Sonis, New 27. .Shialbhir Ciieeiii. "The C halienge ot tic- 57 (/ /6p94 York, 1 993), pie. 31-, Ian Maciagcnteiit: Sicine lssLteS,' In i Ur/bani 5-.4. .I 2. 1/mcd. A,11.tna5ch'in't: Pci cick's tntl linneovation /in i.4,p 5 Bet tebcptnt4 lonetrit's. C. Sh.i'hi r Ch,cni a. 54. 1 p. cit. 49, P. 1.5. 3.Carl Ba rte te t't ci., "Ti wa rd Ficvi roi neitim! ed). Pr,ieger, Wctspi rt, Con ileCricIir, aid1 is. Up/. ctt. 4, p. 53.. Strategies fo r Cities: Peilicv' Considers atios Lonidoni, I 993), p.7.5. itiiiArdam tidKisiSienhin- for Urban EnvironTlieItiti Mattigeiteiti in 6 Ord iAdan ndK soSorh nd Developiiig CitititrieS,'' tlrhatii M\.it.geiiiet 28. O p. cit. .5, pp. 26(,27. lidad. 'Household Fcoeiiiiiic ) i ntl vliirtiu- Prrigramnmte l'oliicy Paiper No. 1 8 i Tue Wourli 29). 0/ip. cit. 24, pp. 4.5-70. ueimtlit I NI .i eigeitient iii BangLeok: Tue (Caes Bank, Wash ingto n. DIC.. 1 994), pp. 13334. 30. Ksecieccini Sius rilar. ratidic Wa.iita Uliaii- oe Wit Chiotigloii attd Yen-ar-lkard,- Asiant 4. Jorge E. Hard(q, DMI13 Mithil, Lltici D;i% id ratana, "Wasre Management iiiid ciieNted cefr Fiti 'irctniro itmanla . A e.igeig ce'nt. 4. jorg E. Haren> i)sii:e 'liriji, aiid as iN rttaita Waste anagenettt atNothe2Ned ).'il 2, N. 9I4t 994), 1717488 S.itterrthw.eire, Eit ire imtnitta/ prcoblemes in f(re PUNLi Pairtici pationr in BangLeek," Re T/iiet Wiec/ld Cities )Fairthsc.ic. 1.iiidiii, gieeut,i Dt'''efee,p tcit l)tileet'ue', V,ii. 14, Nio . . Nlike DeetegIl.Sc .tiid Mali;e Zioghiii, 'Stesraiii- I 9921, p. 2 I 1. 3 i 1 993), pp. 68-69. i iig ( 'ities .i rle/i Gri ssrc iots: I civeihi i e, Eit- 5. Williani [)iliiiger. "'Deceeitr,iii7atiiii inll Its I .The exchi.uige rate on Febritiry I 3c. 1 996. iroilmt, B remigkd' So/icl Witcor) i/nn, SLi -n Iliipiic.irioiis leer Urhbai Service Deliserv,' Fir- was U1S$ 1.0) = 25i.23 BahN. Phicic. Kii.ko6," N i. 2 (194, r p. Pl'l-2tit , ban MnI ategenment Progr.i iititie Discussion Pa- 32vi.ci5p ~ 8 i iew Fol. Pe nt. ii N I. 1cg.i -Ciies I ha i LI00 per Nit. 1 6 (The Wiuti d Bati k, Waishlitiigiron. 2 t ~p.1-11 8 mi .Piia.-1gl(lC:Goa l [D. (:., 1 9 94t, 11. x. ;.1.1 0/c. cit 24, Ppp 26 it. haie;tu itimie itit hiiietverieui,'' iii U!r/cti A'lani- 6. Nick D)evac, "Evceliciig Appricachec.- in 34. .1/c. cit. 2.i.1pc'iiit'imt: I'ceitii's tued /miiii, icitcis ill Mani.giitg Feast Gret c nicttf lities: Newi Ap- .1.5. lIp. cit. A pp. 49- 1. Dc'ti'/b piing I: intricits. C. Shbablen C:lieciii.t, prochcicus toUbnPanng'm aae d. )IPraeger, Wesi1e...rt. C Inneieecicuit, iiit inn ntee tIc/vte,p eiing lVute! N cic c evise I )lp. c it. 7 P. S. IEondon, 1 993). pp. 47-48. attNd Caroic Rakeidi. etis. Lioiigiian. Fssexc, 17. Nicks Docugs,iss Iic idiira Dhariii.p.utni, idit 59L. Jiohii Frctiuedin tit, Flil..n/cit'e'euitc : T/cc Pee/i- LIK.. . itd Jcihii Wils.Y & Scois, Ness Yot rk, A pratisdiceo I i tLltiiiii Jr-cctiv/eirk, f c the t'ir tic s cet. A/t'rettti'c' Dc'i't'cpincnit(il )[hck wellI. I199.3i, P. 9it. /cii a c/n A,timP/tae: Recpe/i/a VI (Bap- I ..inteiritdge ind~ OxIf/crd. L[tK., 1 992.i. PeP. petias, C,cierncneneii Icc)ldciesi,i, J.tkirri. 43-4.5, 49-Si. 96-It) I INN0 . c. p.i. 38 94)p. iw /p t..i .S0 27, p. 1 2. 8. lip. i/. 5. 1.1/.ci ,P - NIfinci,try ci Fe,reigii Afifairs. L Urmie,ili Pecrtr 9 1. Op. itt. 5, P. 1 9. C ip. it. 1,' .1 . Ailcvi,itieci," Sesr(iucl Piilicy. Dieuceiicuit ii I)). ti/i. cit. 5. ic. 9. ~~~~~~411. 's-ike Doutglass, [)ep.ir-iieii o/ LirhalTilteed DIesc,inel ietii Citeper.eriiii Nii. 5 i Miieister I -. Pattricia NIcCiritec, M0lcu T:ned F1.ifaieil. iiid Regtuiome! P'inninicg. Ititiiersity icf HiWici, for t)ctclcoptiniit C c,er;ieraieeit The 1-lagie, Alfretci RcidrigtieZ, "Ticwardis in hit/er- Htici1i1Li1ti I )96 t persoena cociniiiuiiic,ittii(. Neilierlmtids,I 1994i, p. 41. stand intg cf CGicierii,tice," in Urec/a,i Re- ihI1 l go-S]%,lglg (dc ;te sealrch/ itt t/bc' DBetcc/ccpiic Wucc/cd, Volumete 4 1. (ip. c it. 6. p. 98.5.t2.MceiYeee.'ce tii ut]W se Finer: Perc/e. tie, 'csnci tAct Cite, Riicha erl 42. Ilp. cit. p. P 56. .igcDnir'i Iese'Accj/, Tal/euMli,l9 p 26.1.1f Srreil cidit ILtidi tlI Kjeli ber8 Beil ed cs. (Centre 43. 1Op. it., . 5 6. 63. (It/c. c it. 49. pp. I 1-1 4. for Ureaim & Cecnine_niits StUittie, tJicierisccii 4 Ic i..,p 7 4.1lttt :icisi N. .ciiiicit ec ref Tcecreitoe Torceiirc. 1 99.5). Pe. 122. 6.tJirL ;llTS( .jF m mcadSca 12. Op). cit. 5 . 4.5. Exectciel FZCLirra .teid iarisa Maz.iri- Commisseicnce /for Asia aimd ties Pci/ic. Statc' Hirci irt, "Are Mega-Cit ies Viaiele? A5 Cati- , i Ur/e.ieizcitie cc itl Asia i/itt " tieP.iii [99 1 Ii3. Op. cit. 4, pp. 1 63-164, 207. titonary Taile froit Mlexicoe Cit y, (L .N., N,ss Yoir k. 1 991) p P. 4-i T1 -4-2 I 14. O p. .it. II Leiicitiei. Vici. .18, Nec. I iiceiiti.irs/Fehrti 65. Op. c it. 59. 1.5. lip. cit. 4, pp. 2 8-29, 2/E3. a ry I 996), . P . 6ei. The Mcg.i -Cities Projeect ,en ciete ( cii cr leer I16. ti/. cit. I I, 1'. I iii. 46. lItp. cit. 31, lep. 1t)3'c1 04. Cirhani icis Regicetiti Stitches with The Fictici- IT7. (i/. cit. I I . p. 1)04. 47. Interni,tieeni,l Ccciicii fner Lcscl Eciviront- tirtiot ci C1 .iie0TlelIe,rar-c Stuidies, ''The I'AIS IX8. Ct/. cit. 4, p. 16,2. ieieiiti.l l1itit1ittiec I CII), 'CceiiliiHiiriiy- [Lmci: Fices. Crg.iiizitiocn teed SeltFEne1elovy- Ba scd Serme is e lIIiviers : Q2 iiio, Ecuaidor," nieni(te oi [ice Pclotie: hiciteio A5i rec,," Irll: bn E.n- I19. Stiliei,t Arrossi it at., Findiii/g C-ceimuiii(t' CiSe StLdy Nso. 2 1 (ICIELI Toeronto. Caii- sirciciteitr-Pic-riy I ac Stucks Meriec )Nlegci- Ietttiaii cs Eci r ltsc. ii. I end cii. I 94, p. .1.ced. I1994). Citie Proja ect, Nesc Ye rk, I 994)4, P. IO. 20. Willicant Diiitiger, "Uirian Proeperty T:i x Re- 48. feh BrUtgIii1.i1cit. Secrettiry Genieral, Intierite- 6.Ileid., P. I 2 foriTIl: C Miideliiiie aidt Reconinienesidatiocts,"tieciCctncileItalEircns-illi 68 /cct.4,p2. Uirbani Mitiaigemeiit Procgrammiie Tutu Net. I toll (n lfr EvrrneIA 1- 6-().I.49 .23 (The Witchd BtKu . Wishingititn, D.C., I 992i,iiae, Toeronito. Caiid.i. I c9 pecscen:i 69. Hiccit Pcerboi 'IUrbecit Soelid Wastte Maitnige- p. 38. s. iiitii, ieimiieir in Banidunig: Tcew rclrs tee Integrated Re- 2 1. Op. c i/. i, p. 16. 49. Nlitke Dcutgiass. '[Fhe PoliriccAi EL.eieenivc cit oetrce Recoeier Sycteini,' :e/irceimiie.e tote I irh,tc lioserty .ini] Envirieiniciit,l Nctitage- U!c/eIiiizctticcc. Vcci. 1, Nec. I iApril It99, 22. I/p. cit. 5. pp. 2-3 imenr in Asia: Access, Einposcermni t, aidis pp. 601-69. . 3. Op. cit. i. p. 19. (Coeitiiiiiirc Bised Aiterititise,'- Fecitr... - i1. The \leg.i-Cities Pirecicr inid hEncironCHeeicc,e 24. NMirico Desai Brsewe-r, 'SMeeting the Needs of icici/tit) l.!d/cI/cbizati/tcu, Viii. 4, Nec. 2Cctco- QUci.liry liieri.:i-Tccecc1,ii 'L.1tiel 1ecuiee Eicvirocti- thie Urbain Pocccr: Fitianicinig Eiiviroiiiiitsieicl 111- her IL s9 2i, Pe. 1.3. 1itellr.ll iti11 t)CVCilpiiieiTl Pregr:eui: (Litr,'' tra,trctrtsire mitit Sersicc int Asi.iii Cities," .Si. Op. cit. 6. p. 94 Liriecac Ftiviroiiincii-Peee city (.i,ce Sueidy Sc- 146 Wkorldi Resources 1 996-9/7 City and Community: Toward Environmental Sustainability ric, NIleg,i-Ciricv Pri ICC New \I irk, I 94) Iaui.arilltn. Voil. 1, No.. 2 (O,r iirr 1 9I' 91 *, I) (p a 57. p I 9 pp. 1-42. p. 4- 'i. FLtgCiii.rI ~ ivtiro Einii FlowI Cs ind (mirsIo 7 I. I(tc. ,itt. 9,p. 4 7 8 I. Uniiited N.rir10rr 11IiiiinTIo1tiri Restitch arId Rolierl.,'Si I Jrlmiro FcIIiIr9icII `,iii 72. Yok-ittuu F. Lee, "(In,ii tnily -BIased Urbkrn T r.i unI IIIIIg lIiisri rrtc I ,toI i Iiu' A d ,I IIvI I IeCI It 1. NIgtn CIt9 I n,ii Traer c/i 1-yicItrtien,l,5 Fiiv-irriinernrtil Mairageimentr: I o,il N(,Ds Womlnen (INSTRA\V), 'rW ltmei. \Vjter rid Irt Pi'r......I Mi'tttal(.tit, dclt P'rIiIblrrms Ur- ;scivCata,~riyr,' RcgtloinId/ Dr't''/iprrt'rt Dui.- Saiitaioi, irrr ii Wwrrcrrt d.InI 1 I' iiIiCltI- i'lnI,,,, v Aiitw,c'rrr!' i( tider-irr dc Trl.tl o,rpr loguc, Vol. 15, Mi. 2 t -\uumin 1994I'mil: .A RI'.IIr. Salik `,rllhiiieIicr. ed. MtIskII, l.itrtt,rrw 1994i. ltgr, 'l. IS (.2 Ariiir ~ ,NIlonrihlI Re%rietc Pi'cs, N,-tnt Yrork, j 911 p. I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.i2, . I/iLI Joel c ALidetrr I, "Eviction Trend~ WI 'rId- p.' 12;.57 pl91 wie,l-ultd tire Rorle of LrocaiI AIthtlriircs In 82. Arri-tin Hoirivrg FITIiui. "AfriL.ii Folrriirig2 (. i. 7 p 161 Iiiipleilliietriirg rue Righit io Hrrtisiiie' Frtt' 1-untd PIr,Igr,sI Reporti for I kIIcr l- -oot) C 9 (I/ -a1 7"2 Colrint'itut .trtd t;r/IIniiz,rtIij. VIII. Ir. Nro. I Ijvorle SIIvCioI. LIIi I 992-liii un 1 '' (A rin- IApril I 994i, pp. 10-lb . c.ti HoIiSItig Futitdl NunI hoi. ' 1. S 7 6. 't ok-shint F. let. LI Urni P1iIl1tiruiig irld Vec:- iii tIli.ilior.Iitil%i thil tIiC Unittid Naiit Fit- 198 `,c~ I riter, 'IBr.i%i' N-ew (-tie (hitt- tror ConitrolI in Siirthe.rs Asuiai S iCs.- virlI nititC t Profrnritiil, \V.tiiriigriwi, D).(.., Bi II..RlicL 'It tIte LSi,vr.irn.tirlc I o'iiiiiitit- K.lcsi"YIrtg !(ircl/Ctil ca/ Mt'c!tc Ill .SLi'tll 54 Vol I92.P. 127. tier' BIll,"I 7hc Arimticir / ctrti.i. VIoI. 17 Id) I 994t, pp. S45-S-46. 96. At ii Strly r, W,imnr'i-I Hwireb, I/c/indroc No. I `,r SrtintI 1i99Si, pp. 22-29. '77 I U. .A ercy fo ITra Ioni Dic Ip tHmit.mu, .StC,li'Cc'w: F/-, lis(c1i 'i HiCItil. I9. (1k. lit. 4. ppI. I -7-(1 1<..'. .IgCiICV It It tntcrn.l t ltItt.i I t)Cl CII ~~~~ Zimida/iiic, Resetii-Jr Reiorti 5b15:6 Ifliuc Nti- illS. AIDt), Reguntlarizrling t/le uinl/cinilc La/ 10TIJinit Switlii unittitile fri Ituulclduu RL- I ii. Rodilluc \Wln it- il Ir-v'pii Winutiten, '(iries D1'i''/iptit'tnt Priic ins. VIII. 2: DI)sctISsilii l'.- Clt,S~kilii.S c-ii192.iiiuchsiririci:At(veris''i na per' (LI.S. AID. Was,h ingrciiu D.( -, J99 1 LII,1 92..il h r ioi'11 -I NIi " I is 79. C..rrlriiiie (IN. NMlrsr, Geitt/I P/aarntgri .ird II,"Planing l,c -it p1miiilIit d Apro IOi d I 'Ici lrrii Rrdlru-v- Whitti midt 1-ispli Rrutriledn,e. Lonidoli and New tYork, 1 99 3i, J10, /),,c'II/iIiIin bSt dill! 71'iec! SI IC/I I olIlr.idli. I1(121, pp. 9-Si I 79. lrrirh K~eIherg Bll, W'intetr,Firs rriii- Ge-ge \V.itr l'rlrlivliiig IP., .A,iiIArIc'n. Hi1. WIir1n I DIidiiiivsIiridllt FrienIiit.r4iitpti1II Ic tiwiil rid UrhrurZiontrt: A (Uide to the Itt- Nliciig.rri. I 9i9 1 p. S-2 14. cv2.Wo lopiiii I Tr cln lnlViri O ittnIllsH t1rrd I)e er.itrrne." FiztuiCIrtrninrt itca ;/ciiZniIl. 9..i, iir.ri I d. Uirtiritet. Reli.tin LerIcPiltt i'renv t)vtil. Iutl r I 0 prd VIn. 3, Nro. 2 (Ocriuher I 99 Ii1 p 92-lr1 3. tug the 11LuhurtI \hilir I.lItc i-rlict -NiRiirUi 11Vrj. r,.O or,I.. 18) .N 911. P.Miirrli I - StyN tIc.I FooId folr Tlioitgltt: Ml.k- Fir-st,- bm,rii'mn,rtiicl in,! Urrtri.tiin.Sll 14 ct 4. p. 1 7 I. riig Writen Visible",' Ertt-uicnrttmtnctt6 andU- .No. 2 r (clIirer 1.1)919, pp. 2;- 19S. 114. t/. it. 4. p. I World Re'sourc'es I 996-97 147 Appendix A. Urban Data Tables A ssem bliing comipiip-abrle data on the comiipr-elhenlsive, international daita sets arc exacerbated W,sorld's urban places hals been stirpris- by differenices am1ongcoutLliries il tIlc definitio of lwat ingly difficilt. Despite the importanice of ColIstitultes all urban place alcd ill the priority assigiied ciries as honie to mior-e rhan 45 percent of to data collectioin, givei sppecific locail or national iieeds. the worldl's people, data that cha racrerize M ost nationaiaI and iiitcriaitionial progra ims that promilise the urban experience arc u1nexpectedly spa rse. globally conilpl-rabIC urban data sets have lnot vet pro- Those data sets that do exist are scattered amliolig the duLced alnV pulishleh1C findillgs. international statistical agenclies according to hei r topi- The Utiited Nations Centre for H LI mall Settlemniets cal manodates. Fo- examliple, the Uinited Nations Pop lIa- (Habitat) is the oiilv InterilationalI instirtitioni with a tion Division miakes estimates of urbani dceimographilc specific nmaiidate to assem ble inforniatooln on LI rban pa raiimeter-s (and contrasts theiii to the rur al experience) Cras. While recognizinig thc liiiitations of definition, and estimiates population iin the world's largest cities. coinparability, and cominprehenisiveiiess, Hab itat h as The United Nations EnvironmllICnIt Programiiime (tJNFP) nionethteiless set otit to develolp a set of indicators oii the aliid thie World Health Orgainizatioll (\X'HO) illmlitir air w orlcds cities th;at "WOuL]L CTreate a sLI1t,lItIatIIV ell- pollLitlon in about .50 of the world's citics Uiiider- their haiced ca p:cty to make aii aCCurate description of Global Enivir-onmentail M 01on1itoring Svstein. \XHO also ., , . . 9 - ' . , ',- shielrcr ,Il L irbanliationl condirlons." Habit.ar's efforts provides Li rball/r-u.ral estimates of access to safe drinki r ii i H I ]ef s I ll to -ollipll tllCSC Clata, while' f-;alghlt W'tll Lli'l'i CtlItiv water and sanlitation Services, whillc the tIintecd Nations to compile these data, while it w it difficult Children s Fun,1d (U,NICEF) provides siiila r data oii hI access to iealtlh services. Yet thesc few gIlobal daLta to assemble ew data sets. (See Data Table A.4. efforts are not desigiied to provide an integratedi or Once developed a ciilii set of urban indicators comprelhenisive view (f the Ut ban experit nee WoLlii I)c cilorm0LISl% Valkklblc both localb' aiid intcrila- the ii rhan experience. laIV. SLe I eirilid icaltoias bOLe] poid oblcitx Evexvi tlhii cities, topical responlsi bility caini make it tiol lx'. Such indicators woiiIdrovideaglobal oiit difficut,lt to findl data. S)ome kinds (if USeful data (e.g., tfor local problems, helpling local leaders dietermine which diffCLIr toflicl lata Solie ind OfLJSCLIIdara(e (If thecir problemns areC tiniciie aMid WhIich they' share with mleasuL-es of the econiomiiic importance of a citv or r ir- han/rtiural inigratioii rates) are si ily ec(l lected ther cities. Ideally, stICh a shared dcata sCt votLld rCsuLIr Urban areas are ofteil spread across maniaiy tiriSdicrtionis, in inicrased c l 111111n(iClicatioln andl the sharing of local aind, ConsetLientily i no oine ageiicv is responsible fo- so1Luitio ins to (i1iiiinli problems. A coniiiiIii set (of rbhan collectinig alnd rcportitiig data on an v giveil tOpiC lor thle indicators iniglit also prioiiote the collecti mi, skiariig, whole. Differenit administrative ulits ilmighit have iloll and integrationl of data and inform nation xxithii cities Con tiguIos but overlapping areas, fi rthel-rCeo1inpoulfdilig Local polhiclma kcrs iieed informatioin to nma ke wise the CoiiftLsIOn. In the Uniited States. fOr examl fe. po-rt mailageniieiut decisonIs. In addition, pollicymakers at re- atitholriies Call 111i i lde pa rts of nlii n.Vcities (e.g.. the Saii gi0 l,0ali rl iOiaal, and internaltonal Ilevels nee(d intforiiia- Diego Bay area) aid even parts of separate states (e.g., tin on Orl rban iFsstlS to set prio inties, allolcate resotUrces, the New York Port Autilioritv). Di ffiCuilties hii creatinig aziid help coiistrtict sotLitioiis to urbaii probleils. World Rcso.rces 1990-9v 1 49 Data Table A.1 Urban Indicators, 1975-2025 Number Dependency Ratio of (Dependent7ppulatlon, ages 1990-95 1990 95 Cities <15 and >65, as a percent People In Absolute Urban Rural Greater Than of the potential labor Poverty (percent) Urban Population (ODO1 Percent Urban Growith Growth 750.DOO force,ages15to65)- 199Dt990 1975 1995 2025 1975 1995 2025 FHates Rates Population la) Urban Rural Total Urban Rural WORLD 1,538,346 2,584,454 5.065.334 313 45 61 2.5 0.8 369 X X X X X AFRICA 104,123 250,276 804.239 25 34 5.4 4.4 2.0 35 X X X X X Algenia 6.460 15.591 33.675 40 56 74 38 05 1 44 46 23 20 25 Angola 1.087 3.569 14 799 is 32 56 63 26 1 X X X X 65 Benin 620 1.691 6.344 20 31 52 46 25 o 49 s1 X X 65 Botswvana 91 416 1.651 12 28 55 70 1 7 33 55 43 30 55 Burkina Faso 394 2.809 14.376 6 27 65 11 2 0 3 0 43 49 X X 90- Bunundi 't6 480 2.853 3 8 21 6 6 2 7 0 43 50 &4 55 85 Camero 2.022 5.938 IQ9504 27 45 67 4 9 1.2 2 44 50 37 15 40 Cenm,al Aincan Rep 693 1.301 3 745 34 39 59 3 4 9 0 49 49 X X 90 Chad 6217 t .362 4970 1 6 21 39 3 6 251 0 42 Sri 54 30 56 Congo 504 1.523 4347 35 59 77 45 0.6 1 46 51 X X 80 Cole d voi,e 2.168 6.211 23.61, 32 44 64 So( 2.4 1 49 54 X 30 X Egypi 16.6771 28.1~70 60 519 43 45 532 2 6 1 9 3 39 45 23 21 25 Eq-lorial Guinea GI 16Q 547 27 42 69 5 9 0 4 0 46 48 67 60 70 Ertre 256 607 2.511 '2 1 7 36 4.4 2.4 0 X X X X X _thlona 3.061 7.371 _37 929 'a I 3 30 4 7 2.7 1 44 50 60 X 63 Gabon I F5 660 1877 31 so 70 4.7 1 2 0 40 43 X X 4 1 Gambsa The 9' 2806 t.022 17 206 49 62 3'1 0 47 47 X X 65 Ghana 2.955 6. 333 21 934 30 36 56 4 3 2 3 1 45 50 42 20 54 Guinea 676 1.981 8.039 i6 30 53 5.8 20C 1 46 51 X X 70 Guinea-Bissau '00 238 882 16 22 45 4 4 1 6 0 X X X X 75 Kenya 1.775 7.817 32.6'6 1 3 28 5 1 6 8 2S5 1 41 54 52 10 55 Lesolho 176 473 1.973 1 1 23 47 6 2 1 8 0 44 45 54 50 55 LDberia 488 1.366 4.674 30 45 65 4 6 23 049 51 20 X 23 L bya 1.491 4.649 1 951 6 1 86 9 3 4 3 '1' j~ 2 46 50 X X X Madagascar 1.253 4.003 t7.378 1 6 2 7 50 5&8 23 0 X X 43X 21X 50- M:lwi 14'2 1.505 7.0&83 8 1 4 32 6 2 3 1 0 X X 2 25 90 Mali 1.000 2.909 12.277 1 6 2 7 50 5 7 2 3 0 48 s1 54 27 60 Mauatar,ia 278 1.224 3.255 20 54 73 54- 103j 0 46 51 X X 80 Mauntus 388 453 856 43 41 56 1 2 1 1 o 30 34 a X 12 Morocco 6,520 13.071 26.917 38 43 86 3 1 1 2 2 38 47 37 28 45 Mozamb.que 905 5.481 21.468 9 34 61 7 4 0 3 1 45 50 59 40 65 Namibia 186 576 '.939 21 37 64 5 9 t 0 0 42 51 X X X N:gel 507 1,558 8.160 1 1 17 36 5 6 2.9 0 X x X X 35 N genia 14.6/6 43.884 146.948 23 39 62 5 2 1 7 2 46 52 40 21 5 1 Rwanda '75 483 2.367 4 53 1 5 4 2 2 5 0 44 53 85 30 90 Senegal 1,643 3.512 '0.505 34 42 62 3 7 t7 48 47 X X 70 S,erra Leone 620 1.632 5'136 2 1 36 59 a48 t2 0 X X X X 65 Somaia '.'164 2.382 9.760 2 1 26 46 2 5 0 9 1 X X 60 X 70 South Atnca 12 314 21.073 48.673 48 51 69 29Q 1.6 6 35 48 X X X Suidan '3.033 6.915 27.075 ' 9 25 46 4.4 2.1 1 44 48 X X 85 Svwaziland 67 267 933 14 31 57 6.2 1 4 0 33 52 48 45 50 Tanzania 1 602 7 230 30.344 n0 24 48 6.1 2.0 1 44 53 58 10 60 Togo 373 1.276 4.906 16 31 52 4 8 2.5 0 46 50 X X 30 Tunisia 2 797 5.03 9.784 s0 57 74 268 0.9 1 .34 17 20 1 _Uganda 933 2.670 138118 & t 3 29 _58 3 1 1 45 52 X X 80 Zaie 6.660 12.766 52.129 30 29 50 3.9 2.9 1 52 51 70 X 90 Zanaha 1 686 4.071 1.6 35 4 60 3.5 2.6 150 52 64 47 80 Zimbabwe 1 202 3 619 0. 874 20 32 55 5 0 1 s 36 53 X X 60 EUROPE 453,668 535,052 597 660 67 74 83 0.6 (1.01 79 X X X X X Albar a 794 1.285 2.661 33 37 57 1.6 0 4 0 32 40 X X X Austria 4 034 4.424 5.651 53 56 68 0.7 0.6 1 32 34 X X X Belanus Rep 4 7'4 7.215 8.361 50 71 84 1.1 (2.9, I X X X X X Belgium 9 298 9.809 10.236 95 97 98 0.4 (2 5, 1 X X X X X Bosnia and Herzegovna 1 172 1.695 3.t02 31 49 69 (251 (60 0) X X X X X Bulgana 5.017 6,201 6.450 58 71 83 0 4 (2.4, 1 31 40 X X X Croatia. Rep 1 924 26959 3.428 45 64 61 1.4 (2.6i 0 X X X X X Czech ReP 5 780 6.736 8.096 58 65 76 0 1 ( 132 36 X X X Deannah' 4 140 4.414 4.577 82 &5 90 0.3 (004: 33 32 X X X Estonia Rep 968 1. 18 1 t81 68 73 83 (0 2) (1 S) 33 39 X X X FRnlano 2.745 3.225 4,129 53 63 76 1.o (0.4) 1 31 35 X X X France 3848t 42.203 50.055 73 73 82 0)5 0 4 41 34 37 X X X Gemmany 63&866 70.616 70.310 81 87 92 0.8 I,2, 16 31 36 X X X Greece 5.003 6.817 7.806 55 65 79 1.2 (1.0) 2 31 37 X X X Mungary 5.560 6.541 7.393 53 65 79 0 3 (1.9) 1 32 34 X X X Iceland 189 246 321 87 92 95 1.3 (1. U 0 35 39 X X X Ireland 1.704 2.043 2.740 54 58 71 0 5 0.0 1 34 39 X X X Ilal 36 394 33.101 39.895 66 67 76 0.0 0.1 6 X X X X X Lalvia.Rep 1616 1,663 1.943 65 73 83 (O 4, (2 0) 1 33 39 X X X Lithuania Rep i.842 2.667 3.213 56 72 84 0.9 (2.3) o 32 40 X X X Macedonia. loaner Yugoslav Rep 847 1 294 1.914 s1 60 74 1.6 0 1 0 X X X X X Moldova Rep 1.376 2.293 3.647 36 52 71 1.9 (1.3) 0 X X X X X Nethedands 12.070 13.601 15.105 &8 89 93 0.8 02 2 X X X X X Nonvay 1.842 2.667 3.213 68 73 82 0oz (0.2) o 33 44 X X X Poland. Rep 18 850 24.853 32.565 55 65 78 0.9 (1.1, 5 32 33 X X X Portugal 2.515 3.496 5.374 28 36 55 1 . (01 30 34 X X X Rcmna 9.809 12.650 15.499 46 55 71 o.s (1.3 30 38 X X X Russ,an Federitso. 891 ib6 1 11 736 118.705 65 76 86 0 a (1.7) 1 6 X X X X X Slovak,Relp 2.191 3.146 4.451 456 59 74 1.2 (0.7) 0 X X X X X Slovem a. Rep 7.38 1,236 1.445 42 64 79 1.8 (2.11 0 X X X X X spaa, 24.765 30.292 31.886 70 76 85 0.5 (0.7) 2 31 34 X X X Sweden 6.778 7.296 8.583 83 83 88 0 5 0.5 1 36 39 X X X Switzerland 3.534 4.379 5.762 56 6 1 74 1.5 0.4 1 3 1 35 X X X Uknaine 28.564 36.099 40.t95 58 70 83 0.7 (1.9) 7 X X X X X UnnedK,ngdom 49.896 52 119 57.375 89 89 93 0.4 (0.4) 4 35 37 X X X Yugoslavia,.Fed Rep 3.905 6 134 8.479 43 57 74 2.6 (a021 1 30 35 X X X 1 50 Wrld1 Resoulrces 1 996-97 Data Table A.1 continued Number Dependency Ratio of (Dependent population. ages 1990-95 1990-95 Cities <15 and >65, as a percent People In Absolute Urban Rural Grater Than of the potential labor Poverty (percent) Urban Population j000) Percent Urban Growth Growth 750,000 torce, ages 15 to Sb) 1980-1990 1975 1995 2025 1975 1995 2025 Rates Rates Population fa) Urban Rural Total Urban Rural NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 235.306 331,761 507,609 57 68 79 1.8 0.4 64 X X X X X Beize 67 101 231 5C 47 60 23 30 0 X X X X 65 Canada 17.548 22.593 32018 76 77 84 12 1 1 5 32 35 X X X Costa Rca 814 1,702 3,843 41 50 69 35 1,4 1 36 43 29 24 34 Cuba 5.977 8,389 '0.862 64 76 86 1 5 (1 1 1 31 36 X X 35 Dormincan Rep 2289 5.051 8.890 45 65 80 3.3 (0 3t 2 38 43 55 45 70 ElSaloador 1.651 2.599 6,015 40 45 62 2.7 18 0 41 48 91 20 75 Guatemala 2211 4404 13,389 37 41 62 3.9 22 1 44 50 71 66 74 Hait 1.069 2 266 7.076 22 32 54 4.0 1 2 1 42 45 76 65 80 Honduras 969 2 482 6 870 32 44 64 4 5 1 8 0 42 50 37 14 55 Jamaica 888 1314 2319 44 54 70 15 103) 0 34 42 X X 80 Meuico 36,948 70535 117222 63 75 86 28 (00) 8 39 44 30 23 51 Nicaragua 1.220 2.787 7072 50 63 78 48 21 1 48 51 20 21 19 Panama 839 1.401 2.620 49 53 70 2 4 12 1 35 43 42 21 65 Tnndao and Tobago 637 938 1.511 63 72 84 1 9 (0 81 0 38 44 X X 39 Unmte States 159.069 200,695 281.179 74 76 85 1 3 0.2 43 34 36 X X X SOUTH AMERICA 137,578 249.331 406.679 64 78 88 2.5 (0.8) 31 X X X X X Argentia 21 C29 30.483 43,083 81 88 93 .6 (1 31 4 37 42 16 15 20 Bolimia 1 975 4 505 10,370 42 61 79 4 1 0 0 1 41 46 60 30 86 Brazil 66.065 126599 204 791 61 78 89 2 / (14) 14 36 44 47 38 73 Chile 8.101 11 966 17864 78 84 89 1 8 09 0 36 41 X X 25 Colombia 14.434 25526 41532 61 73 84 24 103) 4 35 43 42 40 45 Ecuadot 2.926 6.698 13456 42 58 76 35 05 2 38 46 56 40 65 Guyara 220 302 668 30 36 59 2 4 0 1 0 33 38 X X 60 Pataguay 1,045 2.613 6.476 39 53 72 4 3 1 2 0 33 48 35 19 50 Penr 9.319 17.175 30.653 61 72 84 26 03 1 37 45 32 13 75 Sanuame 163 213 418 45 50 70 23 (O0) 0 X x X X 57 Uruguay 2349 2.877 3,491 83 90 95 09 (211 1 37 33 13 10 29 Venezuela 9911 20.281 33,791 78 93 97 2.8 (3 5t 4 38 47 31 28 58 ASIA 592,282 1,197,970 2,718,435 25 35 55 3.3 0.8 154 X X X X X Alghanstan. ilamic Stale 2 040 4.026 18.059 13 20 40 77 54 1 43 43 53 18 60 Amenia 1.780 2 473 3.783 63 69 80 1 8 0 6 1 X X X X X Azerbalsan 2.930 4216 7194 52 56 71 17 06 1 X X X X X Bangladesh 7,108 22.034 78430 9 18 40 53 1 5 3 X X 78 X 86 Blhuan 39 105 597 3 6 19 48 10 0 X X X X 90 Cambodia 731 2,123 8567 10 21 44 62 22 0 44 45 X X X Ch.ua 160.047 369.492 831,880 17 30 55 40 (OOi 51 28 36 9 X 13 Geotgia. Rep 2.432 3.190 4,544 50 58 74 1 0 (1 0O 1 ' X 0 0 X Inde 132272 250.681 629.757 21 27 45 29 1 6 34 36 41 40 33 42 indonesia 26.259 69.992 i67.393 18 35 61 4 5 0 1 9 34 39 25 20 27 Ian. lslamic Rep 15278 39.716 92.491 46 59 75 3.6 1 3 5 47 53 X X 30 Iraq 6765 15.258 36.435 61 75 85 32 04 1 45 52 X X 30 Islae 2994 5.098 7308 87 91 94 39 3 1 1 38 40 X X X Japan 84409 9712C 10319C 76 78 85 04 102) 8 29 36 X X X Jondan 1.438 3887 10.107 55 71 84 59 26 1 45 50 16 14 17 Kazakhstan, Rep 7.374 10218 16.257 52 60 75 12 105) ' X X X X X Korea Dom Peoples Rep 9,356 14.650 25094 56 61 75 24 12 1 X X X X 20 Kotea Rep 16.947 36.572 50987 48 81 94 25 57) 6 28 31 5 5 4 Ku-tad 844 1.501 2.765 84 97 99 (63) (130r 1 X X X X X Kyrgyz Rep 1.250 1.847 4.079 3 39 57 2 1 1 4 0 X X X X X Lao Peoples Dem Rep 344 1.080 4.316 11 22 45 61 22 0 48 48 X X 85 Lebano 1,849 2.622 4,154 67 87 94 4 1 (1 41 0 39 44 X X 15 Malaysa 4 616 10.814 22.942 38 54 73 3.9 0.8 1 39 45 16 8 22 Mongolia 704 1.468 2.926 49 61 76 3.0 0 6 0 X X X X X Myanmar 7282 12188 35,759 24 26 47 3.3 18 1 38 42 35 X 40 Nepal 649 2 996 13 959 5 14 34 7 1 2 0 0 44 46 60 51 61 Oman 53 285 1983 6 13 33 78 37 0 X X X X 6 Pahlstan 19.733 48742 161 579 26 35 57 44 20 8 44 48 28 26 29 Ptairpnes 15,294 36614 77.622 36 54 74 42 10, 2 38 45 54 40 64 Saud,Arabia 4,257 14.339 37.618 59 80 88 20 106) 2 X X X X X Singapore 2,263 2,848 3355 100 100 120 10 00 1 29 0 X X X Sr, Lanka 2.998 4.108 10660 22 22 43 22 10 0 33 37 39 15 46 SynanArabRep 3.352 7.676 23.311 45 52 70 43 26 2 48 54 X X 54 Talokstan. Rep 1.223 1.964 5.881 36 32 50 29 29 0 X X X X X Thailand 6244 11,787 28.756 16 20 39 25 08 1 28 36 30 17 34 Turkey 16.651 42.598 79,102 42 69 87 4.4 (2 51 5 36 43 X X 14 Turkmenitan. Rep 1 98 ) 839 4.067 48 45 61 2 3 2 3 0 X X X X X Unted Arab Erorates 330 1.600 2700 65 84 91 34 (0.91 0 30 36 X X X Uzbekistan. Rep 5.465 9130 22300 39 41 59 26 20 1 X X X X X VietNam 9.021 15479 46.135 19 21 39 3' 20 2 36 44 54 X 60 Yemen.Rep 1.147 4877 19.674 16 34 58 80 36 0 X X X X X OCEANIA 15,389 20,063 30,712 72 70 75 1.5 1.7 6 X X X X X Ausiralia 11.943 15.318 21852 86 85 89 1 3 1 9 5 33 34 X X X Fry 212 319 692 37 41 80 22 1 1 0 X X X X 20 Ne. Zealano 2552 3.077 4.011 83 86 92 15 04) X x X X X PapuaNeowGuinea 326 690 2,431 12 16 32 36 20 0 X X 73 10 75 Solomon Islands 17 65 323 9 17 38 6 5 2 7 0 X X X X 60 Soirnes United Naiorns Populabon Des,on and United Nations Developmenl Programme Notes a. Cies grealer than 750,000 population as assessed 1 1990 World and regional totals mclude countnes nol lisled 0 z zero or less than hall of ihe unit of measure X = not asarlable or undermtnate. negatise nuorbers are shown n parentheses Fot addiliona omfornabon see Sources and Technical Notes World Resour-cs 1996-9J7 151 Data Table A.2 Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation, 1980-95 Urban Household Access Urban Household Access to Access to to Safe Drinking Water Sources Access to Sanitation Services Sate Drinking Water Sanitation Services (percent of atl households) (percent of all households) (Percent) (percent) House or Public Borehole House to Septic Wet Urban Rural Urban Rural Yard Pipe Standpipe and Pump Other Sewer System Latrine Other WORLD AFRICA Algenia X X X X X X X X X X X X Angola 690 150 260 9'j 40.0 1.3 419 G(; 8. 8.0 G.o 1C.0 Berm 41. 4130 60.0 40 X X X X X X X X Bols ana 10. 0 6 00 o 00.0 85 9 X X X X X X X X Buon3Faso 52.9 75.0 500 'C00 230 30.0 00 o 9 X X X- Borundi 920 4103 740 50 ! 30C 6 0o oc oo. X X X X Ca nernr 42 G 45 o9 X X X X X X X X X X CenlralAlroan Rep 18.0 Id0 X X 80 .G 1.0 0.0 X X X X Chao 48.0 7.0 72.0 70j 100 2801 03 1 0.0 0 20 00 710 Congo 92.0 2 0 X 2.0 X X X X X X X 1X- Col dIano,e 590 81 0 100.0 41.( 59.0 :0 0C 1.0 87.0 130 9.0 . Euypl 820 C 50 0 -3 o J o X X X X X X 'X X Sqyou!(,lOu 82.0 0019 0.0 01 9 679 19 9 0 1 Eauaknulal"ui1ea 880 0019 100. 101 132 X 36.1 3n1. 870 130 X X EdIea X X X X X X X X X X X X E!h,upo 730 11.0 97.d 7 o Y9 X X X X X X X GLaon 901 500 0X x X X X X X X X X Gambia. The 01 6 5f 8 50.0 29 C 42.3 5s10 414 n0o 1 0o 170 00 o 23.0 Ghaa 70.0 40n 64.0 3:.C 458 7 10.0 05 0.0 20 9 0.0 450 Guinea 610 62.0 175 I.1 611C 0.3o 00 oo0 17.8 F11 019 Goi'lno-B0-s5n 38.0 5-79 24 0 4.0 35.4 33 51 0.0 ' .2 80 '0 15.6 Ke,wa 67 1 49 0 63 9 78.6 X X X X X X X X Lesotho 570 570 30 4410 310 208 0.0 00 I 24 o191 19o Libra 580 eo3 490 4.0 298 '56 3' 28 6 210 205. 3 280 Libya 1000 84.03 100 85.0 X X X X X X X X Madagascar 0319 101 49.2 3.6 X X X X X X X X Malaw' 52.0 4410 89.0 600 354 14 6 10 1.0 15.5 00 0.5 75.0 Ml. 3960 38.0 88.3 240 176 14 4 498 17 72 968 0o 860 Ma-l'ania 64 0 89. o 34 o X X Y X X X X X Maurti ls 95.0 850 9810 97C 85s0 30 019 034 42.0 41.1 4.0 12 9 ?lOswco 9s01 14C 665 17.9 X X X X X X X X MozambiqLle 17.0 400 70.0 4.6 35 82 U.0 03 133 720 1 C9 48.3 Namibia 873 42.0 765 41.0 720 142 0 0C0 693 0.U 00 77 Nige 4519 58.0 59 0 40 2099 '4.0 30 5.19 0.0 30l 50 67C Ogeria 631C 2650 51.1 290, 327 242 36 2.5 0 35.3 1.1 16.5 R.uanda d4C, 6719 88.0 171 X X X X X X X X Se,megA 84.0 28.1 92.1 40.0 54 1 30.4 199 0 o 25 4 oI 50 0 11 I SerraLenoe 580 21.0 55 31.0 X X X X X X X X So, Iala 5oO 29 o 119 C 5 1 X X X X X X X X So.ulhAt, ra X X X X X X X X X X X X Sudan 6610 43.0 858 14.1 319 1208 0. 21.3 25f 126 00 70.2 SwazOund 41 3 44.0 78 0 35.0 372 3.8 00 0 37G0 420 0G 019 Tlazania 75 0 46 0 76 0 77 o X X X X X X X X Togs 74C 58.0 122 205 3C1 I 425 02 1.2 0.0 I $1 4 77 Tou, sin L-).1 89.0 98.1 930 933 43 1.4 230 05.3 350 2.3 6.0 Rganda 7o 3U 36 6 X X X X X X X X Gyanda ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~.17.09 32.0 736 57 80199 5199 19 9 Zone 370 23.0 20J 35 X X X X X X X X Zanb a 64 0 27 1 67 1 25.1 X X X X X X X X Zunbab.e 950.0 900 9b.0 22 C, X X X X X X X X EUROPE AbaOaa 1050 95.0 10010 159.0 X X x X X X X X Anslna 100.5 0190 100.0 11 100 X X X X X X X X BHaMus. Rep 1001 100 1193 In) 0 10190 X X X X X X X X Be.gum 1019.0 100.0o 10. 100G0 X X X X X X X X Bosnia ar3 Heazegnsion 1C0.3 X X X X X X X Y. X X B'ig-aii 14(00 960 11O90 111.1 X X X X X X X X Catia. Rep 10100 X X X X X X X X X X X Czeoh Pea 1r19.0 1901o 100.0 100 19 X x X X X X X X Denmak 100.0 100.0 100.0 0019C X X X X x x X X Enlona. Rep I00.0 1009.0 10040 150.0 X X X X X X X X Fir land 99 0 90g0 0 1 G 90 19 X X X X X X X X F,ance 1191 1005 010) 1 1 00 19 11 X x X X X X X X Geqnnnr 1019.0 1a051 X X Y X X X X X X. X Gnece 110.0 95.1 101. 99.0 19 19X X X X X X X HRungary 0 995 1905 oo C, .15 X X X X X X X X Ieard 1001 1100 1001 '01.0 X X X X X X X X Ireland 100.0 10019 100.0 1o00 x x x x x x X x ntalyo 00 150. 0 1 019 o0 G X X X X X 1 X X LaMia Rep 1010 1199 1000 1519.0 X X X X X X X X L1nuana. Rap IG00 0199 130.0 iC3 X X X X X X X X Macedonia forrner Yugoslav Rep 100.0 X X X X X X X X X X X tEondone Pep 101.1 10o 00 101 100 0 X X X X X X X X 1roII1el2c19s 019.3 0191 00 0 00 0n X X X X X X X X Nonvay 19 00 10 on n 1 119 19.1 1 o X X X X X X X X Poland Rep 94 1 825 620 o22 0 0 X X X X X X X Pn8dwial 97.1 905 1 '0C 0 550 X X X X X x X X Rcmraira 11CO.0 91.0 100.0 55 0 X X X X X X X X RPssear Feeralior 1330 11C93 11930 0l9 Gr n,(C X X X X X X X X Slovak Rep 100 0 10n0 0 1 190.0 19.0 X X X X X X X X Olnuenlr. Rep 100. X X X X X X X X X X X Spa,, *on 0 oo 0 no wo X X Sna 01 1193 1190.0 1995 199199 5 0 Sxeden '0(, co Inn 0( roo.n X X X X X X X X SwnI1erlald 10190 11919. 1190.9 10o0. X X X X X X X X Uklrane i100.0 10190 C) 10 1190.0o 1 X X X X X X X X UtednK ng3om .9 1100IC lOCO 1000 C X X X X X x X X Yuoaolav,ia Fed Rep In o0C X X X X X X X X X X X 152 W'orldl Rcsorurcrs 1 996-97 Data Table A.2 continued Urban Household Access Urban Household Access to Accesstlo to SalleDikn ae ore Access to Sanitation Services Safe Di=kng Water Sanitation Semices (ecnofalhuhld (percent of all households) (percetj (percent) House or Public Borehole House to Septic Wet Urban Rural Urban Rural Yard Pipe Standpipe4 and Pump Other Sewer Systen, La4trine Other NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Belize 960 82 0 24 2 6889 X X X X 16.1 B I d 0 00 C'anada 100 0 too0 X X X X X X X X X X Cosla Rico 88 0 99.0 99 4 98 2 83 r 0 0 0 1 4 96 0 0 Q 0 0 3 4 C"lO 88 0 99.0 713 51 3 X X X X X X X X Domnmmcan Rep 74 0 67.0 93 0 7 0 X X X X X X X X E Salvador 78 0 37 0 920 59.0 67 9 '10 On 00 Ea 0 50) 0J0 260 Guatema a 92 0 43 0 72 0 52.0 X X X X X X X X Haiti 37 0 230 418 162 X X X X X X X X Ho,duras 81 o 530C 882 532 53 0 67 18 3 00 495 00 00 38 7 J.a,nlc 980 460 14 0 X X X X X X X X X Ve=io 91 ° 62 0 85 5 25 0 X X X X x X X X Nicaragua 81 0 27 0 32 0 X X X X X X X X X P-a,iarl 100 0 t000 10' 0 73 2 98.6 00 00 1 4 50 0 18I OD0 31 9 T-sdad aid Tobago 100 0 880( 1000( 92 0 X X X X X X X X U,,,1ed States X X X X X X X X X X X X SOUTH AMERICA A,gen,l,a 73 0 170 100.0 29 0 X X X X X X X X Bol,,,a 78 0 22 0 62 9 175 390C 340 00( 00 '36.2 127 X 139 Planl 85 0 31.0 84 0 32 0 X X X X 362 12 7 0.0 00 Ch:le 94 0 370 84 8 60 940 00 00 00 84 3 00 00 oo Co o,,b,. 88 0 48 0 _ 73 2 36.8 74 7 0 0 n o) 13 7 73 2' 00 0 0 0 0 Ecuado. 820C 550 86 0 34.2 76- 4.5 00 13 609 a OGC 16 5 8 7 Guvara go00 510 1°° 0 84 0 83C ~ 00 00r 70 o0) 380 00C 64 0 Paragi,av 6t10 90 31 C, 60 0 X X X X X X X X Pen, 74 4 2386 62 0 93 74 4 00 00 00. 620( 00 00 00 Sur,nnae 82 0 56 0 64 0 36 0 X X X X X X X X Uruguay 100 0 5 0 60 0 65 0 X X X X X X X X Venez,,el. 8030 75 0 970 72 0 86.1 00 00 00 X X X X ASIA Atghal11sla,n Islam c Stale 39.0 4.9 27 6 1 2 73 11. 10 2 9.8 5.0 I 8.0 00 30 Armene 1000 lCOO 1000 tOO X X X X X X X X A-fl,a,jan Co 0 tOOO 100.0 tOO X X X X X X X X Bar-lads 100 0 88.8 444 277 18 9 9s 69 9 1 7 00C 00 27 0 16 0 bhulal 7 50 54.01 896 179 750i 00 no C) I0 0E. 4.0 40 Camibodia X X X X X X X X X X X X chira 93 0 890 70 0 60 X X X X 00 Do 70.0 00 Geo,g,a Rep 100 0 100D) 100 0 100 0 X X X X X X X X krd a 850 79 C, 70 0 12 0 44 1 24 1 168 00 260 270 00C I7 0 -Indon1esia 78 0 54 0 78 0 39 C) 2,6 10.3 1'i 9 291t 0 0) 58 C 0 0 20 0 linIslam cRep 890 77 0 82 9 3685 X X X X X X X X Iraq ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ~~So 0 30 0 40 0 25 0 X X X X X X X X Islap l'00 970 990 950 X X X X X X X X Japan t00.0 850 X X X X X X X X X X J.'odan 91.8 '82 8 4r 1 17 X X X X X X X X :Kazals Rep 100.0 t00 0 '00 0 100 0 X X X X X X X X Kro ea Dem People sRep '°° '' 100.0 lo0 lo0 1000 X X X X X X X X Ko ea Rep Co 0 100 0 1 00.0 12 0 X X X X X X X X Kuvfa I 100~~~~~~~~~~~~~O 0 X 100 0 X X X X X X X X X KylgyzEe R1000 100,0 OD00 100 0 X X X X X X X X Lao Peoples Dem Rep 40 0 390 960F 12 0 34 3 29 0 7 21 00 33 0 44.0 150 Lebanon 990 99 0 890 89.5 960 0.0 00. 40 8t0 90 X X Malaysa 96 0 66 0 914 0 94 0 X X X X X X X X Mo,,gol,a '°°°0 56 0 10(o 470 C) X X X X X X X Myannar 360 390 450 40 5 14 8 194 18 00 i 30 17 0 210 50 Nepal 66 0 410 69 0 16 o 374 0i0 286 oa o0, lSo soa 160 Onian 97.0 50 0 97 0 6680 X X X X X X X X Pakistan 77 0 52 0 62 0 190 X X X X X X X X Ph l,pp,ns 93.0 T770 87.0 670 450 1 b 0 290 30 X X X X Saud A,ab,a 100 0 74 0 100 0 30 0 X X X X X X x X S"rgapore ' °°-° X 99 0 X X X X X X X X X Sn Larka 870C 47 0 830C 62 0 80 0 11 C 70 90 I( 77 0 C) a 50 Syn., Arab Rep 92 0 78 0 100 0 t00 0 804 M16 00 0 0 101) 00 (C 00 Talvk,sTan. Rep 1000 0 10.0 Too 0 T00o0 X X X X X X X X Tha land 670 85.0 84 0 860 X X X X X X X X Tmi,ey 1000 70 0 350L 90.0 X X X X X X X X Txkmninestan1.Rep '°°° '°° '°°° '°° X0 (I X. X X x 'X X D)n,ed Amp Emirates 100-0 , D) C 100G r 77 0 X X X A X X A X U,lb" k,stan.PRep Iooo aOO 100 0 io0 100.0 X X X X X X X X VIDT Nam 530 32 0 44 0 16 C 35 1 X X X 0) ( 30 0 t0 0 50 Yeme,, Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X OCEANIA Ausral a 100 0 100 0 I'l 0 100 0 X X X X X X X X Fi,l 100 0 t00 0 99.0 990 68 3 00( 0U 1 7 I 1 80 C' oo 280( 40 NrewZealend '00.0 82 0 95 0 680 X X X X X X X X Papua New Guinea 84 0 1 7 0 95 C) 12 0 X X X X X X X X Solomo,, Islarcis 82 0 58.0 73 0 2.0 X X X X X X X X Sources Word HsalthOr0dmz-tloand U,,11d Nations Chi one, ,Fund Notes All of IFle to,ml constituent repubic, D orl e Soviet Union vere given the same 100) percent coverage ol vater and sa,,,140,o se vwes as ,cc-,led Irthe formaer S-cie U., Al successor counltries to the lorn er Yugola a were gr,en the san e I 00 percent co,,erage as occurredcim Yugolas Percenll served by sfpec,ic sources or senv res r eed not s- i, 1eotal served 0 _ zero or ess than half Ihe uw, t of mneasu re X _ nol javaabie or ndet-r nn nte For add,fionti,a, nmrabior. see S-,uces and Techn,ica Notes W `r)7 d7 Rc source fs 1')9(.-')7 153 Data Table A.3 Air Pollution in Selected Cities, 1989-94 Suspended Particulate Matter Smoke Sulfur Dioxide Lead Site Mean Site Mean Site Mean Site Mean Years irgras) Years (micrograms) Years (micmrograms) Years (micrograms) AFRICA Egypt Cairo X X 12 55.2 12 41.7 X X EUROPE Finland Helsinki 6 47.1 X X 3 8.7 X X Germany Frantdu7 5 36.8 X X 5 23.2 X X Poland Jarczev X X 9 48.2 8 18 9 XX Wroclaw X X 6 674 6 125A4 X X Podugal Lisoon 7 105.7 X X 5 35.5 7 0.4 Spain Madnd X X 9 41.9 9 163 X X Yugrslasia Zagreb 8 72.1 X X 12 391 3 0.4 NORTH AMERICA Canada Hamillon 10 49.6 X X 5 19.3 6 0.0 Monlmal 2 43.1 X X 4 19.6 X X Toronto 7 584 X X 5 17.7 4 0.0 Vanouver 6 34 9 X X 4 171 4 0.0 Unhed Slates Los Angeles 6 49.0 X X X X 6 0.1 New YorkCity 9 61.6 X X 1it 375 10 0.0 SOUTH AMERICA Brazil Sao Paulo 2 364 10 43.0 10 366 X X Venezuea Caracas X X 2 24.0 2 24.3 X X ASIA China Beijing 8 362.7 X X 8 88.6 X X Guangzhou 6 169.7 X X 8 45.5 s X Shangha 8 225.2 X X 8 63.3 X X Shenyang 8 356 9 X X 8 131.5 X X Xian 8 444.9 X X 8 50.0 X X Hcang Kong Hong Kong 9 82.4 X X X X 9 57.7 Iran. Islamic ReP Tehran 10 263.2 1t 112.1 11 139.5 1 00 Japan Osaka 16 44.0 X X 16 67.9 X X ,okyo 12 49 99t IX 12 70.0 X X Pakisian Lahore 1 405.5 X X X X X X Thailand Bangkok 2 171.4 X X 2 12241 2 7.5 OCEANIA New Zealand Auckland X X 4 4.0 4 3.5 X X Chnslchurcn 3 20.5 X X 4 13.8 X X Sources: World Heahh Organization and Ise United Nations Environment Programme. Noles: These dala are ihe most recent available. dating tron 1989 to 1994. Large numbers of obseNvabon years are due Io maullple sires .n a city over soveral years X = not available. For adrtinnal information. see Sources and Technical Noles. Data Table A.4 India: City Indicators, 1993 Hubli- lndicator Bombay Delhi Madras Bangalore Lucknow Varanasi Dharwad Mysore Gulbarga Bhiwandi Tumkur Population Populalion (million) 10.26 8.96 5.65 4.47 1.60 1.06 0.68 0.70 0.33 0.57 0.19 Grow1n Rate (%) 2.04 3.19 2.11 4.14 4.04 2.27 2.33 3.64 2.75 22.B8 4.04 Average Household Size 4.60 4.97 4.70 4.62 5.71 7.50 5.61 5.24 6.09 5.21 5.09 Female Headed II) 14.t0 9.00 13.42 17.42 6.40 6.20 12.47 14.40 6.19 7.10 t4.85 Below Poveny Line (%l 17.00 17.00 16.50 12.00 22.00 26.27 12.62 5.51 17.44 2.69 24.60 Household Income Distribution (Quintile Boundaries USS) I Qumitile Ipoorest 20%1 374 290 347 335 291 266 264 373 258 X 287 11 Quint le 620 679 531 670 462 426 698 746 660 X 433 I1l Quintile 939 t.082 772 1.t44 762 634 645 1.176 1.052 X 641 IV Quint le 1.553 1.496 1.492 1.437 1.331 1t230 1.473 1.511 1.435 X 923 V Qaintile nchest 20°) 2.497 3,292 2.781 2,487 2,181 2.064 2.009 2.372 1.951 X 1.761 Household Connections (%) Waler 54.74 57.00 33.87 47 30 32.68 39.65 37.62 37.90 26 68 51.43 31.23 Sewage 51.43 39.60 37.17 3534 30.00 73.35 37.37 90.00 13.92 14.69 0.00 Electricity 89.61 7030 81.91 81.80 76.25 85.66 74.11 83.01 7816 94.87 87.44 Telephone 18.00 30.80 18.31 16.34 1171 21.91 7.42 15.28 1019 10.22 8.41 Access Io Potable Water 96.39 91.50 59.90 80.89 86 21 64.53 88.70 89.94 90.41 65.72 86.20 Miscellaneous -nlormalEmployment (%) 68.10 6667 60.60 32.21 46.00 46.96 30.73 31.12 27.35 77.94 63.17 Aulomobiles(per1.00opop) 50.91 205.41 101.82 130.23 129.70 85.27 48.73 122.59 59.91 14.47 84.85 House Prie Iono I rme Rat.o 3.53 7.00 7.88 10.79 4.76 5.11 3.70 7.48 4.04 0.27 6.36 FloorAreaperPerson(sq.m.l 3.49 6.88 6.22 9.46 5.51 4.53 6.22 11.83 6.11 2.41 7.38 Social Development Crime Rate -- Murder (per 1.000 pop I 0.14 0.04 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.09 010 X 0.02 Crime Rate TheS (per 1.000pop.) t.68 1.64 0.68 1.73 1.36 0.23 0.95 0.79 1.19 X 0.46 Classn-oom Sze- Pnimary 48 39 30 32 20 43 47 21 44 60 29 Classroom Size Secondary 31 42 61 36 57 54 31 16 24 33 22 Hospital Beds (people per bed) 39800 372.00 137.00 270.00 460.00 372.00 721.00 156.00 209.00 92400 486.00 (nlant Monality (per 1,000 live bidhs) 23.02 19.00 18.23 7.94 47.00 55.00 21.44 X 30.29 25.70 20.62 AnnualperCapitaSolidWaste(metrictons) 0.20 0.44 0.29 0.16 031 0.14 0.15 0.26 0.13 010 0.13 Sol d Waste Collected (½.) 90.00 76.92 90.00 96.00 73.66 87.50 89.08 60.00 74.24 40 00 50.00 Source: Society (or DeveloPment Studies. Note: X I not available. For additional information. see Sources and Technical Notes. 154 W'X)rld Resourcies 1996-97 Appendix A. Urban Data Tables Sources and Technical Notes Data Table A.1 People, onabsolutte pou'erty is deriv,ed fromi and health services vary tiepCIl(IIng UIpon Ii- Urban Indicators, 1975-2025 a host of cotuntryi sto(dies and rlily nor be catriin aridi conrditionl of locatl resources. Sourcs: Uban ppriltinir perent uban, strictlyv comparable. Urban areas withi access to Sanritationi Seri- Sources: Urban 110PI1136011, pel'Cent urban, ~~iLces are defiietd as urban populations servetti urban growth rates. aird rkural growthi rateS: DaaTbeA2by conniectionis to public sewerv or hotrsecrold Unlitedi Nations (LU.N.) PopuIlation Division, Dt al . Urbar and Rural Ar'as. 1950-2025 (T7b, Access to Safe Drinking Water and svttrsiciaptpiie,oi-fsharir. 1 994 Repison), oii ciskette (U.., New Yor, Sanitatio, 1980-95septic tanks, coininiuailrtoilers, antiother stich 1994) Reiin ),b oncidiskette 7U.N,0 : Ne Yr,n anttin,1809 facilities. RLAIr'l popuaI. irn01s Withl access were N99);io uns hrN. of Ncitiesoverc 750r0:aniztedn Sources: World Health Organization (WHO) tdefinetd as those with adetjUaie LlispoSal sIACIr P'rioispcs TbcN r19.94 W sorl UrbaizatiNon anti the Uniited Natioiis Children's [rind iv pit privies. poiir-fluslr latriirs, anid so birthi. Prospets: Te 1994Rei'iirrn (itlesNii. NICEF), WHO/UJNI:EJ Joont WiiterSup- Applicariori of these definittiotis tiay viry, tird 11.95.XIII. I12. LU.N., New York, I 99 51 Ta ble-s ply an1d SanitatioinI Mopil ring Priogranmme. cotmrrpairis'ons c.r irtherefo re be miiisleaidintg. Al, A2, A6~. A'?, aird Al1?; Urban arrd rural - diepeirdeiicv ratios: U. nitetd Nations ~U.N.i uinpubl)ishedI data. (WHO, Getieva. 1995i: IPo piil.ttion Di vrsioi n, Urban iniu R ural Ari'as WIHO. Tbhe In,rn,at ional Drink ong WVater Data Table A.3 by Sex anud Age: Tbi' 1992 Reivisionr (U . N.. upvnSii'enDcd:EdnDcd Air Pollution in Selected Cities, New Yrk, 193); tid pople n absrlure Ri'v'ieii 4is at Deceenber 19901 (WHO, Ge- 1989-94 Uelok,19) Natins pepeD n sl Prt neva, August 1 992); WHO, Global Strategyr poiverty,: Lititet eaio sDeveopneriot Pr- for Healtb for- All: Monitoring )198'5..J14(t) Source: Woirid Health 0Organiin'ationo granrillre. Hiunan Dei elopmu'n Report 1 9Q4 Detailedi A nalysis of Global Indicators (WHO I/United Nattoirs Eirvironrirenrt Pro- (Oxfrd Lirivrsrt Pres. Nw Yok. 194). (WHO, Genev-a, M1av' 1989): WHO. Tbe fir- gramitme, atid the 6G blb( Eiiviriiiiinieirr N-louti- As part orf its biennrial revision of poipitla- tentina rnigWtrStpl ndSn tori rig St's tent ) (EM 8)/A IR Mionitorii riig tioir liroiectiiins. the Populatioir Divisiini aion Dci' iiuo of MdDcd Project, Unrpuiblishedi dta.t (UJS. Etiviroir- the Untieci N;ationis Depirartmenr for Ecorrofitic .tolDcd:Rvcvo-MdDcd iienrtal Protection Ageircy. Researrch Triatigle and ocil Iforatin ad Plio Ai alsis Prog~ress (as at Decemiber 1985) (WHO. (,e- Pr,NrhCrln,191 - her sets gu I opu neva. September 1987); WHO, The Intern,i- PakNotCrli,I S. prcparev a niiriiii rifdaiia set rfhoal p u- Tirese tiara shouild lie uised withi c.ire. Be- ti olil BDrinkipig AWiter.Supply and Sanitation I I atioin estimia revs tic'd pro iieciitirns. The nioist cueci ritnchd n rC(ie a recetit P'opubltion Pros/pects wvas revised tir DeCa'de: Rev'iew' rf National Progress~ fis c1 ause beniisf'eirtn methodsundrv prhcesttr' ciir .- 199. hisranleinlues at frnirvto at Deceniber 19813); WHO, Tbe Initeruiationial haeiertseiiitc cuttry,heietor- se4.Ts i cr ated us parruof t data19 frevisitor dand Drinking Wi/ter Supplyad aitto DIe- parative: tiara nlay be rittie trenLdS withiir ai sets ceatedas pat of iiat 994 evisin andc--contory. (IN-S/A IR sponsors a iietwsoirk iof (le clti.a. set toini the I 992 rev isiori. Poptul a - ,cl: Revieew of National Baseline Data: Di'- irolitnmntrngtcin or hn0 toittdctit ini these d:rt, sets .rcr estilirrates li:st'd COinber (98 HO Geneva, I1984); atu aiirpities lwo Or(ldide iThei C ig a~ta' ii ire thased o1 tin population CetIistiveS .ind suirveys. Sec tire WVHO, Unpuiblishedl dar.i (WFI-O, Geneva, citiets wroirldwie. 5Theseo clacrvitire maded r Souirces aird Technircail Nirtes for )ata Table jby191.etwveeni 1989 anti 19)94 eXaIct sears vary biv 8.1I for fuirtlrer uiuformiir.ioii. AIl prjcin WHO collected data on drinking watera,nd - projeetoi santto ril ainlgoene,si city). Air t1talitv in selectedi cities is giveti foir are for thec irredctlin-case sceniario. saiainiui itortgvrmrt n the iuuirr1ber of Site VC'ears ~irirrlber of sites Urban population rind percent urban refer 1980: 1983, 1985, I1988, and 1990 rising multiplic-d by tire iiti'iibc'r of vctar' of opcr.i- toi the itridyeir pripulation of areas defitied as qt]iestioniratires compete by pouhti healtir of rni eer -as o u ene atclt iirb,tiil In etich of the cotititries ofi the Wcirld. ficirls, WHO experts, rind resident repre- atter, snikcei't yarid sufur s lip ide (SO)icuanti These tdefitititons varc slighrtl.N fri iuir craie i heUie aiisDvlprei eat!. These d.ita aire preseirted as the anitrial tnCOinctrry. Rural is dlefitredi as "tint urban." Proigrammne aind itirist recently collected these ~ frethpittitcirigreyaso Uirban tzro'tb raites aind rural growstb rates da.ta. for 1994 inl Siippirrt oif a riiroiito ring olirv ii- include the effects of uruani-i-rur.l miigraition. sysreiri fur WHO/UN CEFPs Child StIiirmit. Tire healthefct isspnedariulit Numiber of' cities g~reater tban 7.50,000 Thes,e data are for a variety oif developuing matter (SP\-) are Iir p.rrt ciepetrcieiit oii ti tIr rI/ipuhitioni is the ii number iof cities ini eat h couintries a ird o freit itrclurde informra ti(on oiir chc'nrricat maiirketrp ad biorloh gical .ctivic r ot f coruiiry (as deCfinied bly etch Ciidintrv( that had the percent irftire iurbli pOPIIptiaton served by~ the particles. HeaIVy imetal particles ot livydro- a1 populationr of 75O0.0(0 (it morrire ill 199J specific souirces oifwater or specific sanitationr crboins cinticiised iiiroiildust particles cairlbe There .tre (inly 369 suich cities iir the world. systeirs. Urbian and rural populartoirs were especially toxic. Therert ire two CMutriin1-nl, Urban dependency ratio is defitreci here as defineti by each niatiuotal goiverninenr anid uised niethirds to mc,rsure SPM-: h(gh-volumtne the ratiii Of the tirbrati populationr nuder IS might nor lie stnricly comparable. gravitrierruc s:imrpling and siiriok shrade itrerir- years aiid over 65 eairs iofige ciompared wvitli WlI-O defitres reasonable access to s.ife otis. Graviniretric sairpling deterrirrnes the tice i-a rsti pi pult iant brletwe'en the ages of I 5 dri'iking, iiw't(r in an urbtatie 0 rea .1s. access to rita s if p.irrictil.rcre ini a give ccior l riic' iifait. aird 65. The ruiral dependencv ratio is defitied piped waiter ot a pubtlic standpipe within 200( Siriioke sliad(e nie-tlriocls relate the reflectanrce of simiilarIv'. Fur the' ptirpioses oif this intidcc,r ri, ireters oifa. dwelilhug r ir Irouisiii trginit. In rtUralI a stain Ictf on filter paiperthi,rt h.ts hiad irlibluri this latter age grorLip is clefiiied as the econoiiii- areas, reasoniable access iniplies that .r fainiiil air drawvn tliriotiglr it toi tIre ciincenrtratuior iif CII1 v.Crr ye pi pu .a nI ii ti poiir which otLitiger nietmrbet iieed nor speti d ,r -disproportti ontae" partrici ulI tes ini t le .tit. Snotk-c shrici clitaw ci i- anti orlder peoiple depetid. Ini reality, soriei part of the clay ferchitig w-ater. "Sa fe" tlrinking miit be tised inrtercirangeably with gravitiiitri- people nuider the ige of I S and ov er the aige wv,rer iticludes treatted suirface witer arid uno- cally cheteriritiied Hrrissi UreatirMeinits becauise tif 6) are ecuronornically active everywhere, anti treated w',rer froilri protectedl spritigs, bire- rthe smoike shade mreasuiremrenrt is preloiitii- soniic peo ple bet weeii tire ages of I5 S rnd 65 hoiles~ .,nid sarniitars' welIls. 1)efini tiiitios if s.ile n.rntl y a ii iird icatnioii iif d irk iratierialI in irthe are eci nomi cal Is Liepetiidetit oiir orthers. wter re n id apropriatre .rccess it i saninta ii i nr nt,vtli it-Irrri,rsirtviit irepriopirirri ziltraItictoI 'u t,riI World Resonirces 1996-97 1 55 Appendix A. Urban Data Tables wegh 1u sils ` Itit'Li ItIteUCr. II LI ig-elV(ILIl II ii rdiiniry gaiso 111c2 dec ulilts 6 r (,i ;iict- it households~, and 11tur ,irea far /n'rsmi aire eLIta niar he t WI CLe 1 Is Li I'ge 8.i IIlolIeLIIertItII glokii; TIlSiit 0TI iis Iitti 1 To Q0 1)) ptre tiir in t'stiimi.ttdI ttiiil With (Censuls of Indiai data itid smoke shaide ' results. 'Ibi iablC TiCIiltidtS 1Withl iidi.VItl,1 CiiIitri-es. ( l`iielre-ii .1iet t'SpeCi,iliI thl. qnlinquicim'iil National Samllple SUrvey ararilne11iCtiCa li tie-tei-iiiiiieei. NSlIs/ii'IuI'l pa- uhitera hIe. toi eati pi lai lilig_ Whlii.li a ffecis is ,irritic mit liv the g ve.riltelit oif India. ticu-ali' m0 /leie lciit:lirLeiileiis aliiti mocn inke hen biuisettrlIL-sis :Iiid the IeICT'lls sIs'VtiL'Il alit it ilecessatev frotri other dtiaa see Sourer si1;iti Tiil.is1urei1iViits.- tie \H( '2O T1111 Ie im eti ice W il/) ~iiilid'IIeUs CAll for .iiiiiialliIaverage- f t iitfrther itiflitrlationi). eNpOsuresC if 1LeSs thilln 60 i) lii mII i,:rograins COIIileeiiiitiiis oii lt's thITI ().Sii (i)0. I lliiiir(d- /Hoisu'hi/ld imetuna' /is/rz fio/ni was, esti- per e ItiC mlefter per dlal for turial suspended runius per, ichr illutet; Titulteti romi suirvt- tiata iitaiiied [roiln state pa rteices anti ~4l ti i ,/i nliiIiigi;lMIIs pLer dayi fur- pa ra smlaaIs f( r nlegacitieM s a ciI q ick sit rves siiiiike.Mans cites excee tue WHOgtiieie- Data Table A.4 lir sinaierctis The nmb+er ot hiouisehoids lii ies ol aii a erA ge' IlviNs . SPN\ I arises froii India: City Indicators, 1 993 btu/i, pi' 0( rtYloll smeax s estimna ed fto iii thit iitiiilleroiis aiitliiipiigeliCi anid uiatirai liuirccs. uimnher if applicationis fur ;tssistalice receiVed Aimoiig Tlht Aiithripiigeloi. otiiitces ire :oili- Source: Sucierx f(Ir )t e'iiifl1hleili StILiiC5 bev cities. There:  a srvong possAiiity Ofi no- tIstIiii1i, ineid stril t1 .Ilgr,'1CLIkilr.id practi.ces. (S1)) 11 luil: (ihi lIn icitlms P'itfro,Iiimiii ISii- tiercoL11lirilig. lilt1 rtlL fiiriiitiin ii t sItiili-s fromI 0t ( Tillis- Liety. lor iD)velipiMieiir Studies, Nt'% 1) I)ihi, Dtim oiii bouso-1hi/ld coii clii niis were, oh- s itIs. liutiza, anmar) 1)tlfl- iaiiitid friiiii ihe state parastati iir iocai guv- WI it eonii'ii that SO I espX surs Fhii India (i ti hnidie.tors l'ruutranuiiic it - tri~~~~~~~l 1TUie tt r iv it1dilIig sWalter sewecr, teieplhu me, ShOil dt 1ase-ked I i :igt 4/i o 6 thek SClcteh tlD \Vo IIl S N k anTd tlectric,ilcotimec,tihutts. liiegai hl ne011CCtlhuS hillcruugrahlils ptI'r lhiii tiieie'r leer tlile cmiirst a Ciiiiaiiirtativrecf rtir lit'Weeii1 tihegoeermIenlt Ir 1( lCILLL )i ie civdsg iia t it .1 \ear. \Liil cities iii As ia fa exCLt-t-i tlhis it iTiiil, vairioLus sltie goverilullitUS, th rem nitee ii r ilert iiilat icr ci on an a vera c ha sis. This .s of part ic it-aa In tee1 N,a in nis (oh tLeren cc II HnIiiMa ii) Settlec- Aiii'ss /it po/u/)/t' ial/t ieide,(ie (:1 ncer tiu i iiii cliiictirTl (ilti pt'ipit- .11` risk (leits (I 1tkitiit), Anti r1tI L iiitdc `,ate AgeFic i l tuh* of tule percent emIgaIged ill in/o(r- (it iespiilirmo ilhiless. Fxpiisttire .aiuhm witFi ur- InlterilliiilTi. i)e%t'st-ii CIiltl To ties'eiiip ili- (elite rt'spirirliri l1ilIt's,. eoMIilt lead to chrtollIC IS 1111 t hldi.ltlli TIlAillitti Irt'piirt tiirtiit . ip,oit- i)iili'ip/ svett'cii w r IAtie 11SCd se i Oi ( Prio- re.spirator\ iiiu.,ss :1e i f.S~ i r-tt ig Liie ain lm iu i(iner'it . tctdt tiii:i enlipiiuymenit aitii growth inllT'e be bith t~itriraJl anld ai1thiiripige'iiic ac1tl\ivitie. AssLtiiiIiTiig thleso, illeiie1tliIs, dliii 1ilirI1tiIi/- fiiriimi sct-or as~ wseli is formaii tii:ton tiiii AiiTtli ropogcnic silire-e iliictiLet fi'ilss ii lli illg tht-1i1, A I (rNss ities, WSet Iii siiiaii iCClt1- liedll, st:ie'. iMRt iltIt1 MIi algelcies. Craim' ru/u' COiitiiLIstriitt mnid nitiuistr l a1etivitit's. Highi pl11ish inen. -i-1lit I I cities sr-iiu -iitt wcrre st'ieCLed timat wcrt' obtaineti froiiii 1oCaiI 1iiClc' dePirt- levelS (f So MInl SPM1 mar callst1I' Iresp1iJratuiV to rt-preSeiit theC VAnity (Iif Lirlmnt prioeusse'" ntIWi5 11L n itare only as Cumlplt'tt' als the report- proile'its. I llilt ITI ]g idLIlts tilt 'I ildtreti ttt lnts fihliuti sstiii ile Il l lit I ((is cae ,lit dat, i tig Iiluuws. iData IIi thcIL' tLlitlllt'r o f alsuu resuhlt iTI ililt.5S~ inl tile' luw rr-pta tr OICCll(ciiI hTId stitistical1 iittris;trtetii'tl'cs tiiL UC ii/iiiiiil/ i' wire- deriseti friiiii srtudcsiie':rr- traict. prittariky in cllilktireni. iii tilt aluuos- sari t(il ilit-ASIRt 1vilest itid.iCiiiirs ate- tIMitlX se'Ichl eeilters as wdel is nltw estintires. D.it: phUitt' S/i, ixditzes an ed, with nolstitre-. be- isleilt. Ill III ese' (:iVss, Si IS IMu set I FI LIe M tA Tato oilh 11 /i iL Cd iil'/s re part of a1 good i PitUNiIC elites2 s1.lfuric iCItI. Tills Icid prt'Cipit~Itioii t'stliititt(' thek'se itidi,,airirs,.helc th ilifraisrttctltre-dairIillisclheld heygovemn- ((title lillilt aciliC liV tIhe sillIl1ItJilcI, MilsIh li- P(/i i /l l/t i ili itCiel ig o g ilta rati' me ti aItrihiritieS, 111t prtIiti'c hospitals a re 1(1(1i ai ilititric acid. c11 II i Vi Cti ' e f lee ts a di stlii a1rt-ti rle dC fri(illI tile- (. CitisLl (If IndiaM, Maad tilt po1o reN represcilteti. ( 1IuSSri mutt Size' iS All Cs- truth11 its sOlIr Ce ind lits ieeti i111l1lleatetiI Ill Oftt t' litJstle etilsIs uufficts. projeactd. stIlimi piratiteter tItriveti froiti lical governi- theltte's ill fiii'e'ss TIT N i tti A l(tttiC:t Illtd WIsiti' Tl(.le''s.lr r', to t-sinlua tcite rIip llitisll. tilecalt iiifoiiriiiiirioi in enriiiliitettt. /n/ii/ Ftru-pt', TiLe'gari1e' e,4ft'.ts OII siii1 is al1 Crlops. It is 110t JIs , it la titti- I C.IA ~h-h.tilehr mieietir I iOr/al/i/l is tdtrivet.iIroitit t,itth re'gistratiiiils aldt lithe de-trioiirition lit J.Circit-LtIiril, tir-isA- cii(Itle.t't r ,t'lt- l tit-IIL t'\.iet titi hllltle.irtl5 antiC is IeL'ieveLIti t le' stroiuigl% Innderst.itt't. gille11. A1kvI lead .11 IT :lttikHlitk itiltl\ve to IiiSc'hi// aRt'c, tilt- i'lLe'llt itt f 1 IR'JP i/i/ rMille t riiui liical goiserliTiictir otitthliritie'.. 156 \'I;lVr/ Ru'souurccs / i)i)(97 Part II Global Conditions and Trends and Data Tables - ffi ; 8b75' 280 2 2.6 %9 " 542 2to 8-.- 2t(; lep3 3rn.'(409 ''_, peop4le' Rep2 - 7 F 1 1 11. *, ~~~5 1511 - ~38 9( > (4)f) '5pp('-',19!35T 0.~~~~43 rabi .04 - 4 - - - - - - - 942~~~~~3 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 'v 12 I 1 7912 ~~4)at 07/Ol fv)an~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~' ,-¶(1 ' 7. Basic Economic Indicators H W_ow we measure economic progress is conditions must be used cautiously, these relationships, | | ~inmportant, because inaccurate or mis- vvhen combined witi per capita incomie trends, suggest leading indicators can create distorted that many forms of degradation will increase in the impressions and lead to bad policv or coming decades in the abseiice of explicit policy inter- investnient decisions. ThILs, it is useful to ventions by governments. Other evidence suggests that recognize the limitations of frequently used economic some environmental damage will be irreversible and indicators and to consider various indicators to gain a may thus hinder future ecotionoic growti. more complete picture, especially when makinig interna- tional comparisons. This chapter considers and corn- MEASURING ECONOMIC PROGRESS pares two alternative ways of expressing standard indicators of economic activity and economic growth; The size of a nlationl's econollyv is traditionlallv denioted the result is revealing and contradicts widely held per- by its yearly gross dom1Zestic product (GDP)-the value ceptionis about the relative scale and growth of eco- of all final goods and services prodLiced within its nomic activity in different regions of the world. borders-and by gross nationzcal product (GNP)-GDP Standard indicators of economic activity do not nec- plus netincomne from abroad. Per capita GDP aid GNP essarily measure real economic progress-indeed, they are often used as a measure of an average residenit's can suggest progress where there is none-because they economic well-being. omit or misrepresent many important economic activi- These indicators are frequentlV' used as vardsticks of ties. This chapter therefore presents receiit preliminarv econonmic progress and as a basis for international work toward a radicallv different set of economic indi- comparisons. They are nonetheless widely recognized as cators that could eventually provide better guidance to incomiiplete and misleading in several important re- policymakers. It also considers some aspects ot economilic spects: they ignore nonimiarket econiomilic activity, such inequalities among nations-inequalities whose trends as household work; they incIlide governmenit services raise important questions about the nature and sustain- at cost rather than measuring the actual value to societv; ability of global economic progress. and they say nothinig ablout the distributioni of econonmic Finally, this chapter considers the controversial sub- benefits within a societv. Moreover, the national income ject of the relationship between economic growth and accounts, oin which GDP and GNP are based, do not the environment. Does economic growth lead to im- take into account rhe degradation and depletion of provements in environmental quality or to greater envi- natural resources when calcuilatilng income (n 12). ronmental deterioration? Can environmilental degrada- These accounts also say nothinig aboLit the accuinmiula- tion impair economic growth? According to a number tion or degradation of human and social capital-social of recent empirical studies, the answer depends both on wealth in the forim of humnan knowledge, stable families, the level of per capita income and on the type of and productive social organizationis-that underpilis environmental impact examined. Although simple cor- much economic activitv. Econonic activities that pro- relations between economic growth and environmental duce a gain by depleting the national stock of natural World Resouirces 1996-9'7 159 Basic Economic Indicators Box 7.1 National Wealth and Genuine Saving A number of attempts have been made prodticed assets and natural capital. assets. The genuine saving indicator to construct indicators of progress that Overall, produced assets account for measures net flows to the combined are morc rclevant to sustainable devel- barelv 16 percent of global wealth; stock of produced and natural capi- opment than conventional economic in- natural capital accounts for 20 percent; tal-in effcct, production (gross fixed- dicators. These include the United and human capital accounts for the capital formation) less consumption, Nations Developmenit Programme's Hu- rest, alrhough the proportions vary depletion, or degradation of produced man Development Index and the Genu- among those developing countries de- and natural capital and damages from ine Progress Indicator l )(2i. Recently, pendent on exporting rawv materials, carbon dioxide emissions. It does not as the World Bank has also proposed two other developing countries, and high- vet explicitly account for flows to a na- new indlicators, wealth and genuinle sav- income countries i51. (See Figure 1.) tion's stock of human resources. A pat- ing 131. If these preliminary estimates (admit- tern of economic activity that resulted The Bank's estimates of the wealth of tedlv based on shortcut methods) arc in genuine saving couldl be a critical nations go well beyond the sources of even roughly correct, then modest de- first step to improving a country's over- wvealth traditionally considered. They in- clines in natural capital due to resource all stock of wealth. clude estimates of natural capital (the depletion or degradation could over- To produce preliminary estimates of value of land, water, timber, and subsoil whelm increases in produced assets genuine saving, the Bank took into ac- assets). human capital (the valie repre- measured bv conventional economic count both conventional production as sented by people's productive capacity). measures. Indeed, natural resource ac- well as the extraction or harvest of natu- and economic capital (produced assets counting studies suggest that is exactly ral resources and damages from carbon such as buildings and equipment) and what happened in some countries dor- dioxide emissions (used as a proxy for amount to a kind of balance sheet on a ing periods of rapid deforestation (6). all pollution damages caused by fossil nationi's primary assets. The importance Under such circumstances, conventional fuel use). It calculated these estimates of including natural and human capital economic indicators would give the for each country and sumimiarize(d the re- in a measure of national wealth is that wrong policy signals, since they suggest sults for major regions of the world (71. these quanitities mav be significantly that national wealth is increasing rather Genuine saving appears to have in- larger than produced assets. According than decreasing. creased markedly over the past decade to preliminary Bank estimates, natural Increases in the stock of total wealth, in East Asia and is low hut positive in assets exceeded the value of produced defined in this broad way, could conic SoLth Asia. However, genuine saving assets in 81 of 190 countries examined either from a pattern of economic activ- has been sharply negative since the late (4). The value of human resources ex- ity that resulted in genuine saving (an 1970s in sub-Saharan Africa. Genuine ceeded the value of produced assets in increase in the overall total of pro- saving in Latin America and the Carib- virtually every country, and in many duced, natural, and human capital) or bean, by this measure, has been low countries exceeded the value of both from increases in the valie of existing and fluctuating s). References and Notes Figure 1 Differences in Composition of Wealth I Uited Naitions Developmiem,t Programme Between High-income and Developing Countries (UNDP, Heuwa Deelopment Report 1995 Raw material exporters Other developing countries High-income countries 2. Clifford Cobb, Tetd Halstead, mnd Jonathan (4.6% of world's wealth) (1 5.9% of world's wealth) (79.6% of world's wealth) Rowe, "If the (.DP is Up, W/hv is Ainerica _ _ _ _ Down?," The Atlati,i Monitbly, Vol. 2'6, 20 16 16% No.4 O(cober 1995), p. 59. S 3. The World Bank, Mo,nitoring Environ- 36% mental Progress: A Report on Work in Pro- - ' __ ,vgress (The World Baink, Washiington, D.C., 44 1995), pp. 53-66. 28 4. The World Bank, "World Ilank Develops W617% New Systeiii to Meaisuire Wealih of Na- * Natural capital rtinuis," press release (The World Ban,k. Washiington, D.C., Septeimiber 17, 1995). * Produced assets 67% -. Ci cit. 3.pp. 6 1-63. * Human resources 6. Tropical Science Center and World Re- sotirces lilstiELIte. A( counts Overdue: N.,t,- Source: The World Bank, Monitoring EnvironmentalProgress: A Report on Work in Progress ral Resources Depre'iatioz in Costa Ri.,i (The World Bank. Washington. D.C., 1995), p. 63. (World Resources Institiure, Washington. Note: Developing countries here are divided between raw material exporters (63 countries D.C.. 1991). dependent on exporting raw materials to earn foreign exchange) and other developing 7. countries (100 countries). The remaining 29 countries are classified as high-income )p. cU. 3. countries. X. Op. it. 3. pp. 54-56. 160 World Resourccs I 996-')7 Basic Economic Indicators or humanl Capital-by Cuttilng forcsts or sh itting scihools C:onsidcr, for example, the standard of living as and usiig tihe money- earlied or saved to buy a mis, for- Mieasored byv aeragc per capita GDP1 in ja pal aid the exalmlple-would increase tile GDP, eveii though the United States. Vlarket-based exchange rates represent society might ultimately be rhe proorer and ha ve a less rhe stmiidalrd Of Ii ing in JA paI ias havirig b)Cen IighIr promising ecoionilli future. Thtis, these conventional than that in the LInirtel States since the earl' I 9X0s, indicators of econioniilc activity cani mlisrepresenit rhe wlheii japan's per capita (GDP (IIC,IsLII-ed iin dollars) long-termil susta illabill ti of a narlioli's econom11'. rowt o i sr Urpassed the IJ.S. per cap ita (G )P. lIP-bascd ei -r-eIicV in GDP is riot iiecessaIrilv the samlie as real ecoiioimic values, hoWevelr, provide a difterent perspective, sug- prrorgess, eveii thougIl it 11a,\ be al) importanit com Ipo- gesting that the LI.S. standa rd of living is srill sigiiifi- neilt of that progress. cantl\ highier. (See Figuires I. i A and 7. 114.) Efforts to create econiomiic indicaltor-s that Call send Reports of very rapid ec01i011inc grWrtll in Chinal iliore acCLurate policy signals are ther-fore imc portant since the earIv I 980s have attractedi interiational I inter- eveii thouLgh i itia I atreiipts are likely to be cuuiirrver- est lilnd investment. Market-base.1d exchange rates give a sill. OIne sucLh effort, recciIrlV pi blished in preliiiin-lary' growth i-arte averagiig nearly 9) perceiit ptr ear over tle foriil by the World Bank. proposes two iiew iindicators: I 98 1-93 period. With PIP-based cuLrrency vziliieS, how'- wealth aiid geCiiuiine saving ;.1. The wealth nieasaire ever, (Chiia's (GDP growtli rare for thc sa inie period is extelids the colncept of national ecolloilic wealtrh (tral- a0L nit s5 pei'eeiir is . India, ill faet, shows a grohxvti rate ditionlIV I'lmeasUo red in produeed assers Such as eq iIIp- Slightly higher tlian tliat of (China for the sanic period, cilt ailId buildings) to nciouimpass 111,manll and nlatrnral Wilhen CaIenLIhird Witlh PP1' figuires. (Set I )ata Table 7. I.) earcalti as well. The secotli iidilCaotr, geilluine sax ing, Noneteiless, these PIT'' figtires also indicate that Clhiia"'s Iea;JsLures the niet of the aniiual I flows that inicrease the econoiii is already iiiuicli larger rtlia coliiox,tioual (G1DP stock of wvealth ( broiadly defilned) and the flows that figuLres suggest-la rger th aii that of .(tcri&iiiy and iiearlx decrease it (suc1h as natUral re SoIirtC dtepcltion). A posi- als la-ge as that of japai . rive geii iiiie saylirig numiiber WoUltl reflect ntt addlitions Exampltes suich as thcse illustrate liow impiluortait t the to the overall stock of prodiCetLi anId iiLtuLral caipital choioce of indicatorts aild CalCUlatiOnl methods Call be iln (and, porentiiallv, huii ln capitall) allt thus is, the Ba.iik shkipinig perceptionis. Increasingl', interilati(nal orga ili- suggests, a nioort niCinie IigflI mieasuirc of the productiVye zatioIIs are l Lsi lg PPP1-baSed iltasU-es of coinniiiiC aC- potenitial thit a niatioii is leavinig for futur1e geiieIraIti0is tivir' in international coiiparlisoiis. All figures giveii ill thaii are comxenitional ecoiiom ic indicators. (See Box the remiaiiider of this chapter are lPP-baISed, uiileCSS 7. I .) Indeed, prteliiinary CAlculations of a limited form1 otherwise noted. of the iexv indicator suIggest that, tor a signiificaint nuILImbrel- of dtevelopinIg couLntr-ics, the genuinie saviig C ElVUA indicator is negative, Illeiieilig that the cui-rciit patteril ECONOMIC INEQUALITY of ecoioniic activitV ill those countie12is is aCtaliv dt- aesInta PPP-b'sed c5lrcilc VaLlCS to coiiilpreC ilationll .rcaSill,g nlatOln ll We lIL11 (4) eeiiIIiCiiies uLSally pro(thICets lower (G)P figUires il weailtliv countrliies .,,id h1igher GOP 1)figUres ini poorer naltioils, coimparted xwitli iarket-bastld exChalla C rates. Likewise, PURCHASING POWER PARITY per capita incomes in virtually' all de(elipiii1g cotiltl-ies ar-e significanitilv higher wlicii coiiir pied on the basis of In miaking international coniparlisous, GDP aind G\NP1 pu-chasilng Power parity than xw'liei comiipared xvith (as conventional lv calculated) halve an additional-anid market-based exJhaiige rates. But etveii with rhis "coli- PliTiVely ec01101m1ic-liiii itatiituri, na;iely, thtlr marker cx- pressioii" tf differences betxw'eei -irich andc poori it CiiiC chanige rates for a niarlio is ciitreiicy often do i Ot reflect IteImaills 1ieCCa1liv distri tbuted aicross ilato iis. that citLreticy's trut' p1i-clhasinig power at homie. Re- In I 992, per ci pita I)IP ranged from S504 in (Chad celitily, it has become possiblt to coiliipart naitioial I to 23,220() in the lnited Starts. The global av 'c'i'clgc per cL1 1-etICies based oll pur0-Cha1si?ng pl'c(' /Ul'it ' (1PPIT)-ill ctpita inricomne for- that ye.i r xvwas S5,33 36-ab our tha.it rof effct, honw inLichii of a couiiniion "market basket" of Fiji and Rdll'/. (See [)ata 'Fable 7.1.) Hloxwevet, the goods a id 1srv'ices each cuiirt'iecy caii pur-chase locally, 11dianl v.il ICt wa;s closer tO (Chi iia's .S IS00. includh ig goodIs aid services that arc iiot tratdcd iiitpt Ii ie992, the POluest half of the world's ptopleh ac- naltionallyl. (See Box 7.2.) Thei seofe Pif curLeIT 'ICvaluIes LS C Lintet foi Itss th.in 1.5 percetit of global ( D' (:on- call dramatically chal.ige prevaliit ' inotions about a \versel', the I perceit \ith the hiigiest irclint's coUitry's pllace in the wvorld econonix. accoCiIntcd for ovet. 50 percent of global ( 1). W\r,/ 1\' £'sol(rc(' C/ 996-')7 161 Basic Economic Indicators Box 7.2 Purchasing Power Parity For international comiiparisons, cco- An alternative approach is based on Just how dramaticaliv exchange rate noinic indicators are converted front lo- estimates of the purchasing power of and PPP currency values can differ is cal currencies into a comimon currency, different currencies, rather than their shown bv an amusing, yet enlightening such as dollars. Traditionally, market market exchange rates. On the basis of piece of analvsis, The Economnist's Big exchange rates are used to make these comparisons of prices and expenditures Macl&M index. For the past several years, conversions. In theory, exchange rates for several hundred goods and services that publication has calculated PPP adjust througli the action of the market bv rhe International Comparison Pro- equivalents for the local price of a so that the local currency prices of a ject (ItP) in a large number of partici- McDonald's Big Mac hamburger and group of identical goods and services pating countries, the relative values of compared these to marker exchange represent equivalent valuc in everv na- local currencies are adjusted to reflect rates to estimate biow overvalued or un- tion. In practice, however, such adjust- purchasing power parity (PPP) or dervalued major currencies are com- ments can lag far behind rapidly equivalence. In effect, the PPP currencv pared to the U.S. dollar The most recent changing economic circumstances. Gov- values reflect the number of units of a analysis indicates that the U.S. dollar is erminent actions, suLch as currency con- country's currency required to buy the 50 percent undervalued against the Japa- trols, influence over interest rates, samc quantity of comparable goods and nese yen and nearly 1OO percent overval- import tariffs, and export subsidies, services in the local inarket as one U.S. ued against the Chinese Vuan(ln). may further distort the aCcuracv of dollar would buv in an average country. The World Bank now presents esti- market-based exchange rates at any The average couLntrv is based on a coni- mates of national gross domestic prod- given tinme. Moreover, many goods and posite of all participating countries, so uct (GDP) and per capita GDP services are not traded in international no single country acts as the base coun- converted to a common currency using commerce; market-based exchange try m(2n . The ICP estimates, niade for PPP equivalents, in addition to values rates mav not reflect the relative values benchmark years, have been extended converted using market exchange rates of such goods, even in theory. Thus, in- in the Penmi W'orld 7Tble for nonbench- (i I). The International Monetary Fund ternational comparisons based on mar- mark years and COuIntries (4) (i) i6 (7n. uses country weights based on PPP- ket exchange rates can greatly over- or The most recent version (Mark 5.6) based (GDP for aggregating growth rates understate the value of a nation's eco- was completed in 1994 and icluides and other economic indicators(12l 10. nomic activity, data through 1992 (cs (9). Such comparisons using PPP-based con- Will this uneCqIuIal distribution of income even out United States also increased by more than 30 percent over tinie? Manly developing econiomilies are growing over this sanic period. Similar co)nclLisioiis are reachied more rap)idly than the mor0c mIturl econoomies of (level- in looking at the relative growthi of India versus Japan oped nationis. From 1 983 to 1 992, avcrage (iDlP growtth and the ULnited States. SIuch trCeds imiply that the world for the nations conistituiting rhte poor-est lhalf of the global is becoming economically more unequr1 piN/till r I r r n i tillI '.o.Irrrr ('1i'm 1-if' .rr I r:irt,nIir/ i-iti iIdN,rit i.I l;.rri i nlo Nrr/Iiri iit/ i /I liii 5 'Ii . rue? I ' .nt it irr//rirt slr i~tialt. TePw Vq I fI rL 1.lei~'i r/.N Ii uni ,I Pl I t ,d xI.Ir, rrr,rrtii rriNi iI." rrr.rr irrirk ilrrrr\ All/ Ir-1r/ieiri 'i1 i l)')4A,. NieiIliiidiirA\ rid, r.Il'ielet f 1, 'ti.1,1 Ill )Xi.lNr. I i/ ,/ I riiiiri,Irfi \' N . RIILrlti ,rirrrr/r id ti/ l I II I I-,iiri. 1 liv A/ri 51tt41 p lrrrrim rrilF.iI'I i\I.ik Si Ali I \p.riiili(I I hr / ifir I4. 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IfIŽ I IIf (I IIIIr Ii 1,itn'rri.if I ud4tiII m Iir/iirl.f I irrf.itii i.. .11 1 ilh iii'if If, Data Table 7.1 Gross National and Domestic Product Estimates, 1983-93 Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross National Exchange Rate Purchasing Power Average Annual Product (GNP, Based (GDP) Parity jPPP) Growth Rate Distribution of 1993 (a) 1993 (b) 1992 (c( (percentl) (d) GDP, 1993 Total Per Capita Total Per Capita Total Per Capita GNP GDP PPP (percent) (million USS) (US$) (million USS) (USS) (million InS) (IntS) 1983-93 1983-93 1983-93 Agriculture Industry Services WORLD AFRICA Algeia 47,565 1 780 49.762 1.862 80.271 3076 0.8 1 0 1.6 ' 3 43 43 Angola X X X X 6.947 3 076 e X x 3.7 t X X X BenIn 2.187 430 2.125 418 5.948 1245 0 25 26 1.2 h 36 13 51 Bolswana 3.909 2.79) 3.813 2722 4.202 3406 e 96 88 64 t 6 47 47 Burkna Faso 2.932 300 2.815 288 6.183 651 32 3.2 3.3 44 2 30 i 37 Bumned' 1.085 180 948 157 4.149 710 38 3.8 4.5 52 2' 27 Cameroon 10268 820 11.092 885 13.667 1.122 Ut 9 (22 (104) 29 25 47 Central Alncan Rep 1.262 400 1.233 39' 1.950 634 0.4 0.8 08 50 14 36 Chad 1.262 210 1.197 199 2955 504 42 4.2 53 44 22 3 Congo 2.321 950 2.385 976 6012 2.538 07 05 15 11 35 53 ColedIvoire 8,389 630 9.298 698 16882 1.315 (018 (o1) 106) 37 24 39 Egypt 37.246 660 39,357 697 125.842 2 274 4.0 2.9 2 1 18 22 60 EqualoralGuinea 159 420 157 413 X x 35 j 3.4 1X 47 28 27 Enlrea X X 488 X X 0 X X x 13 21 66 Ethiopia X 100 X X 17245 405 k X X 0.1 I 60 '4 29 Gabon 4.995 4 960 5.420 5.383 3.943 3 983 0.3 1 3 (0 2i 8 45 47 Gambia.The 365 350 361 346 940 1 019 i 43 32 5.1 m 28 15 58 Ghana 7 072 430 6.084 370 19.921 1 249 4 7 4 7 5 4 48 16 36 Gainea 3.153 500 3.172 503 3.694 604 4 2 j 3.7 . 3.5 24 31 45 Guanea-Bisoau 247 240 241 235 832 827 52 50 24 45 19 36 Kenya 6844 270 5.539 219 29.024 1.176 37 40 4.5 29 18 54 Lesotho 1 263 650 759 390 1,942 1 027 2 4 6 0 2.5 10 47 43 Libena 1.313 560 n 1.397 596 n 2,272 1 01 k 1066) m (114im i I 7) I 0 X LUbya 26.840 6.125 e 24.734 5.645 a 36.531 9649 o 421 I f S 6 I X X X X Madagascar 3.048 220 3,352 242 10.148 757 13 1.4 05 34 14 52 Malawi 2.104 200 1.974 186 6.092 607 3 0 2 7 5 1 39 18 43 Mal, 2.736 270 2.662 263 6.737 708 9 36 33 32 i 42 15 42 Mauntana 1.081 500 947 438 2282 1.083 22 2.1 1.5 28 30 42 Maunius 3.300 3.030 3,260 3.006 8 672 8.025 70 6 5 66 10 33 57 Morocco 26.983 1.040 26.635 1.027 70474 2.777 3.3 3.6 4 1 14 32 53 Mozambique 1.359 90 1 467 97 13369 898 3.1 45 (02) 33 12 55 Narniia 2.659 1820 23508 1.716 4596 3.231 4.9 3.3 238 10 27 63 Niger 2.309 270 2.220 263 4711 629 e 06 03 11101 1 39 18 44 Nigena 31.579 300 31593 300 115.579 1.132 5.1 46 1.2 34 43 24 Rwanda 1.586 210 1.494 198 7.071 961 1.1 I I 2.1 41 21 38 Senegal 5.927 70 5T770 730 10.661 1 411 g 2.6 2 4 2.4 h 20 19 61 Sierra Leone 670 194 732 164 3.984 914 lOlR 1 4 0.0 38 9 16 9 46 g Somalia 1.134 131 996 li5 98.849 1040 e 20 p 2.7p 2.8 t 65i 9i 26 South Abica 118.84 2.980 117.433 2.961 150.608 3.885 1 2 1 0 14 5 39 56 SIdan 10589 493 o 13.326 621 o 18.34 735 9 6 0 0.5 6 34 q 17 q 50 Swaziland 1047 1.199 1.038 1 179 2.259 2.95C e 40 39 4.1 f 12 39 50 Tanzana 2522 90 2.373 85 15,912 663 1 4.0 49 8.2 56 14 30 Togo 1.321 340 1.249 322 2.517 669 1 2 0.8 2 4 49 18 33 Tanina 14.889 1,720 14.634 1.691 32.192 3.607 37 37 3.7 18 31 51 Ugan4a 3.245 180 3.236 179 11.504 654 39 3.8 (1.2) 53 12 35 Zaire 9.574 264 e 9.920 274 e 19.049 526 e 21 p (OSi t 26 f X X X Zambia 3.396 380 3.685 412 7 360 877 9 14 1.3 10 h 34 36 30 Zimbabwe 5.564 520 5.635 525 15419 1.479 28 2.9 23 15 36 48 EUROPE Albana 1.152 340 707 211 q X X X (3.21t X 40 q 13q 47 q Ausnda 164.829 23.510 182067 23.159 132669 16.989 2 7 26 37 2 q 35 q 62 q Belaws. Rep 29.240 2.870 27.545 2.704 62.594 6.130, 1.8 1.8 X 17 54 29 Belgium 217537 21.650 210.576 20.957 181 195 18.091 26 24 28 2i 30 68 Bosnia and Herzegovmna X X 0 X X X X X X X X X Bulgaria 10.112 1.140 10.369 1,169 60299 6.774 (1 4) (08) 2.5 13 38 49 Croata Rep X X 11.688 2.591 X X X x X 11 30 58 CzechRep 27.902 2710 31.613 3,070 X 0 (15) 14 15) 13 m 6 40 54 Dennmar 136049 26.730 135.98 26,333 96.575 1i.730 1 7 1 7 1.8 4 q 27 q 69 q Estonia Rep 4.780 3.080 5.092 3.281 9.906 6326 9 14.5) 145) X B 29 63 Finland 97624 1930C 83.794 16.566 78.627 18619 1 1 14 1.7 5 q 31q 64 q France 1.292 558 22 490 1,251 689 21.779 1.043.232 18 232 2 3 2 2 2 5 3 29 69 Gennany 1.901 131 23.560 1.910 761 23,679 1,315.229 20197 X X X I g 38 g 61 g Greece 76599 7.390 73.182 7060 91C259 8877 4 18 18 24 h 18 q 32 q 50 q Hungary 34.204 3.350 38.099 3732 59.327 5780 01 (1 2 (.11) 6 28 66 lcelaiid 6.570 24.950 6,076 23.075 4.253 16324 23 2.2 2.4 12 g 286 60 8 Ireland 45.928 13,090 47.677 13495 43.187 12759 42 4.5 40 8 g 10 g 82 g Italy 1,133.287 198.40 991,386 17356 954749 16 724 23 2.4 26 3 q 32 q 65 q Latia, Rep 5.248 2.010 4.601 1 762 18.246 6.891 g (309 (2.51 X 15 32 53 Lithuania. Rep 4.900 1.320 4.335 1 168 18.637 5.025 g (48i (4.81 X 21 41 38 Macedona. tonner Yugoslav Rep 1.702 820 1,704 821 X X X X X X X X Moldova, Rep 4.672 1.060 4.292 974 17 875 4.085 g (3 8 (3 8) X 35 48 I 8 Nethenands 320,120 20.950 399.227 20237 283.549 17.373 2.6 2.7 28 4 X X Nonway 111.628 25.970 IG3 419 24.060 73 148 17.094 2.4 2.4 2 I 3 g 35 g 62 g Poland. Rep 86.565 2.260 85.853 2.241 187 577 4.907 06 0 1 0 1 6 39 55 Portugal 89,848 9 130 85 665 8.705 95.107 9.638 i 4.2 3 6 5 6 m 6 , 38 ' 56 Roania 258948 1 140 35969 1.141 48388 2.130 (4.8 15.0) 2.9 1 21 40 40 RSSian Feoeration 347.896 2.340 329.233 2.214 1,223 573 8.320 g (24) 12.4) X 9 q 51 q 39 q Slovak Rep i0.360 1.950 11.076 2.085 X X (1.2) u P12) u X 7 44 49 Slove,ia. Rep 12.571 6490 11.974 6.182 X X X X X 6 36 58 Span 536.547 13.590 478.532 12,122 511.794 12.986 34 34 4.2 5 I 35 I 61 I Sweden 215013 24740 185.289 21,320 158.987 18.387 12 14 1.7 2 q 31 q 67 q Swiazeland 252.197 35.760 232.161 32.919 150.960 21631 19 21 2.5 X X X Ukrane 113.928 2.210 109,078 2,116 296.347 5.768 8 12) I12) X 35 47 18 Un4edKmgdom 1045.994 18060 941.424 16.255 941.413 16302 22 23 2.7 2 q 33 q 65 q Yugoslavia FedRep X X X X X X 2.9 f 2.9 1 (1.31 m X X X 166 WVorld Rcsources 1996-97 Data Table 7.1 continued Gross Domestic Product (GDP) Gross Natlonal Exchange Rate Purchasing Power Average Annual Product (GNP) Based (GDP) Parity (PPP) Growth Rate Distribution ot 1993(a} 1993(b) 1992 (c) (percent) id) GDP. 1993 Total Per Capita Total Per Capita Total Per Capita GNP GDP ppp (percent) (million US$) (US$3 (million US$) (US$3 (million IntS) (IntS) 1983-93 1983-93 1983-93 Agriculture Industry Services NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA BeIze 500 2.450 524 2 569 1.142 5739 73 73 64 19 28 53 Canada 574.766 19.970 546.349 18.982 596557 20.970 24 2.4 30 3 i 32 65 Costa Rica 7.031 2.150 7577 2.317 14.403 4522 50 44 42 (5 263 59 Cuba X X X X 43907 4.266a 5 0 5 X X X DonnmicanRep 9.278 1230 9510 1.261 21555 0918 34 30 23 15 23 62 E Sal-ador 7282 1 320 7625 1 382 12.286 2274 28 26 22 9 25 66 Gualemala 11032 1.100 11309 1 128 28.135 2888 28 28 30 25 19 55 Hala 3158 477 g 1.455 211 6,794 1069 e (IS) it6i 03 1 39 1 46 Honduras 3.201 600 3.343 627 9 274 1 792 31 3 5 3 1 20 30 50 Jamaica 3.472 1,440 3,825 1 587 7.273 1.053g 9 " 2 9 1 8 h 8 41 51 Mexico 324,997 3.610 343472 3.815 692 795 1.867 24 20 36 8 28 63 Nicaragua '.399 340 1.800 437 5665 1.542 (4 Uj 2 6S 3363 i 30 20 50 Panama 6599 260C 6565 2.587 102C8 40C2 14 3 ? 02 0 8I 72 T-nidadaiidTobag. 4895 3830 4670 3,854 12.679 15145 5 18) 1'4) (161 8 3 43 55 Unled Stales 6 378 873 24 740 8.259 899 24.279 5.925.080 23 220 2 5 2 6 2 6 X X X SOUTH AMERICA Argentia 243.877 7.220 255.595 7567 1951,699 5921 1 8 1 4 (09) m 6 31 63 134,na 5.369 760 5.382 762 34 288 2.066 30 2.4 1 5 X X X Brazi: 458.504 2.930 507.353 3.242 754 8C4 4.912 2 6 2 2 2 3 11 g 37 6 52 g Chile 438156 3.170 45.639 3.302 85948 6.326 75 68 63 X X X COiombia 495,55 1400 54 076 1.016 148 .6 1 254 3 9 4 0 4 3 16 q 35 q 50 q Fcuador 13176 1200 14304 1.303 36.685 3420 31 27 1.9 12 38 50 Guyana 286 3.00 326 400 1. 13 1 4268 ( 03j 01 I 71 m 30 g 38 g 32 5 Paragaay 7C99 1.510 6.825 '.452 '2.115l 655 33 36 34 26 21 53 Penr 34.100 1.490 41.061 1794 58.79' 2 520 2 63 3051 (073 101 43 46 Sunraine 489 1.180 420 1015 1.102 2.787 e 08 09 (43) f 22 24 54 Umguay 12.061 3.830 13,144 4.174 21.087 5.736 39 3.0 33 9 27 64 Venezuela 59.393 2840 59995 2.869 172.419 8.449 3 1 3.1 29 5 42 53 ASIA Alghanstan. Islamic Slate X X X X X X X X X X X X Anmentia 2462 660 2 190 587 16.477 47502 167) 87) 00 48 30 22 Aze-rai,an 5390 730 4.992 676 27016 4257 (5 2) (52' X 22 q 52 q 26 q Bangladesh 25345 220 23.977 208 215,385 3908 45 39 55 30 18 52 Fhatan X X 239 X 1118 870 , 82 64 X 11 29 30 ambodia X 5 1.99' 206 X X OS 5.6 X 47 14 38 China X X 425,611 361 2141 184 ' 838 X 89 47 19 48 33 Georgia Rep 3.159 580 2994 550 24388 4495 9 (109) (109) X 58 22 20 (udia 269460 300 250966 279 1.437 124 1633 50 51 52 31 27 41 lndalnesia 138.492 740 144 707 773 478.99 286; 09 58 50 19 39 42 ran, Islam,cRep 134174 2159 q 113171 1.821 q 258802 4161 1 6 17 1 7 21 36 43 Iraq 42.725 2.363 i 52833 2923 I 54787 3347 Ii 149' 9 1(493 h (9.0) rn X X X Israel 72653 13.920 69.739 13.362 64,245 12783 47 45 42 X X X Japan 3.919529 31490 4.214.204 33857 2473.223 19920 41 40 43 2 q 41 q 57 q Jordan 4.88' '.10 5.190 1265 '3241 439 01 '.2 - 1 m 8 28 66 Kazakhstan. Rep 26.445 1 560 24.728 1.459 82 590 4.929 9 2 1 (21) X 29 9 42 g 30 g Korea. Dem People s Rop X X X X 60 990 3.067 c X X X X X X Korea Rep 338044 7660 330830 7.497 415320 9.565 9 90 87 96 h 7 43 50 K,aall 34.120 19.360 22402 12,711 17557 8561e (2.1) 20 s (041 I 0 50 45 KyrgyzRep 3902 850 3915 853 14.959 33729 06 06 X 43 9 35 9 22 g Lao People, De, Rep 1289 285 1334 290 7.592 753 9 47 a 47 a 39 w 01 18 31 Lebanon X X 7.535 1955 X X x X X X X X Malaysia 59808 3.140 64.450 3384 133586 719 657 65 62 X X X Mongoka 904 390 ,093 47. 5319 2.443 X X 37 . 21 46 33 Myanmar X X 55.224 1.238 31.582 772 e 3o01 (01) I1 I 83 9 28 Nepal 3.954 190 3748 180 24586 1.240 e 49 49 38 1 43 21 36 Oman 9 640 4850 11686 5.879 13975 8.650 58 54 26 1 3 s 53 q 44 q Pakstan 52.805 430 01825 422 214098 1 793 48 57 50 25 25 50 Ph,l,ppnes 55,080 850 54 068 834 137.734 ? 172 28 2 2 4 22 33 45 Saudi Atabla 133275 7953 q 124 153 7410 q 143.679 9390e 25 r 31 1 618)t 6I 50 S 43 Singapore 55 380 19 850 55.153 19.769 46,213 16 736 69 69 61 0 37 63 Sr,Lanka 10738 600 10.472 555 49.170 ?783 35 38 28 25 26 50 SynanArlb Rep 15582 /.219 g 18.061 1413 g 63326 955 q 3 5 IS 9 h 26 5 30 g 23 g 48 9 Tapkislan. Rep 2.710 470 2.520 437 14.475 2.783 '3 03 3 0) X 33 g 35 g 32 5 Tnailand 122,515 2 110 124 862 2.150 286 5:33 5.018 8 9 8 8 7 8 10 39 51 Turkey 177.003 2.970 174 167 2.922 285592 4893 4.2 48 51 15 30 55 Turkiaesisten. Rep 5418 141l6 q 5267 (.376 q 16556 4.527 I (9 1 i9 I X 32 g 31 g 37 g Urcec A-a Emmires 38.727 21 430 35.405 19.592 2535 'i5x 784 6 8 i 4 p 05 I 2 57 40 Uzbekistan Rep 21 204 970 20425 934 72.104 3334 i 14 1 4 X 23 36 41 VetNa,c 12.125 170 12834 180 39.838 665 o X 66 a X 29 28 42 Senmen Rep X X 12.616 956 30.305 0769 X X 9 7 f 21 24 55 OCEANIA Australia 307.967 17.500 289.390 16444 321 126 189.00 27 2.8 28 3 q 29 q 67 q FPil 1.623 2,130 1684 2.210 3973 5298 29 28 38 i- 1 q 20 q 62 q New Zealand 43.941 12,600 43.699 12.530 53395 15.502 I 0 1 I 08 7 g 25 g 67 g Papua New Guinea 4.644 1 130 5 091 1.239 7923 1 972 3 2 3 7 1 4 26 43 31 Soaoamon sancus 262 740 246 718 q 789 2639 - 5o 54 T 77 s X X X Sources The Wond Bank. Unied Nations Population Givision and Penn Word Tables Notes a CerreatUS dollars (Atas Melhhodlogyl b Cieur 1693US dollars c Catent 1992intear a dollrs In) a CanstaiIS e DGla aie Ia 1989 t DGla are a' 1983-89 gala are fot 1991 h Dala ame for 1983-91 I Data are (or 1990 I Data ate ior 1986-93 k Data ate tor 1986 I Dala ame f. 1983-86 m Data are tor 1963 87 n Dala are fot 1987 Dataa a faor 1985 p Dalare ito 198390 qi Data ate fot 992 Data are for 1988 s. Data are fot 198388 t Data aifoa 983-92 u Dala aue for 1983-88 v Dala a'e Ioa 198793 in Daa are lao 198491 G Dala atefo 1964-90 0= 2e0o0 less Isa- hal khe intel ateasums X0 -rolai'aible riegalne .ibeis ate sho-it paeintheses Foi addilmenaln(orinatian. see Sourres and Technical Noles Worlk Resourt-cs 1996-97 167 Data Table 7.2 Official Development Assistance and External Debt Indicators, 1981-93 Debt S=rvice Current Average Annual as a Percentage of: Borrowing Official Development ODA as a Total Disbursed Long-Term Exports Per Assistance (ODA) Percentage 1993 ODA External Debt Public Debt of Goods Current Capita (mifflion USS) (a) of GNP (a Per Capita (million USS) (million USS) %of GNP and Services Borrowing (USS) 19i4-86 iggi-g3 1991-943(USS)(a} l9Bi-83 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 t991-93 1991-93 WORLD AFRICA A!eeria 8; 6) (50) (0' 17461 26923 25.259 505 72.5 15 1 260 7 Anigola 117 -08 X 29 X 9.233 7.504 NA 6 * 03 0 31.i Berm: 104 275 13.5 57 626 140' 1.332 503 5.7 92' I, B rlsa Ina C 126 3.3 90 205 641 634 16 7 1 2 679 74 B,rkna Faso 223 444 15 6 48 352 1.053 987 :14.6 70 755 5.5 Burundi 157 271 22 8 40 238 1.(103 540 80.0 359 42.7 15 1 Ca,rern190 50 S4 S.6 44 2.660 6.431 5255 496 18- 023 430 CenfialAlvoar Rep 119 70 13.6 55 249 854 -63 595 7 2C3 214 Chad 154 245 133 20 189 692 631 500 1117 103 Congu 986 25 50 53 1841 4880 3.392 160 I 16.0 >30 83 ColedIor 1446 10 84 58 8633 18230 11.61El 124.7 331 1416 605 Egypt 1784 3644 '0.0 38 28703 40771 36.1,7 q90 158 140 13 Eqnloval Guinea 18 5C 41.0 139 111 259 216 149.5 56 226 331 Ellrsc X 2 X 20 X X X X 0 X X ElhioI),a X 1.126 X 22 1.285 4413 4230 X 137 27.4 76 Gabor. 72 105 21 82 1.0I7 3.933 3 024 60.5 114 251 1 96 8 Gaambia. Tn, 68 101 207 66 98 :380 333 962 d.7 7q4 36i Ghal 265 707 10 2 38 1.503 48 d I50 45 0 25 3 747 24 1 G.eer.e 107 416 141 66 1350 2716 2.516 650 13.9 416 35.7 Cirea-Brosa. 66 108 44.0 95 162 567 613 2502 156 184 31 4 Ke,lva 4-35 913 11.7 35 3415 6.947 5030 64.5 314 129.3 2I 1 tesolrra 54 130 12.7 73 112 475 444 :18.9 50 415 330 Ltl;erna 107 134 X 44 907 1.934 1 086 X X .8333 03 LLhyo (43; 27 X S X X X X x X x Madanasca 236 396 14.0 27 1.679 4.520 3934 1395 22.1 77.6 106 Malami 157 532 264 48 851 1 733 1604 796 23.9 61.9 165 fOal 300 42 16 3 37 902 2 6' 2477 35 7 6.4 330 10.1 Maur=lana 203 20C 23.1 156 1 (28 2152 '.895 (7 2 20 8 602 606 Noralns 40 47 1.5 24 063 1 028 756 250 7.6 Q131 113.5 _M-oC., r 13 982 3.6 29 12 1 21 532 20.371 75 2 265 149.1 6(1'" MozamlrO.ln 413 1.740 96.4 76 X 5.055 4420 344.4 106 31.2 10S Na'6b(a X 161 6.3 06 x X X X X X X N:er 208 365 15 2 41 076 1.656 1 299 54 2 24 2 094 1 1 0o N qe'a 47 267 08 3 14.543 32.655 29959 i99 187 4303- 67 Rooranen 166 350 166 48 219 872 803 416 140 :7. 9Q: Sellegal 410 604 10.4 63 1.870 3652 2.945 50.7 14.9 1114 27.4 Sia- Leone 74 148 212 47 605 (301 689 985 '37 41( '3.2 Somalia 405 078 X 99 .220 2466 1513 X X 4 0. Sool,t AHc,,a X X X 7 X X X X X X X S,eel 90 62.7 X 7 70(3 6.160 0066 X 34 20. 4:3 Swaziland ; 54 5.4 67 212 242 235 23.6 3 15./7 16 1 Tanzan.ia 579 1.126 41( 34 3.341 7.334 60.59 4132 35.d 7? 11 !5 Tlgo 133 175 1 1 26 949 1 333 1.135 765 9 3 92.7 1 If Tu,-,,a 186 348 2.5 29 3.813 8498 7.275 522 214 1169 137.0 14Yanda 61 650 17 3: 87 2.95 2.49 698 80 6951 1'F Zale 367 307 X 4 5 168 11 025 8.996 X X 634 37 Zania 345 931 28.8 98 3697 7 .06 4 792 148.2 37 6 139 6 35.7 Z7rbanwe 256 563 94 47 1774 3.070 2806 47.0 307 926 61.0 EUROPE A an-a X 307 X f1 X 627 ('2 NA 01 9.5 15: Aostla :209' (5491 °0.3) 869) x X X X X X X Belar:s Rep X 197 06 13 x 183 Y X X 29 17' Beq n "4761 :36) (641 (4 80' X X x X X X X Bosmaran .her,egoma X X x x X X X X X a X Bfilgara X 198 1 7 IS X 12 125 9.698 93 3 70G 1450 25.3 Cr;ai a. Rep X X X x X 93 X x X 12 2.7 24 Czecn Rer X 185 07 12 2341 7.539 X X 32 044 133.1 DeneMalk (528, 1311 (1.0) 1259) X X X X X Y X E-.ono Rep X 54 10 27 X 71 X X '39 22?. 212 F,I an,d i234 (6131 10.6) 170) x X X X x X X Frelo- 4256. 7.8571 (0.68 (138: 0 X X X X X G. Vno X 7,171421 (0 4: 86'a x X x X X X G'ee;e I5 43 0' 4 X X X X X X X H-gary X 06. Ilt 19 i( 235 23 123 19.344 591 37.4 1 173 370 8 (olne 12 12 .0 0 0 0 12 0 12 0 (rea, (45) (74 (021 231 X X X X X X X lal {(1.545) 3.504 (031 531 X x X X 6 X X L3ua Rer X 40 05 12 X 97 X X X 965 16 L ((ome.Rep X 53 0.7 16 X '0 1X X X 2.3 Sm( Maceona former Yugoala Rep x X X X X 285 X X X 2 700 ) 0 1 H cidon e 0 X0 3 X '09 X X X 5 5 8 Nelherlande (1.381 U 2.596I I0 8' r 1650 X X X X X X No'evay (6371 1.1055) 1 lr 236r X X X x Y X X Polan. Re7p X (658 2.1 2- X 49.22 X X 89. (79 0 20.6 Potugal 113 2541 ;0 31 21 13.230 32 627 22.049 27 1 13 6 90 6 6501.) RJmana X 299 1.0 1 38 69 3.386 1 257 4 4 09 31.6 33 1 R.w, ear' nerealn.1 1.525 0.4 14 4.757 76.430 564 34 1.48 11 516 86 4 Socak R9o X 92 0.8 13 473 2.654 X X 501 1042 96 1 Slc.een. Rep X X X X 0 541 X X X 1(30.9 5680 Spa' l1721 R1.331U (0.3: (31: x X X X X X X Swede( 8931) i2.1151 (0 9) '203' y X x X X X X Sared.avd 3371 1932) 0 4 ' I 1:?l X X x x X X X UJ-ane X 407 03 ' X 1 375 1.334 In 0 I" 1 7. 3:. le.i Kingdorn 11.566) .3 I7) t0 31 15 X X X X X x X Y,goseava Fed Rep X X X X 20 4 14.693 0 X 439.) 431 168 \\W artl RP s 1fccl's f 99 6-9 Data Table 7.2 continued Debt Service Current Average Annual asa Percentage of: Borrowing Official Development ODA asa Total D,sbursed Long-Term Exports Per Assistance (ODA) Percentage 1993 ODA External Debt Public Debt of Goods Current Capita (million USS) (al of GNP {ai Per Capta (million USS) (million US$) I. ot GNP and Services Borrowing (US$) 1984-86 1991-93 199193 (USS)(a} 1981-83 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 1991-93 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA Be ze 20 26 55 150 77 :75 156 333 7 7 886 114 7 Ca-J.ra (116501, (2491 04 3821 X X x x o0 X x CostaRaz 231 138 22 3G 3713 3962 3.222 5s 5 189 1 94 817 Cuba 703 36 x 4 X X 8 x X X X Dor-mr,an Rep 163 44 0 5 u 2 581 4 580 3 746 44 5 8 3 2619 16 0 El Sa,adoo .316 369 .- 73 1438 2 191 2031 312 155 782 91 I Cuoale-a 94 203 21 21 1 536 2843 2214 224 181 2582 182 Ha'S 154 132 X 18 511 764 618 NA 22 1(56 37 Ho,duras 281 331 10 7 62 1591 3514 3256 1549 31 967 685 Jama-ca 172 134 37 45 2984 4396 3699 1038 241 1947 19159 MAes,o lo0 332 oI 4 85 757 115 60 54 5 276 25 7 304 154 7 t a54 Nicarag.:, 300 607 478 78 3.169 10.74- 8842 6954 652 1029 590 Panama 65 14 1 9 31 3.893 6674 380C 629 196 71?2 263 T,rindd and 3oa430 10 3 n1 2 1230 2.326 1713 349 157 2454 1/36 LUr,ec Slates '8226. 110.897) 15-1) 360 5 X X X X X SOUTH AMERICA A,gen1ca S9 291 02 8 41.737 69 213 50.0c6 26G 38 8 112 6 164 1 Bohlm 2)32 584 115 89 363q 416q 1631 712 442 1136 476 Brazl 154 62 )3 5 90757 123721 84Z77 195 240 1117 062 Gin,e 13 148 04 13 16965 19239 9.505 2419 z26 1487 1364 Colomoa 71 169 03 3 106145 17236 11523 280 336 20398 b 7 E-dor 140 241 20 22 7655 129 3 5906 815 284 1959 476 GuVana 28 Ill 42 2 1 31 1 71Q14 1 919 1 716 604 7 Il 1 1266 93 1 Parag,:av 56 129 23 23 1267 1.766 1 445 2298 18 3258 266 PelU 306 528 17 24 10213 24447 15614 552 384 1781 413 Surnaoao 15 668 13u 193 X X X X X X X 215guay 12 52 05 38 2704 6.689 4494 418 395 1292 2090 Venezuc a (15 41 e1 2 '4 194 36.453 25E75 45 I 252 1653 54 5 ASIA AtqharlIser, Glans:: Slale 263 314 X 13 X X X Y X X X Ar1rrvra X 24 06 14 X 5so 48 l1 X 15 129 A-.-j- e 5 X XX x 12 12 5 2 X x X Banjadceo! 1302 1703 69 12 4965 r3'31 12417 550 166 776 64 BlRll,n 27 62 X 41 I 85 84 X 49 1047 40 Cavbrhoa 136 255 X 334 X 396 239 x SS 8944 0.2 Chin,a 719 2777 n6 3 7 922 70 876 5 230 130 ` 10 9 60 7 125 Geargoa ReP X 14 52 6 X 216 x X 5 9 86 100 dola 1 728 2722 08 2 27350 98621 76786 273 295 114 1 e1 16506/514 662 1999 16 II 26042 83126 50201 401 31 7 1 95 076 1:ax1 Isa lrc Rep 19 147 X 2 6 400 14910 4 225 X S1 860 1 I9 ,a.I 40 291 X J X x X X X X X srael 1 12 1694 2 5 241 X x X X x X X ).opao 14 ft3! 12'1: 1( :90: x X X X X X X 1::rdarr 599 991 125 613 2.727 7.314 7062 1652 177 1464 896 KazanhsTaa Rep NA 44 0 1 1 X 558 X X 3 u 63 Koea Drm Peopes Rep 93 12 NA 1 x x X X X X X Korea Rr (21: 8 Gn 1'! 36.913 43.698 23700 75 80 957 1769 Kuwad '53:1 324 12 215 X X X Y X X X Ky,gyz Rep NA NA NA 10 _X 13 X X X 1 4 7 3 Lao PeoplesDem Req 127 172 153 47' 423 1 926 1.995 1693 7 5 197 1 7 elvIaon 75 130 NA 49 741 1 57F 340 X 69 528 8 69 lelays:a 249 199 04 5 '3361 20369 13.782 261 4 1457 1262 Ecir1gumad 621 106 NA I4 0 252 211 X 72 370 334 Mlyaonar :353 132 NA 2 2.027 5219 4.888 X 3 8 117 5 1 6 Nepal 245 419 103 la 361 1 862 1 :05 444 84 419 78 GOrac} 76 47 00 36 1067 2805 2377 238 66 1608 1862 Paklara 60 75 119 23 5 11373 24361 18794 377 234 967 18: Ph,',ppnes 613 1420 28 23 23136 33275 26546 51 24 2 1412 464 Sac'l Arabia 3508 1 1 (C9 NA 31 X x X X x X X Srogaprxs 31 17 u3 68 X x X X X Si:Laroka 107 718 74 35 2581 6581 5706 590 123 865 291 SylnooAral'Rep 75' 73' 5 " 6542 19311 16 52 3 70 546 491 TSe:slan Rep X X X 4 a 17 X X X X 14 Thablaad 494 7.4 06 11 12.331 40.4j2 138G2 127 152 1204 972 T`rke6 255 803 0s 6 19755 07850 40625 253 306 1099 '340 T,hrkrersar Rep x x x 2 X 3 X X X X 58 Uceco A,:4 Enorels '91. 321 08 131) X X X X X X X Uzuebkslna, Rep X X 0 5 x 250 X X X 6 81 Vel Nar, 1473 359 x 4 X 23397 21 135 X 127 1277 49 Ye,ller Rep ('90 286 X X 2.413 6322 X X 8.8 91 S X OCEANIA Aussara (7591 (1.00661 153' 54. X X X X X X X Flp 35 57 37 81 404 u543 232 152 9 1 2329 464 New Zealawld :61) (68) 02r7 5 2 X X X X X Papua New GCrea 261 30.1 92 74 1560 3211 1547 370 292 1173 1-135 Selomyr: Islands 23 45 18 6 158 29 109 96 394 0 6 191 9 157 Sox:r es 0rganisatscn 101 Fco'rorr:cCo- e,0pe,aro Deae-1 th:. (Se Wo0d4 Sack. aS- lJcrr Na'ro. P 1lIrna Dvs:c'r Notes a Fo ODA 9flows TO reprerils are sbseor as p: sloa noer. leers fromn donors are sbom::as legalrie flirb-rs 110 P;rerilbses' 0 = /e510m less Iran la foe jol of rreasure x 1 :I0 aua/ aose For aodorrar mrof:rmatlorr see Sourrces and Tccrrrria Nole.s For au1 Ilorral Irlldlel sc see Scarses ard Te^hbcal Nolne WorlIud Rcsourccs 1 99(-97 169 Data Table 7.3 World Commodity Indexes and Prices, 1975-94 Commodity Indexes (based on constant prices with 1990 = 100) {a} 1975 1980 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Peroleum 101 224 187 183 173 78 89 68 82 100 83 78 69 63 NONFUELCOMMODITIES 167 175 149 154 134 115 105 117 114 100 93 86 86 102 TolalAgrculture 180 193 162 173 147 128 1Ml 116 112 100 96 89 93 113 Total Food 224 193 152 157 126 95 95 113 114 154 97 94 93 98 -Cereals 258 187 158 153 130 95 87 107 119 100 100 95 88 93 -FalsandOils 228 206 195 232 165 108 114 140 126 10( 102 105 105 115 -Olhe Foods 203 187 113 98 92 85 84 93 102 100 91 84 85 86 Beverages 183 257 226 264 241 242 153 148 122 100 92 75 80 137 RawMaterials 119 145 127 128 103 87 102 95 102 154 97 92 104 115 Timber 92 110 92 101 96 79 90 84 98 100 '02 107 144 143 MetalsandMinerals 118 132 118 109 102 81 88 120 118 154 87 81 70 77 Fertlizers 350 179 141 144 130 110 106 114 112 100 100 90 79 85 Commodity Prices (in constant 1990 US$ per unit measure) {a} 1975 19980 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 Cocoa (New York & London) kg 2.76 3.82 3.05 3 52 3 29 2.58 2.25 1.656 1.31 1 27 1.17 1 03 1 05 1.27 Cofteelothermidarab,cas) kg 3.19 4.81 4.19 4.68 471 5.31 2.82 3.18 252 197 1.83 132 1.47 3.02 Tea (Wodd) k9 3.06 3.10 3.35 5408 2.89 2.38 1.92 1.88 213 2 03 1.80 188 176 1.67 Rice (Thailand) ml 803.32 602.78 398.42 37025 314.75 260.20 259.35 31626 33813 287.18 307.81 26961 254.24 325.94 GrainSorghum (U.S.) ml 247.57 179.03 185.32 174.74 150.15 101.98 81.98 10336 111.83 10390 102.84 96.39 9325 94.77 Maize (U.S.) ml 264.60 174.03 195.68 19956 163.56 108.28 85.25 11217 1774 10930 105.09 97.80 9613 98.13 Wheal (U.S.) Mt 329.77 239.90 226.50 2236 199800 14205 127.13 15236 178.71 13552 125.89 141 84 132.05 136.62 Sugar (Wodd) kg 1.00 0.88 0.27 017 013 0.19 0.17 0.24 0.30 028 0.19 0 19 021 0.24 Beel (U S0. kg 2.94 3.83 3.51 3.34 313 2.59 2.69 2.64 2 71 2 56 2.61 2 30 2 46 2.13 Lamb (NewZealard) kg 3.15 4.01 2.78 2.82 2.69 2.66 2.43 253 245 266 228 245 2.74 272 Bananas(AnyOrigin) ml 545.80 526.39 616.98 54265 554.37 471.82 411.49 501.68 577.40 54090 547.49 44381 41717 400.99 Oranges (Mediterranean) ml 504.42 542.50 536.98 51718 580.78 486.65 513.51 47576 470.33 531 10 509.78 45895 407.24 375.05 Copra (Philippinesl ml 567.04 628.75 713.97 1.042.73 562.68 243.51 347.97 41763 367.37 23070 280.23 356.87 278.15 390.78 Coconul Oil (Phil. & Indonesia) nit 870.58 935.83 1.050.22 1895.45 860.06 367.12 497.75 59265 545.72 336.50 423.68 54194 423.96 554.29 Gmundrul Meal (Any Origin) ml 309.73 333.75 329.50 27474 214.29 203.96 182.43 21983 210.35 154.90 146.87 14603 15829 153.59 GroondnulOl (Nigerial mT 1898.23 1.193.08 1022.83 1,492.95 1.31924 703.34 563.06 61941 818.16 96370 875.54 57214 69593 933.17 LinseedlCanada) ml 747.62 487.58 398.82 43791 399.42 257.14 190.23 30847 364.50 31400 204.74 19797 214.68 215.82 LinseedOil)AnyOngin) mI 1550.54 9.860 696.97 64056 91545 51799 353.44 54769 799.79 70900 430.05 37268 42169 417.34 Palm Kernels (Nigena) ml 457.96 479.17 525.61 79358 414.72 175.53 203.83 25017 265.05 15500 215.26 21576 216.57 X PalmOil (Malaysial mT 960.62 810.42 721.44 1,07019 73032 317.68 386.26 45876 370.01 28980 331.70 36914 355.70 482.14 SoybeansU.S.) mT 465.50 411.39 405.18 41424 326.53 257.11 243.24 31847 290.39 24880 234.44 22092 240.21 229.77 SoyneanOll(AnyOrigin) ml 1.36947 828.47 758.27 1.06314 83382 422.74 376.13 46563 456.18 44700 444.03 40235 45237 561.66 Soybean Meal (U.S.) mt 342.92 363.89 342.18 28957 22.886 228.68 228.60 28069 259.66 20020 1928. 19174 196.02 17557 Psh Meal (Perl mt 542.04 700.00 651.80 54772 40816 396.79 431.31 57083 431.26 41220 467.51 45169 343.50 343.37 Cotton (Indeer kg 2.57 2.94 2.67 2.62 192 1.31 1.86 1'47 1 n7 182 I64 1.20 1.21 1.61 Budap (U.S) meter 0.49 0.50 0.42 054 050 0.31 0.30 0.32 033 0.31 0.30 027 0.25 0.28 Jute (Bangladesh) mt 820.80 427.78 434.82 77944 84971 333.84 36351 36825 394.19 40830 37214 29979 257.37 27214 Sisal(EaslAfnca) mt 1282.90 1.062.88 809.72 85819 76576 635.43 576.32 578.11 689.91 71500 655.37 47439 579.27 552.23 Wol (New Zealand) kg 6.06 6.39 5.23 5.40 519 4.09 5.00 6.08 5.65 407 3.46 3.69 2.94 3.55 Rubber(Malays,a) kg 1.24 1.98 1.53 1.41 1 11 1.00 1.11 t.24 1 02 086 0.81 081 078 1.03 Logs (Malaysia) cm 131.19 271.54 198.14 230 19 177 45 171.30 227.22 210 77 20132 177 19 187.36 196 54 367.05 280.81 Plywood Philippines) sheet 2.89 3.80 3.31 3.33 3.07 3.38 4.49 3.76 370 355 3.64 3.57 6.23 549 Sawnwool(Malaysia) cm 365.14 507.08 437.84 45051 40277 329.05 310.92 32172 445.51 52420 461.74 48134 506.70 710.28 TobacodoWIdia) ml 3.06019 3194.44 3,23022 2,92217 2542.57 2348.58 2.08333 2.03673 1,99683 1964.00 2,158.51 2.30769 1.97740 1,746.35 Col (U.S.) mt X 59.86 64.03 71.37 67.93 54.26 40.77 3893 42.77 4167 40.61 3809 35.78 3328 CGde Pelnoleum(osoot) b 23.08 51.21 42.67 41.93 3963 17.74 20.43 1544 18.54 2288 18.95 1784 15.86 14.50 Gasolne (Europe) mt 286.09 497.43 369.62 378.25 37201 180.49 192.62 18577 202.85 25230 21895 X X X Fuel Oil Elrope) mt 137.36 235.93 235.29 26216 22070 90.86 112.00 7124 91 18 9860 75.14 X X X Aluminum (Europe) mt 1,763 27 2.022.22 2,070.50 1.837 00 1.517.49 1.421.51 1.782 39 2.676.81 2,060.19 1.639.00 1.274 1 7 1.176 64 1.072.55 1,347 43 Bauxite (Jamaica) mt 55.96 57.25 49.91 4849 4373 34.11 29.27 3179 36.34 3440 33.11 3002 X X Copper(Londonn ml 2,736.73 3.030.56 2.29050 2,02247 2.066.18 .698.15 2,007.32 2.730.01 3.00781 2661.50 2,288.45 2.13992 1.80139 2.105.31 Lead(London) kg 0.92 1.29 0.61 0.65 0.57 0.50 067 069 071 0.81 055 0.51 0.38 050 Ti (London) kg 15.21 23.30 18.89 1795 1682 7.62 751 7.40 90t 609 5.47 5.72 498 499 Zinc(NewYodrk) kg 1.64 1.06 1 10 1 35 1.14 093 090 1.30 1.75 1.51 1.09 1.16 0.96 099 IronOre (Brazilt mtle 38.27 39.01 41.73 3840 3872 32.46 27.59 2466 27.98 3080 32.53 2964 26.50 23.24 Manganese Ore (India) 10kg 3.05 2.18 2.18 2.10 2.06 1.70 149 1.54 2.13 3.36 377 345 2.76 X Nickel Canada) mt 10.11154 9.053.75 6.72345 6.978.41 7141.55 4.797.53 5,486.71 14457.82 14,053.01 8.864.10 7.98004 6.56776 498439 578451 Phosphale Rowk(Morowco) nm 148.23 64.86 53.09 5624 4942 42.27 34.91 37.78 4308 4050 41.59 3917 31.07 30.11 Diammonium Phosphate (U.S.) mt 537.61 308.61 284.03 277.68 24636 190.61 1956i 205.19 18247 171.40 16918 13617 121.57 15786 PotassiumChlonde (Canada) 1d 179.87 160.97 108.35 12291 122.45 85.04 77.70 91.82 10444 98 10 106.51 105 13 101.15 9646 TrpleeSuperphosphate (US.) mt 44690 250.00 194.24 19236 176.38 149.57 15541 165.79 15205 131t82 130.25 11326 105.40 12054 Urea(AnyOrgme) ml 438.05 308.47 194.62 251.54 198.69 132.28 131.31 162.64 13960 15700 16830 131.61 100.52 13454 Soume: The Wodd Bank Notes a. The Wodd Bank Prce Indee tor the Primary Commodities (revised Apdi 1995 ha = kilogram; ml = metnc ton cnr = centimeter: bbl barrel: to _iron. 0 zero or less than hah the unt ot measure: X not aoa lable. For aditonal information. see Sources and Technical Notes. 170 World Resources 1996-97 Basic Economic Indicators Sources and Technical Notes Data Table 7.1 Tbhese estiimares arc in;act rd witoh the fui cfille The otri/ributi in o/ (Dl)'Is caCetilAtid usi ig Gross National and Domestic Product Nariiins Ssvsrein of Nition,al Accouints. ktirreilt local cnirrc'ncV uniits priovidcd( in the Esti mates, 1 983-93 Pitr ca/iit c'stiniites if ( N I> Mid( GI) lfioi W'id oh a'l/is 1 99. Agiocu/turc i ticlItialc's ag- 199 1 jre cilciulited uisinig Iltniteci Natrions ricultur,id and livestock produLctlion and srv'- Sources: 1993 (.ross national produICt (',NP), Popularioi1 I)ivision data. Ices, logging, forestry, fishinlg, andIL hntiniiig. griiss domesicS11 prodi ict (F) P1.ao uaI Fiti andniua/tliitbt5ig/i ir a- itfifislrv comtprises rininiiig and kquarrying; griwlth rates of (;NP and ( oP. and disiribu- itl' areL GIPll'Mestin 1ats based oni thc piirchisintg mianufIactiuriiig: conistruictioni; and electricit), tion of (DlP: derived fr-omi the Woirltl Bank, P Over of currencies rither than in c iirrenii gas, antI witer..Scrv'ices inicluide wholesaile ;oid A'iir/id Ti/bl's 1995 oii diskette Wkorld Batik exchange rates. 'Ihe estiniates are a blend of retail trade: transport, stoirage, tilt coiiiiiiiiiOi- Sofis re. WVashington, D).(.. 19I . Popila- e\trapol.ited and regreLssion-blased niniihilers, -.tioits; banking, insur-ance, aitd reali esrtite tit(i fIg,Ures for LacIIa1ciiHton: Unlitied N.iiiTns isinig the results of the lIiternationual Coin- publi11C ucdiinistr.tiono and diefense; ownership LI.N.) l'opulation IDivisioit Annual P i/itta- parisoi I'rograinitttie I(I'1) as1 Moidi fied and iif dwelt-lings; and others. The dlistribintivn ii/' ttiitts 1 (0-20)it (T/i' 1(9-4 Ri'iisioimi. onu eXteitled lIv thec IPen WVorld Tables. (See Bix (4)1 does no(t alss;tVs add uip to III) percent diskette (I.UN.. New York, 1 99 3). "IC,itl and 7 .2 for- udditional information.) dot' to rotiitcling. per ci pi t. pirirca silg pL et pa ri t l'PlP1. Ihe I (P berich iiirk, srnicPis are (essenl- AIt houiigh co ns ide rablltef cfirrr hias been (;DP, and averaige aia growth rates iif trallvi multilateral pr-icinig exert ises. flter- uirade tii Standardize ecoiloriiei data iccordiuig sameli: deri_ved frioiiti Ro bert Summiiters CI 'u/., ciUntrltr prict' cornpairisiins are teLpi irted ini six nti the I outedi Nations Systemi itf N,itonirl TF/c Penn Wo irh/ Tib/i', Mark ifs (I 1uiiversrt pI,liSe: I 97'), J )73 I, 975, 1 989), I 98 5, indl Accounts, cite sfiiiiifcl be taken It inire-preti- iif PCt'iisi %IvJaiJ, Phtilaclc'phia, l),c'cether I199(. Aiiother b'enchmai.rk suc is [iiiter tioiiit. liitercoiiurttrv and interremrpor;tl Lurn- I 994 I. Was' with 199; as tftt' rtfc'rciicc year. PPP~ piruisns iisiilg C'iL(iii1tiC datla ruI if C DI)at. fur Yeirs pritir toi 199 ' if 992 fur stud lit's recast tradutiuoiaflnatbonalI ,iCtiiiits C(IlllpliClItCLI technical proilllcills that in' iott Plil) hive been ciuivettecd toi 993 fF[., doli- throtugh specitl price colleCMtio nsmd tIle dis- easlyII res(iiVC'l; therc'foirt', readicts are urged tot fats (L1S$) 4 I992 trlnt'rilnmtoimlnil collars (iut $) aggrcgation iif GDP1 hr expemilnlttire comlpo- teatd these data is chlatacteri/ing mnajuor clifft't- fiotr lf V 1' itsin g tic' latoitrs tierive'di froi itit . tenmts. K PI detalifs art tepi irtcie hr 1i i11nti ii if CilCes betwsteen iCciL(ilttlli rit'stther thian its prt'- dlata, statisticalI offices, ailt the resuilts are coortl- cise, quani.rltitrivc' nlltt'iit'rc'inlIts. (;riss nttiiut4t pmri ,Iin' is tile siiili itf twi 1ated lv rthe (iTlItt'LI N,tionts Statistical D)i%i- t iMPi i nf i iit't t fit ("D P L'i it let f CU(-n it ici tllC 5 ii n, aIssistetd flY ithler t ageM Itits, parti cila ri Data Table 7.2 frionifbroitd. (I )P is tlie filafi.i(iitpnlt ifgOiIii the Statisticail ( Mfice if the- LF topeaul (C1- OtiilD vlo m n sisac)n lilt1 sc'tv ts prcitdimt'd by- tilt coiili ric'it ecoiti- iiiuiilities it 1 tIlt 01)tg.1111s.itioTi fur Fcotiuimtt Ofiilmeeop e tAsitnc'n onlyv, 1iitli ldinrg ittcexpi risof-)gioids .1indt ii tin- (oi- Oper.tti i n tilt IDev elopimieln'ti. Sixt'- E trnlD btIdcaosr19 19 factor sc'rvices. Nc't fatctiir ilicouile friiiit coutitries, participacted ill 101' P'hase V 'The Sources: Offic-ial dceveloiprme'nt ssiNtalic' abiroadi is iilolrlte ii tile litriti oft overse',s IlCt'x roi'iiic if ( P sUrvc'v' fott 991) is ex- (0f)A): i)rganmsatioi fut Eco'omricmii Ili-(p- woi rker' retilmittatnces, inr ert'st ioii Ii uns, p ri f- pc'ct'd i to Ci vcr itlitrt thfit ii ) c miiiitrtic's. C't,ttio i ila id )c'velo pmetti ( IOFCD ) , / )'t citi/- Its, amid itther ftlCnuit IplVIIIcI1'tl thi,t resideilts fInteriiatitinll dollfar valuecs. which ire chif- iliti (>i-Of)piritiiui 1OFCD), 'anus. 1984, r-(c'ti%s-t' riiiit lboidtuti le ss pavilleitis Mtldec for fc'rc'it froitit11.S.cloulfit-vsiluesitto(.NPort(11)1', 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990), 1991, I1992, fatc oir se riICL's (i.e.. labhioi an tCa .tpit.ilI. Nloi st aire i iiaiteund its i itg spc'cia, tl convrsioini ftc'to ts I1993, alt] I1994); (hi ir.t/bic'i/l) tt'i/ifiiti ii c'iitiiitti' t'stiili:ltt (;D I V)~ y tlilt priotduc'tiiin thait c'cftililizc' the piirc'h.siiig poiwt'rs iit differ- ol' l-tthotetu/ F/ott's ti D)cm')I'//ing C 'tum rie's iiic tiol t1 Thiis miiethod it niils thec fit :11 MiiitpUtiS ciit.t torr-i]Lit c'. Tli is ciin vetsioiin fta'u t.rth'l'fPf, 1 ")S1/S4. / 961'Su 96'4/A 7, / 9W5/(,/i iof the' Variouts sctoturs iif tilt t'coiioiiixi (e.g.. is de-fined is tlle Tliiiiilburiofuniits iit, coiunttty-s /98/91 0OF D, Pattis, 1986, 1988, 1989, JgriLJiitUii'e, innitaili tiliriing, anut goivernlhme'nt c'uri'enc'y 'eltfirieci ti t lis' the S-neaiic' ioiuiits iof 1 99 1, lndc 1 99 3: aiid G(o'uiu ,br./utua/ )ust'ritu- sc'rx'icesj froi iit i cvshl the' VJII fie f thic ill ii s gioi us an it1Serv ices iitfc iin tb do 'stic mn. rket as tji;to f t/- i,.mci'tl b/vits /ti Aul S ''i/n'nts tii pr-ocilictiotii hax e betnt sibmirtetdc. S I wouildc buyv ii tIle -average" ciitnttry'. The I 9'99 1. ODA is a percc'tttige it) groiss it- ( PI e'stimal.tes It c'irrtc'lit f)iric'hasc' vaflt', ver,igc' price licie(Lx Hillil equializes cfitffar tiiin:tf product I(,NP) wyis c'aictiii,rc'c using tltc fii-a kc't pricc's) ini LIS. dol)lart aS.1re' taIcU ft cCLI pri c-cs iii eve'ry cioliTit r Sit that croiss-cotirr tr'v Wiorld Ban k, Tbchi Wiit/i Banik Ati/s I hec uistilgi T('h W\(-l'/ l1.tnk Athis ntit'todoiluougv. cuuipriif;tsmi t ) iicc ntrheili refiut-c WVtrild Bink, \V.shitigtomn, L) .(, 1 9)92) 'impi- GNPj est imiate's in loccal ctrenreicics WC'rc' contt- ditiIcreliLCes It quan111tities itf gi o ds illnc sc'rv'ices l.tioini ti ii r' fur f' iit t a1~ 1: 'tiniailt's oif OD IIA x'ertc t'tl ii 'IS. diifiars iisiing .1 Ircir :lvc'r.g fre fpitfvfcifr'lils [h-isprocedclure Jllt C'iiC brro'w lirtmsing: DllitPet N riti'iis eXC'hiiigC' rat', id)utlecd fur dotirit'srIC and LI.S, is clesigilecl t tit riilg c'ross-coinltr ciimp.ri- [(UNi Pou latmmiuon IDivistitot, Atnnutai J'pii/d/- iflat-u01m. LiT'e Atlas ltletil(Li itf lVet-aginLg 1 soils ini huei xvith cross-tulle rC':ti'v,tlme cottil- huts., 1`950'-2t)5 (/'c ( 9i)4 Rs'ei'isiui). on ycar ofechalgc ;ltC SilOOtle, IlIRI.IiOnS parsonsthl .-ir t bset]o con iatpice diiskert'e (It)N. Ncxx Ni irk, I19951. Externtil ctiuc' to tilt c iiircttcv iiiarke't totd pruuvitdes .1 series, fPftf estinititcs icttd to liox'er pc't cipirt cdcbi, tdisbtirst'd fittg-icriti public' cietb, dicbt i rc'reiable' illezlStirc, over tinilt, if (NI' (IDl's ini iiclmistri,liisc'c ciimitri's .tnic rust' per servict', Jinch cnrrcilt 101tutuw iTig: 1 hc' \Worcld fthti dii c'st init.trc'' b,isitd ioii a si igle v C'ar's c;ipit.i C; UDP, in tievexlo pi ig cojiii rri i's. BjiLi , Wuirlil / h/t 1Thb~/cs1994-9.5 in iiiiisk - excltaigc' tilt'. lIT' at'i'rik'i ,otnua/ yriautth/ raft's iif (INP. cite (The World Balk, Wishitinguton, I).( , The gro5S dwnctstie /iroul Iu' estilmates it (A)Pl, tilt PPP'-bt,secd (GDP ire least-c q trc's f 9c) 5) ptirc'his'r r.titucs Inmirket firices) ate-L ini I 993' c'lfc'iiationis of pridicu'iv iv gruiwii bist'c Net ii'iragi' tnntu,t/ o//zu'ia/ d/'ii/i/uc ti'iih US'. dolilars ibased~ oiti I 99)3 t'xchinge trt's). ilo tiiic t,iltan Pitice (,NP, (,f)j antd PfPf data. ~ssisito (in cuirre'nt LU.S. dotltars) is tIlt' Ltt aind tr lit'e sotintof (lDP it factour cost vite Th,tr iS, tist (,NP, (;f)I iinl PPPflbasedl lDP noluuuiti ot clisbmm-S'cLi griits aind ciuliLc's- addLedi inl thc' igrictiuriurt', idtic rstry, tilt services cstinilltcs haive bein acdlfiistc'ld to 5c'lic]c iTi- stitrtl iii,tii gix''n itt rc'eive'd liy a countrut. stciut'rs) outd ilcdtreci taxes. l'ss subIsidhies. fiatiutmi, Grrnns inludelt gifts o ii) 0101ev, gimils. it WX'orld Rcsourctes J1t9$9697 171 Basic Economic Indicators Co)II c Cites Ici o l ll!h)III I I in.!gt Iii tiL-Iilt cit 2 i iiigiliiiis lmiik. Jittd ctlit-r siiriL'es ( I I L derive tcili. l-stiiiilitus thait aire pti-sClittCt Tit;lt IIi it ;iit1tii1isssii 1i llt ia \s1hue it tilt- cjiii Usct INIVI[credit, s-vhwit tIe'krs, To ii lfLI - t rli IiiTessc(Irk-s. ltI I d;l a diiM tIO nt iCiLiL11t fVI'i e\CCtLdS I I- it-stCIt itiirk,ct s lhue iit-tliis ct iitgsI (ii rite' Fililitd (WeLiet1i ReitM ILLes AL- li (11siitie tl1tlciti5iibli ii b,-l,,vm;ircr iL---t uito.I gr%IteJI t' tl-ls-rg Iltti.li-t irasi.tI-tigiti1 tppl\1igt ii 1Io tcliit slCiCIl1itlelst(ig \iiisi-ciriCt. rlt pisitIst-l (Iilliti. it I tuE tlii iir i T uh it To il J A p rtit Ati.iltIkit tshJO i~ic\11 11 ObiiiieIti( i-I a world Tab tl diyeIde esan s) )IstL;IItIe bLI1 Igtee ,itt il It I hf do it, r ( )rg;t icuIII- A1 hsrik cbsi- IFlliii5-it 1 ci 11 /iili L-h I Is% iii lt \W o irid Commodit tIindexesti l)(ndjl )l).\ tl;iiA tltui 11cgiu tf lt-s ti\uuuut'I itutOlill ic- p1islit titIlict. gDili\ite1et i Clil e%1 lis iteiit lit 11 Prites. lhi Itl)l975 citt.it iil9t4gue puts ttiit'iC 11L cIiutt(Itsj aIIIIHtti IIiti tiatt;l gUIo-II i h i c11 ` it It%L LIwt-It-1it-riith s t ntrstr- ti ciiti-tit a ebig tio sluI pI tPLtl l lv il I:Iti i Tsitt-tilt_ rtiliitries .Q it i taut/s nl,~ JLI I / srI)I-N INi lit- tIL- iuua1 .N u/i/uciuiuuh: iilvit;i cii iiii.i sitils trisltcis W h eills io l tiltS lil1 1iiitlciirsttIte.s1 -.Iiti INi tilt testiLAtl l Pie ' ricti ,iuartin/uret o ii ictti friuii it,iIiiir;igtL,r Aio. ihi itL ttuiirT.I1 l lt t oet pIs~Itek tit(11 ilt. udint- it-tilt i/tialt O tiis titsei01,1 tiurii tin-I sptII-T-I .it-d 4. lu/nu mrkapl: etits fats intitl uiks, Ohf 1ctliipl ipdits ft-intlItilt- Ltitlilltii1s11111C iii itsll Iii.itiiiit. lilt-C \'iiiiItI\l(.tbik tiiiistlts tilt st tilt!Vlilt iL. 172.()l%IIII( \ I MA Arc tusiiu iuu lbl/ i)tt AInlb1 tll1 l re f~ , loit1% fiLl[1ICA TLrvT,c o U 8. Population and Human Development T - lraditional demographic statistics can I hlp stalhilirrv. ()n the othle I.l d, pO pLIlatoii gr trhwth colitit- rovide ll Understanding of the 11h.1iiiall Coll- tIes, at hligh levels ii nlllnl' develo pilng Cot lltrlis-lt i' all ditioni and fLIti re global chaig,e. (Global aecoinlpa I Cd by highl1 of po(crry', liiiiirdl plrogresS pOpJtItII trends, for- e\anlIple, .I lll ir n1 n- or Wom11e1n, alld lligle IC-Vels of ilite-I lal adll internarionill portaiit iiidliciiror of fturei- demand for mzigra%Ition. water, food, and eneigy. Life expectanc\ and clild Overa.L the w trld poptilarioln is srill i ncrialil-g by nmortaliry trenids are imlportalnt indicators of hLinmaii mioirc thamn 86 miillion plc a.lc annally :. Ie lSc )at.l well-being. Table X. I By the v'ear 225, the world populationlll() is III recent years, led notably lbv the Linited Natiois projected tt rotal )a r b t X. billion pcot pl, or abotir 4 Developnmenit Progra iiiime's Human [D'ieleb/plment Re- pe4lrceilt More thai tIlh estiiila teeI CLr-Lir tpotpulatitonm of 1ort, attelmrpts havhebell milde todraw a illtire compltte 5.7 billiou . By O() (O, the global p10npnlalliitml CoUid be pitciure of the hnnilan condition, that is, to forecalst abrouti I()billion peoplc. Most of this growth wiCllocnir whether the milllions of people added to rhl ptopulationi in developing Contiiitrie; . (Scc Figuric S. I everyyea1r will be rich or pool; healthv or sick, edca1tCd The actal global ptptlatitn ettl arv consider- or illiterate. An importailt coumiponenlit of this bigger ably from1 this CstimIIatLe alid cLeiids on a ilitiltittcu of picture conceriis cqtitlir-ainlong races, genders. xi- factors. including tIhe leecl and1 patreri tf ftittirc fertil it tions, aind regions-and the changing natreI-c of oppor- amid uii rtalitV, thc CffectivemCess aind Cxtelt of fahililv tunlities for people. plamilliiig programlis, t iiiipact of econtmiic growth 0i This chapter begins \ith a brief discussiomi of global poverty, and trends il rthe sratus of W 1niieI. demoigraphic conditionis aiid population trends. It tlieii Long-term-i ltiOjcCtiOis ttS i I) sl thow a WIidc raiilgC of touches oii a few of the broader issucs Of Iisiialn del - PtiSblc glotbal optlarioll Otit`rCIInICo, w itli the difter- opmeiit, looiking particularlk at global helilth trlIds. cices largely being dutc rti differiuig asstiiptilltiis abuMIt futire rrcileLs in fei-rtil\it rates. ISc Fligtirc S.?.) Th( pric.icred gl(dibaI populatiomn rai ie 7 ()n 2050- 7) itII( m POPULATION TRENDS tt . billion-stggests that effctive rraiis amd ecomon itC prtogi ss ill rlth puooiumct 11atiOts CtiLI d Sl sistl 1i- Curr-enit global ponptilation estivia;tes and pr ojectionis for rill\ affect global pOiptilatiOti totals 41. the future give rise to botli oprimisil alid tnicel-i. Oin The tiltOt Criticll indicator ot dciiiog-rphilc stabilitv the oiie hand, popiliatiotis ill developed and tralisition is the ptOnit It NVhiiCh a natiol's fcrtlIrt ract Will drip to ecoinoiTies are grotwinig relatively slowly; or, ini some thie rephLaceiniiit level" of abtOtit twti cr i Idrei per cases, are actually fallilng (I. Fuirtherimore, somne devel- wtoiial. IThe total fcrtilitN rare rcfc-s to the ad v;rage opi11 Coun1ltries aire niovinig rapidly toiward populationimi 1 ti1unib1' of childrcn a WtiOii111 WonitLd have Ill icr lifCtiliie \\'' 'F/in I Rest 'i/rut's I'(-') 173 Population and Human Development Figure 8.1 Trends and Projections in Figure 8.2 Long-Range Population World Population Growth, 1750-2150 Projections on the Basis of Different Fertility Rates, 1990-2150 (billions) U Developed regions (billions) 10 D Developing regions 30 25 8 20 6 / 4 62gffi;~/ - 10= = 2 1990 2010 2030 2050 2070 2090 2110 2130 2150 0 - High - - Medium-Low 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 2150 - - Medium-High ...... Low - Medium Sources: 1. United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Long-Range WorldPopu- Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, Long-Range World lation Projections: Two Centuries of World Population Growth, Population Projections: Two Centuries of Population Growth, 1950-2150 (U.N., New York, 1992). p. 22. 1950-2150 (U.N., New York, 1992), p. 14. 2. Carl Haub, Director of Intormation and Education, Population Refer- Note: Under the medium fertility rate projection, which assumes that ence Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1995 (personal communication). the fertility rate ultimately will stabilize at a replacement level of about Note: Projections are based on the U.N. medium variant. See Figure 2.06, the global population could reach about 10 billion in 2050, and 8.2. 11.5 billion in 2150, and could ultimately stabilize at about 11.6 billion shortly after 2200. Under a medium-high rate, with the fertility rate stabilizing at 2.17 children (5 percent higher than the replacement level), the world oti the basis of fertilitv rates in a given year. Whieni the population could be nearly 21 billion by 2150. At a high fertility , - , , . stabilization rate (2.5 children), the world population could reach 28 total tertlltr rate drops to alottt 2, it means that each billion by 2150. couple is replacilig itself withoLlt addintg to the size of If fertility stabilized at 5 percent below the replacement level, the world population could peak at 7.8 billion in 2050 and then fall to 5.6 the ftitire popula1tion. (Dalrta Table 8.2 slhows Uiilted billion by 2150; under an even lower assumption (1.7 children), Nations (U.N.) estizmates of the total ferti itv rate for the population could peak at 7.8 billion in 2050 and then fall to 4.3 billion 1 990-95 period. The U.N. also has devised estimates of the fertilitv rate for 1995-2000. Siite the Currenit situ- atnot is probably sotnewlbere in between these rwo Twvo other detnographic trends are especially note- estimlates, the U.N.'s State of World Popidlltionl 1995 worthv. First, the world's populationi is becontitig iiore calculates midpoint estimaltes for 1 995. Thllose nUtnbers urban. (See Chapter 1, " rities anid the Etivir-olilnienit." are used here.) Urbanization is an important factor in the det mogralphic Fertilitv rates have generally been decliniltig since the transitioiu to lovwer fertility rates. Wlhen people move I 960s. Worldwide, total fertility is currently estimated into citits, they have mlore 'olb opportunities, their to be about 3. In developed countries, the fertility rate incomiles tend to increase, and they have greaiter access has declined from about 2.8 in theeearly 19 50s to about to health and educatiott faicilities. As a result of tlhese 1.7 todav. For developing CoLtttries as a whole, it has and other factors, their fertility- tends to decline. Higher dropped froti 6.2 in 1960 to about 3.4 todav. In the proportionis of the global pop.ilation living in urban poorest developing coutltries, however, it is still aboutt areas should therefore help bring down fertilitv rates. .5.6 S. Secotnd, the world's pop0Itanonll is aging. The wVorld's Reaching replacemiient-level fertility does not mean population Curretitly is growintg at a rate of about I .5 that population growth levels off ituniediairely. Even percelit pcr yeari- (6j, but because of palst levels of high witi fertility below the replacemienit level, Coullties with fertilitv coupled withi declining mortalitv rates, the large numbihers of couples in their reproduCtive years will populaltioti over age 65 is increasitlg at an ailtiLtal rate cotitiniue to grow for sotime time beCause of 'deuio- of 2.7 percent. The tuost rapid chatiges are in the graphic 1momllelitni"; that is, each womilani is having developling world, wvhere the popUlation over age 65 fewer childreni, but mianly more womenl are giving hirth. mlay grow by as muncl as 400 percentt int SOniIC COttltries 174 W\`orld Resourc( s 1996-97 Population and Human Development over the next 30 years. Therc will alo the a d aiic. rise wint Figure 8.3 Regional Trends in Population also he a dramlatic ri'se in the number of people over age 80 I7,. * 1995 population 2025 projected population A long life is not necessarily a North America 292.8 369.6 healthv life, however-a point of concern for those charged with Latin Amerca & Caribbean 09.8 providing health care and other Europe 727 . 718.2 services to aging populatiois. El- derlv people are heavy users of Africa 728.11,495.8 health services; in some countries Asia 3.458 X 4,960 where elderlv people make up onlvy 5,000 4.000 3,000 2,000 1,000 0 1,000 2.000 3,000 4,000 5,000 1 0 percent of the popul.Iltloll, thev (millions) use 30 percent (If the health1 ser- Source: United Nations (U.N.) Population Division, World Population Prospects: The 1994 Revision vices (x). As the next century ap- (U.N., New York, 1995), pp. 226-233. proaches, more elderlv people will Note: Values for Oceania are not included in the figure. They are as follows: 1995 population, 28.5 be dependent on fewer peope f - million; 2025 projected population, 41.0 million. be depenudeilt oni fewer people of working age as the source of fund- ing for their care and security. The additional health demographic momenttiumi is projected to propel China's resources reqtuircd to treat a growing population of population to 1.5 billion by 2025. The fertility rates of elderly people could also mean that fewer resources will SoLuth Korea and Singapore are also below the replace- be available to prevent acute and chronic illness in the ment level, and that of Thailand-at 2.1-is nearly general population. there. Indonesia has miade tremendous progress; the fertility rate is estimated to be 2.8. In Latin America, Regional Differences in Population only Cuba and a few small Caribbean islands have D.st.ilctioiis between developed .nd developingcountries fertility rates below the replacemenit level, but many Dilstinctionls betweenl developed and developing countries ntosJmia retn,Bai,Cie ooba do not adeqLuatelv captuire the current regional diversity' of andUuay-ave rertiit Brates wellbelow ib. the demographic (ut1tlook. (See Figtire 8.3.) Betweeni 1995 and UrLIgLav-have fertility rates well below 3 (i ll and 2025, for example, many countries .ii Central Europe In India, the fertility rate decline stalled at about 4 and 202., for exailple, manyl coLintries In (Central Europe I and the formerSoviet Union-includiiig Belarus, Bulgaria, in the early 1980s, but the latest U.N. estimate of 3.8 Hungarv, Romania, the Russian Federation, and is positive news for that nation 12i. Even inore encour- Ukraine-are projected to lose population. The popula- aging are the findintgs of the India National Fanilv tion of to ~~~~~~~~eathSire 192-93, not yet incorporated into U.N. tioii of the Russiani Federatioln is projected to decline hy Health Strvev 199 about 6 percent, fronm the CLorretit 147 million to 138.5 estiniates, which indicate a total fertility rate of 3.4 i i). million by 2025. The populationis of developed countries It is in the least developed couLntries, particularly in such as Japani, Germanyv, Denmark, Greece, Italy, Spaimi, stib-Saharani Africa, where the demographic outlook is and Portugal also are projected to decline over the next iiiost troubling. The region's total fertility rate was 6.6 three decades. Aionig the developed countries, the biggest in 1960 and was still 6.5 in the earlyv 1990s 114). The exceptioni to this trend is rhe United States, whose popu- average fertility rate for eastern, middle, and western lation is projected to grow fromii the current 263 mlillioni Africa is about 6.2 ii. to about 331 inillion (. There is a continuing debate about the relative im- In contrast, the population of Africa is projected to pact of various factors on fertility rates. Bangladesh, for double between 1995 amid 2025, from 728 million to example, has used active family plamining to achieve a 1.49 billion, whereas the poptlation of Asia could grow substantial decline in its fertility rate without rapid from the currenit 3.46 billion to 4.96 billion, or more economic growth or much progress in woimen's educa- than 40 percent (io)). tion. In Latin America, on the other hand, governinenit The decline in fertility in the developling countries as family planining programs have n0it been as active but a whole has been dramatic. The most impressive progress the fertility rate has iionetheless declined sharply 116). has occurred in East and Southeast Asia and in Latin The availability and use of contraceptives can also America. In C:hina, the world's most populous nation at have an impact on fertility rates. In the past 30 years, 1.2 billion, the fertility rate is now estimated to be 2.0, contraceptive use has increased rapidly, growing in a level that, if it holds, will significantly restrain future developing countries fromn about 14 percent in 1960-65 poIpulation growth. Even with this low fertility rate, to abotit 57 percent today. In developed countries, the World Resources 1996-97 175 Population and Human Development repoir-t is the Hoinin Developmern lt liidcx, an aggregate Figure 8.4 Gender and Opportunity, inliicat-or that is based on nationial levels of litf cNpCc- Selected Indicators, 1994 tancy, cica tn0mal attainincnt. and rca gross domestic prodld)t. no1w lilcIaS SrCd in p1 rh11 a . siC iS power pa rity (percent) dolla-s. (Sec Chlptcr , "Basic 1iononlici Indicators.') Economically active 38 62 Thr I 995 rcpor-r iCLIses onu gncnicr issuIes and thC population _g ..,, J populat-on strLIgglC for woiiicnt's rights and notcs that progrcss is 26 74 being inadc worldwidce ,m. For- cxiiiiplc, fclnal1c life Earned income C _ xpcctrInv hais increased 20 lpcrccnr tastcr than nacle 10 90 litc exerptancv ovOc the past tWn decadcs, and fcrtilitv Seats in parliament p rates have fallen bv onc thirl. \Wonicii's litcraCv in 6 94 ti\delopinig cotintrics increased fronm 54 percent of thc Seats in national cabinets nIale ratr in I 97() rt 74 pc-ccntr in 1 991), WhcvrcaCs - _ -- -- -- --- c(llbilld fciiialc p-imaran- d SeCondalv school c11-ioll- n Women's share * Men's share ilicilts increascd from 67 pclit ut tilc ratC for nIlc Is ill I?() ro S6 per-CelCnt inl )990. (,lirls' coinbincd.1 prilmary- Source: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Human and scCondarv school cnrrohiiiciits in liast Asia (S3 Development Report 1995 (UNDP, New York, 1995), Figure 2.4, p. pcrceilt) and Latin America (87 pcerccnt) arc approach- 31. ilg thc lcvels in dcevcloped cotlitries (l9 percent) (I n. Still, ninclh rcniainis to be doiic. Alrhong-h manv preva,-Ulenceofconitr-aceprivtc uiis s estimatcd tro he aboutr womeiln arc inercasilg their skills throughil cditiC;lrioli, 70 perecnt 171. econioliiic opporrtunlicts fr o i- wonticii rcillaill liniitcd. ()f Contin uing global cfforts to expand faLmily planning thc I .* hillion peoplc living ini po)rtv 71() prcent arc progra inis and to invcstin in maihil developmnentare likely woincii. FemaleI participation ill thc labior iorce was to have a huge payoff. There is growing consenlstis that estimated to lie 4(1 pcrcent in I 990. up tist 4 perccilntagc investlients in wonelics edLCation, for exanple, caiin poilts sine 1 97(). Inllce 55 conlitrics vith conparable p rovid woiliei with the informi1ation tlicv ncecd to coii- dIalta, wonins v;ages arre only tlircc foinrths thosc ofinlcii trol their fertilitv. Fnurtheriiiore, leigthcning the tiiiie inI thr n agrien ltn ra I sctu r2 that girls spend in sclhool tcndls to in) creasc the miedlianll WonIiC asI io have Mnade linitctd pro gress in hreak ing aLger of marriage, which delavs childdbearinig and reCdICes into rhe raiiks ot pi l ri n on hii iccisii in makrs. popnulIation growthi inoncrntm in In the fntutrc. Tlc coliii- Onlyv a bont One ii sevcm admiiiiiistra rors and inaialgcrs ill tbined effect of these anid otier poliies could sn hstalil- ccIpi iig coUmir ics is m wonan. Wiorld wide. onil I 0 tial y modleralte fuitu rc popnla tioii expalilsion .S}. pei-rcct of parliamilcntary seats a iid 6 pcrcent of cabinct Fanily plainiiiig costs are aboiut $2 to $3 per capita positions arc held iiv wonicli 2 ;,. (SCc Vig rc 8 .4.) amintiiaIll V, but the cost is iniorc tliiiii made tip by rthi The l 995 report inceIs a gcIndCr-rclatcd develop- niomicy saved oii health, edl icaiOl Ii, aiid othrl- gove\r n- nient inde\ tlhat ranks 13 3) countrieis in tcrmns of gcmidcrr mlemit progralnis. The Jnilted Nations estmnliatcs that disprities The Nordic commmt-rics (Swedei, Finlaind, fa lillv planiiiing aiid reprodIuctivC health prograiiis ii Norway, aid I)cminia rk ,which hlic adlopted woiiicii's developing Countries will rcquLire $ I lbillion in i 995 enlopuveriienr as conscious nationial poliCies, sCore rhe rising to $1 7 billion In 20 i . Equmhli,ing girls' sehool highest. Scveral developiig countries and territirics enrol[limenit with that of boVs WonlId cost perhaps $6.5 score fairlv hig,h, iiicl imi,- narbados, Homg billiomi annually; UmliveIsal priniary CdLCatioii in devel- Bahamas. Siigaporc, UJruguay, aiid Tlhailaind. Tllh i-c- opiigl cotiiitries WonlId ciOst intii inore-a Inotut $1 01) rort also Intludes a gender ciiipoiwcrillent iniasture, billion per year by the year 21)1(i)) which raiks conmitrics aCCording to Wininiem's siare of seats ini parliamenit,li their inuniieri -s in tl Icnamiagcrial and professionial rainks, anld thir share of n itionial incomle. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT TRENDS The Nordic countries again score the highest 2A4. I-u-nlan developm nenit emnphasizes humlian well-being as rhe entd prodntct of development and pay's partiCtilar World Conference on Women attention to isStiCS of equiity, poverty, anld gender. Woictils eninpoweriiniet was the principalI subicjre of the The concept hals been advanced sinice 1 990 by the Fotirth Worldl (oonference on \V/onicn, leldl in lici jing ill Hmnan Developmnent Report. The centerpliece of tlie September 19I95. i'li (onferemnce\ final declaration, 176 World Resouirces 1')z )-97 Population and Human Development althoIghI riot biiiding o governlTielits, does g i Figure 8.5 Trends in Life Expectancy in wonienSissues nexv visbi hi irty. Sorie governillielits pledged to redir-ect their nation'l budgets toward pm- Russia, 1961-94 Igramnsfor wot ilwoen, altlhough few governnients made (age in years) large new financial comlilmitimienits. The finial decla ra- 80 tiort's key pm-ovisioils Inltide the following: 75 * Womien have the right to decide freely all Imiatte'S ' - … - related to their sexuality arid childbearing. 70 * The systeimatic rape of womienii I wartinim is a crimiie, 65 and perpetrators should be tried as war criminials. 60 * ( eiinital mLutilaltion of girls, attacks on womnen be- ca usethieir dowriesare-toosma;ll, domiiesticl battering, aiid sextial lialrissiiicilt it woi-k ai-e all violaltionls of 51961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 hurnani rights. - Male - - Female * Girls are discriniinated aga inist throughIout tlhe Sources: world, often before birth in Cultirres where mole 1. Jacob Nell and Kitty Stewart, "Death in Transition: The Rise in the value is placed On boys. Death Rate in Russia Since 1992," Innocenti Occasional Papers, Economic Policy Series, No. 45 (United Nations Children's Fund * Access to c-redit is critical to thicenipoweinnelt of InternationalChildDevelopmentCenter, Florence, Italy, 1994),p.38. 2. Figures for life expectancy in 1994 provided by Carl Haub, Director woriietn. Govrilvrirerits arid international lendinig In- of Information and Education, Population Reference Bureau, Wash- stitutiorns shoirld surppor-t banking seivices for low- ington, D.C., 1995 (personal communication). tricrtOle Worlleli. * (,overni1ierts should guarantee wolimeri equLIal rights The trend toward genierally increasinig life expec- ro nlhe aar. ttLrcv has been shattered in imary na tions int recentvyea rs. * The fariiilV is thec basic unit of soCiety arid should be The liost dramnatic exarimples are in the countries of the strtnlgthened, protected, and supported. Wornien forriier Soviet Union, in 1 5 sub-Sallaran Africar nations m1tst inot snIffer discrimiiinationl beCause they are severely afflicted by acqUrired iriiriiu.ne defiCieniy syn- riiuthels 2'. drorie (AII)S), and, to a lessetr extent, in tle transirion ecoriorniies of (iellri-ll Furrope. Trends in Life Expectancy Inic-easinig life expectancy is an iritpoi-rait indicator of social progress In both developed and developling nal- Oine of the miost draniatic revers;als of life expectancy tioris. Accordinlg to the latest estilmates comipiled by the has occirrred in Russia From a peak of 65.1 years in \World Healthl Orgarrization, between 1980 and 1 993, 1 987 (wvidely associated wirh the inplemientationi of a overall life expectancy inicreaised frorii 6 1 to alourt 6.5 national aritialcohol policy), life expectanicy for males years In1. In developed rcgions, life expectanicy is esri- in Rurssia fell to 62 in 1 992, Continued dowallw;lrd to 59 mnated to le 71.2 vears for iiales anrd 78.6 year-s for in 1993 ni', arid theni in 1994 fell cven ful-tier, to 57.3 females; in less-developed regions, these values are 62.4 i I. Life expectancy for woniCn in Rurssia declined froni and 65.3 , respectively; arid in the leaist-developed re- a peak of 74.6 years in 1986-87 to 71.1 in 1994. The gions, these values are 51 .5 anid 53.6, respectively (17T. gap in life expeCtallCy between riIell atId wonieri wid- Betweert the least-developed (43 years) arid the riiost- entd froni about 10 years in 1989 to nearly 14 years iII developed (78 years) natiots, the gap in life expectancy 1994 32, (See Figurre 8.5.) is sortie 3.5 years. That gap CorL]d wideri even fLritlher, to rrends in crirde death rates show a siniillarly tragic 37 yar-s, by the year 2000)) 5x. pattern, rising frorii 1 0.7 per 1 000 in 1'989 to 15.6 per ln 45 devc1oping counitries with a total popur lation Of 1,001) in 1994 N,. Roughly Oiln ti hird of these deaths nearly 85)) itliolioi people (1.5 piercent of the global can 'be attributed to populaltioi growtlh arid the aging populIatIon1, life expectanicy at hirthli has riot even of the Rurssiari Population, but the rest is dLue to other reached 60) yveas 2r9. It is notewoi-thiy, however, that life factors expectanicy at bIrth is strongly influeinced by mior-tality Statistics shiow that the rise in iiiortaallit is predomili- amiolng the younigest iieniilers of the population. Of the riaritlv a rise in male mortality liritinarily aniorig the piopulation that survLivcs beyond age 5, a suL-prisling working-age population. It is mainily dune to diseases of niuliniber live beyond age 60. the heart and circulatory svsterii plus orher- exterinal Worl( Resottources 199'-69 177 Population and Human Development causes such as alcohol poisoning, suicide, and niurder with high pollution levels, low birth weights occur in (36). For examiple, between 1 992 and I 993), the numiiber- 6.8 to 1 1 .3 percenit of all births-rates that are three to of people dviiig from heart disease an d relarted circula- five times higher than those in regions with low pollu- tory diseases jumliped 17 percent, from 646 to 76() deaths tion levels (46!. per I 00,000 people. For the first 6 mlonths of 1994, the rate increased even further, to 863 per 100,000 . Life Expectancy in Other Counties Similarly, deathis fromii external causes are up sharply, increasing 30 perceit in 1992-93. Notablv, miainvyimore Russia is not the oly nation where life expectancy is of these deaths occuir amon011g thle popuila;tionl in the heading in the wrong direction. Life expectancy also northern and nortiwestearn ingdestrial regaiolns ind appears to be decliniing in most of the other newly eastern Siberia and the Far East, where life is geerally independenit niatioins of the forimier Soviet Union. In colder and bleaker aid economic prospects are uISuaLlyVMoldova for example the death rate increased 12 perceiit from 1 993 to 1 994. poor. Alcohol is likelv to be a major coitributing factor in nearl all such deaths 3x. RussianIs also are heaVy In the cenitral Africa region, the impact of AIDS has smokers; in the late I 980s, tobacco was estimated to be beel so devastatinig that life expectancy apparently' is an associated cause of deaithi for 40 percenit of deathis declining in man nations there as well The impact is middle-aged sale Rssians . particulairlv severe in 15 nations: Benin, Burkina Faso, It is geBieually assuiiied rhii i1uch of the blaine lies BLirtindi, the Ceentral African RepLblic, Congo, Cote bdlIvoire, Keniya, Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Tan- with the difficult living conlditionis in Russli. [or ilianl ania, Uganda Zaire,Zambia,andZimbabwe Accord- Russians, the econiomiilc tranisitioni has meant uL1empllloV- 5 i r Ul~~~~~~~~~~~ig to IJ.N. estliniates, in rhis gi-oup) of niatioiis, life nienit or a new job at less pav. Rampant inflarioni also has 7tgtoheN.estmats, dnptis erou of nti lIfe expectancy'v wih the continued presence of the AIDS undermined the salaries of those who rem ain employed, Between1 99 1aiid 1992, tie nuincr of eople -if .il panidenlic is estjimated to reach 49.6 years by Between 1991 aInd 1992, the 2 etr of people living ii 2000-2005. In the absence of AIDS, the U.N. estimates ext rme poverty increased frolim 2.5 to 23.2 percent (41)). life expectiancyv would be 57.1 years, or fully 7.5 years longer. In soiile countries the gap is even greater: 10.3 tlielr 1989 value, wilille w ages Wvelr al ou1.t rwo thirds of years In Uganda, 10.7 years in Kenva, 13.2 years in their value in 1989(41). All of theseclihanges iavecreited Zambia, ancd 14.8 years in Zimbabwe. In all these great psychological as well as econiomIlic stress. Countries, life expectancy is expected to fall or improve Furtherimiore, it is widely ackilowledged that Rus- only miarginallv during the period from 1990-95 to sia s health car-e systenm has badly deterio-ated. For 2000-2005 (47) exam1ple, infant mortality rose fromii 17.6 per I ,00() live births in 1 990 to 20.05 by 1993, an inirease of nea rly 14 percenit (41). GLOBAL HEALTH TRENDS Part of the problem stems from a breakdown in preventive health care programs. Rubella, for instane A key componenr of humian development is health. cani lead to the transfer of genetic mutations fi-om a Broad indicators of huinall health show that significant pregnant niother to a fetus. With the help of rubella progress has beeii inade over the past few decades. Yet vaccinations, the rate of rubella in the United States the condlitionls in ilaniy developing counirries remain averaged Just 427 cases per year from 1985 to 1989. In difficult-especially for the poorest groups. Further- Russia, however, whlere access to the vaiccinle has dwini- imiore, new outbreaks of infectious diseases pose poten- dled, there were 360,470 cases in 1 994, nearly triple the tiallv significaant new midical challeniges. total of 1 2(8,000 in 1993 (43) (44). Although they are probably generally accurate, the Many Russian sCielltists suspeCt that enviroiiniental niumbers ieported here should be treated with some conitamiiinationi over iliaiy decades also mnay help ex- Cautioll. According to the World Health Organization plain the currenit situation. In particular, thev think that (WHO), which coimpiled the most recent estimates in the cum11ulative effects of toxic waste from celiilical The korld Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps, the plants, pesticides from farmiig, and radiation-fromn ma jority of nations "still experience great difficulty in test sites, waste dinips, and the Chernobyl nuclear obtaining valid and timiely data on maniy indicators." accident-could be factors in the surge ii illnesses and Official statistics are often not comiiparable to those birth defects 14'). fromii other Countries and can be inicomiplete or out-of- Other statistics suggest a link between enviroiinmenital date (48,. The incideince of diseases reported here is based conditiomis and low birthi weighits. In sevcral regions on ca ses officially reported to WHO, but there may be 178 Worild Resources 1996-97 Population and Human Development large differences between the o fficial!v rageportfedrtote antween the actual . Figure 8.6 Causes of Global Mortality, 1993 reported total and the actual total.~ Infant Mortality Infectious and Unknown causes 16% Infant Mortality ~~~~~~~parasitic diseases 32% 8,124,000 WHO estimates that, betweeni 1980 1644,000 and 1993, infait mortalitv declinied Othercauses0.3% by 25 percent and, as mentioned ear- 170,000 lier, life expectanicy increased by 4 Matemal causes 1% 508,000 years 49,. However, such suLCcsses are Chronic lower respiratory somiewhiat offset by the fact that each diseases 6% year 3 million babies born in develop- Diseases ofthe '' 2,888,000 circulatory system 19%/ Perinatal and iiig counitries do nlot survive for imiore 9.676,000 3,1800alcauses6% than I week so). Many of the world's people aire at the bottomi of the health - External causes 8% cat pyramid, where iincome1ts are low, neoplasms 12% access to safe drinkinig water and sami- 6,013,000 tatiot is limited, and disease and dis- Source: World Health Organization (WHO). The World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps ability are inevitable. These inequlities (WHO. Geneva. 1995), Figure 4, p. 20. exist not just arnong regions or coun- tries but also amonig populations within counitries. Most attack was 12 tinies higlher among men in North Karelia urban areas, in developed and developing countries (Finland) than in Beijigli and 9 times higher among alike, contiln large nuinbers of people who are unemii- womenm ill Glasgow (United Kingdonm) than in Catalonia ployed, elderly, or beyond the reach of basic social aIld (Spain) 52. health services. In the inier-city areas of mianiy devcl- oped counitries, for example, immilullization rates are Cancer below those in the developing world. (See Chapter 2, 'Urbaii Einviroi-nenit and Humani Health.") Of the 6 millllio cancer deaths in 1993 in all countries, lung cancer aCCoLinted for niore than I million deaths and was the single biggest killer, followed bv stomach Main Causes of Death canieree, which accounlited for 734,000 deaths. Female Worldwide, about 51 nillion people died in 1993. breast caLncer claimiied more than 250,000 lives world- Globally, the biggest killers were infeCtious and parasitic wide. Other canicers that wcre responsible for a quarter diseases, which account for nearly one third of the total, Inillioti deaths include m1outh, esophageal, liver, and atnd diseases of the circulatory system, whichl acCouLnt coloni cancer ( .) for aniother one fifth. (See Figure 8.6.) Cancer is expected to take an increasing toll on Causes of death differ dramaticallv between devel- humiiani life. WHO estimates that, by the year 2000, oped and developing counltries. In the developed couini- canicer deatlhs will rotal about 7.2 million, iiicluding tries, where residenits usually receive adequLate m1edical about 4 miillion canicer deatlhs amonig males and 3.2 care and life expectanicy is generallv over 70, chrollic million deaths amiionig feiales. WHO estimates that diseases have becomiie the big killers. Diseases of the almost two thirds of new caticers over the next 25 vears circulatory system1, including prinmarily heart disease will oCCulr il the developing world 541. and cerebrovasCular diseases such as stroke, accounted Cancer and Circl.latory diseases killed nearly as many for 46.7 percent (5.4 mi llion) of the total of I I.7 millionl people in developling countries in 1993 as in developed deaths in 1993. Cancer is secoiid, accouLntilng for 21 .6 natios. Butr they accounted for only about o)ne fifth of the perlent (2.5 millioll) of all deaths (51). (See Figure 8.7.) total of 39 million deaths in rhe developing world st. Heart Disease Infectious Diseases Heart disease is associated with factors sucl as smokinig, Althougl infectious diseases account for only about I diet, blood pressure, and cholesterol. There ar-e remark- percelit of deaths In developed coulitries, they are still ably sharp differences in the incidence of heart disease the mza jor killer in the developing world, accouniting for aimonlg different groups. For example, a study of 75,000 a staggering 16.3 millioni deaths, or 41.5 percenit of all episodes in 1985-87 found that the likelilhood of healart deaths, in those nlatiotns in 1 993 (ihi. Wurld Resources 1996-97 179 Population and Human Development In many cases, the most deadly diseases are also the and Asia Dl'. I)engue anil yellow fever also are spr-ead- most familiar, and ias long as acccss to health care ing. In addition, although these old foes stubbornly r-emiiainls limlited and sanitatioIn is poor; they arte likely to persist and contintue to kill miillions of people a year, remain so. (See Table 8. 1.) For example, alrhough thsy "new- or previously unknown infectiotis diseases are are among the miost highly manageable and curable of also appearing (see belov). As these and other data infectious diseases, diarrheal diseases, whethier they make anifellfstly clear, the war againlst inifectiouis diseast were caused by a viirlus, a bacteriumn, or a parasite, is far from won. claimed the lives of 3 million c hildreni In the developing True, there have beeni some success stories. Simallpox world in 1993 0:1. Tuberculosis (TB), an ancient scourge has been eradicated. Polio hals now been dleclared eradi- that scientists suspect was first intirodticed in humans cared in the Americas, and WHO believes that it will be arOLind 5000 M.C (5s:, curreintly kills 52,000 people each eradicated globallv by the year 2000. Those may be the week ( >), and the nuLimibers appear to be growinig, espe- exceptionis, however. cially in Africa. The human ininimiuiodeficieiicx virus Although the goal once miay have beeni a decisive (HIV) and TlB are a particuilarly lethal combinatio0: victory in the war against infectious diseases, miny HIV dami.ages the imminitiie systemi and hastenis the de- public health officia lls have conliIdedl that in the face velopmcnt of TEB into a life-thlreatrcinig disease, whereas of n atulre's complex iinterdepSen dtencies, el iminltintlg TB c*an hasteni the progress of HIV infection into AIDS. most comnlIlUnicable diseases will be Impossible. Rather Evein thotugh lTB has been oni the declinle in many areas rhan wipillg OUt all in fectioLis diseases, success has for more than 30 vears, druig-resistalit strains have come to hb defined as being able not onlv to respond beco)me increasinlgly prevalent-a phenlomilenlonl that is rapidly to disease thrcats as they arise but also to occurrinig with other diseases as well. anticipate their onset and alter the situations thait pro- Malaria accounts for 2 million deaths annually, half mote their spread 21. in children inder 1(0, with another 400 million clinical bouts of malaria. Most of these are in Africa. The remaininig cases are concentrated in India, BraZIl, Sri EMERGING AND REEMERGING Lanka, Afghanistan, Viet Nanm, and Colombia. Al- INFECTIOUS D1SEASES thouighi the area of the world where malaria is a problem has shrilnk, malaria control is now more difficult and If the public needed a remiiider that a deadly, infectious drtig resistance is a growing problem (h(. Cholera, disease coulld emerge at any moient, they got onein th-e which afflicted 377,000 people and caused 7,(0( deaths spring of 1 99'5. Reports bega n trickling oUt of the city in 1 993, hias becomI1e cendenmic In Africa, Latin America, of Kkikwit, Zaire, that the local hospital was being Figure 8.7 Causes of Death in Developed and Developing Countries, 1993 ab Developed countries Developing countries (percent) (percent) 1.2 1 Infectious and parasitic diseases 4145 7.8 Chronic lower respiratory diseases 5.0 21.6 Malignant neoplasms 8.9 46.7 _ Diseases of the circulatory system 10.7 ° Maternal causes 0.7i Perinatal and neonatal causes 7.9 7-5 = External causes of mortality 7-9 14.5 Other and unknown causes N99 M 16.8 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 SC Source: World Health Organization (WHO), The World Health Report 1995: Bridging the Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995), Figure 5, p. 20. Notes: a. Includes economies in transition. b. Includes least-developed countries. 180 Wor,'ldt R(iSeOrcss 1996-97 Population and Human Development swamped with cases of hemorrhagic fever. Both WH)O in Geneva and the Centers for Disease Control and Table 8.1 Estimated Deaths from Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta sent teams of experts to Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, 1993 evaluate the outbreak, blt even as the teams were Number of arriving in Kikwit, blood samples that had been sent to Deaths" the CDC confirmed that the illness Was caused bv the Disease/Condition (thousands) Ebola virus (6-). Acute lower respiratory infections under age 5 4110 b Althoug h extremelv deadly, the Ebola virus is not Diarrhea under age 5. including dysentery 3,010 easily tralisillitte(l. Close contact with bilood or other Tuberculosis 2709 casi ~~~~~~~~~~~~Malaria 2,000 body fluids appears to he necessary. Fhe CDC and Measles 1,160 WHO teams trained local healthi work-ers in proper Hepatitis B 933 infection control procedures, inclidinig the use of masks AIDS 700 anid gloves, and(i the need to sterilize nieedles aniid surgical Whooping cough 360 and glvsad h ed oselhen-dlsadsurgica Bacterial meningitis 210 instruliments. Local RcLI Cross workers warned people Schistosomiasis 200 not to perform a traditional burial ritual, Wvhicil woould Leishmaniasis 197 expose thein to infected hody fluids. After several nerv'- Congenital syphilis 190 Tetanus 149 ous weeks, WHO) officials appeared confident that the Hookworm diseases 90 epidemic was ulider control, although neariv 250 people Amoebiasis 70 died in the outhreak n. Health officials were especially Ascariasis (roundworm) 60 relieved that the epidemic did not spread to Kinshasa, American trypanosomiasis (seping sickness) 55 the capital citv of 4 million less than 250 kilometers Onchocerciasis (river blindness) 35 away. Meningitis 35 Btut it certainlyv cotild have. The Ebola viruis outbreak Rabies 35 Yellow fever 30 appears to have bCguLn in the winter of 1994-95, but it Dengue/dengue hemorrhagic fever 23 was nOt recog-nized until several months later. The ill- Japanese encephalitis 11 ness has an incubation period of up to 3 weeks, although Foodborne trematodes 10 it may often be I week or less. Durilnlg this time, the Cholerac 5.58 patient has no syrmptorns. Ir is easy enougIl to imagine Diphtheria 3.9 a truck driver or riverboat captain becoming infected Leprosy 2.4 and bringing the disease into the capital before showing Plague 0.5 t Total 16,445 any sym ptom s a nde1 the n swifttly> spreadi rig the d l sea se to Source: World Health Organization (WHO), The WorHd Health Report otlhers. If the disease liad not been recognized proniptly 1995: Bridging the Gaps (WHO, Geneva, 1995), Table 5, p. 18. when thie paitienits began shiowing symlptoms and were Notes: a. Estimatesforsomediseasesmaycontaincasesthathavealso therefore most infectious, the capital coul(d asily have been included elsewhere. had a pu bl i.-c hea Itlt disaster on its lha nds. A nd the d isease b. Deaths irom dysentery are estimated at 450,000. could even conceiva blv have spread to other par-ts of the c. Officially reported figures only. world via air travel. The illness Caused by the Ebola virus is just one of a travel and commerce, complications of modern ncdi- number of new diseases suich as hantavirLs and cholera cine, microbial adaptation and change, and the break- that has emerged in recent vears or that has "reemerged" in a new location or a mnore dangerous form. This phenomenon has sparked alarml a mong health official s Worldwide. Although neVw diseases like that caused bv Evionmental Change the Ehola virus capture headliiies, the death toll from the Somiie einmrging diseases are associated with environ- latest OuJtb)reak fortunatelv remained In the hundreds, mental changes that occur with economic or agricul- tural developyment or changes in land use patterns (66. Factors That Contribute to Emergence Certainly the development and growvthi of cities often What are the factors that lead to the emergence of new fueled by an influx of migrants can foster- the estah- threats from infectious disease? Infectious disease ex- lishniict of a neiw infectionl in a population. Once perts generally identify six factors: environmental established in a crowded urban area, a disease can easily change and disturbances to the balance of natural halbi- take root and can he extremnely difficult to eradicate. tats, humanl demographics and behavior, international OCther human activities that disturb natural ecosystemns, World Resources 1996(-97 181 Population and Human Development Box 8.1 Implications of Climate and Ecosystem Change for Infectious Diseases PROGRESSIVE WARMING incidence of malaria was up more than Latin America, a 1982-83 El Nino event The latest estimate of wlie Inrergovern- 500 percent. StLidies indicate that high led to heavy rains and flooding and sub- mental Panel on Climate Chanige is that temiiperatures and large amounts of rain- sequently to major epidemics of malaria global mean temperatures are likelv to fall accounted for 80 percent of the dif- in Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia ii) global mean terateofabures3° rer likely to ference in the monthly incidence (3U. Warming conditions and El Nino rise at a rate of about 0.30 C per decade Global climate change models suggest events also can have important effects (1). Althioucgh many aspects of climate that warming could lead to an increase in on disease-carrying rodent populations. there is a growing consens us thdt pro- the number of malaria cases from the The hantavirus outbreak in the south- gressive warming is cansed bv increasing CUrrent 400 million annLally to about western United States has been linked to gressivwarmingis cagreenhusedby inease ing °500 million annually hy the year 2100. a 6-year drought followed bv an El Nino concentrations of greenhouse gases (prin-Wt 0Cices ngoa entm vn cipally carbon dioxide, methane, and 1th 0 3° C icrease i global mear tem- wvenut that caused heavv rains in the re- chlorofluorocarbons) in the atmosphere. peratuires by 2100 liowever, there would gion. (See the discussion of hantavirus Such a change could have numerous be a substantial geographical wideniing of elsewhere in this chapter.) implications for future patterns of infec- the inalarCa zone and a hkelv increase of Climate fluctuations also mav have tious disease. Even subtle changes in tem an additione l 50 msilion to 80 million played a part in India's 1994 plague out- perature can have significant effects on cases ( break. In the summer months prior to the vectors-mosquitos, flies, snails, and ENSO EVENTS AND OTHER CLIMATE the outbreak, temperatures reached rodents-that transmit infectious dis- 690 C, causilng widespread animal deaths eases. The Aedes aegypti mosquito-one FLUCTUATIONS and creating hot-air columns that drew of the prime carriers of dengue and yel- Manv malaria epidemics and other vec- in moisture-laden maritime air that con- low fever-has extended its range to torborne disease outbreaks seemingly tributed to an unusually long (3-montl) both higher latitudes and higher alti- are linked to climate fluctuarions associ- monsoon period. SubseqLient flooding tudes. For the first time, rhe miosquito ated witlh El Nino/Southern Oscillation created conditions that were ideal for the has moved into the mountainouIs regions (ENSO) events. Such events, whiclh usu- plague outbreak 6). of many nations, iiicludiiig Costa Rica. ally last about 12 months, tend to in- Colombia, India, and Kenya 2). In east- crease rhe severity of botlh droughts and HIGHER OCEAN TEMPERATURES ern Africa, a slight increase in winter wet periods. La Nina episodes have a re- temperatures could extend the inos- verse pattern of clinate anomalies. The rapid growth of marinie algal quito's habitat above 2,500 meters and Wherever El Nino/La Nina events blooms is prompted by many factors, in- threaten urban populations such as Nai- cauise extended heavy rainfall, outbreaks chiding nitrient-rich wastewater runoff robi in Kenya and Harare in Zimbabwe. of vectorborne disease are likelv to ac- and declining fish stocks. Another factor In Rwanda, temperatLres increased companiy the event. For examiiple, in is climate-induced wariner sea surface greatly between 1961 and 1990, reaching southern Africa, a wet summner (La temperatures, which increase algal a peak in 1987. In the mid-1980s, ma- Nina) in 1974 produced an epidemic of growth by augmenting photosynthesis laria became established in areas where it West Nile fever. An unusually severe In- and shift the community of organisms had previously been rare or absent. dian monsoon in 1973 (La Nina) led to towvard more toxic species such as those Among people in high-altitude zones, the an epidemic of Japanese encephalitis. In that produce red tides cm. including road-btilding, logging, and irrigation pro- conditions. The straini that hit New Mexico in 1993 jects, can also bring huinanis into new areas while c ausing a frequenitly lethal respiratory infection was displacing microbes that must then seek oti new hosts, transmitted by inhalation of airborne droplets of rodenit Changes in local climate, such as drier, wetter, or urine and feces TI). Betweeni 1992 and 1993, an unuisu- warmer periods, can extend the ranige of mosquitos and ally wet and niild winter led to increalsed adult rat anti other disease vectors (6') iai. (See Box 8. I) mlouSC survival alid, in turin, anl increased rodent popu- Hantavirus. Hantavirus, one of the newest emerg- lation in the spring. As competition forced the rodents ing diseases, causes different symptoins-such as hem- bevond their nornmal habitat in search of food, huminai orrhagic fever, abdominal pain, or respiratory contact with infected animalls (and, hence, with the infection-dependinig on the strain of the virus. It ap- virus) also increased -r2. pears in areas where litter and trash abound and rats For the lUnited States as a whole, as of lune 1995, and mice nest (h9). More than 1 00,000 cases have been the C(C had confirmed 110 cases in 23 states; .50.9 reported in China. The disease is also fouiid elsewhere percenit of these were fatal. Now that tests that cani in Asia and in Scandinavia, the Balkan region, muchi of diagnose hantaviruis infectioni are available, it is clear Europe, and recently in the ULnited States (718, that infectioni is niore widespread thanl was initially The recent hantavirus outbreak in the southwestern expected anid that the virus has probably been around United States has been linked to a chanige in ecological for a long time (7Z 182 Worl(d Resouirces 1996-97 Population and Human Development Researchers have linked cholera out- the 20th Century, northeastern forests re- Healltb and Clinate Change fThe Lancer breaks to coastal plankton blooms. A qui- generated and the deer population re- Ltd., London, 19941, p. 22. escent form of cholera is found in a wide bounded, but the Wolf population did 6. Paul R. Epstein, "Climare Chatige Played a range of surface marine life. Under cer- not. Deer, which carrv the tick that is Role in Indii's Plague." Letter to the Edi- tain conditions, when waters are rich in the host for Lyme disease, are currentlv tor, Sund.ay News of the Week ini Review, nitrogen and phosphorus and tempera- abundant in the Northeast i(o). ,'E'c ork 4 lira's Noreiner 13. 1994, p. tures are relatively high, blooms develop The likelihood that many bird popula- and cholera comes out of its quiescent tions are diminishifig both in diversitv -. r.il R. Epstein, -Emnerging Diseases and state and becomes infectious. This proc- and absolute nimbers also has impor- Ecosysrem Inistability: New Threats ro Pub- ess apparently was an important factor tant implications for disease, since maliv lic Hedlti." Amneri,an Journal of Public in the outbreak of cholera in South birds feed on disease vectors such as Helth. Vl. 85, No.p2 (Fehruarr 1995, America in 1991 and in recent out- mosquitos. For example, eastern equine pp 16x-l-2. breaks in Bangladesh (s8. encephalitis, whichi is deadly in abouit 303 8. Pold R. Epstein etl .. "Marine Ecosystem Higher ocean temperatures are associ- percent of cases, was recentiv isolated Health: Iniplicatrions for PLIblic Health," ated with many other tvpes of toxic al- from a mosquito in Polk Coulinty, Flor- Anina.ils {Ift/bc Neite Yoirk Academnyrl Sc- gal blooms that have implications for ida, whiere bird habitat has been suverelv inces, Vol. 737 (Decebnher 1 994), pp. human health. In 1987, warm eddies of disrupted ( n 1 13-23. the Gulf Stream came unusually close ro 9. Paul R. Epscein, Tiinothy E. Ford, and Rira Prince Edward Island in Canada. The References and Notes R. Colwell, "Miarinie Ecosvstems," The Lan- warm waters carried pennate diatoms I . linternationral Panel oil ChlilaLt Change, et. Vol. 342, No. 8881 (NIovember 13, producing domoic acid, which killed five "The Social Cosrs ot (Cliate Change: 1993). pp. 1,216-1,219. people arid caused 156 cases of amnesic Greenhouse Damage rnid rhe Beiefits of 10. Richard LevilN etl., "The Eilnergerice of shellfish poisoning 19). Conrrol," Chaipter 6 in Second Assessmenr Nessw Diseases." Amer'can.z Scuenist. Vol. Report, Workiiig (roip II[ (April 1995 82, Nr,. I (Jairiary-Febrnlarv 1994;, pp. CHANCES IN BIoDIvERSI-I-Y ~drafti (World MIeteorological Organuizr- 6( CHANGES IN BIODIVERSITY tion/Lliiired Nations Environnieiir Prr- $2-6t). Changes in biodiversity and habitat also grramnire, Geneva. 1995). p. 9. 11. Paul R. Ep,iein, "Revii'w of Biodii'ersitv: have many implications for human 2. Richard Stone, "II the lercLiri Sotrs. Sri The Diversity of Life, hb Edward 0. Wil- health and disease. For example, Mlav Health H.az.ards," Scicrzcc, Vol. 267. soni." in otiuriial of t/u Aiericani Medical changes in the balance between preda- No 5 199 (Febriiaii 7 1. l995), pp. Ass.riartirn. Vol. 269. No. IS (April 21, tors and prey can allow populations of 957-958. 19931). pp. 2,006-2,007. disease-carrying animals to multiply rap- 3. Michael E. Loevirisohn. "Chmltic Warm- 12. Maniy if the references cited here cail be idly. In the northeastern United States, irig alid Increased M.ilaria Incidence ini tlliiiind P.riil R. Epstein, "Health Implica- the clearing of land for agriculture in the Rwand.a," The Lan,et, Vol. 343 IM.irch tions of Climite Vari.ibilit varid Change," 1 8th and 1 9th Centuries depleted the 19, 1994), pp. 7 1 4-717. a report prepared for the Climate Research deer population as well as the wolf popu- 4. Op. it. 2, p. 95 8. Comirnirtee. Nationrtal Acadenrl of Scleirces, lation, their chief predator. When agricul- 5. Neville Nichorlls, "El Niilo-Sitihcrn Oscil- Washington. D.C. (I. ar 1995). tural activity shifted to the Midwest in lation and Vector-Bor)ie Disease." in Rift Valley Fever Some infectious diseases have temperature betweeni 1972 and 1 990 forced many Hon- been linked to the ecological chaniges brought about hy durans into recently deforested regions in the north. The darn construction; dams change the water flow and call new migrants tenided to be nonim imiune to malaria. The cause water to puddle and serve as breeding sites for surge in population, coLupled witlh heavy rains, caused mosquitos. In Senegal, the constructionl and activation the number of malaria cases in the northern region to of Diama Dam are believed to have led to the introdtic- juinp from 20,00)0 in 1987 to an expected 90,000 in tion of Rift Valley fever, a disease never before seen in I 99 3 s) (-f, the region. Surprisingly, one third of inhabitants were Warm, wet weatlher can lead to the establishment of found to have antibodies to the virus. Still, near the new breeding sites, whiclh may have been a factor in the village of Keur MVlacene upstream from the dam, a 1 987 recent episodes of mnalaria in Houston, Texas. epidemic caused 244 human deaths and more than 1,200 illnesses, as well as spontaneous abortions in Hutman Demographics and Behavior sheep and cattle (l41. Malaria. Habitat disruiption can play a role in the Humran activity plays a critical role in the spread of resurgence of malaria, which is transmitted by Anopbe- disease. Changes in the size, density, or distribution of les mosquitos. In southern Honduras, erosion from human populations contribute significanty to the trans- grazing and farming coupled with a severe increase in mission of infections. An influx of large numbers of Worlrl ResoettCie s 1 9(-99 7 183 Population and Human Development people cain produce overcrowding aid inadequate sup- Throughl 1994, WHO had received reporrs of plies of safe water, which in turn leads to problems in 1,025,073 AII)S cases from aroLind the world, bLrt it is hygilene-a combination that is ideal for the spread of likely that there are three times that mnily unireported inlfeCtioLuSdiseases. The increasing lincidenice of poverty cases (ssi. As of lalte 1994, WHO estimated that IX worldwide unLderlies the resurgenice of diseases such aS imillion aduilts have keen infected with HIV s'n tuberculosis aiid diphtheria. The disease is spreading most rapidly in Africa anid Deng2e. Dengiue virus, which is now the most Asii. In Thallanld, HIV iifectioin is spreading q uickly important an1d fastest grow ing insect-borine virail ififec- via sexual contact, Vet it waas virtually unknoiVi iII that tion in the world, is tranisnlitted primnarily by the Aedes colulitry in 1987. In India, infectioni rates halve tripled acigyp)ti mosq(.ito cm. The inosquito vectorthattransmits siiice 1 992. In sub-Saharan Africa, the part of the w orld denigue mILltiplies in any small pool of stagnant wavrtet; worst affected, the prevalenice of HI\V iifection already especially in discarded automIorbile tires or other detr-itus exceeds 10 percent in a few counltries 19M. that results froin life in overcrowde(d Lirb;n areas, Thle In addition, childi-ren are bearing a growing burden disease, also known as "break-bone fever," prodUces se- from the AIDS paildenmic. It is estlimate( that by the year vere headaches and disabling pain in iiiuscles and(i joints. 2000 more than S ii illlion children will be in fecteci with A far mrore serious form-l of the disease, hemorrhagic HIV ;,)i deniguie fever or deniguie shock svndroine, has a 40 to S0 In the Uinited States, the diseiase initially escaped perceint fatalitv rate if it is left unitreated (7-) detectioii because of its long 1iCuLbation period. The In 1993, some 23,00)0 deaths from dlengule and slow responise of the federal governimienit in educating 560,000 cases of deniguie were officiallv reported to the l(ipulatiol aboutthesPreadofthedisease mayalso WHO (79), a suLbstantial increase over previous Vears. have fuled the epidemic 92. D)urinig the I Y6Os, denigue typ)icalily averagned aboutr TTuberculosis. TB, which for decades was oii the 30,000 cases per year; fromii 1 985 throulgIl 1 989, nearlv decline, now kills more people eac year than any other I million cases were reported I()o. Hlowever, eveii these infectious disease, accounting for ? millioI deaths in nuIlinbers are likely to be uliderestiliLates: tor everv co01- 1993, more than 5 percent of all deaths globally' t W-HO expects about 8.8 iiillioi new TB Cases in firmed case of deligile, officials suspect that there are 1995, with sonic 80 percent of victims being In the four additional cases that have either not been reported econlomicalily active group of indlividiuall, fronli 15' to 49) or have beenl misdiagnosed sI In poor tirbani areas In years of age IL4. Ahout 2 billion people, mostiv poor the tropics, where mosclUiito-control progra ins are spiarse or ilonexistenit, delnguie is hecoming ani enormous "iai[ilsi of TPR M)'o-(b,l(-t(1llMo tubc7rciflosis: 111.) to 10 problem. In Southeast Aslii dengue hemorrhagic fever (and dleiigile sliock svilicloliie) ris oie of tpe leading percent of those people will dIvelop the active fori of (and dengue shock syndrome) is one (if the leading the disease, US.allyV as a rtsult of a weakening of the ca.Uses of hospitalization anld death a muong c1liildreni (x,2). IinmLmun SVSteml throUgh n11ali11titrition 0, (11d age, canlcer, In miianyv parts of Latin Anerica, deigtue has reached t-I ~~~~or AIDS i) epidemic proportions, even though the disease was le- Active TB is ContagioLIs, but transmission (via air- lieved to have been neariv eradicated in the 1)960s. In borne droplets) usually occurs only after prolonged additioll, hemorrlhagic deniLie fever is increasing ill contt in a closed environmt. Drug treatment is incidenice (si. Brazil hals been hardest hit, with 88,0)39 relativelv cheap and cani ctire the disease, but the treait- confirnied cases of denigue a.nd 10.5 Cases of heinor- mllenit requLires people to taike the drugs for at least 6 rhagic dengtie fever in the first 9 months of 1I995 T'he mlloniths withouit initerruiption. Manv patients stop talk- year's tin ustalul long wet seasoni and high iitmbet of ing tei druIgS after a few wecks, thus riskiig a recurrence hurricanies are belleved to be contriburing ro the severity anid rhe likelihood of becoming infected with a druig- of the epidemic, providing fertile breeding grounids for resistant strain. the Aedles aegypti miosqullitO (S4). In the United States, the prevalence of drug-resistalit AIDS. Researchers believe that the virus responsi- strains of M1. lubercelosis hals grown fromil I to 2 percent ble foir AIDS was tranisported in Africa by the movemlenit in the early davs of drug treaitmiienit to 3 to S perent in of infected people from r-ural ar eas to rapidly expanding the I 960s. By the I 99Os in New Y'ork ( ity *33 perceint urban areas si;, helped along by the pa ving of the of M. tubcrculosis Stra ins werIe resista it ro at least O(lle Kinslhasai Highway across centralI Africa )s( Sexual drug and 1 9 percenit were resistailt to two or more drugs activity and substance abuse were the primary huanll 9a, The resistance problem is certain to spread along activities responsible for tile spread of the dlisease si). with tl-he spread of the disease. 184 World Resources 1996-97 Population and Human Development The numbher of people sulfferinig fromii both TB lnd rise (Ii. InfeCtion1s Call be tra riillirtL'd fronl st;lff to AlDS is on the rise. W'HO estimates that in Asil a loi: patreintrs, froirn vrsitcirs ro parielits, and frd orn pt;lielts to dtiring the iext I10 years, the number of people cxpectd ntrhel parients. to die fronil AIDS and TB together is greater thin rhe M iniv invasive proCCILetircs per-forilme(d in hospitlls, cominhued populations of Tok vo, Beijing, Singp )roe, iricid ling surgerlies siuch as hip replacemiients that ill- ariid Yokoha ma l7. Volvi' Inserting a fOrelign bOdV, Cltheter17iatiOnl,trainsfui siOn, or even Organ rrl r spllrilltatiOnl, Creaite oppOrtilil ities linternational Travel and Commerce or si ^r 1coiii a I ii fetirios to dCeve iop. Ti-avel has long lielped to spireaid infeetiorrs disec s Infection ciontrol progr,iils in riniay long retril -care especially for easily trarismissible virutses' sliclh as thait f cilitites such as nirirsirig lioriis arei lso often ineffective whlicli caises sniallpox. Concerns have heightenietd d,I rlld 1lI1ow infectioris to be transmitted rapidlv lniomig a miatically now that it is easy to get frorii one eri(c of rhe popilation wlhose iiiiiirrilitv hIs ailready v been coriipro world to the other in less than 48 hocrc. For cli v iseas micd s1v age orrchrronic illness. Star11dards to coiitror the stch as nilLirla that ireqtuire a lora I poprldatirlr of f prc'ld of ilIfL'Ctiial riio.lig chrldreri rri schools rid dlaiv- Anzopbl(1(S ilsioshLuitos to traniliiit thl edise ase to h1m nn iris, 'n failirties ar also diffi tilt ro niiaintaiii. travel to regions ouitside that vector's ran-ige does ritr I)rug Resistanice. Becauise baicteria reprodUcTe sro preseit a threat. The samile cannot be said, however, for r pid nim tant s,tra iis * re constiantly arisi ig. In the diseases sicl as TB aried infiueneza that are traininirttrd I iboraitory, it is ealSV cnuitgih to create str.aiis of laCterial throtughl person-to-person contaict us rhar -ire recsitinit to a partic ilat airitibiortic simply bv In Septemrber I 994, reports of a p1ietirLioirC pIlagr look irngi fo i niitant str lins that .ire lilt to sLci ViVe ill the olitbreak in Surat, India, set off an internritionail pnimc pr-senct of thair dlug. The sanit'c thing willi uItiniatlv Ilndiiis fled the arteas whiere the disease hat] bc(fn r h pp'll Inside People. an1d the ilidsctrimilrinirit use' of portedl, alcrld lcr-e rlia ii 45,000 people caiccled tlhifr - ritibrotrics hastens tlic proi(rcss. BaCteli1 resrstarice is plans to travel to India r)j. Plienrii0onC pl IigneLis spr(eadS allrea-idy iii enOrioius problei in U.'s. hospitils 10l) primarily ti rough couglhiriig a iid sneezing, so tlihe di e:rcP could easily have been carried to other parts of tlir worl(l Mcobial Adaptation and Change by air travel. However, nallix'v believe rhe scile of the pilliC was LlilUrstifi'fed-the 56 deaths aniid 272 )7 o I ikel other orga risniis, bacteria mnd virusc s iiiiltrgo firitred plagUe cases ate comparable to those resIn'lrn spo nrtiiuouis iiirtir , irhis Troinigh rlis process, vi5'rc i fromii recent ouitbreaks of plagLie in othtir a eas (i th- 'a >n evolvt r.pidlv I iiito rt'xw varinaiits thl-it c ii reinftcct woirld cco,. (See Clhapter 2, "tUra-in Flvir-oinimentr 30(1 previuruisly idifectec] people or pruryc i' a slightly different Hinmian Health.") tranii to which thi expoisel population has riot devel- Other infectiours arid partasitic dli seascs trake a idvani O'red Ii in li iitv. NIctra on also allow1s siour ii clrob's tage of iniidern travel without eveni ha ving to rely onl ro deselop rteistarice o the dIrugs prLvioMs1v irsed to hltnanli hosts for transpuort. For exarmiple, a shrprient 'if control them (sec abhove). old tires from Japan to the souitheri l llitrc(l Staltrs. Influenzza Virus. The I niflilen/a virus h.as foHntl wlhich carried thoLisa rnds of riiosqU ito eggs, allowed the 'l i cqire way' ro persist andit ('arise dlit.eiw. MoN r itieV deluguLe vector to becomne established in a neiw lw-.r non striins of the diseast r rise inl S(ulirh.lrst Asiai, Wherte di cks, pigs, aiid fariiers live in close pro'niiitrvy. Scieli Complications of Modern Medicinie tot's theorize that pigs c%in be infected by biOth r hrititl In A lthotighi inioderii Medici ne anid hospitals provi(le tel ie'f in fl rc' ii7a virtis ard a n a v ii in flueni.ri vi ri s. The rwo froiii suffering, they cmai also bring an increase in the virises riuen exchliange generic riiaterial alid a new straill ncideile of diseaseanid the potential forrhc' pprairarcite 'it vilris IS esral ishc'cl inn c These nc'w forriis ha v' thi of new diseases. p1tenritItll rto etalrs widesprte.lc arid( frtquietIly' fat.ll diis Hospital-Acquired Inifectionts. A lioslpira I bv irs Wasc's; tlhex have alrisen p(trili(di11 ;ill int hr vc c-iiursed very nature provi'des a large pool of sick periple 'wirth glrba l pandeniics An infl rici'a virtts epideric in'i I 9I X ricreasedls-cr Inerability to iifection. Aboutr pt-rcenrt f killed( 50,1)1)0 people in the lilitrt(l Star'ts alloice patienits who enter acute-care hospitails acqu(irte iif- let i irlurra ks ocr t-rrlii I it conr' ii I .57 i tions frrrrii their hospitalization, and the inCidlerCe of IL96 104i . drttg-resistanrat strains of the mnmost conirimon of this' \Withocrt effective a1rit-vir-al cIrLIgs, the onl!v Walv to so-called nosocomni I1 inifectionis (e.g., StnpivloeocUu(> fight ilnfIhrienza is with a vaccine. Kit produrc:irig vaC'- ul 1telTS ald coig illase-negative staphylococci) is oll the ciiies trrgeted at a new strilii trakes tinic, arid niio(t Wi tt- IRcsr oIr'i( 199)6)6-97 185 Population and Human Development experts agree that another global pandemic of influenza Coma, Zaire, in the summer of 1994 demonstrates how is inevitable (Ins). quickly the disease can spread in situations of massive ovcrcrowding without adequate safe drinking water Breakdown in Public Health Measures and sanitation. Cholera can almost always be treated with oral rehydration therapy II I). Vaccinations an1d proper hvgiene have helped to provide Measles. Infectiouis diseases also tend to regain lost protection against infectious disease. When a break- grounid when poptilations become complacent and dis- down in public health or sanitation measures occurs, it ease prevention measures-such as immunization pro- provides opportunistic organisms with an idleal breed- grams-begin to falter. In the United States, after a long ing ground and the chance to reach large numbers of decline, the number of measles cases started to rise in people. Societal disruptions stuch as wars, economic the late I 980s whei thiere was a drop in the number of collapse, or nattiral disasters can rapidly destroy public children being vaccinated againist the disease. By 1 990, health protection systems and bring on disease (11)6). when immunTization rates had slumped to only 70 per- Waterborne Illnesses. In areas where populations cent, more than 26,000 cases were reported. In 1991, are rapidly expanding beyond the capacity of the local reported cases were down sharpiv in the United States, water supply, waterbornc infections can be expected to a development that researchers estimate is due in part create seriouis outbreaks of disease. BPacteria, viruses, to a concerted effort by public health officials to increase and parasites can all thrive in ulitreated or inadequately the numnber of children vaccinated (i 2). treated water sources and are often carried into a water Diphtheria. A recent resurgenice of diphtheria has system bv contaminated feces. In 1993, the UInited occuirred in parts of C(entral ELurope and the former States experiencedl one of the largest outbreaks of Soviet Union. This resurgenice is presumed to be the waterborne disease ever reported. An estimated result of decreasing immunization coverage, intermit- 403,000 people in the Milwaukee, Wisconsin, area tent vaccine supplies, and large-scale population move- were stricken with crvptosporidiosis, a parasitic infec- menits-all in the wake of political and economic tion that causes severe diarrhea and is found increas- upheavals that have interfered with once-normal pre- ingly in unTfiltered raw water. Of the 44,000 people who ventioni measures. The number of reported cases rose sought medical attention in the city, more than 4,000 from 1,200 in 199(0 to I_1 910 in 1993 (Iii. had to he hospitalized. City public healrh officiails surmise that heavy rains, snowmelt, and runoff from A Guarded Prognosis nearhy farms mav have overloaded the citvys water treatment plants imn7m. Crvptosporidia are resistant to Understandinig the factors that caLlse outbreaks of dis- chlorine and must he renioved from warer stipplies by ease makes it easier for global health professionals to mechanical filtration. marshal their resources; however, in recent years, global Chol1era. In 1991, ina1dequlate sanitation brouighlt programs to detect, investigate, and control infectious on an epidemic of cholera in South America for the first diseases as well as prevent further outbreaks have been time in almost a century. The bacterium that causes unabletokeep upwiththeproblem.Manyoftheglobal cholera, Vibrio bholerae, is believed to have been intro- health community's most important tools have become duced in l ima, Perui, through the past dumpling of bilge ineffective. water into the city's harbor from ships arriving from the Far Fast oiw. An Fl Nino/Snuthern Oscillation event in Diseaise Surveillan7ce 1991, which warmed coastal and inshore waters, may Funding shortages have severely hampered disease re- have stimulated the growth of a plankton harhoring the search and tracking programs (I 14). Infectious disease cholera bacterium i ion,. The bacteria then contamiiinated laboratories were established around the world many fish and shellfish, which were consumed by the local years ago to detect spots where unusual clusters of population. In addition, inadequately treated wastewa- disease are preseot. However, in recent years, the ter permitted the hacteria to enter the municipal drink- number of facilities actively involved in gathering infor- ing water supply, and the disease spread rapidly. By ination has declined. In addition, many countries lack 1991, there were 366,056 reported cases of the disease the expertise to spot early warning signs that a disease and 3.894 deaths i i iun. suchi as that caused by the Ebola virus or the hantavirus Worldwide and only on the hasis of officially re- is on the rise. And often, even if the knowledge is there, ported figLires, there were 6,800 deaths from cholera in it is not widely applied. International communications 1 993, ab out one qua rter occurring in Africa. T he dra- are better today, but they are still inadequate to provide matic outhreak of cholera in the refugee camps of rapid early warnings of new disease outbreaks. Multi- 186 Wrorld R esources 1996-9'7 Population and Human Development national organiizationis sucIh as WHO and the Pan market for the drug is small or the couintries where the American Health Organization are focal points for disease is rampant would he hard-pressed to pay for global surveillance programs, but they are only as good expensive new drugs. as the information provided to them. Frequently, devel- The druig a7idothymidine (AZT) has been found to oping countries do not have individuals with the medi- redlce the risk ofa motherrransmittiug HIV to her baby cal expertise to recognilze an emerging health threat. by almost 70 percent. However, poorercouintriescanno t International health agencies are also hindered by a lack aifford AZT, let alone the health care services needed to of cooperation and diffictilties in getting information to ensure that women get the appropriate doses thirotigh- and from remote sites in many developing couintries. ot theirpregnancies ii:. Still WHandothergroups Improving this situation will require funds that seem to a w h t d l be in chronicall sliort SLIPPIVare working hardl to alevelop low-bhidget strategies to make these druigs available to those who need them. To a certain extent, it may be possible. using only existing resorces, to iprove global disease srvel The kev to respond g to emerg g fecttis ds- e;ases lies onlv pairtlv with researchers. More vaccines lance. One suggestion Is to fOCluS existing resources on a detecting clusters of new' or unusual disease syndromes. certain basic measuires should not be overlooked. These In addition, all countries could pool certain resources, such as the hiosafetv level-4 containment facilities of the CDC, where new pathogenic agenlts cotild sifely he anhi adeqiuate sinitition, makig sre that the vaccines studied. Global health bodies shouIld also review the that do exist are administered to people who need them ways in whichl they respond to disease outbreaks Ii 5S) and provi(ling basic health care to all people so that a small problem with disease does not suidd(enlv become Drug Development an epildemic in a vulnerable population. . . ~~~~~~Another part of the solution is considlering health Vacciines have reduced or eliminated death and Illness Alo th opme A n intrv ntio nt haiige 1 . ~~along wlrh clevelopnient. Any intervenrion that chaniges Caulsed bv 20 differetit infectiouis diseases, btit providing -new ciries the local ecologv-ey cte new roads, and niew the benefits of va-ccines to thepopuL1ations that need them inuty tner.netisorvc.-m stotepoptlatinsthtneethem indulstry--hrings with ir a heailti cost. Thait health cost Is usually expensive. Immunization and antibiotics are highly specific for the diseases they fight, and ths in muist he figured into the true cost of the prolect if fuiture mgnly~~~~~~~~~~~~~SUfrn isci ror tne allevianeytedtanatns most cases tiey are expenisive to produIce. Bringing a new sufferingistohe lleviated. druig to market involves extensive research and testing and can cost from $ 10 million to $100 million (1 6). It is not surprisiig, then, that drug mantiufacrtirers are ]oe Palca of National Puiblic Radio in Washington. D.C., not always eager to develop new antibiotics, anriviral wrote the section on energingand reeitnerging infectiotus agents, or vaccines to treat infectious diseases. Such diseases in this chapter. products are not always profitahle, especially if the References and Notes The terni t r.i,t1ticin emiionies' l. ks. i for * fli,i. pp. 16-i1,7 6' ()p. if. 2, pp. rr 7-Yi) mciil derifiltiicii, cut is tiretl here ro iiicl ide rhe 4. O )p. it. ' pp I -' 12. Fch.ird II-s, D)einogripherr/i'piil tioer'Sp milcces cr srires 'It The foritier c(1s iet111111 h in (Amrnenir., Aerh.ii. rlite R epiclhi, of Be- . ( ) cit p 10 2p .lifst. the World ittption lo \V.1ihringi c1. iLris, the Repipilic of Fstoiii,. rlIe Reptblic 6. ( irl H ,h 0 t i '199 (personel cotnor4icirc iticinn oI *Ccrcgir. the Repiblic ot K.izkhsr.rrc the Fdlcc,ition. Popiiltiici Referente Riire.i. I 1. iirern.ctccciil icisrirct for Pocpiliriccni Sci K%itg)7 Repiihbic. iTh, Repilhicl 1 .It rve riie \V.1c.hmcgiccii. D.( _.. 1995 per-s''c:il tiimin- eTices. Nts'ti''c.ll )f'famcv Heautl' NSicr e-c: Itr'- R-pi,tbicir ol I ilihi.ii t. lth Repitlirt i Nol- c-r iot.ll ut-v tccr- Reicrt c Iiteri: rt . ii c1 c In,imac f'.r dcs.c. rIce Riiss .rn Feder,i ticn, he Repihc l hr Picpcrl.mion S`,,iccies. iorh.ls. ccclii. id,194). oI T.cilk,rst.i, the Repuihlic cit Tirrkillemi,ttllc. W.orld H.dith Org.c i, (WH). TI p 2'- i1kr.rinc. .c id rhe Repibliit f li71,ekintni Wcerl?c/ Heal/th Rc'pc'et 99S5: HIriciic tg1r 4e i cud the ciuiiTtries of (ecntrri Firrcpe (Ali,- (cc/cs r\X'HO. (Wecec 1. i 991i. ,p 37. Hp. '. r 1 mi. Birlg.irc.c, the (Uch Repihlic.i HTlrg.iry. X. fi&?I lip. ;c-39 i I )p i-t 2, pp. 67-6X. PcL.rnd. Rccitinii.i acid the Sliulci Repuiblic). 9. fnnied NaJtirins 1 I N.1 Pcr,l D-cc)ivis''cn, Ic (f)p i-t 32. 2. Ililrtee N,iticcrs Popilicriccil Fir,! : INIi'A, IX'c,/r? Pccprili-icc Prc.t.- Ffc'e 1 '94 R.wi 1i. ()p. ,-i 2'. ip. S;-S4 Thr 'wirte if Wcrlc i'ccplil.triccc 199i11N- ii(UI N, New Yicrk, 199i - S - 3- ;- . c,.hic Bcig,i.crr, - Popldticcnc Poiclc Opiciccs FPA. New Yoirk, 199i 5 p. I 6. 1ii. f/',? pi) 'T2-2_9 inc the Deseicpiccg W\orldc," Si,ernr, Vcl. World Resources 1'996-97 187 Population and Human Development 26 3,No. S5 148 Fel'rii,irN I , j 9L4 I, pp. .53. 3/i cit. p . P . TodL Rioblbersoin, "D engiie Fever Epidemiic 77 I -7~~~~~~~~~~~&. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 4 )1, it p'3, 1 Sp reads IDespire ILatin Anirrric.i i Ffliirrs," 1 9. losephr Speidel. "I'iipiil.iiori Policy for rthe S pp - . l' . 3X'.ir/iiiitiii Post I( ctolier 20, 1 99.5), p. 2 1 tr (ci'i riir: Ser Iiirg lPIii0riiies, 11~In'.iei iig o A 22. Program paiper pre~seiirecl jt the TliirLI Ses'- ¶6 /. i.~ p -3.7 i.7. T.ihWe 5. P. IX8. sioin f the Pi epair,or) 3 oinnirittee for ilie Iii 57 3 I.tr.7. It) .53 (3I II. 65, pp. 30, 49-50. t imriiioiial ( on iriiweo P11ipiliii 1i Jiiid .58. Nlic Ii,e D. Iseiriiii `'frcluiricii ii If Driig- RL 831. I 3 It. 78. [Dc,elpiipiienrr Lliried Natiirrs, Ne-w 'i rk, ,1igir THir,cccilio,is: A Talc of Two S,pi'- 82 (3i i. .,P April1 4, I 994, l,ip. 13- 14. ICr,, II ,I/, nq i its BiNcsi.ics Ini iin o4lc - iIi) P O 20. United N.irioiis l)eveliipireiir IircgrliMIiir, 'Iya'cti, : T/ry' cIm/pic Icc Human:i F, ecicg)' aiii .53. Fhbioism P. Mi0r1,irlr1, Vice-president. Re- Hulming f)i'c i/c pmiii' Ri/cp ) I IU (Oxfoirdl I/c/i i... in j)i5ici5i' Tr,pi~;iiii.iii. Bleriiardi sea;rch & Med(icsIi Affairs, (Ira Vcix, CaUiii I'11 n fietrii Press. New Ycor k, I 995 I p. iii. R,iieiii.iir, Cii. IN.irioiii.l Ac,ideit 1reIcei, 'ridge, LIJ.., 199.5 (persocinl 2 1. I/iii.. p. 3. \V.shuiii-gricii 1D. ~.. I9 S39 , p. I 36. C0i Iii ii iiiiIC0lxiii 221. (3/i. cit. 20), P. 1. 59. (3/i. cit.. p. 2 1. 54. p.cit. 78. 2.3. 3/i. cIf. 2t3, p. 4. hi). (ii. Ut. iiiiil N:iriicrs (.Iiilcceii's Fiiccl )3INIC II fk' /sstis itt .Stcitce ,rii/ Tc'c/rrcc/oyi'. Vil . 99, I/i ifcit. pp.pp. 21-22 liitediiNiiioii. (I hildrlIes e lipiriir 3 .eiiir F, 4.Ni...Fl.Ii3333p.54 9.tI. itV5ol1.7 Criisis It Alocir/lit'. Healrthc .riri/ Mailrmonrc 67. Mars F. WVisoi, 'Aniri p.itiiig Ness Di5- 9. ()p. it. 7I P. 92 Ecitiiminies iii Trmciiriniii Ntidies Regciiii.l CANc'," Curreni /~usrccc Int Pcbi/i/ Hct/l/c, Vccl. 98.5 Nitr Fy . WXilsiiii "Tr;ivel arid rthe Eircrgence onliiiriiniii Repocrt Noi. 2 (INII FF. 3 c3I39 S3, pp. 9sio`i4. of lcifteicois Diseaises." Eniteegiig Infe'ctiious Flocerene. rtile, I L394). p. 4.3. 618. 63i i) S, p i. I-2 Ditsc'.scn Vol). I. Nii. 2 A1pril-Juine 1 995). .36. (3i it. .3), P. c 9 aie V ltc ' /, Hti.,i icct P C. 3 3p. ii). lit, 3i~~~~~~~~~ l9~~ Hcirrci rch:ric Fe%cerr .ind Reltreid Roideiir 9. Sti 'haildri Meiroii, CoKrcespiondlen t New ;8. ~ it. 30, p'. 25S. Z-iiiiiies.- iii F ctc';'rrc V'imcis. Src'phen S. DI Ilii, Itdiia I i995 lpersoii:il cininnriiiica' 39 3c it. 3 0, P. ~9 Nloirse, edI. )Oxfcird/ Iirlircrsir) liress, New Io ) At). 3/c. ci. 35.P.. Yolrk. 1 993). p. I S . tIll. .1lini War d Andcrscin, "Plaigue Siubsiding iTi 41. 33/c. ~~~~~~ 331, p. .5. ~~~~~70. bi/u. 3ip. l 49- 1 8. lirdit: Icirerii.rrioiiril Isiilatioin Ulnfair, Offi- SrepieirS Xii cc'," [iicus ii tIe Fier-cials S.ir," Vasb/nigtccn PCut 130crolier 5, 42. (3c it. .33, p. *S3). 3994), P. A2.3. geir1Ce ccf IliictiCCcis Dliserses,'' /ciiicirc/ II/ 4.3. N II c had e5I ecter. P1Iiiunginig I.it fe Lpecr.r tcy Fcr'yu. c/'ii i0)s'is V .I i t). Ml. N. Swsartz, " Hicspir.i 'AcqcIiired I nfec- Pirizzles Rii.si.i," Ne 'it cc,rk Tinics (Au]gLut 1 cii.ry 199.5), pp. '-3.5. rici,i: It)isc~ises witlihIici-cr.iniglY I inured 2. 199g.5) p. AlI. I hera pi is," Io /ti'ecticcus Di)secase's ir cut Age, 44. Nlctrc:i Feshhirci. "L[ciq1reiness iii rhe' oiuf C b.ctgc': The /tiju/cct of/ Huiti?ftt ( /cc/cgy cciro IrIerrt:i rd HIe.iIlih Aro otscc Rn,iz. ITI lsIi rc F. \Xi Ismci. 3 II ief, I )tiiciuroiii ol I nf, ,rirc (',tba'icr in /)icse'rc Tran,simission,. l3cr- Furiuii itc'nuttct/ citii Hc'.rt/' A4/cs ifIs Riussi,. riccics Discirses, slimiiii .Auul'LirTi Hccspi.rl.uail, i ( Rcinieii;i, ,d. (Natiouirl Acaideniv NI irriax Feshrbacir '3 ,c/. cd,. 3 ritirs P1il'li'lc- (I:iicibridlgc. M,tss.uc1lccc,er, 199~ persoiil P'ress. Washiiigton. D.(C., 1995), pp. iilg Hociis. Nlos..ccw', 1995), P. xix. Micciiiiiiiliiarionii. l.,3b_ I3 I . 4.5. I3/ it. 43.7~ ( .ci6 17 102. I/bid.. 3p3. I1(1-119. 4c'. ) p. cit. 44. 75~ . AlCiiJii. I es Or i/. . "3 ri ric.i I Regrimisi: A I)33. (3)/i. c it. 6 5. pp. 86-87. 4 7. (3/c. cit. 9. pp. 55-57. PrcifilL cc) Hcdutcir.is," iii Ic'c/t/' ,indc C/nimteic 1314. (3)/c. c it. 65S. pip. 1 8- 19. 48. I )1,. it. 1, 1)7 ~ ~~~~~~C/s~ciri (TIre I nicer. I 0uuidicut. I994l, pp. 11O.5. Ii *unircipcitiici if thait, the United Sitres is lip. c 0. 7, p. ~~~~7. 29-il 49 it . 1. cLirrciitrly preparing an Inifluienza pancideitic Li. (.r/i. cii. 7, p 7t~~~~~~~~~~~. R iC1IraITd Siittne. 'if rlre M1rccciry Soair is Sic pcep.1r niIS tress lp i with .i ciimprehensive con- SIt, op. cit. pp 4P . NLIt He~ilthr H;I,re.Icl- .Scc'ie.it VIl. 267, ri u riutunpigcn hrrle 5 3. tip. crt. 7. 313'P I S-2)O. Nci. 521)3 tFelccrtI. Icy I 7, ) I~~i lip. 4 S7 -9 r 58. ainldi vriccinui:ruprog.l ne Ch. rSenlai e p- 52 3/ i I 7 3r.ct .p 4 tiry Dircctuir, Ditvisiiii of Iiltenrmi:ioniiil Trainu 188 XXQrrld Rcsorurc'cs 1996-97 Population and Human Development iiig antd Rese.arch, Joihn E. Fogairty Interim.t- itt antI 41S,ltt/-it \Y ckhs Re.pi, Vol. 45, 1 4. K,Ithl-ii 1 ). B, liidgIt tl h Cits Slow Ageiicies tion1.il ( enter for Adsa iCed SttItle III tie No. RR-i (ApTil I 5. 1994i, p. 4. Fightintg New lAKis,r a Str.rilsn \i Wa,hiroti% n Health Sietces, National Jiistiriites of 18). i() . 65i. p. It-. P-f h1t _7. 19i), p. Al, A6. Health, \W'shillgi0. D.( ., 1995 (personal IL)9. WVilrr V. Reid, -hiilth. rsirr MiTd Hecalh: I I S. i)/ . I i. p 15. I i. CofllIiUlIC.tii)fol .I communic.ition 1. [~~~~~~~~~~'re,crtiptio jol ir Pi ogrcs,. - ha.it,; inmeint. 106. (p. it. 65, pp. 1 (6-107. Iih. , No. 6 ji-g itst. s, 1 . 56. ii il. Tii lBCIeLu -dd . BettrB Tir.ii i a(ire,' Sittn- 1()7. (ceiters for [)tscj,te Co(nitrol .id Prevetlitio. Ill.11/1, A r. lf. 6l Vl. -2. I N I lptilrl.v Addressiitg Eincrgitig Inteitc ut Dits )1.ise IC.t Thre.rts: A i'resetirio n Strategy Tor Ilhe I I 1. 7C f/i i. P ' I 1 -. lIritigitig A7T to l'oot ( o miittrie.," S ico LJitited States: Execiuvex Surnimtrt ," M ofirbid. I2. I (p 1.1i. 6 5, pp. 10)9- Iit. Viii. 269, Ni. 5224 (Aigtisi4 995), it I /' iiL 86. P H. h24. W'.V7rIi Rstsoterces l 99-l97 189 Data Table 8.1 Size and Growth of Population and Labor Force, 1950-2025 Average An-ual Average Annual Average Annual Growth Population Populaton Cha..ge Incrernentl to the Population of the Labor Force (millions) (percnt) (thousands) (percent) 1950 1990 1995 2025 1900-85 1990-95 2000-05 1980-85 1990-95 2000-05 1981-90 1991-2000 WORLD 2,519,748 5.284,832 5.716,426 8,294,341 1.7 1.6 1.4 80.396 86,319 87,270 AFRICA 223,967 632,669 728.074 1,4951772 2.9 2.8 2.6 14,627 19,081 22,690 Alm-a 8,753 24.935 27.939 45.475 31 2 3 20 629 601 650 4.1 38 Argyuel 4 131 9.194 t1 oY2 2bo.l9 26 3.7 31 197 376 431 16 2.9 B-liin 2.046 4.633 54u9 12.24Ž 29 3.1 28 106 I55 191 2.1 2.4 tousw.ira 309 1,276 1.487 2.980 3.5 31 2.7 34 42 50 3.7 3.2 _urkmra Face 3.654 8.987 10.319 21 654 25 28 25 184 266 307 20 2.0 uruid- 2456 5.533 6.33 i.3490 2.8 30 26 124 178 204 23 25 Gai',n.ejc 4.466 11 526 13.233 29.173 2. 28 28 263 341 465 22 24 Gertrirl Alrlca,i Rep 13:14 2.927 3.315 6 5b. 23 Ž5 23 56 78 89 15 18 uhda 6858 5.553 8.361 12.40i 23 27 25 ;08 162 192 1.6 2.5 _Ouligu _ _ 808 2.232 2 590 _ _7 26 8_ 3.3- 286 5 72 83 2.2 2 4 UuledIvuile 2.77b 11.974 14.753 Jbbl?7 n J5 3.2 346 456 576 2.8 2.5 Egypt 21 &4 56.312 62.931 97.01I Ž.b 22 1.7 1 200 1.324 1.256 26 2 7 Eq6alonal Guinea 226 352 400 79b 72 26 24 19 10 12 X X En,lea 1.140 3.082 3.531 7Z43 2.5 27 2.5 63 90 108 2.0 2.2 6l,MZpa 186434 47 423 55.053 1260o6 2Ž 30 29 954 1 526 I987 22 23 Garo 4bs 1. 14b 1.32u Ž.n, - 28 25 36 35 39 2.4 1.5 cainbia ihS 294 93 1 IlbS 2 .3 LI on 24 21 39 33 X X (ihana 4.9J30 15.UŽ 17.4b3 J, 3r b .b J. Ž8 421 487 b89 2.8 2.8 Guilea 2.550 5.755 86.7uO I obb 2.2 Jo 2.9 lOS 189 239 1.8 2.4 Guere-Brssau 505 964 1.073 1978 19 2.1 21 16 22 27 X X Keenya 6265 23.613 28.261 63.360 3.6 36 3.0 650 930 1.042 3.2 3.0 Lesolho 734 1.792 2.050 4.112 31 2 7 26 45 52 64 24 24 L"on`o 624 2 575 3.3.39 7.245 32 33 31 65 93 119 2.4 26 L5by. 1.029 4.545 5Au7 12.4 d8 -14 3.5 32 149 1 72 222 3.9 3.5 M.d.qu.-l 4.229 12.571 14783 J4414 _ 32 32 31 314 438 570 2.5 2.8 M. awi 2.881 9367 11 1'Ž 22548 3Ž 35 20 21J 352 257 3.7 2.1 Mal, 3.520 9.212 10.95 245/5 29 32 29 210 317 394 27 28 Maurilan,a 825 2.003 2.274 4 443 2.6 25 5 43 54 68 2.5 3 1 Maun,lus 493 1.057 1.117 1.481 1.0 1 11 '0 12 13 22 16 Moroco 8953 24.334 27,028 40.650 24 2.1 16 487 539 478 31 31 Muzaimbque 6.198 14.187 18.04 35. 139 23 24 28 289 363 577 0.7 2.2 Namioia 511 1 349 1 540 3s49 2 7 2 7 25 30 38 47 2.4 2.8 Niger 2.400 7.731 9.151 22 3b8 3.4 34 32 204 284 371 2 7 2.7 Nileria 32935 96.154 111 721 238.397 29 30 2.7 2.209 3.113 3.765 22 24 Rwa.d 2 120 6.988 7.952 15 9/ 32 26 2.5 179 193 239 29 26 Sellegal 2.500 7.327 8.312 l8.e4e 2.d 25 26 167 197 263 22 22 S,ena Leao 1944 3 999 4. 09 bbnU 2Ž0 24 23 69 102 123 15 19 So`iaid 3.012 8.677 4.263 2;.2ib 32 1.3 30 232 115 346 1.7 S.5 oao Atrica 13.683 37.066 41 4b8 70?9n1 25 22 2 1 775 880 1.007 2.9 2 7 Soalai 9.190 24.585 29u98 Se.&e 28 2 7 2.6 556 703 898 28 3.1 SwI;lnId 264 744 b55 1 b47 3.0 28 2.6 18 22 27 X X Tl-l ulid 7886 25.6bO 295 bbS br 32 30 u .(J 643 817 956 28 25 1280 1.329 3.531 4. 13 95,77 2.9 32 29 83 121 152 2.3 25 Tu.iesla 3.530 8.08G 8.94n 13.295 28 19 1 5 175 163 154 32 2 7 Ugurina 4762 17949 21.297 4b.Onb Ž8 3.4 27 398 670 717 2.5 2.6 Zane 12.184 37,43t 4.37U1 154.b.33 32 32 Sc 938 1.293 1.651 2.4 2.5 Zamba 2.440 8.150 9.456 lIjo 36 3.0 2.4 225 261 274 3.8 3.3 ZlIbabwe 2.730 9.903 11 261 19.6.31 3.3 26 2.5 253 272 267 3.2 2.0 EUROPE 548,711 721.734 726.999 718,203 0.4 0.2 0.0 2.676 1.053 17 Alna 1.230 3.289 3.441 4668 21 0.9 1 I 58 30 41 2.7 15 Auslr. 6 935 7 7705 7968 6 262 0 0 07 02 2 53 '8 09 06 Beuarus. Rep 7.798 10.212 10.141 9Y403 07 (0.11 101) 66 (141 (12) 0.5 01 Belgium 8.639 9951 l0 113 IU.407 00 0.3 01 1 32 14 04 02 BounenaoarrHerzegoonna 2.661 4.3u8 34b5 4.474 15O i44 0.2 42 (1701 11 1.6 0.2 Bulygand 7.251 8.991 -b . 3 i 768 0.2 10 Si (5.4 20 144) (37r 0.3 (0.21 Cloalia. Rep 3 8bC 4.517 4.495 4 L,4 054 (I1) (j.11 1 14) 16) 03 01 (Czech Rep 8.925 10 34 r U.296 1IJ be? 0O 1o.U) 0 1 4 12) 11 o.' 06 GDe-rarh 4 271 5140 5.181 bOH4I 15.0? 0.2 °06 (2) 8 11) 06 01 Esio,e. Rep I.151 1575 1.538 1.42Ž 0b (0.6) 53) 11 (9) (5) 0.6 (0.2) FnIlano 4.009 498b 5 lo7 5.407 05 5.5 03 24 24 13 0.7 0.3 France 41.829 56.718 57.981 61.247 05 0.4 02 258 253 132 0.8 06 G-iilip,,y 88376 79.365 81591 76.44Ž (0.21 06 (D.)) 1127) 445 (83) 0.7 0.2 Greece 7566 15U238 10451 98b8 0.6 04 0.0 58 43 1 09 05 H-iigary 9.338 10365 10.15 5397 (U21 (55) (O31 (26) (50) (29) (08) 03 l-wnod 143 255 268 337 11 11 09 3 3 3 X X 2ael'id 2.969 3.503 3.553 3.8d2 Sn 5.3 04 30 10 16 0.6 12 Italy 47.104 57023 57187 52.324 01 01 (0.2) 67 33 (87) 0.7 0.1 Lalne Rep 1.949 2.671 2.557 2.3.3 06 (O9) (5.5) 16 (231 (11) 0.4 (0.7) Llthuaa. Rep 2.567 3.711 3 70U 3 n16 (8 9 i 31 2) 2 1.5 5.1 Macedoma. tonr,en Yuyusl Rep 1230 2.046 2.163 Ž271 14 I 1 57 26 23 16 IS I I M4udoua. Rep 2472 4.362 4.432 5130 (.3 03 05 4) 14 22 0.7 09 Nlehledand5 101 4 14.952 5.503 1827b 5 0)7 33 7C 11C 47 13 05 Norway 3.265 4.241 4.337 4.719 5 0.5 0.3 13 19 15 09 0.6 Rulain. Rep 24.824 38.119 38 388 41.542 _ 9 0.1 0 3 328 54 103 0.2 0.9 Ponacpil 8.405 988b8 95b.j 9.o9d 03 .i 1i (I5U) 28 i91 (4) 0.4 0.3 Hu n,nra 16.31' 23.207 228J5 21 735 5.5 o3t (0.2 lOS 74) (41 (0.2) 0.8 Russian Fedeialoli 103.283 147.913 147005 138.546 0.7 101) (0.2) 510 j183 (268r 04 0.2 Sloauk HRp 3 463 5.256 S.353 6 014 0.7 04 0.4 33 19 24 0.9 I 1 Skue,no. Rep 1473 1.918 1.446 1.8Ž 05 0S.3 iOu 1I 6 (2) 05 05 Spai" 28.009 39272 35.62' 37,Si1 o5 .2 )SO 165 70 i8) 1.2 07 Sweden 7.014 8.559 8.780 9.751 01 U.5 03 8 44 30 0.5 0.4 SwilZenalid 4.694 6.834 7202 7.78b 0 7 11 05 43 74 34 1 3 0.7 Uknaiuie 37.024 51.637 51:380 48715 04 (o11 (0.2) 191 51i (90) 0.2 0.1 Umted 6urgdom 50616 57.411 58.758 61 4I0 0.1 03 0.2 58 1i9 98 05 0.3 Y,gu-i-a. Fed Rep 7131 10.156 10.54 11 4/d 07 1 3 04 65 139 40 X X 190 World Rcsources 1996-97 Data Table 8.1 continued Average Annual Average Annual Average Annual Growth Population Populat=on Change Increment to the Population of the Labor Force t m i l l ions) tPercent) (thousands) (percent) 1950 1990 1995 2025 19870G85 1990-95 2000-05 1980-85 1990-95 2000-05 1981-90 1991-2000 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 219,633 423,658 454,229 615,549 1.3 1.4 1.1 5,097 6,114 5,492 Belize 69 189 215 386 26 2.6 23 4 5 6 X X Canada 13.737 27.791 29.463 38.266 1 1 1.2 09 270 334 295 1.5 10 Costa Rca 862 3.035 3.424 5.608 29 2.4 1 6 72 78 73 3.1 2.6 Cuba 5.850 10.596 11,041 12,658 08 08 05 78 89 54 25 12 Domincan Rep 2.353 7.110 7.823 11.164 2.3 19 14 136 143 126 33 26 El Salvador 1.940 5;172 5.768 9.735 0.9 22 20 43 119 135 13 28 Guatemala 2.969 9.197 10.621 21.668 2.8 29 27 209 265 350 29 3.4 Hait 3.261 6.486 7.180 13,128 1.8 20 21 102 139 173 15 16 Honduras 1.330 4.879 5.654 10,656 3.2 30 25 123 155 172 36 37 Jamaica 1.403 2.366 2,447 3301 1.6 07 10 36 16 26 22 17 Mextcm 27,740 84.511 93,674 136594 24 21 1 i5 1.694 1.833 1.597 31 26 Nicaragua 1.109 3.676 4.433 9.079 2.8 37 28 85 151 154 24 47 Panama 660 2,398 2.631 3767 21 19 14 43 '17 42 28 25 TrindadandTobago 636 1.236 1.306 1806 14 11 I1 16 14 16 16 18 Unted Slates 152,271 249.924 263250 331 152 09 10 08 2142 2.665 2.227 11 10 SOUTH AMERICA 111,690 293,131 319,790 462,664 2.1 1.7 1.4 5,301 5,332 5,172 Argentina 17,150 32.547 34.567 46133 1 5 12 I" 442 408 416 12 17 Boliva 2714 6573 7414 13131 19 24 22 108 166 189 24 24 Brazil 53,444 148.477 161790 230.250 22 1 7 14 2751 2663 2517 22 21 Chile 6,068 13154 14262 19.775 16 16 1.2 187 222 195 25 18 Colombia 11,946 32.300 35101 49.359 21 17 13 591 560 526 28 23 Ecuador 3.367 10.264 11.460 17.792 27 22 1.7 228 239 230 29 28 Guyana 423 796 835 1,141 08 09 1 1 6 8 10 X X Paraguay 1351 42317 4.960 9.017 33 2.8 23 lIt 129 134 3.2 2.8 Peru 7 632 21.588 23.780 36,692 2 4 1.9 1 7 439 438 466 2 7 2.6 Suriname 215 400 423 599 12 1.1 1 1 4 5 5 X X Uruguay 2239 3.094 3.186 3.691 06 0.6 06 19 18 18 0.6 0.9 Venezuela 5094 19502 21,644 34,775 25 23 18 409 468 460 31 28 ASIA 1,402,725 3,186,446 3,457,957 4,959.987 1.9 1.6 1.4 52,331 54,302 53,473 Alghanislan, lslamicStale 8.958 15045 20.141 45.262 (20) 56 27 (3091 1.019 759 (1.U) 64 Armenia 1.362 3.352 3.599 4.724 10 14 10 32 49 39 1 1 13 Azerbaljan 2.890 7.117 7,558 10.106 16 12 10 100 88 76 21 17 Bangladesh 41.783 106.118 120,433 196.126 22 22 20 2.067 2.463 2,874 27 29 B:hutan 734 1.544 1.638 3,136 21 1 2 23 28 19 45 1 9 1 4 Cambodia 4,346 86841 10,251 19686 3.0 30 23 213 262 264 25 23 China 554,760 1.155.305 1,221.462 1526.106 1.4 1 1 08 14.2b0 13.231 10,54J 22 1 2 Geotrg.aRyep 3,726 5,418 5.457 6122 0.8 01 04 41 8 21 10 03 India 357.561 850,638 935.744 1392.086 2.2 1 9 1 6 15.866 17.021 17.040 20 1 9 Indonesia 79,538 162,812 197,586 275596 21 16 13 3,275 2955 2,684 25 21 Iran. IslarncRep 16.913 58,946 67.283 123549 44 27 25 1932 1.667 1991 39 29 Iraq 5,158 18,078 20.449 42656 33 25 28 462 474 713 37 35 Israel 1,258 4,660 5629 7.806 18 38 13 71 194 64 21 3.3 Japan 83,625 123.537 125.095 121.594 0 7 03 01 806 312 159 1 1 05 Jordan 1,237 4,259 5.439 12039 54 49 3.0 182 236 211 51 48 Kazakhstan, Rep 6.756 16.670 17.111 21748 1 1 05 08 175 88 149 14 1 1 Korea.DemPeoplesRep 9.726 21.774 23917 33386 17 19 1.3 326 429 337 36 20 Korea. Rep 20.357 42,669 44 995 54 418 1.4 1 0 0.8 536 425 394 2 5 1 6 Kuwaln 152 2.143 1.547 2.805 45 1651 2.5 69 Ill1) 48 55 (23) Kyrgyz Rep 12749 4362 4.745 7128 20 1 7 1.5 75 /7 82 21 21 Lao Peoples Dem Rep 1.755 4,202 4.882 9.688 2 3 3.0 2 6 78 1.36 153 1 8 22 Lebarion 1.443 2.555 3.009 4,424 10 0) 3 3 1 5 10) 91 49 0 7 3 2 Malaysia 6110 17.891 201140 31.577 26 2.4 1 7 343 450 406 28 27 Mongolia 761 2 177 2,410 3,827 2 8 20 1 9 49 47 52 2.9 2.9 Myanmar 17 832 41813 46 527 75,564 21 21 19 745 943 1.011 1.7 1.8 Nepal 7974 19.253 21.918 40,693 26 2.6 24 420 533 626 2.4 2.5 Oman 456 1.751 2.163 6,094 48 4.2 37 59 82 107 4.5 3.7 Pakistan 39513 121.933 140.497 264.827 37 2.8 27 3.436 3.713 4.657 3.6 3.0 Philippmes 203988 60.779 67.581 104,522 25 2 1 1 8 1270 1.360 1.384 23 2.3 Saudi Arabia 3.201 16.048 17.860 42.651 55 22 31 609 366 720 66 2.1 Singapore 1.022 2705 2,848 3355 12 1 0 06 29 29 19 18 0.8 Sn Lanka 7.678 17.225 18,354 25,031 1 7 1 3 1 1 259 226 221 1 5 1 7 Synan Arab Rep 3.495 12.348 14.661 33,505 35 34 32 329 463 599 3.6 41 Taflkistan Rep 1.558 5,287 6,101 11,792 2.8 29 25 121 163 164 32 32 Thailand 20.010 55.583 50,791 73,564 1 8 1 1 09 882 642 554 23 1 3 Turkey 20,809 56,098 61,945 90.937 2.5 20 15 1181 1,169 1.070 26 20 Turkmenislan, Rep 1,212 3.657 4.099 6.650 2.4 23 19 72 88 91 29 29 United Arab Eminates 70 1,671 1,904 2958 6.1 26 18 73 47 39 43 16 Uzbekistan, Rep 6.376 20,420 22,943 37.678 2.6 2 2 2 0 435 485 527 3 0 2 9 VietNam 29,954 66,689 74,545 118.151 2.2 22 19 1.237 1571 1.614 27 27 Yemen. Rep 4.316 11.311 14.501 33.676 31 50 31 276 638 562 40 51 OCEANIA 12,612 26,428 28,549 41,027 1.5 1.5 1.3 354 424 415 Australia 8,219 16,888 16,063 24667 1 4 1 4 1 1 214 240 215 1 9 1.4 Fpi 269 726 784 1.161 20 15 1 5 13 12 13 X X New Zealand 1,908 3.360 3.575 4.376 06 12 06 27 43 31 13 13 Papua New Guinea 1613 3.839 4302 7532 22 23 21 71 93 109 18 19 SolomonIslands 90 320 378 844 35 33 31 9 12 15 X X Sources. Unted Nabons Populabon Division and International Labour Office Notes Wodd and regional totals include countries not listed here 0 = zero or less than hall the unit ol measure: X not avaliable. negative numbers ale shown in parentheses For additional information. see Sources and Technical Notes. Wurld Resou.rc-es I 996-97 191 Data Table 8.2 Trends in Births, Life Expectancy, Fertility, and Age Structure, 1970-95 Crude Birth Rate Life Expectancy Percentage of Population (births per 1,000 at Birth in Specific Aoe Groups 1ooouation) (years) Total Fertility Rate 1975 1995 1970-75 1990-9S 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 <15 15-65 >65 <15 15-65 >65 WORLD 30.9 25.0 57.9 64.7 4.5 3.1 36.9 57.5 5.6 31.5 62.0 6.5 AFRICA 46.5 41.9 46.0 52.6 6.6 5.8 44.6 52.2 3.1 44.0 52.6 3.2 Algeria 48.0 29.1 545 6nil :4 3.9 47.6 48.2 4.2 38.7 57.7 3.8 A!-gola 49.0 51 3 360 465 b 7.2 44.2 52.9 3.0 471 50.0 2.9 ejim 49 4 48 7 40 0 47 6 I1 7 1 44 8 51.6 3.6 47 4 49.7 2.8 Botswai a 48 .b 37.1 532 64 9 b 6 4.9 50 1 47 8 2.1 43.2 54.3 2.4 Burkria Faso 47.8 468 412 4i4 _ 64 685 44.0 53.3 2.8 449 52.0 3.1 Bululrdi 44 5I 46 0 440 Su 2 6 8 6.8 45.5 51.1 3 5 48.3 50.8 3.0 Cain.is l 453 40 5 458 5840 S 57 434 53.1 36 44.0 52.4 3.6 Central Alnan Hep 431 41.5 43.6 494 S, 57 406 55.5 3.9 42.7 534 4.0 Chad 446 43 39.0 47i 5.o 5.9 41.7 54.7 3.6 43.4 530 3.6 Congo 461 447 4687 513 63 683 444 52.2 35 45.6 510 34 Cote d olsoie 51 1 49 9 45.4 51 3 74 7.4 45.8 51 8 2.4 49.1 48.2 2.6 Egypt 38 4 29.3 52.1 63.6 s 5 3 4 40.0 558 4.2 38.0 57 8 42 EqaltoroI Guirnea 42 4 43 5 40.5 48 . b , 5.9 40.0 55.6 4.4 43.3 52 8 40 Erinre> 46.1 43.0 44.3 5 .4 b.2 5.8 44.6 52 9 2.5 44.0 53.1 2 9 Ethiopia 49.3 48 5 41 0 4; 0 6 8 7.0 45.8 51 6 2.6 46.4 50.8 2.9 Gaboo 35.9 37.3 45.0 53 5 4.3 5.3 32.3 61 9 5.8 39 2 55.1 5.8 Gamiia. The 49.2 43.i 37 0 45 u e 5 5.6 42.0 54.9 2.9 41.3 55.8 2.9 Gh.iia 45.8 41.7 500 560 oC 6.0 454 51.9 2.7 45.3 51.8 2.9 GuiUa 51. 5'G6 323 445 i.6 7.0 45.3 52.0 2.6 471 50.3 2.6 GuirBissau 414 42.7 365 435 54 58 38.1 58.2 3.8 41 7 54.2 4.1 Kenya 529 445 51.0 So 81 6.3 49.1 47.2 37 47.7 494 2.9 Lesoth, 424 369 504 6C85 5 52 41 7 54.8 36 42.1 53.9 4.0 Libena 481 47 3 475 5b4 b 6 8 44 0 52.3 3 7 4680 50 4 3.7 Libya 49.5 41 9 52.9 ef.i 7.6 64 46.0 51.7 2.2 45.4 520 26 Madagasrar 47.2 43.9 46.5 56.5 bb6 6.1 44.7 52.4 29 46.1 51 1 2.8 Islalawi 566 505 41.0 45.> 4 72 47.2 50.6 22 46.7 50.5 2.7 Mal, 51 o 5038 38.5 46.0 <.1 7.1 46.0 51 5 25 47.4 50 0 2.5 Maun6ta ia 45.6 398 43.5 bl o 6.5 54 43.3 538 3.0 43.1 537 32 Mauritius 26.1 20.8 62.9 i7 2 .3 3 2 4 39.7 57 6 2.8 27.7 66 4 5 8 Munocoo 45.6 29.1 52 9 63.3 6.9 3.8 47.2 49.2 3.7 36.1 59.8 4.1 Mozaambique 45.1 45.2 42.5 46 4 n b 6.5 43.8 53 0 3.1 44.7 52.0 3.2 Na .iDba 42.5 37 0 48. 8 b6.8 o.5 5.3 42.9 53 7 3.4 41 9 54.4 3.7 Niger 59.8 52.5 390 465 b 1 7 4 46.4 512 2.4 48 4 49.2 2.4 Nigniia 46 3 45.4 43 5 5 4 o 6.5 44 9 52 6 2.5 45.6 51.7 2.8 H.watda 52.9 44.1 446 472 62 6.6 482 49.4 2.4 46.0 51.5 2.5 Seoiegal 49.2 43.0 403 4as ,6 6 1 448 52.4 2.8 446 52.5 2.9 S e,ir Leone 48.9 491 35 0 39.6 6 b 5 5 42.5 54.4 3 1 44 2 52.8 3.0 Somalia 501 u02 410 476 :5 70 45.4 51.6 3.0 47.5 49.8 2.7 South Allica 39b 31 2 5i 9 629 bb 4.1 409 55.2 3.8 37.3 58.3 4.4 SW.,, 47 0 39 8 43 53 0 6 5 7 44 4 52.8 2 7 43.8 53.3 2.9 Swazilanld 47 5 38 b 47.3 b- . o. 49 45.6 51.5 2.9 43.0 54.4 2.7 Tal,zonia 49 6 43 1 46.6 bŽ 1 b 5 S 9 47.9 49.8 2.3 45.9 51 6 2 6 Togo 456 445 455 590 bSb 66 44.2 52.7 31 45.7 51 1 32 Tunisia 3: 1 256 5.b8 618 . 32 43.8 52.7 35 34.9 60.7 4.4 Ugarnda 503 518 46.5 44.9 6 73 47.4 50.1 25 48.8 48.8 2.4 Zar,e 41.7 476 46.1 5 oS 6.3 45.3 520 2.8 48.0 49.1 2.9 Zarrnba 49.1 44.6 4/ 3 48.9 I 6.0 46.5 50.9 2.6 47.4 502 74 Zilnbabwe 48.6 39.1 51.5 53. :2 5.0 49.0 48.4 2.6 44.1 53.1 28 EUROPE 15.6 11.6 70.6 72.9 2.1 1.6 23.7 64.8 11.4 19.2 67.0 13.8 Alba'ioa 31 9 23.8 677 u 2 .9 39.9 55 6 4.5 31 4 63.1 5.5 AUotria 13.7 1 1.9 70.6 :b2 7 1.S 23.2 61.9 14.9 17 8 67.3 14.9 Belarus, Rep 15.8 12.0 715 b98 2 17 256 64.5 10.0 216 65.8 12.6 Bolgoi, 13.6 12 1 714 /04 1 i 16 222 63.9 13.9 17.8 66.4 15.8 Bosnriaa,rdHerzegovila 21.3 13.4 674 1Ž4 26 1.6 3039 63.7 5.5 22.2 70.0 7.8 Bil5aria 16.2 10.3 71.2 12 2 15 220 67.1 10.9 18.3 67.1 145 Cioalia, Rep Sn 1 3 69.6 714 o 17 21.5 675 11.0 191 68.2 12.8 CzecnRep 173 129 700 i1 22 18 22.3 64.8 129 194 68.1 12.5 Deeisark 145 125 73 6 /b 3 2o 17 22 6 64.0 13 4 17 2 67.6 15.2 Estoira, Rap 154 110 705 693 22 16 218 66.0 122 20.6 66.6 12.8 Fhlidsd 132 131 757 i5 1 19 220 674 10.6 19.1 66.8 14 i Fiance 16: ls 724 l6s 2.3 17 23.9 62.6 13.5 19.6 65.5 149 Geoorrai:y 114 99 71.0 io 1.6 13 21.5 63.6 148 16.1 687 152 "J`eone ISs 99 72.3 76 23 14 23.9 63.9 122 16.7 674 15.9 Hungary _ 157 117 8 693_ 683 - 17 20.3 670 128 18.1 67.9 14.0 sela d 210 1;6 74.3 /8.2 28 22 303 81.0 92 24.5 643 112 rdlaId 22 1 14 7 71.3 73 38 21 31.2 578 11.0 24.4 64.3 112 Italy 16.1 98 ;21 1.5 13 24.2 637 12.0 15.1 68.9 160 Latvia Rep 14.4 I115 70.1 69.1 2u 16 21.1 662 12.7 20.6 681 13.3 LitnhaHia. Rep 16.6 13.5 71.3 704 23 1.6 25.5 63.4 1.1 21.9 660 12.2 Macedonial fonme, Yugossla Rep 23.8 15.5 67.5 71.8 3.U 2.0 30.7 63.1 6.1 24.4 67 5 82 Moldowa.Rep 18.5 160 64.8 6:.6 .b 2.1 28.9 64.3 6.8 26.4 644 93 Netherlands 15.4 13.0 74U. 77.4 2 6 25.3 639 10.8 18.4 68.4 13.2 Norway 16.8 14.2 74.4 76.9 5.3 9 23.8 625 13.7 19.5 64.7 15.9 Polaiid Rep 17.8 13.2 70 4 71.1 2 3 9 240 66 4 9.5 22 9 66 1 11.0 Porugal 195 12.0 680 74.6 26 1 6 27.9 62.2 9.9 188 67.0 14.1 oorania 19.3 11.3 690 699 26 5 25.2 65.2 9.6 204 67.7 11.8 Russiar Fedeiatln 15.2 109 682 6/6 2u 15 233 67.8 8.9 21 1 66.9 12.1 Sisoak Rep 19. 14.3 750 0 ou 9 sb 19 26 2 64.3 9.6 22.9 66.3 10.8 Slonnia. Rep 16.7 10.5 698 72 6 2 2 15 23 7 65.3 11.0 18.3 69.2 12.4 Spain 19.5 9.7 72.9 77.6 2.9 12 27.6 62.4 10.0 16.5 68.6 14.9 Sweden 136 141 747 782 1. 21 20.7 642 15.1 190 63.7 173 Switeodand 142 126 39 7580 18 16 224 65.0 126 177 68.1 142 Ukrainn 144 114 701 694 sO 16 230 66.5 155 20.1 65.9 140 bUrInd Kiiigdom 145 135 i2s /2 z s 1.8 233 62.7 140 19.6 65.0 155 Yugoslavia. Fed Rep 185 142 686 720 24 20 246 66.2 92 22.0 66.6 11.4 192 World Resources 1996-97 Data Table 8.2 continued Crude Birth Rate Life Expectancy Percentage of Population (births per 1,000 at Birth In Specific Age Groups Pulation) (I urs) Total Fertility Rate 1975 1996 1970-75 1990-96 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 <15 15-65 >65 <15 15-65 >65 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 22.8 20.2 68.6 74.1 3.1 2.5 31.2 60.5 8.4 27.0 63.5 9.8 BeIze 40.2 347 67.6 73.6 6.3 4.2 470 485 4.5 423 53.5 42 Canada 16.0 15.1 73.1 77.4 2.0 1 9 26.1 654 8.4 208 67.3 11.8 CostaR,ca 31.5 26.3 681 76.3 43 3.1 422 544 3.4 35.0 60.4 4.7 Cuba 26.7 16.9 70.9 753 36 18 373 55.9 6.7 229 68.2 8.9 DominicanRep 38.8 27.0 599 686 5.6 3.1 453 51.6 30 35.1 609 4.0 El Salvador 428 335 58.7 664 61 40 459 51.2 29 407 552 4.1 Guatemala 446 38.7 540 648 6.5 54 457 51.5 28 44.3 52.2 35 Hait 38 6 35.3 48.5 56 6 5 8 4 8 41 1 54 3 4.6 40.2 55 9 3 9 Honduras 46 9 371 54 1 67 7 7 1 4 9 48 0 494 2 6 43.8 53 1 3 1 Jamaica 325 217 68.6 73.6 5.0 24 45.2 490 58 30.8 826 66 Meaco 42 4 27 7 62.9 70.8 6.4 3 2 46.3 49 8 3.9 35.9 59 9 4 2 Nicaragua 47 2 40.5 55.3 68.7 6.8 5.0 48.0 49 5 2.5 46 0 50.9 3 1 Pananna 35 6 25 0 66.4 72.8 4.9 2.9 42.9 52 9 4.3 33 4 614 5.2 TnrnidadandTobago 27.0 20.9 65.7 71.6 3.5 2.4 380 570 4.9 323 62.0 57 UntedStlaes 15.7 15.9 71.3 76.0 2.0 2.1 25.2 643 10.5 220 85.3 12.8 SOUTH AMERICA 32.9 24.8 50.7 68.5 4.6 3.0 39.5 56.3 4.3 32.7 61.9 5.5 Argentina 234 20.4 67.2 721 32 28 292 83.2 76 287 618 9.5 Bolivia 45.2 35.7 46 7 59 4 6 5 4 8 43 0 53.5 3.4 40.6 55 6 3.8 Brazil 33 6 24.6 59 8 66.3 4 7 2 9 401 56.2 3 7 32 3 62 5 5.2 Chile 275 219 635 738 36 25 370 57.7 5.3 295 63.8 6.6 Colombia 32 6 24 0 617 69 3 4.7 2.7 43 1 53.4 3.5 32.9 62 6 4 5 Ecuador 406 283 58.9 68.8 60 35 43.8 52.1 40 36.4 592 4.4 Guyana 350 25.1 600 65.2 49 26 44.1 522 37 32.2 637 4.0 Paraguay 36.6 33 0 65.6 70.0 5.7 4.3 44.3 52.2 3 5 40.3 55.9 3.8 Pem 40.5 27 3 55.5 66.0 6.0 3.4 43.2 53.2 3.5 35.1 60 8 41 Suarname 34 6 25.3 64.0 70.3 5.3 2.7 47.8 486 3.8 35 0 60.0 50 Uruguay 21.1 17.1 68.8 72.5 3.0 2.3 27.7 627 9.6 24.4 63.3 12.3 Venezuela 35.1 27.4 68.0 71.7 4.9 33 433 53.6 3.1 36.2 59.7 41 ASIA 33.9 25.2 56.3 64.6 5.1 3.0 39.9 55.9 4.2 32.0 62.7 5.3 Afgha irslan Islamic State 51.6 50.2 38.0 435 7.1 69 438 539 24 408 56.4 2.8 Amenria 223 207 725 726 3.0 2.6 343 59.8 58 29.6 63.0 7.4 Azerbarian 27.0 22.5 69.0 70.6 43 25 40 0 54.4 56 31 8 62.3 5.9 Bangladesh 485 355 449 55.6 70 44 459 50.5 36 39.5 575 3.1 Bhutan 41 6 39.6 40 7 50.7 59 5.9 39 9 58.8 32 41.1 55 5 3.5 Cambocda 399 435 40.3 516 5.5 53 416 556 2.2 44.9 524 26 China 283 18.5 632 68.5 48 2.0 39.5 561 44 26.4 675 6.1 Georgia Rep 187 159 69.2 728 2.6 21 28.4 631 85 23.7 648 114 lIdia 38.2 291 50.3 60.4 5.4 3.8 39.8 56 4 3.8 35 2 60 2 4 6 Indonesra 382 247 49.3 62.7 5.1 2.9 42.0 54.8 32 33.0 82.7 4.3 Iran Islamic Rep 44.1 35.5 55.9 67.5 6.5 5.0 45.4 513 3.3 435 52.6 39 Iraq 47.4 381 57.0 6650 7 1 527 48 6 50.9 2.5 43 6 53.5 3.0 Israel 27.4 21.2 716 76.5 38 2.9 329 594 7.8 291 61.4 9.5 Japan 19.2 10.1 7353 795 21 15 243 67.8 79 162 69.6 14.1 Jordan 50.0 35.9 56 6 67.9 7 8 5 6 47 2 50.0 2.8 43 3 54 0 2.7 Kazakhstna Rep 259 198 644 696 3.5 25 34.6 59.7 57 298 63.2 7.0 Korea DemPeoplesRep 358 241 615 71.1 57 24 451 51.7 31 291 663 48 Korea. Rep 28.8 164 62.6 71 1 41 17 377 58.6 36 23.6 70.8 56 Kuwait 44 4 24 2 67.3 74.9 6 9 31 44 4 54.0 1.6 39.8 58 5 17 KyrgyzRep 31.1 290 631 69.0 47 37 399 542 59 37.1 571 58 Lao People's Dem Rep 44 4 45 2 40.4 51.0 6 2 6.7 42 1 55 3 2 7 44.8 52 2 3.0 Lebanon 321 269 65.0 58.5 4.9 3.1 41.2 539 50 34.1 604 55 Malaysia 34 7 25 8 63.0 70.8 5.2 3 6 42.1 54 2 3.7 38 0 581 3.9 Mongola 41.5 27.2 53.8 63.7 5.8 3.6 437 534 29 380 585 34 Myarnar 39.9 32.5 49.8 57.6 5.8 4.2 40.7 55 4 3.8 37 4 58.5 4 1 Nepal 45.6 39.2 43 3 53.5 6.3 5.4 42 3 54 5 3.2 42.4 54.2 3 4 Oman 49.6 43.6 49.0 68 6 7.2 7 2 44 6 52 5 2.7 47 5 49.9 2.6 Pakistan 47.5 40.9 50 6 61.5 7 0 6.2 45.5 516 30 443 52.7 3.0 Philippines 38.4 30.4 578 663 5.5 39 436 53.8 2.7 383 583 3.4 Saudi Arabia 47 6 351 53.9 68 7 7 3 6.4 44 3 52.7 3 0 41 9 55 4 2.7 Singapore 21.2 159 69.5 748 2.6 17 328 63.1 41 227 705 6.7 Sr, Lanka 28 9 20 7 65 0 71.9 4.0 2.5 39.4 56.6 41 30.7 63 5 5 8 Synan Arab Rep 466 41 1 570 67.1 77 59 485 47.8 37 47.3 499 28 Talikislan. Rep 39 7 36 8 63 4 70 2 6.8 4 9 45 4 49 9 4 7 43.1 52 6 4 3 Thailand 351 194 596 690 50 21 44.9 52.1 3.0 28.3 667 50 Turkey 345 273 57.9 66.5 50 3.4 40.1 554 45 33.9 61 1 50 Turkmenistan. Rep 37 1 31 9 60.8 85.0 6.2 4.0 43.5 52 1 4.5 39 5 58 4 4 2 Unred Arab Emirales 33.0 232 62.5 73.8 6.4 4.2 28.1 697 20 31 3 670 1 7 Uzbekistan. Rep 35.7 315 54.1 69.2 6.0 3.9 43.3 51 1 5.5 399 55.6 44 Vilet Nam 37.6 30.7 50.3 65.2 5.9 3.9 43 7 52 3 4.0 37 5 57.7 4 9 Yemen. Rep 53.2 49.4 421 50.2 7 6 7.6 50 9 46 5 2.6 49 7 50.9 2 4 OCEANIA 23.9 19.2 66.6 73.0 3.2 2.5 31.1 61.5 7.5 26.0 64.4 9.5 Australia 196 14.8 717 776 25 19 276 63.7 87 216 66.8 11.6 Fpy 325 237 65.1 715 4.2 30 399 57.5 26 346 615 3.8 NewZealand 20.8 17.3 717 75.5 28 22 300 61.3 87 23.4 653 113 PapuaNewDGumea 41.0 334 477 558 61 51 420 549 31 39.5 575 2.9 Solomon IsUnds 47 2 37 5 62 0 70 4 7 2 5 4 47 9 48.9 3 2 44.2 52 9 2 9 Source United Nations Population Divrsion. Notes World and Rogional Totals Include countacs not listed here 0 _ zero or less than haH Ihe unit ot measure. For addrtoial inlormaton see Sources and Technical Notes. World Resouirces 1996-97 193 Data Table 8.3 Mortality and Nutrition, 1970-95 Estimated and Projected Nutritional Status Under-S Maternal Wasting Stunting Calories Crude Death Rate Infant Mortality Mortality Rate Mortality Rate Ipercentage (percentage Available (as Total Expenditume (per 1.000 Rate (per 1,000 (per 1.000 (per 100.000 of children of children percentage on Health (as population) live births) live births) live births) under age S) under age S) of need) percentage of GDP) 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 1990-95 1960 1980 1993 1980-92 1980-91 1980-91 1988-90 1990 WORLD 11.7 9.3 93 64 AFRICA 19.2 13.7 131 93 Algera 154 64 132 55 243 145 68 140a 6 18 123 70 Angola 260 192 173 124 345 261 292 X X X 80 X Benin 25.7 178 136 86 310 176 144 160 X X 104 4.3 Botswana 13.6 6.6 88 43 170 94 56 250 X 44 97 X BurkmaaFaso 24.6 1S2 173 '32 3 8 218 175 &5C 13 29 94 8.5 Burundi 20.2 157 137 102 255 193 178 X 6 a 48 a 84 3.3 Camreon 19.5 122 19 63 264 173 113 430 3 24 95 2.6 Cvntra Arican Rep 21 6 167 ,32 102 294 202 177 603 X X 82 42 Chad 24.9 18.0 166 122 325 254 2u6 960 X X 73 63 Congo 189 '4.9 95 '4 220 125 1to 900 S 27 103 X Cole dNoire 19.4 15.1 129 92 300 180 120 X 9 17 111 33 Egypt 163 8.1 150 67 258 180 S9 270 3 24 132 2.6 Eqealonaiou.nea 241 18.0 157 117 316 243 X X X X X X Edtea 19.7 15.2 136 125 0 X 204 6 X 6 X Ethiopia 229 180 154 119 294 260 204 560 a 8 a 64 a 73 38 Gabon 20.2 15.5 132 94 287 194 154 190 X X 104 X Gambia.The 26.7 188 179 132 375 278 X X X X X X Ghana 15.8 11Z 107 81 215 157 170 1000 7 31 93 3s Gea 268 203 77 134 337 276 226 800 X X 97 39 Guinea Bissau 26 7 213 183 140 336 290 235 720 a X X 97 X Kenya 17 3 117 98 69 202 112 90 170 a 6 33 89 43 Lesotho 19.3 10.0 130 79 204 173 1S6 X S 26 93 X Liberia 196 142 182 126 288 235 217 X 3 a 37 a 98 X Libya 148 8.1 117 68 269 150 100 70 a X X 140 X Madagascar 190 118 172 93 364 216 164 570 S 51 95 2.6 MalaMi 23.5 200 191 143 365 290 223 400 5 49 88 5.0 Malt 25.4 191 203 169 400 310 217 2.000 t1 a 24 a 96 52 Mauntana 21.6 144 42 T01 321 249 '02 X 16 57 106 X Maurius 7.0 6.6 55 18 84 42 22 99 16 22 128 X Moroo 15.7 81 122 68 215 145 S9 330 2 23 125 2 6 Mozamuque 217 18.5 '68 146 331 269 282 300 X X 77 5.9 Namibia 16.6 10.5 113 60 206 114 79 370 a 9 28 X X Niger 252 18.9 167 124 320 320 320 700 16 32 95 50 Nigena 722 15i4 tl 94 204 19t 191 800 9 43 93 2.7 Rwanda 205 16.7 142 110 l91 222 141 210 4 48 82 3.5 Senegal 23.9 160 122 68 303 221 120 600 9 22 98 3.7 Sierra Leone 292 252 193 166 385 301 284 450 9 a 35 83 24 Somalia 23.6 185 155 122 294 246 211 t100 0 X 81 1.5 Sceth Arnca 138 88 76 53 126 91 69 84 a X X 128 5.6 Sudan 19.8 13 1 110 78 292 210 128 566 14 32 87 3.3 Swaziland 180 10.7 133 75 733 151 X X X X X X Tanzania 185 136 125 65 249 202 107 340 a 6 47 X 47 Togo 19.4 12.8 129 85 264 175 135 420 5 a 30 a 99 41 Tumsia 123 64 120 43 244 102 36 70 3 a 18 a 131 49 Uganda 185 192 116 115 218 181 185 960 2 45 93 34 Zaire 18.9 14.5 127 93 286 204 197 800 5 a 43 a 96 2.4 ZamtAa 180 151 109 104 220 16) 203 150 5 40 87 32 Zimtoatnwe 15.1 120 93 67 181 125 83 X 1 a 29 a 94 6.2 EUROPE 10.1 11.2 25 12 Albana 69 58 58 30 151 57 41 X X X 107 X Aesina 12.8 10.8 24 7 43 17 8 8 X X 133 85 a Belarus Rep 6 8 1 1 6 21 16 X X 22 X X X X X Belgum 121 10.9 19 6 35 15 1t 3 X X 149 8.1 a BosniaandHerzego-na 6.9 7.0 hI Is X X X x X X X X Bulgafia 97 127 26 14 70 25 19 9 X X 148 54 a Croasa. Rep 105 118 27 9 X X X X X X X X CzechRep 134 131 20 9 X X 10 X X X X X Denmark 0.0 120 12 7 25 10 7 3 X X 135 7.0 a Estonia.Rep 110 129 21 16 X X 23 X X X X X Fniand 9.5 103 12 5 28 9 5 IS 0 X 113 89 d Franoe 106 96 16 7 34 13 9 9 X X 143 91 a Gerrnany 24 116 21 6 4C 16 7 0 X X X 9 a Greece 8.6 98 34 10 64 23 10 5 X X 151 48 a Hungary 118 146 34 Is 57 26 tO 15 X X 137 6.0 a Iceland 70 7.t 12 s 22 4 X X X X X 8 3 a Ireland It° 9.0 18 7 36 14 7 2 X X 157 80 a Italy 98 9.9 26 8 50 17 9 4 x x 139 8.3 a Lam,,. Rep 1 32 21 14 X X 26 X x X X X Lrhueaia Rep 8 9 11 3 22 13 X X 20 X X X X X Macedonia. tormer Yugoslav Rep 7.8 7.3 74 27 X X X X X X X X Moldova.ReP 10.2 10.5 37 25 X X 36 X X X X X Netherands 8.3 88 12 7 22 11 8 10 X X 114 87 a Norway 10.0 109 12 8 23 11 8 3 X X 120 8.4 a Polarnd Rep 8.3 10 5 27 15 70 24 15 11 X X 131 5 1 a Potugal 105 10.5 45 10 112 31 11 10 X x 136 62 a Romana 9.4 11.1 40 23 82 36 29 72 X X 116 3 9 a RussanFederajon 91 12.4 28 21 X X 31 X X X X X SlovakRe"o 106 10.6 24 12 X X 18 X X X X X Slovena.Rep 102 10.8 22 8 X X X X X X X X Spain 83 9.0 21 7 57 16 9 5 x X 141 6.5 a Sweden 10.4 113 tO 5 20 9 6 5 X X 111 8.8 a Swilzerland 9.0 94 13 6 27 11 8 5 X 136 80 a UMraine 9.2 13.2 22 16 X X 75 X X X x X UndiledKingdom 11 7 114 17 7 27 14 8 8 X X 130 6.6 a Yugcsgania, Fed Rep 9.3 9.6 47 20 X X X X X X X X 194 Wri)rld Rcrsujrtceos /')996-9 Data Table 8.3 continued Estimated and Proected Nutitional Status Under-5 Maternal Wasting Stunting Calories Crude Death Rate Infant Mortality Mortality Rate Mortality Rate (percentage (percentage Available (as Total Expenditure (per 1,000 Rate (per 1.000 (pes 1,000 (per 100.000 of children of children percentage on Health (as population) live births) live births) live births) under age 5) under age 5) of need) percentage of GDP) 1970-75 1990-95 1970-75 199Dg9- 1960 1980 1993 1980-92 1980-91 1980-91 1988-90 1990 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 9.2 7.8 36 19 Belize 7 3 4 8 52 33 X X X X X X X X Canada 74 76 16 7 33 13 8 5 X X 122 99 a CostaRica 58 3.7 53 14 112 29 16 36 2 8 121 X Cuba 6 6 6 8 38 12 50 26 10 39 1 X 135 X Dominican Rep 99 56 94 42 152 94 48 X 1 19 102 3.7 ElSalvador 109 71 99 46 210 120 60 X 5 30 102 59 Guatemala 13.4 77 95 48 205 136 73 200 1 a 58 a 103 37 Ha,b 178 119 135 86 270 195 130 600 9 a 40 a 89 70 Honduras 134 61 104 43 203 100 56 220 2 34 98 45 Jami-ca 8.2 62 42 14 76 39 13 120 3 9 114 X Mesco 92 53 68 36 141 81 32 110 6 22 X 32 Nicaragua 12 7 6 8 100 52 209 143 72 X 1 22 99 8 6 Panama 75 53 43 25 104 31 20 60 6 22 98 X TnnidadandTobago 77 61 42 18 73 40 21 110 4 a 5 a 114 X Uniled States 92 8.8 18 9 30 15 10 8 X X 138 133 a SOUTH AMERICA 9.7 7.1 84 48 Argentina 9 0 8 2 48 24 68 41 27 140 X X 131 4 2 Bolivia 190 102 151 75 252 170 114 600 2 a 38 a 84 40 BraLil z7 75 91 58 181 93 63 200 2 16 114 42 Coile 89 57 69 16 136 35 17 35 1 a 10 a 102 47 Colomnia 8.6 60 73 37 132 59 19 200 3 17 106 40 Ecuador 11 5 62 95 50 180 101 57 170 2 34 105 4 1 Guyana 10.3 71 79 48 126 88 X X X X X X Paraguay 7.2 55 55 38 90 61 34 300 0 17 116 28 Peru 12 8 6 9 110 64 236 130 62 300 1 37 87 32 Sunname 7 5 5 8 49 28 96 52 X X X X X X Us.guay 101 10 3 46 20 47 42 21 36 31 16 101 4 6 Venezuela 6.5 4 7 49 23 70 42 24 31 2 6 99 3 6 ASIA 11.4 8.4 98 65 Afghanistan. slamic State 260 21 8 194 163 360 280 257 640 X X 72 X Armenia 5.7 6 5 22 21 X X 33 X X X X X Azerbailan 6.9 6 4 35 28 X X 52 X X X X X Bangladesh 208 117 140 108 247 211 122 600 16 a 65 a 88 32 Bhutan 22 6 15 3 178 124 324 249 197 1310 4 56 128 X Cambodia 225 143 181 116 217 330 161 500 X X 96 X Chna 6.3 72 61 44 209 65 43 95 4 a 32 a 112 35 Georgia. Rep 9.2 8 9 33 19 X X 28 X X X X X India 158 100 132 89 236 177 122 460 X 65 a 101 60 Indonesia 173 84 114 58 216 128 Il1 450 X X 121 20 1an. lslamc Rep 145 67 122 36 233 126 54 120 X X 125 26 Iraq 14 6 6 7 96 58 171 83 71 120 3 22 128 X Israel 71 69 23 9 39 19 9 3 X X 125 42 a Japan 66 76 12 4 40 11 6 11 X X 125 68 a Jordan 144 55 82 36 149 66 27 46 a 3 19 110 38 Kazakhstan Rep 92 75 50 30 X X 49 X X X X X Korea Dem Peoples Rep 83 53 47 24 120 43 32 41 X X 121 X Korea Rep 89 62 38 11 124 18 9 26 X X 120 66 Kuwada 5 0 21 43 18 128 35 13 6 3 12 X X Kygyz Rep 10 4 6 9 59 35 X X 58 X X X X X LaoPeoplesDemRep 227 152 145 97 233 190 141 300 11 40 111 25 Leaanon 9.3 71 48 34 91 62 40 X X X 127 X Maaysra 68 5 1 42 13 105 42 17 59 X X 120 30 Mongor,a 131 74 98 60 185 112 78 200 2 a 26 a 97 X Myarmnar 161 11.1 122 84 237 146 111 460 X X 114 X Nepal 211 13.3 153 99 279 177 128 830 14 a 69 a 100 45 Oman 20 0 4 8 145 30 300 95 29 X X X XX PakisIan 177 93 140 91 221 151 137 50o 9 50 99 3.4 Philppnes 102 64 71 44 102 70 59 100 6 37 104 20 SaudrArasa 169 47 105 29 292 90 38 41 X X 120 4.8 Smgapore 51 57 19 6 40 13 6 10 4 a 11 a 136 19 Sr, Lanka 81 5 8 56 18 130 52 19 80 18 36 101 3 7 SyrianArabRep 121 58 88 39 201 73 39 140 X X 126 21 Taeibstar. Rep 98 61 74 48 X X 83 X X X X X Thailand 9 3 61 65 37 146 61 33 50 6 a 22 a 103 50 Turkey 116 74 138 65 217 141 84 150 X X 127 4.0 Turkmenistan Rep 103 76 78 57 X X 89 X X X X X Unied Ara) Emirmtes 9 9 2 7 57 19 240 64 21 X X X X X Uzbekistan Rep 9 2 62 63 di X X 66 X X X X X VielNam 143 80 106 42 219 105 48 120 7 60 103 21 Yemen, Rep 221 15.5 194 119 X X X X X X X X OCEANIA 9.6 7.8 41 27 Australia 85 74 17 7 24 13 8 3 X X 124 86 a Fy 6 2 4 5 45 23 97 42 X X X X X X New Zealand 84 84 16 9 26 16 9 13 X X 131 77 a Papua New Guaiea 171 10.7 100 68 248 95 95 900 X X 114 44 Solomon Islands 9 2 4 4 61 27 X X X X X X X X Sources: Unried Nat ons Population Dimsion United Natons Children s Fuid. and the Wood Bank Notes a lirdicates data that refer to years or penods other than those specified in the codumn neading. that differ Iron the slalrdard definrnon. or that refer to only part of a country. 0 -zero or less than half the unit of measure X = not available For additonar Informanon see Sources and Technical Notes. Wor/cl ReKsour: ces 1996-97 195 Data Table 8.4 Education and Child Health, 1970-93 Births Low- Adult Adult Attended Birth- Contraceptive Female Male Gross Prinmary Schood Enrollmrent by Trained ORT[a) Weight Percentage of 1-Year-Olds Pnevalence Literacy Literacy (as percentage of age group) Personnel Use Infants Fully Immunized in 1993 (percent) (percent) (percent) Female Male (percent) (percent) (percent) Against: fb) Any/Modem 1970 1990 1970 1990 1960 1993 1960 1993 1990 19913 1990 TB DPT Polio Measles Method SYORLD X 69 X 82 71 93 c 91 104 c AFRICA X 40 X 62 31 66 c 53 79 c Alge,,a 12 41 39 68 37 97 SS 112 15 27 c 9 87 73 73 69 47143 Angola 7 29 16 56 14 79 30 66 15 438c 19 53 30 28 47 X Benin A 19 17 42 15 46 39 92 45 28 X 88 75 72 67 911 Botswana 31 SS 60 78 43 118 38 112 78 64 8 50 57 57 60 33a32 Burkina Faso 2 7 1 3 26 S 30 12 47 42 IS Z 2 c 72 47 47 42 b14 Burundi 7 19 30 45 1° 62 33 75 1 9 49 X 75 63 64 61 911 Carro 18 44 47 70 37 81 77 94 64 84 13 41 33 33 33 1614 Central Afican Rep S 41 21 60 11 62 50 99 63 24 c 5 90 60 60 69 X Chad 12 29 36 57 4 37 29 78 IS 15 c X 34 13 13 19 X Congo 21 59 49 78 X X X X X 67 c 16 63 60 60 55 X Cote civoire 6 24 25 44 22 58 62 80 50 16 c 14 c 53 50 SO 52 31 Egypi 18 34 47 60 52 89 79 105 41 34 10 95 89 89 89 46145 Equatodal Guinea 29 61 65 86 54 X 92 X X 40 c X X X X X X Enlre X X X X X 41 X 52 X X X 37 28 28 23 X Ethiopla 9 21 24 41 3 19 9 26 14 68 16 46 28 28 22 413 Gabon 14 45 39 63 X X X X 80 25 c X 97 66 66 65 X Garnbia. The 7 20 28 48 10 57 21 81 X 51 X X X X X X Ghan 17 46 45 71 31 69 53 82 59 44 c 17 70 48 47 50 20/10 Guinea 6 18 25 45 9 30 27 61 25 82 21 76 55 55 57 X Guinea-Bissau 17 36 43 63 is 43 35 77 27 26 20 92 45 45 46 X Kenya 27 62 59 82 29 91 62 92 54 69 c 16 95 85 85 76 33/27 Le,solho 34 57 62 78 109 105 73 90 40 42 11 98 80 76 77 23il9 Lbena 7 18 27 49 13 X 40 X 58 15 c X X X X X 6/6 L,bya 11 54 57 84 18 110 70 110 76 80 c X 91 91 91 89 X Madagascar 43 73 56 68 57 72 74 75 56 26 10 62 64 64 52 17/5 Mal~awi 20 37 58 69 26 78 50 86 55 50 20 96 92 92 92 13 7 Mali 4 17 11 32 5 24 13 38 32 41 17 77 46 46 51 5/1 Mauritania 17 24 37 47 3 62 12 76 40 54 c 11 84 44 44 49 311 Mmauritius 55 75 76 65 90 106 98 107 85 0 9 87 88 89 64 7Y149 MoMrco- 9 26 33 52 28 63 69 90 31 14 9 91 86 868 83 42/36 Mozambique 6 18 26 52 43 51 71 69 25 60 20 66 49 49 62 X Narnbia X X X X 48 141 43 138 68 75 12 92 73 79 71 29/26 Niger 1 5 11 18 3 22 a 37 15 17 r5 34 20 20 20 412 Nigena "1 39 32 61 31 83 54 105 37 80 '6 43 29 29 34 6/4 Rwanda 18 44 45 65 29 73 65 75 26 36 17 94 85 85 81 75 Senegal 7 19 24 39 18 50 37 66 46 27 11 69 52 52 46 X Sienra Leone 5 14 22 40 15 39 30 57 25 60 c 17 79 63 63 67 X Somnalia 1 14 5 36 2 X 6 X 2 c 78 c 16 31 c 18 c 18 c 30 c X South Africa 68 79 72 60 X 110 X ill X X X 66 79 79 85 5048 Sudan 9 28 33 53 11 48 29 62 69 47 15 61 51 51 49 916 Swaz,land 44 71 53 74 X 116 X 123 X 65 c X X X X X X Tanzani a 21 49 55 75 16 69 33 71 53 83 c 14 92 62 81 79 1017 Togo 10 30 36 61 25 81 64 122 54 33 20 75 53 53 48 12/3 Tun,sia '7 56 42 73 43 113 88 123 69 22 8 81 93 9e 89 50Y40 Uganda 22 44 53 70 18 X 39 X 38 45 X 99 73 74 73 53 Zaire 28 61 61 83 32 53 89 78 X 46 '5 43 29 29 33 6,2 Zambia 32 65 64 82 40 81 61 87 51 90 13 88 64 62 62 1519 Zimbabwe 53 77 75 BB 65 114 82 123 70 82 14 79 69 69 73 4336 EUROPE X 97 X 99 107 102 c 107 102 c AJbama X X X X 86 97 102 95 99 X 7 82 96 98 76 0 Austna X X X X 104 103 106 103 X X 6 97 90 90 60 71US6 BELarus, Rep X 96 X 99 X 9S X 96 X X X 94 86 91 96 X Belg,um 99 X 99 X 108 100 ill 99 100 X 6 X 85 100 77 79n75 Bosnia and Herzegovina X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X BuMgana X 97 94 99 g12 84 94 87 100 X 6 99 97 99 92 763B Croatia Rep X 95 X 99 X 87 X 87 X X X X X X X X Czech Rep X X X X X 100 X 99 X X X 98 99 99 97 69146 Denmark X X X X 103 919 103 98 10 O X 6 X 88 95 81 76172 Eslone. Rep X 100 X 100 X 83 X 84 X X X 99 79 64 74 X Finland X X X X 95 100 10D 100 100 X 4 99 99 IOO 99 80/78 France 98 X 99 X 143 105 144 107 914 X S 78 89 92 76 80/64 Gemmany X X X X X 97 X 96 99 X X 64 75 90 70 75 72 Greece 76 93 93 98 101 107 104 106 97 X 6 56 54 77 76 X Hungary 98 98 98 X 100 95 103 95 99 X 9 99 100 100 100 73162 laend X X X X X 98 X 1 02 X X X X X X X X Ircelland X X X X 112 106 107 105 X X 4 X 65 63 78 X llaly 99 X 99 X 109 99 112 98 X X 5 6 95 98 50 78632 Latvia Rep X 99 X 100 X 82 X 83 X X X 91 79 83 so X Lhthuania, Rep X 98 X 99 X 90 X 95 X X X 98 92 97 94 X Macedonia, tommer Yugoslav Rep X X X X X 87 X 88 X X X 87 70 94 96 X Muldova. Rep X 94 X 99 X 77 X 78 X X X 96 87 97 92 X Netherawds X X X X 104 98 105 95 100 X X X 97 97 95 80,77 Nonway X X X X 1 oo 99 i00 99 X X 4 95 96 93 94 7W/2 Poland, Rep 97 X 99 99 107 97 110 98 100 X X 94 98 98 96 75,26 Portugal 65 X 78 89 129 127 132 131 90 X 5 92 94 93 99 66i33 Romania X 95 96 98 95 64 101 85 1 OC X 7 99 98 92 91 57/14 RussianFederation X 97 X 99 X 107 X 107 X X X 68 62 69 83 21113 Slovak Rep X X X X X 101 X f0t X X X 91 99 99 96 74,41 Slovenia, Rep X X X X X 97 X 97 X X X X X X X X Spamn 86 X 94 97 116 105 106 104 96 X 4 X 634 85 63 59/38 Swedrfle X X X X 98 100 95 100 100 X S 14 99 99 95 7671 Switzerland X X X X 118 9O 118 88 99 X S X 89 95 83 71/65 Ukraine X 97 X 99 X 59 X 74 X X X 93 88 89 90 X United Kingdom X X X X 92 112 92 ill 100 X 7 75 92 95 92 81/78 Yugoslavia, Fed Rep X 89 X X X 73 X 72 X X X X X X X -55;12 196 Wo)rld Resozrces 1996-97 Data Table 8.4 continued Births Low- Adult Adult Attended Birth- Contraceptive Female Male Gross Primary School Enrollment by Trained ORT{a) Weight Percentage of 1-Year-Olds Prevalence Literacy Literacy (as percentage of age group) Personnel Use Infants Fully Immunized in 1993 (percent) (pcent) (erent) Female Male (Percent) (percent) (percent) Against: 1b1 Any/Modern 1970 1990 1970 1990 1960 1993 1960 1993 1990 1993 1990 TB DPT Polio Measles Method NORTH 6 CENTRAL AMERICA X X X X 97 103 c 100 108 c Belize X X X X X 106 X 109 X 92 X X X X X 47/42 Canada X X X X 105 103 108 105 99 X 6 85 85 85 85 73r70 Costa Rica 87 89 88 94 92 105 94 106 93 78 6 97 86 87 82 7565 Cuba 78 94 85 95 110 104 109 104 90 80 c 8 97 99 97 93 70/67 Dominrcan Rep b8 80 70 80 74 99 75 95 92 37 16 84 57 82 99 5652 El Salador 52 67 61 71 56 80 59 79 66 45 11 79 79 79 86 5348 Guatemala 36 45 51 60 39 78 48 89 51 24 14 48 75 77 71 23i19 Haitb 20 38 28 44 39 51 50 54 20 20 c 15 48 30 30 24 10t9 Honduras 51 69 57 70 67 112 68 111 81 70 9 95 94 95 94 47'35 Jamaica 73 87 66 79 79 112 78 111 82 '0 11 99 91 93 72 62/57 Mexico 70 85 80 90 75 110 80 114 77 87 12 97 94 95 93 5345 Nicaragua 56 85 58 63 59 105 57 101 73 40 IS 94 78 94 83 49/45 Panama 78 88 80 89 86 102 89 1i6 96 70 10 91 81 83 83 58/54 TnndadancTobago 89 X 95 98 108 94 111 94 98 75 10 X 81 78 87 53/44 Uniled States 99 X 99 X X 106 X 107 99 X 7 X 83 72 83 74869 SOUTH AMERICA X X X X 67 109 c 71 199 c Argenhna 92 96 93 96 99 107 99 108 87 80 8 96 79 80 95 X Bolvia 46 71 71 88 43 97 70 109 55 683 c 12 84 81 83 81 45/18 Brazil 65 81 72 82 56 109 58 117 99 63 c 11 98 75 66 84 66/57 Chle 87 94 89 94 66 98 87 99 98 80 7 97 94 94 93 X Colombia 79 89 82 90 74 120 74 118 94 40 10 94 83 85 94 6&55 Ecuador 70 86 79 90 75 124 82 125 84 89 11 99 76 79 73 5342 Guyana 88 96 94 98 99 105 110 111 X 31 c X X X X X X Paraguay 76 89 86 93 94 110 109 114 66 52 8 95 79 80 96 4Y,35 Penu 80 80 83 93 74 117 99 121 52 31 c 11 87 84 86 75 59/33 Sunname 76 89 88 94 106 125 c 113 129 c X 63 X X X X X X Uruguay 93 97 92 96 117 108 117 109 96 96 8 99 88 88 80 X Venezuela 73 89 80 91 99 96 98 94 69 80 9 82 69 75 83 49r38 ASIA X 60 X 79 64 97 c 95 111 c Afghanislan. Islamic Slate 3 11 25 42 2 18 14 48 9 28 c 20 60 34 34 42 212 Arm,noa X 97 X 99 X 93 X 87 X X X 88 85 92 93 X Azerbaija X 96 X 99 X 87 X 91 X X X 94 71 70 84 X Bangladesh 12 23 36 47 31 86 80 100 5 26 50 95 74 74 71 4537 Bhutan 9 23 31 51 0 19 c S 31 c 7 85 X 93 84 85 63 X Camboda 23 22 X 48 48 X 85 X 47 8 c X 57 35 38 37 X Cnina 38 66 87 87 90 116 131 120 94 22 9 93 95 95 94 8380 Georgo. Rep X 98 X 99 X X X X X X X 63 45 45 58 X India 18 34 48 02 44 91 83 113 33 37 c 33 92 90 90 82 41/36 Indonesia 44 75 89 88 58 112 78 116 32 78 14 94 89 93 90 50/47 Iran lssamcRaep X 56 X 74 28 101 59 109 70 85 c 9 99 99 99 99 65145 haq 15 38 44 66 30 83 94 98 50 70 c 15 79 82 82 81 14110 srael X 93 X 97 97 95 99 94 99 0 7 X 92 91 96 X Japan 99 X 99 X 102 102 103 102 100 X 6 85 87 90 66 64/57 Jordan 34 73 73 91 X X X X 87 53 7 X 95 95 88 3527 Kazakhslan Rep X 98 X 99 X 86 X 86 X X X 93 76 69 9I X Korea, DemPeoplesRep X X X X X X X X 100 85 X 99 90 99 99 X Korea. Rep 80 95 94 99 94 102 108 100 89 X 9 94 97 95 89 79/70 Kuwait 45 72 65 78 99 65 132 65 99 10 c 7 3 98 98 93 3502 Kyrgyz Rep X 96 X 99 X X X X X X X 98 88 91 94 X LaoPeoplesfDemfRep 18 39 45 65 20 92 43 123 X 55 18 42 25 26 46 X Lebanon 73 88 87 94 lO5 114 112 117 45 45 c 10 4 87 87 65 53/23 Malaysia 44 74 69 87 79 93 108 93 87 47 c 10 99 89 89 80 48631 Mongolia 52 73 75 87 80 100 80 95 99 65 10 84 80 79 84 X Myanmar 60 75 68 68 53 109 60 110 57 37 16 80 73 73 71 17/14 Nepal 4 Ii 24 37 3 90 19 134 6 IM X X X X X 23/22 Oman X X X X X 82 X 87 60 72 10 98 97 97 95 9/8 Pakistan 9 21 31 46 11 30 39 59 35 59 c 25 87 74 74 71 12/9 Philippines 83 93 86 94 93 109 98 112 53 59 IS 90 88 89 87 40/25 Saud, Arama 21 44 49 69 3 75 32 80 90 90 7 94 93 94 92 X Singapore 61 83 87 98 101 103 120 106 100 X 7 99 89 92 89 X SnLanka 71 85 88 93 95 105 107 106 94 76 25 86 91 91 89 62/40 SyrianArabRep 21 49 61 82 39 99 89 111 61 95 c I1 91 90 90 86 3628 Ta1ikislan, Rep X 99 0 99 X 88 X 91 X X X 69 82 74 97 X Thailand 70 91 86 98 88 97 97 99 71 65 13 98 92 92 86 66f64 Turkey 40 69 73 90 58 96 90 104 77 20 8 63 79 79 74 83/34 Turkmemsan. Rep X 97 X 99 X X X X X X X 98 99 99 98 X Unlted Arab Emirales 40 76 61 77 X 108 X 112 99 81 c 6 98 90 90 90 X Uzbekstan. Rep X 96 X 98 X 79 X 85 X X X 89 58 51 91 X VietNam 65 87 82 95 74 108 103 114 95 52 17 94 91 91 93 5338 Yemen Rep X X X X X X X X X 6c X X X X X X OCEANIA X 93 X 96 109 110 c 110 112 c Australia X X X X 103 107 103 108 99 X X X 95 72 86 76r72 Fpi 67 86 79 92 X 129 X 130 X 100 X X X X X X New Zealand X X Y X 106 101 110 102 99 X 6 20 81 68 82 70862 PapuaNewGuinea 33 57 60 78 15 89 24 82 20 51 23 85 37 35 30 X Solomor Islands X X X X X 87 X 102 X 60 X X X X X X Soumes Unled Nations Chldrens Fund. United Nabons Educational. Scienlfic and Culutntl Organization: and the Wodd Health Organization. Notes o. Oral Rehydraton Therapy b Figures refer to BCG. diphhena-ehrtussis-setanus (thmd dose). oral polhosirus t1hird dose). and measles vaccine Most recent year wath data (other than Ihe year speciied in the colmn eadigi. dinenng Irmm the standard defniton or referrng Io only part ol a country 0 = zero or less than hat the unit ot measure: X = not a-alable For additiona inltormabon. see Sources and Technical Notes World Resources 1996-97 197 Population and Human Development Sources and Technical Notes Data Table 8.1 rates to thie projected fetnaile popUilation. effective at the ve.tr of birth applv throuIghiout Size and Growth of Population and Births are distrilitied bev an aissoniied sex raitio, Iiis or her lifetimec. Labor Force, 1950-2025 and the apptopriate aige- and sex-specific stir- Flhe total /etfi/i/v raft' is iil eStliota teo the Vivi s- rIatLes arc a ppl ccd. Ft it Lire n1iigra titinl rateS nrtimber if cliildtreni an average setriati WioulIt SoLirces: Ulnited Naitiolis i U.N.) PtipolatiiOn aire also estimated tniti iii ge- and sex-specific hanve if cuirrenit aige-specific fertility rates re- Divisiton. Annmua/ Popuh/ait ills (T/)m 1994 Re ' a si 5. (omi niiniitg ftittiire ferti lit v, moi rtalire, iii i1 1ed Constisant cli rinig hecr reproicrid v nse veairs. 'isit i), tin diskette W. .N.. New- York, 1 993) ititid Tiiigrigttioin rates yield t1 he priojiected powu- The /ietrc'nftage it//oit / titou In .spii'if ii ao Wi rt/t L7t/tur Retport (ILO( , GIeneva, I 99 ) and ti 'crate ,iiitoi MCreii'Citt t to t /Ift' i/itt/- I .5-6.5, .tiid it -er 65 seairs. It is; tuse til ftoi Pt/opulatittn refers tot the ititiyear potptila- it,n rigdeete nee,diitls ftotrt teLIat itl iiianil tiotu. uost dlata ate estittiates Wised titi piipu- .Asstiriiptitins aboiui ftittire miortatlity, fertil- titipli(vincien-, potctenial fertility, ainti tither age- latiton censuses an1 stitveys. All protjectitons ate it'atinigiiii :tsaem d tia Letitti rel;ttt't factors. Etit adlditiotnal dtle;ils tin dtl.a for the miediumn-case scenaitii. (See the fotllow- try-b-y-cotintry hasts anti, wheii Poissible, art Ctitl-listit, tstili,ttltii, i11iti projtctittn nittlth ing di setissiotiti.( The atiragi'atoa flot/to/dt- bae itt Wissic, rnd.F trseta t f i~ refer ri t tit sotiirC- ort ito tht' Tet'l1hitCJl /ioni ch/inge takes in ti acicoutnt tIlt effects iof pib pate n histogricai Iir(hig . Foue r sCi lari. i i ', a ti Nitt'S ftit [Dirta 1tiblt' S. I tMte nati trao mgi th vaue inii. iil"S I-. cinlstanit) are cre tealetl by tisting t i fferutit is- Mareetiiy fthe( altiesiig d atagTables ii.od ls sitnptitots a hoititi these raites. For exaiiiple, the Data Table 8.3 are etitiaret tis tig deinigrah ic tititiel tedittini-ciise scenarti assirnies nittetlitt1n lest Is Mortality and Nutrition, 1970-95 based ott several k-itids tof demiograiphic Pl oif fertility-ain a ssumiptio nt thait in as' ears rarrmete rS: a ci ountry 's populntioniii i size, age aid Sources: Crudte dicath rait' andtt inin t itnitortidi tv ainititig coitititries. Refer Lto the stiurce fur ftir- sex distributioint, fertility atlid motrtalits riites liv tird iIs\Xl itciins Ie fiis- rate tIAta: Unifted Naittiots (IA.N.) Pttptiflatitt age aind sex groutps, growthi rates tif tUrban anti D l 1io,isiotn, D)tmitgtrajtbic Indiicaftors I 9.50-2(50 rUr.il poipulatiions, aitd llthe vets-ls tif itiltertiail tiiaie ctlt.(I .ceoirpi T/i', 1994 Rsevtisiotn), oiii diske-tte (LU.N., New a tid intterna titna ma nigra Otion. 'r iie i uvy ildCINs ihw l- It irk, 199.5). Inidt'r-.S totrt.i litvs raite, ini,retnila Iniftormai;tion c-itlleered thrtitigli re'ceii t po pti - amortr t1qi is w ihm cst ced t n tia litve raire, sWatstintg. sti titting.,i tid per calp- Ia ition ce-ists ses at t sti rvevs is uised ito Ca 'Cit IaitC l rh' rtlabo he. ei ctde l eo l wh t;a ivicrage cftorictts ~ivai il l Iitas a Pt,c ti-c titage ot estinmate these paramieters, bitt accurac% prod ic hcoioit tiic (i t icitide s al~erici e s hIt il- ot ic-ed: Uniiieti Natioinis Children's VLurid varies. The Ulnited Natitots Popt1itl.itioi Divi- idLc cti iii i tsa erie,I n- ( NI(FFL),.5aftc t/ t4n' Wttr/h/'i Child/ren 1 995 sio ciipiesan CalidCSCelSISJn sir e lttlsal(I~ 1NIC.FI- Nt's Ytrk. 1995). Tottil expetiti( si tn cimipils ait1esaI it tt ceis ts ri si selfy ei iiocd salar yie petiploec(e Wagel te arts tIDP reStil rs frioiii all cointtnries. These tIi a ta re aid- ser,f-eiiipltt fet ly s ala riedreiip mer os, wage e.rn- litre t ii hicaIlih .is . perctnntAge (if ()I: FIl' tiisted fcir toivereii ititteraitiouti an tic titiciderentlL- ciet5 ircopa -it aiiive wi rs,tand tn iet inrbr f t) prm d Witrl I i nBtk, Wttr// I )v'tcti/inu'n Ri/iotit nieratititi of certaiin age anti sex groittiS (e.g. dierctie.tvs nd9ietestfteinei i9 1) )Oxfttrd Untiversitv Press. New Yotrk, itnfants, feriiale children, aiiid eltitlig iliailes ftes.Ot!tl ieiiltei I 99) mitsteptrrittitg oiifage andt sex di st'ributioit ,.~ ind Tht' ]LO d()tetertiiiities the at eraxt'o annfa/ Tlit, crud/i' d/tath rate is tiiiveri .1 by Liviirid ig chatiges in defitiiirioiis, wlieii ntecess;try. 'These groitt-/f i btt ltIa/nit /tirci' by mttUltiplsing the the titttmber Of deaths in ai giveti sear by lie adjtistments incorporatae dtiaa froimi civil regis- .ictivmty raitts oif agi/ses gr(ittiPs (the ecmiiml- nidyear potpttlaiitioii aJitld tiltiltiplVilig byV 1,01)0. tra titons, piopultIatiioni stitrvees, earl itr ceiistises. cti Ily cteive frictitn oi tf ,ini age/st'x grioutp l iv The itt/tn nit rfti/t/ itt7tc' is lie p riota li ity and. svheti ii ecessa rv, ptotul a iiiiiitionm deIs based the n1111iLt it tf CpttIpC ill lthise groi itps. Fsti - if d\iii g lbV eXACt igt' I , iii ltirPl iC'd ili I,((( t. oiii infotrmnatiotn fritoni siicioecoinioiiiicaillv sini- miates (if actieits rates .ire based tin iumfotriiiit- The I iitd Natrions Pitputlamition I)ivisittn pri- Ia r co itn tries. ilBec;tuse the figttires haivi' beeun tit n fr(ititii atititniai cetistises, ant iltbittrI itti-e vtices tli is co liort tntiea sure. ad.justed, they are otti strictly co ttipa r.ible to sti rveys. The II.1) adju Lsts natiton a Il laboit ftotr Tetiti-cert/f i/i srit pibblt the official statistics cotiipileii by the United statistics wsheni tiecessar re cottformt tot jilter- tif dvitg, byv exact age 5 , nitlltiplieci by 1,1)111. Namtions Statistical Office- atid ptlil )ishedl Iltlile iairititiail definiritins. Thle grtowtit ( if age/sex jNIC FF protvitles this etibtirt iteastire, whichI rDtonographic Vi'ar/miok.) grottps is proidsited mto the 11.0 iii the L)tiited is deriVeti frotrt Chi/l/ Mtirft/itv Siticet' f/i After the figTtrtS ftoi ptipmaI tiotn size anti N atitons Pout ation D i viIi s~tion. I 960s-A D)ata/iase' fit D )ci'cli pint, ioutitries aige/sex ctomptisititio have beentiaditisteti. these LIi.N., New Yoirk, I1992) Andt frotmii inifant tou(r- dtiaa are scaletd to 1 990). Simiilar estititaites are Data Table 8.2 talut- cstiniiaito.s prtVi-iCL byi ts thi' IAn rteti Na - made fit each -5-yeair peritid betweeni 1950 Trends in Births, Life Expectancy, tittits Potptilaltioi Divisitot. The tisii is the and I199(1. Histoirical data are tised swheti Fertility, and Age Structure, 1970-95 reStilt tif a tMotve froilii tiitteledl estinitites tot deemed aeCtUtate, ailso swith adjtustmtents anti t'SttililteS lisilditti a pt'riotiicall ' 1tpclJtt'd sealing. Howtisever, alCtLitrate hi striciia Idira tidii Source: [ liii ted Niait ions I. .N. ) PtopiulIat io Dii )i- chili liiiortrialitsv clitA i.ist. Nin ttiheless. thiis not exist forit aily develtopi iig ciutri ies. lIn v-isitoil. I)i'mt tgrap/hi lnitta/i is. 1 9 5O20 ;),r siabIile shouldciii ito lit comttiparitd t(i itlit' ilif t-i sujch cases, the Poptilatiomi l)ivisiotn uses ivaid- Jb/i )994 Rt't'sitit), tin cliskette' U.N.. Ness Nationts Pouptiattion D)ivisiont's tfinfmrit itrr;ility able iniformiationt tiiti tdemicgraphic imotdels mto Y'ork, 199 5). ratt-, wviiith is derived frtiiii pttptl.ititit tiloitt- estimiate teniideig phc arntr. T e rd,br raft'i deie bvdviditig els,-wher otitherwise nit availalie. Proiject itons .1re based o ii t'stimate. is of fthc' I 99)) the ititmb le r (itf livi' liirths in a given vetar bv tht' 1-Ili' mal,tcrna/ nitor/,/itv 1itc' is ittiLt nuibclit base-yeair ptpttlatiitioi. Age- attd scx-spt'cific- midlyear potpultlirion. IbIis rirtio is thiti ilitilti- if tic-tils froititi pre'gnancy-' tir childblirth- itiiortaltry rates are appltedi tot tile base-vear pliedl iiv 101)(1). relaitt't caitses pit 1001,0(00 list' Iiirtlis. A tit ptpt~ilantion toi deteriii iii e the tiLtiriiher itf s tirtvi- 1.ilt' t'x/)i't i-v a/ /uirth is ithe iave'r gt' trtiaI I titahl is ie-fi neil is' tIlt' Wiorld tivi t'a ht vors at the cuid of each .S-veer pe riodii. hi rtlis liLt11i le r of \e~irs thi~it . tiewsbortn babyli is cx- Orngiiieuiutrio (WHO)n itrhe cleuth titi wonitilni are proijected bIy applYiuug aige-specific fertility pecteci rut lis-c if the lg-seifc oitrrality rates whiile preguatut orit withiri 42 dies oif lintua-1111 198 Woirlc/ Resziurces 1996-97 Population and Human Development ti)11 ot pregilantc S ftciiii lni Vc.i USc htt'itd Ill oF r lid! c'xpendIlftlrc' On Iyell')h (is (I'cl'i/.144 I NcL' 1(1' p5/rimnarv S/ s, c 111- c lIrhli'di/ (c7S :iggt;tvati'd byv the pregli;nc 5., ilicIiLICIllg ~ibtr- O/ C DPI lincludes liuthl Pllilhc a.111(1 a pti.i erfl''c'Ih.tc 1/ g' gtf clMi) daIta(It for iiniles anti tion. Muso,t olificill miaternal nilurtailitsN i-a ts Ire x peudfit iurc's based Iln oticf l c \aIxthaingo. rates. i11 lies ar Ft rM~xidted fly LI NI- S(C( TheSe dataI U nderestiminated hecaji ose n underreporritlng, Ill- Expenditures ar t fo~ r ill IteaIIth r elfated ILt IlVi- tnt a1l 1MI) refe.relic e sears., I96)) an il1 99 . ecltrreet Cl,ilssiilc.ltI 70 40-69 10-39 0-9 [ no data Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 1995). Note: Forest area includes both natural forest and plantation cover. Figure 9.2 FAO Forest Regions, by Country, 1990 # w 4 FAO Forest Region = Temperate developed Temperate developing Tropical Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). "Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 1995). 202 World Resources 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover Table 9.1 Summary Results from the 1990 FAO Assessment, by Region Forest Area Forest and Other Wooded Land Total Forest Areaa Natural Forest Plantation Forest Extent, Percent Extent, Percent Extent, Percent Extent, Percent 1990 Change, 1990 Change, 1990 Change, 1990 Change, Region (000 ha) 1981-90 (000 ha) 1981-90 (000 ha) 1981-90 (000 ha) 1981-90 All tropical countries 2,727,999 -3.6 1,792,030 -7.1 1,761,228 -8.1 30,802 146.7 Tropical Africa 1,083,826 -2.2 529,818 -7.0 527,697 -7.2 2,121 75.0 Tropical Asia and Oceania 452,908 -4.3 338,025 -6.7 315,391 -11.1 22,634 188.7 Tropical Latin America and Caribbean 1,191,265 -4.5 924,187 -7.2 918,140 -7.5 6,047 76.0 All temperate developing countries 328,665 0.8 217,884 2.4 180,240 -4.5 37,644 57.0 Temperate Africa 52,850 -7.2 15,267 -4.2 12,972 -9.4 2,295 41.0 Temperate Asia and Oceania 207,362 5.3 159,334 5.2 125,704 -3.4 33,630 58.3 Temperate Latin America 68,453 -5.3 43,283 -4.7 41,564 -6.2 1,719 55.0 All temperate developed countries 2,063,565 -0.0 1,432,457 X X X X X All temperate countries 2,392,230 0.1 1,650,341 X X X X x World 5,120,227 -1.9 3,442,369 X X X X X Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO Forestry Paper 124 (FAO. Rome. 1995), p. ix and Annex 1, pp. 18-21. Notes: a. Includes natural forests and plantation forests. Total forest is not strictly comparable between developed and developing nations, because of differ- ences in classification. The term 'lorest" includes all lands with a minimum tree crown cover of 10 percent in developing regions and 20 percent in de- veloped regions. X = not available. Changes in the Extent and Distribution of Almost all of the change occuirred in tropical cotintries, Global Forest Cover where forest and other wooded land area declined by 3.6 percent. (See Table 9.1 and Figure 9..3.) In 1990, forest and other wooded laud covered 5.1 In developed Trie frs and othe woddlnd billion hectares, about 40 percent of the F.arth's land area deelined b less than 0. 04 percent d dring rhar same area. (See Table 9. 1.) This figure includes .3.4 billion period in. This figure does nor include changes in cover hectiares of forest, which is defined by FAO as land with in the coun1tries of the former Soviet tUnion where twvo a ni1itinLlM tree crown cover of 20 p ercent iln developed other sttudiies report verv different estimates suggesting countries and 10 percent in developing countries. For- thar there was a net increaise of either 10.6 million or ests consist of natural forests, whlich are comtnposed 22.6 million hectares s. (See Rox 9.1.) If the lower largely of native tree species, and plantation forests. The estimate is icluded in the total for developed countries remaining I . billion hectares consisted of other woody the forest and other wooded land area increased slightly vegerationi such as open woodland, scrubland and from 1 98() to 1990. brushland, and areas Linder shifting cultivation (s. The 2 percent global net loss of forest and other The FAO definition of deforestation refers to the wooded land area masks more significant declines in coniversion of forest to other uses suAchl as croplaudl and natural forest cover alone. The FAO 1990 Assessment shifting cu1ltivation. Forests that have been logged and estimates natural forest change only for developing left to regenerate are not incltuded Bv By using that regions; data were not available for developed coun- definition, the world's forest and other wooded land tries. In developing cotintries, natural forest cover de- area dleclined by 2 per-cent-or I 00 million hectares, an clined X percent ( 163 millioni hectares) durinlg the 1 9s0n. area about the su7e of Egypt-from i 19() to 1990. On a net hasis, however, total forest and other wooded World Resources 1 996-97 203 Forests and Land Cover Figure 9.3 Estimated Annual Deforestation Rates, by Country, 1980-90 , 45 Annual deforestation rates Stable or increased forest area More than 0.6 percent deforested m Less than 0.6 percent deforested z No information Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 1995), Annex 1. land area in developing countries declined bv only 98.7 Federation, where forest cover increased slightly from million hectares. The loss of natilral forest cover was 1 980 to 1990. The United States, which had about 12 offset by new plantation cover totaling 3 1.9 millioll percent of the world's temperate forest and other hectares and by a 32.1 -million-hectare increase in other wooded land in 1990, lost 1. I percent of its total forest wooded area, mostly former natural forests (. cover during the same period. This loss, totaling about The FAO 1 990 Assessment is based on data conmpiled 3.2 million hectares, was offset by net gains in forest from national inventory reports and aid'justed to a conm- and other wooded land within most other developed m11o set of definitions. Manv unicertainties about the countries (ii). reliability of the data exist, however. For details on the Because the northern forests of Russia and Canada methodology and notes about data quality, refer to the are so extenlsive, the global figure for the change in Technical Note to Data Table 9.2. temperate forest area masks declines of 4.5 percent in Regionial resLIlts from the FAO study are presented in the smaller area of natural temperate forests in develop- the next two sections of this chaptert Unless otherwise ing COuntries during the I 980s. In percentage terms, the stated, the source and notes for these data are prcsented steepest declines in temiiperate natural forest cover took tn Data Table 9.2. place in regions where little historical cover remains. Both North Africa and the Middle East, which have Temperate Forests Lindergone centuries of deforestation, lost 11 percent of Globally, temperate forest and other wooded land cov- their remaining natural forest cover during the 1980s. ered 2.4 billion hectares in 1990. The total area in- Natural forest cover in these regions now averages less creased from 1980 (by 0.1 percent) because of a than I percent of the total land area (2). significant increase in plantation area (uC China's 162 million hectares of temperate forest are Mostof thistemperatecover is located in thesparsel' about half of the temperate forest and other wooded populated northern forests of Canada anid the Russian land located in all developing countries. China's total 204 World Resour ces 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover includes 102 million hectares of natural forest. Natural Tropical Forests forest cover in China declined by just under 4 percenit between 1980 and 1990 (I). Tropical forests (including plantationls) make up just Although the temperate forest cover within devel- over half of the world's forest cover (about 1.8 billion oped regions appears to have stabilized, the forest area hectares in 1990). The FAO 1990 Assessmenit revealed that remains within manv countries is a fraction of what the extent and loss of six categories of tropical forest it was before human settlement. According to anunpLub- ecosystenis. Rainforests are the imost prevalenit forest lished 1 995 study by the Institute for Sustainable Devel- type in the tropics, covering a Ilost 714 million hectares opment (ISD), North America may have lost 20 percenit in 1990 (16). (For details on forest clhanges by ecological of its original forest cover, and the countries of the zone, see World Resouirces 1994-95, p. 132.) former Soviet Union niav have lost about 35 percent. Accordinig to FAO data, the world lost 45() million These figures mask much higher estimated rates of loss hectares of its tropical forest cover between 1 960 and within the nonboreal forests of these regions (141. 1990. Asia lost almost one third of its tropical forest Original (prehistoric) forest cover is difficult to esti- cover during that period, whereas Africa and Latin mate because huinans have long influenced vegetation America each lost about 18 percenit e17, patterns across landscapes by repeated burning (to cre- Although deforestation rates within all regions of the ate forage for livestock and game) and clearinig of land tropics have climbed steadily over the past three dec- for agricultural use. In addition, natural clinmate changes ades, the total area deforested per decade has declined over recent centuries have to some extent altered the in Asia and appears to have stalbilized iml Africa. This distribution of the world's forests and woodlands. has not been the case in Latin America, wlher-e increas- Crude estimates or indicators of historical forest loss iigly iiore forest area was coniverted to other uses-pri- can be derived by compariig the curreit distribution of man-ily agricultural-from 1960 to 1990 (is). These forests with thepotenitial forest area (areas where, given pressures ate continuing. (See Box 9.2.) current rainfall, soil type, and related geophvsical char- During the 1980s, the world lost 8 percent of its acteristics, forest vegetation could be expected to be natural tropical forest cover. Regional deforestation supported in the absence of humani activity). ISD coom- rates were highest in Asia, where I I percenit of this cover pared FAO estimates of 1990 forest and other wooded was lost between 1980 and 1990. (See Figure 9.4.) land cover with mapped data on potential forest and (Globallv, forests and othier wooded areas in the tropics woodland cover to produce the estimiates of changnes in declined by a more modest 3.6 percentcduring the I 980s. historical forest cover discussed above (15). (See Table 9.1.) Table 9.2 Plantation Area Within Tropical and Temperate Developing Regions, 1980-90 Degree to Which Plantation Plantation Percent Plantation Establishment Area, 1980 Area, 1990 Annual Change Change, Offset Deforestation, Region (000 ha) (000 ha) (000 ha) 1980-90 1980-90 (percent) Africa 2,839 4,416 158 55.5 3.7 Tropical 1,212 2,121 91 75.0 2.2 Temperate 1,627 2,295 67 41.1 49.9 Asia and Oceania 29,080 56,264 2,718 93.5 62.2 Tropical 7,839 22,634 1,480 188.7 37.7 Temperate 21,241 33,630 1,239 58.3 278.4 Latin America and Caribbean 4,543 7,765 322 70.9 4.2 Tropical 3,435 6,047 261 76.0 3.5 Temperate 1,109 1,719 61 55.0 22.2 All tropical countries 12,486 30,802 1,832 146.7 11.9 All temperate developing countries 23,977 37,644 1,367 57.0 160.0 All developing countries 36,462 68,445 3,198 87.7 19.6 Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "Forest Resources Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 1995), Annex 1, pp. 18-21. Notes: Plantation cover for all temperate developed countries is included under "Total Forest Area" in Table 9.1. Totals may not add due to rounding. World Resources 1996-97 205 Forests and Land Cover Box 9.1 Are Russia's Forests Threatened? The Russian Federation contains the total sulfur emissions of Sweden (i ). In- grow (21 (22) (2 3). The potential demand largest forest area of any nation in the dustrial emissions are blamed for killing for lumber in Asian markets alone is world-an estimated 750 million to off I million hectares of forestland, huge. For example, rhe total amount of 771 million hectares (1) (2) (31 (4). Yet the whereas the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear roundwood imported into China in- future of this resource is threatened by power plant accident contaminated 4 creased by almost 40 percent from ineffective management policies, uncer- million hectares of forescs located 1973 to 1993 (241. FAO projects that tain property rights, deteriorating forest within Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine both China and Japan will remain ma- conditions caused bv pollution and (12a 1.3). jor ner importers of wood products other factors, the prospect of increas- Logging is anorher significant source through 2010 and that the Russian Fed- inglv massive cutting in Siberia, and the of degradation. About 65S percent of Si- eration could be one of the top global possible cutting of remaining undis- beria's forests are located in the perma- suppliers o2i. turbed forests in European Russia. frost zone and are particularly sensitive Ulntil recently, U.S. markets were Russian forests represent a unique to disturbance. Logging exposes frozen closed to Russian roundwood imports range of ecosystem types including more soils to sunlight, and once the top layer because of concerns over the introdoc- than 70 percent of the world's boreal of permafrost melts, these areas often tion of new pest species into U.S. for- forest-coniferous woodlands that sur- convert to swamps, making reforesta- ests. However, new rules were enacted vive some of the harshest winter cli- tion impossible. Forests in mountain ar- bv the U.S. Department of Agriculture mates on Earth (s). Siberian forests-the eas also are prone to soil erosion when in August 1995 lifting the ban on the bulk of the national total-are a huge tree cover is removed I 4) iIs). import of raw logs. Under these regula- source of living carbon, which, if re- rions, Russian raw logs must be steril- leased through cutting and burning, PROSPECTS FOR SIBERIA ized to kill pests prior to reaching lI.S. could contribute significantly to global Since the 1950s, the government has shores. These regulations have been warming. Some of the largest tracts of made a concerted effort to develop Sibe- challenged bv environmental groups as pristine temperate forest remaining in the ria's timber, mincral, oil, and gas re- being too weak (26h. world are also found in the Russian Far sources. Planting has lagged well A 1989 agreement with the Hyundai East. These forests are home to highly en- behind the rate of cutting, and planta- Corporation of the Republic of Kore a dangered species such as the Amur leop- tion survival rates have been low (161. It has led to large-scale clear-cutting in the ard and the Siberian tiger (6) (71. is estimated chat logging conrributed to Primorsky region, one of the most No data are available for Russia a 10 to 20 percent reduction in growing unique and biologically diverse temper- alone, but for the former Soviet Union stock in Siberia from 1966 to 1988 (171. ate forests in the world (271(28). Only a as a whole it is estimated that forests Overall, Russian timber exports have fraction of the proposed harvest has and vooded land increased by about 3 declined in recent vears, in part becau[se been realized, however, and Hyundai is percent (22.6 million hectares) between of Russia's painful political and eco- now reportedly considering pulling out 1978 and 1988. Other estimates by the nomic transition and a breakdown of of the region (29). Food and Agriculture Organization of supply and production links within the These ventures often provide few the United Nations (FAO) suggest that former Soviet Union. Furthermore, un- benefits to local economies. The Hyun- the increase mayv have been about half der the old regime there was relatively dai venture employed Chinese loggers this total (s5. little investment in new processing and rather than local people to work the for- Although the total area of forests logging technologies (ISL est. In addition, multinational corpora- seems to be stable or increasing slightly, A lack of infrastructure and out- tions prefer to export raw logs rarher wide areas of Russia's forests appear to nioded extraction practices have been than process rimber within the country, be degraded. During the 1930s and the primarv limitations on cutting which would provide jobs in Siberian 1940s, the Soviets cut timber from the within Siberian forests. Only one third mills inl . Ural region to support industrial of the region is accessible to comnier- growth, but paid little attention to re- cial logging operations (I1). New road- Is SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT LIKELY? planting or other aspects of forest man- building projects, however, primarily in International investors increasingly pre- agement (9i. Today, most remaining the Russian Far East, could open up pre- fer trade agreements that rely on in- wooded areas in the Ural region are viouslv inaccessible forests to industrial creased domestic production to boost heavily degraded, and onlv one quarter logging for new Pacific markets. The Russian timber exports. These have in- of the original forest cover remains in proposed Nelma-Sukpai Road in the cludled barter deals with companies in the southern portion of the Urals X01. Russian Far East, for example, would Japan, Korea, and the United States in Pollution also contributes to forest feed a new log port at Nelma and bisect which the companies provide logging degradation. For example, air pollution the roadless Samarga River watershed, equipment and technology to modern- from huge nickel smelters in the Arctic opening up 800,000 hecrares of on- ize the logging industry in exchange for citv of Norilsk has killed 350,000 hec- touched forests to logging (21). timber. Modernization of the timber in- tares of forest and has damaged an- In addition, lapanese, U.S., and other dustrv could improve efficiency within other 140,000 hectares. The Norilsk trading companies are seeking to ex- the forestry sector; in the past, up to plant emits 2.3 million metric tons of pand their operations into new regions half of all cut logs were left on the sulfur dioxide every year, five times the as the demand for raw logs begins to ground, and perhaps 20 percenr if the 206 WoiId Resourzices 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover extracted wood was wasted during the 3. Food and Agriculture Organization of the 26. "Lawsuiit Challenges Pest Treatnent of milling process (311. However, some en- Uniced Narioiis lFAO), Forest Resources Log lrinports," The Register-Guiard (No- vironmentalists are worried that new Assessment 1990: Global Synthesis," FAO veniber 5, 1995, Eugene. Oregon), p. 2C. technology will lead to increased log- Forestry Paper 124 (FAO, Rome, 19951, 27. David Gordoni and Bill Pfeiffer, "Hyindai ging of steep slopes and areas pre- pp. 12-17. Hacking Siberia's Forests," 'art' Islanid viouslv untouched because of the 4. Anlali Acharva, Plunldering the Boreal lournal. Vol.7, No. 4 (Fall 19921, p. 18. inefficiency of existing harvesting equip- Forests," World Watcb MNalv/June 19951, 28. Op. cit. 6. pp. 117-120. ment l321. 2 24-27. 9. David Gordon, Co-Director, Siberian For- It remains to be seen whether Russia s. KLillervo Kuusela, "The Boreal Forests: An ests Protection Project, Pacific Environ- will develop its,timber industry in a sus- Overview," [Unasyflj, Vol. 43, No. 170 ment and Resources Ceiiter, Sausalito, I 19901. p. 3. Californi., 1995 (personal commuimiica- tainable fashioni. Several recent events suggest otherwise. The 1993 Federal For- 6. World Wildlife Fund (WWXF) Conserving ni. est Legislation failed to clarify propertv Russias BiohtVical Diiversitv (WX'WF, 30. Op. cit. 7, pp. 16-17. rights issues or establish mechanisms Washingtoin. D.C., 1994). pp. . 120. 31. Op. cit. 23. that would perniit public participaition 7. Anroiiy ScOrt Aoid David Gordon, "The 32. David Gordon, "U.S. Veintire NMust Pro- and oversight of the leasing of forest- Russian Tiiiiher Ruish," Thje Amicius ltir- tect Ruissian Taiga, Tie Oregonian land for logging and other management ni1l Vol. 14, No. 3 (Fall 1992L p. 15. (Wednesday. january 18,1 995), p. B09 decisions p3) 134). Management agencies, 8. Op. il. 3, p. 17. 33. Op. cit. 14, p. 403. strapped for resources and lacking clear 9. Op. cit. 1, pp. 29-30. .34. Alexei (irigories, "Russia's New Forestry Act: Leaving the Door Wide Open for jurisdiction over forest areas, find it diffi- 10. op. ci. 6, p. 65. Ruithless Exploitation," Toga News, No. cult to balance conflicting environ- I1. Roger Olssoii, "The Taiga-Treasure or 5 iMarch 1993), p. 2. mental and economiic dievelopment Trash?" Taiga Neiws. No. 7 October 35. Op. cit. 1. pp. .32-33. concerns (351(361. In 1994, Roslesprom- 19931, p.6. 36. Op. cii. 14, p.403. the state-controllcd holding company re- thestatsible-ontrolled shareholding s co- 12. Op. cit. 1, p. .33. 37. Alevet Grigoriev, "Development Prograin sponsible for government shiareholdings p.Launched," Taiga Netis. No. l2 IFebru- in the forest sector-released its I 0-year 13. Op. cit. 2, p. S. ary 1 99 S. pp. 4-5. forestry development plan, which called 14. Anatolv Shvidenkio and Sren N:lson. ary 1995). pp.4-S, for more rhan a doubling of 1994 log- "What Do We Kiiow About the Siberian ging rates within European Russia, po- Foresrs?," Ant,ito. Vol. 23, No. 7 (19941, tentially jeopardizing some of the few P. 39( remaining undisturbed forests within the IS. O°P clt. 7- p- 17. region i ;7T. Is. Op. cit. 14, p. 401. Russia's forests face an uncertaini fu- 1-. op. cit. 14, p. 4o0. rure. The absence of long-term conser- 1S. D. L:pman. "The Russian Forest Industry vation incentives, effective management during ihe Transitional Period " linasylva, policies, and clear property rights pro- Vol. 45, No. 179 (1994). pp. 19-20. vides encouragement for uncontrolled 19. Op. a. 14, pp. 402-40)3. tiinber exploitation. Increased demand 20 . Fretrv, pp. Forest 3. for raw logs, coupled with declining 20. "Foresiry , Rp ssi,iI Forest UpdateI Vol. s supplies in other parts of the world, Nit.4 April I , p.11. will continue to increase pressure to log 21. -Siberiati Wood," in The Taiga Trade-A Siberian and Russian Far Eastern for- Report oni the Productioi, Coutstimptiont ests. If, however, developniciit proceeds and Trade tif Bortal Womld Products (The ests. If, however, development proceeds Tawg:s Reserve Netwo1rk, I 995(, p. S,. cautiously, the government mav have time to build the new institutional and 22. David Gordon and Sarah lIloyd. "Russia legal structures that are needed to bet- Mlay Irradiate Logs for Export io U.S. legal M.N1ills." Earth Isand Jouirnal (Wititer ter manage this nation's vast and invalu- 1994-95), Op. able forest resources. 23. Divish Perrof, "Siberian Forests U,ider Threat,' The Ecologist Vol. 22. No. 6 References and Notes (1 992), pp. 268-269. 1. O.N. Kr.inkina anid R.K. Dixon, "Forest 24. Food and Agriculture Organizatioi of ihe Manigement in Russia: Challenges and Uiiiied Natioits (FAOi, FAOSTAT-PC.n oii Opportunities in rhe Era of Perestronika. diskUetre (September 4, 1995). Joirnial of Forestr.v. Vol. 90. Ni. 6 (June 1992), p. 30. 25. Nikos Alexandrtois. ed., World Agricul- (tire: Ficuar(is 2010) Ani FAO Study l(ohn 2. Kit Prins and Alex Kororko,. "The Fosrest Wiley and Soits Chiclhester, U.K.. and Sector of Econonies in Transitioi in Ceii- Food and AgriculItLire Organization of the tia) atid Easterit Euirope." Untasylva, Vol. Uitited Nations, Romie, 1995, pp. 45, No. 179 (1994). p. S. 222-22 3. Worli7 Resources I 996-97 207 Forests and Land Cover Box 9.2 For Sale: Suriname's Forests One of the world's few remaining large just 0.1 percent. one eighth of the aver- sands of indigenous people who make a blocks of pristine rainforest-covering age rate in the tropics during this pe- subsistence living within the forest. Ex- 80 percent of the South American coun- riod 2). perience in other countries suggests that try of Suriname-is up for sale. Be- What threatens Suriname's forests is a manv of these people would lose their tween 1993 and 1995, the Suriname fiscal crisis: with growing unemploy- homes and their way of life if tribal government began negotiations with ment and a 500 percent annual infla- lands are opened up to such develop- several Asian timber conglomerates to tion rate, the government is looking for inent (4). make 25 to 40 percent of the country's new sources of income to offset declin- Suriname's forests are also home to a land area (7 million to 12 million hec- ing revenues from its bauxite mining in- rich array of plant and animal species. tares) available for logging. The govern- dustry, currentlv the major source of A consortium of conservation and phar- ment reportediv plans to sell off these export earnings. Timber consortiums maceutical interests is exploring Suri- forests at a fraction of their potential from Malaysia, Indonesia, and China name's little-studied forests, looking for valie, and likely at considerable future have offered investment packages of wild species useful in combating cancer environmental and social cost, to pro- more than S500 million (almost equal and other diseases. Large-scale logging vide a short-term fix for its desperate to the countrv's total annual gross do- puts biodiversity at risk and forces the economic situation fl). As of December mestic product) for access to remote, forfeiture of other benefits, including 1995, none of these agreements had untouched forests in the country's inte- the potential for ecotourism develop- been signed, however, and considerable rior. Most of the profits would go to ment, a major source of revenue in controversy continues in the National the companies. A recent World Re- nearbv countries with rainforests, such Assembly. sources Institute (WRI) studv on forest as Costa Rica and Belize. Logging In many areas of the world, forests policy in Suriname found that the gov- would give rise to other environmental shrink as growing rural populations ernment would lose between 41 and 86 costs, for example, the siltation of wa- move in to clear new land for agricul- percent of porential revenue from log- tersheds, changes in local climate, and ture. Such pressures do not seem signifi- ging, depending on how honestly com- soil erosion-a particular risk given canit in Suriname. The country's total panies report their profits it. that much of the forest concessions are population of about 400,000 is grow- This offer of economic relief comes located in areas with hilly terrains is). ing at a rare of less than 2 percent per with hidden social and environmental With suitable management practices year. (See Data Table 8.1.) Annual de- costs. The forest areas proposed for log- on the part of the logging companies forestation during the I 980s averaged ging concessionis are inhabited by thou- and careful planning on the part of the Plantttioyt Covler Changes in Global Forest Condition Plantations partially compensate for the loss of forest Forest condition can he measured in several ways, in- resources from] conversion and degradation, hut they CIluding the following: generally are less diverse and tenid to be less resistant * the degree of degradation, as measured bv the extent than narui-al forests to pests and natural disturbances of fragmentation and bioniass reinovial; Ig). The FAO Synthiesis report provides niew figlUres Onl * tlie de(grC of naturalness, or the extent to which plantation establishment in temperate developing coon- recent human activity has modified forest structure tries and revised data for tropical countr-ies X2ro. No data and species comiposition; iee vll; lefrdvlle oltles. were available for develop'ed countries. * the inteisity of forest management, which aims to FAG estiniates that during the I 980s total plantation d t p r . . . . . ~~~~~~~~~~develop thie potential p roLILItionl of the site as fLuliv cover alm]ost doubled In dcvelopping coulitries. The total 15eoini cosderatoions permiit; and area plantcd, however, was onliv one fifth of the total area as ecoiioiic coiisi I I of natural forest conlver-ted to othier uses (2i). Accordinig * the relative health of the tree species wvithiln a forest. to the FAG 1990 Assessmeit, plantation cover in devel- The coniditioni of the world's forests has not been opiog couLitries increased Iy 88 percenit fronm 1 9F) to assessed comprehensively because degradation, nlatural- I 990 (hy 32 million hectares). Rates of plaintationi estab- ness, and forest health are difficult to observe and lishmenit durinig this period were mIucIh higher in tropical quantify On a regional and global scale. Forest degrada- Asia and the Pacific ( 1 89 percent), Africa (75 percent), tion in the tropics is a significant conicerin because of the and Latin America and the Ca ribbeanii (76 percenir) than substantial losses of bioniass aind habitat fragimienitation in the temperate counitries of these regions. (See Table not reflected in estimates of deforestationi ()2). III tenil- 9.2.) As a result of a massive tree-planting programn in perate forests, the loss of remaining undisturbed areas, C(hila, afforestation actually exceeded deforestationi in fragmentation, and the decliniing health of forest sys- the 1980s in Asia and the Pacific. tems are major threars to forcst coinditioll 2.) t24). 208 Worenld Resources /996-97 Forests and Land Cover government, the social and economic newv areas that national and interna- development model for other countries costs could be reduced. Neither appear tional timber concerns can turn to for where cash-strapped governments are to be likely outcomes, however, if the the continued supply of cheap wood. contemplating selling off their forests to proposed timber agreements go ahead Forests in countries with ailing econo- meet short-term economic needs. as planned. Several of the timber con- nmies wveak institutions, and inadequate sortiums bidding on concessions have forest protection laws are particularly References and Notes poor environmental track records and a vulnerable to exploitation. 1. Nigel Sizer and Richard Rice, Backs to the history of unscrupulous business prac- The WRI report recommends that Wall in Surinamne: Forest Policv int a Coun- tices (6i. This hais included, according to Suriname revamp its forestry sector de- try in Crisis (World Resources Institute. one report, bribing meinbers of Suri- velopment policies to institute new bid- Washington, D.C.. 1995), p. I. name's parliament to secure their votes ding and taxation practices so that the 2. Food and Agriculture Organiization of the on current logging proposals i7). The country captures more of the return Linited Nations (FAOI, "Forest Resources governmient's land use planning laws from the harvest of its timber. It sug- Assessment 1990: Tropical Countries," are inadequate and are often ignorcd. gests that the government impose con- FAO ForestnY Paper 112 (FAO, Rome. In addition, Suriname's Forest Service trols to minimize environmental 19931, Annex L.Table 4. currenitly lacks the capacity to ade- damage and social disruption from log- 3. Op. cit. 1. pp. 1, 1.5. quately monitor loggers' compliance ging. These moves WLould vield higher 4. Op. cit. 1. pp. 6, 17 with neew concession agreements. The long-tern profits to the country and S. Op. .t. X, pp. 6. 9. 21. government may actually lose monev could also reduce the total area opened 6. Op. . it. p, pp. 1. 11. on the proposed deal once the costs of to timber exploitation io, . 7. Garv Lee, 'Proposal to Log Suriiiame's building a monitoring capacity are fac- International assistance is needed in Rain Foresr Splits the Needy Natioin," Tbe tored in (8i. thie short term to implement these Wasbington Post (May 13, 19951, p. Al. Suriname's case illustrates the institu- changes, to develop alternative sources 8. Op. cit. 1, pp. 7-o. tional, economic, and policy failures of inconme from forest areas, and to 9. Op I,t. I. that leave forests vulnerable in a meet Suriname's immediate cash needs t number of tropical and temperate coun- i i i. The solution to Suriname's forest 10. Op. Uit. 1 pp. 21-39. tries of the world (9i. Deforestation and crisis-should the government and the II. op. cit. 1, pp. 3436. tighter controls on1 cutting in some international donor community re- countries have limited thc number of spond appropriately-could provide a Forest degradarion affects species collppositioll in a number of ways. It cani endanger iidividLial species Figure 9.4 Estimated Rate of Tropical sUrviall, for examiiple, through the unsustainable log- Deforestation, 1960-90 ging of mialiogalnv trees in the tropics. Fragmenit.ation of habitats can leave patches of forest that arc too small to (percent) sLIppor-t popula;1tionls of planits anid animiials dependent 12 oi1 forest ecosystemlls and Call create a habitat for weedv 11 species. Degradaitionl can also produce a(dverse chaniges in local microclimnates and cani mnake native species more 10 - vulnerable to predators and disturhbantces sucli as 9 drought and pest infestations Oi 9 8 - Temperate Forests 7 Intensixe logging practices, air pollution, fire suppres- 6 - sioll practices, and the spr-ead of new pest species and diseases affect the conlditioni and health of forests in 5 All Tropical Africa Latin America Asia mans temperate regions. A 1992 report on temiperaite Countries forests of the world found that undisturbed forests in JR 1960-70 * 1970-80 * 1980-90 Northi America, Chile, Fasterin Europe and the Baltic Source: K.D. Singh and Antonio Marzoli, "Deforestation Trends in the coulntries, northier-ni Russia, China, Australia, and parts Tropics: A Time Series Analysis," paper presented at the World of Ncpal anid Bhultanl dre especialily at risk from logging oWildlifeFundConterenceo n the PotentialimpactofClimateChange of Nepal an Bhutan ar especiall at risk fom loggingon Tropical Forests, San Juan, Puerto Rico, April 1995, pp. 8-9. 2U. Declinilng areas of old-growth forest and fra-men- World Resources 1990-97 209 Forests and Land Cover Figure 9.5 European Forests Either Moderately or more uniform forest cover in many tem- Severely Defoliated or Dead, by Country, 1994 scapes dominated by single-age stands. Plantation areas are also uniform, with §6Cm ronly a handful of tree species (i2i. Al- though uniform forests are often high 4 3 \ 9 < - in timber productivitv, they harbor less Percent of Forests Affected diversity than undisturbed forests and 0-10 ) f- ff:are generaliv inore vulierable to fire, C1 11-25 Kl windstorms, disease, and other natL- - 26-40 < - 9 ¢ rally occurring events oi. m 41-60 The regenerated forests of temperate regions are often quite different from the original forests. Studies of the refor- ested areas of the northeastern United States show changes in tree species com- position and smaller tree sizes com- pared with those of the historical forest cover. There are also high numbers of introduced (exotic) plant species. Other changes include high proportions of -<1 9 li>'- < ? gthreatened and endangered native spe- ---- ~~^ r -~ -- , 71S $< @ rf - cies and repeated infestations of intro- _________l________-_______-_ <.7 ., duced tree pests (34) (.35). Source: The European Commission (EC) and the United Nations Economic Commission for Forest health is also an issue in Europe (UN/ECE), Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, International Europe. A 1 994 assessment of forests in Co-Operation Programme on Assessment and Monitoring of Air Pollution Effects on Forests, 29 countries fotind that 26.4 percent of Forest Condition in Europe: Results of the 1994 Survey (EC-UN/ECE, Brussels, Geneva, the trees sur u f moder- 1995), Annexes 11-2,11-3, and 1f-4. the trees surveyed suffered from moder- Note: The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe and the European Union classify ate to severe defoliation. (See Figure degrees of defoliation on the basis of the proportion of needle and leaf loss from 0 to 100 percent. Only three classes of defoliation (moderate (25 to 60 percent loss), severe (60 to 9.5.) This continues a trend that has 100percent loss), and dead (100percent loss)) are included here. In Ireland and Sweden, been observed througlh annIual assess- only conifers were assessed. In Moldova, only broad-leafed trees were assessed. No data are available for Liechtenstein, the Russian Federation, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. nients since 1 986. Although it is diffi- cult to determine the cause of this damage, air pollutioti is believed to tation of the remaining forest cover are also serious have played a significant role (36). issues (27). Most of the forests of Europe, North Africa, and the Tropical Forests Middle East were cleared centuries ago. Similar patterns of deforestation have occurred within the past few hun- The FAO Synthesis report includes new estimates on how dred years in eastern North America, Australia, and New forest cover is changing within the tropics. That study, Zealand (28). In some cases, cleared areas have been based on analyses of satellite imagery for two time abandoned so that forests can naturally regenerate or they periods and covering 1 0 percent of the entire tropical have been converted to plantations, and forests are return- forest region, provides a picture of how forests in the ing to these areas. In Europe, for example, forest area has region are being cleared or degraded V 71. been increasing since 1950. Forests also are returning FAO found that more than 7 percent of the 1980 along the East Coast of the United States i29) (30). forest area underwent change during the period from Most of the woodland areas in Europe and North 1980 to 1990 38). Of this change, less thani half repre- America-with the exception of the northernmost bo- sented conversion to other land uses (42 percent to real forests-consist of secondary growth and planta- permanent agriculture and 3 percent to plantations), tions. In unmanaged natural forests, periodic natural while more than half represented changes in forest disturbances such as fire create a heterogeneous land- "condition," ranging from moderate forms of degrada- scapewith tree stands of different ages (3). Management tion (loss of forest densitv or increase of "disturbance," practices such as fire suppression have helped create a such as long fallow shiftilg cu1ltivation1) to severe forms 210 World Resouirces 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover of degradation (reduction to shrublike formations or short fallow shifting cultivation). (See Figure 9.6.) The latter represent the most common degradation pattern, of Tropical Closed Forest, 1980-90 accounting for about one quarter of all forest cover (percent) changes. (In the FAO study, however, these severe forms 12 - of degradation are considered "deforestation to other wooded land.") Fragmentation represents the second 10 - most common form of degradation, representing some 12 percent of total forest change 139). 8 The FAO imagerv study also sheds soine light on the underlying causes of forest conversion and degradation 6 1 in different tropical regions of the world. In Africa, almost 70 percent of forest changes in the 1980s oc- 4 curred through the degradation of closed forest to open and fragmenited forest and areas marked by shifting 2 X cultivation with short fallow periods 40(. This suggests 0 that rural population pressure-through subsistence All Tropical Africa Latin America Asia farming, grazing, and wood extraction (for fuelwood Countries and building materials)-is the primary agent behind * Deforested (converted) E3 Other degraded forest change 41. * Shrub and short fallow5a W Under shifting cultivation In Latin America, about 60 percent of forest change 1D Fragmented D Converted to plantation during the I 980s occurred because of the direct conver- sion of forest to other land types, primarily as a result Source: K.D. Singh and Antonio Marzoli, "Deforestation Trends in the of large-scale projects to settle and develop forested Tropics: A Time Series Analysis,' paper presented at the World I , Wildlife Fund Conference on the Potential Impact of Climate on regions. In Asia, forest change occLirred as a result of an Tropical Forests, San Juan, Puerto Rico, April 1995, pp. 2-3. increase in shifting cultivation and the establishment of Note: a. Shrub and short fallow includes loss of "torest" conditions due agricultural and other plantations, Suggesting that both to severe degradation of the tree cover or to short fallow agriculture. rural rpopulationi pressure and planned development are the primary agenits of deforestation in this regioni (42) (43'. believe that forests-particularly moist tropical forests, which are experiencing the fastest rate of loss-harbor the majority of the world's species. Forests also are a FOREST POLICY INSTRUMENTS significant repositorv of carbon, which can affect global climate change (45i. The often contentious debate at the Earth Summit-the While there have been proposals to expand the Bio- 1992 United Nations Conference on Environiment and diversity Convention to address forest loss, there is still Development (UNCED)-over forests and the resultanit no consensus among the signatory countries. In the UNCED Forest Principles (441 have moved discussions context of the Climate Change Convention, however, oii forest issues to a new level. Although no comprehen- forests the bCome a factor Cn nvnt im ntaton forests have become a factor ul olnt implementation sive, internationally binding agreement exists on the loss of global frest agreemnt the loss agreements because of their i'mportant role in regulating of global forest cover, consensus has been reached oni cover consensus has been reached on Earth's temperature. When two countries enter into a several importanit issues, including the role of forests in . . maintaining biological diversity and climate, the criteria joint implemetitation agreement, one country pays an- andtinitor for s ine frs manement, te other to either reduce its emissions of greenhouse gases adriving tors bi de .u ,ai forest and the n f or to absorb them through sequestration; in this way, cross-sectoraes plicd dfr orks totonfrondte 'd fore the two countries can then collectively claim the overall cross-sectoral policy frameworks to confronit defsoresta- ti on. reduction. Joint implementation has not been achieved, however, nor have agreements on a scale large enough to reverse the trends of forest loss or global warming The UNCED Conventions and Forests been reached. (See Chapter 14, "Atmosphere and Cli- Two major UNCED agreements, the Convenition on mate.") UJnder both of these Conventions, nations are Biological Diversity and the Framework Convention on likely to continue to develop potential mechanisms to Climate Change, recognize the broader role that forests support forest-related activities over the next several play in the maintenance of global ecosystems. Scientists years. World Resousrces 1996-97 211 Forests and Land Cover Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Intergovernmental Panel on Forests Management of Forests The WCFSD process is designed to be complementarv Perhaps the most significanit areas of agreemiient regard- to that of the Open-Eind Ad Hoc Intergovernmental ing forests since the Earth Summit hazive been on the Panel on Forests(lPF),approvedduringthethirdsession definitioni of the criteria and indicators for sustainiable of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable De- forest maniageiment. In 1990, the International Tropical velopnienit. The Commission on Sustainable Develop- Timber Organizationi (ITTO) becamiie the first initergov- menit created IPF to generate consensus and propose ernimiental body to produce criteria andgU idelinies for the actions for the ilmplemilenitation of UNCED's forest- sustainable management of tropical forests. Following related agreeients at the national ant international the renegotiation of the Initernational Tropical Timber levels. Sucih agreemiienits could cover a multitude of Agreeinent (ITTA) in 1994, timber-producinig Couniitries issues, including cross-sectoral linkages; the transfer of were able to extract an agreenienit from timber-coisum- financial and technological resources through interima- ing Countries that thiev, too, would coniply witlh ITTO's tionial cooperationi; scientific research, global forest as- Target 2000, the year by which all forest produLcts sessinent, and criteria and indicators for sustainable should comlie from sustainably managed forests. (See forest management; trade and enviroment in relation sectioni on Trade and Forests, below.) to forest produCts and services; and the roles of interna- Three separatc processes that emerged after the ITTA tional organizatiois, niultilateral instititions, and legal negotiation include the Pan-European Helsinki process, instrument523. the noni-Europeani Montreal process (both of which IPF has a challeiiginig task ahead; its scope of work focus on boreal and temperate forests), and the is broad and complex and is to he completed on a tight Tarapoto declarationi of the Amiiazoni Treatv Organiza- time line over the cour-se of four meetings betweeni late t-ion regardinig Amazolian forests. Each covers a broad 1995 and mid- 1 997. Nonetheless, as the highest inter- range of general guidelines for the suIstainable manage- niational body to ever address forest issues, IPF's recom- menlt of forests. Similar exercises are also being planned nendatioiis are likelv to set the agenda for forest policy ulider the aegis of FAO for Central Amiierica and Africa anid interinational development aid for the next several (46) (47). years (5%. Despite these advances, it remains to be seenl wlhether the ITTO producer countries can he conivinlced that the Trade and Forests timber-consLminig developed Countries are reallv willing Several mndependeilt liitiatives haive beeni laLinched hy (and altile) to applv thlese criteriii to their doinestic (andsts able) tor app these crirical toresthe domesti governimients, nongoverinmenital organizations (NGOs), and private-sector forest proponents-sometimes in concert witil one another-to influenice markets for World Commission on Forests and sustainably produced forest goods and services. Sustainable Development CITES Monitoring and Protection The independent World Commission on Forests and Sustainable Development (WCFSD) received a formal The Conventioni on Interinational Trade in Endangered mandate from the InterAction Council of Former Ileads Species of Wild Fauna anid Flora (CITES), which became of State and Government. WCFSD does not plan to effective in 1975 and now has 128 member countries, produce a specific international instrumient. Rather, it is a binding international treaty regulating trade in hopes to generate consensus and resolve conflict on the wildlife and plants to help protect species threatened dual role of forests in preserving natural habitats and with extinction. promoting socioecononmic developmeint; on the linkages Commercially important timber species were not between data, science, and policv; and on the importance listed in CITES until 1992, when international trade in of cooperation between developed and developilng COUn- Brazilian rosewood (Dalbergia nigra) was banned (54). tries in determining priorities on forest issues '4S) W44. Trade in more thani a dozen other timber species is either A number of working panels are being created to baniied or strictly controlled (i55. supplement WCFSD. These panels will address the sus- In 1 994, a contentious battle erupted between the tainable and equitable use and manageinent of forest signatory countries over the proposed listing of mahog- resources; trade and the environmenit; and financial an v(Svietenia mlacropbllla). The proposal was defeated mechasisis, international agreemenits, and the roles of anid further resulted in the delisting of several African iiiterilatioilal institutions s(mo (Si. timber species (561. As a result, the Timber Working 212 Worhl Resources 1996-9.7 Forests and Land Cover GroLip was established to examine the relationship of socially beneficial, and economically viable manage- CITES to the international timber trade i-l. ment of the world's forests. It is governed by a ninc- It remains to be seen whether CITES can he used to member board of environmentil, social, and economiic more actively monitor timber species or whether it will representatives elected by the membership. In 1994, belimitedtonimplemenitationonlvyafterthiereisscientific FSC adopted a set of principles and criteria for the consensus that a botanical species is indeed threatened sustainable managemlenit of forests, as well as guidelinies with extinction, on how to conduct field inspectionis and verify the chain of custocdy of certified forest products as they travel International Tropical Timber Agreement from the forest to the store shelf 61i. The International Tropical Timber Agreemenit (ITTA) In I 995, FSC developed a rigorous fr3mework for of 1983 is a bindinig agreement governing the trade of the evaluation, accreditation, arid monitoriing of organi- tropical timbers and, by extension, tropical forests. zations that issue certificationi claims in the marketplace When the ITTA was renegotiated in 1 994 after it s2), aS well as guidelines for developing regional forest expired, many criticized the secretariat for focusing too management standards and a protocol for endorsing much on individuial projects of qIuestionable qualitv national certificationi initiatives. National initiatives rather than on issues relevant to the broader trade, based on the FSC guidelines are under developimient in environment, and policy reform goals of the agreement. more than 12 couLntries, ranging from Brazil to Swedeni Furthermore, many argued that a renegotiated ITTA to Indonesia t. Althoulgh FSC had 4 years of extensive should include binding requiremnents for reachingTTarget consultations worldwide, some indLustrv associationls 2000 and significant new funding to assist producer and governments criticize it as being antti-inidustry and countries in achieving Target 2000 and should be ex- having overlv inflexible principles as well as being too panded to include all timlbers, including temperate and driven by a "green" agenda and too depenident on boreal sources (so. In the end, the agreemeneit's scope was Linproven auditors ((641. Nolnetheless, as the first internia- not expanided and Target 2000 remained a noilbinding tional programil entdorsed by major retailers to CIesuirc agreement. The consuming counitries did, however, public confidenice in marketilig claimiis (particularly in commit themselves to a parallel but separate effort for Western Euirope). it w&ill set the tone for how sustaill- the sustainable maniageinenit of temperate and boreal ablity Is meaSured in forestry operations and in the forests (see Criteria and lindicators, ibove). Unfortul- verification of "green" claills. nately, the new agreement hals vet to be ratified bv a sufficient nImber of member countries. Major unre- Trade and Noneconomic Values of Forests solved issues include the ag,reement's continuLilg "dou- ble standard" problem, since it has not expanded its A vexing question for all trade initiatives is whether they scope to all forests; the ability of ITTO's project ap- can shift the trade and environnient debate away froni proach to grapple with needed policv reforms; and, inherent coniflicts and toward natuiral compleelineitarity. ultimatelv, ITTO's ability to promote sustainabilitv Trade liberalization and environmenltal objectives share within the tropical tiniber trade (S9). a commnilio goal-to use available resources mor-e effi- ciently (s5. To the extent that regulatory interventiolns Forest Stewardsbip Council can pull ecological, social, and cultural valIues into the Given the frustrations and spotty perfornmanice of inter- miiarketplace, such actions will promote niore efficienit governmental agreemenits, several concerned NGOs resouirce use. Conversely, trade liberalization measures and private-sector groups have launclhed volintarv ef- that inhibit the recognition of these values in the moar- forts to harness market forces to promote trade in forest ketplace and thalt in effect pass the associated costs on products from well-managed forests. However, nmany to societv are undesirable, Just as eiivironiinential objec- critics seriously question the ability of timber certifica- tives shoLIld be pursued with the least restrictive impacts tion prograins to effect niore sustailnable practices, on trade possible, trade liberalization objectives that largely because the market has not proved willing to result in the least amount of environmnental danmage bear the additional costs O(1). One prominent initiative should also be puirsued 66. The success of these trade that has emerged in this area is the Forest Stewardshiip instrunients also depenids on their ability to capture the Coumicil (FSC). incremental costs of one couLntry deliverimig environ- FSC is an assembly of NGOs, indLstry repre- mentail benefits to others, as well as on the developnmenit sentatives, scientists, and indigenous peoples established of mechanisms that reconcile economic developilment in 1993) to promote the environnientally appropriate, with global eniviroiinienital goals between countries u6m). World Resources 1996-9)7 213 Forests and Land Cover References and Notes I.Bruce A. Wilcox and Kristini Diiin, "(1lobs) 23. Nigel [)Iidiey, Forests iii Trouble: .4 Rev'iew closed to openii, iiorest affected byv slitifrijig Forest Assessmenti: CLI rrent IlI 990 1-Poteit- r,ol i Sbc. itsu ci Teimperate Forests Wio1ld- eutiunvatiotn (preseince ot lolg fa Ilitw shifit- tia Forest Cover Difference as a Globail Fit- n-tide (Wo rid Wide Fuind fir Nituire. (,Iaiid, ilug CLiiltiic;t I iiiiil "anici (rat ion" IinciCCt oC i vironmenitaIi Indicator.' drs ft report Switzerla- id. I 992). pp. 67, l5i9. forest density or dleciease Of d ist Urbianice (Institute for Sustaintabie Developtiteit. 24. Williani AlVer`Sout. Walter Kkihluiiiautn. mid acid 'ctinversititi to platritotiii. Apirt frtott Mtenlo Pairk. C:tl ifornia, Septembher 1995), Dotia1d WaIler, Will F.iris/a: C,,Yiscriv.i/int the first aitd last chbsiie ca teptories, which Table I. Biij,g) n-dit Pu/ilic IP lic-il 1sla id Press. r-epreseit ind ui ise co nversi Ti, al1 ot hers 2. Food and Agricultu re O rganiizati ti n/ the Wa shi ngtocc, D.(C., 1 994), pl. 92-93. cz iii be cicisiderecd chl.tinges iit Itorest cioitdi- United Nations i FAOI, "Fuorest Resottrces 2-5. I bid.. P. 9 5 ttion. Assessment 1990: (oiio:l Syntrbesis."- FAO 26. taip'i. 23. p. I I. 1). K.D. Singb. Prtoject COotrdinttor, Ftirust Re- Forestry Paper 1 24 (FAO, Rttite. 1995t. p. si iUIrLes A scsmesncit Prt ;ecr. Fol ii ind Agri- ix. 27 Jeery Fr.iikliii, "Srrituttral itiid Fa'tciriiia1 CuL tuLire O)rpaiiizatioiu if the Ulniietl Nationts, 3. KU. Singh atid Auttotuiri NI.urzuulu, 'Delores- [)~~isersity iii Temperatce Forests.' in Buodi- Ronle, I 195 l per,,InoIut:tl InLII coutuuic utuitu)II .3. KD. Sigh ald Aii(iiic, Mazoli,"Defoesi'ercltt. Ft)O. Wilsoin. ed. (Narisitil Atad- tatiton Trenids iii the Trotpics: A Trittue Series -lll Press. Wa shtington, D.C1., 1988, pp. 401. Ibid. Analysis.' paiper presented at the World I 6hb-l6,7. 4 1. o p. cit. 2, p. 1 8. Wildlife Ftiitd Conference otn Pitteittial Ini- 1 .O .ct 3 1 1 P t 9 pact of Clintate Change Ott TroptcalI For- 28 (.;.i.23p.5.4. O.ci.i. ests. San jitan. Puerto Rico, April 1995, pp. 29. Alexatidre IK(itotko% stud Tint Peck.,Firs 41. Op. iit. 2. pp. 38-319. 8-9. R,siiureces of tlte Iniditsrrit liced Couitittries: 44 N nLglyB dir,AtotaveS te 4. All dev-elotped citiititries. ittclitdiigp the cttiii1- At C /A se r-t-r"Utslj onictut Of PI'rtCipleS Oit tlte N iangemuecut, tries of the foriiter Soitsit U.1niioi, Israel, atid 44 o 4 l9 p 32.Cu itservartitit .tnd Stistani table IDevelt putucuc Atustraliai;, are cotnsidered tetttperate i/itvcl- 311. Bill NicKiblieii. Aii Expluo iton itf( Crceii.' of All Types otf Fiorests.'' Lnitedi Nitsions oped countries. Temtperatte i/ete/mpting coiint- The A t/intiti Nfonthiiiv, Vi I. 275, Nt. 4 (Cinfe retice i n iEnvr iirolnent aiid D(!VVIOiP. tries iticlude all cotuntries of North Africa (April I 9951, p. 63. iiieitt, Rut cli Janeurit Brazil,jlitie 1992. .tnd the Middle Fast. [esotho, Swazilanid, 3 1. O p. , it. 19. P. l 79. 45S. NipeI Sizer-. -' C)ppi rtkitiiii cti( Satvc a til Sus- South A frici, China. Koreci, Montsigoli a, Ar- 32. 1 )p. cit 19.~ p. I 9.5. ta inta/cl Ulse the WiorId's Fi resi, Titroulgh rrnie id a regteiipna/ Citti iies. Al tercu- 3.3. Op. citi. 1 9. pp. l9 , l )7. lItteritatitital CO:itipir.ttiiii." WRI Issues rries are tropical counrrie,. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~at d I deas ) Wielid esi tiirces lusIRtCiit, Wash- 5. Op. iii. 2. p. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ~34. Steplieti Frioinbunl.tk. "Tlie Nioitherni Forest: intgti ti. D~.C. 1994. p. 7. Cotuttrvatiion Bioilogy. Ptillic Policy. and a 6. Op. iti. 2, Ancitex 2. p. 43. Faiil itre if RegiiiT.IAPIt K inintg." Fium/.iigi'rde46 Ibi,pp. X-10. 7. Op. cit. 2, An tiex I, Table 4. p. 17. .Spi, w' U pidaie. Viil. iI 1 Nit. I 2 1 i)94 1 pp. 47. Pet iTenipire Sec:reta riti, Aituazout Cu itperi- 8. Op.eit.2.p. 17. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7-8. tiitt Treatv, Tirupotioi Priipiisil (in Critceria 9. Op. cit. 2, p. 8 and Atuesi I . pp. I 7- I .3.5. Op. , it. .1(1. p. a/ ntl hiidic.itiors ii Siistitu,ility1114 ftirthte Autri- 9. Op. cit. 2 p. 8 and Anicx 1. pp. I36. The Fiiriipeani Cet mitt isotn ~Fl : and tht- z.ii -otre,ts- Acua,iii7o Treaty Org.ti ci t- 111. Op. cit. 2, Aitnex I, Tablc 4,p. PP 1-21. UntdNiusFoiitcCrmtsiiifrTutu. Litna. Peru., leltruijev 25, 199i. II -. Op. c it. 2. Annex I, p. 17 FLitrope )IUNIF( :F). Ctiiiveitiiti ott Long- 48. Wotrld (itotunissiout oii Foitests jttii Stistatii- I12. Op. cit. 2, P. 2 I . K a uty Teaiishiiuiida ry Air PitllIution, lnittr- aible [teveliopmteiti. " Note Icy the Seccr ren - nautional (IIo-Operarivr Prograitine aniit," FirsNt NIeceitiig if tite Wicrld 1 3. Op. 1 it. 2, Attnex I. p. 21). Assessnient aiiiid Mlinitoiritig ot Ate Poiiti- Comiunussiont in Fiirests :itii SiISt.iiaittClDeIc- 14. Op. cit. I . tiliii F ffecrs tin Fiirests, F,crest Cintiiticiii v elo piitciit. \Woods Hole Resear chl Ceittee. I S. Op. cit. I , pp. 1-2. Fiurii/c: P,csuilts if tbii I 9(~4 iiurivc Wi idi liolIe, Nlaissuchusetis, Itutie 195 16. Worl Resoures Instture in olLihOrtiOn FC:-U NIFCF., Brussels. (eneva. I 995). PP. 49. Wo rlid Cwniiiutissiiti iit Fo,resis .tnd Suistaint- with rIte UJnited Natriotns F tE ttittonenti Ptro. 2 I, (2. ,tble DeveItopmnitt, ' Fore-ts anid Stist,t n.ible graittme and the Uliiited Naitiotts Develtop- 37. The satellite sceiies uised were Oilt,i ii I'il n [esli pttieti : Ati Issues Pa per,- First Nlcet- menr Plrogranflume, World Rr'wiUnit carious ciit es bec.tiuse iof t he d/ifficuuilie iiiiil iitg if thc- Wotrldl C oniiuntisuii On Fuirests b994-95 (Oxfi ird Un iversitv Press. Ness rtiuiti u quiality. cliiiii-fr.ec 1u1ages Ii i large aTiii SUtAist.t us Ise I)t e pmienri Wi iods Hi le l'Vtik. 1994) p. 308. regiions fur aITIV iOiii pi inT in t inie. I itiages ofi Researecl ( eitt,r, Wi i ds Hi Ic: Ni a ssaC11 i- 1~~~. Op. cit. 3, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~. 8. ~~~~each samp1le site swere taken rokuughh IOlsis . tt 1993. 1 7. Op. cit. .3, p. S. v~~~~~~earis a pairi, isit h the latest sceuc t akeii clo se 50-. K. A. HiiLigitiit. 1 be Wiiids HioIe Reseatrch I18. Op. cit. 3, p. 9. to I 990Q C cuttr, Wioo ds Hiile. N-1;CIIa sclistOts. .tiite 19. Reed Noss anld Al letil Cooiperrider. Sai ittg 38. The resuilts prodLiced by the Fiorest Re- 1995 I persioiia IC011i iiiiit ti ia ri1it . Natuire's Legacy: Protecting anid Restoring son rces Assessitietit I 990 priitect ci tisisted SiI . Wi t ds hiole Resear ch Cen~tee. ''\c rld Birodit-iraity (Island Press, Washinugrtot, of tratusiruon itiatrices if tnittc-bc-iiiite lanid Commuunissionu iii Foirests 11CiitciilIeS Its First D.C:., 1 994), pp. 1 90-I 92. 197. Co'Ver clus,ses, twhicli aullocwed :i detailed isierctitg" (Woitill Hole Rheseureli C>mter. 201. F AO's Current cositiriy-level diuta liar pla ita- antalIysis iif Ianid ciover chanoges. rhe c hingges WVt d~ Hli , NIiass,ichlitiers. I 995). P. sX. ruOms hasvc beett adj tisted downiward to in- arc grotipeid into seten tn.uit ca tegirites: 'de- Clitide estimatied sumvivcal rates. Se Siou c urcestiit ii tIe sto itcc cies 2 'epitvci i if tenFrst Paess in it Fo the, C SI) I and Technicail Noties ftir Data Table Y2.. nt perimitet agriciiltiirt itr patstiire wirli tciscuueuu .ie i irss -. 21. Op. cit. 2, Antics I .Table 4, lip- 1721. ~~ ~~~~~Itij i l.I is taf ii,riii,, liid i so, 'i/cit) idfocsr,t- Sept,euibee 199/ .' .Ea,tu Buiiiuii id R/c- 21. Op. cit 2, Aniiex , Table 4, p. 7-21.tiosi tic othter w....lcude laud" ihis. iif '-forest" imt. V,cI. I)3, Nii. 11 )Stpiiitbicr I 8. 1/9.51 22. Foitd acid Agricultuire Orgatizatioti if rite citttiitionriic/ie to SeVT-er degrdadtiiii Of The pp. 1- 12. Ulnited Na tioits I FAC I "Foucest Restittrces tree cuicer or to sh(irt flotIwut .gricil tii re). 5 3. ".Rointut Stititi-etti ut Fcresrry," 'First NIitms- Assessiinetit I1990: 1eropicail Coiititttries. " " fra guuc iltsrioin" ) friicm Liutit nHiiitIS [rest t ri.i IMNt-cti ng i n Fi`uresrry. Fo i di .t tii Agrt- FAO Forestry Paper II1 2 i FAO0, Riimie, corer to isioIsted fiirest patches, "degyri da- Ciilikire Orp.uni zartin i ,I i le Lliii ted Na itiiiis 1993). pp. 52-53. Linici" ir cdicriiii oii fiiecst c.uuipv, froiit Rutuie. N1:rchli 199. 214 WVorld Resontrc-es 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover 54. Coivention oni Initernatirinal T rade in Eni- World Conservation Unlion (IUCNI. IUCN Certification Bodies" (FSC, Oaxaca, Mex- dingered Species (CITES) Secretatriat, "The E.in,ronmetital Law Centre, Bonn, Ger- ico. 1 994). Cll ES Tiniber Working Group: Aui Oppor- niany. April 1995, p. 7. 63. Op. cit. 58. tuiiitv to Resolve IssuIes Related to Ltsting 59. Nigel Sizer, "Opporiunities to Save and Sus- Timber Species nit the CITES Appenidices."' tainahbl Use rhe World's Forests Through 64. Bruce Cabarle, Chair ot Forest Stewardship Tropical Fi,r,sti Update, Vol. 5, No. 3 (Sep- International Cooperation.' WRI Issues Council and Director of Forestry and Land tciitber 1995), p. 4. and Ideas (World Resources Iltstrirte., 'Wash- Use, World Resources Institute, Washing- s5. In ternat ional Tropical Timiber Orgaitiztatioti ingron, D.C., 1 994), p. 6. ton, D.C., I 995 (personal c(iinnuiiicationE (ITTO), -wh.r Is (:ITES: An Internlationall i 60. Brtice Caharle el al.. Certification Accredi- 65. Robert Repetto, "Trade and Environment otn,eritVoln Explain.3ed, Troipi, For est 9 p- t itoli: The Need for Credible Claims" Policies: Achieving Coniplemetitarities and Vloirnal o/ F,,rei'v, Vol. 93, No. 4 (April Avoiding (otiflicts," World Resources insh- 56. Ntorten Blorner, "Two Vievws oii the Role 1995 , pp. 12-16. t/lcf Issues and Ideas (World Resources In- of CITES: Froiti the Timber Tride.' Treopi- stittite, Washitigton D).C., 1993). p. 1. ,al F,r'st Update. Vol. 5i No. 3 (September 61. Forest Stesvardship CoLincil IFSC), "FSC 1995), p. s. Principles itnd Criteria for Natural Forest 66. Ibid. 5S 7. Cp. cit. 54. Mattigement" itid "FSC Guidelines tor Cer- tifiers" (FSC, O:txaca, Mexico, 1994i. 67. Uttam Dabholkar, Priticipal Officer, Global 58. Richird G. Tarasoitk). "Developitig the Envirotiiiienr Faciirs, The World Bank, Curreitt iiternaitionil Forests Regime: Soilie 62. FItrest Stewardship Couincil (FSCi, 'FSC Washingtot, D.C., 1995 (personal comniu- Leg.d I td Phles Issues," discussioti pa per, NIManial I for Evalaition .itd Acereditatinti oi niciition). World Resouirces 1996-97 215 Data Table 9.1 Land Area and Use, 1981-93 Population Land Use (000 hectares) Land Density Domsticated Cropland Permanent Pasture Forest and Woodland Other Land Area 1995 Land as a % Change So Change % Change °hChange (000 (per 1,000 % of Since Since Since Since hectares) hectares) Land Area (a) 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1991-83 1991-93 1981-83 WORLD {b) 13,098,404 436 38 1,450,834 1.3 3.364.537 3.6 4,168.956 (3.6) 4,114,077 (0.5) AFRICA 2,963,611 246 35 187,357 5.8 853,049 1.2 760,576 (3.1) 1,162,630 (0.3) Algeria 238174 117 16 7938 70 3C,752 t3.2 3.963 3150 895.5106 jOS AMgoLa 124670 89 26 3483 25 29.000 0.0 51.917 13 1 40.270 391 Benin I1082 489 21 1877 41 442 0.0 3.407 112 0 5.137 7.3) Botswana 56.673 26 46 420 50 25.600 0.0 26.500 00 4.153 00 Buima Faso 27.360 377 35 3564 235 6.000 0.0 13.800 00 3996 170 Burundi 2.568 2.489 89 1.357 39 915 0.5 85 00 211 263 Camei,we 46.540 284 19 7033 12 2.000 0.0 35.900 00 1607 52 Central Afrcan Rep 62.298 53 8 2015 29 3.000 0.0 46.700 0. 10.583 n5 Chad 125.920 Sl 38 3239 28 45.000 0.0 32.400 0.0 45.29' 02 Cmogo 34.150 76 30 170 116 10.G00 0.0 21.120 10.9) 2.860 (6.4) Cote dloire 31.800 448 53 3.703 167 13900 00 7.080 2441 8017 121.9) Egypt 99.545 632 8 2,760 117 4.934 127 31 00 91.820 0.9 Equatorial Gumea 2.805 143 12 230 0.0 104 00 1.2Q7 0 1 I i 74 0.1 Ertrea 10.100 350 60 1.280 X 1 600 x 2.000 5 5Xs220 93.5 Ethopoa 110.100 500 53 13.930 0.0 4-825 15oi 26950 (3.4) 24.395 (5.81 Gabon 25.767 51 20 459 1.5 4 700 00 19 900 (0.5) 708 H12.7) Gambia. The 1.000 1118 27 180 13.0 90 07 280 0.0 450 46 Ghana 22.754 767 41 4.320 23.4 5000 o0 7943 (901 5.491 2.4 Gunea 24572 273 25 730 2.4 5500 00 14.480 (3.9 3,862 14.61 Guinea-Bisau 2.812 362 50 340 137 1080 00 1.070 0.0 322 12.7 Kenya 56.914 497 45 4.517 5.5 21.300 0.0 16000 0.0 14.297 1.7 Lesotho 3 035 675 76 320 10.4 2.000 00 80 (4 8S 635 4.1 Lbena 9675 314 63 374 09 5.700 0.0 1 707 132) 1.994 (1361 Lib5a 175.904 31 3 2 167 35 13,330 C0. 840 35.1 59.647 (02 Madagascar 58154 254 47 3.104 33 24.000 on 23.200 0.0 7.850 13 Malawi 9.408 1.183 38 1.697 221 1.840 0.0 3.700 f1 li 2.171 123 Ma) 122019 88 27 2270 106 30.000 n 6,907 339) 82843 101) Maunlana 102522 22 38 207 62 39.250 0.0 4.413 121) 58.652 10.1) Maurltius 203 5.502 56 106 0.9j 7 0.0 44 (24 i 46 f32 6) Moirou 44.630 606 69 9 781 15 9 20.900 .O0 8.290 6.0 5.659 32.0 Mozambique 78.409 204 60 3.163 27 44.000 0.0 1.4053 17.7) 17.192 16.31) Narnibia 62.329 19 47 662 G.5 38900 0.0 18.030 1.8) 25637 H1.3) Niger 126.670 72 10 3.605 15 8.913 i3.4i 2.500 08 111652 (52) Nigena 91.077 1,227 79 32.368 61 40990 00 11.400 (203) 7309 114.1) Rwanca 2,467 3.223 66 1.107 8.5 453 (152i 550 (4.8) 297 (5.8) Senegal 19,253 432 28 2.350 0.0 3.100 00 10467 (4.4) 3.336 (14.5) Sierra Leone 7.162 630 38 540 5.6 2.203 (01. 2.043 (2.9) 2.376 (1.41 Somalia 62.734 147 70 1.032 2.2 4300o 00 16000 6.7 2.702 37.8 South Africa 122.104 340 77 13.177 (01) 81378 10.0: 8.200 0.0 19.349 (0 1i Sudan 237.600 118 52 12.950 3.6 110.000 12.2 1.1 340 16 U) 70.310 13.6 Swaziland 1720 497 73 191 35.4 1070 (6.5) 118 157 341 125i Tanzania 88359 336 44 3.500 19.2 35.000 0.0 332500 14.41 16.359 (31.0, Togo 5439 761 48 2430 30 200 00 933 .BS 1.876 i0.9 Tunisia 15.536 573 52 4 897 22 3.525 5.1 664 18.8 6.451 59 Uganda 19.965 1.067 43 6763 13.4 1.800 0.0 5503 i7.7i 5.898 58 Zaire 226.705 194 10 7.893 2.9 15.000 0.0 173.860 1.71 29.952 96) Zanmba 74,339 127 47 5.27 2.2 339300 0.0 28,727 2 3; 13341 isE) Zmbabwe 38.685 291 20 2864 34 4.856 0.0 8.800 774j 22 165 i27) EUROPE (c} 2.269.180 320 X 136.757 (2.7) 80,794 (5.6) 158.219 1.4 808,204 0.2 Albania 2.740 1.256 41 702 10.8) 42441 47 1.050 2.3 564 66 Austna 8.273 963 42 1.505 (581 1.978 72i 3.228 11.0; 1.557 110.81 Besaru. Rep 20.780 488 45 6.255 (1.7) 3.128 i62i 7.009 l5.2) 4369 116.0) Begiunm(d) 3.282 3.205 52 1.007 306 691 d94i 700 04 635 109 Bosniaand Herzegonua 5.100 678 38 1.007 X 1007 X I.1G0 X 927 4504 Bulgana 11.055 793 SS 4.267 2.8 1878 (74) 3.875 0.9 1035 11.51 Croalia Rep 5.592 804 42 1.415 (13.2) 1.247 i21.2i 2.081 23 849 199.51 Czech Rep 7.728 1 332 54 3.293 X 873 X 2 629 X 933 728.3 Denimark 4.243 1.221 65 2.549 133) 206 .1491 445 (9.71 1.043 (16.31 Eslona, Rep 4.227 362 34 1.146 5.2 312 16.8) 1986 19.2 783 57.2 Finland 30.461 168 9 2.560 21 116 (23.6) 23198 )0 58 4,587 (23i France 55.010 1054 55 19297 16 11.023 1128) 14884 2.0 9.806 (10 4 Germany 34927 2336 50 12.009 37i 5.274 (11.0; 11.700 4.0 6.943 (1 111 Greece 12890 811 68 3506 11 2i 5.253 (0.0) 2620 0.0 1.510 (2941 Hungary 9.234 1.095 66 5.077 442i 1.165 (9.2) 1726 61 1.266 (192i Iceland 10.025 27 23 6 i20.8i 2.274 0.0 120 00 7.625 100) ireland 6889 516 81 926 I122i 4.691 0.5 320 0)8) 951 ""1.1 Italy 29.406 1.945 55 11915 13.7; 4.264 (15.7) 6.769 62 6439 (132) Lamia, Rep 6.205 412 41 1.715 11.3) 822 9. 0 12.507 (56) (80839) 78 lithuania. Rep 4.55' 813 77 3.043 (3.68 453 151 1 .980 10 i930) 18.9 Macedonia. former Yugoslau Rep 2.543 851 51 663 X 636 X '.002 X 242 9523 Moldova Rep 3.297 1.344 79 2.202 (0.4) 378 80 421 743 296 675 Nelhedands 3.392 4.570 59 922 120 1065 (101, 343 159 1061 2.4 Norway 30.683 141 3 888 5.8 120 184 8.330 0.0 21.344 0.3 Poland. Rep 30.442 1261 61 14.694 (0.9) 4043 (06) 8.779 09 2.926 (2.71 Podugal 9 195 1 068 44 3.168 0.7 839 o01 3.293 12 3 19894 20.2 Romana 23.034 991 64 9.974 (5.3) 4820 87 8861 1 8 1559 (3.5) Rssuan Federation 1.699.580 86 12 133.141 ;18 77.985 16.8) 778.512 1.9 7090941 0.9 Slovak Rep 4.808 1.113 51 1.623 X 825 X 1.990 X 370 1.1983 Sloaena. Rep 2.012 967 43 302 X 559 X 1.018 X 133 1.4128 Spain 49944 793 80 19897 i29i 10.281 (27) 1.970 2.4 3.796 (136i Sweden 41 162 213 8 2779 5.8 573 8.9) 28000 (I 9.809 )29 Switzerland 3.955 1.821 40 449 91 1.279 120.5) I 185 12.7 1.C.2 (153, Ukraine 57.935 887 72 34.458 291 7.471 66 10.278 364 5.728 37.9 UotedKingdom 24.160 2.411 71 6.442 777, 11.112 (1.6) 7.424 120 4.182 (l1.0i Yugoslavia. Fed Rep X X X 7.730 1 4. 6.352 (0.61 9.120 i1.4i (23.2021 12 216 World Resources 1990-97 Data Table 9.1 continued Population Land Use (000 hectares) Land Density Domesticated Cropland Permanent Pasture Forest and Woodland Other Land Area 1995 Land asa %Change % Change %°Change %°Change (000 (per 1,000 % of Since Since Since Since hectares) hectares) Land Area (a) 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981-83 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA fe) 2,178,176 209 29 271,300 (0.9) 362,033 0.1 854,897 5.7 689945 6.3 Belize 2.280 94 5 57 75 48 91 2.100 00 75 107 Canada 922.097 32 8 45.523 (13) 27933 133t 494.000 116 354.640 14.0 Costa Rica 5.106 671 56 530 35 2.337 91 1.570 (52) 670 191 Cuba 10.982 1 005 57 3.337 38 2,970 11.4 2,403 (92) 2273 80 Dominican Rep 4.838 1,617 30 1.449 14 2 0.0 608 13 7 2.780 (0 1) El Salvador 2072 2.784 65 731 08 610 0.0 104 It88t 627 129) Giatemala 10.643 980 41 1.817 23 2,534 918 5,271 17.4 1.221 1666 Haiti 2755 2.605 51 908 13 495 (23) 140 00 1212 (00) Honduras 11 189 509 32 1,904 7.7 1.511 0.7 6,000 00 1.774 83 Jamaca 1083 2259 44 219 48) 257 00 184 45) 423 147) Mexico 190.869 491 52 24,727 0.2 74.499 00 48,700 4.1 42.943 46 Nicaragua 11875 373 57 1,272 10 5.483 97 3.223 (24.3) 1.896 (28.4) Panama 7.443 353 29 658 1S0 1 487 109 3260 (18.(1) 2.038 (23.8) TnndadandTobago 513 2.546 26 121 34 11 00 235 31 146 7.6 UniledStates 957.311 275 45 187,776 (1.2) 239172 (04) 286400 (2.0) 243.963 (38) SOUTH AMERICA 1,752,925 182 34 104,567 1.6 495,884 3.9 846,721 (4.1) 305,753 (5.2) Argentna 273.669 126 62 27,200 00 142.033 107) 50so900 00 53,536 (1.8) Boliva3 108.438 68 27 2.373 11 1 26517 (1 7) 58001) 00 21.549 (1.1) Brazl 645.651 191 28 50560 03 185.767 68 488.833 (481 120.491 (103) Cnile 74.880 190 24 4293 03 13583 37 16500 00 40504 12 Colomboa 103,870 338 44 5450 42 40.567 48 49.633 15.8) 8.220 (12 1) Ecuador 27,684 414 18 3.012 202 2,091 (001 15.600 06 6981 87 Guyana 19.685 42 9 496 02 1.230 0.5 16.413 03 1546 33 Paraguay 39.730 125 60 2.258 19.3 21.600 306 12.983 1325) 2.888 (28.6) Peru 128500 186 24 3,630 07 27,120 0.0 84.800 O1t 12.450 10.21 Sunname 15.600 27 1 68 24.4 21 68 15.000 0.8 511 264 Uruguay 17481 182 85 1,304 658) 13.520 (06) 930 0.0 1,727 (105) Venezuela 88.205 248 25 3.912 4.1 17.783 28 29.828 182) 365682 (55) ASIA (c( 3,089.163 1,119 X 470,322 2.9 799,86t 12.9 533.087 (1.9) 958,376 9.1 Afghanistan, Islamic State 65 209 309 58 8,054 0.0 30 000 0 0 1 900 0 0 25.255 0 0 Armema 2.840 1.267 X X X X X X X 2,840 0.0 Azerbaeian 8,610 878 49 2.000 2 0 2.233 (4 1) 960 (12 5) 3.417 (5 7) Bangladesn 13.017 9.252 79 9,703 61 600 00 1898 (122) 818 363 Bhutan 4,700 349 9 133 67 272 25 3100 20.4 1.194 453 Cambodia 17.652 581 25 2.367 479 1967 2391 11667 (113) 1652 400 China 932.641 1.310 X 95.975 (331 X X X Xt 836.666 (0.4) Georga Rep 65970 783 43 993 03 2.033 198) 2.717 (61) 1227 (322) India 297,319 3.147 61 169.547 06 11533 (4 1 68.330 14 47909 30 Indonesia 181 157 1.091 24 30993 192 11.778 (1 3) 111,258 (37, 27130 21 Iran, IsamicRep 163.600 411 38 18.057 221 44,000 00 11.400 00 90143 36 Iraq 43.737 468 22 5.450 01 4.000 0.0 192 00 34095 00 Israel 2.062 2.730 28 435 48 145 127 124 12.7 1.358 37 Japan 37.652 3.322 14 4.511 (56) 656 9.8 25,187 (0.0) 7.299 137) Jordan 8.893 612 13 404 18.4 791 0.1 70 66 7.628 09 Kazakhstar, Rep 266980 64 83 35.328 (16) 186452 (1.0) 9,600 i6s) 35.600 186) Korea. Dem Peoples Rep 12041 1 986 17 2010 4.5 50 00 2 0.0 9,979 09 Korea Rep 9873 4557 22 2,072 (49) 91 439 7.370 0.0 340 )23 1) Kuwait 1782 868 8 5 1500 137 20 6.464 (1.4) (4,824) 18 KyrgyzReP 18130 248 54 1,387 (3.9) 8.943 (1.7) 2 0.0 8.798 (24) Lao Peoples Dem Rep 23.080 212 7 807 11 6 803 0.0 703 (11 3) 20.770 (001 Lebanon 1.023 2.941 31 306 27 10 00 2.819 23 (2.112) t34) Malaysia 32.855 613 15 4.680 04 27 00 20.347 (1.8) 7.601 (46) Mongolia 156,650 15 81 1.399 11 1 124.800 1 1 13750 (94) 16.701 0.6 Myanmar 65.755 708 16 10,061 (01) 359 (07) 32397 09 22.938 1.2 Nepal 13,680 1.602 32 2.354 15 2.u00 42 5.750 44 3.576 9.9 Oman 21246 102 5 62 49.6 1.o00 00 X X 20.184 0.1 Pakistan 77.088 1,823 34 22 890 124 5.000 0 0 3.470 14 5 45.728 65 PhIppines 29.817 2.267 35 9 177 38 1.277 17.1 13.600 134 5.764 370 Saidi Arabia 214.969 83 58 3 719 75 7 120,000 41.2 1.800 36 7 89 450 41 5 Singapore 61 46,689 X 1 t84 2) X X 3 00 57 (9.4) Sri Lanka 6,463 2.840 36 1.903 21 439 01 2.126 21.4 1995 207 Syrar Arab Rep 18.378 798 75 5.770 08 89018 (40) 679 37.9 3.911 (25) Tapkistan. Rep 14.270 428 31 836 )7 21 3.507 1.1 535 7.8 9.391 01 Thailand 51.089 1 151 42 20.775 94 797 172 13.557 138) 15.980 I1.7) Turhey 76,93 805 52 27.583 0.6 12.378 226 20.199 00 16.803 146 Trlnaielmstan, Rep 48610 84 77 1,462 (39.1) 36,274 0.8 4000 110.4) 7,074 (1601 Unmed Arab Emrates 8.360 228 3 39 36.0 200 00 3 0.0 8,118 01 Uzbekista-, Rep 42.540 537 63 4.728 4.6 22.183 (5.9) 1.323 (425) 14,306 (15 1) Vilet Nanm 32549 2290 22 65607 0.4 328 79 9.639 (8.8) 19.975 5851 Yemen. Rep 52797 275 33 1,481 11 16.065 00 2.000 (33 3) 33,251 (30) OCEANIA 845,349 34 57 51,619 4.3 430,738 (3.7) 199,962 24.4 163.030 15.2 Australia 754.444 24 60 46.579 38 416567 (37) 145.000 368 1565298 15.9 Fp 1.827 429 24 257 428 174 34 1 1 185 00 211 57.6 NewZeaand 26.799 133 65 3,831 94 13577 (531 7.377 35 2.014 (83) Papua New Guinea 45.286 95 1 412 11 1 81 H1731 420 0 00 2.793 0.9 Solomon Isands 2.799 135 3 57 82 39 00 2.450 (35) 253 (33.9) Sources Food and Agncult tre Organization of the Unoed Nations the United Nations Population Division and other sources Notes a Domesticated 'and is the sum of cropland and permanent paslure b Does no m,clude Anlarctica c Regional lard use totals do not radcle countries of Ihe lormer Soviet Union d Includes Luxembourg. e Includes Greenland. Reg onal totals include countr es riot listed. 0 = zero or less than half the un t ol measure. X = not available. negative numbems are shown in parentheses For additioalahnlormalon. see Sources and Tecnnical Notes W or-l Resoer-ces 1996-97 217 Data Table 9.2 Forest Resources, 1981-90 Forest Area Annual Logging of Closed Forest and Other Total Natural Other BroadleafFoest, 1981-90 Wooded Land Forest Forest Plantation Wooded Land (000 ha) 1990 Annual % 1990 Annual% 1990 Annual% 1990 Annual% 1990 Annual % %ot % That Extent Change Extent Change Extent Change Extent Change Extent Change Extent Closed Is Primary (OOOha) (1991-90) (OOOha) (1981-90) (OOOha) (1981-90) (OOOha)9 0) (O-90) (OOOha) (1981-90) 1990 Forest Forest WORLD 5,120,227 (0.19) 3,442,369 X X X X X 1,677,719 X X X X AFRICA 1,136,676 (0.24) 545,085 (0.70) 540,669 (0.73) 4.416 5.55 591,591 0.22 X X X North Africa 11.137 (0.62) 6b905 (0.281 59655 (1.11) 1.250 6.82 4,232 (1.11) X X X Algeria 3.945 X 2,039 0.88) 1.554 (1.96) 485 6.08 1.906 X X X X Egypt 34 X 34 1 97 0 X 34 1 97 0 X X X X Libya 846 X 400 379 190 X 210 1098 446 X X X X Mo.oo 5.744 X 3.864 (0.42) 3543 (0 69. 321 4 26 1.680 X X X X Tumsia 569 X 569 0.92 368 0 48) 201 12 58 0 X X X X West Sahelian Africa 105.956 (0.27) 40.941 (0.64) 40.766 (0.68) 175 49.95 65.015 (0.02) 6 0.2 78 BurkmiaFaso 13.863 X 4436 (0.65r 4.416 0.67) 20 12.73 9,377 X 0 00 0 CapeVerde 76 X 16 778 6 000 10 23.33 62 X X X X Chad 32450 X 11438 0.72) 11434 (0.72) 4 7.78 21.012 X 0 00 81 Gamba. The 286 X 98 (0.75) 97 (0.76) 1 000 188 X 6 I I 0 Gunea-Bssau 2,162 X 2.022 (0.73) 2.021 (073) 1 006 140 X 5 0.6 90 Mali 28.791 X 12.158 (0.79) 12.144 (06 0r 14 143.85 16.633 X 0 0.0 0 Maurrtania 4.536 X 556 0.03 554 000 2 101 11 3.980 X 0 0.1 0 Niger 10.442 X 2.562 0.03 2.550 000 12 17.91 7880 X 0 0.0 0 Senegal 13.400 X 7.656 (052) 7.544 (064) 112 118.00 5.744 X 0 00 5 East Sahelian Africa 161.048 (0.38) 65,993 (0.80) 65,450 (0.83) 533 7.03 950065 (0.07) 4 0.1 65 Djinoutl 1.320 X 22 0 06 22 0.00 0 X 1.298 X X X X Ethiopia (a) 41.991 X 14.354 (0.18) 14.165 (0.27) 189 17.49 27.637 X 0 0.0 92 Kenya 16.816 X 1.305 (0.39) 1187 (0.551 118 158 15511 X 2 0.6 86 Somalia 15.945 X 758 (0.36) 754 (0 36i 4 0.06 15.187 X 1 0.6 0 Sudan 68.955 X 43 179 (0.991 42.976 (I 01i 203 7 58 25 776 X 0 0.0 0 Uganda 16.023 X 6366 (0.92) 6.346 092i 20 0.00 9657 X 1 0.1 61 West Africa 149,764 (0.06) 55.919 (0.94) 55,607 (0.96) 312 4.72 93.845 0.56 312 2.0 47 Benin 11.497 X 4.96) (I22i 4.947 (1.23) 14 6.67 6,536 X 0 0.3 57 CotedIvoire 18.962 X 10,967 (096) 10.904 (0.99) 63 10.04 7.985 X 85 76 34 Ghana 18.013 X 9.608 1241 9.555 (1.26) 53 2.47 8,405 X 11 0.7 19 Guinea 17.484 X 6.696 (I'4) 6692 (1.159 4 581 10.788 X 9 0.5 87 Libena 6.632 X 4.639 (0.52) 4.633 (O 52) 6 1.03 1 993 X 79 1.7 87 Nigeria 65.654 X 15785 (0.68) 15.634 0.71, 151 323 49.869 X 127 2.3 31 Siena Leone 6.969 X 1895 (0.60) 1.889 (061i 6 3.45 5074 X 1 0.2 0 Togo 4.566 X 1.370 (131T 1.353 1139) 17 2333 3196 X I 03 47 Central Africa 296,704 (0.19) 204,238 (0.52) 204.113 (0.53) 125 16.12 92.466 0.64 571 0.4 90 Cameroon 35.905 X 20,366 1056) 20.350 (0.57) 16 29.02 15,539 X 333 45 89 CeonalAhrican Rep 46.753 X 30.568 0.40) 30562 (0.41) 6 1.19000 16.185 X 3 0.0 93 Congo 25.285 X 19.902 (0.15) 19.865 (0.16) 37 21.73 5.383 X 78 0.4 89 EquatorialGuinea 2.719 X 1.829 0.37) .826 (0.37 3 0.00 890 X 5 0.3 88 Gabon 19,966 X 18256 (0.60) 18.235 iO606 21 579 1.710 X 126 07 93 Zaire 166.076 X 113.317 (0.60) 113.275 (0.61i 42 16.67 52759 X 26 0.0 95 Trooical Southern Africa 346.896 (0.21) 146.609 (0.821 145.869 10.84) 740 8.14 200287 0.30 9 0.1 38 Angola 77.198 X 23.194 (0.69i 23,074 (0.70) 120 0.88 54.004 X 1 0.0 5 Bolswana 26.561 X 14.262 (061 i 14.261 (0.51) 1 0.00 12.299 X X X X Burundi 1.314 X 325 2.49 233 (0.57) 92 59.43 989 X 0 00 0 Malaw 3724 X 3.612 (1.12) 3.4386 (.31) 126 12.42 112 X 0 0.0 0 Mozambique 55.881 X 17.357 (0.72) 17329 0.72) 28 538 38.524 X 1 0.0 40 Namibia 26.296 X 12.569 (0.33) 12.569 O333r a X 13.727 X X X X Rwanda 946 X 252 1.81 164 (0.24i 88 943 694 X 1 0.4 5 Tanzania 68.497 X 33.709 (1.13) 33.555 Ri 15j 154 12.52 34.788 X 2 0.2 77 Zambra 60.337 X 32.349 (I 06 32.301 ('O0) 48 7.78 27.988 X 5 02 34 Zimbabwe 28.144 X 8.961 (0.623 8.897 (0.54) 64 1.98 17.163 X 0 0.2 14 Temperate Southern Africa 41.712 (0.74) 8.361 (0.53) 7,317 (0.79) 1,044 1.82 33,351 (0.79) X X X Soulh Africa 41.543 X 8,208 (0.55) 7.243 (0.80) 965 1.91 33.335 X X X X Swaziland 146 X 146 005 74 0.00 72 010 0 X X X X Insular Africa 23,457 (0.37) 16,127 (0.75) 15892 (0.781 235 1.69 7,331 0.62 20 0.3 31 Comoros 41 X 11 (3.13) 11 (313i 0 X 30 X X X X Madagascar 23.225 X 15.999 (0.76) 15.782 1079) 217 1.65 7.226 X 20 0.3 31 Maurdus 44 X (2 1.32 3 000 9 1.84 32 X X X X ASIA 657,361 X 489,466 X X X X X 167.895 X X X X Temperate and Middle East Asia 252.339 X 192386 0.68 X X 33.566 5.80 59.953 (1.711 X X X Alghan,stan Islamic Stae 2.614 X 1.199 (0.03) 1 191 (0.03) 8 006 1.415 X X X X China 162.029 X (33.799 0.59 101.968 (038i 31.831 5.58 28.230 X X X X l,an. lslamic Rep 11.437 X 1737 ((.38) 1 656 1.650 79 16.33 9700 X X X X Imq 192 X 63 0.00 69 000 14 0.00 109 X X X X Israei 124 X 102 X X X X X 22 X X X X japarr 24218 (0.02) 24.158 X X X X X 560 X X X X Jordan 173 X 51 028 28 (2.00) 23 5.75 122 X X X X Korea. Dem Peoples Rep 7.370 X 6.170 143 4.700 0.00 1470 11.00 1.200 X X X X Korea. Rep 6.291 X 6.291 (0.02) 6211 (0.02) 0 0 O X I X X Lebanon 144 X 78 (0.71) 65 )085 1(3 000 66 X X X X Mongolia 13.741 X 9.406 0.00 9.406 0.00 X 4.335 X X X X Saudi Arabia 902 X 202 (1.85) 201 r1.866 1 0.00 700 X X X X Synan Arab Rep 484 X 245 2.85 118 (2.76) 127 3601 239 X X X X Turkey 20199 0.02 8866 X X X I I 11.343 X X X X Yemen 1.921 IX 9 0.00 9 000 0 IC 1.912 X IC X X South Asia 100.164 0.63 77,762 0.66 63,931 (0.79) 13.831 29.84 22402 0.52 62 0.2 17 Bangladesh 1.472 X 1.004 (2.02 769 (3.28) 235 1089 468 X 15 2.5 7 Bhutan 3J68 X 2,813 (0.54; 2.809 0.55) 4 1106 355 X 2 0.2 79 India 82.848 X 64.959 1(5 51.729 (0862 13.230 32.13 17.689 X 42 0.1 18 Nepal 5.751 X 5079 (0.90) 5.023 r0986 56 32 11 672 X X X X Pakislair 3,128 X 2023 (2.641 1.855 (2931 168 3.33 1 105 X X X X Sr Lanka 3.996 X 1.865 (1.00 1,746 (1.33) 139 7.84 2.113 X 3 0.2 3 218 World Resources 1996-97 Data Table 9.2 continued Forest Area Annual Logging of Closed Forest and Other Total Natural Other Broadleaf Forest, 1981-90 Wooded Land Forest Forest Plantation Woeded Land (000 ha) 1990 Annual % 1990 Annual% 1990 Annual % 1990 Annual% 1990 Annual % % of % That Extent Change Extent Change Extent Change Extent Change Fxtent Change Entent Closed Is Primary (OOOha) (1981-90) (OOOhn) (1981-90) (OOOhn) (1981-9O) (OOOha) (1681-90) (OOOhn) (1981-90) 1990 Foret Forest Continental South and East Asil 123.400 (0.81) 77,484 (1.36) 75,239 (1.49) 2,245 7.77 45.916 0.29 304 0.5 76 Cambodia 13.724 X 12.170 (097) 12.163 (0.97) 7 0.00 1.554 X 3 00 88 LaoPeoplesDemRep 21.436 X 13,77 (089) 13.173 (089) 4 538 8,259 X 9 01 94 M,anmar 49.774 X 29091 (1 161 28,856 (1 22) 235 4951 20683 X 198 0.7 90 Thailand 14,968 X 13.264 (2.68) 12735 (288) 529 1255 1 704 X 37 05 45 VetNam 23.499 X 9.782 (083) 8.312 1.421 1.470 5.03 13.717 X 58 12 45 InsularSouthEastAsia 181,458 (0.77) 141,834 (1.01) 135,425 (1.25) 6.409 11.12 39,524 0.21 1,721 1.5 85 Inndonesa 145,108 X 115674 (0.711 109,549 11 00) 6.125 11 82 29.434 X 1.223 1.4 86 Malaysia 22.248 X 17.664 (1.81) 17.583 (1 84, 81 3500 4.584 X 455 26 85 Philppules 13.640 X 8,034 1262) 7.831 (2.881 203 000 5,606 X 41 05 62 Singapore 4 X 4 0 0O 4 003 0 1X 0 X X X X THE AMERICAS 2,09908 (0.31) 1,424,206 (0.49) 959,704 (0.74) 7J765 7.09 584,801 0.17 X X X Temperate North America 749.239 (004) 456.737 X X X X X 292.552 (0 11) X X X Canada 453300 0.00 247,164 X X X X X 206,136 X X X X Unted States 295.989 i0 1 ' ) 209.573 X X X X X 86.416 1o 35) X X X Central America and Mexico 158.034 (0.50) 68,289 (1.39) 68,097 (1.40) 192 16.13 89.745 0.32 90 0.4 65 Costa Rica 1.569 X 1.456 12.44) 1 428 (2 07i 28 132 86 113 X 34 2 6 27 El Salsador 890 X 127 (I 85) 123 (2.061 4 37.06 763 X X X X Gurlenala 9846.& X 4.253 1 58) 4.225 l6 f1) 28 16.67 5,212 X 3 01 50 Hondoias 6,054 X 4608 (1 94) 4605 11 95) 3 101.11 1.446 X 2 01 19 Mexaco 129,057 X 48695 (1 211 48.586 11 22) 109 929 80362 X 4 00 94 Nicaragua 7.732 X 8.027 (1 69) 6013 (1711 14 14383 1.705 X 45 09 92 Panama 3266 X 3,123 (170) 3.117 (1.71H 6 14.00 143 X 3 01 71 Caribbean Subregion 50,98g (0.10) 47,447 (022) 47,138 (0.25) 309 11.31 3,543 1.90 42 0.1 73 Selize 2,117 X 1.998 (0241 1.996 (024) 2 000 119 X 3 0.2 5 Cuba 3,262 X 1,960 (0.19) 1715 (092) 245 1229 1.302 X 3 02 8 Domnican Rep 1530 X 1,084 (2 43) 1.077 (2.46) 7 7 54 446 X 0 0.0 61 Guyana 18755 X 18424 t0091 18.416 (0.10) 8 171.82 331 X 9 00 91 Haiti 139 X 31 (1 911 23 (395) 8 25667 108 X 1 77 11 Jamaica 653 X 254 (5.081 239 5s 29( 15 620 399 X I 0.4 91 Surname 15,093 X 14776 (0.08) 14768 (009) 8 441 317 X 11 01 94 T3-nidadandTotago 236 X 1568 75) 155 (593; 13 121 68 X 3 18 4 Nontropical South America 68,453 (0.53) 4283 10.47) 41,564 (0.62) 1,719 5.51 25,170 (0.62) X X X Argentina 50.936 X 34.436 (0957 33889 t0591 547 091 16.500 X X X X Chile 16.583 X 8.033 (0.07) 7 018 (0 791 1,015 11 61 8.550 X X X X Uriguay 933 X 813 012 657 (0.151 156 1.44 120 X X X X Tropical South America 982,242 (0.47) 809,450 (0.68) 802,905 (0.71) 5,545 7.24 173,792 0.71 2,445 0.4 90 Solimia 57.9T7 X 49.345 (I 121 49,317 (1 121 28 544 8.632 X 12 0.0 71 Brazil 671,921 X 566.007 6).58; 561 107 (061) 4.900 663 105.914 X 1.982 05 93 Colomba 63,231 X 54.190 1062) 54064 (0.64i 126 23.96 9,041 X 108 02 94 rcuador 15676 X 12,007 (165) 11.962 1.66; 45 4.85 3,569 X 152 13 96 Paraguay 19.256 X 12.868 (238) 12.859 e238) 9 350C 6.388 X 49 18 19 Pear 84,844 X 65090 (037) 67,906 1036) 184 921 16,754 X 69 0.1 85 Venezuela 69.436 X 45.943 (1 13) 45,690 (1 161 253 1916 23493 X 54 0.1 39 EUROPE 174,340 0.11 140,197 X X X X X 34,143 5.58 X X X Albana 1.449 001 1 046 X X X X X 403 X X X X Austna 3.977 0 38 3 877 X X X X X 0 X X X X Belgiam 620 0 32 620 X X X X X 0 X X X X Bulgaria 3.683 0 22 3.386 X X X X X 298 X X X X Czechoslovakia (lormeri 4491 0.04 4,491 X X X X X 0 X X X X Denmark 466 0 22 466 X X X X X 0 X X X X Finland 23.373 002 20112 X X X x X 3261 X X X X France 14,154 006 13.110 X X X X X 1,044 X X X X Germany 10.735 046 10.490 X X X X X 245 X X X X Greece 6032 0.01 2.512 X X X X X 3,520 X X X X Hungary 1.675 0.51 1 675 X X X X X 0 X X X X Iceland 123 X 0 X X X X X 123 X X X X Ireland 429 126 396 X X X X X 33 X X X X stalv 8 550 X 6.750 X X X X X 1,803 X X X X Luxemnbourg 86 0.12 85 X X X X X 3 X X X X Nethedands 334 0.31 334 X X X X X 0 X X X X Norway 9.565 X 8.697 X X X X X 68 X X X X Poand, Rep 6672 006 8.672 X X X 1 0 1 1 1 7X Portugal 3102 047 2,755 X X X X X 347 X X X X Romania 6 265 0.00 6.190 X X X X X 75 X X X X Spain 25.622 0 00 8 388 X X X X X 17,234 X X X X Sweden 28.015 X 24437 X X X X X 3.578 X X X X Switzerland 1.188 059 1.130 X X X X X 56 X X X X UntedKingdom 2.380 1 13 2.207 X X X X X 173 X X X X Yugosaiva loerme) 9.454 0.38 8,371 X X X 1 1 1,083 X X X X U.S.S.R. (former) 941,530 0.01 754,958 X X X X X 186,572 X X X X Belanus.Rep 6256 046 6,016 X X X X X 240 X X X X Ukraine 9.239 0 27 9,213 X X X X X 26 X X X X OCEANIA 200,971 (0.02) 88.254 X X X X X 112,717 X X X X Aushraha 145.613 0c 39837 X X X X X 1 05.s76 X X X X F.l 859 X 853 017 775 (044) 78 1826 6 X X X X New Zealand 7.472 X 7.472 X X X X X 0 X X X X Papua New Guinea 42 115 X 36,030 (030) 36000 (0.30) 30 9.61 6,085 X 57 02 93 Sobmon Islands 2.455 X 2410 (0181 2.394 10.19) 16 2.12 45 X X X X Sources Food and Agcultlure Organzation o Ithe United Nations and the United Nal,ons Economic Commission for Europe Notes- a Ethiopiascludes Fnritea Subregioral totals maymiclude countries not lisled. 0 = zero or less Iainc hat the unit ofnreasureX 0- nol avaianle roumbes in parentheses indicate Increase in tores( area For additional information. see Sources and Technical Notes World Reso>urces 1996-97 219 Data Table 9.3 Wood Production and Trade, 1981-93 Roundwvood PnDduction Processed Wood Production Avg. Annual Total Fuel and Charcoal Industrial Roundwood Snwnwood Panels Paper Productlon Net Tnmde in (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent (000 Percent RoundwAood lei cubic Charnge cubic Chernge cubic Change7 cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change (000 cubic meters) Since meters) Since meters) Since metem7) Since mnetem7) Since meters) Since meters) 1991-93 1981483 1991-93 1981483 1991-93 19811413 1991-93 1981403 1991-93 1981483 1991-93 1981-813 1981483 1991-93 WORLD 3,411,547 15 1,855,709 19 1,555,83 10 _441,589 _2 128,838 28 247,320 44 AFRICA 539.683 32 480,752 34 58,931 13 8,219 8 ,9 1 ,5 3 (4,130) (4,216) Algena 2,305 33 2.006 32 298 41 13 0 50 0 91 113) X X Angola 6.382 31 5.483 32 899 26 S 133j 11 (68) 0 (100) X X Brenin S 374 35 5.075 35 2959 45 25 178 X X X X X X Botswana 1.399 36 1.31a2 36 86 36 X X X X X X X X BurkinaFar;o 9.254 30 8,836 30 418 29 2 0 X X X X X X Bunundi 4.484 34 4.431 34 53 44 3 200 X X X X X X Canneroon 14,483 35 11,490 37 2.993 28 481 I01 78 7 S 0 1428) (732) CeanualAfrican Rep 3.628 16 3.185 22 443 112) 63 (3) 2 tS4) X X X X Chad 4.164 25 3.569 25 595 26 2 100 X X X X X X Congo 3.438 45 2.155 34 1,283 °- 53 (23) 36 (50) X X X X Cote d'vo,re 13,370 13 10,498 46 2,872 (33) 606 112) 229 40 X X (2,254j 1323) Egypt 2,352 27 2.243 27 109 28 X X 76 1 1 0 203 67 232 74 Equalonal Guinea 613 16 447 2 166 88 10I (43i 7 400 X X X X Entre X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Ethiopia (b} 44.937 28 43.227 29 1.711 1 12 (77) 9 (36) s (46) o 0 Galbon 4.345 39 2.712 41 1,633 37 32 (70! 140 (26) X X X X Gambia. The 948 17 927 16 21 26 1 0 X X X X X X Ghana 16.965 16 15,512 13 1.453 63 407 71 60 (7)1 X X X X Guinea 4,359 35 3.792 36 567 28 66 (27) 0 1100) X X (13) (15) Guinea-Bissau 572 3 422 0 150 tiS 16 0 X X X X X X Kenya 3732V4 41 35.513 41 1.811 38 185 26 52 133 148 124 18) 0 Lesotho 635 30 635 30 X X X X X X X X X X LUbena 6,000 47 5,040 34 960 86 411 132 6 85 X X (236) (234) Ujoya 646 2 536 0 l10 16 31 0 X X 6 ?0 45 (1) Macdagascar 88600 33 7,793 37 807 0 235 1 S 275, S 7 X X =a.ai 9 ,730 57 9.235 57 496 46 44 26 17 108 X X X X Mali 52955 35 5.575 35 380 37 13 117 X X X X X X Mauritania 13 30 8 33 S 25 X X X X X X X X Mauritius 15 I54) 2 50t 13 30 S 40 0 X X X 1 16 Morocoo 2,296 38 1.426 28 869 58 83 (37i 34 (67, 106 10 213 376 Mozambique 15,980 12 15.022 23 958 (0) 21 (561 4 22 2 (17 (5) (7i Narriba X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Nigjer 5.292 38 4.935 33 326 38 2 X X X X X X X Nigehia 114.704 35 106.441 38 8,263 5 2.723 2 109 (48) 63 3-73 (59i (49) Rwanda 5.647 10 5,392 I t 255 (4) 27 248 2 o X X X X Senegal 4.953 34 4.281 33 672 40 23 109 X X X X X X Sierra Leone 3.227 26 3 106 28 121 (18) 9 (561 X X X X X X .iomalia 8.761 28 8.655 28 106 19 14 ° ° (100) X X 0 0 SouthAlnca 19 747 (I'1 7.146 1 12.601 (2i 1.792 a 3a50 !v) 1,735 25 (72) (1,066) Suda, 24.108 34 21,87,7 34 2,231 32 3 (68) -2 0 3 (67) X X Swaziland 2.297 3 560 0 1,737 4 103 (1) 8 14 X X (199) 0 Tanzania 34.911 42 32,849 40 2.062 74 158 72 15 150 25 X (0) (9) Togo 1.265 BO 1.072 90 192 38 3 '00 X X X X 0 /1) Tuhs,a 3324 26 3'869 25 155 42 '0 222 102 61 67 150 33 40 Uganda 1.9 35 110 35 ,56 36 64 180 4 16C0 3 X 0 0 Zaire 43.252 48 40,101 49 3,151 34 105 1 26 (8) 2 0 (62) (111) Zamrbia 13,778 44 12.952 43 826 70 106 137 81 1,513 3 (23) 9 (4) Zimbabwe 8,3 7 829 12 1.764 35 250 42 79 103 66 33 (9) (6) EUROPE Icl 319,100 (5) 50.672 (7) 268,428 j4) 76,383 (10) 34,710 12 68,233_ 36 15.668 13,669 Albania 2.556 IC 1 556 (3) 1,000 39 382 91 16 33 44 450 X X Austna 13.759 (0) 2.860 102 10.899 (12) 7.015 13 18698 54 3,214 87 2,651 5.205 8elanus. Rep 10,714 X 819 X 9,895 X 1.619 X 525 X 221 X X X Belgium jd) 4,412 X sS0 X 3,862 X 1,204 X 2.503 X 1.176 X 2.615 1.424 Bosnma and Herzegov,na X X X X X X X X X X X- X ° (2, Bulgaria 3.599 (26) 1.695 (2) 1.504 (39) 564 (62)0 2683 (55) 183 (57) 340 (101i Croatia. Rep 2.131 X 710 X 1,421 X 671 X 90 X X X X (270) C7ch Rep 10.306 X 993 X 9.310 X 2.650 X 739 X 656 X X (1,4251 Denmarlk 2,245 (24) 493 35 1,752 (32) 688 (17) 294 (1) 330 16 (962) (60) Estonia. Rep 2,293 X 928 X 1,365 X 300 X 140 X 42 X X X Finlnd 37,663 i6) 3.320 (0) 34.343 161 7.111 (10i 1,044 (30) 9,304 52 3,862 5,144 France 43.617 15 10.450 0 33.167 20 10,181 13 3,514 26 7.652 48 (1.176) (2,421j Germany 36.245 X 3.795 X 32.450 X 13.295 X 9.067 X 12.998 X X (5.825i Greece 2.726 2 1.502 (21) 1,224 56 354 2 372 Ull 508 84 213 102 Hungary 5,094 (21) 2,310 (1 9) 2,784 (23) 717 (41) 387 0 335 (28) 406 (945) Iceland X X X X X X X X X X X X 17 ( 3 Ireland 1.795 "15 50 'S ' 745 121 465 96 244 578 36 17 (376) (385) Italy 9.240 6 4.750 12 4 490 0 1.797 (23) 3.670 51 5.951 31 5.047 6,719 Latvia Rep 3.515 X 700 X 2,815 X 593 X 190 X 28 X X X Lithuania, Rep X X X X X X X X 200 X SO X X (187) Macocionia, 1orrre,Yugoslav Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Moldova, Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Netherands 1.397 55 158 65 1 241 54 400 47 105 (1 0) 2.851 71 177 40 Norway 10,518 7 934 '9 9.5821 6 2.329 (1) 584 (7) 1.812 34 6553 749 Poland, Rep 18.314 (1 9) 2.975 S 15 339 k221 362;2 (42) 1.666 (12) 1,128 (4) (975) (981) Portugal 11.409 42 598 7 10.811 45 1.176 (45) 1.0165 103 904 69 (150j (43) Romnans 12,110 (45) 2.396 (45) 9,714 (45) 2.384 (49) 835 (461 359 (56) (30) 62 Russian Fede,abion 244.488 X 56.738 X 187.750 X 46.685 X 6.909 X 5.1 15 X X ( 1109B) Sovak Rep 5.003 X 521 X 4.482 X 80 X X X X X X !374i Slovenia. Rep 1,470 X 314 X ) 157 X 422 X 327 X 407 X X (106j Spamn 15.216 7 1.990 3 13.226 7 2.764 13 2,361 28 3,458 29 237 1,800 Sweden 59.907 17 4.424 0 55,433 16 12.1 10 9 912 (41) 8,503 39 3,525 4.266 Switzerland 4,571 7 825 (ill 3,746 i1 1.554 (14) 856 33 1.299 43 236 (189) Ukraine X X X X X X X X X X X X 0 2 UnledKVingdom 6.197 50 263 68 5 934 48 2,139 32 1.907 201 5.115 56 (193) 377 Yugoslavia. Fed Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X 94 (299) 220 World Resoisrcess 1996-97 Data Table 9.3 continued Rounr1wood Production Processecl Wood Production Avg. Annual Total Fuel and Charcoal industrial Roundswood Sawnwood Panels Paper Production Net Trade In (000 Percent (000 Peroent (000 Percent (000 Percent 1°°° Percent (000 Percent Roundwood Ifli cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cubic Change cublc Change cubic Change (000 cubic metems) Since mreters) Since meters) Since metens) Since mr.4ers) Since misters) Since meters) 1991493 1981-83 1991-93 1981483 1991493 1981483 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981-83 1991-93 1981483 1981483 1991-93 NORTH3&CENTRAL AMERICA 730,441 20 155,803 7 574,637 24 165,733 39 38,264 19 94,943 31 -(17,551j (25,723) Belize 183 48 126 41 62 63 14 125) X X X X (' (2) Canada 172,703 20 6,834 18 165.869 20 56,044 41 6.538 38 16 900) 28 (1.215) 601 Costa Rica 4.168 25 3.134 32 1034 10 661 63 65 32 19 24 1 2 Cuba 3,142 (51 2.531 (10) 611 18 i30 22 149 130 78 (201 X X Dominican Rep 982 4 976 4 6 (11) 0 X X X 9 0 42 2 El Salvador 6.362 17 6 216 17 146 30 70 60 X X 17 6 X X Guatemala 11.263 21 11.142 22 121 k341 78 (36) 16 161 14 (26) 4 1 Haft, 6.052 21 5.813 22 239 0 14 0 X x X X 0 0 Hondunas 6.298 27 5,672 39 626 (28) 3Q2 (28) 13 77 X X X X Jamaiczt 539 819 385 4,178 154 211 27 11 0 (100) 4 174) 2 18 Mexico 22,940 22 15,449 25 7.491 16 2,696 49 645 (I101 2.628 45 21 (210) Nicaragua 3,569 7 3,269 33 300 (66) 69 (80) S (70) X X 2 0 Panama 1,018 9 910 23 109 (45) 30 (43, 18 45 28 (35) 3 6 Trnidad and Tobago 65 (20) 22 10 43 130) 46 65 X X X X s 3 United States 491,000 19 93,300 (2) 397.700 26 105,489 38 30,816 16 75.045 31 (16,406) I26.191) SOUTH AMERICA 362,400 26 243,585 20 118,815 39 26,411 17 4,287 21 8,344 50 (738) (7.611) Argentina 11.6640 16 4.447 (12) 7.214 49 i,298 22 326 i151 972 28 7 (1,002) Bolivia 1 530 15 1 37 28 153 (401 208 146 55 622 0 DO0O) 0 (1) Brazil 263.879 22 191.)66 21 T77,713 24 16 628 13 2 552 2 5,051 54 (141 1443) Chile 29,066 117 8.979 58 20,087 161 3"17 107 492 267 537 68 (760) (6 005) ColoMnbia 20,619 22 1,3 1 363 31 813_ 10) 177 45 562 53 0 il) Ecuador 7,435 i4) 4,218 i25) 3,218 55 892 114) 220 128 150 354 X X Guyana 175 (15' 14 kl1' 161 ('5) 12 1831 2 X X X 128) (91 Panaguay 8,502 25 5.396 23 3.106 29 313 k52) 127 79 13 0 X X Penu 8,031 3 6.981 8 1 050 121) 511 f31 32 145) 327 42 1 1 Sunname 149 (40) 19 37 131 145) 42 (311 7 169) X X 127) (2) Uruguay 4.015 40 3 034 16 981 290 248 356 7 '49) 60 65 1 1129) Venezuela 2,086 74 954 56 1L132 94 312 20 292 130 633 29 106 13 ASIA ic) 1,122,978 20 849.658 21 273,320 is 99,785_ 6 39,094 99 63,606 108 34,702 48,013 Afghnamstani, Islamic State 7,327 20 5.683 24 1.844 10 400 0 1 0 X X 0 (3) Armenia X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Azerba,jan X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Bangladesh 31,751 26 31.021 28 730 (23) 79 (56) 9 (1 0) 97 (9) X X Bhutan 1,460 8 1,333 25 127 (54) 35 518 13 X X X X X Cambode 6,782 38 5.726 3 1 1.057 86 127 195 2 0 0 X X X China 291.046 22 196.149 22 946897 21 21.702 (6) 11,819 367 20 757 173 9,929 6.449 Georgia. Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Ind,a 282,384 22 257 813 22 24.571 1S 17,460 32 442 19 2,505 86 (3) 571 Indonesia 185.426 26 146 342 22 39.084 45 8.471 38 10,359 325 2,206 569 (4,871) D.,466) Iran,isia-c Rep 7.405 11 25X: 7 4,89,4 13 1 77, 8 304 262 20C 156 ?18 41 Inaq 153 19 103 30 50 0 8 0 3 50 13 (54) X X Israel 113 (4) 13 16 100 (7) X X 1 77 16 209 69 X X Japan 34,110 6 372 (36) 33.738 7 27267 1'4) 8228 is) 28.380 61 42 255 46.485 Jordan 11 32 7 62 4 0 X X X X 20 247 X X Kazakhstan, Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X (251 Korea, Dem People sRep 4,783 9 4R183 11 600 0 280 0 X X 80 0 71 !89) Korea, Rep 6.485 (23) 4,491 (27) 1 994 (14) 3.584 13 1L634 4 5 410 195 5.916 9.327 Kuwail X X X X X X X X X X X X 21 53 Kyrgyz Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Lao People'sDem Rep 4 681 42 4.132 34 549 158 231 998 13 192 X X X X Lebanon 487 3 479 7 8 (70i 10 (67) 46 0 42 17) 16 30 Malaysia 52 906 31 9,157 30 43,750 32 9 249 43 3 288 145 531 810 U18.369) (15s681N Mongolia 1.063 156) 535 (60) 528 (49) 173 (63) 3 (17) X X X X Myarnmar 22,566 20 18.715 24 3,851 4 308 (56) 16 4 12 23 1233) (1.352) Nepal 19,595 30 18,975 31 620 11 620 1Q2 X X 13 550 X X Onnan X X X X X X X X X X X X 10 (0) Pak,stari 27,019 45 24.379 37 2,640 214 1.497 495 80 54 214 194 25 79 Philippies 39.'37 12 35,149 27 3.988 146) 631 148) 433 135) 434 79 (1 637) 256 Sa.di AratAa X X X X X X X X X X X X 227 89 Singapore 160 X 160 X X X 27 (89) 361 (38) 85 132 633 (218) Sn Lanka 9 247 11 6.566 13 659 (3) 5 (611 la 132) 26 28 (181) (16) Synan Arab Rep 74 62 23 21 52 91 9 0 27 o I (67) 73 (1) Taplk,stan. Rep X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Thailand 37 619 10 34.854 is 2,765 (32) 910 (2) 611 168 1,138 249 (167) 1.466 Turkey 15.317 129) 9.750 135s) 5,567 (151 5 133 '5 1 121 146 924 93 (411 1.539 Tur alsut om*epiles miarket and Litchen gardins, and tetitpiirary counriLtuiouts Iyer oin the fiorest floor (e.g. data from nuationIal agricultural centisuses. fallow. Pertnalilleit crops are those that do itot brotdleaved forests, cotiiferouis forests, anid Whent official information is lacking, FAO need to be replanited aifter each harvest, sucI a laihiioo forests), attd opeli forest, which FAO prepares its owi estimiates or relies on tillOffi- as coctoa. coffee. frtLit, rubber, and vittes. It defities ais mitixed forest/grasslands witli at cial data. Several countries use defijiiri(tns Of excltides land osed toi grow trees for wood or Icast If) percent tree covcr atid a ciitt1ntiiOuis total area and land use that differ from those tintmber. grass layer on the ftorest floor. Natural forests used in this chapter. Refer to the soutrces for Perinanenl pasture is land Ised for .5 or in tropiczil and temperalte developing Ctouln- details. mitore years for forage, itctluiding natural crops tries entcicipass all stands except plalittaiiits FAO often adjuists the definitions of land and cuiltivated crops. This category is difficuilt and ilicIlide statids that htave been degraded use categories and soitmetimes substantially for cotilitrries to assess becCause it includes tui soitte degree Is' agriculture, fire, Ifgging. revises earlier datai. For example. in 1985, wildland uised for pasture. In addition, few and Other factors. uor all regions. trees are FAO began to exclude from the croplaind countrics regularyv report data on permanetit distingutishedI froiit shruibS Oni the basis of category laitd Lised for shifting cuiltivarioti bttr pasture. As a resuilr, he aiseitce of a chatige height. A ittzttire tree has a single vwell-defined currently Iying falloiw. Because laud tise in permtanenit plsture are.t (e.g., 0 percent stemii aind is taller thani 7 meters. A tinitttre changes cait reflect cltanges in data-reportinig chatige for many Africanl antd Asian countries) shruih is usually less than 7 Ietel-s ta ll. procedures along with actual land use liay indicite differeitces in lalid classificatioti UAN/ECF-FA() defities ; forest as land chaitges, apparent trends shouild be inter- and dara reporting rather than actual ciotidi- wlere rree coiwns tover miore than 20 percetit preted with catttioit. tioiins. Grassland not used for forage is in- of the area. Also intlUded are opeit foresr Land use data are periodically revised anid cluded under other laid. formations; forest roads and firebreaks: may change siginificantly front year to year. Forest and uwtidlatdu includes land Linder sitall, rernporariIy cleared arteas; youiiig For the most receitt land use sratistics, see the natural or planted stands of trees, as well as stands expecteld to achieve at least 20( percent latest FAO Productiotn Yearbhtok. logged-over areas thati will be reforested in the crotwi cover ipon matiurity; atid windbreaks Land area data are for 1993. They excltide near future. These data are not comparable atid sheltcrbelts exceedinig t.5 iectatre it si7C. major inland water bodies, national claiims ro with forest attd other wotded land datta pre- L'nder rhis definitioti, forest land in tetmper.ite the continental shelf, and Exclusive Ecoittoniic senied in Data Table 9.2. developed countries includes hoth niltural fur- Zones. (See Chapter I I, "Biodiversityv" Data thber latnd includes uLIcultivated latid, est atid planttation. Table 1 1.4. Marinte Biodiversiry.) grassland ntot used for pasture, built-on areas, To/a/ fol1i'st conisists of all forest area for The populatiot, densitv and land use fig- wetlanids, wastelands, rind roais. ternper:ate developed ctotiitries, and the sttitl ures for the world refer to the six inhabited of natural forest aiid plantationi area catego- continents. Populatiini density wyas derived by Data Table 9.2 ries for tropical and temperate developing using thepopulatioifiguresfor 199S pLblish- Forest Resources, 1981-90 cotiuurrics. ed by the United Nations Populaltion Division Plapitalion refers to forest stands estah- and land area dara for 1993 front FAO. Al- Sources: Food and Agriciltuire Organization lished artificially by afforestaition and reftres- though the population figures were published of the United Nations (FAQ), Fitrest Re- raitioii for industrial anid noiiiliduistriitl usige. in 1994, actual censuses and estimates were sources I)ivisioni Forcst Resoturets Assess- Reforcstaitioti does itot incItide regeneration made in prior years. For additional infoiinna- mcnnt 1 990: Global Synthesis (FAO, RoMC)t of olt tree crops tthrouigli eitIter ntitur:lI re- rion on population attd niethodoligy, see the 1995); FAQ, Forest ResouLrces Division, For- gencratriot ior iforest mamtagetitcutr,) altltutugh Technical Notes to Data Table 8.1, Size and est Resotiurcs Assessment 9l)i: Trttpucal sotne couutries tuay report regenerattion as Growth of Population attl1 Labor Force, Cotuntries (FAQ, Roitte, 1993): United Na- reforestation. Maty trces are also planted for 1950-2025, in Chapter 8. "Poputlation and ioons Ftonomic C(omnission for Europe notnindustri;il uscs, such ,us village wood lors. Hunuan Development.' (UN/ECE) and FAO, The Firest Rtesutiurces uq Reforestatiotn data (tfien Cxclude this cuonpo- Doiesticated land as a percent oflatndanreta the Temiperaute Zonmes. Volotue 1: Genueral For- uteiti. The data prescinted here reflect planta- provides a crutde indicator of the degree ro est Resource lnlo/rmatiro JIVNIECFE-FAO, rion survv.ivl rare as estimanted by FAQ. which national landscapes have been heavily Geneva, 1 993). Ptlanttr:ion extentt dlifers fro[ii figtures pre- 222 World Resouurees 1996-97 Forests and Land Cover serited in o Wirmid Restottce's 1 994-9 5. wvil ch The eeliability of tliese rui(tideled estiroldtes adjUstisel di a tti fit h oiic i mit iu eli 0in iclts in d did not inicludte an adjutmsiient for estimated hiniges partly oii tile quality of the priniary to correspond to the Iaselitie Year of 1980. survival rare, data sourceS feediitig iiito the oiiodel. FAO) FAO's I 9S' Inferimr Report expatided the The category tiTber w'ordcd trotd eneonti- assessed the qutalityl and appropriateiless of ctLtuIItrkc coveratge of thie 1980 ,isse%ssiicnt lto passes forest fallows (closed aiid ripeni frirests) thec natironal forestry inlveiit(tries aod thieir 53 Cnitre developing coiuntries (co~rstnui tIl' ancl shrubis iii tropical co iintrties. Iii rite terni- ciotilt ri buLtt t 11i toi the refliabihitry ottI the teptirted whotle dC CleccIIpug w(irld ,inic oversueis tettitit- pertae zoiue, other wtooded land ctonsists oif slate and changt' aSstY'ssments,. The variatioin tiesc if dev~eiliped cttmntruestI. keeping 1 980 as openi woodlhind anid scnt h, s hrtoll, and1 hr itsh - ini q mit I i, ci in prehien sivcn ess, aniid tiiieli ness tiec re ference y-ear. In that di c riieti t, FAO) laind. The catregore also tIiicluodes w titcded at- it the ft tresi infotrmtatitn tiis t remenidiotris. aid CVa Iua tc'c the toteerail rellabIltlfts o f daita t n eaSLIiSetd for rangel and, hotcxciLtidesoitrchiards, acute iniftormiriaont detfic its tIn regarcl lto litresr cIt ised fitrest arteaS anid deliorestatliton ratics ftoi wood lits iundeir 0.5 hectare, and tree hiedge- resouirces c.un easily he highlighted. \Whereas theitrul,gmita 76 develpipung cotiirturies. The rotws. gooidic fittest rest iti tees data are hia rd cio fin ti- fi 1 990 a ssessnlicn' Inoet rpioratetd preyvitLittN slHii- Anntural tbange fig tires Ini pa rentih eses A frica, better datai are axsai fable: ftr L[in aVailable ha IsCII mi iveilnitor LIala tio iii priotee (nega rise: chanige) reflect niet dleft restatitiii Amieric.1, aid the best iniforn itarttinl t tita IittjhI e oil I 980i cotiiintr, estmiziti le. which is defiiied as the "clearitig of fittest is that for Asiai. The- LiN/F.CIl-FA() I 990 stirsey otifteniper- funds for all forms Ot agriCIItftrral LuseS shifit- Althltirhiglitfere were fittest coveet e'stiat11es ate aitie COLIintries cotrers aill foirests iii the .32 ing ciiftivatioii, per-niatienit agriculture and fourtwit perioids for I i6 if thc' 1 43 develoipinig CLioiitrics oftthc' I.CF regiotii I Etiroipe, Nottllt ra iich inog aiiI nd fo oricr e lIanid u'Se sucLh as coitintttieis assessed I 97 percen t), fi orest da t,I, Amiterica. an ciL he foir iiter Soiteet LJitioii), as setrfetlieiits, tither unfr,ustrticturemaid mitnting." oii average, wkere alimotst li svears till. Refer well as~ fitrests iii Japant, ALustralia, and New In tropical ctountries,. this eiitail cleairiiig, thi:t to the Technical Nottes to (:hapter 1 9. "For~- Ze laud. Data for thlis study wecre obltainied red icees tree enrown ciover tio less rthan IO0 per- ests and Ran igeflanids. ini Wor id Restourtes mal Y ii r(int0 i official SOI ~trccs in rc'spt ine i o a cent. As deftied" hiere, defiorestatiion cItes not 1994-95, fur deiails til fittest etteer aiid qoestiiOIiiiaire, aitiiouigh there arc'estintiates y include tither alreratittis, suici is selective chi.iige data quah its fur the trorpical coitiitries. experts iii sitiic cOtI.iirres. Receiit Ft .F .1iicf logging (unliess the fittest city r is perntiaiiciitlv Althoittgh the fittest cftaiige iiiotdel allotwed FAo) puublicaitions, cotiiiitrx rept(irts, if liciaf techUcecd rio less th.i foII perceintii,rCtat caii staidirdaiczittiii ofiit coi ii itre dIata ti ., ci ill ll in a riicIcs. .a id estimrates bi the ftriofesslnili a substatitialfe affec't foirests, forest soitu, wildlife h~aselitie, a nui britte of additiontal factttrs mae Stiff cLindUIeitIIg the stuidy are akoi ittcfticled. a itd its h abhri tat andt the gliobal ca rbton ecycle. ha ve cointurnibUted r to di srepamici Cs in fittest NIst ds r c. a rc'fc'r to itrIe petit ic artutuilid 19910, lloiiittivye anini,ual chiange figiires refl c'c' tier at- artea aJicd chllatge CN'ltlnit.it's itti Specific CM11il- alt hrmighi data tntr Reigi ruin ate based n 1i I98(0 foirestation withiii ,u ciouitry ort regititi. trieis. Pittetrital fittest criver estinliates fur drts figures, clara fur Icelandicovrier I 970-8 5, intl Annumal It gging nr' /oSelise bit dtatlta f rnst fitrests anitd the refl.ited tidclWiiiVsitte t fUiLt Ocir esi ni.ite ftr itsveral tither ci iii rtics ate froititi prov'idtes averages oif the rita iraI.tea it pif r are Of tin kitiown ref i,aIibIihy a tic fitr SMit tic' 4 III id-tn-latc I1980s. C rndiStUrirecd incd rlitis secontdary I firevioutsly cotrititries. StCtItecttt Mltrlt factorir iar'V lt,iv' ruigged) fittest logged eaich year. Nirre that played a larger title iii dleftrestationi-forr ex- Data Table 9.3 tiiitns "priniurN ' fotrests are essenttialy oild amiple, firestrick pitilects ini (eti-ral Aimericai Wood Production and Trade, 1981-93 sectitdarv fotrests. t111] reCSettLeittet-it slchittesN In Iiidoinesiti. FA(o Pa ta foir t riopicalI itch tent pen rie develot pi ng a eknor w Ileded thu% esc'ho rtcomtiniigs imitplici tIy Source: Frotod at11Li AgrietLIl trite O)rganiiizatio ofiit COcititries are basedl oit FAO's 1 990 Fotrcst anid tinoted titat viunltr-Vi' etimlates arc "iort the t litireCLi Natitiotis c FAO)i. i-A( ),iSAT-PC, .itit ReSOLrtctes Asse%ssiietiir Prioject. TItis pirioiect in teidtdl toi replace t hc o rigina COLIMIc trllrr iito fr- tlis5kette cFA )X(, Roitit, Apfitl I 99 5). protvidcei a C(ItiSIStellt estriinJtC itf c%rleretpitiIg ntatitin wehicit reoritin a riiiiqrie sitire otif rtl- Total rtttfn/it'tid protdluetittn rcft'rs, tot all COtiorry fittest extentr tiid rates (if fittest area erenice." wootd iii rte ri itglt, welietlier dleslitct for in- chatige betwecti 1 98 I aiid 1 990 by tiSing a BC Iecats (it the shirtrcvittittgs oft the F-LO dtistria Iort fiielwvtttd rises. All xwootd felIled ott iniodel tot adjust Itaselitie fittest itiveiritory' data imethttdcolotgx, readers are ncotcttr.iged tio refer hitrveesred troihlitfrests anth trees otitsicle thle front) each cntintre toi a cittlml tn sc-ar (I 990). to t thi se en mitrrs iii veiitories that Use saefirc oires,t. with i rt withoutt lxirk. r(i tiici, split, Existing fitrest inii xcii clr dit. o iii nat.ionl xiiaid daa t. r itt xte iisivxe gri iiidi data.r. fir recstimaitaes t f roinighi' fy quia. rcd, or in tither ftortits stic-h as subrnatiomil SclJes weere carefully rev exeed, frirest coiver ,ind dcitorestatiotii. Dait f(ir s,,- routts tid stunmps, is inicirideci. ad)justed ri t a c(iiii iltiii set iof cl assi fic.tlit ils Ctril iii depc-iidteit ciCtt Iitry .i 5c'ssililts .irc' prec- butt!clt i/ltt chacoa perodtuctioni co v ers alif and ctincept,,, and finails cotntltineci in a daina- sented itt the Technitiet Not"tes oi Chapter 19, rottigh wotit used ito cotrkiiig. heaiting, and base. FAQ) used a gc'o gra pitic nf troitiatitn "i 'Forests .ini] R ait gelaIIcIds." in Wrorh/ Re- pi wc' pro1 ductieron i. Wi it ittirut clc'd ftoi char- systeiit tio interiic'te staitistical a 1 id nlt p dat.a S ource's ) 99)49 j. eno.u prioicitic iiti, put k if it, .ticd piortab[te Ove'cns for this; pLirpttsc. Thc titiodel uised fittest area Thc 91811 fittest exteilt estimuates fu.(r trotpi- IS alsut iticIlticlel. ad)jusltmentr ftItitc iiis thait coi rrelatu ed t le share cal I . di tetmtpCrate dc'seliopmitg cittintrties p re- I onlutstruall roittndiv'rodr periduc~tiOnici oiii- of fttrcest corver for e.ucit sithln.urioriiaI nitiit t(i t sented iint risN d a i ta t.tc' .ure r.ukeit froi to the pet ses .ti roIImud Wi ic proiictic tstther thaut populaI tiout d]eits it r .nd griowxtlit, Iiiitial1 fittest I 9901 a ssessmuiunt .undi there ftot' re r i riot coitin- (tie lwoiid .tic1L cha retoitt: st witogs, ~enier itogs, ex teit t, atic] ecoiifogical zoiite. Tlitls eel .t iton is parab ItIcwitlit t'stimate cs firtheibat 'Icar p resiell e sleepers, Pt tpri px. LIptWI tx' tdt, and tufither ini- e xpressc'd t h rioith the diffcerentialI ecquat.lioin ini prex-ioiS ris di ti isis oft World Re sorctte's. past cidUstrialI p ri it1ets dIY/P = I?, x -"- liux Y, where Y' is the estinataes were taketi frntiii twoi eitlier FAQ) Pi-riet'ssed itrriorid / zi ctioetzririnc)ludess,ixwn- pereentrage of nito fittest .ure.u P is rite ii.Itita euI tudies iii ftore~tesc'xtrcult. FAo('s I198( assess- wooi d .1til p.l tc PAICs. Sawn'wiit)rii is wooi d rlt at log of (1 + popiufarirol tcltusty, and (it. It, and mvi c oivererech 76 irtipical tdevefirpitig critut- has been sawil, ftlatnecd, itt shiapetd Itut pritd- b; are the iiioidel pa1ramiteters. The sitape otf the tries .lnii 0userf sitbtia rionattl1 staiti stia mciiditai oii tucts stuch .u s phliink , ltc.11itS, hiads ra tI~eufte-rs, ort respectuxe adjiustmtenit ertvC'S kiiffercd fur etch itppiflatiOii l si CIeitC'e 101ii11Ct vairiabltecs, railroadrtl(ties. V`o(dr flttoritig is eucluidecd. ecoilogical szote; four examtiple. thc're was a tin.ip5 tilt x'cgetautionu .ndc ecoufitiristic 7uites, Suixw'nxx'rod genic'r.lvr is tihickc'r rhuit mtillit- logistic fruntioniu fire the: seer stiies antc an ftotest survey, cIita, alit, cmteut e-seiisumg itmages itteters. Paniils, iiicriudc -all xwrtrc-ltased panel ittverted j-fiuucriotu fur rte city cities. tCi cheteritiutie fittest arei. fItl IttaJt eases, I-A0) comituuiidities such is, veuleer slicers, plyxwotici World4 Resrrurcrs 1 996t-97 223 Forests and Land Cover particle boaid, alit comi pressed or tiolcoin- ar: usrially oii a cost. insurance, and freighlt tises pipulartioni dara and comiry-specific, per pressed fiberboaird. basis. Exports are generally on a free-on- Capita CoIIsitiliption figurCs toi cstinare fucl- Paper productioz includes ne wsprint. boa rd basis. wOO(i and chircoiii pro idC1tii0. (IilStililip priitiTg anid writiuig paper, and otf er paper FAO ciomipiles torest prod ucrs data froii tion of ni)tiioniferoIis EielW(iod raliges froiii and paperboard. responses ro anoui] qiiestioniiaircs sent to a low ot 0.0)01)6 cubic inerer per capita per Ai'erage annual ,,(' trad/i' in roindnivotd is nationalI governmenits. I)ata front orher Year in Jordani to a hiigh of 0.9783 cubic iiecter the balance of imports iumi ns exports. Trade sources, such as natioilnl statistical yeair- per capira per yeaLr in Aeniii. (ontsuliiptioll in roundwoiod incluldes sawlogs and veiieer books, are also used. In) soiie eases, FAO wats also estimated for coitiferous fielwood. logs. fuelwood, pulpwvoiid, Orher iidustrialI prepares its oiwn estimiiates. [AO) coniti nuliv is FOr h1i lt ciiniferoiln and ii noiiciniferoins fiuel- ro iiidwiod, and the roundwiood eqUtiVal enit revises its dit;ta iisi ng isew in formtta tion; the woomd, rhe pcr capita cimsiloiipriiin cstinm tes of trade in tcharenal, wiooi residunes, and chips latest figuires are sibjiect to rcvision. Were iiiiiltiplied Iby the numiber of people in and particles. All trrdie dJtai refer in both Statistics oi the produicriitof fuelwootitd and the coiiuntry to detertinilie tan ioiii al totilIs. comniferoLIs and noticoiniferoils woimd. itporrs charcoial are lacking for mntt,s clUnitries. FAO 224 W'orldi Resouerces 1 996-97 10. Food and Agriculture iscussions about the fLIture of global agri- prodluction trenids. Africa's food production has risen culture take place in an unLIsuLal Context: steadily; since 1961, total food prodLuCtion has more production is generally growing and is than (doubled ;i. As the per capita trend indicates, Dtherithe of growth is slowing. At the samie population growti. tile, about 90 million people are being addedl to the A notable recent development is the drop in produC- world's population every year, ptutting more pressure on tion in the niations of the former Soviet Union. (om- the world's food production system. pared with a peak production vear In 1989, production In the face of these declining growth rates, many in 1 994 was dowvn fully 40 percent ( . But 1994 was a experts are concerined about the capacity of the world partiCularly disastrous vear in the region, and produc- agricultural svstem to contin ue to increase prodtiction tion for that vcar mav not sav m uchl about future trends. over the coniing decades to feed an ever-larger world Other regions-notablv, Asia and to a lesser extent poLpulation. Other experts worry not so mLIch about the Latin America-have experienced tremcenlous suCCess growtth potential of global prodLuction as they do albout in both absolute and per capita terms. the poorest countries of Africa and Asia and the coin- Agricuitural comimlodities have been a mia jor compo- tinning prevalence of clhronic unliderniutritioni in those netit of niany developing counitries trade, vet in the regions. A further- concern is whether there are Vvays to aggregate, couintr-ies that dIepeid on suchi exports have .icrease prodcLItion while at the samie tilme reduciniig n0ot beetn rewardcd. The prices of most agricultural environmental and resource damage. comminiodities havc fallen globally over the past 1 5 vears. Differences among regions and between rich and Developing Conttries must rely on shipping larger vol- poor are an important subplot to thls storv. In two Limes of conimodities to maintain their export earninigs. regions, sub-Sahara n Africa and Soutil Asia, food secuL- In subh-Saha ran Africa, the total vallUe of agrictultrlrl ritv and undernuitrition problems seem relativelv intrac- exports in current U.S. dollars fell by an average of 4.6 table. In both regions, population growth is still percent fromii 1980 to 1985 and by 1.I percent per vear relatively higIh and povertv is persistent. from 1986 to 1992 ;). Declining returns from exports have contrilibited toL a rapid worsening of the region's RECENT TRENDS external debt 4). An imlportant point in the debate about future pros- pects concerns the question of productioll trends over the past few decades and particularly the question of Figure 10. I shows the essentiall suCCess story of global slowing growth in production. Froni 1961 to 1992, the agriculture: steady growth in the productioni of most growth of world agriCultural produCtion slowed, drop- food crops from 1 96 1 to 1994. lhe latest country-by- ping fromii 3 percent annually in the I 960s to 2.3 percent country data are provided in Data Table 10. 1. per year in the I 970s and to 2 petrent dLiring the The success has not been shared cqually, however, as 1980-92 period. The trend is similar for world cereals showvn in Figure 10.2, wvhicl depicts per capita food production i;. (See Figure 10.3.) Wu {*rlil Ri'sources 1 9(6-97 225 Food and Agriculture Figure 10.1 Trends in World Food Figure 10.2 Trends in Per Capita Food Production, 1961-94 Production, 1961-94 (index numbers, 1961=100) (index numbers, 1961=100) 350l 180 3001 160 250; r_~~~~~~~~- 140 = _ 150 r~~~0 - - ~~~~ ~ 0 - - 0 ~~~80, 140 250 120 19611965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 1961 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 - Wortd -- Africa - World -- Africa - Asia Latin America - Asia Latin America - - Former soviet union - - Former soviet union source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT-PC, on diskette (FA, Rome, 1995). FAOSTAT-PC, on diskette (FAQ, Rome. 1995). Production trends are mostcritical, however, in those additional income among the poor necessarv to dra- developing countries characterized by high economic matically reduce chronic undernutrition. dependence on agriculture (i.e., with more than one third of the economically active population etigaged in y s agriculture), low levels of per capita food supplies, and lds a limited ability to import more food. About 62 of the The causes of production gains in developing coulitries 93 principal developing countries are in this category (6). in the past few decades-often subsumed under the term For these countries (excluding China), growth rates in "Green Revolution"-include the introduction of mod- recent years have actually been higher than those in ern varieties of rice, wheat, and maize in comblination1 earlier periods. (See Figure 10.4.) Recent production with the more intensive use of inputs such as fertilizers, trends in the most vulnerable developing countries do water, and pesticides. not seem noticeably worse than they were in the late There are large regional differenices in the adoption 1960s and early 1970s. They remain, however, grossly of modern varieties. China's rice and maize crops, for inadequate to meet the needs of the current and future example, are almost entirely planted to modern varie- populations in those nations and to help generate the ties. On the other hand, modern varieties have inot been widely adopted in areas prone to drought or in rice crop areas with poor Table 10.1 Trends in Yields in 93 Developing Countries water control. Diffusioll also is slower in areas with poor intrastructure or Yield (kilograms per hectare) market access, as is the case with many CropType 1961-63 1969-71 1979-81 1990-92 regions in sub-Saharan Africa or the All cereals 1,171 1,461 1,894 2,466 hillside svsteins of Latin America and Excluding China 1,116 1,271 1,557 1,951 China 1,336 2,070 3,017 4,329 Asia. For developing countries as a Wheat 868 1,153 1,637 2,364 whole, as of 1990-91, nearlv three Excluding China 964 1,146 1,460 1,997 fourths of rice and wheat crop areas China 673 1,169 2,046 3,208 and more than half of all maize crop- Rice 1,818 2,218 2,653 3,459 ExcludingChina 1,650 1,855 2,145 2,790 lands were planted to modern varie- China 2,355 3,281 4,236 5,722 ties (7) Maize 1,157 1,456 1,958 2,531 Although some exceptionis exist, Excluding China 1,122 1,291 1,572 1,837 China 1,265 2,005 3,038 4,545 niost of the growth in productioii ill Source: Nikos Alexandratos, Chief of Global Perspective Studies Unit, Economic and Social developing countries is a result of the Department, Food and Agnculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995 (personal higher yields generated ly the Green communication, based on data from FAOSTAT-Mainframe). el tn. As generate n tae 10.een Revol2dtion. As siownc in Teble l.-, 226 World Resotirces 1996-97, Food and Agriculture increases in the vields of the major cereals in developing . . .IFigure 10.3 Growth Rates of World countries have been substantial, even when excliding the effects of China's astounding yield increases. Agricultural Production and World Because so much of the recent success is due to Cereals Production, 1961-92 increases in vields, a vital question for the future is whether such increases will continue and at what rates. (percent) Tabile 10.2 shows the growth rates in the vields of the 4 ma jor cereals over the past few decades; since China's ' ' - performanice has such a hearing on the trends, the table 3 [ ' , - - also shows the trends for all developing coLntries ex- cluiding China. 2 The table confirms that although total yields have increased, yield growth rates in developing coLintries 1 have slowed for all cereals. The results tend to he skewed by China's performance, however, especialiv its dramiiatic 0o96169 1965-73 1970-78 1975-83 1980-98 1984-92 yield increases during the I 960s. For all other countries, * ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Moving 8-Year Averages growth rates in the yields of rice and wheat have climbed MovingC8-YearPAverages steadilv over the past three decades, whereas growth Source: Nikos Alexandratos, ed., WorldAgriculture: Towards 2010. An rates in the yields of miaize have decllined. FAO Study (John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K., and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995), p. 39. Food Aid Food aid plays a major part in meeting food needs in ric tonis in 1993; about 25 percent went to Somalia, parts of Africa and elsewhere. In the earlv 1990s, the Rwanda, and other couLitries in sub-Saharan Africa, ratio of food aid to total cereal imports in developing whereas about 41 percent wvent to Central Europe and countries was in the 7 to 10 percent range, yet it could the countries of the former Soviet Union ill. The drop to as low as 5.4 percent in 1994-95 if total cereal amount of food redistributed in 1993 is still far short imports in developing countries continue to rise 5i). of the total need; it is estimated that 24 million to 27 The frequencv and scale of humanitarian crises re- million metric tons would have been needed in 1993 to quiring the international cominunity to provide food raise the per capita global caloric intake to recom- aid have increased substantially in recent vears. The mended minimunm levels. In 1994, total food aid was number of people affected by disasters (both natuLral and about 14 million metric tolls l12). political) rose from about 44 million in 1985 to more Africa remains the continenit most seriously affected than 175 million in 1993, whereas the numl)er of people by food shortages. Fifteen countries in the region are officially receiving protection and as- sistance from the United Nations rose from * million in 1970 to 17 million Table 10.2 Trends in Growth Rates in Yields of Wheat, The rapid increase in the number of Rice, and Maize in 93 Developing Countries, 1961-92 crises has led to a subsrantial shift ill Growth (percent) priorities. For example, in 1986, the Crop Type 1961-70 1970-80 1980-92 World Food Prograinimme allocated 75 All cereals 2.8 2.6 2.1 percent of its resources to development Excluding China 1.5 2.1 1.9 percent ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~China 6.0 3.7 2.9 projects, but bv 1993-94 more than 85 Wheat 3.7 3.5 3.2 percent of its resources were going to Excluding China 2.0 2.5 2.8 emergencies and refLigee needs. Food China 7.8 5.4 3.7 Rice 2.5 1.7 2.1 aid for relief operations rose to 4.5 Excluding China 1.3 1.5 2.2 million metric tons in 1 993-94, Lup China 4.9 2.5 2.3 substantially from less than I million Maize 3.0 2.9 2.2 Excluding China 1.7 1.6 1.3 metric tons in 1979-80 (iu). China 6.2 4.2 3.3 All told, the global redistribution of Source: Nikos Alexandratos, Chief of Global Perspective Studies Unit, Economic and Social food bv pu b Ii c-sector agencies Department, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995 (personal communication. based on data from FAOSTAT-Mainframe). amounted to a record 17 million met- World Resoufrces 1996-97 227 Food and Agriculture World Bank has produced a similar studvy although it Figure 10.4 Growth Rates of Agricultural does not represent the formal position of the Bank on Production in High-Dependence these issLies (16). In addirion to the WX'orld Bank and FAO Developing Countries, 1961-92 anialyses, other studies have looked at food production potential over a longer time frame. The International (percent) Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), which is part of the ConsLultative Group on Internationial Agricultural Research (CGIAR), recentlv publishied a study of food :2 production potential through the year 2020 I I). A previous World Bank study examined the issue through 2- the year 2030 (ls. Vaclav Smil, a geographer and China scholar at the University of Manitoba, Canada, has 1] made some rough estimates through the year 2050 o9in. Althoughi ackniowledging the many obstacles to future 07- - food production increases, these studies generally sup- 1961-69 1965-73 1970-78 1975-83 1980-88 1984-92 Moving 8-Year Averages port the FAO forecast that production increases cani Agricultural Production accom moda te effective demand and rlsing world popu- lation, althouighi they are much less sanguine about Source: Nikos Alexandratos, ed., World Agriculture: Towards 2010, An redLICilIg LunlderIlLntritio n. A proviso in most of the fore- FAO Study (John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K., and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995), p. 43. casts is that continuitig substantial investments in agri- Notes: Data for China are excluded from the data presented here. cultural researchi are essenltial. Of the 93 principal developing countries, 31 have relatively "low" depend- ence on agriculture for employment and income. Most of these countries Lester Browin aiid Hal Kane are inmuch more pessinmis- have less than one third of their economically active population in tic ahout future food production. They argue that food agriculture.Thesecountrieshaveatotalpopulationof730millionpeople, which isabout onefifth ofthetotalpopulation in developingcountries. production will be constrained by the shrinking backlog Theremaining 62 "high-dependence"countrieshavemorethanonethird of unused agricultural tecinology by the approaching of their economically active population in agriculture. Per capita food th supplies average 2,370 calories per day. with the majority of countries lihrits to the biological pro(ducrivities of fishieries and nearer the 2,000 calorie level. All of these countries depend heavily on rangelanids, bv the increasinIg scarcitv of water (see Chap- their own agriculture both to produce food and to provide income. ter 1 3, "Water ) and the declining effectiveness of addi- tiolnal fertilizer applications, and genlerally by social facing exceptional food emergencies (13l Of the 27 disintegrationi in many developing countries (2o). Ian counitries with household food security prob lems, 22 ECarruthers argues that the fragile tropical and subtropi- are in sub-Saharan Africa 14). (See Figure 1 0.5.) cal environments in many' developing countries will be unable to sustain further food production increases, and that prospects for prodluction increases are much better FUTURE. GLOBAL CEREAL PRODUCTION: in temperate zone nationls such as the United States, Australia, and Europe. Carruthers helieves that temper- FEAST OR FAMINE? ate zone countries will increasingly export food to devel- oping couliitrics in exchange for labor-intensive Numerous attempts have lbeen made in recent years to grapple with the question of whether global food produc- siniface of s eoiOn scaomar thatito the r sigm~~~ficaiice of soil er-os'oll as a mia'or threat to the nion can keep up with populationl growth anid reduee sustaiiabilitv and productive capacity of agriculture (22T. undernutrition in the next few decades. Whether thev are As with main5 p redictions aIbout the future, there are positive or negative in outlook, most stuidies agree that the wide differenices in oLutlook. Manv factors help explaill key issues include the potential for expandinig cropland these differences. Slight differences in population area and irrigated croplanid area, for increasing yields, and growth assumptions, tor instanice, canl lead to substan- for improvilg efficiencv. Other scholars emphasize the tial differenices in otitcoines. There is ulicertainty about importance of resoul-ce conservationi and alternative pro- the extent to which past agricultural performance is a duction models that are less enviroiinientally damaging useful guidle to future performanlice; if yields were x over than the conventional high-input approach. the past two decaides, loes this meanl they will continue The Food and Agriculture Organization of the to he x over the next two decades? New cereal varieties United Nations (FAG) has published a study on the food have played a big role in the success of the past few production outlook throuLgh the year 2010 (i)3. The decades, but it is hard to say whether the pace of new 228 Worcrl Resources 1996-'97 Food and Agriculture Figure 10.5 Developing Countries with Low or Critical Food Security Indexes, 1990-92 Z Low Food Security: Angola, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, U Critical Food Security: Afghani- Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya, Lesotho, stan, Central African Republic, Malawi, Mali. Niger, Nigeria, Peru, Chad, Haiti, Liberia, Mozambique, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Tanza- Somalia nia, Zambia, Zimbabwe Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), "Assessment of the Current World Food Security Situation and Medium Term Review," Item 11 o1 the Provisional Agenda, 20th Session, Committee on World Food Security (FAO, Rome, April 1995), pp. 12-13. Notes: The Committee on World Food Security of the United Nations calculates an aggregate food security index that measures the availability and stability of food supplies and access to food ior developing countries. Since the 1994 Meeting on Food Security, some improvements in the computational procedures were introduced and the index was recomputed. The index ranges from 0 (total famine) to 100 (complete food security), including categories of critical (under 65), low (65-75), medium (75-85), and high (85 and above). Only areas with critical or low food security indexes are depicted here. Not all low-income countries with food deficits are covered because of a lack of data. Central Europe and the former Soviet Union were not assessed in this study. innovations will contlIlLie unabated. (See Box 10.1.) of manvofthepoorinidevelopilngcouintries. Toiimprove Environmental degr-adation has clearly had a significatnt the food security of this group, ways imiust be found to effect on agricultural production in miany regions; will help farmers grow more of their own food. Man\ of such degradation get worse Linder the pressI-es of popu- these nations remaini priniarily rural and heavily de- lation growth anid further intensificationi of produiction? penldenton theagricultural economy. Boostingdoniestic Finally, models cannot predict the fuItuire of the world food productioll would thus be doubly positive, increas- economy wvith much confidence. ing b)oth food supplics and the jiconies of many of the These caveats notwithstanding, most studies indicate pt)r* that over the next few decades global food productioni can The FAO forecast may be somewhat toward the continue to increase to meet "effective" deniand, that is, optimiistic enid of the range of stu(dies on future food the level of demand that corresponds to pUrchasing power production. Because the study provides a consistent of food needs. This ls not 1ikely be the e didata set, the FAO nuimbers arc Lised in 110ost of the irrespective is nt to be the case following discussion. in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, however. These regions are likely to experienlce regional production short- ages, food distribution problems, and famines. In addition, Sources of Food Production Growth given the millions of people who lack the money to buy There is a broad conSenSuS that yield increases will all the food thev need, it is even nTore doulbtful that growth continue to be the key component Of futLre growth In in purchasing power will be adequate to raise per capita food prodLIction. FAO estiniates that increased vields food consumption to levels comparable to those needed to will account for 66 percent of pro(duction growth eliminate undernutritio,l through the year 20 1( in developing couLitries, with Growing more cereals in the United States or in arable land expansion accounting for anl additional 21 other developed countries will not meet the food needs percemnt and increased cropping intensity (fewer fallow Woi-Id Rsourcc s I996-97 229 Food and Agriculture Box 10.1 New Varieties and Agricultural Research Manv new cultivars are in the pipeline tons per hectare. Experience has shown, gains in productivity, yet financial sup- at the centers of the Consultative Group however, that the actual vield boost in port is dwindling both for CGIAR and on International Agricultural Research farmers' fields rarely comes close to the for national systems (5). (CGIAR). For example, the transfer of yield boost in test plots. IRRI also is hybrid rice varieties from China to tropi- working on varieties that are better References and Notes cal Asia proved difficult because of their adapted to rainfed and upland rice eco- I Consultative Group on International Agri- susceptibility to disease, but the Interna- systems and other varieties with en- cultural Research (CGIAR) Secretariat, tional Rice Research Institute (IRRI) has hanced resistance to pests (3i. "Currenit CGIAR Research Efforts aind developed hybrids that provide a 15 to Researchers at the Centro Inrerna- Their Expected Impact on Food, Agricul- 25 percent boost in yields i i. Mean- cional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y riure, and National Development," drafr while, progress in hybrid rice seed pro- Trigo (CIMMYT) in Mexico have devel- paper (CCIAR, Washington, D.C., March duction has lowered the cost of seed oped varieties of maize that are tolerant 1994), p. 35. and has greatly increased the area of acid soil and drought conditions, yield- 2. Nikos Alesxatidratos, ed.. World Agri,til- where hvbrids would be profitable 212. ing 40 percent more grains than conven- titr'; Totvards 201(), An FAQ Sttid3 (John Wiley and Sorts, Chichester, LI.K. arid IRRI has reported a breakthrough in rional varieties under the saine con- Foeod aiid Agriculture Organizatioir of rhe the development of a rice variety that ditions 4). CIMMYT also has devel- United Natrions. rirre. 1995), p. 179. goes well bevond the current potential oped new varieties for lowland tropical 3. Op cit. 1. of modern varieties of 10 metric tons environments that yield at least 25 per- 4. Op. cit. I, p. 28. per hectare. The first generation has the cent more grain than existing ctultivars. potential to achieve yields of 12 metric Agricultural research is vital to future s. op. i.p.4. periods or more than one crop per year on a field) Expanding Cropland providing 13 percent of the projected increase 123). (See All td d c Table 10.3.) Altold developing count]ries (excILiding Chmna) have Ta obal 0.3.) about 2.5 billion hectares of land on which rainfed crops grlobal gross agricultural production wvill contet could achieve reasonable yields. About 760 million grow over the next two decades; however, It Is projected hectares currentlv are used in crop production, but only to grow at a slower rate (1.8 percent per annuni) than about 600( millionl hectares are harvested in an average it did in the previous 20 years 24!. According to FAO, ear in anY given year some lands are fallow and are the slowdown in the growth of production will be duie ior harvested i2i,). China is thouight to have roughly 125 in part to slowing rates of populationi growth and ani million hectares of croplanid (the admittedlv under- increasing saturation in demanld for food, especially in stated official total is 96 million hectares) but the total developed countries. Inadequate income growtlh in has been shrinking for some time and is likely to con- countries with low levels of consumptionl will also be a tinue to decline. factor (251. FAO estinmates that hy the year 2010, the 760 million hectares of land currenitly in crop production in devel- oping countries (excluding China) could increase by 12 Table 10.3 Estimated Sources of percenit to 850 million hecrares. Of these 850 million Growth in Crop Production and Total hectares, 720 million hectares could be harvested in a Land Use, Developing Countries, given year-an increase of about 21 percent-because Excluding China, 1988-90 to 2010 tot greater cropping intensities ,m. (See Figure 10.6.) Some experts are much less optimistic about the Percent Contribution Increased Arable Cropping potential for further cropland expansion in the next few Region Yield Land Intensity decades. They believe that the potential for further Developing countries 66 21 13 expansion of croplanid area is rapidly disappearinig in Sub-Saharan Africa 53 30 17 most regions 'Žs. The potential to expand cropland is Near East/North Africa 71 9 20 limited by maniv factors, including environmenital costs East Asia 61 32 7 and the cost of developing the infrastructure in remote South Asia 82 4 14 Latin America/ 53 28 19 areas. (See Box I1.2.) Furthierimiore, undeveloped areas Caribbean usUially are not prime cropland, so yields will generally Source: Nikos Alexandratos, ed., WorldAgriculture: Towards 2010, An be less than average Ž29). FAO Study (John Wiley and Sons. Chichester, U.K., and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995), p. 170. Over the past three dec ides tile expansion of crop- lanid area has been significant in two regions: Sub- 230 World Resourc-es 1996-97 Food and Agriculture Saharan Africa and Latin America. Indeed, sub-Saharan Africa stands otit as the oniv region in the world where the expansion of cropland area contributed nearly as Expansion in Developing Countries much as yield increases to the growth of cereal produc- by 2010 tion during the 1961-90 period. In Latin America over the same period, expansion of cropland area accounted (million hectares) for nearly one third of production gains (30). 1,200, There remain relarively large areas of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America that are potentially cultivable. In each of these regions, FAO estimates that expansion 00o -} of arable land will contribute about 30 percent to the ! increase in crop production (47 percent including 800- greater cropping intensityv) 31). Most of the expansion of croplanid area projected by FAO will be in maize and other coarse grains, which are more prominent crops in 600 ' these regions (t2. At least 45 percent of the potential cropland in sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America is under forest 400 - or is in protected areas {.i; albout 72 percent of the potential cropland suffers from soil and terrain con- 200 straints (;4). Conversion would entail high financial and i.k" ecological costs, incIliding the loss of biodiversitv, in- creased carboni dioxide emissions, and significantlv de- 0 - S N E a S Sub- Near Eastr East Asia, South Latin creased carbon storage capacity 035) (W. Saharan North Africa excluding Asia Amerca Asia has more than 50 percent of the world's popu- AfLca China lation, hut two thirds of its potentiallv arahle land is U Landinuse,din8s90 already under cultivationi; the main exceptions are In- LI Land with crop production potential doniesia aind NIvaniiiiar. South Asia's agricultural land is Source: Nikos Alexandratos, ed., WorldAgricuiture: Towards 2010, An almost totally developed; land expansion is likely to FAO Study (John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K., and Food and account for only about 4 percent of production growth Agriculture Organization, Rome, 1995), pp. 162-163. through 2010 I3,). in crop production hetween now and 2010 will come Expanding Irrigation from irrigated land, according to the FAO model (41). The rate at which cropland is brought under irriga- Estimates of the world's total irrigated land varv but tion is declining, mainlv because of the increasing cost usually range between 225 million and 250 million of irrigation (both development and maintenance), the hectares. Irrigated land accounted for more than SO growing competition for water uses, and the decline in percent of the increase in global food production fronm both real agricultural and food prices. Irrigation's envi- the mid- I960s to the mid- I 980s and currently accounts roninental and health impacts also may inhibit further for about one third of total production. Irrigation pro- expansion. Salinization and waterlogging problems niotes higher crop yields and also allows muiltiple crop- from improper irrigation techniques reduce crop yields, ping, which dramatically increases prodluction (38) (9 constraining future gains in production. Furthermore, About 60 percenit of the world's total irrigated land is it is increasingiv costlv to avoid or reverse the accretion in Asia, mostly in India, China, and Pakistan. Africa and of silt in dams and reservoirs and of the salt in already South America have 5 and 4 percent of the world's total irrigated soil 42. irrigated land, respectively (40i. FAO predicts that irrigated lanid in developilng co01- Increasing Yields tries (excluding China) will expand at a rate of 0.8 percent annually, which is much slower than the 2.2 Yields of maize, rice, and wheat doubled between 1961 percent annLual increase experienced during the 1970s and 1991 in developing countries as a whole. The most and the 1.9 percent annual increase in the I 980s. About extraordinary gains occurred in Asia, where wheat two thirds of the expansion will be in Asia. Even with yields rose from 0.7 to 2.6 metric tons per hectare. In this slower growtlh rate, more than half of the increment China, rice yields jumped from 2.3 to 5.7 metric tons Worldt Resources 1996-97 231 Food and Agriculture Box 10.2 Agriculture and the Environment Agricultural growth will put additional land, still mav threaten unique areas grecnhouse gases, contributing about 70 pressures on land and water resources. such as mangrove swamps. In some ar- percent of the total amount of methanie The Food and Agriculture Organization eas, wetlands also are being converted (largely through rice cultivation) and of the United Nations (FAO) estimates to croplands. As demand for irrigation about 90 percent of all nitrous oxidle (4;. that roughly half of the 90 million hec- water increases, the overextraction of tares that could be converted to crop groundwater-already a serious prob- References and Notes production by the year 2010 in develop- lem in the Near Eist and in parts of 1. Nikos Alexandraros, cds., W\o,rld Agricid- ing countries (excluding China) is cur- South Asia-will likely worsen. This in tiere: Touwrdis 20/0, A4n A.t) Sudy (John rentlyr in forest. This represents a turn often leads to salinization, which Wiley and Sons. (hichester, U.K., and significant potential loss of carhon stor- can scriotisly reduce yields and rnay ulti- Food ijid Agricujltuire Organization of rite age capacity and of biodiversity re- niately render the land unusable 2'i ,. Ulnited Nations. Rome, 1995i, pp. sources. FAO also projects an Soil erosion presents another poten- 351-352. expansion of 6 million hectares in dry tially significant constraint, particularly 2. Ibid.. pp. i3535. land areas, which are mostly rangeland. in the tropics, where soil fertility is con- 3. PlCific laStirLti for Studies in Develop- This could increase grazing pressure on centrated near the surface. Erosion also iiteiir, Enrironimenr and Security iuid the the remaininig pastures or displace live- has important downstream effects, such Stockholm Enrironinenr Instiritue, Water in stock to even more marginal lands (in. as the siltation of reservoirs. Crises, PeNer H. Golrck, ed. (ppford Ui-v. r .. ~~~~~~sity Preqss New 'I ork, 199.il, pp. 6-7. Land conversion for aquaculture, al- Agriculture also is a significant con- though inivolving a small amount of tributor to anthropogenic sources of 4. Op. cit. 1. Pp. 362-363. per hectare, whereas maize yields increased from 1.2 to ment by farmers cur-enrl)y achieving less-than-peak 4.6 metric toiis per hectire (4-. In Africa, maize, rice, Yields, a ccording to the FAG model. and whealt vields have beeni poor, especially compared Although FAO predicts that, on average, incrcased with those in Asia and Latin America. Between 1 96 1 ields will contribute about 66 percent to future crop arnd 1991, maize yields in Asia rose from 1.2 to 3.4 produCtion growth, they project rthat ield iicreases will metric tons per hectare, whereas maize yields in Afric a make the strongest contribution In South Asia (82 per- rose from about 0.8 to 1 .2 metric tons per hectare (44i. cent) and much smallcr contributions in Latin Amierica From 1988-90 to 201]0, cereal yields in developing and Africa (53) perceilt) A't). countries (excluding China) are projected to increase by Browvn and others argue that the dramatic gainis in abhout 1.4 percenit per year. according to FAO. (This does yields achieved over the past th ree decaides are not likelv not include iicreases duC to greater croppling inteisity.) to be repeated, since more and ilort of the world's FAG's modcl assumes a sUbstantial slowdown in the farmers are already using varieties with the highest rate of yield increases for all of the miiajo cereals: the genetic vyield potential. Furthermore, they n(ote that rice average yearly growtth in wheat yields, for examiple, is yields at experiment stations in Asia have been stagnant forecast to fall fromii 2.8 perceint in 1 970 to 1990 to 1 .6 for many yeats iim. percenit fromil 1 988-90 to 201 0; similarly, annual growth in rice yields iS expected to drop froii 2.3 Mininmizinzg Soil Degradation percent to 1.5 percent 45. (See Table 10.4.) Wheat yields Fertilizer consumptioni is expected to increase in all Could rise by 40 percetit to nearly 2.7 metric tons per developing regions. In Soutil Asia, for example, FAG hectare bv 2010, whereas rice yields (for irrigated, projects an increase from the 1988-90 level of 69 naturally flooded, and rainfed landis) could increase by kilograniis of fertilizer per hectare to 138 kilogramis by 37 percenit to 3.8 metric tons p er hectare hy 2010 c4sW. the vear 2010, or an average annual growrh of 3.4 Part of lAO's cautious optimisImI about conitinuing1, percenit .iii yield increases is based on the existing wide disparities In sub-Sallaran Africa, relatively little cropland is in yields amon0og c ounlitles. For examiiple, rice yields on fertilized, so the average amoun' t of fertilizer used per i rr igited lainLd vary from 1 to 10 tons per' hectrare; today's hectare in 1 988-90 wvas estlimiated at just I I kilograms. average yicld of.* 7 metric tons per hectaire is well bhlowI FAG pro-jects increases of about 3.3 percenit per year, the 6.7 mietric toiis per hectare achieved by the best- but that would still mean an average rate of use of just perfornminig counitries (47T. Similarly, average yields of 21 kilograms per hectare -by the yeiar 2010 (c)i2 .Many wheat aild maize on irrigated laind aire only about hailf reasons are cited for Africa's la,gginig fertilizer CoIsuinl- the yields achieved by the best-perforiniig counitries O4S). tion, iicluiding shortages of foreigin cxchanige that limit Thus, there is considerable roomii for further imlprove- imports; prohibitively highi prices, especially for lanid- 232 W'orld Rcsources 1996-97 Food and Agriculture locked couuntries tle pedent o11 im- ports; and inefficiet distribution svs- Table 10.4 Production, Yield, and Area by Major teills Low t-cOst option1s, .uchl al Cereal Crop, Developing Countries, Excluding the use of organic ferrilizers, could be China, 1969-71 to 2010 a practicli alternative for tht region's 1988-90 sLubsistcIICe fiarnle-s. CropType 1969-71 1988-90 2010 1970-90 to 2010 In manv areas, the lack of in- Growth Pus-obie .it inhr .lrg Production Got puts-corribined with iuliereiitlv fr.ag- (million metric tons) (percent) ile characteristics of the land, Wheat 67 132 205 3.8 2.1 shorteninig of fallow per-iods, and Rice (paddy) 177 303 459 3.0 2.0 conlitinuouis croppring-create condi- Maize 70 112 196 2.7 2.7 tions in whichll nutrients are steadtilv Other cereals 67 84 135 1.3 2.3 lonstI a 11nCtl 1roLtcriodecis Soil staily Total 381 631 995 2.8 2.2 lost aind pr-oduiction declinies. Soill ii .i- trienit mining canI ultilimateiv result in Yields the lowet rinlg of c rop yr 5 ields. (ropr pro- (kilograms per hectare) duction measures to replenish soil nti- Wheat 1,150 1,900 2,660 2.8 1.6 Rice (paddy) 1,855 2,775 3,810 2.3 1.5 trienits include the use of organic and Maize 1,300 1,790 2.470 1.8 1.5 nmintral fer-tilizers, leguminous crops, Other cereals 730 940 1,210 1.3 1.2 and nitrogen-fixing algae Ii.t Aside Total 1,270 1,910 2,560 2.2 1.4 from rhe primary nutrients, other scc- Harvested Area ondarv niutrients antd micronutrients (million hectares) are depleted in the course of crop pro- Wheat 58 70 77 0.9 0.5 dUtrion. This depletion ImIaV caluse Rice (paddy) 95 109 120 0.8 0.5 Maize 54 63 80 0.9 1.2 lower yields evSen wsithl the applicationl DOther cereals 92 89 112 0.0 1.0 of cheiical fertilizer and croppilng Total 299 331 389 0.6 0.8 mneasurcs that essentially replenish Source: Nikos Alexandratos, ed., World Agriculture: Towards 2010, An FAO Study (John rirnultrients. [)eficieicies in mi- Wiley and Sons, Chichester, U.K., and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1995), p. 169. Crolltrienits suchl as zinc, iron, and Note: Other cereals include barey, millet, sorghum, rye, oats, buckwheat, quinoa, tnticale, co(pper are reportedl in India, whiclh and canary seed. partly explains the decline in demon- stratioil plot yields despite growing chemilical fertilizer another significant Cause of land degradation, account- use iss. Ntitrienit miniig also is a serious problem in ing for nearl- half of all land degradation in Africa. (See parts of Africa, where livestock mianur-e is in short Wk-orld Resoerc-es 1992-9) , pp I I 1-1 18.) supply and the use of mineral fertilizer is seldom-n eco- The impact on prodtuction is difficult to deterimiine. nomical VSh}( For exalple, the studv classified I 0 to 49 percent of the A survey of soil degradlation (GIASOD) by the Inter- land in six LI.S. states (Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, nationial Soil Reference and Inform1ation Center esti- and Norrh and South Dakota) as moderately degraded mated that 9 millionl hectares worldwide are extremliely hecause of agriculturally ildUCed water andi wintd ero- degraded, with original hiotic funlctiois fullyv destroved, sion. Over tile past 4() years, however, land degradation and 1.2 billion hectares-I() percent of the Earth's has been masked by other vield-boosting factorssuc Ias vegetarted surface-are ar least moderately degraded. higher inputs (i7: Worldwide, faulty agricLIltural practices aIccoun for In many other regions, sucih as the rainfed areas of 28 percenit of the degraded soils, incluidinig about OliC Africa and Soutl Asia, inputs have played a lesser role fourtil of the degraded soils in Africa and Asia anl d and the relative impact of degradation certainily seemis nearly two thirds of the dcegraded soils in North Anler- to be grearer. Onle prolmisinig nevw development is the ica. Causes iniclutle shortening of the fallowv period Unittd Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, during shifting cultivation (shifting c ultivationi is the wvhich could provide Soimie new imnpetus for the inanage- clearing of land-usually by fire-followed by phases menit of croplands in the (Irvland areas of Africa. The of cultivation and a fallow period), cultivating hillsides Convention, which is expected to e nter into force b% withiout adet1u-tre erosion cotntrol measures, laviiig soil 199, calls for the developmilent of national action lpro- exposed d urinig fallow periods, and insiLfficient drain- grams that encourage diversification in agriculture, pro- age of irrigation wvater. Overgrazing by livestock is m1ote rhe luse of drought-resistant crops and the Worul Resoierces 1990-97 233 Food and Agriculture application of integrated drv land farming systems, and 84 percent of total cropped land-are important to ensure the more integrated and sustainable management future food production u-^. There are mayli opportLilni- of agricuItural and pastoral lands ss. ties in this area: for example, techniques that increase soil moistire around the root zone can improve yields Iniprovitg Agronomic Practices and reduce productioni risks (h-l. Crop production cani also he increased by applying appropriate farming techniques. Optimizing the timing Reducing PostIharvest Losses and density of planting and seeding has raised corn vields by as mruchrl as 2.5 metric tons per hectare and soybeani Reducing postharvest losses provides another opportu- yields bv I additional metric ton per hectare in nitv to improve yields. The actual magnitude of crop marginal wheat production areas of Africa, everv I-day losses after harvest is not well known. One study esti- delay in sowing after the optimal sowving date can result mates total global marketinig and cistributioni losses at 8 in a sizable reduction in grain vield. Seedbed prepara- percent i6s); other estimates are higher, often in the range tion also can he critical in areas prone to waterlogging. of about 10 percent for developed counltries such as the Timing operations to achieve maximum vields of one LUlited States and ahout 20 percenit for developing coun- crop mav have opportunity costs elsewhere on the farii, tries i In Kenya, for example, it is estimated that 24 however. For example, in northern Nigeria, cottoin vields percent of harvested grains are damaged by molds, fungi, can be increased significantly through earlier planting, insects, rodents, and other pests; losses are significantly but cotton then competes with food crops for labor at a larger in remote areas of the countrv (70U. critical time of vear: Thus, farmers continue to plant later, Gains can be obtained through better processing and even though this reduces their cotton yield, in order to improved storage and distribution facilities (including give greater priority to their food crops O()o. transportation infrastructure and transport facilities). Timing imiprovemiienits depenid on a well-informed Improved food storage facilities iiay also reduce vulner- corps of agriculttiral extenision officers or some similar ability to famines and food shortages 71i). In developing type of educational programs for farmers, which are not countries, seeiningly minnor cha.nges in handling crops alwavs available in manv developing countries. such as cereals could result in significant reduictions in postha rvest losses. Improving the Efficiency of Water Use Instead of expanding the area of irrigated cropland, it Alternative Models may often be more cost-effective to rehabilitate existing In recent decades, the formula for increasing production cropland areas or implement price reforms to improve has been to use high-vielding varieties in combination the efficiency of water use ti,. In many cases, less than with large amounLIts of water, synithetic fertilizers, and SO percent of irrigation water is utilized by crops, while pesticides to increase yields. This high-input approach the rest is lost through seepage from unlined canals, has worked, but it has mianiy environmental disadvan- evaporation and runoff from poorly applied water, and tages, including the loss of genetic stocks and the dete- poor management that fails to deliver water at the right rioration of soil qualitv. time in the proper amounts i6,2. \'ater is used inieffi- Somneexpertsare urging farmlers toadoptalternative, ciently not only because of management problems but more environmentally friendlv svstems that depart from also because it is usually priced below its true value. the traditional factorylike approach. Farmers are often Current water prices in man>' countries do not even taking the lead themselves. In the United States, for cover the cost of delivery [h). example, a group called P)ractical Farmers of Iowa is Water-use efficiency improvements could result in doing its own on-farnm research and networking to help expansion of the area of irrigated cropland or an in- custom designi and implenienit integrated farming sys- crease in crop yields, or both ;h4;. Such gains, however, teins CG C.IAR's international agricultural research can requite significant investments in both infrastruc- centers also are broadening their horizons to include ture and institutional reform anid can depend on crucial research on food legumes, livestock, agroforestry, farni- investments in agricultural education. More expensive ing systemiis, integrated pest manaKgemienit, improved irrigation improvements include pressurized systems, methods for dealing with soil and climatic stresses, and portable sprinklers, center pivots, moving lines, and policy and management issues (7.). drip svstems ((6I. In Africa, some experts believe that alternative mod- With the manv conistraints that limit the expansion els that can provide V ield grow th and do less damage to of irrigation, improvements to rainfed cropland-about the environment could be very beneficial. 234 World Resources 1 996-97 Food and Agriculture In areas with high production potential, for example, food supply of 2,170 calories per day-the lowest sustainable intensification strategies include better de- among all regions-bv 2010. In contrast, the developed sign and management of irrigation systems to reduce countries are projected to have a per capita food supply waterlogging; reforimied wvater pricing to reduce exces- of 3,470 calories per day (-i. IFPRI's model, which sive use; rotation of other crops with rice to maintain projects ahead to the vear 2020. also envisages little the health of irrigated soils; integrated use of natural improvement in food securitv in sub-Saharan Africa, predators, more selective use of pesticides, and the use even under a variety of alternative projections of of pest-resistanit varieties; improved soil testing and growth, investment, and trade liberalization ;761. fertilizer applicationi; creation of regionally diversified South Asia's situation is also difficult. For the region crop breeding programs; and more farmer education, as a whole, FAG projects available calories of 2,450 per In fragile areas, factors sucIh as poor infrastructure, capita per dav by 2010 and an estiniated 195 million drought risk, and lower vield response undermine the people suffering from chronic undernutrition (7). IFPRI high-input strategy. Alternative strategies include mois- predicts that per capita food availabilitv will rise to ture conservation, erosion control, nutrienit recycling, 2,600 calories per dayv by 2020, but that the number of and the increased use of mixed farming systems that malnourished children will only drop to 76 million from integrate annual crops with perennial crops, farm trees, the current estimate of 96 million 78h. and livestock (74). Population growth rates and undernutrition are gen- erally declining in the rapidly industrializing region of East Asia. FAO estimates that bv 2010 the number of Food Security: A Continuing Challenge unidernourished people could be down to 77 million, or Many developing countries are faced with a food secu- just 4 percent of the population. Similarly, in Latin rity crisis now and into the foreseeable future. In many America the proportion of undernoLurished peoplecould areas, farmers are overwhelmed by unfavorable condi- decline from 13 percent in 1988-90 to 6 percent hv tions, poor people are unable to afford food, civil strife 2010. For the 93 developing countries studied, chronic is a conistant threat, and governments are unable to undernutrition could drop to 1 percent of the popula- provide the needed rural infrastructure or agricultural tion in 2010 from the 1 988-90 figure of 20 percent (-9>. policies that enlcoLurage domestic prodluction. Where domestic production falls short of needs, gov- Food security differs fundamentally from food pro- ernments will be forced to buy from abroad or seek food duction. Food securiry nieans ensuring that all people aid. The World Bank projects that developing countries have physical and economic access to the basic food they could be importing about 15 percent of their grain need to work and function normally. It can he con- consumption by' 2010 (s). FAO estimates that net im- strained by availabilitry (inadequate supplies of food, ports by the developing Countries mav increase from 90 including imports and food aid) and by physical and million metric tons in 1988-90 to ahout 160 million economic access. Physical access to food can he impeded metric tons by 2010 sn. Most of the imports will he by' poor infrastruicttire, poor marketing and storage wheat and coarse grains; rice consumption is expected facilities, and civil strife. Economic access has two di- to be satisfied largely by domestic production. Large mensions: the ability of nations to generate the foreign increases in grain imports are projected to occur in exchange to pay for food imports and the abilitv of North Africa, Mlexico, Indonesia, India, and China (.Q). households to generate the income necessar)' to bu)y Trade and aid mav not be enough to fill the gap in enough food. sub-Saharan Africa. By the year 2000, the region's Famines and temporarvy food deficiencies can result cereals production shortfall could increaseto well above from drougit, flood, war, political strife, or poor har- the cLrrent net imports of about 1O million tons s). Yet vests. Such events are increasing, as discussed earlier, it is doubtful that the region will be able to generate Chronic underiutritioni is a more long-term, intrac- sufficient foreign exchange to import such large table food securitv problem. Current estimates of amounts of food or that food aid will he abie to make chronic undernutrition in developing countries and pro- up the gap. Southi Asia faces a similar, although sonie- jections for the year 2010 provide a rough guide to the wrhat less dire, outlook (X42. nature of the food security challenge that lies ahead. The The developed countries are projected to maintain bleakest prospects are for sub-Saharani Africa, where the adequate food levels over the next two decades. In numnbIer of underinourished people could rise to some North America and Western Europe, agricultural poli- 300 millionl from an estimated 175 million in 1 988-90. cies will continue to he used to limit production. A Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to have a per capita significant increase in world food prices or in demand WorldI Resourc-es 1996-97 235 Food and Agriculture by developilng counltries, however, could brinig some originates fronm efficient, effective, and low-cost food idled land hiack into production. and agricultural svsteins that are compatible with sus- The transition economiiies of Central Europe and the ta imable use and management of natural resources" (w88. formier Soviet Uniion provide potential for an expansion of IFPRI concluded that sustained action is needed to: food production (Xii. The countries in these regions are 0 Strenigthen the capacities of developing-country gov- currently major- cereal importers. If Policy reforms suc- erinenits to perform their appropriate functions. ceedl, thesecountries could breco>me net exporters (Xv) ;s'- a Enhance the productivity, health, and nutrition of low-income people and increase their access to em- Future Capacity plovinenit alid productive assets. Most recent atteinpts to develop hvpothetical mnodels of * Strengthen agricultural research and extension sys- the world's potenitial to increaise food production over teins in and for developing cointries. the next few decades conicluide that the potential is * Promote sustainable agricultural intensification and sufficient to meet the growth of effective demanid as sound management of natural resources, with in- world population and in-on es increase. There is a creased emphasis on areas with fragile soils, limited substantial gap, however, between the world's hypo- rainfall, and widespread poverty. thetical productioni potential and short-terim realities in * Develop effective, efficient, and low-cost agricultural certain regions, particCularly in Africa and South Asia. input anld output markets. As part of irs 2020 project, IYPRI developed a vision * Expand international assistance and improve its effi- for the year 2020 of what nieeds to be done to achieve a ciency. IFPRI recommends realigning international world "where every person has economic and physical development assistatnce to low-income developing access to sufficient food to sustain a healthy and produc- countries, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa and South tive life, where malniultrition is ahsenit, and where food Asia (S9). References and Notes I. Foi.,d anid Agri,uil.re (Org.rniz.iir of I Ire 12. (p. 9-1. I N'.. Ili.K.), pp. 1-5, cited in Alex F. U3 nited N;urn, PFAD;, FPA >STA T-P1) . 1 3. Fo,,,dl ad Agrivir li t h M c( all., 'Agricultutre arid Food Neetds to diskette )iFAO. Roie, 1 99i linitetL Nai., (FAG), Thre S.'.1 -fF,o,d 2'V2 : Wlhy We Should Be Conicerned," Sir 2. In//. o ri,?A (lle irdt 1994 IFAO, R(ine. 1994), j hi Cra wford MerirorialI Lecture. Interna- p I I. tioier C enters Week Consultatrive Group on The Wi irld B irk, A.4/crc.i DP-! I-. prnr'rlri IOdi- In ternatiiona l AgrieCltirrr Research, Wash- ,i,rrs 1 994-'.i (Thei World Bnik, WY;shirg- 14. Op. yr. S. pp. 12-13. ing ,tio; D.C., October 1994), pp. 17-19. tori, D. (1., 199i), p. 2 lv. I i. p)/I. it 5.p. 22. David Piirireirtel et .4., FnvironnerntalI anle 4. Arir 1I... Nirlrogi je. "Tire F.rrs-irriiiiriciral 6. Dlnlil Ihd 0). MNicril rird .\lrrliod,i D . i ugr) . FIocnoii(c Costs oif Snil Eroision aiid Concer- ( leiges V i r '] NoS.rI..r.i Al4tir,'\ Fin -it.5.- Ti'e W' rl,d/d FI-oil (PUnk, iThe \Wit1 Bk. Bai io n Benefirs," S iieirce. Vol. '67, Ni. ririrri. Vol. 37, .N... 4 ( tsi.v 19951 , pe. Ii. 5. srIrhingri ii 1).(:, 1993 r. 5219 1 9F5 hrii:iFry 24. 1995)1 pp. 1117-1122. S. Nik.s Alex;indrlr: rid,s. i.Mrk W. Rse.grant, Nlercedit.i Agc;. iI pIt. S. p. 1 70. Tcr,ir,Ins 20(rIn. Air F.4(1 Slio,1 ) ruln Wiler T .r .R.erii.Nec.i.rAerrl- 23 N~il> .IO ,Iid Soin,c, (Irichcstcr, .K. .nd F-.l idi srblnill:r, arid Nrcr,str.ito t). Pcr.z, "GIih.l 24. (p. tii. i, p. 80). Agricilrrire Orgarre.nrs.r iI iited Na Food lriolectriiisr. to220: Implic.r.tis f .e < cit. *.. pp. 9-80. tir iris, Romre, I r 95, 1 5 pp. Invesirnelit." hiirerti:rTrOi,1l Fo,),l lPolcy Re- - . se4 clr,h Insmitrue (IFPRI) Food, Agricilrire, 26. ip. cii. S, p. IS. 6. 1ird., p. 4 1. rid rhr E irsioniriei. dr;ft di sciussioni paper 27. (p ir. i, pp. 1 64- 16. 7. (49. I. 5. pp. 184-INS. PI , Wishinigio, D.C., 1 995. 28. Per iPinstrurp-Anderseni aiid Rairil Pairdva- S. Frood ald Agurciul tre Organizcation of trhe IS. Pierie Cr'.sonr aid Jock R. Anrders., Re- Lrrch, "Alleviaring Piverty, Inteirsifyirig Ag- tlnincd N'-ations tFAO), "Ascss%iinr i TIre s.. tirce, :nd Gilobal F.id lProspects: SmpjrlY rculitre, riid Effectively Managing Natuiral C:u.rre'nt Woirl ld,ood Se.virits Siruatioin ird .nd Delenid for (lercvails r. 2i30." Worlti Resources," Food, Agricriltrire, arid the Envi- N-i Cdi inn TeTrn Rev i''," itiii i 1 tf rhe Prori- B.rak Technica;l Paiper Noi. 184 iThe Worldi rioiireini Discissionir Paper No. I (Inreria- sirorl Agnda., 2tth essioii, Com.mriitee oii.. Bnk, W.rshuigriin D.C., 1992). tiotial Food Policy Research Iiistiritte World Fl--d Seen-riy iFAG. Rmne. April 14. \'.ViAl:r Srin. 'HoW .M.rry Pe.p)le CAI the W.rshingron, 1D.C., 1994), p. 6. I 9'9I-K) p 3. ' L.iz-th Fled?." P ;pdliio'i al)ld D 'Irpttirrrt 29. ()p. I-it. II , p. 211. 9. Paitrik W 1,1, .A Tune ot PIt cNc, A Wine)rl) R:ie.'%', Vcl. 2(1, N,.. 2 t Irire 1994'. A() The Woirld Banzk, Wo(rld Dev/eloJpmenit Re- if Need: The Rile itl Fod Aid -in) 2(120 ' h- 2O. 1 esier R. Briowii aiid Hal Kjrnw, Fill Hrouse: P-1 1 9'2 rTid e World BDclk WapshingtolRe ter.iiroial FRo.id nl'sii Research iosttitc Riss c,ing Ht',' Eartlbs PINpCatmn Carrviniz ..( 1992), p. 13i5. (IiFF'RI) 202(1 Brief N.,. to111FPRI, Wa shirg nn/nprcitv- iW .W . Norrrmr, Nes Yirk, 1 9941. tori, D.C.. 199), p. 2. 31. OIp. (t. S. p. 1i7. i1. liii,?. 21. [i12 ( arrr.rhc-s it. 5, p. 172. c(r .Agriclrturre is We- Krc Ir," Tnr,pi.-l Ag- II - oIp. it. 9, P. I. rinriltnrc s-3 ssi.ei.iiit Ners,'tte'r. V.1 3 13 33. (p. nit. S, p. I 52. 236 World Resorurces 1 996-9)7 Food and Agriculture 34. Op. cit. 5, p. I 55. 57 (7)O . .zt. 18. p. 34. ?5 . it. 5. . S . '4. 35. Op. cit. 16, pp. 50-51. 58. Uniired) Na.tin,s En vinrinii mem Pr. .gr.mimiime -h. ( it. 17, pr I - 18. 36. Paul R. Ehrlich et al., "Food Seciirity, Ptipii- tUNEP). Utn/ied Nati.ons (Om. cnit/i.'. to __ ( ip 5, p 54 axion, and Environmetr.' Popuhai/.oi ia.) ( ..mio ba.it D.e'irtilicZ atlt.i. 1 ext with Aninses Developnmenzt Reviewv. Vol. 19, No. I (LINEP, (;elev.. 1995). pp. 45-46. 78. (p . cit. I7, pp. l -20(. (1993), p. 7. s9. p. -it. 19. p. 26-. 79. 3p. ,cit. s, p. 84. 37. Op. -it. 5, p. 171. 60. Peter H.' ell, Director, En iroiniient, sid Pro.- Xi. it. a. I6. '. I s9 38. The Worid Bank and the Llnited Nations [)c- di,tion Techiilogy DisnioiT, Iliter-T.tii1ti.i velopinenr Programme, Irrigat. inant Drain- Food P.ltss Rese.irch lltitLitt, W.ishiiigitIi, x I (. it. 5i 1p. S. age Research: A Pr..posal (The World Bank, D.C., I 995 (persoTi.tI C. huh lini iiimi.). 82. itp. ,i. Ii. 1. i9. W.ishis gton, D.C., 19901, pp. 3. 1I) 3, cited 61. F.od ,tid Agricuilture Org.t1niz.iotiT (I the 8 j. Food Jild Agri,iiltiire Org z.iiii.ti,oi o1 the in Pierre Cross.on and jick R. Anders.n., Unitred Na Iitims IF A(), A4cr.,ultuiC: T.2- liitsd No ioitts (FAO). Fo,-.l it!. ...kM "ResoLurces and (Aobal FoI id Prospects: Stip- wnir,ls 20)12)2 27th Sessio.ii C(iifereitLt Pr..- ([AOL Ki. .r - AiigiLislptenIr 1995t ii. p. plv and Demand for Cereals ro 2030), ceeditngs(FAO. Rom. e 99, ) p. 1i8. World Bank Techlital Paper Ni. I84 (The Peter H. Glrick, "Au Intriductinoi (l1ohal 4. I'teL H.izell. Prire rs )r. Well-Fetl World Bank, Washingtoi I).C., I1992) p. pr.H Watr 1 ILies," in Wale zin ro 1'e- Wor1dl IM.L,r prepired lor in exterl FreIh \NDa ter Issuves, in 5) atir t (esslnI'e-it ter Hi. (Glick, c.d. ;(Ixfiord UI.ic rsit Press. p.1laL ppi i ited hw t l (versighi (..o nit- 39. Henry W. Kendall nlnd D.ivid lliiiicnrel, Nes tork 99;. p 6. tee. w tIi ( oiiisiili.ive (.r.lup Ill litiern.i- "Conistraints oii the Exp.ansioin oi rthe Glob,)l N9ianl Agricult ir,il Re.r Irt t.o prepaire A FRod Suipply." A.mbo,. Vol. 2.3, No. 3 63. 1)p. clt. I'p. 32 () ViiIiTI Str.iittciir ut,r inrti.iuni il Agriucil- (1 94), p. 200. 64. 6)/. .it. 19. p. 2-(). riir.l Rescarch )Iltiernat.riiul 1-.,,,d 'lihc Re 4(1 s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tltirs1 liuoiiiiit., \sV.R>ishui,ti.it. 1).( ., Mi.rth 40. Op. cit. 16, p. 68. 65. Op. .tt. 19, p. 2-8. .I,h1 " t94)p. rt D 41. Cp. cit. 5, p. 160. 66. ( )p .-it.5. p. I I 8 .h L4 r). tr. 42. Op. cit. 18, pp. 47 53. 67. S.itdr.i Idr stPrl. "Water mitd Agrictlltiure. 8. CIte L rtirIi irIiits i ti eci,ioiIic,its l itk ,t fuhr- 43. Nikos Alexaidrattos, Chief of C.loh.d I'er- Wadter iit Crisis. Perer H. (,ei , cd. I (\xf I.. mlesii its.ior but i s d tleritier Seit l- spective Studies tinit, Ecolion,ic .iid Soci.l Uiiisersit% Pres. Ness York. 1 99 ) ). p.. t,Is. ieiii,i A zrl.li K epilici) Department. Food and Agriculture )rgaiiza- 68. \Villiai Beri(tlr, iiid-peitclctt co)isiilitiir. hIel11is. tlhL RCpiihl. )f F,sinoit the RepLih- rioit of the Utiietd Natiois, Ronie. 199.5 (per- (,riotoiii \M s,ithisetts, 1995 peso-iil ton- h. ol (. . .ri.i, the RyIelibll ol )Ka.ikltsaiTi, sonal comiiiuiticatioti). itiinimcaitiol, the K igty. RLp..l.liv. the Rtpuluist (It I JMA, 44. Per Pinstritp-Anderserit, Wirlfd F...i./ 7reinds 69. Dja rd t iiteitrel. (orniell I o.iier.ute ( illegc ti2 Repilil -f i ltii.iiui.. Ith Rerihhlic ot .2nd Future Food Se,curity (Inrern.itional id1 Arciltiir, rtit Life Stirelks. Ith. luav. slotliisi.tlt r hr iissi.i FeteIrat i, the Re- Food Policy Rese.irch Itistitite, Washiligroilil Newg i o>rk, 1995 (perrsiiT. l C0itI 135 7 3 0 >109 1 0 0 260 0 Rwanda X 1 0 X X 0 0 X X 0 Senegal X 1 6 X X 1 0 X 83 0 Sierra Leone X 1 3 X x 2 0 X X 0 Somalia 193 48 2 49 27 3 0 7 X 1 South Atrvca 299 81 36 61 95 45 16 19 94 34 Sudan X 6 2 X X 1 0 X X 0 Swaziland 102 1 2 85 40 0 1 33 40 0 Tanzania 245 56 4 55 121 43 0 27 X X Togo X 1 3 X X 3 0 X X 0 Tuniara X 1 1 X X 0 0 X X 0 Uganda 149 2 0 53 50 1 0 18 291 X Zaire X 33 3 X X 53 0 X X 1 Zambia X 2 1 X 83 1 0 20 X 0 Zimbabrwe 153 2 0 46 120 3 0 36 112 0 EUROPE 6 6 X X 6 X X X X X Albania 31 0 2 22 13 0 9 35 1 Auslria 14 0 0 7 20 0 0 10 60 2 Belanms, Rep 8 0 0 3 10 0 0 4 x 0 Belg-um 8 0 0 6 17 0 0 12 X 0 Bosna and Herzegovina X 0 X X X 0 X X X X Bulgana 33 0 1 15 17 0 0 8 X 1 Croatia Rep X 0 X X X 0 X X X X Czech Rep X 0 0 X X 0 0 X X 2 Denmark 5 0 0 3 14 0 0 9 41 1 Eslonla,Rep 5 0 0 3 11 0 0 7 30 1 Finland 5 0 0 2 5 0 0 2 66 2 France 32 0 2 9 32 3 2 9 53 3 German,y 12 0 0 4 20 0 0 6 71 4 Greece 51 3 4 22 15 0 1 6 98 17 Hungary 15 0 0 7 17 0 0 8 X 1 Iceland 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7 f Ireland 1 0 0 1 3 0 0 2 25 2 ltaly 40 0 3 13 34 7 9 11 45 2 Latvia. Rep 7 0 0 4 3 0 0 7 109 [llhuana. Rep 7 0 0 4 13 0 0 7 x 1 Macedoma, fomner Yugoslav Rep X 0 X X X 0 X X X X Moldova, Rep 9 0 0 6 13 0 0 9 62 2 Nethedands 7 0 0 5 16 0 0 tO X 1 Normay 5 0 0 2 5 n 0 2 X 2 Poland, Rep 9 0 0 3 18 0 0 6 X 3 Portugal 29 2 0 14 17 0 1 8 28 9 Romana 25 0 1 9 19 0 0 7 87 3 Russ'an Federalior. X X 3 X X X 0 X X 4 Slovak Rep X X 0 X X X 0 X x 2 Slovenia Rep 21 0 0 17 X 0 2 X X 0 Spain 53 9 4 15 X 0 3 X 98 13 Sweden 6 0 0 2 25 2 0 7 50 2 Switzerand 14 0 0 9 13 0 1 8 X 3 Ukraine 19 0 0 5 18 0 0 5 48 3 United Kingdom 8 0 0 3 7 0 0 2 36 2 Yugaslania Fed Rep X X X X X X X X X X 266 World Resources 1996-97 Data Table 11.3 continued Reptiles Amphibians Total Number of Known Total Number of Known Species Number of Species Total Number of Known Species Number of Species Freshwater Fish SpecIes All Endemic Threatened per 10.000 All Endemic Threatened per 10.000 All Thretened Species Species Speies Square km Species Species Species Square km Species Species NORTH & CENTRALAMERICA X X X X X X X X X X Belize 107 2 5 81 32 1 0 24 63 0 Canada 41 0 0 4 41 0 0 4 177 20 Costa R ca 214 36 7 125 162 34 1 95 130 0 Cuba 102 80 8 46 41 42 0 19 28 0 DominicanRep 105 22 8 62 35 15 1 21 16 0 ElSalvador 73 4 6 57 23 0 0 18 16 0 Guatemala 231 18 9 105 99 28 0 45 220 0 Ha,hi 102 29 6 73 46 23 2 33 16 0 Honduras 152 12 7 68 56 16 0 25 46 0 Jarna,ca 36 26 10 35 21 21 4 20 6 0 Mexico 687 368 18 120 285 179 3 50 364 98 Nicaragua 161 5 7 69 59 2 0 25 50 0 Panama 226 25 7 116 164 21 0 64 101 0 Tnsdad and Tobago 70 2 5 87 26 2 0 32 76 0 United States 280 71 23 29 233 146 16 24 822 174 SOUTH AMERICA X X X X X X X X X X Argentna 220 64 6 34 145 45 5 23 410 1 Bolinra 208 17 4 44 112 26 0 24 389 1 Brazil 468 177 10 51 502 349 1 54 X 8 Chde 72 33 18 17 41 30 20 10 44 27 Colombia 584 106 12 122 585 206 0 123 X 3 Ecuador 374 114 12 124 402 160 0 133 706 0 Guyana X 2 7 X X 13 0 X X 0 Paraguay 120 3 3 35 85 3 0 25 X 0 Peru 296 95 7 60 315 122 0 63 X 0 Sunname 151 0 5 60 95 8 0 38 300 0 Uruguay X 1 0 X X 4 0 x x 0 Venezuela 259 57 10 58 199 116 0 45 X 0 ASIA X X X X X X X X X X Alghanistan IslamicState 103 4 0 26 6 1 0 2 84 0 Anrnena 46 1 2 32 6 0 0 4 X 0 Azerbaijan 52 0 1 26 8 n n 4 X 0 Bangladesh 119 1 17 49 19 0 0 6 X 0 Bhulan 19 2 1 11 24 n 0 14 X 0 Cambodia 82 1 7 32 28 0 0 11 >215 4 China 340 74 6 35 263 154 1 27 686 16 Georgia. Rep 46 0 5 24 11 0 1 6 X 0 India 389 185 21 57 197 120 3 29 X 2 Indonesia 511 298 16 90 270 lo0 0 48 X 65 Iran. Islamic Rep 164 26 6 30 11 5 0 2 269 2 Iraq 81 1 0 23 6 0 0 2 X 2 Israel X 1 4 X X 0 0 X 26 0 Japan 66 27 10 20 52 41 11 16 186 10 Jordan X 0 0 X X 0 0 X 26 0 Kazakhstan Rep 37 0 0 6 10 0 0 2 X I Korea. Dem Peoples Rep 19 1 0 8 14 0 0 6 X 0 Korea. Rep 25 3 0 12 14 2 0 7 130 0 Kuwait 29 0 2 24 2 0 0 2 X 0 Kyrgyz Rep X X 0 X X X 0 X X I LaoPeoplesDemRep 66 1 3 23 37 1 0 13 244 3 Lebanon X 2 1 X X 0 0 X X 0 Malaysa 268 68 10 85 153 57 0 50 449 4 Mongolia 21 0 0 4 8 0 0 2 70 0 Myanmrar 203 38 11 51 75 10 0 19 X I Nepal 80 3 8 33 36 9 0 15 120 0 Oman 64 9 4 23 X 0 0 X 3 2 Pakistan 172 21 7 41 17 3 0 4 156 0 Phiippines 190 153 8 62 63 55 2 21 X 21 Saudr Arabia 64 4 2 14 X 0 0 X 8 0 Singapore X 0 1 X X 0 0 X 73 0 Sr Lanka 144 75 9 77 39 21 0 21 65 19 Synan Arab Rep X X 1 X X X 0 X X 0 TaFkistan, Rep 38 0 0 16 2 0 0 1 X 0 Thailand 298 35 11 81 107 17 0 29 >600 11 Turkey 102 4 10 24 16 2 3 4 152 18 Turknmenstan. Rep 60 2 0 22 2 0 0 1 X 1 Unled Arab Emirates 37 1 2 18 X 0 0 X 5 0 Uzbekistan Rep 51 0 0 15 2 0 0 1 X 0 Viel Nam 180 39 8 57 80 27 1 25 X 2 Yemen. Rep 77 31 2 21 X 1 0 X 5 0 OCEANIA X X X X X X X X X X Australe 748 596 42 83 205 186 20 23 216 54 Fljl 25 11 6 20 2 2 0 2 X 0 New Zealand 40 36 12 13 3 3 3 1 29 6 PapuaNewGuinea 280 77 7 79 197 115 0 56 282 49 Solmon, Islands 61 10 6 43 17 9 0 12 X 0 Source World ConserNahon Monitonng Centre Notes a. Values are standardized using a species-area cue Threatened specres data areas of 1993 World and regionaltotals nclude countnes not listed X sot avalable For additional ,normat,on. see Sources and Technical Notes World Resources 1996-97 267 Data Table 11.4 Marine Biodiversity Maritime Area 1000 sq. km) Total Number of Known Marine Proteted Areas Length of Shell to Exclusive Coastal Marine Species a) Marine Habitats Regional Coastline 2004er Economic MaNmmles 1000 hectarses) Area Prlority Sites {b} (km) Depth Zone Fish Turtles Total Threatened Mangroves Coral Reefs Number (hectres) (number) WORLD X X X X 7 56 15 X I 1,206 X 73 AFRICA X X X X X X X X X 112 X 9 Algena 1,183 14 137 x X X X 0 0 2 76,568 0 Angola 1.600 67 606 X 5 3 1 110 NS 3 2.465.200 0 Benin 121 X 27 X X 2 1 3 X X X X Cameroon 402 11 15 X 3 2 1 306 NS ' 160.000 0 Cape Verde 965 X 789 108 3 X X X P X X X Congo 169 9 25 X 3 2 1 2 X X X X Cote dIvoire 515 10 105 X 2 2 I 2 NS X X X DlbouS 314 X 6 X 2 2 1 P p 2 X 0 Egypt 2.450 37 174 X 3 2 1 P P 6 708300 0 EquatonalGuinea 296 X 283 X 2 2 1 20 P X X X Entrea 2.234 X X X 2 2 1 P P X X X Gabon 885 46 214 X 3 2 1 250 NS 1 200,030 0 Gamba, The 80 X 20 X 2 2 1 66 X 3 18.440 1 Ghana 539 21 278 X 5 2 1 2 NS X X X Gunea 346 38 71 X 2 2 1 223 X X X X Guinea-Bissau 274 X 151 X 5 2 1 237 X 1 0 0 Kenya 536 14 118 X 3 2 1 53-62 P 10 79,559 1 Liberia 579 20 230 X 4 2 1 20 NS X X X lbya 1.770 84 338 X 1 7X I NP NP X X X Madagascar 4.828 180 1,292 X 4 2 1 326 P 1 1.000 0 Mauntania 754 44 154 X 4-5 4 2 P X 2 1.186.000 1 Maunlius 177 92 1,183 313 X X 1 p p 6 8.400 0 Mo21O 1.835 62 278 X 3 2 I NP NP 3 56.930 0 Mozambique 2.470 104 562 X 5 2 1 85 P 4 1,027.000 2 Namibia 1.489 X X X 1 2 0 X X X X X Nigena 853 46 211 X X 2 1 970-3.328 X X X X Senegal 531 32 206 X 5 3 1 169 NS 6 84,186 1 Seychelles 491 X 1,349 379 2 X X P P 15 X 0 Sierra Leone 402 26 156 X 3 2 1 100-171 NS X X X Sorralia 3.025 61 783 X 2 2 1 10 P X X X SouthAfica 2.881 143 1.553 X 2 9 I 1 P 22 X 0 Sudan 853 22 92 X 2 2 1 P P 2 X 0 Tanzania 7.424 41 223 X 4 2 1 134 P 7 X 3 Toga 56 1 2 X 3 2 1 P X X X X Tunsia 1.143 51 86 X 1 1 X NP NP 2 4.480 0 Zaire 37 1 1 X 3 2 1 53 X 1 76.850 0 EUROPE X X X K X X X X X 142 X_ 27 Aibania 418 5 12 X X X X NP NP X X X Belgum 64 3 3 X X 2 0 NP NP I X I Bbsnia and Herzegoorna 20 X X X X X X NP NP X X X BJlgana 354 12 33 X X I X NP NP X X X Croalia Rep 5.790 X X X X X X NP NP 6 40882 0 Cyprus 648 7 99 96 2 X X NP NP 1 650 0 Denmark 3379 69 1,464 X X 3 0 NP NP 13 X 1 Estonia Rep 7.393 X X X X X 0 NP NP 5 X 1 Rnland 1.126 98 98 X X 3 0 NP NP 5 X 1 Framce 3.427 148 3,493 X X 3 0 NP NP 11 X 0 Germany 2.389 41 50 X X 3 0 NP NP I I X 4 Greece 13.676 25 505 X 1 X 1 NP NP 1 100,000 0 Iceland 4,988 134 867 X X 4 0 NP NP 2 272 0 Ireland 1,448 126 380 X X 3 0 NP NP 1 X u lialy 4.996 144 582 X X X 1 NP NP 10 X 0 Latvia. Rep 531 X X X X X X NP NP I X 0 Lithuania, Rep 108 X X X X X X NP NP 3 X 2 Netherlands 451 85 85 X X 3 C NP NP 4 X 2 Noay 5.832 103 2.025 X X 9 1 NP NP 5 X 0 Poland, Rep 491 28 29 X X 2 0 NP NP 1 X 0 Porlugal 1693 39 1,774 X X 2 1 NP NP 13 X 7 Romana 225 24 32 X X X X NP NP X X X Russian Federalorn 37,653 X X X X 17 3 NP NP 12 X 5 Slvena, Rep 32 X X X X X X NP NP 2 X 0 Span 4.964 170 1.218 X X 2 1 NP NP 8 X 1 Sweden 3.218 155 155 X X 4 0 NP NP 6 X 0 Ukraine 2.782 X X X X X X NP NP 3 72.013 0 Um,led Kingdcm 17,429 492 1,785 X X 3 0 NP NP 9 X 2 Yugoslavia. Fed Rep 199 X X X X X X NP NP X X X NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA X X X X X X X X X 385 X 8 Antguaand Barbuda 153 X X 108 3 X X 1 3 2 2.500 0 Barbados 97 0 167 270 1 X X P P 1 250 0 Belize 386 X X X 3 X 1 73-78 p 2 4,336 0 Canaua 90.908 2,903 2.939 X X 15 2 NP NP 76 18.193.255 0 CostlaRra 1,290 16 259 X 4 X 1 4041 P 13 X 1 Cuba 3.735 X 363 320 3 X 1 530-626 P 16 579.634 1 Dominica 148 X 20 105 3 X X P P 2 X 0 Dominican Rep 1.288 18 269 269 4 X 1 9-24 P 7 717060 2 El Salvador 307 18 92 X 4 X X 3545 X X X X GuatemaLa 400 12 99 X 4 X 1 16 X 2 57,200 0 Hait 1,771 11 161 272 3 X 1 18 P X X X Honduras 820 54 201 X 4 X 1 117-121 P 4 X 0 Jamaica 1.022 40 298 340 3 X 1 11-20 P 4 X 0 Mexico 9,330 442 2.851 X 6 7 3 5251420 P 37 X 3 Nicaragua 910 73 160 X 2-3 X 1 60 P X X X Panamrau 2.490 57 307 X 5 2 1 171-298 P 3 X 0 Tnmidad and Tobago 362 29 77 487 5 2 1 8 9 P 1 650 0 Unied Slates Ic) 19.924 1.871 9,711 X 5 17 3 190281 P 183 X 0 268 World Resources 1996-97 Data Table 11.4 continued Marltime Area (0t0 sq. km) Totat Number of Known Marine Protected Areas Length of Shelf to Exclusive Coastal Marine Species (ai Marine Habitats Regional Coactline 200-Meter Economic Mammals (000 hectaresl Area Priority Sites {b) (km) Depth Zone Fish Turtles Total Threatened Mangroves Coral Reels Number (hectares) (number) SOUTHAMERICA X X X X X X X X X 41 X 10 Argentina 4.983 796 1.165 X X 7 0 NP NP 4 X 0 Bmzil 749' 769 3.168 X 5 4 I 250-1.012 P 15 1.665552 5 Chile 6.435 27 2.288 X I 11 2 NP P X X X Colombia 2.414 68 603 X 5 2 1 358-501 P 8 192,606 1 Ecuador 2.237 47 1 159 419 3 3 0 162-182 P 4 16.070.101 3 Guyana 459 50 130 X 4 2 1 80-150 X X X X Peru 2414 83 1.027 X 2 5 1 5-6 X 2 X I Surname 386 X 101 X 5 2 1 115 X X X X Uruguay 660 57 119 X X 4 0 X X X X X Venezuela 2.800 83 364 X 3 2 1 250-674 P 8 619,561 0 ASIA X X X X X X X X X 292 X 12 Azerbaijan X X X X X X 1 0 0 X X X Bahrain 161 5 5 133 X 3 1 X P X X X Bangladesh 580 55 77 X 3 4 ' 410 NP X X X Sn ner 161 X X X 3 1 I 7 NS 4 3.780 0 Cambodia 443 X 56 X 2 4 1 10 P X X X China 14,500 870 1,356 X 1 4 1 20 P 41 X 0 Georgia. Rep 310 X X X X X X NP NP X X X India 12.700 452 2.015 X 5 4 I 357 P 11 276.042 4 Indonesia 54.716 2.7T7 5.409 X 5 4 1 4251 4.254 P 30 3.739 353 2 Iran. Islamic Rep 3.180 107 156 X 2 4 2 24 P 1 160 0 Iraq 56 1 I X X 3 1 X X X X X Israel 273 4 23 X 1-2 2 1 X P 3 1,073 0 Japan 13,685 481 3.861 X 3 9 1 P P 113 X 0 Jordan 26 X 1 X X X 1 X P X X X KazakhsLtan. Rep 2.909 X X X X X 1 NP NP X X X Korea Dem Peoles Rep 2.495 X 130 X X X X X X X X X Korea Rep 2413 245 X X X X X X X 6 338130 0 Kuwak 499 12 12 100 1-2 3 1 X P X X X Lebanon 225 4 23 X X X X X X X X X Malaysia 4.675 374 476 X 4 4 1 630-641 P 21 X 2 Myanmar 3.060 229 510 X 3 4 1 518 P X X X oman 2.092 61 562 X 4 3 1 2 P 5 33.600 0 Pakistan 1.046 56 319 X 2 3 1 262-283 X X X X Philippines 22.540 178 1.786 -2.00 2 4 1 232400 2700 19 X 1 Oatar 563 24 24 X 1-2 X X P P X X X SaudilArabia 2.510 78 186 X 2 3 1 20 P 2 60200 0 Singapore 193 0 0 292 X 3 1 1 P 1 67 0 Sn Lanka 1.340 27 517 X 5 3 1 9 P 4 X 0 Synan Arab Rep 193 X 10 X X X X X X X X X rhailand 3.219 258 86 X 3 4 1 196-269 P 15 486.026 2 Turkey 7.200 56 237 X 2 2 1 NP NP 8 358.250 0 Turkmenistan, Rep 1.768 X X X X X 1 NP NP X X X Untted Aab Emirates 1.448 59 59 X X 3 1 3 P X X X Uzbekistan. Rep 420 X X X X X X X X X X X Vlie Nam 3.444 326 722 X 2 4 1 P X 2 30 243 1 Yemen. Rep 1.906 25 564 X 2 2 1 P P X X X OCEANIA X X X X X X X X X 301 X 7 Ausiralia 25.760 2,269 4496 X 6 11 I 1.162 P 244 X 7 Fij 1.129 2 1.135 407 4 X X 39 P X X X Kinbati 1.143 X X X 2 X X P P 1 32 100 0 NewZealand 15,134 243 4,833 X X E 2 25 P 14 X 0 PapuaNewGuinea 5.152 X 2.367 665 4-5 3 1 200 P 6 229.490 0 Solomon Islands 5.313 X 1.340 489 4 1 1 64 P X X X Sources Wodd Conservason Moniorinlg Centre, Great Bamer Reel Marire Part Authonty, The Wodd Bank, The Word Conservaton Unon. Untea Natons Offlice lor Ocean Affairs and the Law t the Sea. Food and Agncultre Organizaton ot the Unied Nabons. and other sources Notes: a Includes fsh recorded n coastal waters, nesting laite species, and manne species restected to conStal habitats b Regional pnoni,es as detined by The Great Burner Reef Manne Park Authorrty, The World Bank and the Word Consernation Union. c Species and habitat data tor Hawaii are not ncluded n United States lotals NS = not signifcant, P = present NP = not present Word and regional otals ndude csoutnes not lsted 0 = zero or less than bhalthe uoil atmeasue X= not avarlable Foradditional ltormanon. see Sources and Techmcal Notes Worl(d Resouirces 1996-97 269 Biodiversity Sources and Technical Notes Data Table 11.1 International protection systems usually arid unpublished data (WCM(C, Cambridge, National and International Protection iniclude sites that are listed unider national U.K., JIly 1995). of Natural Areas, 1994 protection systenis Biosphere reserves are The total niemnber of knr,own' species ilay representative of terrestrial and coastal enivi- inlcLlude introductions in so me instances. Data Source: Protected Areas Data Unit of the roimeriiilts that have been inirerrnmionallv rec- on mainim als exclude cetaeans (whales arid World Conservationi Monitoring Centre ognized unider rhe Mlan and the Biosphere porpoises), except where otherwise iidicated. (WCMC), unpublished data (WCMC, Cam- Prograiiiriie of the United Nationis Edcica- Threatuned hird species are listed for couLn- bLridge, U.K., August 1995). tiorial, Scientific, arid Cultriral Organization, tries incluided within their breeding or winter- All protected areas combinie natural areas T'hey have beeni selected for their value to ing ranges. Only flovweririg plantrs are listed In five World Coiiservation UJilio, fornmerly coniservation alid arec ilintcided to foster the Lrlider t(oral higber planits species iririibers. the Irternatiorral Unriori for Conservation of scientific knorwledge, skills, ,id htirnrarr valres The number of endemzic species refers to Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), man- necessary to support sustainable develop- those species known to be frurid only within ageriierit categories (areas of at least 1,000 riierit. Each reserve riiust contain a diverse, the country listed. The ntriiber of total cnn- hectares). Totally protected areas are riairi- natural ecosysterii of a specific biogeographii- deriiic plant species listed for each CoLurrtry tairied ir a natural state aird are closed ro cal provinre, lirge eniruOgh ro be an effective includes flowerinig plints, ferris, arid coiritfers extractive uses. They encoriipass the follow- coirservatiorn unit. For further details, refer to aiid cycads. trig three management categories: Ml. Udvardyv A Classificationr o/ the Bio- Figtures are rrot necess;arily comparahle Category 1. Scientific reserves alid strict geographical Provinces ol the World (IUCN, aoinig Cointries hecauise taxonoiriic coicepts nature reserves possess outstanding, repre- Morges, Switzerlaiid, 1975), and to Wi/rld and the extent of knowledge vary [for the sirltative ecosvsrerirs. Public access is gerier- Resou rc-es 1986, Chaptcr 6. Each reserve also latter reason, coiuntry tottals of species arid ally linlited, with oirly scientific research aird must irrefirde a miniriralls disturbed eore a rea enderrrics nay li rr urdercstimates). In gencral, educationial use perriiirted. for conservation and research and riiav be nuriihers of riiarnimals and birds are fairly well Category lI. National parks arid provincial surrouirided by buffer zoiies svhere trarditional kinowin, while plants have not bIen as well parks are relatively large areas of national or laid uses, experimental ecosysterir researchi, irvenitoried. initeriratiouial significance not riiateriallv al- arld ecosystem rehalbilitation inay be periiiit- The World Conservation Unioni (IUCN) tered by hunRans. Visitors niay rise themii for ted. classifies threatened and endanigered species recreationi and studv. World heritage sites represent areas of intoi six categories: Categorv 111. Natural monuments arid "outstandinig kitiversal value" for their natu- Fndangered. "Vaxa in dangerof extinction natural landmarks contain uniqule geological ral features, their cultural value, or for both and whose survival is trirlikely if the causal formations, special aiiiirials or plants, or urn- niatural and Cultiral valLes. Thetable includes factors colntinue operating." usual habitats. onIV natural arid iiiixed nt3Ural and cultural Vulieralile. "Taxa helieved likelv to iirOve 'artial/-vprotectesdareausare areas that nay sites Aliy party to the World lHeritage Con- ilitOi the Fridairgered category ini the iiear fu- be r iiariaged for specifc riuses, such aS recrea;- 'veiioll t liay rIloiii ate r1atiril sites thait con- ture if the cailisal factors coiitintir operatrig." tianorturisaiid for areasfic tisessuchat s p rii reid tain exaniples of a major stage of Earch's Rare. "Taxas with world populations that tinnr conditisiis for certain speoies de evirlutioriary history; a significaiir onigoing are not at present Endangered oir Vulireralile, coriiriiur.ities of wildlife. So.e extractive use geological process; a unique or srperlative hut are at risk." natural phenoineiton, formatioi, or feature; Indeterminaite. "Taxa kliown to be Endari- two ritaeiage asiseit aategoriesd or a habitat ftr a threatened species. Several gered, Vulnerable, or Rare but where there is Catwgorii ygiieitcategores:naturereservesa c.ounitries share world heritage sites. These not erioiigh infornratioli to sav wilich of the Category IV. Meanaged nature reserves aidritage tes, three c ategories is appropriate wildlife sanctuaries are protected for specific arc ctuited only oiice in coiitiriental arid out of Danger. "Ta xa formerly included in purposes. such as coniservation of a significanit worId totals, tne of the ahbove categories, lint wliich are planit or aniimal species. Any partv to the Coinventioi oin Wetlarids now Ctrisidered relitively secure because ef- (ategor! V Protected lnidsca pes arid sea- of Inittriiatiinal liiiporraiice Especially as Wa- fective coiiservaitiin meaSUres I1ave been scapes riiay be entirely natural or ay iniclude terfowl Habitat (Rariisar, Iran, 1971) that takent or the previotis threat to their survival cultural lanidscapes (e.g., sceniically attractive agrees to respect a site's integrity arid to estab- has ie ben renitoisd." agricultural areas). lish wetland reserves ciii designate wetlands Insufficiently lKnlisn 'Tl-xxa that ire sus- Nationally protected areas listed in Data o/ internatio,ral importance. pected but riot definitely kriiwii to belolig to Table I 1.1 do riot ineilude loially or provin- any of the ahove categories.' cially protected sites, or privaitelv owined ar- Data Table 11.2 The nimber tif threate?iei specL ies listed for eas. a a l 0 ta Globally Threatened Species: .,ll couiitries includes full species that are cen- aridcI teil/ areast leaiste refe to all I Mammals, Birds, and Higher Plants, dilgered, vulnerabile. rare, arid iiidererrini- atid I million bectares insize refer to all IUCN 1990S nate, bLrt eXCILudes iritrotidiced species, species category I-V protected areas that fall within whose StatIS is insuifficieiltly kntown, or thise these two classifications. The totals are for Sources: World Conservation Moinitoring knowri to le extinct. Threatened species lata single sites, arid it is likely that sorie sites are Centre (WCMC), Biodiu'erstt' DaLa Sifurce- for aniniials, presented inl Data Tables i 1.2 rot contiguotus blocks. These data do niot book, (World Conservation Press, Cain- and I 1.3, reflect estimiates prescited in the account for aggionierationis of protected areas bridge, U.K.. I 994); WC.V1C, Global \Viorld Conservatioi Unnioin (ICUN), 1994 that together miight exceed 100,0(10 or I iil- Bnlndiversity Statuis ot the Earth's Living Re- IUJCN Red list of Threratenied Annimnals lioni hectares. sooirces (Chapniani anid Hall. London, 1992), (IU)CN, GCland, 1993). Threatened species 270 World Resources 1996-97 Biodiversity data tot birds are based oni a 1994 Birdlife comparing nuniTibers of species aiiong coun- the resources withini the zone, iiicluding fish Internationial assessment, siniig a itew threat tries off differing suze. For details, refer to the and all otlier liVing rsucs mainerals;an assessment tiiethodiilogsy. A versiiii (it this Tlechtnic,il Notes for D)ata Table I 1.2. energy fromi winid, waves, and tides. Nations mnethodology iS Cuirrenitly unTder review for iiiay- also claimi rights to regulate scientific adoption by IUCN. Data Table 11.4 exploratiriin. priitect the marine envirioninient, Number ofspec ies per 10.000 square kilo- anieBidvrst id establish marine teriiinj Is .nid artificial mieters provides a relative estimate for coiiin-isadsThEZdtohw[doltreec paring numbiiers (ifspeCieS a1iuiiig CoUntries of Sources: Length iif mnarine coastline: Unitied the decisiuois of somec coUntries, such as those differinig size. Because the relatiomiship be-_ N'atiiins Office for Oceaii Affairs and thec Law in the European CuimnmummIIry. tii C011lcCtiVey tween area and specie numiber is mnomnlitnear if the Sea. iunpublilshed diam (United Natimons, mnaiage fishing zones oni EEZs ini soiiiii areas. (i.e., as the artea samipletd increases, the, New' York, June 1989); LU.S. Central Initelli- When countries' FEZs overlap--such as thiise iumiber of niew species licaited decreases), a geiice Agency, The World Facthook 1994 iif the Uniited States aiid (Cuba. sW1tiCli 1mmth species-area curve hais bleen uISed to Staiid- (lA.S. (;overniment Printing Office, \Vashiiig- hadve 200-iiiile FF.Zs, yet are only' 90 riiles ardize these species miminbiiers. The cuirve pre- roun, D).C.. 1994). Shelf area tii 200-mieter apart-they ii1iusragree iiii a miaritime binmunid- diets how iiiany species.a cotutitryr would have, depth: Jimhn P. Albers, NI. Devereux Carter, ary betweeii themi, ofteii a ltalfwvay punrt. givenl its cutrreilt FInnunHber of species, if it was~ a All en L. CI,irk et il.n umnnerv Petri deU1ii7Wid Total number oftK nion ini coasttl marine unifrirn 10,101) squ.tre kilometers in size. Selectted Mineral.Statistics for 120 Counitries. specites includes fish recorded ssithini ciiastal This numiiber iS CAUalclied uisinig the forniiula: mnclud/ing O/4/Shore Areas. Geimlogical Suirvey' waters, linrtles-loggerhe.id, greeti tuirtle, S = c A , where S = the nuniber oif enidanigered Pruifessiontal Paper 81 I. LS. (;overnmneit leatherback, haw'ksbill turtle. Kernp's ridley, species, A = .mrea, atid c itid z are conistants. Priting Office, \Washingtont, D.C., l 973). Ex- anti olive ridle Y-reciirded to niest aloing na- The slompe itf the species-area cuirve is deter- eluisive econoittic zonie: United N,itiiins Office Otinal shorelines; and several categiiries oif mutied by, the cionstanit z, which is approxi- for Ocean Affairs, tid the Law if the Sea, mo alspecies: cet~aceans )whales. pot- irately 0.33 fur large ireas conutaining niany Unipublished dira )UniitedI Natioits, New' poises, aitd dolphiitisi restrictedI tum nearshore habitats. This constant is based oin data friini Ytork, J uieI 1 989). French Piilstesia atid New waters, sealS, sea lions, diigiiigs. mianatees, previouIS stuidies (if species-area relationships. Caledonia: Atitrloiot Bergini "Fisheries Sur- liters, aiid piilar heirs. In realitv', the co instainit z wou iiuI differ anitong veil l.snce in thle Soulth Pacific,' Ocean 5'~ Threatened co a stalI inia ri iie tiranita iitspe- regions and Counttries, becatuse of differetices .Shoreline' Management, Vuil. I I ( 1988), p. cies includes fuill species that ire listed by the in species' range size )svhich tenid ro be 468. Ma riiie species daLi: \World Cotiserva- Worldi Cons;ervation UtitmmnT as etidatigered. smialler ini the tropics) and differences ini va- tion Mlotiiitrinig Centrre, Bioda'e-rsutv, Data viilnerable, itid rare, and thiise w'hiise status rieties of habitats piresenit. A tropicail counitry Soiercihook )(World Ciini erv,tri on Press, is classified as inidetermintitae. It eXCIludes sple- with a1 broad aniets' iif 1,11t hi t woi suln d be Camiibridge, LU.K., I1994); Thotiiitas J effersolin, cies w hi isetatitus is i its ufficieii rlv kniowni, .ind expected to have a steeper species-.irea cuirve Stephen Leatherwuoud, aiid Marc. W"ebber, species knowvti to be extinict. FortLderailS (if thait a temperate, huiiniigeloLuS Ciiuintry be- Marine Mammals of the, Wo,rld ( Ltiited Na- these threatened clatssi ficationus, refer tol the cause onie wot Ild predict a gre.iter it itiither of tiin ins itironutiteitt Priograimm te and l'Ioodu a iid Techn ical Nioies toi D)a a TiahIe I I1.2. TiotaI atnd both species aiid threaitented slpecies per tittit Agricultuire Organization of the Uniited Nai- threatened mammnal s,pecies, data tii itiit iri- area. Speemes-irea curves are al1so steeper for ruinis. Ronie, 1 99 3). Mariine protecLted areas: elUde a large niumber of cetacean spec~ies that islands thait for mrainiland couijtiries. At pre- (Great Barrier Reef Maritie Park Authority ranige oriuside of iiearshlie waters. sent, there are iitSUfficieiit regiiiial data to un1published clitta )(C:a~nberra. Aust rali a, ()inly two ty'vpes uif mrirme habitats are listed estimate separate slopes, for etch COLtHtrrv. 1995i); Gractite Kelleher, C"hris Bleakley. anti withiii Data Ta ble I 1.4: niauigrovcs and coral Site Wells, edis., A Gli ibaf Representat ve SMs - reefs. Ilifioriti a tiioii on ittangriiVe,and co ril teef Data Table 11.3 t~~~~('?Im tif Ma7rine priitected Areas, Viii. I, (The eXtetit was~ Culled by WCM`vC friiin niumerouts Threatened Species: ~~Great Barrier Reef Mlarine Park Authiurity, SOUrces; therefuire Counitry totals are iotii ciiii- Getlob ,Allyias ndFs, 90 The World Bank. and the World Coniservaotio parable as data are fur vairioius veirs, aitd data Reptiles, Amhibians, andFish, 1990s Union IJUCN), )Wasbtingtuou, [)..., 1995). qua,lityv varies. Sources: \World Coniservationt M\oniutorintg The Littired Nmtiiins Office fuir ()ceani Af- Marine protected areas I NIPltAs) list itatioiit- Cetirre )W( MC), BSiodhi'ersit v Data .Sourice- fairs atid thie Law oh the Sea coiiipiles inifor- ally protitcted areis with a stil-tidal ciiiiipii- book ( Wiorld Coniise rva ti on Press, (Cairbridge, itia ti ii coinicerni ojg coa,stal clUttins froi iii he neiltt. Tica iarI. ea listed mi.ty itic little tertrestri aIl U.K., 1994); \V MC.C Global B-iodiviersiti followilig souurces: the Uttiried Nitions Legis- portiotis iif MPA sites. A mitimberoif these sites Status of lhe Eajrth, Liv-inz Resounrces (Chap- lative Series, uofficial gazettes, commituitica- are also internatiiiiilly Proitected areas C Ratit- onan and Htall, Londoni, 1992). and uiiptpib- thins to the Secretary Geiteral. legal liotrnital, sat sites, biosphere reserves, and wutrld heTi- lished data )WCMC, Cambridge. UJ.K., July .mnd other publications. Naioinial claiiis tii rige sites). For fLurther details oin priirected 1 99.5 atid Jaituary 1996). maliritimne zoites fall intii five c,itegliries: terrn- area classification, refer tom the Technical For de fin itio(its of total species, endemic tiorialI sea. ci nrigumin zone, CXCI ((SiVC eco- Niores tio D,itra Ta ble I LL.I Natmional amid re- species, aind tbreitened species, refer to the itontic zomie ( FEZ). eXCltisive fishing imne,and giuonil criials imicliude: ill N-I VAs fur which geoi- Technical Notes fot Data Table 1 1.2. Threat- continental shielf. The extemit iif the coiuitimiemi- graphic last/long) ciiirdinates, are available. ened mitairine tuirtles aiid mamrine fish are cx- ral shelf to) 20)0-nieter depth and the exelusive Gliibal totils also include IT 7SiteS in Amiarir- eluded froil mit cmiiturV ti talIs. Enidanmgered fish eco noinnic zi ne fir itrhomsc coiitomrties with ran- 1 ica, ad t1 I6 sites for- whiich geiogr;aph ic ciii i- species nuirbers dii 11it 1iitclude apprioxi- rumie coastline aire preseitred in the tahile. Oitly diiiates wvere not1 available. rnately 250 haploehrorninie amid 2 tilapiimme the piotential .idiio t the aerLial established MvPA data cohine froiiut ,u global aissessmetieu species iif ILake Victoiriai cichlmds, since the area iif thet EEZ is showni. c(iitducted by thec Wourld Bank, IJUCN, amid ranges iif these species atre uindetermiitiied. Ulmider curremitlY recoilgmized iiternat,iiinal The GIreat Barrier Reef Ma,rinte Park Aumthhor- The number of species per Io, 000 square principles. ait FEZ mtiav be established by a ityv if exisrimig proitectedl areas, amid prriorieis kiliometers pto vi des .u relativec estirmm ae fior niatiion oi 1t to 200 miaut icail niiles rim cl.tiii all fioi f uttire protectionii. Regimnal prioi urIM sites World Resourceis 1 996-97 271 Biodiversity were selected according to eighr critcria: i) ness; iv) economic importance leg.. nursery it is practical or feasible to create or mtaiintaitn biogeographic representitiveness (the degree areas lor ecotoniicially important species); v) a prortcted area within thc site, given exist- to which sites offer protectioDn ro ecosysrtem social importance, sutch as sites of cultural, ing pressires and mainagemeini anId socio- types otherwise underrepresented withini the historical and educational valutc; vi) scienltific political constraints. PropoSed regional prior- global marine protected area iturw(ork); ii) importiiince; vii) ilternationail or nationail sig- ity sires are cxcluded fronm data presenited in eco ulogical criterina that relate to sive, in regritv nificance ( g poteentialI to be listed as a hio- this tulble. and conservationi iittporrtauice; iii) natural- spherc reserve): atud Viii) thc degree to which 272 World Resouirces 1996-97 12. Energy and Materials T he growving industrialization of many devel- world as a whiole-is likely to rise significaintly in coni- oping countries is reflected in their rapidly ing decades. That is the conclusion of three differcnt rising consuimption of energy. These trenids, investigations into future energy demnand. Moreover, in turn, are reflected in rising global energy most of the expanded production "will comile from fossil Luse. Producing additional supplies of energy energy sources-coal, oil, and natural gas. These pro- to meet growing demnid, however, often leads to othier- jections, if they hold true, imply that global emissions problemns in develolpiig COuliitries. These include raisilig of greenhouse gases will also increase significantly the huge Sulimis reqtuired to finance capital-intensive en- greatly increasing the risk and potentital imnpact of cli- ergy production faCilitics without diverting capital froni mate change. Ultimately, a transition to nonfossil eiiergy other criticail develolpimlent needs, as well as copilig with sources-of whilch renewable enlergy soiurces such as increased levels of pollutionl aimd other ener-gy-related wind and solar energy' appear to have the best long- environimileintal degr rdationt rilnge prospects-will be required to eliminate sucL Policy mneaSUreS to address these problems are well risks. known, if not alwavss easy to iinplniemit. Privatization This chapter surveys Currelt energy trends, exainifies of energy systeins, for example, is one wvay in which studies of future energy demnand and the potential for CouLIntries are increasiligly dealing with the problem of future energy supplies from renewable sources, and financin1g. Frncouragin g more efficienit use of clnergy-by considers potential conistrainits, both environmliental and eliminating energy subsidies, for example, ald encour- geological, to future energy supplies. Chapter 14, "At- igiilg the dev elopmnent of a more energy-efficient infra- mosphere anld Climnate," conisiders the global environ- structure-can reduce both the am)ouLnt of financilig mental conisequelnces of the present and future trcnds reqluired and the pollution generated. Taxing pollutioii discussed here. and helping to facilitate use of the hest available tech- nologies-in energy-driveil e(quipment such as auto0ilo- biles and steel mills as well as in energy prodLuCtioll ENERGY PRODUCTION AND facilities sucih as power planits-cani help reduce loCal CONSUMPTION and regionazil enviroiinieiitial burdens. Fair miore could be donle withi SucLh policies to reduice energy-related prob- The long upward trend in global commercial cnergy lems in both developed and developing couinitries. The production and conIsumIptioll continued througil 1993, problemn is not in not knowving what to do; rather, it is the most recent vear for whichi data are available. Global in findinig the necessary political will and creatilng the energy production in 1993) reached 3>38 exa joules (I requi-ed adnministrative capacity. Gi%yen the rate at CxajoLuleCeqLua Is 10" joules, orabout 163million barrels which the level of einergy production is rising, such of oil)-4() percent greater than that in 1973. (See l)ata policies deser-ve far greater attention. Tabl 12.1.) Total energy consumption rose to 326 Even with enlighitenled policies, however, enlergy coni- exajoules, fully 49 perceit greaiter than that 20 years sumllption in developilng countries-and heiice for the carlier. (See Figure 12. 1 and D)ata Table 12.2.) W'oilf Resources 1996-97 273 Energy and Materials Figure 12.1 Total Energy Consumption, Figure 12.2 Share of Energy 1973-93 Consumption and Production, 1993 (exajoules) A. Consumption 350 3007 Transition countries 250 (former Soviet Union and Central Europe) 18% Developing countries 29% 200 150- 1007.... . . 50 - . - _. . 1973 1978 1983 1988 1993 OECD countries 53% . Developing countries - OECD countries - - - Transition countries (former Soviel Union and Central Europe) B. Production - Total Source: United Nations (U.N.) Statistical Division. 1993 Energy Statis- tics Yearbook (U.N., New York, 1995). Note: OECD countries are members of the Organisation for Economic Developing countries 43% Co-Operation and Development. The patterns of energy consumption and production, however, show strong national and regionial differences. Transition countries (See Figures 12.2 and 12.3.) These inclUde the following: (former Soviet Union • The countries of the Organisation for Economic Co- and Central Europe) 19% OECD countries 38% Operation and Development (OECD) 1i) consumed more than half of all conimercial energy in 1993 but Source: United Nations (U.N.) Statistical Division, 1993 Energy Statis- tics Yearbook(U.N., New York, 1995). produced on]y slighlt]) more than one third of all Note: OECD countries are members of the Organisation for Economic commercial energy. These figures emphasize the fact Co-OperationandDevelopment. that many developed countries are still heavily de- pendent on impnorted energy supplies to fuel their consumnes 60 percent of all eiiergy in the developing economies. Energy consumption in OECD countries world and has accounted for a good deal of the expan- has grown about 30 percent over the past 20 years i2). sioin of energy demiLnd in developiig counitries over the * Energy consumption also grew substantiall! over past two decades because of the robust economic most of the past two decades in the transition econo- growtlh in nations such as China, India, Korea, Thai- mies, but it has declined recentlv with the economic land, Taiwan, and Indonesia. Although Africa, the Mid- disruptions there o). Fronm 1989 to 1992, energy dle East, and Latin America consume proportionately consumption dropped 17 percent in the former So- less energy, growth in energy demrand in these regions viet Union and Central Europe t4), and energy de- over the past 20 vears has also been verv hi,gh. The Latin mand in these couintries is less than one fifth of global American region, for exaniple, has more than doubled demand. its energy use since 197(0, despite the burden of a huge * Energy consumption in developing countries, on the foreign debt. Africa hlas nearly tripled its consumptioln other hand, has grown rapidly and consistently since since 1 970, but energy use in Africa still accotunts for 1973, but from a much smaller base than that in the only 1 I percent of all energy use in the developing world developed world. Although their consumptioii has (i,. (See Data Table 12.2.) increased almost threefold since 1973, developing Even though total einergy use has increased greatly in countries still accounted for less than one third of the developing world, rapid population increases have world energy consLImptiolt in 1993, even though they kept per capita energy use in developing nations verv contain the predominant share of the world's popu- low compared with that in the developed world. In lation. many developing nations, much of the increase in energy Consumption within the developing world varies use has been absorbed in trving to meet the basic needs greatly by region. Asia (excluding Japan), for example, of industry and to provide minimum services to an 274 World Resources 1996-9)7 Energy and Materials expanding populace. Thus, there has been onlv a modest ' . . . ~~~Figure 12.3 Differences in Commercial increase in the quality of energy services (e.g., providinig better heatilg, refrigeration, lightilg, and transporta- - C tion). Although per capita use varies widely from nation A. OECD Countries to nation, on average, energy use per person Is still more than nine times greater in developed counltries than iI (exajoules) developing countries. 80 70 , 60 - " ' ENERGY RESOURCES 50 Estimates of world energy reserves have increased sig- 40 nificantlv over the past 20 vears, despite rising levels of 30 consumption. Proved recoverable reserves of petroleuin 20 rose 60 percent between 1973 and 1993; those of 10 natural gas rose nore than 140 percent 6). If energy 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1993 consumption were to remain conistant at current levels, proved reserves i7) would supply world petroleumn needs -Solids - - - Liquids -Gas for 40 years, natural gas needs for 60 vears, and coal I r 11 q A ' 3~~~~~~~. Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union needs for well over 200 years (s). (exajoules) Petroleum 80 Petroleum reserves are of particular importance, giveni 70 the central role that petroleum plavs in world energy 60 supplies and world energy markets. Liquid fuels-pri- 50 manily petroleum-continue to dominate world comii- 40 mercial energy produiction, providing 40 percent of the 30 - world's commercial energy-some 22 billion barrels per 20 year. Oil dependence varies widely among coun1tries, from nearlv 100 percent in several African countries 0 __ (e.g., Burkina Faso, The Gambia, Senegal, and Sierra 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1993 Leone) to 35 percent in Canada anid 17 percent in China. Oil dominates the internationial traide in energy Solids - - . Liquids Gas because of its ready portability. C. All Developing Countries Estimates of global petroleum reserves have in- creased over the past decade (up 43 percent between (exajoules) 1984 and 1994), primarily due to major reevaluations 80 of oil reserves in 1987 and 1989 in the Middle East, 70 where more than 65 percent of the world's oil resources 60 are located (9) (lI). Since 1 989, however, new discoveries, additions, anid revisions have broadiv matched the 50 world's production, leaving total reserves hasicaliv un- 40 changed ti1. (See Box 12.1, Figure 1.) Regionally, how- 30 - , - ever, reserves have been declining in manyv important 20 energy-consuninig nations. For instance, reserves in the 10 - former Soviet Union declined by 10 percent between 0 1 984 and 1 994 (12)1 Hl3. Indeed, the Russiafl Federationi's 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1993 high-yield oil deposits are 60 to 90 percenit depleted, a - Solids - - Liquids - Gas situation that has contributed to recent cuts in prodLuc- non thre 4) In te Unitd Staes, rservesdeclied 14 Source: United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT), 1993 Energy tion tElere < 14). In the United States, reserves dcclliled ] 4 Statistics Yearbook (UNSTAT, New York, 1995). percent between 1984 and 1994 . _ ___ WVorld Resources 1996-97 275 Energy and Materials Box 12.1 Petroleum Resources: When Will Production Peak? Studies of future energy demand, such as those reported in this chapter. are pri- Figure 1 Proved Petroleum Reserves, 1969-94 marily based on economic factors; thev do not assume specific physical limits to energy supplies. In contrast, studies of 1,200 energv resources incorporate both geo- 1,000 logical and economic factors, and they yield a different perspective. 800 At present, there is little near-term 8*0 concern over petroleum supplies: pro- 600 ! duction capacitv is ample, and, conse- quently. oil prices are rclatively low. 400 The world's petroleumi resources are fi- i ! H I ! i nite, however, and global production 200 will evenitually peak and then start to decline. Iust how large total resources 1969 1974 1979 1984 1989 1994 will prove to be is unknown, in part be- cause higher oil prices can stimulate fur- n Middle East * Rest of World ther exploration and make feasible the Source: British Petroleum (BP), Statistical Review of World Energy (BP, London, June 1995), recovery of now marginal deposits. As P 3. a result, there is vigorous debate among Note: Increases in reserves in 1987 and 1989 were the result of revisions in a few countries, not petroleum geologists, energy econo- new discoveries. nmists, oil companies, and other inter- ested parties about the extent of the lines, and tanker platforms require mas- such estimates, geologists assert, the total resourcc and, more important, sive amounts of capital, for which mosr production history for a region will usu- when production might peak. major oil-exporting countries have ally follow a predictable profile, rising To further complicate such assess- other competing demands. The result until approximately half of the esti- nients, the hulk of the world's petro- could be that global oil production ca- niated recoverable resource has been leum resources are heavilv concentrated pacity would fail to keep up with rising produced and then peaking and begin- in a few countries, most of which are demand. ning a decline. U.S. oil production has located in politicallv unstable regions. followed precisely such a pattern, (See Figure 1.) Even)ts that could cause RESOURCE ESTIMATES closely resembling some predictions short-term interruptions in petroleum Petroleum geologists estimate minimum based on geological analysis. Geologists supplies cannot be ruled out. A more and maximum bounds on the amount from Petroconsultants S.A., a consult- gradual bnpact on the world's oil sup- of oil that will ultimately be produced ing firm in Geneva, Switzerland, that ply might come from underinvestment in a region. Such estimates are based on deals with the collection and analysis of in production facilities in key oil- seismic data, a knowledge of the kinds global petroleum data, argue that world producing countries, particularly when of basins where oil was originaliv oil production will follow a similar pat- petrolcum production decisions reflect formed, exploratory drilling, the Imnits tern. national policy and not just the de- of recovery technology, and, of course, Petroconsultants has produced a de- mands of the market. New wells, pipe- an expected range of oil prices. Given pletion model based on its worldwide Solid Fuel Natural Gas Solid ftiels (e.g., coal, lignite, and pear) are in relativelv Currently, natural gas is the fossil fiel experiencing the abutidant sLtpplY and are an imlportarnt conpollelit of fastest growth in consuimiption. Natural gas now sup- the world energy tilix, making up 27 percent of global plies 23 percenit of global cotliniercial energy, and pro- commetcial etlergy production. Most solid fuel is coti- dLttionl has risen imore than 70 percent in the past 20 sumed in the country where it is produced because of vears. Eveen rhough estimates of global natural gas the expenise of transport. In China and India, solid fuels reserves have been iiicreasitig rapidly, there is still less dominiate the energy mix, accouniting for about three natural gas than petroleutn in proved rescrves. Ru.ssia quarters of conililercial eciergy productioll in both couLn- holds the largest natural gas reserves with 48, 160 billion tries. Given the rapid econolilic expansion linder way in cubic meters in 1993. Thlis rcpresenits about one third both COtlitries and their considerable indigetious sup- of the world total and is nitore thani teti times that of plies of coal, conisumptiont of coal is expected to grow natural gas reserves in the United States. Ampic reserves particuilarly rapidly in Asia in the next few decades Ihs. are also found in thc Middle Fast. (Sec Data Table 1 2.3.) 276 \Y`orld Resources 1991-)-9 Energy and Materials database. It considers four scenarios of in the past, only to be proved wrong. Such potential consequences explain the demand and price, with the base case Forecasts of when the "peak" will oc- interest in-and the intensitv of the de- showing a plateau of peak production cur have been continuallv revised far- bate over-when global petroleum pro- between 1998 and 2002. followed by a ther into the future I9!. In the 1940s, for duction will reach its peak. decline in. More conventionial estimates example, recoverable crude oil re- suggest that global production will not sources were estimated at about 600 bil- References and Notes peak for another decade or two, some- lion barrels. Today, estimates range as 1. C.J. Campbell, Inidepenidenit Petroleum where between 2010 and 2025 12) (3) (4). high as 2,300 billion barrels i nw. His- Consultant, Goiirdon, Fr;ance, April 1995 Petroconsu]tants' conclusion depends torically, higher oil prices have led to (personual commuiniic.rtinl). on two assumptions. First, they assume new oil discoveries and higher levels of 2. Woirld Energy Co-jiicil (WEC), Sor-vel of that government estimates of current re- production-for example, following Ernergy Resouirces, 1995 (WEC, London, serves, especially in the Middle East, are the 1973 oil embargo there was an in- 199il, pp. 47-50. exaggerated and mav include reserves crease in production by countries that 3. Eniergy Information Adininistration U.S. that are neither economicallv nor techni- were not members of the Organization Department if Energy, International Enl- callv viable. Second, they believe that of Petroleum Exporting Countries. ergy Outloo,k, 1995, Report No. most large oil fields have been discov- When the production of oil-which DOE/EIA-0484(95) (U.S. (,overnmemi ered (N) Is). Petroconsultants' geologists accounts for 40 percent of the world's Printing Office, Washinigtimn, D.C., 1995). also assert that neither oil prices nor im- energy supply-does peak, it does not pp 27-3' . proved technology will influence petro- mean that the world will soon "run 4. C.D. Masters, D.H. Rior, and E.D. At- leum exploration and discovery as much out" of petroleum-based fuels. Oil pro- tanasi, "Resource Ctnsrra:iits in Ietro- as economists suggest. The discoveries duction would continue, although at a lenin Prodiictiin Potential,' Science. Vol. of major oil fields in Alaska and the declining rate, for many decades after a 253. Ni. 5016 d.Julv 12, 1991), p. 146. North Sea, for example, were made peak. Other fuels would fill the gap- s. C.J. Campbell, 'The Depletioti of the when prices were relativelv low. Oil for example, natural gas or the large re- World's Oil," Ptrole et Te,bniquce, No. prices now are relatively high compared serves of coal, heavy oils, and bitulimen 38 3 (October 1993). pp. 5-12. with the costs of producing conven- that could be used to produce liquid or 6. lean Laherrere, 'World Oil Reserves- tional oil, but no new major oil fields gaseous substitutes for crude oil I l. Which Niiimber t, Blieve?. OPEC Bimle- have been discovered in recent years f7). The inabilitv of the world's oil produc- tiot (Febriuarv 1995), pp. 9-13. Furthermore, the main impacr of tech- ers to supply all of the oil that the mar- 7. C.J. Cimphell, The Next Oil lrice nology is to accelerate depietion-for ex- ket demands, however, would be Shock: The World's Renminting Oil and Irs ample. it would make possible the expected to lead to significant increases Depletion," Eniergy Exploration and Ex- exploitation of deposits in deeper off- in petroleum prices and perhaps in en- pliaitattiii, Vol. 13, No. 1 1995). pp. shore waters but would add only minor ergy prices in general. This develop- new reserves. Technologies for higher merit could have significant effects on 8. L.F. Ivanhoe, "Future World oil Skupplies: levels of extraction already exist, and transportation systems, now largelv de- There Is a Finite Limit," f'World Od OCicto- higher prices wvill make them more pendent on oil-based fuels, and mightp. 8. widely used IS). also mean that industrialization in de- 9. Mich.ael C. Lynch, "Limiitations III Fore- In contrast, energy economists gener- veloping countries woould take place in casting Petroleum StIppl," Geopolitics if ally argue that resource estimates and an era of expensive energy-in contrast Eteergn (Jlitie 1. 19951. p. 5. predictions such as those of Petroconsul- to the generally lowv energy prices 10. op. cIt. 7 pp. 2 -24. tants have been made all too frequently throughout most of the 21)th Century. 1. Op. cit. 4. p. 151. Other Energy Sources 2010 as existing and plannied construictioll comlles rO completioni (i-. At curreilt consuIrption rates, there is Large-scale hydroelectric plants anid nuclearl- po>wer abouta41-yearSupplyof uraiiunireservestofueltese planits are the ilmost imiportant sources of primiiary elec- reactors P 'C. Proved reserves of uLraniumn ha\e declined tricity-trhe electricity generated from sotirces othier in recent years, primarily becalse of minie closures after than fossil-fuel-burning plants. In 1993, primary elec- anl excess suipplv caused Luraliiliin prices to collapse I 1t). tricitv accounted for Lust over 10 percenit of total com- mercial energy consuimption. Nuclear power provided most of this energy (70 percenit); this was followed by FUTURE ENERGY DEMAND hydropower (25 per-cent). All other sources, includinig geothermal, wind, and solar cileigy, suipplied about 5 Over the years, energv demiianed has increased in concert perceiit of primarL electricirvt with growrh in the global economy antd the world The present energy-generating capacity of nuclear popUlarion. For instanice, dLuilIg the plast 50 vears, the power is expected to increase sligitlyI between 1 995 and global econiomily increased fivefold, the world popula- World Resoturces 1996-'97 277 Energy and Materials tion doubled, and world energy use tripled. Will these OECD countries-which has traditionally accounted trends continue over the next 50 vears? for a greater share of world energy consumptioni-will Anticipating how much energy demand is likely to continue to decline as developing nations rapidly ex- rise over the coming decades and how that demand is pand their energy sectors in the coming decades. In likely to he met-through what combination of oil, gas, 1970, energy consumption in non-OECD countries rep- coal, nuclear power, or renewable resources-is critical resented onilv one third of world energy consumption, to both government planiers and private enterprise. but hv 2010 it is expected to account for roughly half Developing energy policies (government suibsidies or of world energy consumption (24) (253. energy taxes, for example), determining priorities for The modelers expect increases in the production of energy-related research and development, and gauging all forms of energy to meet the increased energy demand the potential for climate change from the builduIp of that their projections show. Petroleum is expected to greenhouse gases all require realistic appraisals of pos- remain the dominanit energy source over the next three sible future energy demand. to four decades; this is followed by coal, gas, renewable Not surprisingly, several different national and inter- energy souirces, and nuclear power. Natural gas and national institutions have ongoing efforts to project renewable sources of energy are expected to take a future energy use. This section reports oni imiodeling growing share of the energy mix at the expense of efforts by the World Energy Couincil (WEC), the Inter- petroleuim and, ili most circumstances, coal. The exact national Energy Agencv (IEA), anid the U.S. Department mix ot energy sources varies considerably among the of Energy's (DOE's) Energy' Information Administra- different sceniarios and also depends on whether govern- tion. By incorporating plaLIsible assumptions about the nmnts are assuiied the more vigorously support policies key determinants of energy sUIpply anid demand-for that promote energy efficiency and the use of renewable instance, future population growth, future economic fuels. (See Box 12.2.) In any case, fossil fuels continue growth, changes in energy efficiency', innovations in to supply at least three quarters of the energy consumed growth, changes in energy efficleiicy, Innovations in min all of the scenarios, even the most optimistic ones (26) technology, the sizes of known fuel reserves, and energy' pricing-they have attempted to model the magnitude -! -. and direction of the change ahead. However, none of these institutions claims to accurately foresee the future; Future Energy Supplies from consequently, the scenarios they' have constructed Renewable Sources should not be taken too literally. (See Box 12.2.) Most projectionis of future energy supplies predict that In their reference scenarios, which uSe current con- renewable sources will play a small but increasing role sumption trends as a basis for future projections, all In the total energy supply over the next 30 years. Many three organizations predict a substantial inicrease in advocates, however, claim that renewable sources could energy' use over the next 20 to 30 vears, even though realistically supply a larger share of world energy needs their scenarios incorporate slightly differenlt assLImp- tlinder the right circumstances. tions about economic growth and changes in energy The use of renewable energy sources is not new. efficiency. In WEC's reference case, demand rises more Traditional (noncommercial) biomass fuels-such as than 50 percent by 2020. IEA aid DOF projections, fuelwood, charcoal, dung, or straw-already supply which span a shorter period, show a 34 to 44 percent more than 10 percent of total global energy needs and rise in demand by 20 1 0. a much higher percentage of energy needs in developing All three models show much of the growth in demand niations, albeit with low levels of efficiency and service occurring in Asia and Latin America (2o.) For example, qualitv (29). IlEA and DOE projections show at least a doubling of Large hydropower facilities are also well-established energy use in Asia from 1990 to 2010 and a 50 to 77 sources of renewable energ', contributing almost 6 per- percent rise in consumption In Latin America during the cent of world energy in 1990 100. The potential for same period i2i( (22). The huge increases in energy' use in further developmienit of the world's hydroelectric capac- Asia can be attributed in large part to an expected itv remains high-at least theoretically-especially in continuation of the current surge of economic growtil China, Brazil, and the former Soviet Union oi). China, in India, China, and Southeast Asia. In fact, some for example, has a klnown exploitable potential of more observers believe that energy demanid in Asia may out- than 2 million megawatts, but in 1 993 it had an installed strip even these projected high growth rates i2;!. capacity of only 60,000 megawatts. (See Data Table In any case, all three projectionis foresee that the 12.3.) Oppositioni to building large dams, however, is proportion of the world's energy consLimed by the increasing on environmental and social grounds, as 278 World Resouirces 1996-97 Energy and Materials witnessed bv the long-standing controversv over world energy markets are well developed and relatively China's planned Three Gorges Project. flexible, and substitutes are available should shortages In the long term, the renewable sources with the develop for one fuel or another. Although energy prices largest potential for expansioni are the so-called new are expected to rise gradually, they are not expected to renewables, such as wind energy, geotherimial energy, create a major obstacle to increased energy use. plantation- or farm-grown energy crops, and several forms of solar energy, particularly solar electricity from Environmental Costs photovoltaic cells (32). Todav, these and other nontra- ditional forms of renewable eniergy contribute less thant 2 percent of global energy supplies, and their growth conIsuImptioni do exist, however. Chief among them are will likelv be modest wvithoLIt significaiit efforts tO the enivironniental costs of continiued reliance on fossil willmlikely bhemodestawiethout significant effots tot tuels and, to a lesser extent, nuclear fuel. Increased promotet A detailed stuy by E proect that production and use of fossil fuels, especially coal, the they will contribute only' aboult 4 percent of global most plentiful fossil fuLel, could have severe local and energy supplies by the year 2020 if current policies regional impacts. Locally, air pollution already takes a cowevinLier, WE. roecs ha 'ndr ll"eolgia sign'ificant toll on huIman health. Acid precipitation and d owevenserio, WEpctass s tnegy other fornis of air pollution can also degrade downwind driven" scenario, whichi assumes vigorous energy con- labtsepcalvak,sransadfoss-d servation measures and deliberate economilc and regu- habitats-especially lakes, streans, and forests-and latorv incentives to accelerate the penetration of can damage crops, buldings, and other materals For example, onie recent study' warns that, in the absence of renlewable energy sources, these new technologies could yule, abaement st acid thatil in ahs of contribute as much as 12 percent of global energy b) sulfur abatement measures, acid depositions in parts of contribt amuha12pretoglblnryby China and Southt Asia could evenitually exceed the critical 2020 1i4!. At presenit, though, neithler public nor private load for mitajor agricultural crops blly a factor of 10 c a). entities are making the investments requlired for a sig- for ma of the bes av a tectolof and nificant renewable energy future. Even if such invest- Without the use of the best available technology and ments are forthcoming, experts warn that fossil fuLels practices, minling leads to land degradation and water will still dominiate energy markets for years to come. A pollution, as does the disposal of hazardous coal ash. wIst Century energy supply dominated by fossil fuels On a global level, increased burning of fossil fuels will has profound implications for future emissions of green- sioeanan naoccwitpany'ing rise in greenhouse gas emis- house gases and hence for the potenitial for significant sions, along with the potential adverse impacts of global climate change. (See Chapter 14, "Atmosphere and warminig and other climate changes. (See Chapter 14, Climate.") "Atmosphere and Climate.") Nuclear fuel, too, has obvious environmental costs associated with its produc- tion and disposal, although nuclear power produces virtually none of the air pollution and carbon dioxide discharges of fossil fuels. CONSUMPTION As the scenarios discussed above suggest, there is a good Lack of Investment Capital deal of momentum behind the currenit and projected In addition to environmental constraints, shortages of growth in global energy demand, particularly in the investment capital to build energy production and dis- developing world. Global development necessarily in- triLbution facilities-from drilling platforms, refineries, volves expansion of basic infrastructure such as trains- and pipelines to power plants, transmission lines, coal- port systems, housing, and industrial facilities-all carrying railroads, and dams-mav act to restrain significant consumers of energy. Progressively rapid global energy consumption, especially in developing growth in world population is a second and equally nations. The price tag for the energy infrastructure fundamental factor driving global energy demand required to meet the development goals of developing higher. countries is estimated in the trillions of dollars over the From the standpoint of available energy supplies, iiext two decades-a sum far higher than present invest- meetling this burgeoning demand seems quite feasible, ment levels can finance 1. at least for the next few decades. Substantial global Already, energy-related investments account for a reserves exist for all conventional comimiercial fuels, substantial fraction of the total public investment in the although there is some dispLIte on the availability of oil developing world-as much as 40 percent in many and, to a lesser extent, natural gas. (See Box 1. 1.) Also, nations, 71. Continued energy growth and its accompa- World Resources 1996-97 279 Energy and Materials Box 12.2 Projecting Future Energy Use Projections of energy consumption over four energy scenarios that look at en- counting for more than four fifths of the next few decades were reported re- ergy use to 2020 ci). Because WEC used this additional enlergy use (31. cently bh three organizations: the World the input of thousands of energy practi- In WEC's Modified Reference case, Energy Council (WEC), the Interna- tioners, it can be considered a consen- the rate of improvenient in energy effi- tional Energy Agency ([EA), and the sus viewv on nmanv important energy ciencv is assumed to be soinewhat U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). issies. slower than that in the Reference In making their future energy projec- WEC's Reference case assumes a mod- case (4'. As a result, energy use in 2020) tions, WEC, IEA, and DOE all used the erate economic growth rate. It assumes climlhs 84 percenit over 1990 levels, and same projections of population growth, substantially increased supplies of natrl- carhon dioxide emissions rise 73 per- but slightlv different assumptions about cal gas, oil and coal with China pro- cent, showing how crucial a global ef- economic growth and improvements in ducing the hulk of the increased coal fort to increase energy efficiencv is to energy efficiencv (as measured bv en- keeping energy demand and grcnhous ergy initensity-that is. energy used per supply. The Reference case also assumes keepi en demnd dollar of gross domestic product). Their a slow expansion of nuclear power and WEC eiso developwn. a Higl (rowtl chioice of geographic units for analysis "new" renewable energv sources (i.e., wV. aso ev aH Growth varied somewhat as well. Small differ- solar, wind, nontraditional biomass, cae wih asm an e conomic ences in these assumptions can make and geothernal). Progress in improving higher than rhat in the Refcrence large differences in both regional and energy planning and pricing is pre- case ri. Energy use in the High Growth global projections. (See Table 1.) sumed to he good. WEC also presumes scenario rises 98 percent during the pe- that know-how and technology are riod 1990-2020, and carbon dioxide transferred relatively quickly among na- einissions nearily loulile as well, demoni- WORLD ENERGY COUNCIL tions and that inmprovements in energy strating the close relationship between SCENARIOS efficiency are at a relatively high level (2). robust economic developmenlt and in- WEC, an international institution with This Reference scenario results in a 54 creased energy demanid and carbon di- the goal of promoting the sustainable percent rise in energy use from 1990 lev- oxide emissions, at leasr as narional supply and use of energy, has developed els by 2020, with developing nations ac- energy sectors are currently configured. Table 1 Projections of Energy Consumption World Energy Concil ScenariosInternational Energy U.S. Department World Energy Council Scenarios Agency Scenarios of Energy High Modified Ecologically Capacity Energy Reference Growth Reference Reference Driven Constraints Savings Scenario Projection period 1990-2020 1990-2020 1990-2020 1990-2020 1992-2010 1992-2010 1990-2010 Economic growth, percent per year High Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate Moderate OECD countries 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.3 Former Soviet Union and Central Europe 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.1 0.6 Developing countries 5.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 5.3 5.3 2.8-6.1a World 3.8 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.1 3.1 2.7 Percent increase in world energy demand over projection period 98 84 54 30 44 34 36 Percent increase in annual carbon dioxide emis- sions over 1990 levels 93 73 42 5 42 30 35c Sources: 1. World Energy Council, Energy for Tomorrowvs World: The Realities, the Real Options, and the Agenda forAchievement (Kogan Page, London, and St. Martin's Press, New York, 1993), p. 76. 2. International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook, 1995 (Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, Paris, 1995), pp. 11 -168 Table A2, p.298; Table A5, p.301; Table A20, p.321. 3. Energy Information Administration, U.S. Department of Energy, Intemational Energy Outlook. 1995, Report No. DOE/EIA-0484(95) (U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1995). Table 2, p. 7; Table Al, p. 79; Table A9, p. 87. Notes: a. Varies by region: Africa, 2.8 percent; Latin Amerca, 3.7 percent; Middle East. 3.9 percent; Asia, 6.1 percent. b. Range = 22 to 52 percent. c. Range = 26 to 47 percent. 280 World Resources 1990-97 Energy and Materials Finally, WEC developed an Ecologi- deed, the balance of production in this Because DOE projections include a cal/v Driven case that examinies a world scenario shifts increasingly toward a slower economic growth rare for devel- with limited increases in energy demand small numtber of countries that produce oping nations than IEA projections, the and the widespreaed use of the best en- oil at lowv cost s8) The results of the Ca- developing world accouLIts for jLst .56 ergy technologies. This scenario was de- paciry Constraints scenario show a 44 percent of rhe rise in energy use over veloped to illustrate the far-reaclhing percent rise in world energy use front the projection period-a mIuch lowcr and ininediate actions that are requiredl 1992 to 2010 and a concomitant 42 figure than that forecast by IEA c 3i if annual carboni dioxide emissions by percent rise in carbon dioxide emissions None of these stidies included the 2020 are to be rougIly mtabilized at over their 1990 levels, possibility of a m ajor course correction their 1990 levels. In its Energy Savings case, IEA exam- in global energy strategies, for example, In this Ecologically Driven sceniario, ines the issues that wvould arise if addi- a concerted international effort to move WEC makes the samie assumilptions tional energy efficiency improvemenits to renewable and other nontossil energy about economic and population growth wvere imposed on consumers. Under this sources. Clear evidence of signifi- as it does for its Reference case, but it case, IEA, like WEC, assumes the same cant-and damaging-chaniges in cli- assumes very high annual improve- econonmic and population growvh pro- mate caused by human activities, for nents in energy efficiency, a massive jections that it uses in its Capacity Con- example, could lead to a new global transfer of energy-efficient techniology straints case. Howeveer, it assumes consensus and broad political support to those nations without it, and, conse- greater imiprovemenits in energy efficien- for a strengthened Global Climate Con- quently, a very low increase in energy cies in most economic sectors (industry, vention, Implementation of such a demand among developing countries transport, buildings, and agriculture), treaty could( make available very large over the next 30 years. In addition, this increased use of renewable enel-gy sums of money for investment in alter- scenario presumes an accelerated switch sources, and generally lower energy native energy sources. Such an energy to natural gas and renewable energy prices. These improvements are as- transition-still speculative, but not im- sources. As a result, total energy use sulined to oCcur through the adoption of plausible-vould markedly alter the de- rises only 30 percent betwveen 1990 and newv consumier behaviors at rapid rates. mand for fossil fuels. 2020 in this scenario. Because of the The Energy Savings case does not rely greater penetrationi of gas and renew- on new technologies to achieve greater References and Notes able energy sources in the energy sup- energy efficiency buit uses existing, cost- I .WEC iS.i glo>.ilI C00 nCeinher CoCIIntrivS ply, carbon dioxide emissions rise only effective technologies '9'. elCeig) InqniuiSoCi that eCIidr me, priVaCI, 5 percent from 1990 levels. WEC Global energy use rises 34 percent in goserClrnental, and regioCtl aind ilCtern.t- stresses that the implementationi of such the Energy Savings scenario and emis- riOCl:I org,Tli/zCtion. If is uICpporred by irs a scenario wvould require major and un- sions rise about 30 percenr, demonstrat- niernher,. precedented changes in energy use and ing the difficulty of cutting encrgy 2. World Eniergy CounCCil. E'7rgy for Tonnor- energy policy (C. demanlid and etnissions in the face of rom's World: Ore Reabliies, the Real OP- global development, even whei conisum- ttiots, andt,he Agenda fJr Achieemcmneni INTERNATIONAL ENERGY AGENCY ers are cooperative in adopting the best (Kogan Page, LCoCdomC .nd Sr. Mirtin'v SCENARIOS available technlIologies. I this scenario, Press, New York. 199 Ii, pp. -6-82. lEA, a sister organization to the Organi- energy consumptioii by OECD couit- ibid p 80 sation for Economic Co-Operation anid tries would fall to less than one quarter 4. O(p. . 2. p. r 1. Development (OECD), developed two of the world's total conisumliption in,. s Op. it. 2. p. 80. scenarios that project energy demand to Op. it. 2. pp. 8 1-82 2010. One is a Capacity Constraints U.S. DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY .. iiten.irnoCniC.I Energy Ageitcy, World En- case, in which current trends continue SCENARIO org) Oliook. 199i (Org.anis.aion for Eco- to dominate futuire energy consumption DOE projectionis are of interest because PntCC (.i -1 per9iriiiip ICd Developnteiit, patterins and increasing oil demanid thev plav an important role in national strains the wvorld's oil-producing capac- energy planninig in the world's largest 8. Ibidi. PP. 12-13. itv. The second is an Eners'y Savings energy-producing anid eergx -comisum- 9 Op cit. 7, p1 case that assumes the adoption of a ing nation. Instead of alternative cases, 1t. OP. it. 7, p. 17. high level of energy-efficiency intprove- the DOE's global forecast presents a 11 Energy liloritmaiCoCi Admnir,iuii,tm. ll.s ments and energy conservation ineas- range of sensitivity that reflects the un- l)Dp.irmment ol ECnergy, luiteirnational Fu- uires c. certainties and outcomes of various un- 'rgy Omoh,, 199, Report No. DOE/EIA-0484(95) (ll.S.oserttittoiit In IEAs reference scenario (the Capac- derlying assumptions ( II) Pr) DOEg Oftic. \V89shigtoLI. D(:r, I 99SI, ity Constraints case), the uinderlivng as- In DOE projections. energy use in- pp. 9, 9 S. sunmptions are thar past patterns of creases 36 percenit (with a possible range 12. pp. 79. 7. consumption will continue, that total of 22 to 52 percemit) from 1991) to 201)0. 3 c"t pp energy deniand will grow faster than Carbon dioxide emissions rise 35 per- 13 p " ' pp production, and that demand will not cent (vvith a possible range of 26 to 47 be able to be met at current prices, It- percenr) over the same period; it. Worlkl R sresor(cs 1 996-'97 281 Energy and Materials nying demand for capital will put additional strain on efficient infrastruLcture today could reap big energy sav- national budgets and could result in diverting availahle inigs in the future. capital from critical needs such as education and other A change in national energy policies could also help social services to the energy sector. Although many to restrain the growth in consumption and would act as developing nations are attempting to attract private a natural complement to enhaniced research and tech- investment capital to finance energy sector growth by nology sharing. Reducing energy subsidies such as oil liberalizing utility ownership and regulatory require- depletion allowances or subsidized electricity rates, ments, there is little doubt that limited investment capi- levyinig energy consumptioni taxes such as gas taxes, and tal will remaini a consideraLble barrier to expanding the setting minimum energy-efficiency standards for autos energy infrastructure in the future. and appliances are sonie of the ways that energy policies could be modified to encourage energy conservation. Reduced Demand Through Efficiency and It is important to realize, however, that changing the world's currenit energy use trajectorv will take time. The National Policies I extended lifetime of energy facilities such as power It is also possible, as indicated earlier, that energy plants, the length of the research and development cycle demand could be constrained deliberately through a and the technology disseminiationl process, and the mo- coordinated internationlal effort to promote energy mentLim in current populationi growth all weigh heavily efficiency and to develop and disseminate renewable against the likelihood of rapid chanige in current energy energy technologies. In this way, the link between use patterns. Thus, even with successful policy reform economic growth and increasing energy use could he and a genuine effort to adopt energy-efficiemit techiiolo- weakened. This would require a greater commitment gies and develop alternative energy sources, global en- by developed nations to finance research into alterna- ergV use is still iiearly certain to rise conisiderabiv in the tive energy sources aiid to make a comprehensive effort next few decades. Without such measures, however, the to share new technologies with developing nations, growth in consumptioni will le significantly more rapid Because the energy sectors in developiiig nations are on and the accomnpanlying levels of air pollutio n and green- a steep growth curve, prudent investmeiits in energy- house gas emissions will he muchi higher. References and Notes 1, The OECD ttineinber cottiitries aire Australia, tIzbekistATI) and tIhe COLtitries ol Centrral 9. Britnis P'eroleiuit (hl'), BP .Stctisttafl Recveiv Austria, BelgiLint, Canada, DeTititArk, Fiti- Europe lAlbania, B1l.garia, the (zecli Repih- ,f \X',erl. L beiecg:, Jul 19S hi[Hl'. Lontdont, latid, France, Gerniay, (Greece. Iceland, ire- lic, HtIngary. Poland. Romnania, tind (he Slo- I 985)1) p. 2. land, italy,Japin, Luxembourg. Nlexito, the vak RepibliC. I b. i pp. 2'- Netherlands. Nexw Zealand, Norwayv Portiu- 4. C)p. cit. 2. gal, Spain. Swedei, Switzerlanid, TLurkey, rhe )p. p litired Ki igdoiti, aid rhe Unired States. 5. ()p. cit. 2, Ta hlc 7. p. 1 7. 1 2. C p. it. 9. Mlexico becaitie a iteniher in Slyv 1994. I . )p. i. 9. Allt di.c1si ott)1 of OE('D data prior to 1 994 6. British Perroletitti M hP , BP .7tiSth,71tKc l Ru' ettc'9 does not iticude Mextco. Developiig cottit- of/ WoV/d Eerev., jilttl' 99 (BI'. Loidon, 14. A. Koltoplyanitik, RRisi.t Striigglitcg to Re- tries include all Colintries except fIr OE(D 1 995I. pp.3 19 site lriv ll Pro tiiI. Reb'uiild (OilI ndiutrr '" Oil tneitther coliutiries anid the fornmer Soi iet riit -G ( l.t r / nril./ Vol. 91. No. 31 (Aitgi sr 2, ioini and Centrl Europeain cOintrics irhe 7. P'roved rcsrvcs in pl/ce represenr rhe total 199 i, 1p. 44. irazttsition counttries . resui rtees that are ktowii rto exist in speCific 1 ) it. 9. lc,cttio,ns attd in specifiC qi1iAillitiCS aitid (iialli- 2. Eiergy In forita tion Adminisriatiott. U S. De- ries. Pri tedve,lr, tb/ riscert's irLt he frac- It . Ittern .1 tion1 Fiitergy Ageticv, Wirldl Lneriy partinent of Energy. InutermfcttIl/ Ftcre,' tuui oh proved rteerVeL ill plice thirt can l-e (O)udtcck. 1 99' iS )rgganitsatilnll for E; cntOmic Outlook. 1995, Report Ni. DOE/FIA- extr[acted Linder presetit aiid expected lictl C-)prrtii ant Dtil [ JOtliC1p , Pa ris. 0484(951 (ItS. Gvernmcuett 'trintiig Office, econotnic coiditionis with exisring availible l999Sm rPp 3s-39c) Washingioti. D.C.. 1 995i, p. is. technology. Additional eliergy reolulr-eC, 17. ip cit. 2. p. 3.7 conilpriliTig rho,e. th l iit canno CLirrCnllr he re- 3. The rerni tranisitioi,l ecolnIoies" licks a ot,redpeionoinalt l, are iotllr representred IXS\ World Ettergy oiiilL , 1utcet,v or Tome,r- forman defitiirion, har is uised lutre ro inctiude iSee also S rcices iid Teshiti tl Nuiteslal ( the succ-essc r stares ot thL foriirer Sc iviet Jiti- ('t is.nd tt c Age 'c1.t tfr i .4 cbtc'i''enu't Ott i Arnieit, Aczerhaii1,1i, (lie RepilliC of S. Op. cit. 6, pp. 2, IS, 26. Reservt-ro-col- iK ig P.igt Illlondo, andh St. NMartins Belarus. the Repc.i li-C (If EStI Tillt the Repiib- stunt(lipii rticIs are nt predictiolls olt the Pres. New Ycolk 199 ;), pp. 90-91. Thi is lic Of (Georgia, lie Repicblic of ka,..tkhstanit iutihuber cf year, reinainttg. hLIt rtither a w ay e xsteded il 64 veir[ iL uritailitiii resolitrces re- the Kyrgvz Repcihlic. the Republic oi I o tLsama, IO add u compartaie a.ctor to reserse esi erabIc ir l,ss than $1 31 per kilOgr-in (no rhe RepLlblic of Lithiuania, i1hi Republick II iates. These rjtiiol tholw hosw itino years tlIst $St) per kilogrtain) i .ite tiken intIl iccunt. NMoldova. the Russiati Federatti.on the Re- kIiowil proved rtserves woihuld listr it irreltr 19. Wiorld Re.CiOce Iisittin.te ii collaboratioini public of Taljikistai. the Republic ot Tiurk- ites If totsciamptiou. They do tlot prediut with the Uni.ttted Natiiiiis Ecsvircutinitei Prt inenistat, Ukriine. and the Repillic it the year oi acrcitil cpletil. grtininie suchli I ilheU I Nitiios Devllop- 282 World Resouirces 1996-97 Energy and Materials meno Programme, World Resou4rces 26. Op. cit. 16. p. 2. 35. World Energy Council (WEC:) and Intern.i 1994-95 (Oxford University Press, New 27. Op. cit. 2. p.5, Table I tional Instittite for Advanced Systems Analy- York, 1994), p. 170. sis (IIASA), Global Energy Perspectives to 20. Edward C;irr, "Energy: The New Prize," 28. Op. cit. 18, p. 296. 2050 and Beyond IWEC, London, and The Econzonpiist. Vol. 3.31, No. 7868 (June 29. Ibid. . p.50. IIASA, Laxerburg, Austria. 1995), pp. 18, 1994), pp. SS3-SS6. 30. Op. cit. 28. p. 50. S2-86. 21. OP. cit. 16, pp. 314-316, 318,TahlesA 14. 31. Op. cit. 19. 36. Op. cit. 19, pp. 171-172. Al 5, A l6, A 18. 32. World Energv Couincil, Newtj Reiew'able En- 37. Mihan Muinasinghe, Electric Power Fco- 22. Op. cit. 2, p. 17, Table 7. erg-y Resouirces: A Guide to the Future noUinics (Butterworth, London, 1990), p. 5. 23. Op. cit. 20. (IKogan Page. London, 1994), pp. 25-64. as cited in U.S. Office of Technology Asqess- 24. Op. cit. 16, pp. 1-2. 3.1. Ibid., p. 20. meirt. Energy in Developing Countries, Re- port OTA-E-486 (U.S. Government Printing 25. Op. Lit. 2, p. 8. 34. Op. cit. 32, p. 44. Office. WV,ashington, D.C., IlQ, p. r 3s. World Resources 1996-97 283 Data Table 12.1 Commercial Energy Production, 1973-93 Primary Eletricity (al Total Solid Liquid Gas Geothermal & Wind Hydro Nuclear Peta- ° Change Peta- ° Change Peta- % Change Pete- ° Change Peta- % Change Peta e- Change Pete- % Change joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 WORLD 337,518 40 91748 36 134,060 11 78,146 72 1.463 641 86554 86 23,646 1,365 AFRICA 21.308 50 4,259 155 13,835 14 2.941 797 13 X 182 68 79 X Algeria 4584 99 1 192 2481 16 2.102 1.190 0 X I (271 0 X Angola 1.066 207 0 X 1.055 209 7 175 0 X 5 102 0 X Benin 13 X 0 X 13 X o 0 X 0 0 X 0 X Boiswana X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 0 X Burkina Faso X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Bururri 1 3,312 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Cameroon 270 6.879 0 X 260 X 0 X 0 X 10 145 0 X Central AMcan Rep 0 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 74 0 X Cha- X Y 0 X X Y. 0 0 0 x 0 X 0 X Congo 365 313 0 X 363 315 0 X 0 X 2 550 0 X Coledi o,re 18 2880 0 X 14 X 0 0 0 X 4 385 0 X Egypt 2.435 546 0 X 2.028 471 376 10.960 0 X 31 66 0 X Equatonal Guinea 0 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 20 0 X Erilrea X 1 0 X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 X Ethiopia 7 494 0 X X X 0 X 3 X 4 269 0 X Gabon 637 89 0 X 631 98 4 1789 0 X 3 14.100 0 X Ganib a. l ne X X 0 X X X o 0 0 0 1X D X Ghana 22 58 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 22 84 0 X Guinea 1 256 0 X X X J X 0 X I 151 0 X Gar'rea Bissau X 9 0 X X 0 0 0 K 0 1X Kenya 21 1,328 0 X X X 0 X 10 X 11 646 0 X Lesotlro X X 0 X X 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 X LDber,a 1 (7 0 X X X 0 X C. X 1 134) 0 X Libya 3.054 r33i 0 X 2806 i37r 248 107 0 X 0 X 0 X Maoagascar 1 71 0 X 1X X 0 X 0 X 1 145 0 X Mala, 3 341 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 3 364 0 X Mal 1 694 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 1 506 0 X Maunrana0 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 QX Maurtius 0 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 52 0 X Morocco 21 (8) 18 29 0 X 1 (63) 0 X 2 (73) 0 X Mozambique 1 (901 I 190) X X 0 X 0 X 0 (82) 0 X Na-nbi 0 0 0 X O 0 3 X 0 K 0 0 0 1X Niger 5 X 0 X X X0 0 0 X 0 X 0 X Ngeoria 4140 i3r 3 (63) 3.935 11 191 1.513 0 X 12 121 0 X Riwana 1 112 0 X X X oi X 0 X I 89 0 X Senegal X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X S,erraLeone X X 0 X X X 0 0 0 X 0 1 0 0X Somarla X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X SouthAlrca (b) 4.146 169 4.064 164 X X a X 0 X 3 (1) 79 X Sucar 3 356 3 X X X 0 X 3 X 3 636 0 X Swaziland X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Tanzania 2 78 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 2 95 0 X Togo 0 0 0 X X 0 1 0 X 0 60 0 x Tunsia 209 24 0 X 196 21 13 144 0 X 0 21 0 X Uganda 3 1 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 3 16) 0 X Zaie 78 365 3 i7i 54 X 0 X 0 X 22 75 0 X Zambia 30 1 10 57r X K 0 1 0 X 26 154 0 X Zimbabwe 160 79 154 122 X X 0 X1 0 X 6 (681 0 X EUROPE 92,937 192 22,091 6 25,706 1,451 30,702 335 167 79 2,551 95 11.855 1.515 Aloama 44 (61r 5 (08) 23 i74i 4 (46) 0 X 12 270 0 X A sooa 263 ii8) 18 (66) 50 r54, 57 (381 0 X 137 X 0 X Belarus. Rep 122 X 28 X 84 X 10 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Bolgium 470 IM0 10 (95i X X 0 X 0 X 4 76 457 419,177 Bosnia and Herzeg-nina 14 X 0 X X 0 X 0 X 14 X 0 X Bulgana 376 RH1) 212 i471 2 (75) 2 (74) 0 X 7 (7) 152 X Croatia Rep 179 X 3 X 90 X 70 X 0 X 16 X 0 X Czech Rep 1.439 X 1.283 X 5 X 8 X 0 X 6 139 138 X Dennmanr 525 17.931 0 x 346 12.071 175 X 4 X 0 14 0 X Estoia Rep 121 X 121 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Finland 324 690 59 t.578 X X 0 X 0 X 49 33 217 X France 4746 237 263 (62i 136 52 94 (689 0 X 244 38 4,017 2.423 Gemrary 6178 X 3.675 X t28 X 626 X 4 X 77 X 1.674 X Greece 352 75 315 63 24 X 4 X 0 X 9 (5) 0 X Hungary 533 (24) 133 r69r 87 (2) 163 68' 0 X 1 56 151 X Iceland 25 186 0 X X 0 0 X 9 1.027 16 161 0 X (rerand 152 173 48 (10) x K 00 x I x 4 54 0 X Italy 1.226 35 11 142) 194 318 730 24 132 42 160 8 0 X Latra. Reo 14 X 3 X X X 0 X 0 X 10 X 0 X Lithuania Rep 138 X 0 X 3 X 0 0 0 X 1 X 134 X Macedonia fonereYugoslavRep 86 X 62 X X X 0 X 0 X 3 X 0 X Moldoa Rep 1 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 1 X 0 X Nelhedands 3.112 19 0 X 139 111 2930 17 6 X 0 X 43 1.111 Norway 6.365 1778 8 i221 4.801 7 139 1.127 X 0 X 430 77 0 X Poland. Rep 3.878 (171 3719 16) 10 (451 137 (30 0 X 13 65 0 X Ponugal 35 t0 3 (45) X X 0 X 1 X 31 23 0 X Romnaia 1.345 (401 318 (27) 279 i03) 702 (40) 0 X 46 74 0 X Russar Federation 43.550 X 6,309 X 14.815 X 20.497 X 1 X 631 X 1.300 X Slosak Rep 186 X 44 X 3 X 8 X 0 X ri 1X 120 X Slovenoa Rep 86 X 31 X 0 X 0 X 0 C l 1 X 43 X Sparn 1.204 142 427 47 47 47 27 45.963 0 X 93 (29) 612 1.080 Swedron 950 29E 10 3.312 0 X 0 X 2 X 271 40 670 4086 Swrtzedand 386 136 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 132 51 255 550 UKra,ne 4.501 X 2.602 X 178 X 662 X 0 X 40 X 821 X Uniled Kingdorn 9.663 105 1.922 (41) 4.210 25,370 2.537 125 8 X 20 63 975 204 Yugoslavia Fed Rep 347 X 230 X 48 X 33 X 0 X 36 X 0 X 284 Wo'urld Resourtcs If 9(9 -97 Data Table 12.1 continued Primary Electricity tal Total Solid Liquid Gas Geothermal & Wind Hydro Nuclear Peta- % Change Peta- 10 Change Peta- % Change Peta- % Change Peta- ° Change Peta- % Change Peta- S Change joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since joules Since 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 NORTH & CENTRAL AMERICA 87,427 27 21948 59 28,029 3 28,454 (1) 947 1,709 2,307 41 7.746 1.068 Belize X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Canada 13 195 60 1.571 271 4162 (1) 5.263 88 1 X 1 165 80 1 034 1307 Costa Rica 1 4 242 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 1 4 259 0 X Cuba 43 556 0 X 41 610 1 80 0 X 0 43 0 X Domnican Rep 0 2 744 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 6 2 361 0 X El Salvador 21 1 227 0 X X X 0 X 15 X 6 319 0 X Guatemala 22 1.820 0 X 15 X 0 X 0 X 7 543 0 X Haid1 1 53 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 1 136 0 X Honduras 8 519 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 8 646 0 X Jamarca 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 X 0 0 0 136i 0 X Mexaco 8.067 362 160 52 65048 510 977 95 237 658.233 94 69 52 X Nicaragua 20 1.636 0 X X X 0 X 19 X 1 5i 0 X Panama 8 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 8 X 0 X TnnidadandTobago 470 7 0 X 268 (27) 202 186 0 X 0 X D X UnitedStates 65.547 9 20.218 52 16.992 121) 20.008 (101 675 1.191 995 0 6.659 1.030 SOUTH AMERICA 15,355 35 844 360 10.468 5 2.475 170 0 X 1.478 416 89 X Argentna 2411 105 4 j641 1311 43 925 296 0 X 87 1506 85 X Bolive 164 8 0 X 52 (44) 107 8a 0 X 5 96 0 x Brazil 2.491 296 85 42 1.382 291 173 2144 0 X 645 357 5 X Chie 222 26 47 35 44 (42i 67 45 0 X 63 237 0 X Colombia 1.812 208 591 685 971 137 149 99 0 X 101 281 0 X Ecuador 764 75 0 X 758 70 5 271 0 X 21 1.219 0 X Guyana 0 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Paraguay 113 10.267 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 113 16241 0 X Pew 325 79 2 153 264 77 18 27 0 X 41 152 0 X Sunname I5 318 0 X 11 X 0 X 0 X 4 2) 0 X Unaguay 26 364 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 26 634 0 X Venezueia 6990 113) 11. 9.161 5.674 (24) 1.031 115 0 X 171 683 0 X ASIA 113.332 67 37.897 162 54,936 8 14,412 671 337 3.675 1,894 190 3,835 3,180 Afghanistan. Islamic Slate 9 t921 0 X 0 X 7 1931 0 X 2 4 0 X Ammena 11 X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 11 0 0 X Azerbaijan 714 X 0 X 474 X 231 X 0 X 9 X 0 X Bangadesh 217 744 0 X 5 2.337 209 759 0 X 3 343 0 X Bhulan 6 28.471 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 6 27.671 0 X Cambndeo 0 X 0 X X X 0 0 0 0 0 X Cnrna 31.359 143 24.045 133 6580 171 661 184 0 X 546 427 27 X Georgia Rep 28 X 0 X 4 X 0 0 0 x 23 X 0 X india 8.088 233 6.141 211 1 158 284 460 1.838 2 X 254 160 74 500 Indonesa 7.145 14a 808 21.781 4.192 50 2.062 3.127 39 X 44 850 0 X Iran, Islamic Rep 8.448 (35) 43 66 7310 (41) 1056 49 0 X 40 212 0 X Iraq 1,476 9 5) 0 X 1 374 (67) 99 tO t 0 X 2 200 0 X Israel I X 0 X D X 1 i48i 0 X 0 X 0 X Japan 3.466 224 186 (660 32 25 90 122; 65 628 380 20 2719 2.529 Jordan 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Kazakhstan Rep 4.025 X 2.809 X 961 X :227 X o X 27 X 0 X Korea, Dem Peoples Rep 2.671 201 2.585 206 X X 0 X 0 X 86 100 X X Korea. Rep 832 145 178 147) X X 0 X 0 X 22 339 634 X Kuwait 4329 j341 0 X 4 155 (36) 174 60 0 X 0 X 0 X Kyrgyz Rep 66 X 29 X 4 X 1 X 0 X 32 X 0 X Lao People's Dem Rep 3 248 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 3 286 0 X Lebanon 1 142) 0 X X X 0 X 0 X I 655) 0 X Malaysia 2.167 1038 8 X 1,307 619 835 17.932 0 X 16 327 0 X Mongolia 84 13e 64 138 X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Myanmar 75 58 1 327 30 (27) 38 853 0 X 5 166 0 X Nepal 3 9:4 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 3 943 0 X Crian 1.720 181 0 X 1 621 165 98 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Pakistan 766 311 61 116 127 818 496 295 0 X 77 485 5 333 Ph4lippines 276 2.801 33 3312 21 X 0 X 207 X is 93 0 X SaudiAiabia 19171 20 0 X 17770 II 1.401 7.187 0 X 0 X C X Singapore X X 0 X 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 x Sn Lanka 14 449 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 14 344 0 X SynanAnabRep 1.234 432 0 X 1 134 389 76 X 0 X 24 10731 0 X Tapklstan. Rep 70 X 5 X 2 X 2 X 0 X 62 X 0 X Thailand 678 5396 170 3.105 155 58.664 339 X 0 X 13 114 0 X Turkey 779 119 484 144 163 11 7 X 3 X 122 958 0 X Turkmenistan, Rep 2.430 X 0 X 211 X 2 219 X 0 X 0 X 0 X United Arab Emirates 56273 68 0 X 4.378 41 895 2 600 0 X 0 X 0 X Uzbekistan, Rep X 45 X 170 X 1 029 X 0 X 26 X 0 X VietNam 489 549 173 134 264 x 0 X 22 X 30 1.870 0 X Yemen Rep X X 0 X 480 X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X OCEANIA 7.159 144 4,707 162 1,091 28 1.162 718 57 35 141 48 0 X Australia 6658 141 4.634 167 1.006 19 959 627 0 X dl 42 0 X Fiji 1 X 0 X X X 0 x 0 1 X 0 X New Zealand 496 193 74 24 85 1 150 203 1.873 57 36 77 51 0 X PapuaNewGuinea 2 251 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 2 211 0 X Solomon lsands X X 0 X X X 0 X 0 X 0 X 0 X Source Unned Nations Statistical Divisior. Noles a The production oa pdnmary electncity was assessed at the equivalent ol 164 percent etficency fob hydroelectIc ald wind generalion at the heat nalne o0 electricity 1 kilowatl hour = 3.6 million jouls) al 33 percenl efficency fot nuclear power generation and al 10 percent efficiency tol geothernial geveration b Data are lot the South Afnca Customs Union (Botswand Lesotho. Namibia. South Afnca any Swaziland) 1 petajole = 1.000,000.000.000,000 lvules = 947 8600.000.000 Blus 163.400 U.N standamdB ba,els of oil = 34 140 U N standard meinc tons o coal Woea and regional totals nclude countdes nct Inled C - zero or neo than half of the unl oil measure. X = ricG aaulalble Cl njelernrmnale regalIty .uiabeis Ire sh-In m pareltheses Fot addtional hitormaton. see Sources and Technbcal Noles W7tltI Resouirc-es 1996-97 285 Data Table 12.2 Energy Consumption, 1973-93 Commercial Energy Consumption Per Constant Tn dftional Fuels Total PerCephea 1987 US$ ofGNP Imports Total Per Capita Peta- % Change Giga- %, Change Mega- %/ Change as a % of Pete- %s Change Msega % Change % of Total joutes Since joule Since jout ta Since Consumption IOu"e Sinctt pube Since Consumption 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1973 1993 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 WORLD 325,29W 49 59 6 X X X X 1926 4 3,44 6 6 AFRICA 8,805 144 13 41 X X (280) (134) 4,815 76 6,991 0 35 43 Aygeria 1,183 387 44 173 18 144 (858) (274} 19 64 714 (8, 2 S Angola ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~26i (0 3 (1) X 795) (3.835) 56 112) 5.455 (SO 5 63 Benin 7 27 1 (48) 4 (28) 103 (71) 48 67 9,4fi2 (5) 87 84 Botswvana X X X X 0 X X X 13 102 9,420 2 100 100 .urna Faso a 237 1 150 57 100 10D 85 62 8,652 (2) 91 9fi Burund, 3 241 0 X 2 77 103 100 44 60 7.222 (4) 94 97 Carnercon 3fi 138 3 41 4 17 90 t639) 114 7 ,3 2 6 8 CentralAtfisan Rep 3 18 1 (231 3 (2) 97 133 314 67 10,694 4 92 89 Chad 1 (551 0 X 1 (71) 153 200 35 SS S,900 (°I 97 91 Congo 24 331 10 146 10 67 (10(09) (1.379) 22 77 8,945 (1) 48 69 Cote d'vo.re 109 195 8 35 11 115 117 119 103 ill 7,723 (1) 49 57 Egypt 1,226 337 20 149 30 36 (25) (84) 45 59 752 (2) 4 9 Equalonal Guinea 2 184 S 80 13 X 54 100 4 20 11.522 (20) 69 84 Eritrea X X X X X X X X O X 0 X X X Ethiopia 45 104 1 X X X 108 93 414 84 7.9154 9 90 91 Gabon 32 (il1 26 (591 7 (521 (823, (1.8591 26 13fi 21,16fi 10 45 24 Gambia, The 3 241 3 75 10 59 97 100 9 27 8,579 (38) 75 89 Ghana 67 SS 4 (13) 10 10 83 75 152 101 9,213 15 69 64 G.unea 15 35 2 i27) 6 X 98 100 35 43 5,594 t8) 70 69 _Gumea-B,ssau 3 105 3 18 13 6 100 100 4 1 1 4.012 (38i) Sfi 72 Kenya 90 87 3 (20) 10 (14) 1fi0 97 344 84 13.049 (i 1) 79 80 Lesotho X X X X 0 X X X fi 1fif 3,338 56 100 100 Liberia S (741 2 (84) X X 96 100 4fi 56 17,045 (17) 91 62 Llbya 457 722 91 26B X X (8.0fi9) (5621 S 18 1,037 (47) 1 7 Madagascar 15 1 1 (S1) S (1 0) 128 93 76 56 5,483 (17) 84 77 Malawil 11 5fi 1 (29) 6 i2i)) 93 82 133 198 12.59fi 39 92 868 Matl 7 96i 1 fiS 3 12 102 100C 54 6fi 5.279 (2) 68 90 Mauritania 39 506 is 2fi7 37 297 105 118 0 58 37 (4) 0 1 Mauntius 21 123 19 74 8 (20) 125 143 17 (13) 15.392 (31) 44 67 Morocco 297 16fi 11 63 13 19 68 10fi 1 4 147 529 57 4 S Mozambique 14 (53) 1 (74) 7 X 101 114 147 57 9,758 4 91 7 1 Narnibla X X X X O X X X O X O X X X Niger 1 5 255 2 114 6 175 100 67 47 83 5,484 (3) 76 866 Nigeria 705 420 7 221 19 220 (3.066) (4811 1.010 82 9,590 3 59 60 Rwarnda 7 3fi7 1 18fi 3 154 7 1 100C 53 16 6.98fi (37) 8fi 97 Senega 38 112 5 26 8 28 355 12fi 49 75 6,257 1 57 6 1 Sierra Leone 6 (461 1 (751 10 (S9) 84 233 30 49 6.903 (2) 83 64 .Somalia X X X X X X 106 X 71 143 7,975 39 100 89 South Atnca (al 3,578 X 79 X 42 X X (15) 131 13 3,314 (31) 4 100 Sudan 4fi (40) 2 (63) X X 101 110 220 78 8,261 -1 62 -61 Swaziland X X X X 0 X 0 X 18 ill 22,852 19 100 66 Tarnzanma 30 (21) 1 (61) 6 (56) 112 100 330 135 11.7fi9 25 92 79 TOgO 9 92 2 (7) a 61 102 100 10 139 2.6fiS 34 53 48 Tuniso 216 2fi4 25 125 16 42 (147) 7 31 55 3.593 (2, 12 25 UJganda 16 (5) 1 (37) 2 X 89 81 137 85 6.870 I2) 90 81 Zaire 73 45 2 (151 X X 84 4 365 70 8.854 (9) 83 81 Zambia 51 (18) 6 (Sfi) 22 (a2) 54 33 130 91 14,536 (2) 72 52 Z,mbab.e 208 67 _ 19 (12) 32 1 16 25 70 57 6.513 (16) 25 26 EUROPE 108.523 90 148 73 X X S9 18 55 I1) 71 (1 1 Albwan 43 (1 1) 13 (38) X X t3fil 37 15 (31 4.485 (34) 2fi 25 Austria 9fi6 16 123 12 7 (26) 67 75 30 191 3.766 179 3 1 Belarus Rep 1.249 X 123 X 53 X X 91 X X X X X X Belgium 1,976 14 197 X 12 (221 105 90 6 40 557 36 0 0 Bosnia and Heuegomna 29 X 8 X X X X 52 X X X X X X Bulgaria 9SS (61 109 (9j 45 X 63 70 13 29 1,448 26 1 1 Croatia, Rep 253 X Sfi X X X X 43 0 X O X 0 X Czech Rep 1,659 X 161 X 54 X X 16 0 X 0 X 0 X t3enmark 762 (1) 148 13) 7 (30) 110 31 S 1,178 943 1.141 1 0 Estono. Rep 214 X 138 X I X X 45 0 X 0 X 0 X Finland 1,014 54 200 42 12 9 10.4 63 30 (56) 5.892 (S9) 3 9 France 9,153 36 159 23 9 (9) 91 53 101 (2) 1,757 (12) 1 2 Gemmany 13.724 2 170 X 9 (39) 0 57 0 X OX 0 0 Greece 989 123 9S 91 19 47 118 74 13 (29) 1,274 (39) 1 4 Hungary 990 3 97 S 47 (16) 41 53 24 (') 2,319 1 2 2 Iceland 54 Sfi 205 35 10 (1 0) 87 54 0 X 0 X 0 0 IreLand 428 62 121 40 10 (27) 88 67 0 72 139 SO 0 0 Italy 6,749 40 116 34 8 (14) 100 74 48 31 84fi 26 1 1 Latvra. Rep 187 X 72 X 30 X X 64 X X X X X X Lithuania, Rep 368 X 99 X 83 X X 62 X X X X X X Macedonia,lformmerYugoslav Rep 139 X 6fi X X X X 45 0 X 0 X 0 X Mcddova, Rep 234 X 53 X 59 X X 102 X X X X X X Netherlands 3.306 44 216 2fi 13 (4) 29 13 2 (250) 150 (232) 0 (0) Norway 904 61 210 4fi 10 (20) 54 (588) 9 73 2.198 60 1 1 Poland, Rep 4.056 8 106 (6, 69 X (121 4 X X X X X X Portugal 603 140 61 119 12 41 100 10fi 6 31 573 20 1 2 Romano 1.762 (201 77 (271 70 X 4 30 19 (66i) 841 (691 1 3 Russian Federation 30.042 X 203 X 102 X X (40) 0 X 0 X 0 X Slovak Rep 672 X 126 X 53 X X 74 0 X 0 X 0 X Slovenia, Rep 194 X 100 X X X X 56 X X X X X X Spain 3.359 72 65 52 10 9 89 78 18 (53) 466 (58) 1 2 Swveden 1,560 20 191 12 '° (8, 89 4fi 122 (41 14.062 (1 0) 7 8 Switzerland 985 34 139 20 5 a 82 57 14 103 2.052 8 1 1 1 Ukraine 8,058 X 156 X 105 X X 46 0 X 0 X 0 X United Kingdom 9,518 10 164 7 13 (21) 53 1 4 27 72 23 0 0 Yugoslavia, FedRFep 3fi1 X 36 X X X X 17 X X X X X X 286 World Resources 1996-97 Data Table 12.2 continued Commercial Energy Consumption Per Constant Traditional Fuels Total Per Capita 1987 USS of GNP Imports Total Per Capita Peta- %Change Giga- % Change Mega- % Change as a % of Peta- % Change Mega- % Change % of Total joues Since joules Since joules Since Consumption joules Since joules Since Consumption 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 1973 1993 1993 1973 1993 1973 1993 1973 NORTH&CENTRALAMERICA 97,154 19 220 (10) X X 14 11 1,825 106 4,130 53 2 1 Belize 4 92 20 20 9 (39) 115 100 4 53 18.789 (3) 49 55 Canada 9.198 47 319 12 21 1151 i26' (43) 67 96 2.326 53 1 1 CostalRica 63 115 19 21 10 4 90 79 35 (24) 10784 (561 36 61 Cuba 369 26 34 5 X X 103 96 205 31 18.848 8 36 35 Dominican Rep 148 101 20 30 24 (1) 105 96 25 (25) 3.360 (53) 15 32 ElSalvador 72 170 13 90 13 97 99 74 39 5 7050 i26) 35 58 Gualemala 72 88 7 4 8 6 107 89 104 89 10.335 7 59 59 Hat 9 64 1 (13) 11 55 97 100 57 35 8.213 (7) 86 88 Honduras 43 120 8 18 8 7 Ill 81 58 89 10.897 0 57 81 Jamaca 104 (5) 43 (23i 29 (131 109 100 6 (32) 2.493 (45) 5 7 Mexico 4.941 155 55 86 30 30 15 (57) 248 48 2.755 (9) 5 8 Nicaragua 52 112 13 20 15 185 106 67 39 78 9.450 (2) 43 47 Paa 61 X 24 X 10 9449 0 89 16 3 6.363 (34) 21 98 Tnnrdad and Tobago 267 100 209 56 58 55 164) (78) 3 (42) 2.210 h55 1 4 UniledStales 81.751 13 317 17) 16 (28) 18 21 916 297 3553 226 1 0 SOUTH AMERICA 10,095 94 33 30 X X (104) (43) 2,748 26 8,888 (17) 21 30 Argent,na 2.019 56 60 17 16 14 16 (9) 116 0 3.421 (25) 5 8 Boliv,a 86 i40 12 56 16 64 (3281 (92) 19 55 2.723 (0) 18 26 Brazil 3.800 120 24 43 13 14 83 46 2021 20 12,912 (21) 35 49 Chile 539 61 39 17 17 (31) 45 62 84 72 6.050 24 13 13 Colomba 829 95 24 29 18 ( ') (29) (117i 235 61 6.927 22 22 23 Ecuador 245 305 72 141 18 93 (624) (208i 74 67 6.757 (i1 23 42 Guyana 15 (38) 18 (46) 38 (38) 102 196 4 (39) 5355 (46) 23 23 Paraguay 5' 350 11 148 11 64 95 131) 55 59 11699 (14) 52 75 Pea 314 30 14 (17) 2.276 3 34 (3) 88 7 3828 (33) 22 25 Sunname 24 (24) 58 (32) 17 (29) 89 75 1 349 2959 302 5 1 Unuguay 77 (1) 24 (13) 10 (32j 101 69 28 109 8.948 87 27 15 Venezuela 2.083 125 100 27 30 51 (7351 (226) 22 32 1.046 (251 1 2 ASIA 95,679 185 28 92 X X (83) (9) 9,009 47 2,690 1 9 15 Afghanistan, Islamic Staie 22 1 1 (32) X X (394) 64 51 31 2.863 9 70 64 Armenia 49 X 14 X 22 X X 96 0 X 0 X 0 X Azerbalan 546 X 74 X 134 X X 23 0 X 5 X 0 X Bangladesh 313 417 3 259 14 113 72 33 277 27 2401 (20) 47 78 Bhutan 2 3.312 1 1,783 6 X 100 (150) 12 79 7345 21 85 99 Cambodia 7 443 ' 456 5 X 303 100 54 21 5.560 11) 88 97 China 29.679 179 25 110 69 1431 1 (2) 2018 54 1.687 15 6 11 Georgia Rep 159 X 29 X 51 X X 91 X X X X X X India 9338 258 10 128 27 46 26 21 2.824 58 3.132 4 23 41 Indonesia 2658 394 14 237 24 46 (418) (125) 1.465 54 7.642 4 36 64 Iran, Islamic Rep 3264 227 51 60 18 X (1.171) (164) 29 95 446 (5) 1 1 Iraq 933 357 48 142 X X (1,949) 124) 1 (13) 53 (54) 0 I Israel 505 148 96 54 10 9 50 118 0 0 24 (38) 0 0 Japan 17.505 41 141 24 6 (30) 103 87 10 f37( 78 (45) 0 0 Jordan 147 509 30 104 22 1 119 109 0 108 16 5 0 0 Kazakhstan. Rep 3.381 X 199 X 167 X X (16) 0 X 0 X 0 X Korea, Dem Peoples Rep 2.925 168 127 84 X X 4 8 40 33 1,753 (8) 1 3 Korea Rep 4 504 452 102 325 21 8 71 98 26 (83) 584 (87r 1 16 Kuwat 471 241 265 71 X X (4.440) (798i 0 X 0 X 0 0 Kyrgyz Rep 150 X 33 X 49 X X 57 0 X 0 X 0 X Lao Peoples Dem Rep 5 (32) I (81) 3 X 88 40 39 35 8.366 (15) 89 79 Lebanon 121 35 43 29 X X 113 101 5 9 1653 5 4 5 Malaysia 996 401 52 206 25 34 11 (114) 90 61 4.686 (3) 8 22 Mongolia 105 170 45 58 X X 36 19 13 0 5.689 (41) 11 25 Myannoar 71 73 2 41 6 (11) 11 3 193 48 4,324 (4) 73 76 Nepal 19 239 1 121 6 55 91 84 206 88 9.882 12 92 95 Oman 162 3.905 81 1.324 14 704 (13.764) (957) 0 X 0 X 0 0 Pakistan 1.135 286 9 118 25 24 46 36 296 101 2.228 8 21 33 Philippines 787 97 12 22 20 12 93 94 382 44 5892 (9) 33 40 Saudi Araba 2.933 2037 171 718 X 5 (10.943) 0 0 X 0 X 0 0 Singapore 745 184 267 123 22 (31) 201 202 0 X 0 X 0 0 Sr,Lanka 78 71 4 15 9 (33) 159 113 89 45 4,996 6 53 58 Synan Arab Rep 565 626 41 266 X X (t661 (108) 0 8 9 (45) 0 0 Talikistan. Rep 258 X 45 X 126 X x 75 0 0 X 0 X Thailand 1628 426 28 254 18 23 l09 63 526 75 9141 19 24 49 Turkey 1979 189 33 84 18 13 53 67 96 (63) 1.606 (76) 5 27 Turhmennstan Rep 555 X 142 X X X X 13271 X X X X X X Unned Anb Emirales 1,039 1992 572 313 X X (6.199) (364) 0 X 0 X 0 0 Uzbekistan. Rep 1.903 X 87 X 132 X X (13) 0 X 0 X 0 X VietNani 316 (3) 4 (44) 6 X 73 (48) 251 54 3.516 (1) 44 33 Yemen. Rep X X X X X X 100 X X X X X X X OCEANIA 4.595 93 166 44 X X 1 (61) 185 16 6,693 (14) 4 6 Australia 3917 99 222 53 16 15 (16) (771 109 6 6,191 (19) 3 5 Fiji 11 35 15 2 14 (16) 175 109 12 54 15.606 12 52 48 NewZealand 565 76 162 49 14 29 54 15 0 (80) 140 t63) 0 1 PapuaNewGuinea 33 72 8 9 7 (3) 101 97 60 34 14550 D15) 64 70 Solomon lslands 2 X 6 16 X X 109 X 3 121 9107 11 62 61 Source: Unned NatiOns Statistical DGis on Notes Commercial energy consumption does not include bunkers for aircraf and ships in intematonal transport or addibons to stocks )ruorts are net imports (gross impors mrnus e-ports) and rnay eacend consumplon due to addihons to slocks and ase in bunker a Data au for 1he South Ahrca Customs Union (3olswana. Lesotho, Namibia South Afnca. and Swaziland) 1 petaoule I= 000.000 000,500.000 joules = 947 800.000 00 Btus = 163.400 U N. standard barre)s of oa - 34.140 U N standard metnc Ions of coal. 1 gigaIoule 1.000.000.000)oules = 947800 BtLus. 1 megajoule- 1.000006 joules -947.8 Btu Wodd and regional totals,nclude countnes not isted 0 = zero or ess than halt oMlhe unt of rneasare. X - nol auailable or indeternante. negatioe numbers ure shown n parentheses For addfional informnaoon see Sources and Technical Notes World Resources 1996-97 287 Data Table 12.3 Reserves and Resources of Commercial Energy, 1993 Anthracite/Bituminous Coals Subbituminous/Lignite Coals Crude Oil (million Natural Gas (billion Uranium (metric tons) (million metric tons) 1993 (million metric tons) 1993 metric tons) 1993 cubic meters) 1993 Recoverable at Hydroelectric (megawatts) Proved Proved Proved Proved Proved Proved Less Than Known Installed Resernes Recoverable Reserves Recoverable Recoverable Recoverable $80perkg $130perkg Exploitable Capacity in Place Reserves in Place Reserves Reserves Reserves 1993 1993 Potential 1993 WORLD 1.087982 519,358 741,493 512.252 140.676 141.335 1.532,000 6989870 X 612,505 AFRICA 132.951 60A05 1.509 1.267 10,494 10.166 431.570 138.340 X 20.689 Agena X 43 X X 1.183 3.700 26000 X 287 a 274 Angola X X X X 736 S1 X X 100000 322 Be""ir X X X X 4 X X X 5000a 0 Botswana 7.000 3.500 X X X X X X 1 a 0 BuirkilnaFaso X X X X X X X X 200 a 30 Burundi X X X X X X X X 1366 36 Cam nrooe 0 X X X 54 110 X X 115000 725 Conlrar Afrcan Rep x X 4 4 X X 8 000 8.000 2 000 a 22 Chad X X X X X X X X 30a 0 Congo X X X X 113 77 X X 50 000 89 Cole d nloire X X X X 7 14 X X 14.000 900 Egopy 25 13 X 40 472 706 X X 3.210 a 2.825 Equanon,al Guinea X X X X 2 37 X X 2 000 a X Eril,ea X X X X X X X X X X Elhopla X X 14 X X 23 X X 162.000 378 Gaboen X X X X 182 14 9.780 4.850 32.500 326 Gamniba The X X X X X X X X X 0 Ghana X X X X 0 23 X X 11.550 1.072 Gu ,ea X X x X X X X X 26.00- 61 Gu nea-B,saos X X X X X X X X 300 0 Kenya X X x X X X x X 30.000 611 Lesotho X X X X X X X X 2.000 0 Libera X X X X X X X X 11.000 81 Lbya X X X X 5,931 1296 X X X 0 Madagascar 1000 X 75 X X 2 X X 23061 130 Malaw- IS 2 X X X X X X 6000 146 Mali X X X X X X X X 10G00 45 Manrilania X X X X X X X X X 61 Maurbus X X X X X X X X 65a 59 Morocco 134 45 44 X 3 X X 4.000 713 Mozamo'oq,e X 240 X X X 77 X 72 000 2.081 Nanibia X X X x X 147 80.620 16010 1060 249 Niger X 70 X X X X 159170 6.650 235 a 0 Nigeria X 21 338 169 1 693 3.451 X X 400.00 1.070 Rwanda X X X X X 57 X X 3.000 59 Se,negal X X X X X X X X 500 a 0 Sle r Leone X X X X X X X X 6.800 X Somralia X X X X X 6 0 6.600 50 a 0 SoullhAfrcalol 121.218 55.333 X X 6 27 144.400 96.440 X 593 Sudan X X X X 4 1 86 X X 1900 225 Swazland l.COG 116 X 999 X X X X 400 51 Tanzan,a 304 200 X X X 116 X X 20.000 339 Togo X X X X X X X X 270a 73 Trnisia X X X X 45 92 X X 65 a 79 Ugalnda X X X X X X X X 10.200 ISS Zaire 720 88 X X 25 1 1.800 X 530.000 2 829 Zambia X X 69 SS X X 1.800 X 309.009 2 259 Zimbabwe 1.535 734 965 X x X X X 19.281 666 EUROPE 114,691 55,765 117.674 70,470 9,569 55.461 331,916 214,116 X 179,398 Aban a X X I0 X 22 2 X X 17000 1 395 Ausina X X 347 31 1I 22 X X 56.800 11.739 Belarus Rep X X X X X X X X X x Belgium 7r5 410 X X X X x x 500 130 Bomniaanid Hezegovna X X X X X X X X X 1.220 Bolgana 48 13 4791 2.698 1 2 X X 2240 2.150 Coalia. Rep 7 6 38 33 20 35 X X X 2.053 Czecn Rep X X X X 2 S 1 6 8 X 1.144 Donmnarkcl x X 183 X 101 142 X X 14 52 E-lona Rep X X X X X x X X X X Fnclanid X X X X X X 0 1.500 22.600 2.550 France 594 113 129 26 20 36 17.080 13.800 101 976 24810 Genrany 44.000 24.000 78.000 43300 51 341 0 3.000 27.000 4.376 Geeoe X X 50312 3.000 6 8 300 X 16.000 2617 Hungary 1,407 596 8.306 3865 19 97 620 510 4.500 48 Iceand X X X X X X X X 64.000 875 Ireland 19 14 X X X IS X X 194 229 Italy X X 75 34 44 270 4.800 X 65.000 17832 Lalia Rep X X X X X X X X X 1.503 Lthuanaia Rep X X X X 8 X X X X 111 Macedonia. lonrer YugoslaRnFep X X X X X X X X X X Moidona Rep X X X X X X X X X X Nelherlands 1 406 497 X x 16 1 675 X X 500 36 Nsorwav X X 69 4 1.494 2028 X X 171.400 27035 Poland. Rep 64.650 29100 14.413 13.000 0 124 X X 12.000 867 Potugal 8 3 38 33 X X 7300 1 400 30.500 3.405 Ronania 1 1 3.199 3.117 218 445 X X 40.000 6.253 Rsniarn Federation X X X X 6.670 48.160 219 600 80.100 X 42.053 Sloqak Rep X X 447 228 X 8 X X X 1.198 Slovenia Rep 87 X 358 X X X X 1.800 X 820 Spain 1.750 850 950 600 2 19 18.000 23.300 69 100 14,700 Sweden x X 4 I X X 2000 2.000 70.000 16.638 SwOtzerland X X X X X 0 X X 41.000 11.758 Ukra,ne X X X X 235 1.172 62.200 86.700 X 4.700 United Kingdom id) X 162 1 000 500 605 610 X X 5.600 1.064 Yigoslanaa Fed Rep X X X X 11 45 X X X 4.101 288 k\'orl/d Rcsources I 9)96-97 Data Table 12.3 continued AnthracilBituminous Coals SubbituminousfLignite Coals Crude Oil (million Natural Gas (billion Uranium (metric tons) (million metric tons( 1993 (million metric tons) 1993 metric tons) 1993 cubic meters) 1993 Recoverable at Hydroelectric (mega"ats) Proved Proved Proved Pmved Proved Proved Less Than Known Installed Reserves Recoverable Reserves Recoverable Recoverable Recoverable S80perkg $130perkg Exploitable Capacity in Place Reserves in Place Reserves Reserves Reserves 1993 1993 Potential 1993 NORTH & CENTRALAMERICA 234,968 111,864 219.639 138,528 11.717 9.017 394.500 379.100 X 151,878 Be ize X X X X X X X X X 0 Canada 6435 1509 14.355 4114 758 2.232 278,000 119.000 614882 62,725 Costa Rica X X 27 X X X X X 37.000 868 Cuba X X X X 14 3 X X X 49 DomnicanRep X x X X X X X X 2517 376 El Salvador X X X X X X X X 4 009 406 Goalennala x X X X 66 0 x x 43 370 443 Hail X X 13 X X X X X 430 70 Holdiras X X 21 X X X X X 24.000 483 Jarrac,a X X X X X X X X 335 0 Meaxco 1.569 860 732 351 6 506 1,951 4 500 6 100 80000 8247 N aragua X X X X X X X X 6 552 i1l Panama X X X X X X X X 16 233 552 Tanidad arna Tobago X X X X 73 232 X X X 0 Uriled Stales 226.964 106495 204491 134.063 3.900 4599 112000 254000 376,(0) 77384 SOUTH AMERICA 6,225 5,649 15,298 4,548 11,608 5,430 168,390 2.400 X 90,082 Argentia X X 195 130 310 517 4600 2400 390038 7213 Bdlsa X 1 X x 17 '26 X X 50,000 380 Brazil X X 10162 2.845 542 137 162.(000 1 1 16.90C) 48193 Chle 79 31 4.C50 1.150 41 110 X X 16x,262 2431 Coombia 5449 4240 411 299 462 212 X X 418.200 7759 Ecuado X X 30 24 274 108 X X 180,000 1497 Guyana X X X X X X X X 63.100 4 Pa,agsay X X X x x X X X 39.630 6 490 Pera X 960 X 100 109 250 1 790 X 412000 2507 Su,iarire X X X X 11 X X X 12.840 290 Uruguay X X X X X X X X 6.750 2.331 Venezuela 697 417 X X 9842 4020 X X 261700 106989 ASIA 403,974 133,074 160.784 95,411 97,041 52,529 9,130 52,150 X 157.779 Aignanislar'. Islamic Slate 112 66 X X X 99 x x 25 000 a 299 Armenia X x X X X X X X X 750 Azerbalan X X X X 157 538e X x X 1700 Bangladesh 1054 x X X 1 370 X X 800 a 230 Bhunat X X X X X X X X X 356 Cambodia X X X X X X X X 63.000 0 China dl 177600 62.20n 158 800 52300 3264 18 70 X X 2168304 59.655 Gesigr, Rep X X X X X 3 X X X 1.725 India 196.892 680.47 26000 1900 776 686 X X 205000 19.843 Iadonesia X 962 X 31101 759 2.000 0 5,420 709000 2,169 lion Islamir Rep 3.754 193 2.295 X 12 700 20659 X X 56000 1,957 liaq X X X X 13.417 3.100 X X 75000 910 Israel X x X X 1 1 X X 1600 0 Japan 8.296 804 175 17 8 30 0 6600 134750 21 020 Jo,da. X X X X 0 28 X h 67 0 Kazakostan Rep X X X X 723 1.498 X X X 3.500 Korea. Dem People's Rep 2.000 300 300 300 X X X X X 5 000 Korea Rep 276 183 X X X x 0 31000 :f 467 2.469 Kuwait X X X X 13358 1,360 X X X 0 Kyrgyz Rep 1.080 X 1.580 812 12 5 X X X 2.833 La. People s Dem Rep X X X X X X X X 22 638 235 Lebanon X X X X X X X X 1000 267 Malaysia 15 4 126 X 585 2150 X X 59229 1.439 Mongolia 12.000 X 12000 X X X X X X 0 Mya,iir 5 2 X X 7 278 X X 160.000 288 Nepal X X C X X 9 X X 144.000 249 Oman X X X X 659 550 X X X 0 Pakistar X X X 734 2Z 646 X X 85.000 4 732 Philispipes I 0 369 262 33 98 X X 31.951 2055 Sai,m A,abia X X X X 35.620 5 260 X X X 0 Singapore X X X X X X X X X 0 SriLanka X X X X X X X X 7.175 1 160 Synan Arab Rep X X X X 340 250 X X 4 500 900 TapIk,,,asa. Rep X X X X X 7 X X X 4 054 Tha,land X 0 1.422 999 27 175 X X 8.169 2459 Turkey 590 162 7.7U5 6,986 66 11 9.130 9130 216.000 9810 Turlneastan. Rep X X X X 73 2860 X X X tO UiltedArab Emirates X X X X 12330 5794 X X X 0 Uzbeksta, Rep X X X X X 1 870 X X x 1904 Vet Na, 3n0 10 12 X 68 105 x X 6,490 1864 Yemen Rep X X X X 544 429 X X X 0 OCEANIA 66.253 45,367 51,139 45,690 248 1.065 462.000 55,000 X 12,679 Aastrala 66220 453340 50.600 45.600 199 5SS 462.000 55.000 25,248 7 189 Flii X X X X X X X X 010 85 NewZealand 33 27 539 90 17 85 X X 60.000 5.059 Papsa New Gui,ea X X X X 31 425 X X 96.OO 240 Soiomnon islands X X X X X 0 X 37 0 7oaroes World Energy Counci and the Wodd Bairk Notes a Tecnnical potential b Data am fo, tIe Soul, Afirca Customs Lss lo BonsB-ana Lesotho Namibia, Soul, Atrca arid Sw,azlaidi. u Denmark irciades Greenland o Craes and the United Kingdoosso l resenes contrast shaplivloI preatous estinates see S-ices and Tecnnical Notes e Data rom a-other source see Soes and Technical Noles Wodd totals nclude countries to, mhich no data ae lisled er o - zero or less their nail ofthe unrit otmraa,re X notaoalabli For addil ona oformnanori see Sources and Technical Notes \V'rnt!lil R esfi,rccs I 99t)6)) 289 Data Table 12.4 Production, Consumption, and Reserves of Selected Metals, 1980-94 Annual Production (000 metric tons) Annual Consumption (000 metric tons) 1980 1985 1990 1994 1980 1995 1990 1994 ALUMINUM {a} Australia 27.179.0 31,838.9 40,697.0 41,733.0 United States 4.453.5 4.282.0 4.330.4 5.407.1 Guinea 11.862.0 11.790.0 16150.0 17,040.0 Japan 1639.0 1.694.8 2.414.3 2,174.8 Jamaica 12,054.0 6,239.0 10936.7 11,571 3 China 550.0 630.0 861.0 1,318.0 Brazil 5.538.0 5,846.0 9,675.6 8,280.8 Gemianry 1,272.3 1,390.9 1,378 5 1,300.0 China 1,500.0 1,650.0 3,655.0 7,260.0 U S.S.R. {bj 1,850.0 1,750.0 2,790.0 1,185.0 India 1785.0 2,281.0 5,277.0 5,280.0 France 6009 586.1 7230 665.0 Russian Federation {c) 4.600.0 4.600.0 5,500.0 4,000.0 Korea. Rep 87.5 145.6 368.9 557.0 Suaname 4,646.0 3.738.0 3.266.8 3.200.5 Italy 458.0 470 0 652.0 554.0 Venezuela 0.0 0.0 786.0 2.540.0 United Kingdom 550.0 350.4 453.7 477.3 Greece 3,286.0 2,453.0 2.496.0 2,168.0 India 233.8 297.6 433.3 475.3 Ten Countries Total 72,450.0 70,435.9 98,640.1 103,073.6 Ten Countries Total 11,695.0 11,597.4 14,405.1 14,113.5 World Total 89,220.0 84,189.0 114,850.8 111,024.2 World Total 15,297.9 15,861.5 19,251.8 20,201.1 Bauxite, World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 23,000,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 207 Bauxite, World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 28.000,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 252 CADMIUM Japan 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.6 Japar 1.1 1.9 4.8 6.6 Canada 1.3 1.7 1.5 2.2 Belgum 1.7 19 2.7 2.6 Belgium 1.5 1.3 2.0 1.6 United Stales 3.9 3.7 31 2.2 U.S.S.R. fbi 2.9 3.0 2.4 1.5 4 France 1.2 1.1 1.4 1.5 China 0.3 0.5 1.1 1.3 d U.S.S.R. fbI 2.4 2.9 2.0 1.0 d United States 1.6 1.6 1.9 1.1 United Kingdom 1.3 1.4 0.9 0 7 Germany 1.2 1.1 3.0 1.1 GeFmany 2.2 1.6 0.7 0.7 Australia 1.0 0.9 0.6 0.9 Cnina 0 3 0.4 0.4 0.6 d Italy 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.6 India 0.1 0.2 0 3 0.4 Korea, Rep 0.4 0.1 0.6 0.6 Korea. Rep 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 Ten Countries Total 13.0 13.2 16.2 13.5 Ten Countries Total 13.3 13.5 16.8 16.7 World Total 182 19.1 20.3 18.3 d World Total 17.0 17.6 20.3 18.3 d World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 540 World Reserves Life Index (years) X e World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 970 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) X e COPPER Chile 1,003.0 1.359.8 1,628.3 2,219.9 United States 1,867.7 1,958.0 2,213.5 2.674.3 Unhed States 1,181.0 1.104.8 1.497.5 1.795.4 Japan 1,158.3 1,226.3 1.446.6 1.374.9 Canada 716.4 738.6 704.5 617.3 Germany 870.8 866.8 854.7 983.1 U.S.S.R. ib) 590.0 60.0 540.0 540.0 d China 386.0 420.0 528.0 745.7 d China 115.0 185.0 375.0 432.1 U.S.S.R. lbi 1,300.0 1,305.0 1,140.0 560.0 d Australia 243.5 259.8 296.0 415.6 France 433.4 397.8 458.8 495.0 Zambia 595.8 452.6 445.0 384.4 Korea. Rep 84.0 206.6 2516 476.2 Poland 343.0 431.3 384.0 376.8 Italy 33880 362.0 474.8 467.9 Penu 336.1 391.3 3728 359.9 Belgium 303.9 309.6 3760 404.9 Indonesia 59.0 88.7 144.0 333.8 UndedKingdom 450.5 346.5 324.7 377.3 Ten Countries Total 5,242.8 5,611.9 6,487.1 7,475.2 Ten Countries Total 7,242.6 7,418.6 8,068.7 8,559.3 WorldTotal 7,739.0 8,088.2 8,814.0 9,522.6 WorldTotal 9,374.6 9,699.9 10,780.2 11,084.2 World Reserves 1994 (000 metrkt tons) 310,000 World Reserves Lde Index (years) 33 World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 590,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 62 LEAD Australia 397.4 498.0 570.0 523.8 Unied States 1.094.0 1.1417 1.275.2 1.374.8 China 160.0 200.0 363.9 376.2 Genmany 433.1 440.0 391.8 3479 United States 550.4 424.4 493.4 374.0 Japan 392.5 394.9 416.4 345.0 Peru 184.5 201.5 1877 216.7 United Kingdom 295.5 274.3 301.6 2676 Canada 349.1 268.3 241.3 1726 Italy 275.0 235.0 258.0 262.2 Mexico 145.5 206.7 174.1 164.4 France 212.8 2040 254.2 246.7 Kazakhstan icl 420.0 440.0 245.0 160.0 d Chmia 210.0 220.0 250.0 214.1 Sweden 72.2 759 84.2 112.8 U.S.S.R. (b} 800.0 800.0 380.0 200.0 Namibia 50.2 34.6 19.4 93.1 Korea, Rep 33.0 63.2 147.4 175.1 Morocco 114.8 106.8 66.9 757 Mesico 65.1 10.56 118.8 162.0 Ten Countries Total 2,444.1 2,456.2 2,445.9 2,269.3 Ten Countries Total 3,831.0 3,882.7 3,793.4 3,595.4 World Total 3,448.2 3,431.2 3,150.3 2,764.7 World Total 4,435.6 5,236.6 5,676.5 5,342.2 World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 63,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 23 World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 130,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 47 MERCURY China 0.7 0.7 1.0 0.7 United States 2.0 1 7 1.2 X Algena 0.8 0.8 0.6 0.4 Spain 0.2 0.6 0.8 X Spain 1.5 0.9 0.0 0.3 Algeria X 0.2 0.7 X Kyrgyz Rep X X X 0.3 United Kingdom 0.4 0.3 0.4 X Finland 0.1 0.1 01 0.1 China 0.5 0.4 0.3 X United States 1.1 0.6 0.6 0.1 d Brazil X 0.2 0.3 X Russian Federation (c) 2.1 2.2 0.8 0.1 d Germany 0.5 03 0.2 X Tajikistan Rep X X X 01 Mexico X 0.2 0.2 X SlovakRep li 02 0.2 0.1 0.1 Belgium 0.1 0.3 0.1 X Ukraine X X X 0.1 U.S.S.R. fbi 0.9 X X X Ten Countries Total 6.5 5.5 3.3 2.1 Ten Countries Total 4.6 4.1 4.2 X World Total 6.9 6.8 4.1 2.9 d World Total 6.9 7.4 6.6 X World Resrves 1994(000 metric tons) 130 World Reserves Life Index (years) 45 World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 240 World Reserve Base Lde Index (years) 83 290 World Resozurces 1996-97 Data Table 12.4 continued Annual Production (000 metric tons) Annual Consumption (000 metric tons) 1980 1985 1990 1994 1980 1985 1990 1994 NICKEL U.S.S.R ibl 154.2 1B51 212.0 2430 d Japan 1220 1361 1649 1649 Canada 184.8 170.0 1962 1501 Unned States 1431 1431 124.6 137.3 Indonesia 533 40.3 686 B12 Gennany 781 870 888 939 NewCaledon,a 866 72.4 850 736 U.S.S.R {bl 1320 1360 1150 64.0 d Australia 74.3 85.8 670 71 9 Italy 27 1 29 0 27 3 44 6 Dominican Republic 163 25.4 287 316 France 384 31.9 44 8 42.2 Cuba 36 6 32.1 40 8 31 0 United Kingdom 22 8 24 8 32 6 38.0 China 109 250 260 307 China 180 210 275 26.8 SoulhAinca 257 250 300 30.1 Finland 9.3 147 190 23.4 Colombia 00 15 5 184 20.8 Sweden 20 0 170 194 23 0 Ten Countries Total 642.7 676.6 772.7 764.0 Ten Countries Total 610.8 642.6 663.9 829.9 World Total 779.7 812.6 880.3 802.5 World Total 716.7 775.2 839.6 882.0 World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 47,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 59 World Reserve Base 1994(000 metric tons) 110.000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 137 TIN Ch,na 146 15.0 35.8 46.0 d United Slates 56.4 37.8 372 33.5 Indonesia 32.5 217 31.7 306 Japan 30 9 31.6 33.8 29.4 Peru 11 38 48 200 China 125 11.5 169 26.1 Brazil 6.9 265 39.1 170 Gernany 19.0 17.8 18.6 18.2 Bolivia 273 161 17.3 161 USSR. lb 250 31.5 240 14.5 d Malaysia 614 369 28.5 6.5 Unted Kingdom 99 24.8 10.2 10.4 Austraiia 116 64 74 64 Korea. Rep 18 26 6.9 98 USSR.lb} 360 135 13.0 50 d France 10.1 69 81 92 Porlugal 03 02 1.3 43 Nelhedands 50 45 6.1 79 Thailand 337 169 14.6 31 Thailand 08 06 2.6 51 Ten Countries Total 225.4 157.0 193.5 155.0 Ten Countries Total 171.4 169.6 164.4 164.1 World Total 247.3 180.7 210.8 169.4 World Total 232.5 215.4 231.9 216.8 World Reservs 1994 (000 metric tons) 7,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 41 World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 10,000 World Resewe Base Life Index (years) 59 ZINC Canada 1.059.0 1.1722 1,2032 1.0073 d UnledStates 879.0 962.0 992.0 1,1183 Australia 4953 7591 9450 9450 d Japan 7520 780.0 814.3 7231 China 1600 3000 6190 9600 d Chine 2590 349.0 500.0 6119 Peru 4876 5234 583 9 602.6 d Germany 474.0 480.0 484.0 531 6 United States 3171 2519 5432 5131 d Italy 2360 2180 2700 3361 Mexico 235.8 2754 3067 3697 d USSR 5bj 1,0300 1,0000 640.0 330.0 d Sweden 1674 2164 1641 1733 d France 3300 2470 284.0 2967 Kazakhstan{c} 7850 8100 5500 2500 d Korea Rep 680 1200 2300 2649 Korea. DemnPeoplesRep 1400 1800 2300 2100 d Belgium 1550 1690 1776 2250 Ireland 2287 1916 1665 2100 d Australia 1004 866 113.9 2154 Ten Countries Total 4.075.9 4.680.0 5,311.6 5,181.0 Ten Countries Total 4,283.4 4,411.6 4,505.8 4,653.0 World Total 6,064.4 6,125.0 7,158.2 6,895.1 d World Total 6,283.0 6,552.0 6,696.0 6,950.3 World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 140,000 World Reserves Life Index (years) 20 World Reserve Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 330,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 48 IRON ORE China 68,072.0 80.000.0 1683000 2346600 d China 120,3940 140,354.0 193.471,0 222,7710 g Brazil 114,7267 128.2510 152.300 151.000 0 USS.R 5b) 197.6400 203.7600 199.6790 168.9380 g Australia 95,529.4 97.447.0 110.5080 120,5340 d Japan 108,6930 102,2150 39.6420 113,783.0 9 Russ,an Federationr cl 244.7026 247.639,0 236,000.0 75.00.0 d United States 90,8320 64.6790 38,1400 63,039.0 g Ukraine X X 105,8660 70,0000 d Brazil 18,3830 36,4190 38,0040 44,965.0 g India 41.934.4 42.545.0 54,579.0 61,000.0 d Germany 50,0720 45,204.0 43,8090 41,350.0 9 Unnted States 70,726.8 49.533 0 56,408.0 55.6510 d Korea. Rep 9.675 0 11,709.0 22,798 0 32.001.0 9 Canada 48.751.7 39.502 0 34,855.0 30.5680 d France 37.875 0 26,606.0 24,256 0 20,199.0 9 South Africa 26.310.3 24.4140 30,291.0 29,385.0 d Belgium 15,756.0 13,353.0 20,262 0 17,975.0 g Macedonia. former Yugoslav Rep X X X 20,000.0 d United Kingdom 9,326.0 15,176.0 14,753.0 15,826.0 g Ten Countries Total 710,753.9 709,331.0 949,107.0 847,798.0 Ten Countries Total 658,846.0 659,475.0 634.814.0 740,847.0 World Total 890,924.3 860,640.0 984,048.0 988,797.0 0 World Total 890,924.3 860,640.0 979,047.0 970,422.0 g World Reserves 1994 (000 metric tons) 150,000,000 World Reseres Life Index (years) 152 World Resere Base 1994 (000 metric tons) 230,000,000 World Reserve Base Life Index (years) 233 STEEL, CRUDE Japan 111.3969 1052810 110,339.0 99.6000 d USSR lb) 150.330.0 157.1610 152,556.0 131,865.0 h United States 101.456.7 80.069 0 89.726.0 88.793.0 d Japan 79.007.0 73.377.0 99,032.0 99,149.0 h China 37.120 8 46721.0 66.150 0 88.6800 d United States 114.433.0 105,593.0 105,335.0 93,3250 h Russian Federaton ic 147.943.5 154670.0 154.414.0 58.000 d Crina 43.0050 71.428.0 68.419.0 71.042.0 h Germany 51 1470 48.3500 43.8910 37.600 0d Gemmany 44.6310 39.995.0 39.550.0 39.088 0 h Korea, Rep 8,558 5 13.5390 23.125 0 33.0000 d Italy 26.764 0 21.8800 28.489.0 26.593 0 h Ukraine X X 52.646.0 30.5000 d Korea. Rep 61500 11.310.0 21,480.0 26,190.0 h Italy 26501 1 23.7590 25.439 0 25.7010 d India 10 900 0 14.400 0 21.7000 20.300 0 h Brazil 15.3389 20.456.0 205670 255000 d France 2031590 14.812.0 18.076.0 16,588.0 h India 103840 12.1850 15.3130 18.5000 d UnitedKingdom 16.0500 14.3500 16.6900 14.600 h Ten Countries Total 509,847.4 505,060.0 548,914.0 505,374.0 Ten Countries Total 511,379.0 524,306.0 571,327.0 538,740.0 World Total 713,813.1 718,131.0 771,373.0 725,129.0 d World Total 718,921.0 720,568.0 773,383.0 732,002.0 h Sources. U.S Bureau of Mines. Word Bureau of Metal Statisscs, and Intemational Iron and Steel Instilue Noles a Producton refers to bauxhe, oonsumption to aluminum b Data referto all components of the former U.S S R. c. Data are for the country named for 1994 only Dala for prior years are for toe former U S S R. d. Data are for 1993 e A production reserve ralIo would be misleading because production data include secondary metals f Slovak Rep data for years pior lo 1994 reler to Czechoslovakia n its entirety g Data are for 1992 h. Dala are for 1991. The word resenves life index equals word reserves estimafed for 1994 divided by world proouclion for 1994 The word reserve base if e ndex equals the word resenve base estimated lor 1994 divided by world production lor 1994 0 = zero or less than half bhe uni ol measure: X = not available. For additionai il.formaton see Sources and Technical Notes World( Resouirc-es 1996-97 291 Data Table 12.5 Industrial Waste in Selected Countries Waste Generated from Suriace Treatmenl Year of Metals Biocide Waste (metric tons) Waste from Production and Use of (melfc tons) of and Plassics Production Contaimnig Clinical and Photographic Organic Paints and Resins and Est mate (metrc tons) (metnc tons) Oil PCBs Pham-aceutical Mater als Solvents Pigments Lafex Austria 1990 14.73' 450 60,300 8t 8,254 1.400 27,253 15(000 X Canada 1985 1t6.200 4,500 367.000 120.000 X X 262,00 72.700 74.000 a Czechoslovakia (lormer) 1987 2,561,174 183 565.764 X X X 20,723 13.875 131,519 Finland 1987 1.813 361 35.684 1,789 97 547 7,384 5,787 2,123 France 1990 X X 409000 17.000 b X X 285,000 b X X Germany. Fed Rep 1987 219.527 X 859.456 10,537 X X 454,489 225,525 867.015 Greece 1990 X X 25000 1800 1,500 X 21.000 6.0f0 150 Hunigary 1989 12.00 10.300 455.00,0 134 X X 49,000 11000 X Ireland 1991 7.000 5 1.000 c X X X 12500 X 45,000 Japan 1985 8,877,000 d X 3,672.000 0 X X X X X 2.894,000 Luxembourg 1990 22.200 5 3.900 48 356 29 264 540 X Nelherlands 1990 22090 1.800 27900,0 400 1.000 21 000 69.000 25(oon 20.000 NewZealand 1990 3030 1.100 186151 4 2,770 451 3.690 29,381 12.892 Norway 1988 8.00 400 55000 2.000 e X 6(000 9,000 16(00 X Poland 1990 X X 41.400 X X X X 175,900 X Podugal 1969 X X 16.473 703 X X X X X Spain 1990 X X 320(000 2200 X X 5,400 X X United States if) 1990 1,962,379 13.216 4,960.000 5,015,060 2.800.0u0 X 70,000,000 693,833 41,000,000 Source. Organ'sation for Economric Co-Operation and Development. Notes a. Dafa for resins ans atex are from 1987: PCB wasfe includes 6.500 metric tons in storage. b. Data for PCBs asr organ c solvenfs are from 1989. c. Wasfe oii is only lubricaing oi: data for organic solvents 'nclude miscellaneous chemical wastes d. Waste oil irrcludes waste solvents: waste generated trom the surface treatment of metals is toTal waste meta s: data for resins and aTex refer Io plastics ana rubber e. Dafa for PCBs refer to 1987. t. Data are frim 1989 Ihrougn 1991; PCB data are from a suney and do not represent tonal PCB wasle: organ c solvents include all organic chemicals: resrnrs and alex refer to plastics and rubber. X = not ava lable. For add ins inforrmal,on see Sources and Technica Notes. Sources and Technical Notes Data Table 12.1 hoIurs of electricity. .\lttch Ot tlit energv re- gteiVtnt ltat'tl orgmiizi/tiot s. SI-lrprottdcer Commercial Energy Production, leased frot itt c,l Ct I cOtiI Slts i (or ftrt tf a nu- poiwe r pji tts arre opcraft cLi V Orga ti Itions or 1973-93 clear or geothermtal 1p11 )la ltt a potwer pl;ailt is tom fi ies it proilttc' lectricitV forinttrnal tsled ti the tmtecliatnical work tOf rLirtiitig d't.i,t- applictations, sticit .ts fa,ctrs olrieraltifis. Source: U tite(d Ntrtitts Statistictil l)tvisivtn fits os i lts.5t in sv,fvft liiet, so ILss cttrgv is FuclwCWool, charcraol, hbtgtsst, tinil tttd (LINSTAT), 1999 Encterig .Sftf?isli'd V'ifc'a i r ik eto t h idi dCl itt the mal t iI t l,,ti IIi ile th vCgeta,l sCr1, ft I.l till foriils of solar tIt irgy (l NSlAF. New Yrork , I 995). initia Iital.'[ieeticfitieocvi oft rhterttl Ilectiti c fare xclu d I ftie rodir prorilCtitIt figurte, evu. i E]ttergv d.a1t J,UL,cttpildI by LIINSTAT, r 'ri- plant is the ririo r htwectt the atitiiut of fintl wheit tratdCL citotntiiciall. ti rik frolte rnsphoiires Ito qCestir io 1ires sitt clecrtcitt proiCttedI a1i rilc itititl elergy ()tie perajttole ( IO joullesi is the stte ts to lUtiot al governlmlientts. SUppeI12ltetltil b% SatppltLed. Althoiiglh thiis r,tritg %trics wi.iclvN 0(.(0)09478 QIlua As(f I) Brtirislt rltrtiia.l tnits) officiall natiotttal stattisti.l ltpfihlic;friotts attLI froitti counrtt tO ciiitr , adrd froiti pl;itt tO tntd is the eqtvlllt of 1 63,400) IU.N. stit Lbv data fi-till ititergoverttntetttaI otg.nizit- pl;init. I1WNST.AT .tftd orher intternation.il ctt- trLd" batrels of olloir 34,140) I.N. stati;dtrd" tions. Whett ffficial ttttttilsers arfe iOt atvail- ergo' iltgfli/a1iirtistise S tasrtnd.trd factrttorof 33 lierric routsot f coiil. The hea.r cortitit nitf vri- ahle, [INSTAT prip.tecs estititztcs basteid ont p;lCecit efficietic to estiiiiate rh fiosstl fitl otis fttcls is hbeen coiivertred ti Coill-eIuival- the proitessioiiz:l lnd coiiitiiercial liter:tture. vltie of tnittlear elcctricity and 11) perCLtlt Irti atidi thctt pct.ijiule-cLquiv.tlelt vfluciv T,l.,l produtdttiot of conuttterciall% traded effic'icil to estimlalte the fuussil fitel ;tllt of ising citontr,- tltd realr-specific cUtVrstr-ioft fLiels iicIlirles suli(l, litiftid, tnd ,gavserlts ILels geotihermal ecrtegy. Electricity prtLudcritton factors. For ex.iplc, t ItLetric ttoi Of bititiri- ;nid prittlnrt electric.it proulCutciiTr. S. d) fituels L11it .i gelnr;all1 refer rti gross prdt tC tit ( ). 't1 t cua1l pri1ted it Argettilt itas.ttiett- irtcltidelr hirtliinlls citafl. lignite. pi;t. nttd oil tor tlte Diomiinican Repuiblcc litl.tiid, France crg>' vtlue of (0.84.) ttctric ton oif stztiidird shil. liiturntd dirtculy. .iiiil fLCtls inc11 t1i (tticlttdiiig Moi.ici t, Mexico, the Litlited citl cuqIiviltit ( m tilliini kilcalloriesl. A crutic. petriileti11 andtl . tatural gas liquids. (;Is States. Zittttisi, tttd 7.Zrri1rthwe reftr toi let ticrric rtOt oti Isittir littittus corl proi.ltucd ill itclutds lafturfl gits tni orther petroleiittt proi(icti.i. Grisos proudUtctirol is tlle ,tmniilint Turkey lias a 1991 eciergy vtlut if (1.925 gnses. Ptimt.tV Vine tCiricv ts valcI.li differetntl oif elecrricity proiittLL'I h, .t getnrattigngstriont Ittrric toii ot stfttda r li itIeq iLtlivalent. Th( depettdiitg oit its soutce. Windl. tida;l. wanve hetie itttolttltlipriil 1hV stattion ttxiliaries.itd trigtttl tatiountl prodiiction dlfrta tor hitLtIlli- sOilr. J.tili hldrroclecrrtc power guner.ttion fre rrftsiorincr hosses within the sr:rioiit ;ic d- TIltSiSC;l wCre tltultiplieil h! thesI cuttCvI rs]i(tt expressed fs the rIterg! v lue otf electriciry [ I dctI d .r Net pro(ltction is tle tlttt1tit it Lf i.'c- f;.tcors .til thtr hr 29. ()16 x II) ro vicl.1 kilurwiitr hotit- = i3.6 tlilliirT jotutl1si. Nuclear rriiitvy Icl lfliTittig after tlese dedLtiCritts. prfiijotile cqLtivitl.'Irltt. (rltir fUCls were curt- ,tnci. geothirniil powr g_tner.rioniitre vtllued Typically, ilt priilttiiLt1 is 5 tii 1) percciit VUrtlr tit cutal-eqtlivAltilt ftil pLttnjttlc- oti :t fIosil-frel-avoiil.ed hItsis r.rher thtn otn Iss th;i gross lrtodilticrioru. tirgv pr-Iittc- Cqutttlent tnrtliS itl .t sittilatr ttn:zinuier. :n t niterg'-oultt basis. For exC8itiilc. 1 ntt- tioii frouit ptttttpcd srorngc is not tnc'ltIcdl in Soittli Africa refers to thu Soiitth Africa cleatr poiwer pl ant thtlt p'ri. LuLC 1,(t01) kilii- tross or n i ter elecrricit.x getnruiout. (Cistiiots Litioii: Botswanta. Levutlio, Nt- watr-hrtilrs of 'lue'tricitv provii es hthe Elect-ricirY priil(tLtiCittl ntilcs Isuthl p,hbnlc tithit. Soittli Afrii.l, tttil Swayiltnl. eqtilvalent hret;t i 0. 12.3 ltlerriC touft if i.il. tziiIe lf-protidc'er power platirs. putlic porwer .ior lttlIitiinital ittiirtnt,tion, refer to thc Howe ver,tt tr th;o ti 0i. I 2. t t c toiii oc otl plants pr olkLice e le.tricity foir tlltY Uuserv. Tlitx tlliItUl Nttioni if 9)i Fiter,V St istics Yoe%r- wouttlc- ti requirei tl protitti I ,))0 kilowatr- tlt;tt he itpctClltt l hv pmrivate, ooper:tti,c . 1- ut )k. 292 Voii-Hi/ Resources 1996-97 Energy and Materials Data Table 12.2 tiletr-ic toii of higa sse is vcalued at 0.264 toietric' U)r.iinnm cLaia retIcr to k iiowi nurani111 dle- Energy Consumption, 1973-93 tonl ofcoal equivailent. poSIts Of .1 StIt and q.1ulttv17 tha,t CoUld heC Sources: L]oiited Nations Staitistical [)iv'isioitn A p7)tajoole.11 is one cjii.idrilihon ( I 0" (olot cs. recicerc'd wirhiii Specified prodCtiotii CtoIst A 'igijocilc' is o0 bitlltoii II10) fIIIC's. -A mhg.i- r.ingc' undeiJr $80 per kiiograti Andutniider (FJNSTAT), New3 Lnork. Sla Crsls NY itiiii.i ioule is one niiililti (10'") lookls. SI131) Per kilogramn) usinig Lcurrelntlv pnot'tt (LJNSTAT, Ncw York, I 995). Gioss Nation,il i~~~inning and processing tCCIIhiiooic-s. I'roLitict (( N'P1: The WorIld Banuk, XCocr/c/ Lu-a btIcs. olit diskette (The, World Bank, \Vnshiiig- Data Table 12.3Hicii'cti knt'ti.tiit/i'/ititti coii, D.C., 1995i. Reserves and Resources of ~~~~~~~~refers if) thatr pirt ofia coijiittr vs .uuttttl gross th DCom ,erc9al Reeve ndR so reso theiirc'ticalI caipicity (thc anuonIori of ettergy (Ncnnc'riic,/eot'gs' cotsum ton/l n refers to Commercial Energy, 1993 that 550111(d c' oblitainetdc if III hI's- I lOtWee ox - .1 ppa rent coinstlm ipt ioii" an l s LiCfit ted as Sources: \Wiorld c att'ry C ite i W Fo, I 99i5 p l(ittdwcl5'i ti I)))porcl'CCIiCt elf 1Ucyo) tt lit cL:i tild dont te Csru irnctrioiis pillnd inim ii-cir fts Atnds wort't'y o/ Fn'rgy kcsmt'oro's (WE(, I. onloil.M lie exploited Usinig corlrelit tc'ctiolo(Igy anti ti c StIick iiOHi s's, 1 rd iniii 15 areinft ait1 995T). fivelrooleLtric techniiicaI lI potenti.il: The ciiiidler enirrcntiir nd CX peLtteCL I I ccI l liCi1 no it mar11inie btmnkers. otical coniisniption iiicliicles Irc at,AMn> fte uueR/ - clilriis i ttoe nh lre tt e egy frI uri solcid, liq9tiid, anld gase tts felCk, Sc W o I 'I'oro 1 ona'c'rAto d(11 )'- or 'ohqt to smalltionsea It' sel i no's. i de H C 'ctric trch lilt a plct prio.tr' el'c'titit 15C' tlt dfitituonin Ctotntries (The \W'ord Batik, W.us1hnigrott, 1ptit'iitiall ro-fers tit thc' antutt c'nergy piotential rho Sic,ros andNotesto 'Fhle 1. U. nerg U D(_ I 984). HN odr-olecrrtc installed capa1citr: of all sites whiere it is phuvvt,_ai V possthle tni COIIsLd lii fll (t per c*i iitatit I)N I18 c (;N'P P L(iIttCLI Nattiouns Statistical Duvtsionu XN- clisILsrlct d1.iiiis, sAotilti no colits Clt'rioi OUTc0-c ts c Ic iLtted sig (N P da;ta frI iii th e Wi rid STATF), /9 ) F;tcret vSllisic Yerbo M /')N- to 1(c rerttiii or id\,t ursc' tItters1 Ofi Sit Ic' Ccc- Bank andc is ai mne,tscre. of rel.ituveL enerTgy STT e ok. 9 inet eftilieiencs'. I uioltt(cld tttide r tin/rn 1e a a /c'r - EutercA rs iUcire estimiata es are ha sedol I Instatllt'd ct/tclliMy rc'ers toi the Comlitni ed oc'ni/agi' of coinsumlttiot are imiports iii ii (is 'Ip-ituts ex Il irs. tieati e v I te inpa c'iiltess 1 gei u giCa IL CCOIliii ti 0, An d techniiicalI c rite ria geinera tillg ca p,c-itv (If Is'Lclroletctrcpl ant inidi catecs th at cx p1oits aire greater th.in i in - esucsae fis grdIicociigt the iiO.itd tthe onr'.t fI)c'ticr ports. Jclgr'Ve iOf c(ilfi ideitee inl the cs ret .ut ] Itd I a - 19) Tra7ditional /fil'tS tiTC1 odes est iniIteS (If t lie tii (in t thec re'so irce. IM.u ( c1 n is-V.1 Ole 1)011C- oonscimiptci(ii of ftuelwcxlc, charco.il, uig:tsse, logtcal infoliriatiirotn, atic are rlielit jctlge,Cd OI Data Table 12.4 and nima .1( cI egett Iwa sc's.F ttI Wil i til e tech ili to,t an itt].01(1i itoic fe,lisihit lit(I their Production, Consumption, and Charcoil ecoivisotiptiotii daira are estini itatclI epiiaii Reserves of Selected Metals, 1980-9 frcini poptila ttitn datziand co111n1t rv-specif fIc PrioIveid rt'sert 's tit plaoc' represe-nt the tilt,il Str s:PokCilLIAfrI90 98, Peri ca pitt consumstitolttin ftguc es. Thlese Ipe r rCS(tIiree th it is klnioiwn tio extist in specLiftIC I199(1, nd I1994: L1.S. Biire.iR0 (I.1it tcsH I I s . c.ipira estinmates 55 etc prep:i red ho the Fi )od l oci at(ions .i td in Spec ific 11-1.i11ntitlsaii I Im inqu l B(N) 81. AMtner.tls 'lc'arhl k / 98 I 1. 9N6, And1~ ,iid Agrictilrmure 0 rganicltioit (if diei IInited ries. Prv, eoeal ceu-ac[I'ta- Vriu er ..G Irici rnig(f Naut (ions 1 FA() a sfter aii a Svc'55litent (If t he tOn lii t pic"'dec reselrves il p1lace r'l i t ti" he -ic ahntn A. 9 5 9 7 n cvia lii cosumii iin catra. D ta wer-e stip ex tractedi under- preSt-lot And expected lilti ieMasittt.l)(. 8, 18, nt alied Iv thlc nsprsc doqetonie r e'1(l[ Da ip-MS itl'IStln I 99.5, r'especris oh-). pI ted ho he a nsvoev bo 9 iteti (1011,1 rev ir OciliIIitiitenuiduru_ts s1-itli -vistttIg sIimluhlci(1oiiditJttirtt cIli1fur u 1onmnotit, Jcad coiine fro nt i fflcl.lI pu hbIic .16tii ms Vh Ban gli- tethnloh gy. A.4 hdrtinl (.1ctt orgy re siittrces, i111Lcc11, co(pper, lo,id, iiickc'l, tinl, .iiicl zinic: desh. BhUtttan, Brazi l. lie CetntralI A fricani Rc'- coini prisitug thoi se thiat arc' iio t to rrctt tI. eeol Wirici litireict if MVerull Statcstucs, SiVtc/cd Mi'!- pulih c, Chiile. Co li omhia., C(osrist Rica, C( : ,l li o iiitimc', .ire not slhioiwii in t liis tabOle. .iiAtts tsI iIrId Bturcai t ofSi ct. I St.i tislits. pa)irc , F.I Salis-ado r, The G ambitiii j1. TecIi pol . lgs ctns i h ecr Wa rc, U).K.. I)lCCLAiICt e rI99. ,I )ecf-tiltibr I 9iM) Kenyai, thie Demiiocratic People's Repttiicbi if tttdiistiry ecih hac' rlic-ir- Vii cattegories for Du)ceiitber 1985. Icily 1991), c\ogttSt 1991, Korc',u, the Reptublic' ot Korea. L.uxetmbourg. esrolilating reserves. 1 hc' WEI ittemtit s ti Sc'prtemnber I1991, 0ctLic'r 19()i. l)C'CL-111lio NllIal,miw, N-1.itiritiis. Nepnl. P;ian.mn, Pirtict- recottcule teseccitegitrbesoti ttrtlieirci'iiss-sec- 1 99, itic Juitc 1 99 51. C omutsbptiomt a 1 i.i fr gal. the foiirter Siovier Lliiioiits Sri L.ainka, Swe- IlIril reseroe concepts. [moh cotntir\ eStttnittes tItirCors: Riiskill Inform ai onuuu Services I t1l.. deii, ThtiIatic.an ti And UrUgc,iy. [sriniaiies Os, the It',"sovi ilrce ret'rv~c's ttsi ig Its t isvit iodgiiictent Rink ills -IMC1hits I 11)at/c ik, 5t? .t lz./tcot. / 9S54 FAO) if per c.ipit.i 0itt1SUtlipt inl ifll tiiiiiiif- Aiiid itirVrpretrt( I`Of otitt l ic-i Coic (Ruiskill. I otdolint I1841; kiskill iittiriatiotiin eroiiis Iftiiwvi od h.i r uiglc'cl fritnI) i). (Ir))I ceprs,. l inerci it i rv otmipa riso ns shi tII I bcii Sort icc's I itcl., S/a/cs/-c Szqcc/c/c/cn70 11 tic t/c' Ccibilc iiiete r per .~ pa p itiper te,ir ini Jo1rdano ro inid' si-itii tIiS is nve.i t inii itit t tt L -Rs' Lrs e erm - F 1_,i Ott11 cI-s of, I-rcnu rv: 41t F-iction, 1 975' .9783 CIib1C uetietr Per c.ipitaI per year ttt 1a1c's arc' 11ir fimial ieas,,rc-d qtuatititie'5 - Ruiskill, iLotidon. I cS)811 Riiskill IifOrm.ation Beiiiii. 'lOose' estttnt1C's ChiigC' IIs CNxpliirnitiii. exS Sers' :cc' I tcl .. F/he~ lot o ottiit5I kler'tiir)', -lb Simiiiiar c'titn,tes swcre preparedl fur- conuif- pliir.itiiit, and teohtioiog .vids'iiicv .ind .is ,fciittiiit 1991) (RiIskill, ILoticdot. 1991)) aci crony fmc'woodiic ncdfu toi haroai . Alrtiiiugli ecoot ic ctlitcomts oli.imige. U.S. M M N-, fioi'ral li(ocitioti- "Sorveys. NL'r- the cue rgx viilies if tcl wooci and c h arcoa F1-here is iiiintereniati oiilty Itacc epte'd s tind - ccurs' ini 199 LUS. (.oiternnilncat P rionting 01I- cart wi'delv. L'NSTAT uses Standa,rd factors if airdt) or earc'goricing cii,ls if dhiffc'reiit r.tiks. ficc, Washttngtmni. D.C., 1 989). (istttLlilptconl 0.33 inietric toni of Coial c:'c vihhsieht pc'r collie ilthtough tIle \W'FC hi.s oiscsi mil rite nttiirniii- cL.iti fur troiti tr'am rcc te:Iiriiiiii itiotc'r iif focI wood inl id (1.9)86 ni etric rioii Of t Iino . i available to clii so. AniirOr:,icite in.ikc'S LI P I roitti itd Ste'cl Inst ittInC, .Stc'el .Stalsto,atlear- cical ociciic.ilc'ir pc--r inerric- run cit ch.irc'zila. oinli~ a stii.il fr,ac-tionm (3 to) 4 percenlt) of) ciii. /cuck /Q 95 midt 1 992 (Iiirc-rii:tTtcui,1I riii ait1 Bag;u sse, pri dtic-rio(n is based oii sug.)r pri - tibraiti//cit minutis ct ni/s. IA- gi it't117C cs tAU LP t'C'l ii srito tc', BrICcscls, I ')iM 5Anid 92..1i ducriouii da.t. iii the Sugair Ye,arboct ii ot i rlic' 57 pecteeth g,,Iollh I of thec prioisc-c reserv-es ini thc' Uitediicc N.i tionis (,ottfer i-c- oi l iti1 rad ti'nd t Interui,itioni,t Sctg.r I )rg.tmi/iation. It is 'us- plIict' if 51//ttuuuicls/iltti c,/, .ildc 63 Dlscli 10hit'hir lLINC VADI), I ;N(" 1.41) ('coo- Sluttied tliar 3.26 htuetric tons of ftiel liagusso .1 percoiur oitgliilal priiscd tecO% r.iblo r'eserves. timidi1ty Ii'ciritiik 91)4 (Nes Ytluk. 1995i' 50 per-cent mois uturc' are: produci edc per tiieuric UCrud/c oial .s inicluodes I lIt Licls obtained liy kecsc'rrC'S an ti1'sreci-v hist' d,i r;: U.S. BONI,Ni mun ot extracted ct'sctg.ir. Tc' ehc'rg_- itf .1 Conducensatmion or C'xur,uctuu Initiui:l gasN. N1-Inic'rci/ tciiuuicm ctlh'.S iiir'sjic) .S LVuorli Resoterces / 996-97 293 Energy and Materials Government Printing Office, Washington. lion nietric tons. Apparent consumnption of Industrial waste data art collected by vari- D.C., I 993). iron orc was chosen because cl.ra for reported OtIs nmacts, aid definitions might varcv across The l.S. BOM publishes prodciction, ciitosumtcptiotn were otil available for a lilited c(uintries. The O)CI) generally collects ldata trade, consuniption, and other data on corn1- nlunmber of countries atid years. Because dif- LiSig qucestionnaires completed bv govern- modities for rhe liccited States as well as for fercir couiitries report differeit grides of iron Incur representatives. Comparisois should be all other COiclitries of the world (depenidiig oii ore, corsIUllptioio dtra are itot srrictly conipa- lnialLe caIctioLIsly, because (a Idefinitioits vars the availability Of reliable data). These data rable anlolig countries. Becauise world ccti- tfroii coLicttrv to counitry (h) the Iiiix of hac.- are based on inforniatioli froiti govercineicr stiniptioun of iroun ore is roitghlxv eqUcil to wocrld arlouis materials in each category also varits, niineral and statistical agencies, theI United prodILtioll, world prociltitioti dclata were Lisei (c) these dlata lo iiot incltude all industrial or Nations, andl U.S. and foreign technical antd for xvoriild ciisuiiiptioin tot als. Worldwiic h-IzairdcIis xvaste (soitte clata are based onlv trade literature, stock itventories are asstiied to he tiegligible. on sur ve ys of partictIlar seginents of art inuduis- The WVorld Burea tu of Metal Statistics pi h- ( oinsuintptioni of citili stcel is c,i c lated as try), and (d) these dat a do tiot te;asicre poten- lishes consutmprion data; on the inetals pre- appmurcnt consuim pti on. The lintern ationi a tia i tx city. sented, excluding nierci ry, i ron * .id steel. ron an cdl Stee l II sri tI`Lte converted ito icrrs acid Waste gnccr4a1i'd froin sur/aicc Ireactcment o/ Dara on the metals inicliuded were supplied by expors itOets a lasti s inccl tides acidis .c cit1 a nkba Inis metac companies, governient agenicies, rrade a facror of I .3/( 1 + t. I -c wh ere th IS the (surtacee groups, and statistical bureaus. Obviously in- d0 iiestic ro pitpin oi c crde steel tha i ot acid wastes) as xvell as otiher trlvics. Wcastc correct data have been revised, but niost daLta ciritinIiSiis carsr. Such adjustmect cvrids Icruntcl /rtnh ho icicle rccclcg -tisiec reutirs were conipiled and reported Witlblcit adjlist- disiii the xprt r iprt shir r ro the iifctring aid s isect- ment or retrospective revisions. tive tic dic thes citiles, ierblicides, acd fuiigiCides (not inciliud- The cocicitries listed replresenit the torp 1) Tlie to die/sc prodciccrc. icig those qiucaicties applied correctly, bhit producers of each niaterial] in 1 992 and the The wI vr d rescrue hast, ilt, i/ndc1 x and tlit:r incliding spills, residies, etc.). l\istt( oil ic- top rod conscitersaic 1 99 i 9 t orld/ resecrtcs i/ci iniclex are expresse(d in lL titleS ised iotor oilr coliraci iricated fiel oils, The annuJalprcadocticiuc data are the nier;cl years rerciaitring. They werc CoipItitcd by cli- xv.ste fricr i rindustrial processes. ancd waste coteno a theiiial prodz-tiore cmined ire rhe metal vicirig the 1 992 xvnrld reserve Iase anIid xvorld vegetable oils. anionrg orliers. Waste ciontain- crintent cit the tire coined for c/i/icr, lea"( esresb nmi'rcu-r)y, nickel, tii, aind ziucc. A lminuintc7 reserves t tlie respective world priditricion in PC(Bsincltides wviste froiii their nci.nifac- (bauxite) and iroi orti proditicion ire ex- rate for 1992. '[lie iciilrirvirIg assutmption is ture, fromn true scraping cit equipmiient pressed in gross weight ot ore ruined (i.e., c(inst tnr world priodcictricl at the I 92 level c ntaininiig PCBs, ainci froii certainr hydraulici mnarketable product). lronii ore produLcrioii re- iin(m capacity ffuids used in ruininig eqcipllleclt acid aircraft. ferstoironore, irolrortconicentrates;and iroii The reserve case is rhe portioii ot the cciii- C/lini-al anil pharmcac~c-'tical waste iticlrides oIre agglomerates (sinter aiid peilets). C z 'eril resotirce thar icreecs grade, itUalir'v, thick- wivste phlcrrimc;ceuticals, lucirab ory chemcic:al sumirn refers tic the prrducriccir of the rcficiec" ness. iinc depth criteria (cfineud hb Cuirrenit residices arising froii their produclrionr c1ud metal. Production Of cride steel, is defilned as Iruining acii prctiticticcc practices. The reserve preparrionic and clinicil (i.e., infectiois) the totail of usable ingots, coiitiiitioiisly ;lasr base incIcde, hotili ireiasuired .ind indicated wi ste froici hospitils, cried iI centers. cliiiics, semifinished procIICts, ad liquid ste fir reserves aind refers to thosr resocirces that are arid research instittitiois. Waste frolii the pro- castings. The United Naticins' N 1e bothi ci licti curreintly ecocrociiic arid niargilialb. ecO- Litiocc aind use of phi cm graipbuic miaterials ertude steel is rht equivalent of the terii "raw- riicic, ias wcell is somice ot thise thut are inicicludes xvaste chemicils froiti phoogriphlic steel" as used by the United States. currenivly suileconomic. processing. Waste orgai sOiclvents arise froii Annual consumption of icietal refrrs to the M-Iineral reserves are those cleposirs wh(ise dry cleaning and tiietai cleaning, frotii clienii- domestic use of refined iuterals, which iniclude qarlicrity acid grade have been detercic1tied hy cal proccesses ias well as froni tie prodLCtcrIccr metals refitted from either primary I raxv) or sarnples aind merascureen s and coirid he prof- cif riiiiiierotis nuaicicfactuired products tscich aZs secondarv (recovered) niaterials. Metali used itably recovered at the tiine if the assssriillt. paints, fcletries, thints ier,- Ici degrenrsacirs in a product rhat is then exported is coiisici- Chaniges in geologic informica tion, trthiiology. Wi stc froicci fth its mantIa /cturei'ints if iciikds ered to be consirnied by the producing ciintrv costs oit extracction and prcdicctioiii, anid prices t citccirrel picccce ca ifecttheresrseest- des. pigments, pairnts, lacclciers, acid var- rather than by the inpoptiriuig country. Dat;ll of iiied proLduLt caii affect the reservc csti- -x coiiir- nirshies. Wuiste frojii resins amid lai't cririces mercur) conisuimption must le vixvewd xvitii iartes. Reserves do nuts^rigiify that extraction frolii the prodltctioll, formulaiiiton, anld 11Kt' of caution; they include estimates Oii coiuscinip- facilities are actualily ii place andccl operaitive. resiiis latex, pliisticizers glucs, anid other ild- tion of seconda;rv ciiaterials, xvhiclc are gencr- ally not reported Ciousttniptioct of ii-on cit is Data Table 12.5 the quaLIntity of iron ore and is calcuila;ted as Industrial Waste in Selected Countries apparenit conistiuiiptioc-tlie net of prurduc- riOn plus imiports minius exports. Suich a v.clic Sources: Orgaicisationri fir Fcotioniic Cio-Op- for consicniption makes nun aliwlowzicce for eratior and Developmnenct (OEC D), lunviri)- stock iiuventories. This cai lelad to discrepan- mmemntal DaLit (OncPim nc/idcnn 1'99 3) OE)CD, cies in the published consImrncption dalta cvi- Paris, 1993). X\-astt definirions: Basel (Grin- dent in the latest report by the UNCTAD c'i'omn On th/s (Coutcicl O/ TraunsbuonLtn ,ir Intergovernmenital Group ot Experts on Iron Micceinciits if Hnllzarilcccs 'iVstes acid Their Ore. For exariple. Brazil had a "reported Disposal (LIliuted Nacti ns Elrviroiiicernt Pro- consucpticrio" (i.e., dionestic and improrted graninice, 1989) Annicx ; and Roger Bsitoue, ores connscumed in irotni acid stcel plaits, as xvil Jaunlis F. Siith, Itr. acid Das-id Wilsoii (eds.). as ores consuctired for noninttetalilUrgic;d I uses) The .Safe I)sp/osal cf Hizardoi-ics Wass's, VOk. of 23.7 ciiillioci nietric tors in 1990, coni- I (ihe Wiorld Banik Technical Paper Nic 93, pared tor an apparent coisccicption cif 40 nciii- \Washiiugtoi I)( 1,, I989i. pp. I 9-23. 294 Worldl Resoutrces 199(6-97 13. Water and Fisheries he world's marine ecosystems and the ma- improving the efficiency of water use and managing rine fisheries that they support are a vital water resources more effectively, measures that could part of the global food suppiv. An estimated markedlv increase the availability of water to meet 950 million people, mostly in developing future needs. countries, depend on fish as their primary source of protein. Yet there are continued signs that marine fisheries are in serious trouble. This chapter MARINE FISHING TRENDS: TROUBLED looks at the causes of the problems-primarily overfish- ing, hut also coastal degradation and a lack of selectivitY WATERS AHEAD in fishing techniques-and their biological and social T c consequences. It also examines the policy failures that little douibt that world fisheries are under great stress. have permitted (and in somecasesencouraged)overfish- ing and describes what must be done locally and inter- Even though 1993-the latest year for which figurs nationally toput f uslteries maonaeet loay and nire are alvailable-the global fish harvest from inland and nationally to put fisheries management on a more sustainable footing. marine sources inched up to a new record high, this Discussion then tur-ns from the vast oceans to the far seeming abundance masks a serious decline in the pro- smaller freshwater resouirces. Fresh water is unevenly ductivity of manv important fish and shellfish species. distributed over the globe, w, ith abundant supplies avail- One of the few bright spots in the global fish harvest has able in some localities and much smaller amounts avail- been the rapid growth of aquaculture, which now ac- able in others. As human use of these resources for counts for nearly 16 percent of the total harvest and agricultural, industrial, domestic, and municipal pur- remains the only consistent area of growth ie. d ean- poses continues to expand-and as evidence that manv while, the twin threats of overfishing and the degrada- water resources are being used in unlsustainable ways ion of coastal ecosystems where the bounty of the sea accumulates-water experts are raising concerns abouIt is spawned have depleted many marine fish stocks, both the future. Will some regions face critical shortages of inishore anld in the open ocean. Because the sea still water that could undermine human hiealth and eco- provides 8 of every 10 fish harvested, this biological nomic development? stress puts at risk the very basis for the future produc- This chapter looks at the expanded tise of freshwater tivitv of fisheries. (See Data Table 13.4.) resources. It examines a proposed indicator of future The social repercussions of a further decline in ma- pressures on these resources, the water stress index, and rine fisheries are expected to be severe. The fishing considers its linitations. It also reports on one analysis enterprise directlv or indirectly employs some 200 mil- based on the index that con1cludes that hy the middle of lion people worldwide. High unemployment has al- the next century, as much as 18 percenlt of the world's ready hit soiie areas such as eastern Canada, where the population could live in countries suffering from water cod fishery has been closed since 1992, idling as many scarcity. The chapter also reports on the potential for as 40,000 workers (2) (3. World Resources 1996-97 295 Water and Fisheries Figure 13.1 Contribution of Fish to Human Diet, marine fishing fleet, 6.8 percent Was cauglht Inland, and 15.5 perceti was 1987-89 raised artificially t rioutgh aquaaco.I- ture . (See Figtire 13.2I.) The discuis- North America 66 Sion below concelntares oil the marine Western Europe 97 catcl, which is by fal the nmst im1por- Africa _ I_ 21.1 t'int coillponent of the world fish har- Africa 21.1 ~~~~~~~~~~~~vest. Latin America and The mnarine catch has changed mailrk- Caribbean 8.2I N aI.lv iII size aid composition over the 7N8e45a r 45 yvears as fishiiig activity has Far East '_ 27.8 increasedl. Betwee 1 9.51) anid I 989 the Asian centrally ,1 mariine harvest Increased nearly fivefold planned economies 21.7taigh of 8h millon metric tons In World d 160 1 99, hiowever, it dropped to 84 nililion (fish as a percentage of total animal protein) mnetric tons. (Note that altihough the niia-itte hairvest peaked in 1989, the to- Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Marine Fisheries and tal g (dobal fislh hiarvest hlas coil tillUed to the Law of the Sea: A Decade of Change, FAO Fisheries Circular No. 853 (FAO, Rome, i i o 1993), Figure 8, p. 35. cinib becaLuSC ot IIC SeS n acilc.l- tiure production ,-i (si.) Fish in all forms are the source of 16 percelit of the The growth in the marine harvest reflects not otly a Nilinla I proteinl that hitma5 itscolnsume t4. (See' Figulre the steady growth in the nuiumber of fishing vessels aild 13 . .) In the developing woi-rld, whler-e fislh are a partilC- the sophistication (i their gear but also the increasing lardy imiportanit pzart of the diet aldcl suIb)sistenclCe fishiers deialid of a growing wtorld population. The increase ill still nmakCe up a sizalle potortioit of the populaXce, the fisling activity has gradually LlinderotillCed the health otf potetitial I. limall costs of the cu-reiit decliie in fishieries mny marnt fish stocks In 1993, til Food and Agri- are even greater. Tile prices of tiiost fish species contilnue culture Organization of the LJilited Nationls (FA() esti- to rise as Iiarvests shrink, makilng fisi a less affordlalle iimated that niore than two thirds of the worIdLs inlarille niealI aniioing low-iilcoile populations. Meanwhile, coni- fish stocks were being fislied at or lbCeond thic- level of tinned overfishiing of near-coastal waters ily subsistelnce itlaXinl11l11 productivitv. Specifically, FAO) Ilu-ilbers and other simall-scale fishers, aggravated by comlPetitionl show that 2.5 perceilt of the stocks for wlhici data are with larger m1echanized fishiilg vessels, leads to a cycle available are either already depleted froim ovcrfisiilit of smaller citches aild itlnreasing dalmanige to tile reso trce tin irnininent dlanger of serious dIepletion bec.ausc of l.ase. current overharvestilg. Aitotlcr 44 per-cetit of fish The fisheries threat hls led to urgent calis for reform - ing ilationinl and iiiterilaltioinal fisheries mnanagemient, Figure 13.2 Composition of the Global and there inow seetios to be a consensLus aillOng fishiilg Catch, 1993 iatiolils thatr corrctrive action is liotil possible anid desir- able. AlthoLughl the 'olu of red ucinig thie world fishling fleet i) aind strictlv reguliatiig aiccess to fisli stocks to let them Marne capture recover- or to keep tlilei healthy m1ay require painifil 77.7% econoill ic anid social adjustments, tlhe cost of failing to Marine aquaculture ntailage glolbal fisher-ics stistainallav will le far higher. Inland capture Trends in the Marine Catch 6.8% World fish) productioii coines fromil three sources: the Inland aquac ure itiarinie catcl, cotisistilng of all species hIarvested in 10iL0 coastal waters or on the high seas; tihe inliand catcl, from Source: FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO), Global Fish and Shellfish Production in 1993 (FAO Fisheries Dept., lakes and rivers; and aqLuaCulture, lbotlh freshwater anild Fisheries Inormation, Data and Statistics Service, Rome, March ioari ne. Of thle totalI gl obal f ti sh] ha rvest of tO I 01i i 11oitOn 1995), Table 1, p. 2. iimai-iiie. Of to e totn l global fsli hanr vestofIO e 1r ii[loi the Note: Catch includes fish, molluscs, and crustaceans. lietric toots In 1993, 78 percent WaS caUght by the 296 Worldi Resources f 996-9)7 Water and Fisheries stocks are being fished at their biological liiiiit, a Figure 13.3 Nominal Catch of Atlantic therefore ire also ii dalnger ofoverexploitition if fishing Cod, 1 3 presstires conitinule to imonlt "I". Cod, 1950-93 Regionally, overexploited species rLin the gamiuit frolm1 (million metric tons) fish that inha bit the continental shelves (and their 40 slopes) such as halibuL, haddock, cod, hake, redfishl and 35 orange rotiglly to migratory open-ocean species suchl as 3.0 blullefill tUnllil lbacore, and swordfish. In warirler wa- 2.5 ters, shrimip lave been heavily affected, as have miany 2.0 species of reef fish. Even mnany shark stocks, whicil unltil 1.5 receitly were conisidered all undesirable bvcatch, have 1.0 experieniced sharp drops beCaLuSC of ovCrharv-Vestin1g and 0.5 other irresponsible fishing practices sutcl as finning" in 0 which the fins are removed an7 the rest of the catch is 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 19901993 discarded (in) (i i. Source:FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO), Overfishiling hias been ilmore severe in somilc regio ns The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (FAO, Rome. 1995), than in others. Fo- exaniiple, the northierin Atlaniitic has long been subject to \erv high fishing pressures, CaLusig steep declines in the stocks of grouiidfish-particularly close to shore. The snmall-scale fishing sector emlploys cod-that had sustained the fisheries thele for centuries many iore ple than the rest of rhe fishinig ind ustry Atlantic codl c-atchles todayv ha ve p1tinged to Onet' quarter and, beCaulse access to the sea's reSOL rces is generally of their size in the late I 960s i 2k (See FiguOre 13.3. )In opn to 1ll, fishing is freqiuently a job of last rcsort in 1992, cod stocks in the westerin Atlanitic were foulid tO rural aireas withi few emiploymenilt alternatives. Small- be at the lowest level ever mneasuIred-alb)ou1t IO percniit scale fleets and suIb)sistence fishers are thus responsible of their long-terem averaige i;..l The nlorthwvesternl Pacific for roulgIlIV half rihe tor31 world landings, aid iuost of off the Asian coast is another site of particularly heavy these fish are used locally for food Unfortunely; fishilg. withi 100 percenit of the assessed fishi stocks coastal yolnlation growth and a lack of other elploy- exploited at or bevond sustaillablIC lillits ' 14). iicir opportunities ofren resullt in a coiitinualI increase AlthougIl not all regions are fished this intensively in the lumber of boats working a given. area despite and iiot ;all impnrtait ilarineI stocks are overdfished declines in the iiea rshore caitch. The problemn of coastal aii 11t ll]iiipotait iiiriiestoksareovi-fshci ll Overfishi ug i's somletimles iiadle worse wheni indUstrial any single region, heavy fisilnigi pressLur is ilore tie rLle fishi ls s as nip trawlrs work closto than the exceptrion worldwide. In 6 of I I miajor Atlantic shore iid cossetc wltli snills fleets , isk coct ad Pcific fishin regis, o han 6 perceishore nd copet ith s ll-sac fets S i commercial fish stocks either have been depleted or aeIt' beiln'g fished to their linilits (Isi. Open Access, Overcapacity, and Subsidies One consequcice of the overexploitation of sonme Overfishing is a prime Cailise-thoitgh not tIlc only marine species has been a progressive chanige ill the cauise-of the decline in iimiariie fishicel-s. At the heart of copipositioil of the global catch to species of lower the overfishing problemi is the issueofopen access. Fish econ1om1ic va ilIe. As the higlh-valuie fish species suCIl .as stocks have generallv been coInsidercd comn11iil0 protp- cod, haddock, and hake that OlnCe madileIt uP tihe ullk of erty open to exploitation by anyone witih a boar anid the conimiilercial catch have declined, the catch of fish gear. sLich as sardines, anchiovies, ald pilchard-all siiallI As long as fish stocks are plentiful and deniiid is species rhat are low on the food chaini-hals increased. higi, ecoilioilcics dictates thait it will be profitable to These lower-value fish, whiclh have priovided nearly all invest in fishing, and the number of fishers exploitinig of the growti in nmiarine harvests since the 19Os, alrc the resoLirce will CoitMiltc to increiase. Unforrunately, often processed into fish oil and fish mieal, whicih, strong demiand-or goverinimieint subsidies icalilt to en- amiionig orher tmsCs, sce-ve as a foocd sotirce for aqLiactil- courage developiment of the fisiliig industry-mnay keep ture. Currently abotir 30 percenit of the glohbal catch the fishing eniterprise profitable even after the resource goes to such non food Li ses 1(.) (I 7.. base begins to erodC. Indeed, as 1t11g as enttigh1 fish are Overfisliling is not only diLe to large-scale industrial caught to cover operating costs, there will be little fishing fleets but also is caused bs smnalIl-scale fleets anid econiomnilc inceintive to stop fishilng tilCe a vessel is luilt. suibsistence fishers in the developing world who fish Eventually, hiowcvcr, greater and greater effort will be World Resources 199(-97 297 Water and Fisheries been used with little consideration of the long-term Table 13.1 Size of the World's Fishing damage to the resource that they foster or the potential Fleet, 1970 and 1992 alternative uses that these funds miight have in national Gross Register development policies X25) (ih) (7 )-. Tonnage Percent (000 metric tons) Growth, Coastal Degradation and Discards Region 1970 1992 1970-92 Asia 4,802.3 11,012.5 129 Overfishing is not the onlv factor conitributing to the Former Soviet Union 3,996.7 7,765.5 94 current decline in fisheries. Enviroilnenital degradation Europe 3,097.4 3,018.3 (3) of coastal areas that is caused by filling and development North America 1,076.9 2,560.0 138 South America 361.5 816.5 126 and by pollution from industrial, municipal, and agri- Africa 244.0 699.1 187 cultural sources perhaps represenits an even greater Oceania 37.1 122.3 230 long-ternm threat to aquatic prodtictivity. C onversion of World 13,615.9 25,994.2 91g Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations wetlands and pollution of critical areas sLich as estuaries (FAO), The State of the World's Fisheries and Aquaculture (FAO, and havs, wlich provide spawiniig, feeding, and nursery Rome, 1995), pp. 49, 51. areas for many imlportant marine species, are proceed- ing rapidly in coastal areas as demilographic shifts bring needed to catch the dwindling fish supply, and revenues a larger share of the populationi to the coasts ( 281(29). (See will fall; by this time, however, there will also he a Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on NatLiral Resources.") serious decline in fish stocks (21b1 (2. The harmful effects of coastal environmental (legra- In the I 970s, most nations extenlded their jurisdiction dationi are often felt first liv subsistence fishers and over coastal waters to 200 miles (322 kilometers) from small-scale fleets because they ply their trade nearest the shore, and many nations began to focus on developing shore. In the Philippines, for examiple, reef fish account their new national fisheries by subsidizing construction for about 20 percent of the iinslhore catch, much of which of fishing vessels and fish-processing facilities. The re- is taken for subsistenice use. However, silt from unsound sult was significant overcapacity in the world fishing agricultuiral and logging practices, industrial anid do- fleet-particularly the industrial fleet. Over the past two mestic pollutants, and destructive fishing techniques decades, the size of the industrial fleet has expanded at such as the use of dynamite and poisons have cominilled a rate that is twice as fast as the rise in catches (2i. (Table to damage some 70 percent of Philippine coral reefs, 13.1 shows that from 1970 to 1992 the size of the leading to a loss of reef productivity. Becatise Filipinos fishing fleet more than doubled in every region but derive nearly half of their proteini from fish, this has Europe and the former Soviet Union.) Today, the global dealt a blow to local self-sufficiency in many conimuni- fishing fleet is at least 30 percent larger than it needs to ties o1n. be to fully harvest the available resource (2 ;. This Another reason for the poor condition of global fish overcapacity, combined with powerful new technolo- stocks is that some 25 percent of the aninual marine fish gies that have made each new boat more effective at catch is simply discarded because it is considered unus- finding and landing fish, has provided a recipe for able. Discards include riot onlyv undersized fish of the overexploitation (241. target species but also low-valLue and nonitarget species. Not surprisingly, such overcapacity-and the overin- The lackl of selectivity of current fishing practices and vestment that has enabled it-has led to large economic fishing gear leads inevitably to a high level of incidental losses in the global fisheries sector for more than a catch of jurvenile fish or other fish without commercial decade. FAO estimates that total expenses for the world value, as well as conisiderable numbers of invertebrates, fleet exceed total revenues by nearly $50 billion per year. marine marinials, arid marine birds. However, since the industrial fishing sector is at once an FAO estimates that from 1988 to 1990, an average important emplover, a food soLirce, and a source of of 27 million metric tons of fish per year was discarded export earnings, national governiments generally try to (not includiing discairds from1 subsistence fishing, which make up this deficit through suIbsidies such as invest- tend to be ntich lower), whereas the usable harvest ment credits, tax holidays, low-cost loans, and outright averaged 77 million metric tons. This means that for grants. The magnitude of these subsidies and their every ton of fish or shellfish landed for human corIsump- nearly ubiquitous use in both developed and developing tion, one third of a tori of fish or shellfish is discarded nations have been a key factor in the current decline in into the sea. Nor does this inclurde the incidental take of fisheries. UnfortuLnately, such subsidies have historically marine mamimnials such as dolphinis, whales, and sea 298 World Resouirces 1996-97 Water and Fisheries turtles, which is conservatively estimated at several Figure 13.4 Discards as Percent of hundred thousand individuals annualIV (31). Of all fishing activities, shrimp trawling is by far the Overall Catch, 1988-92 most indiscriminate and wasteful, accotinting for more (percent of overall catch) than one third of all discards. In some cases, shrimp mav yo a make tip as little as 10 percent of the catch from a shrimp trawl, with the test of the catch being discarded or sold 80 - for fish meal (32 )3i. (See Figure 13.4.) 70 60 Discarded fish and other creatures often have very 50 i high mortality rates. Wheni juvenile fish of a commer- 40 cialiv valuable species are discarded and subsequentiv 30 die, the resulting reduction in potenitial future catchi can 20 - translate to billions of dollars of forgone revenue each 10 _ year, to sal' nothing of the effects on the health of fish Total Catch Fish Crustaceans Squids stocks n4n Decreasing the level of global discards is considered - Discards J Landedcatch essential if global fish harvests are to be sustained at or Source: FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO), near prese nt leveels. FAO believes that a concerted effort "Bycatch Database: A Global Assessment ot Fisheries Bycatch and selective gear and fishing practics .Discards," on diskette (FAO, Rome, 1994). to develop more selective gear and fishmg practices Note:Overallcatchequalslandedcatchplusdiscards. could cut discards by as much as 60 percent by the vear 2000) his. rolling suchi efforts to shrink the industrial fishing sector has not been popular so far with the World Bank and Managing Fisheries for Recovery and other development banks, despite the economic argu- Sustainability Inents in its favor (m0 (39) (40) (41). Managing world fisheries so that thev return to health Even if the global fleet is successfullv downsized, and are harvested sustainabiv will not be easy. Stuies many experts believe that sustainable management of suggest that a reduction of 30 to 50 percenit in the global fisheries will require some solution to the prob- intensity offishilng-the so-called fishing effort-will be lem of openi access. Otherwise, the fishing effort may reqtiired, which will inevitahl, translate inito the retire- nlot be reduced enough or in a manner that promotes ment of a large percentage of the global fleet i6.. the conservation of stocks. This downsizing is already proceeding in an ad hoc Determining effective and equitable mechanisms that manner in eastern Canada, the New England states, and can be used to limit access to fisheries is certainiv the the former Soviet Union. More deliberate programs to most difficult and contentioLs problem facing fishery retire excess capacity-in the form of buvouts of some managers todav. Some of the options include license fishing vessels, for example-will be necessaryr in most limitations that restrict the number of boats allowed in cases. These programs should not simplv shift excess an area; economic disincentives such as harvest taxes or capacity from one region to another, as has recentiv user fees for fisiing; cooperative or community manage- occurred in Canada, where some 65 Canadian vessels ment of a defined fishing territory; and individual tratis- from the closed cod fishery were sold to other counitries, ferable quotas, which grant fishers exclusive harvest including Argentina, Chile, Namibia, New Zealand, rights to a portion of the sustainable catch of a given and South Africa (37). stock (with the size of the sustainable catch being set by Reducing or adjusting subsidies will also be impor- government regulators) 42). tant in discouraging new entries and retiring older Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) are being tried vessels. Analysts suggest that redirecting at least some in several fisheries around the world with some success. of the current fishing subsidies into buyout programs to Advantages include relief from the derby-style rtush for shrink fleet overcapacity could pay handsome economic fish that occurs tinder more traditional management dividenids as national fleets become more efficient and schemes, in which fleets must compete for limited stocks fish stocks are allowed to produce at their maximum during a limited fishing season. More important, be- level, raising harvest levels and profits. Short of this cause these quotas can he bought and sold as private approach, however, large-scale programs for so-called property, they should offer a greater incentive to protect disinvestment in fisheries may be difficult to finance, the resource so that the value of the quota can be particularly in the developing world. The idea of bank- maintained in the future (43). World Resources 1996-97 299 Water and Fisheries Tlhis market-based approaci, which in essence estab- A growinig conicerin on the part of fishing nations, lishes property rights to a resouice thlat has traditionaliv howevet; is the condition of fish stocks that migrate been managed as a public good, has potential disadvanl- between the territorial waters of nations or that roam tages as well. One is the diffictIlty in fairly apportioning the high seas. It is generalily acknowledged that these the ITQs at the outset anid in ensiring that they are not stocks niust be maniaged jointly if they are to be coni- accumu1LIlated over time h a snill group of owilers whio served. This strengthciniig of international resolve was theni monopolize the resource. Critics fear that big demonstratcd in 1992, whienl a United Nations resolu- industry boats with miore financial resources will eveni- tioll hanning the use of long drift nets on the high seas tually bLuy up the quotas, squeezilig ouit smallcr opera- was adopted. This ban has been implemented success- tors. fully worldwide, with very few exceprions (49) (SO). Also, ITQs mIay actualIly increase the discaird problem More receitly, U.N.-sponsored negotiations resulted by encouraging high-grading, a practice in whlicll fishers in a binding international agreement on the joint man- throw back smiialler, previously caught fish anild replalce agenlent of fishi stocks that cross national boundaries or themil wvith larger, higher-valL e fish Caught later. A f;inLal that migriate in the open occails. The text of the U.N. criticism is that managing fisheries b using ITQos re (ionference on Straddling Stocks and Highly Migratory qiuires a well-developedi svstemil of illonitorinig the catci Fish Stocks agrceimenit, which was formally adopted in to malke sure that fishers respect their quotas, as well as D)ecember 1 995, calls for a conservative approach to an ability to inake scientificallv sotiind estinmates of the fisheries manamgement-dubbed the "precautiolary ap- sustainiab le catch. B4oth of these activities require coil- proach--that er-rs on the side of protecting fish stocks siderable technical aId financial resotlucesS ot0 avlilallic rather than simply responidinig to declines once thev in every nationl '44' 14il. occur. The agreement requilres that special efforts lie In situationls in which subsistene (I small-scale fish- iniade to ilmonitor fishi stocks, and it strengthens inspec- ing is the normi, as in many iisliore waters in developing non and reporting requirements for boats ,sl (52) This nlatiolls, c(illlill tv-based management imiav be an an agrecillet will be ai official companion document to - ~~~~~~~~~the UI.N. Convention oni thle Law of the Sea, which was propriate ilmeaLis of restrictiig access. (Comillillitv- based nlaniageileilt involves tile formial a location ll\' n i egotiated Iil 1 982) ind has become conveitional law ilationial governileilt of certain defined fish resources to for nearly all fishilg nations local c(Inlilltiilities, wilici theil becomne responsible for At the saim tiie, in 1995, LAO adopted the volun- tary C'ode of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, wIhich furtlier allocatiilg access to the resource anlOIlg ComilluyII- nlitv meiilbers. Suchi systeiiis ofteil follow the lines Of sets fothi princilples anti stanidards for fisheries manage- traditionlal c(°Iillnuilal lillanaigemeilt of fishing rights Iienlit and developilleit. The Code addresses six genieral trdtoia oiiiuilmaaeet ffsi-grgt themles: fishieries illaniageniilet, fishinig operations, practiced by nianv cultures over thie vears, allowiiging local coiltrol of the resource withiln specified areas and aquacuirure deveiopmilt, iltegranion of fisheries into Coarlstll area ma nag,emnemt schemes, postharvest prac- ltimits. here overf isliilg has alargea occurred and thre rtices, aild trade aild fisheries research. Along with this inumber (If fishers is too large, thils niav have to be CoeFA isdvlpnO(tCealdgueiesI aCtonlalied15 rtraldeeloileli Trog ;listilt ffe (odle FA() is developinig niore detailed guideliiies to accomnpanied byv rural developiineilt proigranls that (ofer lbrt I ah ril I h (Iei ih I h altrilti\ enploilentfordis laedfisers44(l 1-l elaboralte oin each article of the C'ode in light of the precautionary approacil. FAG inteinds for these guide- Iines toI help the siginatories of the Law of the Sea, International Cooperation in Fisheries parriCLularly dlevelopilig niations, to fornlulate policies Management and eilact laws that xvill sLIpport sounld fisheries nian- Although i(iost of the burden( of manlacging fisheries must agelnleilt 4i 5). be shoUldered by iiidividual coastal natiolis acting il their owi1 territorial waters, tiherc is also a significailt Fish for the Future role to be played by the internaitiolial coiLmuiLlity. The Eveni the illost enlightened coliservatioil measures will high seas-the open ocealns that extetid beyond the take time to briilg fish stocks back to health. Manv of 2()(-mile (.322-kilomneter) Exclusive Econiomilc Zones the iiiore valuable fish species are lonig-lived, and restor- claimlled by coastal natio(ns-ate still a co.mimoil re- iig thicir numbers imyv take a decade or longer. Although sotirce and have suffered fromi a lack of internaotional this Will undoubtedly catise painful dislocations in the illailagemneiit colltrols A4N. As a result, niliy fish stocks fishing industry ani iIn local villages worldwide, the such as Alaskan pollack in the Berilng Sea and turblot il bellefits are expected to justifv the effort. Researchers the westeril Atlantic are gradually being depleted. estimilate that rebluildling healthy marine fish stocks 300 Wor1(d Resources 199(,-9T, Water and Fisheries could add another 20 million metric tons of ligi-valuc more effective minageiiielet of water resources, this fish to the annual harvest i s'. could pose scrious long-terill obstacles to sustailnahle In the meantime, as marine fish stocks recover, global developiment in nllilanv COUIltr ies '.4 (6i) (st ) (s',7. demilanid for fish is expected to continue its steady The supply of fresI water in a regioni is limilted by the growth as the world's population expands. FAO w arns dyniamilcs of the hydrological cycle, in which sea water that maintenance of the currenit per capita fish coni- evaporates andl falls over land as precipitation. The sumption of 13 kilograms per year in the future will renewable supply of water is defined as the surface require a conitinued increase in global fish harvests. In water rulloff fronm local precipitation, thle inflow fromii the near term, given the state of niarine stocks, this other regions, and the groundwater recharge that re- additional demand will likely Ie met through increases plenishies aquifers. BecaLuSC witer- can, in principle, be in aquaculture productioni rathier than larger miarinie reused miianyv times, the availability of waiter for hurman catches 157 58). luse depends as niucli on how it is usCd anld how water Aquaculture is already an important resouirce, par- resotirces are inanaged as On ally absolute lInitis. Witll ticularlv in Asia, where it contributes ieariv ole quarter proper treatment for example, the water returned to of the total fish supply. FAO projects that globzal rivers by upstrealm Lscisis,alsoIavailabletodowinstreamii aquacuIlture production will need to douIble over the uisers. Nonetheless, the renewable supply is an iinpor- next 15 years to keep pace with demand. Tlis groxvth ralit constraint to the sustainable use of water withiin a rate is not without its owin environimiienital risks, howv- region. Apart from human Luse, water is also nceded to ever, since aquaculture is a kinowin souirce of water suistain the ntural ecosystlilsfoundc i twetllnds rivers pollution, wetlands loss, and mangrove swam)p desrrtic- arid the coastal waters into vhich they flow. tion (59) ,o'. PuLImping water froi underground ap.i ifers faster Even a rapid, environmentally rational expansion of than they can be rechargcd or diverting so mu1Lch water aquaculture can only act as a comiiplemenlt to better from werlanlds or rivers that freshwater ecosystemis fail managenient of marine fisheries. Stccessful imarine fish- are clearly unsustainable practices 'T avoid conflict eries conservation measures are necessary not onlv to where water resources are shared upstream and down- allow a larger global catch but also to keep fish diversity stream users must agree on hov water is to he allocated high, to reduce impacts on marine ecosystemis, and, Unfortunately, exampls of unsstaile water uses ultimately, to maximize sustainable employment in the can bc fouund In virtually every regioii-in the depletion fisheries sector SI1] of the Ogallala aquifer iIn the United States and similar oferpullmpilng of other aquLifers in parts of North Africa, the M-fiddle Last, India, and Southicasr Asia; ill the diversionl of river water fromi thec dyinig Aral Sea in FRESHWATERTRENDS: WILL FUTURE Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan and fromiicthe Florida Ever- NEEDS BE MET? gladles; in the excessive withdrawals that are Caulsing intrusinils of sea warter illto deltras and coastal aqumifers Despite improvements in the efficieiicv of wiater rSe in C Chin \1iet Nam, and the Culf of Californi; in the manv developed countries, the demand for fresh water- tiuncontrolled flowv of sew-age an]l fertilizer ruiioff that is has conitinued to cilm as the world's population and hastenlilng eutrophication ill some reliperf-ate andl tropi- economic activity have expanded. From 1940 to 1990, cail lakes and many coastal seas; and in the potenitial for withdrawals of fresh water froml rivers, lakes, reser- coilfliCt over vvarer in areas such as the Nile River delta, voirs, undergroulid aqLulifers, anld other sources in- the Middle East, and Southeiast Asia. creased bv more thani a factor of four (Ž2). Increases in irrigation and, to a lesser extemit, indulstrial uses of wvater have been the largest sources of tills growvinig deiaLd. Gauging Future Pressures on At the same time, contaniniationi by pollutants has Water Supplies seriously degraded water quality in niany rivers, lakes, If water suIpplies are tfillite a1nd1 water uLsC is risiig, whiat and groundwater sources, effectively decreasing the cLian be said aboutO futUre pressures On wvater sutpplies? In supply of fresh water is .. The result has been increaLsed addition, given the enorimiotis geographical variablilitv pressure on freshwater resources in iiiost regions of the ic water resources, whiere might these pressures be iost world and a lack of adequate supplies in sonic localities, severe? One approach to answering these questions is Water experts aiid international instittitions warn that the Conicepr oif a wUater stress zIdI.' meCasured as the water shortages could becomile criticll in soniie regions. annual renewaible water resouir-ces per capita that are In the absence of signififcant chaiiges in policy' and far available to mieet needs for agriculltnre, induistry, and kk'Arhl. RKicScs( t s 1)99()"- 301 Water and Fisheries have adequate water resources may have arid regions Table 13.2 Water Stress Index, 1990 where drought and restricted supplies are conmmon. Water Resources Such regions include northwestern China, western and Countrya (cubic meters per capita) southern India, large parts of Pakistan and Mexico, and Algeria 690 Bahrain 184 the western coasts of the United States and South Amer- Barbados 195 ica (74)7 (76). Thus, the actual population subject to Burundi 654 water shortages mi,ght be even larger than these esti- Cape Verde 587 mates. Israel 461 Such projectionis must he interpreted cautiouisly. Jordan 308 They do not necessarily imply a future shortage of Kenya 635 available water, since that depenlds on actual use pat- Mualwt 961 terns and on the efficiencv with which water is used (and Malta 85 reused). Burundi, for example, is potentially a water- Qatar 103 scarce country accordinig to the water stress index, but Rwanda 902 it uses little warer for irrigation at present and so has Saudi Arabia 284 Singapore 222 abundalit supplies for other purposes. NMoreover, effi- Somalia 980 cient management and modern technology can stretch Tunisia 540 even scarce water supplies much further. Israel, for United Arab Emirates 293 Yemen 460 example, supports its population, Its growing Industrial Source: Adapted from Robert Engelman and Pamela LeRoy, Sustain- base, and intenisive irrigation with less than 500 cIibic ng Water: An Update (Population Action International, Washington, meters per person per year. Even so, Israel's present D.C., 1995). Note: a. Includes countries with annual renewable water resources water use inay not be sustainable, since it is overdrawing of less than 1,000 cubic meters percapita per year. water froim its aquifers and depends on the West Bank for 25 percenit of its supplies ( 7. National political and domestic use. Oin the basis of the past experiences of econiomliic choices, often driven by market forces, can moderately developed counltries in arid zornes, renew- also alter water use patterns. In Tunisia, for instance, able freshwater resources of 1,000 cubic meters per the needs of the coastal areas, which support the bulk capita per year have been proposed as anl approximate of the nation's tourist trade, increasinglv cause water to benchmark below which most countries are likely to be diverted froin agricultural uses and force agricuiltujre experience chronic water scarciry oil a scale sufficient toward better irrigation efficienicy 7S). If the water stress to impede development and harm human health i6846 index, however, is seen as a measure oif the potential Bv this measure, some 20 countries already suffer from pressure on water supplies, it suggests that maniy coun- v,ater scarcity (-0))17i). (See Table 13.2.) tries will have to manage water resources far more The water stress index cani also provide a rough guidle efficiently than they do now if they are to me7et their to future water scarcity. Population Action Interna- future needs. tional has projected future water stress index figures for Several additional factors contribute to the potential 149 countries using U.N. population projections and for regional water shortages by limiting the available holding renewable water resources constant. It projects supply. Among the most serious is water pollution from that the numiiber of people living in water-scarce couini- a wide variety of industrial, municipal, and agricultural tries will rise from 132 million in 1990 to between 653 sources. Although there has been significant progress in million (with the low population growthi projection) controlling water pollution in many developed nations and 904 million (with the high population growth over the past three decades, pollution has continued to projection) in 2025. By 2050, the population projected rise in most developing nations and remains high in the to be living in water-scarce countries will rise to between transition economies of Russia and Central Europe, 1.06 billion and 2.43 billion, representing roughly 13 posing a threat to human health and to the health of to 20 percent of the projected global population (7.) -73). aquatic ecosystems (791. Onle factor is the rapidly grow- Africa and parts of western Asia appear- particularly ing and industrializing cities of the developing world, vulnerable to increasing water scarcity, but the list of where pollution control is still in its infancy and domiles- potentially affected countries includes nearly one third tic sewage and industrial effluents have left man1y urban of those studied and includes counitries in four of the rivers and groundwater sources heavily contaminated. five major conitinenits. (See Table 13.3.) In addition, This widening shadow of polIltion aroind major cities nationis not included in the index because overall they has important implications for urban development, ex- 302 World Rcsoturces 1996-97 Water and Fisheries acerbating the alreadv difficult task of extending basic water and sanitation services to the urban poor so,. (See Table 13.3 Projected Water Stress Chapter 2, "Urbani Fnvironment and Humani Health," Index, 2050 and Chapter 3, "Urban Impacts on Natural Resources.") Projected Water Resourcesb Country' (cubic meters per capita) Afghanistan 697 - 1,021 Managing Water Resources Algeria 247 - 398 More Effectively Bahrain 72 - 104 Barbados 129 - 197 Fortunately, maiv opportunities exist to improve the Burkina Faso 711 - 1,018 efficiency of water use. Irrigation svstems, for example, Burundi 160 - 229 Cape Verde 176 - 252 often perforni poorlyv wasting as muchi as 60 percent of Verde Comoros 341 - 508 the total water puimped before it reaches the intended Cyprus 717 - 1,125 crop (8i. Moreover, where drainage is poor, misapplied Djibouti 6 - 8 irrigation waters are a major source of soil waterlogginig Egypt 398 - 644 Ethiopia 477 - 690 and salination, which affect an estimated 80 million to Ghana 816 - 1,105 110 million hectares of arable land worldwide 82). More Haiti 505 - 679 efficient technologies-including drip irrigation svs- Iran 581 - 891 tems, lining of irrigation canials I more efficient sprin- Israel 192 - 300 klers, and better irrigation timing and volume Kenya 141 - 190 control-are beginninig to come into limited use in a few Kuwait 38 - 59 countries and have proved effective at reducing water Lebanon 768 - 1,218 use. Since agriciultujre is responsible for some 70 percent Libya 213 - 276 of global water use, the potential for water savings Madagascar 683 - 911 through greater efficiency in irrigation1 is enorimious (s.) Malawi 236 - 305 Leaking collection and distribuitioll systems also plague Malta 57 - 88 Morocco 468 - 750 municipal water systeniis and provide another avenue Mozambique 948 - 1,337 for sigilificant water savings. (See Chapter 5. "Urban Nigeria 763 - 1,116 Priorities for Action.") Water usage per unit of indus- Oman 163 - 235 trial production has dropped significantly in the devel- Peru 756 - 1,125 Qatar 47 - 68 oped world and in a few developing coliitries in the past Republic of Korea 964 - 1,488 two decades. Experienice in developed nationis also indi- Rwanda 247 - 351 cates that controlling industrial pollution has a secon- Saudi Arabia 67 - 84 dary beenefit of actually reducing the quantity of water Singapore 159 - 221 Somalia 223 - 324 used per unit of niduIstrial outpIt. ThuLIS, pollution con- South Africa 473 - 658 trol offers one potent and cost-effective means of ad- Syria 454 - 667 dressing urbani water- problenms (84). Tanzania 728 - 964 Togo 737 - 1,081 Although increases in efficiency have been demon- Tunisia 221 - 363 strated in both agricultuire and induIstry in a few coun- Uganda 759 - 1,134 tries, they have not yet been widely adopted. A central United Arab Emirates 120 - 171 reason has to do withi the economics of water and the Yemen 90 - 127 Zimbabwe 715 - 1,061 failo re to adopt and inmpleinent appropriate water man- Source: Adapted from Robert Engelman and Pamela LeRoy, Sustain- agement policies. A detailed discussion of tlhis sub ject is ing Water An Update (Population Action International, Washington, hut some central pointsD.C., 19951. beyond the scope of this chapter, but some central points Notes: a. Includes countries with projected annual renewable re- can be mentioned here. sources of less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita per year. Water is often wasted beciuse is underr'riced ~ b. Figures are given for both the low and the high United Nations Water Is ofteil wasted because It IS underpriced (ss). population growlh projections. Direct and indirect subsidies (especially for agricultural use) are still common in both developed and developing countries. Removing such subsidies and letting water water-adminlistratively or through market mecha- prices rise can provide incentives for conservationi anld nisnis such as trading among users-can also reduce for the investmenlts needed to spread more efficient distortions and inefficiencies. Charging user fees for technologies. Moreover, water often historicallv allo- uLrban and industrial users that fully reflect costs not cated for agriculttiual ulse may have much higher value only can provide incentives for efficient use but also can in urban amid industrial uses. Thus, reallocating help to finance the needed infrastructure to expand World Resouirces 1996-97 303 Water and Fisheries services to neW Users. MiUnicipa friteS III virtuially all lackthle f'i nai c'il , ilafiageria-I,ai,id (poI rtca! capaicityt regoions arec also ex pe ri nieiiti iog withi p rivat iza- Iiiliplem-entr themi. In developed Coii itries, to(,o.ippiisi- tion-trailsferriing mniiiag-ement (if water systems to pri- tnon to lcuing, Sn bSid leS or iilipcliemeitiiig i nlproved v-a te firtills, al.i ton iflDTOiS utilities, or watere ulser poilicies ofteni saips tile poilitical will for reform i n i aissociations Ini hopes of iilliproving imanagemlent s.Onl s10 90ll. a tegioliaii scale, miore attention ileeds to be giveni to These attitudeS nllaV be cllailgiing slowlv as water manag ing whiole water-sheds ot river basin1sli aii iite- suIpply problemis biecomie miore pronlounced. lIn receilt gra'zted imanner. years, International organizations have inicreaised thieir Water problems hiave ofteii been seen ais local is- efforts to address water miailaigenleilt problems, provide Suies, aild therefore they have somietimies niot garnered basic water ser-vices, anid identify the need to coopera- s Ifficeiilt aittenitioni by' policx'illakers at a na tionalI or rivl y mianalge shared watershedS anld river basiilS. iliterilatoiilla level. Eveni whiere coi)illpreheiisive wa ret Nonletheless, inuore illtiLst be done i Ii Iiai eeds for- plans exist, mnany (if the least-developedl C(ltiiltries tel a ble SuI-ppleS of water are to be miet iili the ftuture. References and Notes Umiiiid N.liuics JAOi. (Thdi,iI Lis' 1111 14. t p. cit. ;, P. I '. ;4. i/.it. Ii. pp. 1'-4i, 47'. nil',I I'i1. iiid Siiti-,t Its Se-rvice. Rciii, MmNl,ci 199)9 I. Ct/. iti. I,pp. -i-', i I - I. Sir4t 0,irtLiil. DItintLicLishoi, Fhri- KlMiiiic- 2. inlak 0lwon, ''A i-iti TIle? (:,lllld Tti,. I S. it;. . 4~ p 44-49) Agni11tiiit(iinc t)rg.iiiiAu nI it tlit I Jilicti-, Ni- to k, While 0% ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~tic lilt, RI hUh, Iii iic 19"i 511 r,in. lul m Cii Se tgt (.irt i. md Newton. -I: i,iniii Siri,- (teInt\pIircltdt tislitni. \VWoriti Kiliiik D it- IllIlli. Trt-icld. iIlt1 1`PIlcspecl' III Wice11 i .P tc-iitlci P.ipcl Nco. 240 (Th,e W\'rld Kill, it/. ci.l. ( liIr ille ictIislteries Mi.iitiut-ilieit: I , rIc!o FO DCLIoP U(bcili Asptel.1, Se:imJit-. W\llhIiliiIiiil, Ilillt I . it. 4~ pp. 0 -1) 3- i- ; i in,Iit-ie tteer4eiet bAIt."1 o i'dAII~iC i)eeticcp-iI ltt)4, p-4. 2 2. Nloii-tikli H.it,ishiti ..Unm-di N.mitic lit0 cir- O)Iz.tii, I/tiin Icl Ittll t jiiit LI Nm .iticii tFAo theac Ni mm i, -FAO,11 J)-ric I ct'ico'c. ciicils. iiIi"I Ji ll I )i,i1'k. SI. 40. If/'. cit. 4. pp.21-2l 12. [.5, uv 1 I tihie 'c SI1:ittiil,iNc Nil m, iIAI)VE. iorc,rzest, N. (cifii.Iiiin, lilt 11I .\cni. 4 i . tni,I Illit ( IllrsII S 1111c i(-1IL,t-i rti II LtLtcr, tel A etFiltI I(iT th icrtip:itNi.t FA I it gicici (ti.iii'II it d1. :nILAh tgittI I' 1. hi,igilI IllMAi'/cAl 5:\lJii/iiltc.' tie . N ccI ,, 'It ccir. siippi it-Ft. pp 4 6. 11/'. It. i - cc (-spiccit~~~~~~~~~~~un t.uem .It i)Iiiii eliie -lteii 44.-' I.19 .42 IPIII.1 LiMM4M-15. - / cit. il ih, i AlilrA. \\isiIiLgttcu, i).., i 595l4.b(cmI lrit-ltcn./mNcc IbccIli tIII iii t,1(i'lsi- FIS/'lllc S .iiicl .4c(il.itclltclTc I F.\(t. Rcciiit. 25. 1i. tt. 22.)I)rL It4 I ' I I, LL I I 1 I. -It/c, i-It2it, 1 p. "-1 M I__ l ' %I,I 1 iiumbci ot Ii,him-2rd.tt/ccuitdy u'-lit4rict/i. t. 1pp. 2-l lit. Ilici inl AgetiliileI, l.li.lcl c t 7 Ai/1. i -t .i4 rut i-th 45'.goil i,mt~f it/.11i. L.ol p.il 29. illt Ii, upl)ILti rN.iiii i FAt)'. Wcce LIniti R-eiiett cc l i: l - II d 4'i. bi'., pIt. 22 pp 2i-24 . liii-Nieicn peelitStittiiuI 28.to CXi(.cit. tIln' i4-itlI.111 WIuiitoil. 4.4. lIt)4iii .gnnc itce(r.iii.tcl c it 1"i At. 4. P i~. itc4. p. i. 441 5, II.itI r,it. JIL 1 l I. p. 4- .SCioKC.irl t- S. it. I I \ I A R I BA. W~~~~~~~~~~~~~i,hii igton, I M I 99 4 ~~~~~~~~~11vr.A,'ei il/tl I C iee'.icliN.rtIM1.11 -'h I'llceilliIit' 9. Fod-id Ai. i)lVtIcllIi 0nscciIc1 il.tI.5I1,icci',i A,ttA- I. N I tccril 9-1 eI-itll i- i''dii' '14 Ic RIleitLI Nuati-n IFOi TiIciI': Siiiic hi/ \ r- Lliiitec Nitic. s -AO t)Vsu5e .inti /t''Wclc,IN-lSiV4) ciI.llI Fic'S. i, al) Fituerie d urei,r Ncc., R884 2A) i pee Ni. .119 FA.2c.- 99i p I itilip. pp. -20,p. 9 304 ,1) \X".rc Is isoortest. J Pp.-97 Water and Fisheries Bit..IId~i citt): Fit1 on ii ( oraI Reecf Fcetties- Gtidc* (ii tt Wi/tV.. Ft-1 4 W.at* Re timid Nhlldmii t, rthe lRiisi,ii I ederr.iiiii, ith Re- rclii.- dirtr %tsil fJf M N, Iiti Swirl7cl- (bl% rtd LiluiviceriTIic-'es, Nets' Yiirk. 199 j. PL1tiIw ift I a1tktsrai, the lReptiiii ofI tirk- land,j. \ItsV 1 995 i, pp. ;6 6,7 . P'iLrre N.tiI1s, `,erti r rear `Stiiictiititrifee onIlitlmiiti, i r.kriiie .Iiid the KepiiiiItL'If 52.I.lee Kimiilil. i11iiepeiideiit coititLIit.111 WVii.\,iter R~eso1.rces. Liieigy and N irr.iI R- l.zliekiinitt anid rlite counTtries of C.enittrI iigroii. [). . Aiugust I't j9 i eti-iiil coiIitm 'our,es Bi.tiili, D)epirrimiietii P h, of wi, LitiOpe (Albihatl lBIIIgITIdt, hle ( ,IChI Re'pith- it fti 9i.i, p. . L[iiitct \,itioils, Nets 't irk, ILI]"I 1)( IT5 ltr- stR ptii) 56 ft/i. i.ft. ~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ittitti Refereiicc litr.iit, Wlsi1t11i-ttti DA itid I 'usrs ,tttii Am\iti,iii, Jitdti,ti Ntiscli 5' / it. i/ 4.QP 99~2t, Ip. 9. heLr 91)1 in. 2-p . 5.ftI. if. I, Ppi i2. 61.Riisct Liigeliia .itt lttiiiei. I :Ro%, Nti I . N,itidl riPotisic i. l t I t.sos: I a1 n It ' itc,tt S9 1. 9i) p i. ;-S f.tiutu Rate.t: P'o/lmlftii-i alt t/i Fuue /wt- N if1 if \AVV NMirnii & I .ititiplilf Newy Reuivii'imi//i `bit i/i/pics I iopit].tttiin A- "T ork, I 91)2( I,PP. 99-tIll0. nI,/. Food .ittd Azrtitiiirt- frgiiiiz.irion of rite ttitt hitttrii.tiiiti.ii W.islhtig_ioti. FD1 ..i f~f2. f/. it. fi4. P. I-I. ULit-Ie N. o,ttoi iFAo f. Riicir im ,/ /tic Vati ~ PI. i 9-22. Wm/ \\ tiL/ berhc Pi Rc,(tvots: Aquaifi tuii/ rc'. 7/. N iki.s AiLs,iJiitr.tiis idl., III ti/t/,1 .4,gmri,idfitre Vhf() Fitheries ( icit.t.r Nii. 8tit hIAlf, Toiit.tri/s 2if1N1. A4uF4 L I( 'f1,t1/v (Jhi \Vii Romelgii phkiii .iis 24riiFrs W re21. f I)i. t. 69, PiS.r. id`oiis Wttie Il9i, Si -K. , /54odI (('tr/mI, Fris/i WaIe Rtsm itm5. eter II ~ 5. f/I. id. uS p 24 ..5.I/i t Agi, i.11 p1. C.IIIJ OI11t ntdNi (2 or hi klix m Wrk,i9t1dtie2f F2TL:, Wi,tllatk W iitpot.D. .RL'~ fa 7 r i f.l R64, Ip.M. 1 9/. I/ti!.. pp. IS 211-2 K II~~~~~7 . p.IX .7,1 1oLir,v,.- lit Walei m Ciws: A mde to thc~~~~1 ate Ilits it 111 c: it cNet tts otiltXi. Ir-4 tItlt lCtre tI Sll )s Itimr.i RP sttlie. I' iet.-N Ia ,r p.[itie , I ttti.itt \7icrIf p./ 4)/tF// mtii/Io/e OCL k u .OJridleii1s U'ilt5 (15 mt/Prc,,fiipN ii-w 7 tti, L Wor ti itik i 'Agrict ittir e I" )rg.u mte. ,ttutuu of6 j t .p .SI 'I ork, iblv 1.8. P. 20. (World Kink, Wa,lhinuron ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ it iiii (ile itiDAti_! Isit s Aptetis 7 u/TN, New Sink. i.itiitui> 12, 11941. nn- m. viw unit er.itruiiiiiitiiii,iiR-iitiigPttilpsiliik 4.9.Unted)N teric H.N I i010-iA.. Au1 itt i-iiitiu(aim-II. I)to1. Iititti) 95.1 ialtred uini,~ ' [t..t r.iiiinit itit Nupl u,tvi toue sit/ m Ai 1,i,r t i l of rthe torl mitel tisue Licii-1n iolm tia < ,jc ,o (itati,icil, .otiiui tutr in I Nti.tA,tw,iPlan I)e m,i iTiti Ll,Xlmdt Nat,.i eion , ui"i.ite,O [lL1I Repti i: ofItirurf. fi t fluA (I// FhIt-/u (f'.tfet Lid ((put iiQci.a F21:te atcpLants and seaweeds, which are excluded from manne catch. their harvest,s tobe subinacled asapp,opnale b One yea,rofldata c Two yeans@tdafa d Regional fotal excludes countnes of the tommer Soviet Union e Data are for Belgium and Luxemo)ou,g Total of aquecuture produchon Is,mcluded in the counfry totals lo, nnarine and fres-maler catches Word and regional totals ,nd.de countries not isled and unallocated quanbtltes 0 = zemn or less than half the unit of mea sure. X - not available; negabve niumberns are shown in pa nen heses For acliior,al Inmformation . see Sources and Technical Notes World Resoiirces 1996-97 311 Water and Fisheries Sources and Technical Notes Data Table 13.1 estitoates of resouirces and uttisomnptioti froii moive 20 to 31) pericenit ot thet bliocheitmicil1 Freshwater Resources and itoidels tt'ing oilier darn, suchi as areal tindcer osv,~ge It I-1 iIL de an 0)D) aii etljtr 11 1fl1IC1 iAIL Withdrawals irrigated a gricutltutre, li vesti ick Pp uitIait ions. sept rztes oLit slit dge. .St'onditry' lreonifno is aiid preeipitation, wheni neCessarv. tile additionail use of biological treatiMCot, Sources: Wacere resources atid withdid wal5'tI A na nenlci',il'n/trsi-s uha h s titcoi rarbcttco data collie trout a varietyal ofr stitirces:aerreouncs tih t- `, o ai co- -oracrki iir- Limi com friii i vaict of surce: 1 refers, to the JiVerigC ttitiiial flow of rivers anld orgalisits that r-emiove 80 to 90 pecrCctit of Ft rk a sievvic aritd.l M Ia rga r, Tabiiiiiu 1 da u~ artgnr e ro i itCIIdiigeiiI hs pre- BC )1). T'/iv/i./h'/cts 1 t;d; eL Rcss)omcc's catoUiitt/t'sin JDepirtiinrw ra> Hva cipirtitoni. ot esiia sofrtiff it rs idded chiemical ort boliigic;tl-chetiical treait- * and recharge of groutndwater shotuld lie Uised niu-Its that rciittise 9)5 pCcitt titt ormore it) dtirgetiloigie, Orleatiis, France, I 98ff): I. Malt- with totitiri Bsti iiiaii itrit mi- ltf .YasgeDieteetss i.iabe.LSee. gar, in ta iitIe Keebec he (ciiii ii ifLii' it rries i'-Ca itse tiese estimates aire in Ised on tIeC soitu Ce ito ciounttr deitai ls. N-inii eres, (O)rleans, F:rantce, AprilI 1 988 (pect- d f itgsl esan ae.TeeaiiiiIa- sitital crIiitti ltiicatioiiit; AleXat1)idet V. lielVJeV, *l-frii source ln iie.Tl' S Itis1tititte tof Gceigraiphy, LU.S.S.R. Natit'inal etiges aJ tst ,tdiguis arhe stiasiiinI, tutu ni'1- Data Table 13.3 AL'JdlIl , (f sCICICes,MOSCO , SLPICIII)VI Ititnra tIVo'ei7/loi' ;uMit J,iiitlo /i o er i tn/trieS M rn iheis il a dSaeo 1 989 antI lainiary 1 99ff personal c-iininiutni- Exploitation en i tiii: ete C ic, Pcifc tititir. I)a - are iio t slitwi i,vi the itcii t l . I retiessaN ii~ W,CT cariol)~ Pter U ick, ilcitc llitirricsiiitrt-es f igit eoa nid tIn-se flowss. Souirces: Maritte fishery producttioin: Lot Il and land. Catlifiorniai. D ecenihit 199.5 (Persotnal rciseoftiws rcl hi-1 ttITIL iU dliC ipteo giutr raivtii fteItle a eiiiiiiinuniicationt ) withdrawal and scctriral uise d am ftoi tll tleIiii ted Statres: \VIi ite B. Si iiliv.l 1,us o loito Nf-li oiirc r oe19 Ritliert R. Pierce, atid Hotward A. Perlinai, pimattri d hit wm ittedc ti:ri itifCLodCs. I \Vlcoursil saeit eFA xR IiiiC;t ii51 Ii: LAO,ch utFpiOisie uLc i;it; "Fstiritnaed Use ifWNYatir ini the Uttuited States, di r ltwtte r tctddiiaeit- f-t,Rtte 91 Iyaci A ,/b // it 1 990,' 1!.S.(h' Geological Stir,'ey Ci rtcular. irtt's ri irjI itre ri a ret tewa;b lieW.tUre resiourtes. o / Wor it/it ,sbertcs air A quacti/itrti ILA( , No. I f81 hAJS. (Geoltigicail Survey, RestoTin, Put. 1p7/7tumi /iitermiit ren-ti-tNt' ti-ne, I Lishierics D)epatIII1tinr. Rii1iie, j 995). Vi rgitnia, 199 3): FLrorpeaut oI IIIIIi tiCS01iees daitai were cidlcuilatCd oiitgIL 1995 FAO dividecs the. witrld's ccn iit istot 19 ties-(o inuirtssiiini l.ntirinini't, S~a/is/its opitl.irioill e'stuiritcs. uii.itric stti.tiisiel areas alitd irgnizes annual 99S) (Office des PUiihIlear1OiS iis 3ffiCIlHUl Le tieS Al n fitni Il'iiidn llta Ji '.ls a a p/rt'fjttitii5i i/ I ct/i d,t it lt .1 f1- ,2 8 'specC( its II ts -sp1cCi tS (o[t iimmut itu uat s Liiropeenrncs. I it\eriiiittrg, walrit ttstiitii'S titer i to/tiwa te\,rr is itlidra-w- grittps separiteitUd1 diek fititil, geitIts, Ort spc- I 99)), p. I 31) Letiittutle Cotititssiti hit lls, utii ittcounting esapijritive losses froiitt stir- Cies eIC~l. "C atch" tifers ri JVt'r.igc hl.tn imutg Lturope. Tic' Fi,,iroiitu,'n in Lilr_(t) Lilll agi'V baIM its, alS a PerCUet-Itiag itt intr'rn.iI atill]d tIt it i it ItitlC i- SC;lsats (set' bt'low). N> n-tb Ametirttica JU itred N a t ions, NL'W Yirk. FrIei ,ieIt ilt W;It i rts ii1iCes, a rid rivstr fItows A-1.t17Ci'jt'sh ii teltitleti f illc f ilowviii g L.Ao' spUIti s I 9921), pp). I 5-23; Utlittecl Nmitns L.eonriluiic [tutui oilier OIiiitttriUs. \N>tier Wulthdr,iw,tl also grtiptgs LItindcers. litliliti, stilts, Cat.: Commtiission B(it LFurrpie (LfLl, ,Up F,,,, iteCliude waiter froiiit desaliuitimiou plants in (itds, laki's, liuddticks. etc.; rCdi1fsliIs. i`iasCst, tii,nmeitt,l .S/t/is/i%tii l Dl).titbsi' n diitiiskette. ctoiiiilitries wvhire thi.tt siourcte is a s igmittfi c.it coiiiigets. itL.; jacks. 1I1IICii t,. saltiries.ter.; lit' r- (Statristical L)ivisionu, UIN/LCL, 1 99.5); Org.im- part (it ill watecr withidrawvals. ritigs, sritlitue, JtiCliovies, etIC.; tMni. 1ititti- isatitrit for Letnintitic Ci-0PCt;Iti(iii autLI De- Pit -.qu1a airinui,t litksb.,,il wer CiII-- tiis. iill-fisliis,e CIt.; uttcLke-rels, snicks, veltipiietti L I) ), O f ) lJ1-iu'mitoitiitt'Ita IirLate il ulsi uliariiiural OPUltuitout dimii t fortt' LLitilaISfislies. iret.:sliaiks,triys, cIiiuiriers,etC.: Oa),, Cominpendumihi 10LF( ), P.T ris. in prtess, t%eari itt dat; slivt is for vvirthdr;tuval. aiid miiscell.iuieiutus irta1riiie fisk's.. Ci'phi.tltm 1995); LFitii iid Agricultutrt' O rgantizationi tif Sec/ ,,al ithbitrati-.ls Aitt cilassibicd as dio- puui/s hid tIle stftiids, clitutifislies. -ciiptuses. thle I JitirtL- Natiotns (LAO), Water Rs'es r,ites un'C/C (irinkitig- Willeri 1hoiiies, LtItiii Trt'eul 'tCC. Irutimtcetns are the iturII tif tIl t' iii Wiw itg n/ Al/ric.iin CAior/n o's. .4 R et 'o (LA C, R oi it, esrahli sIt11iii iS, pitililt strv ices (e.g., hosiisH- t. t ,tugiti: sCts piderTs, e r. Is. CIL.; Iulokist-r, 1995), pp. 14-1.5- des:tliuaititi dnata .ts fiiti- talls), auttd ot1IutiCipall tins ott firou Isitti; ,indils- s;inuiy-otk I(ilSUti'S, irC.: sLitilt liilsri'rs: ittited: O.K. BLunts ftir thet Inttertnatioinal De- /sIn lincluiding sitter withirhlaw , to ctoil sltiritips, pruvivus, itt.; krill. Planrktonic ertis- salinatiton Assoiaetltitn, fi'Dt'suui/io -A RC: thiermoeilet'cric pl;iitsl : itd tgricintturt- Iirrig.t - tICC.uts, itC.; Mtid 11iLusClIutItusC1. 1uIitIute crtis- (Saline Waiter Convrsersionu Co.trpoirationi, Ri- tiutu Miid livestock I. iteccts. YLetus sltiowtu jtrCi' vsir ;ts-Cr;iges. vaidh, Saudi Arabli, 1 99)), p). .5; aittil pipiul.. T rittds Milk titit .Idd lCii list Otf rI UItIHIdii. T11 I )t? ll nt,tht ta,thi tiiffets fr(iiit MiltiltI' c;irtC tutui: Llnired Nttionts IPoptulationi D)isisioni. ini IData Til)uii I 3.4 k ltatsi' lieC ttiliiisiti \X'ir/id Ppui/tti,iiii Priisptt'/, thSi' I i)94 Rrit- Data Table 13.2 1t1ti1ltisC c.tt1gtti1I'S iiC itiii ittlitIIilti: uitliM ittis, sion M luited Nattions, New Ytirk, 1995i Wastewater Treatment witukle, COiticis, eCL.; iii sterS; ittoisse : seall- \Wirtlid ti s l'dilt Ou tIl thiiiis ital'le we ~re utpdaterd lips; eLatis,, et ck let. .urksheIls. etc.: tuid itis iot ctinfirtiite(i frotni inidividutal coi t rttt reports. Source: Organtisatiton ftir Econt miii cl Co-Op- ccllatieit(Lsiulzariule ItitltiIsL>. Plie;tsc rifer nithti svhein poussibie. For extatple', tIiis wats accoilti- eratiiii amid IDevselopmentti )OF(I)Di, I Fil 2) Techutucal Ntotts fur I).tra Tabile 1.3.4 ftir iti' plIshed for Lgiypu, Motroccto, Si itit .Africai, OIti' Kitei U ritrtcni,tl Da)tt Ciomii'ndi/m it; I tilt L defiltilitiut tif iiiiirltt.l fish catch a id iddi- IRepuildic tif Kren-t Vect Namt, LHotiduiruts Bruti- 0(( L), Paris, 1995 Ini Press(. ititotul iitfiirnittioii oii FAo's fisliery dituiasi'c. u'il, ILO itatiut Mtid JluipiI, baised oiit rtepiirts pr'- OFt(:1 surveys its trielnlers antd tssCIMCSati I iIs Catch tluut.t fPrieseteitd iii tlitis t.ltie incluide putedi bY each countrr-Y fir tlut' (I uirid N.utIiius oit a s aruitY iicuvruntir lutistltits. D)OI- harvests trutm ru.uric' auittuciltttri pirtititt- (t011ftCrinctii- i tiltite LEtviuroiuiiutetut tind Develop- nititiuts tauti sairi tiniong ciutturits. Thec /Pet- tutun. Marinue aquiiucuitutic ptioVIiles .iii itisig- tutu11 hteld ini Rit Lie Janetirot. Brazil, In 992. Ci'tt7.r ' O/ 1it' /ipopula,/tion si'rt'i is diei uctti;l niiiicuntu ciittrruitriiti ioi tiic toital sleIdSi of Iii geiteral. dittut ~ire C(it1itIpi d fritiut ptblishied pritpoirtiion coTIFIttrri' toi Wvtsi'.VittC't irtat- i1ru.uriCi fishI utnd CpLit11lup i1d.. doi UItirIteiS I 1utcudiing imioniital, LtilitCI' Nut- ititiLlt Pl.iIts. i'i'/iimiu'V;1' /trtO';t/ c01ttrpriSis tIre Petti'it/tu if sIOt is fit/is /isi.t'id, ONT- tioitis, utltid pritfessionatl litrcititLire) uitilL fitt pltVsICut1 titiL urts'eMIiu.uLc.I pricesses thliti te- fiortu. iric/ti. i t' riit ni't provid S 3 312 SOVt/rtd Rcs'i'uc'es / 996-97 Water and Fisheries iiiistti'i Oftth iit lgi'ti' to % hich fishi tricks fotid: [AU. /-,os/aIi- C(, ot diiskc'tti ( iA( . L. iig ip t o e oiio ievitoiin w itlitiii F.Ao(s liltrine st,i rist cal. rtas we5tre Roiii. I 995). tlilt rciiri ii g P ri ItS ti I tit t11 ti ' ~ltirolti tttietii eXPIOirtd as Of4 992. Data refer- to ill iiariiit Mirmic' id fr'eshwi'ater catch d.it,i rLtltr to sitch ;is rCgj Iiir siOcini1g, fcckdiiig, andk prrice. - stiicks for which FAO. hIs data. L'pioitatioii mlarinie aIIId fre:shssttr fishi kilLedi, t.iiigIht, 101tro utit:tr.ti.IiJiM tipisoti evlC 's wetre dete rmtIined 1wv cominparing ca tci rralppt)d, i(IIi i'tei, hriCd, ir CjI1 t\tUdatic flt r rsihip oif dic stick lee' dig cuIrt V. r-Cd. leVis to criiiiiAtCLd iT'iUMiiitiiii scitttIIizihl eiilieC,I iiidiistrid,Ai. iefstihiNusistrn tr us' . iiitiogns s i,tir 'iiti ie. v1 riit ei1ii NI'SY) for t.icli StuCk. Sto(Cks i0iisiilttIi CrIrtisICtans mud ii1iiiiisC art- IiiLiiiiCiii. St,i- pttll)IC is .i Ceeui11oii popr rts iiirce art fi/1/11 (is/ne!t li1t hilesr withl \ieldS ssitliiit 2' titiits fr- i11iiriCoiitirt, hJ1taILICHiiR, mu( iitlher iiliciLiLitei ill lit liiir\i-St Of tisheries. pericot iif NISYt. I )l'cr/islhedi stocks art rhiisr kLinu if lisil tietitin1g Jire iiiCliiiid In tilt tiliiii- VAtVS g1iolt eii'ieii ee1C 1 l)o 11.1iiicciltri' Ski- where- catch txcetiis 2 S ptrctmotif NISY'. Oe- trsv roetais. Qumiiltities tAkcti iii rc'crt,itionil, ristic_s hl qIMtesti1.iiiiii tJS'i bUlieg In I tl84; /1/c/ted StiikkS . irt fiSliltrits; that h at c esslti itale' activis' i it .iri' C Icieiid . h- igirc' . i'i' rhtii. Il- te cliv, tiiisi data itrc' i regi_iar fiatuire of the, ce i Ia pseid. Re 'ce rii'e i'g ticks ari' tislit-iries tint t Iionll t,pir;i s %tr,igici cit r i 3- t~ar pecriodii 1intiiia LAOS) rci vi' ee tworeld h sli'cr st,i tistit:s. last~ iiia iLsiiiSd where' lishi:rS i' lie leitiger tile's' inCliiedi tis1h Caughtu lIt a1 e ini-itr' flci-t I AOLs 1/25" s 'isirinis- are. Scii1iiii.t- targetillg iilt' SI)eiC its 1lCiiitt Such stiecks ire ainy%i crsIer In tiic svirlii. S IthCl % eef freS1l%lssttr rAdk In Ti \ i ate'i ric's. lr'/oeu r/ i'iLiiii liLL' Ii'\ ii s dt ioi t ju iisif rhie ltV(2i i f i'ffi rt i. Ciiidid In0 tile stat i trii s (f tilt' a p . p ai ii r)/t leeII ens Jes IT1Iid tiksti I gci iii, ri itt riL Is, Discards! is i /lire e'ihta ' e/ itt 'crall/ e el/e/ nut-i areia. S ritch s eet dliaiitir ileis (nliugrltoir sliiei.t ii .1iiei sline-ts. .Matine' /Is/e in- rtfi'r tie t le ph' :ctci itgi' oef ciieraill ci ti it di- liciss .'i't s,i It witer.id fiie lesh w.uter spe-i'sartc CIILI a \rict\i it s)lli('i sgrI'OIl pssi cil as fleet,it- c,irdS p17)LS lanIIIL gsL) iiiitlglt tili i 98X-92 RL- Showsvi tither it thie tt.iritc oer iiilaini aiit. cit. cei. t'iiie i'riiis tiis specii's aid ciideiursi7ecl. fth sioifurirgite'd SPe'ii e. D,Iaim a i reprisenlteed .i neeIItJ i I CA htsC. u kc ls,sirk.eti.Iiii e''li Tc-iii' liueis'dti,i cetuitris an chrge s-irli ciel- ws'iiicli art thie Lindtliigs till ined Ii a lisi'- iiiie t(Ig e et ric ps , trsindtt crtiwnst.tMi' mt, c iEs, lectiti iig catchl diitA an rii'ilep rtinig tcheiis tee LAOS. tx ii gilt ha isi, tha .1IS, t he wtegiilt clv iti cii gist. ltEtr,sirmi' e t il.M /ue i Tue qcImiir cef these ismitisV.1rii' icaI isi.'JI I midicmgs feet seeIii' ceinriii cti' mii ickli-itic Ci , te'si S-.it 1d iiiiiiitc's ee hTst's Hii 11iiisti iieamiv\ cPi eiitric's ,imk th' r'souectcS tee idci' tie citrchis. ( itch d.iti1.1 ar t prid-Cied au1111til ilips 'iii,t111ies.I)/i''it'iil' iieii'ltr.In iditieeii. fisCher 11dnsee wiithinite's iticiu- fisiter ieFiA e F i tl c rie'giDepmrilUI t Is\r II,IIOII.- ss-ii,ii' ic eleriiiiili,'cN ceic rei aige ti i fishers. Ill se III iiLASe , c.itch rsatisics cISc'S tile pte_V iiU Veti ye r t figitru' or mi ake's isti of his/ely .\/tis/i,s ( I AO,) Reoitii' , wivIscii pre o art iiifi:iti'c tee iti:crase thle itiipirtt11Ci' ief iti'e Ii,ti's lisid itn ethier iniferimiatien. Leer dittis Vidi' IIteets tee cLIMA p)Iiihisiseii. FI s/sin tiSlhiig midUistry tee the' iilitionil vconieiel . lii Jitaim iqmimly pii'isi re,fer tee lc' 'Technitcal Peit el/li/cl iuuu1ieul/ /ooe spi'/l/el re/tIm fISh NoiL'S tee DutiTulilc' I ,. 3. etli/dsc'ihe ee IS titi' diinlitttv eel iieth frC'1issvIIer Data Table 13.4 Ytirts ~ireC ca11eitiir yctats ecipt feot Anmm :r And itaittte hI-sI aind fish1 lVi'ielecs usAvl:iIe'v Marine and Freshwater Catches, tIC fSlii w S I . Di1 t hi tie A itat i iis ir e plaits tI lii WiLI\ C 1lt iil' iii 1 .1 Di' t\al ol fri iiitist Aquaculture, and Fish Consumption g-itiiic leer th Dcaeta[or sAn,r itvic is i tCA' split.1 IC,t1-' - ilk7 l(11 IL inx-ii tr tlL- 1~IIU LII NC,r inWIIj-lj JI'Spl t iitltII. 'Vile' eilliiii11t if fish .iiii sc'.ifee0d tLIti- SOUrCeS: MaIm111C', lrtshw:itc'r, hid lII,ic1iitcir-' mete1 Ltilkls. ills\ ciOIISLIII'ICi 1ii.ic be' hes-ir tit1ami titiCiin' cutChect: 'ieed indl Agriiultuiiri' I rt imz.iticel .A/clice~1/I/ill'e' e10ie-fii .e h i I A0 'It -rite pre5iele'ed. iipc-p'dimig lii hseew iiiiiciii i i 1s,t eel thi' Lliiitel Nitioems (FAS)), h"s/.es/,itP(' taruilinig- eel qitittc eergaiiiiSls,~ 1tiiicediiig fisll, duitntg Stoerage. pre'ptrmite nt . tiled iceking, tu111 ILAO., Roeiiie, c )95/.I'( 1 Sl 1 sipiliY lieiio i Sea- niiilliiscs, cruitsIaie'tUS,.11tie11.icitatiC p`i.tiits. hit isiiti it Ici dISoiJscirlted. XVce'lrl Rc'sciurcc's 1 t)t)g97 313 14. Atmosphere and Climate A ir pollution continues to be one of the efforts to strengthen the Climate Convention, and on a most serious local environmental prob- recent scientific assessment of whether the climate is lems and a continuing threat to human actuallay changing. (See Box 14.2.) health, especially in urban areas. (See Chapter 2, "Urban Environment and Hu- man Health.") Regionally, acid precipitation and at- STABILIZING EARTH'S CLIMATE mospheric transport of a wide range of nutrients and toxic materials damage crops and disturb the acidic When most of the world's nations signed the Frame- balance of lakes and estuaries. Globally, degradation of work Convention on Climate Change in 1992 at the thestratosphericozone layerconitinLes. (See Box 14.1.) Earth Summit-the 1992 United Nations Conference And rising global concentrationis of greenhouse gases on Environment and Development (UNCED)-their such as carbon dioxide and methane inicrease the risk of goal was to stabilize the atmospheric concentrations of climate change. greenhouse gases-primarily carbon dioxide, but also These examples reflect the impact of growing human methane, nitrous oxide, and several other heat-trapping populations anid expanding industrial activity on the gases-at a level that would not dangerously interfere thin laver of air that surrounds the Earth. Scienrtific with the Earth's climate system. But the years since UNCED have provided some sobering perspectives on research is making rapid progress in uinderstanding the just how difficult attaining this goal may be. Recent natural svstems that govern atmospheric phenomena, prolections of global energy use in the next two decades the imiechanisms by which human activities alter those foresee a marked increase in the amotint of fossil fuiel systems, and the likely future consequlences ot present burned around the world-with a concomitant increase huiman activities. Progress in forging the social and in carbon dioxide emissions. (See Chapter 12, "Energy political conlsensus niecessary to deal with these prob- and Materials.") leins and in implementing solutions to them is much At the same time, climate scientists, using computer slower. models, have studied what it will take to stabilize green- This chapter focuses on global environmental prob- house gas concentrations at various levels. In general, lems concerning the atmosphere. It reports on cuirrent these studies show that carbon dioxide levels will not emissions of greenhouse gases, on the future emissions stabilize at anv desirable level unless emissions-and implied by a number of scenarios of energy use, and on hence the use of fossil fuels-are cut substantially. The recent scientific assessments of the likely consequences economic costs and benefits of a potential shift toward for the Earth's climate. It contrasts these assessments lower emissions are also slowly coming into sharper with the goals of the Framework Convention on Cli- focus, providing critical input into the decisions on mate Change and discusses the difficulties of stabilizing whether or when to invest in emissions abatement pro- atmospheric levels of greenhouse gases. It also reports grams. on widely varying estimates of the potential costs-and Even if global policymakers continue to confirm that benefits-of controlling emissions, on recent diplomatic stabilizing the climate is scientificaliv and economically Wlorld Resources 1996-97 315 Atmosphere and Climate Box 14.1 Protecting the Atmospheric Ozone Layer January 1, 1996, marked an important such as CFCs could reach the upper at- ous and widespread harm. In its cita- milestone in efforts to protect the mosphere. There the sun's harsh ultra- tion, the Nobel Committee applauded global environment. On that date, pro- violet light degrades these compounds, the three scientists for having 'contrib- duction of the industrial chemicals releasing chlorine and other reactive uted to our salvation from a global envi- known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) species that could, the scientists ronmental problem that could have was to have ceased in developed coun- shosved, catalvze the destruction of catastrophic consequences." Even if all tries under the provisions of the Mon- ozone molecules. Since the stratospheric governments comply with the Montreal rreal Protocol of the Vienna Framework ozone layer absorbs much of the bio- Protocol, however, past emissions will Convention on Ozone-Degrading Sub- logically harmful ultraviolet radiation continue to cause ozone degradarion stances. Developing countries have a 10- reaching Earth, the scientists warned for decades to come, and full recoverv year grace period before thev must that increasing concentrations of ozone- of the ozone layer is not expected until phase out production as well. The degrading gases could cause a global en- about 2100. And yer more work re- phaseout represenits the culmination of vironmental problem, exposing most inains to be done. Other ozone-deplet- diplomatic, scientific, and industrial forms of life to damaging levels of ultra- ing substances remain to be controlled, work to forge an international consen- violet light. and mechanisms will be needed to assist sus and to develop alternatives to these Initiallv, these conclusions were quite developing nations in their control ef- environmentally harmful substances. controversial. Subsequent measure- forts (i 2). Another milestone, late in 1995, was ments in the atmosphere, however, have the awarding of the Nobel Prize in confirmed their work and have shown References and Notes chemistrv to three scientists for their dis- that CFCs and other industrial chemi- 1. Koberr F. Service, -Uncovering Threats to coveries that trace amounts of gases cals are the cause of the huge ozone the Ozonie Layer Brings Rewards," Sci- could profoundly alter the chemistrv of hole over the Antarctic discovered in enice. Vol. 270, No. 5233 (Octoher 20. the upper atmosphere in ways that 1985 that led to the Montreal Protocol 1995), pp. 38 1-382. couild affect Earth's ability to sustain and set in motion current efforts to 2. Office of Air and Radiarion, U.S. Environ- life. The research bv Paul Crutzen of phase out the production and use of menral Protectioni Agency (EPA), and the Germany and E Sherwood Rowland these chemicals. W'rld Resources Instittite, 'Protection of and Mario Molina of the United States The scientific discoveries and the the Ozone Layer," EPA Environmentail In- in the early 1970s showed that both world's subsequent actions to eliminate dicators, EPA 230-N-95-002 (EPA, Wash- naturally occurring gases such as ni- this environmental threat appear to iiigton, D.C., June 1995) pp. 14. trous oxide and industrial chemicals have come just in time to prevenr seri- justified, thex still face the questions of how, quickly aind the past 20 years. (See Data Tables 14.2 and 14.4.) The howv mluch they should cut, how cuts wvill be allocated United States continunes tot he the largest source of amilonig developed anlid transition economies ii,, anid industrial enlissimis of carbon dioxide, accouLnting for whiat allowance will be made for the econlomilc and n;earlv 22 percent of global emissions; this is followed social needs of poorer cotiimrries that ar-e in widely lv -hina ( 1.9 percent), Russia (9.4percent),andJapan different phases of developimient. These questiois pro- (1 percent). (See Table 14.1.) The countries of the vide the blasis for preseiit negotiations on how the 1- ~~~~~FLUropeanl Union tot tther zaccouiir for 13 percent of (:limate Convention can be strengthened and post-2000 E U to c s global emissions , the developed countries of the cotililltnientS sect rean g o inieeg te goals ootmhe Cronvei- Orlallisatiol for Economilic Clo-Operation and Devel- riOn w'thourt strangling tile \vaorld econlomy or penaliz- t, theIworldgpenlIz- tpilpmlnt (OECI)) accounit for 44.7 percenit ;m. (See also inig developling niations. [)ara Tables 14.1 and 14.6.) National totals, howcvcr, represent only part of the GLOBAt. CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS picture, because they depenid on both population size and the level of induistr-ial activity. Per capita emissions providc a better yardstick for conmparing the emissions Present Emissions that result from the average individial's share of na- In 1992, global emilissionis of carbon dioxide-the primiie tioilal ilLdustrial activity, and thcse figures show widelv greenhouse gas added to the atmosphere as a direct varying enissiin patterns. (See Figure 14.1.) Again, the result of human activity-amounited to 26.4 billiom Ulnited Sta tes had the highest per capita enmis- mletric tons per year, of which 84 perccnr (22.3 billion sions-19.1 metric tons per year-aniong the natiolis metric toils) was from industrial activity. Emissions that were the major sources ofglobal emissiois in 1992; from inidustrial activity hlave climbed 38 percent over per capita emissions in India and China were 4.6 and 316 World Rcstouircc's I99 -9, Atmosphere and Climate Box 14.2 New Scientific Assessment of Global Climate Change The Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- estimates rhat global mean surface tem- IPCC also took its firmest stand to mate Change (IPCC) is charged with in- peratures have increased between 0.30 date on wvhether the global warming ob- fornming governments about the latest and 0.60 C and that the global sea level served so far can be attributed to hu- scientific understanding of global cli- has risen an average of 1.0 to 2.5 milli- man activities or whether it can still be mate change and the likelv effects of in- meters per year over the past centurv (1i. explained by natural climate variability. creased levels of greenhouse gases in the IPCC revised downward its earlier esti- The Panel concluded that it is unlikelv atmosphere. In early 1996, IPCC re- mates of how much warming could he that the observed temperature changes leased its latest scientific assessment, expected over the next century to in- over the past century are entirely due to which updated and refined its earlier clude the effects of aerosols-atmos- natural causes X3). findings. pheric particulates that derive largelv The new report reaffirms IPCC's cen- from coal-fired power plants and indus- References and Notes tral estimate of the sensitivity of the trial sources and that produce a mild 1. Iritergovernimcntal Panel oii Climate global atmosphere to increasing green- shade effect-and the phaseout of chlo- Chdnge (IPC), IPCC Second Assessment house gas levels, predicting on the basis rofluorocarbons. Under conditions of Synthyesis of Scientiftc-Tecihical Informna- of computer models that global tem- moderate population growth and eco- hon Reler-ant to 7nterpretinig Article 2 of peratures will rise between 1.5° and nomic expansion and in the absence of the U.N. Framework Convention on Cli- 4.00 C if the atmospheric concentration any focused international effort to reduce nate Change 1995, January 1996 draft of carbon dioxide doubles from its pre- carbon dioxide emissions, computer mod- (World Mleteorological Organiza- rion/United Nations Environnient Pro- industrial level of 280 parts per miliion els suggest that surface temperatures will gramme, Geneva, 1995), P 4- 14 by volume (ppmv) to 560 ppmv. The increase 2.00 C over the next centurv. graie, p a9 p 4 current level is nearly 360 ppmv. The Sea levels are projected to rise 0.5 meters panel also left unchanged IPCC's earlier bv 2100 (21. 3. Op. cit. I, p. 4. 1 19 percent, respectively, of the U.S. level. The OECD) Projecting Future Emissions countries had average per capita emissions of I 1.5 metric tons per year in 1992. Global energy LIse projectionis, recenitlv prepared by Anthropogenic emissions of carhon dioxide add to three differenit agencies-rhe International Energ- the complex natural processes of Earth's carbon cyclc. Agency, the U.S. Departmiienit of Energy, and the World Natural sources of carboi dioxide enissionis range fromn Energy Council-makc nIse of a numinber of detailed volcanic eruptions to the aerobic digestioni of decaved energy sceniarios to look ar hiow carbon dioxide emis- vegetation by soil bacteria. Natural sinks for carboni sions could evolve over the next few decades. The dioxide include regions of expanding forests, peat bogs, scenarios are built aronud assuLImptions aboLut hoW fast seafloor sediments that accunILilate shells and other the World ecoloillIy wVill expaind, holw qtiickly the carbonate-rich materials, and, under appropriate coii- world's population will grow, the rate of technological ditions, the ocean waters themilselves (depending on, advanceinciit, the speed at wvhich new energy-efficienit among other factors, oceani teimperattires, the relative techinologies anid conservation mcastires are adopted, concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and and the relative availability and price of fossil, nucilear, ocean, and the amount of mixinig in the tipper lavers of anid renewable energy soLurces. These are all important the oceans). As a result of thewe comiipeting processes, factors infIluencinig both total eniergy usc and carbon the net accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmos- dioxidce emiissionis 19). Inl most cases, the agencies coni- phere has in recent years amounited to about half of the structCde more than onie sceilairio to allow for variationl annual anthropogenic emissiols in world economic 'growtbh and energy policies (For all Reducing the accumulation of carboon dioxide in the expanilded discussioll of future energy tise scenarios, see atmosphere depends to a great extent on controllling Chapter 12, "Energy alnd Materials.) emissions from the burning of fossil fuels, since thesc are These scenarios suggest that in 2(10, in the absce tesponsible for roughlv 90 percent of vearly carbon of maiaor policy initiaitives to curb their use, fossil fuels dioxide emissions worldwide (the rest comlie from cemiient are likelV to be the source of about threce quarters of the manufacture and from tropical deforestation and other worlds commercial cneg'y, even thoLigh thc usee of land use changes) i4) is. Yet fossil fuels still dominate the renewable energy sources is expected to grow. (Esti- world energy pictuire, and this is unlikely to cha ige dra- maetes of comiliercial ciiergy do not m CILide traditional inatically in the next 30 years, according to several iode- ftiels like firewood, crop wastes, and anlilial diung.) BK pendent protjections of future global energy use 'Si. 20 1(1, the quantity of fossil fuels burned per year is likely Worldl Rcsiourc's 19'(o-9, 317 Atmosphere and Climate to be about 35 percent beyond present levels. This Table 14.1 Fifty Countries with the estimate is based on moderate projected economic and Highest Industrial Emissions of Carbon population growth and is in spite of the fact that, as Dioxide, 1992 demand grows, prices colid rise ( il ! I I)l Total C02 Emissions As a direct consequence of this increased b urning of Rank Country (million metric tons) fossil fuels, global energy-related carbon dioxide emis- 1 United States 4,881,349 sions are expected to rise between 30 and 40 percent by 2 China 2,667,982 2010 under moderate growth conditions 12) (13). With 3 Russian Federation 2,103,132 4 Japan 1,093,470 higher economic growth rates, and therefore higher 5 Germany 878,136 energy demand, emissions will be greater as well. The 6 India 769,440 World Energy Council's High Growth scenario, which 7 Ukraine 611,342 assumes particularlv robust economic growth in the 8 United Kingdom 566,246 9 Canada 409,862 developing world, shows a 93 percent rise in carbon 10 Italy 407,701 dioxide emissions by 2020 14). 11 France 362,076 Oniv in the World Energy Council's Ecologicallly 12 Poland 341,892 Driven sceniario do global carbon dioxide emissions 13 Mexico 332,852 t 14 Kazakhstan 297,982 scarcely rise between 1990 and 2020. This "what-if 15 South Africa 290,291 scenario, which is not patterned after current trends in 16 Republic of Korea 289,833 energy use, assumies a determinied effort to greatlv in- 17 Australia 267,937 18 Democratic People's crease the use of renewable energy sources, reduce coal Republic of Korea 253,750 consumption, and freeze oil use at today's level by 19 Iran 235,478 switchinig to greater use of natural gas. (Gas, for an 20 Spain 223,196 equal amount of energy, emits less carbon dioxide than 21 Saudi Arabia 220,620 il.) More importantly, it assumes a ve h 22 Brazil 217,074 o rv high level of 23 Indonesia 184,585 energy-efficiency improveiments, and a concerted effort 24 Turkey 145,490 would undoubtedly be required to implement the im- 25 Netherlands 139,027 provements an). 26 Czech Republic 135,608 In all scenarios, much of the growth in energy de- 27 Uzbekistan 123,253 28 Romania 122,103 mand and carbon dioxide emissions in the next few 29 Argentina 117,003 decades and beyond comes from the developing world. 30 Venezuela 116,424 Although carbon dioxide emissions (under a moderate 31 Thailand 112,477 32 Belarus 102 028 growth scenaro) i 2010 are expected to icrease some 33 Belgium 101,768 24 percent from their 1990) levels in OECD nations, 34 Nigeria 96,513 emissions from the developing world are projected to 35 Egypt 83,997 more than double, althiough from a much smaller base 36 Algeria 79,172 6). Given current growth trends, developing countries 37 Greece 73,859 ( g lobal con die 38 Pakistan 71,902 will accounit for nearly half of glObal carbon dioxide 39 United Arab Emirates 70,616 emissions from indtistrial sources by 2010; todav they 40 Malaysia 70,492 are responsible for less than one third 41 Iraq 64,527 42 Azerbaijan 63,878 The rapid increases in carbon dioxide emissions in 43 Colombia 61,493 the developing world can be traced to the process of 44 Norway 60,247 developmenit itself, which generally results in a shift 45 Hungary 59,910 awav from the use of traditional fuels toward the use of 46 Sweden 56,796 47 Austria 56,572 commercial fuels; an increase in personal income, which 48 Bulgaria 54,359 leads to the ability to purchase consumer items such as 49 Denmark 53,897 refrigerators, air conditioners, or cars that boost per- 50 Singapore 49,790_ sonal energy consumption; and the expansion of energy- Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), Oak . ' Ridge National Laboratory,"1992 Estimatesof CO2 Emissionsfrom intenlsive industries as economies shift from an agrarian Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing Based on the base to a manufacturing and industrial base ix). United Nations Energy Statistics and the U.S. Bureau of Mines . . Cement Manufacturing Data," ORNUCDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an ac- China and India, both of which have rapidly expa nd- cessible numerical database) (Oak Ridge, Tennessee, September inig economies and high absolute population growth 1995). (although at declining rates, especially in China), will 318 World Resources 1996-97 Atmosphere and Climate likely be responsible for a significant percentage of the growth in global car- Figure 14.1 Per Capita Carbon Dioxide Releases for bon dioxide emissions in the next two the 15 Countries with the Highest Total Emissions by decades. The scenarios suggest that by Industrial Sources, 1992 2010 China and India will account for more than half of all carbon dioxide United States China emissions from the developing world. Russian Federation Indeed, growth in their combined emis- Japan sions from 1990 to 2010 will exceed the Germany growth in emissions from all OECD Ukraine countries combined during that period United Kingdom (19) (20). This is due in part to a heavy Canada Ialy reliance on coal-the most carbon-rich France fuel. (Both China and India have large Poland supplies.) China alone is projected to Mexico I ~~~~~Kazakhstan double its emissions by 2010, but still South Africa remain the second largest carbon diox- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 ide emitter in the world behind the (metric tons of carbon dioxide per capita) United States (21). Even with the high projected growth Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), Oak Ridge National Laboratory. "1992 Estimates Of CO2 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing in emissions in the developing world, Based on the United Nations Energy Statistics and the U.S. Bureau of Mines Cement Manufacturing Data,' ORNUCDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an accessible numerical database) (Oak per capita emissions in these areas will Ridge, Tennessee, September 1995). still be well below those in the devel- Note: See Table 14.1 for list of total carbon dioxide emissions for these countries. oped world (22) (23). If the rest of the world consumed energy at the same per capita rate as Even if global emissions could be held at current the OECD countries, total world carbon dioxide emis- levels-an ambitious goal, considering present trends in sions in 2010 would be roughly triple what is otherwise energy use-the concentration of carbon dioxide in the projected. Moreover, emissions from the developed atmosphere would not stabilize for several hundred world are responsible for the overwhelming bulk of years, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. (See Figure Climate Change (IPCC) (24). (See Figure 14.3.) 14.2.) Cumulative emissions from de- veloped and transition countries will represent the majority of excess carbon Figure 14.2 Cumulative Carbon Dioxide Emissions, dioxide until at least the middle of the 1992 next century, despite the steep rise in emissions by developing countries. United States European Union Former Soviet Union Chin _ Japan E~ THE DIFFICULTY OF Canada STABILIZING EMISSIONS Poland India South Africa EZ Rising global carbon dioxide emissions Mexico EA work at cross-purposes to the ultimate Australia E: goal of the Climate Convention: to sta- Iran - Democratic People's bilize greenhouse gas concentrations at Republic of Korea a "safe" level that does not alter the Republic of Korea 03 climate system in harmful ways. In fact, 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 recent work has made clear how diffi- (billion metric tons of carbon dioxide) cult the process of stabilizing atmos- Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC), Oak Ridge National Laboratory, "1992 Estimates of C02 Emissions from Fossil Fuel Burning and Cement Manufacturing pheric carbon dioxide concentrations at Based on the United Nations Energy Statistics and the U.S. Bureau of Mines Cement any reasonable level will he, given the Manufacturing Data," ORNUCDIAC-25, NDP-030 (an accessible numerical database) (Oak demands of world development. Ridge, Tennessee, September 1995). World Resources 1996-97 319 Atmosphere and Climate Figure 14.3 Carbon Dioxide It is importanit to understand that einissionls do not F enecessarily have to decline immediately to stabilize car- Concentrations Resulting from Constant hon dioxide conceiltrations eventually However, IPCC Projected Year 2000 Emissions emiphasizes that higlier eillissions today iiipls that much Carbon Dioxide Concentration sliarper CLuts in mCiSSionS will b)e necdedl later on. And, (parts per million by volume) further, the longer that high emissions lersst, tIhe 800 greater will he the reqLuiired CLuts in fitLire emissiolns to 700 stahilize carbion dioxide concentrations at a given level. This is heca use it is, to a great extenit, the Cum11ulative 600 total of etiislisOns over tinie (the areas ulidecr the curi-ves 500 in Figuire 14.4) tiat dietcriniiesthie level at which carblon 400 dioxide stalbilizes in the long ruit, iort the particular year-lby-year profile of cnlissionis (thc shapes of rhe Curves) i2,5K 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075 2100 The benefits of stalizin' carbon dioxie concentra- Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Radiative Forc- rions depen(d greatly on the level at whlicll thev are ing of Climate Change: The 1994 Reporf of the Scientific Assessment Working GroupoflPCC, SummaryforPolicymakers(World Meteoro- stabilized Sta hi! izatnin even at to day'ss atniospilcric logical Organization/United Nations Environment Programme, Ge- conlentration (WIvhclie WoIlI reCii ire (Irailiatic cl..iiiges neva, 1994). Figure 5, p. 14. Note: Projections are based on the model of Wigley. For a detailed II world energy use patterns) will not prevent itional discussion of the model, see T.M.L. Wigley, "Balancing the Carbon greetiLouse xvartitiig of the arniosphere. It coldl miod- Budget: Implications for Projections of Future Carbon Dioxide Con- centration Changes," TeDlus, Vol. 45B, No.5(1993), pp. 409-425. erate the pace atid malgilituide of sucLhv wariming, how- ever. Stalilization at higher carbon dioxide levels is expecred to lead to grreater warn'Ilinig. Nlost sciCltirsts The Current atmospheric carli)on dioxide coliceitira- en active in the field i)elieve that a failure to staiilize carlion tioni, which statids at nearly 360 parts pei- -nillion )v cdioxide concentrations vIll lead to progressively rapid volume (ppniv), is aliout 28 perceilt greater than that at and exteisive cllima.te chatige. the beginnii g of the Industrial Revol ution and is grovv- ing at an average of 1 .5 ppmiv per year (0.4 percenit per year). Studies bV IPCC show that at prescit civimssioni rates. carloi dlioxide concentrations could rise to aboLlt ECONOMIC COSTS OF CONTROLLING 700 ppmiv hiy 21 100-mior0e than doubling the preindLs- EMISSIONS t-ial carhion dioxide level of 280 ppmiv-aud could conriniuie risiig slowly for ceilturics 2.s). With the in- Ecoiioinic analysis of the costs and lienefits of reduCilig creasing global emissions that are likely with conomici c rlion dioxide emrissiols can help policymnakers decide developimenit, carhlon dioxide levels will climil eveni whethier emiissionis should he curtailed and, if so, how fastert (ii (2-). nIuch a nd on whatr k iln of seldtiule. However, Issigil iig What will it take to stahilize atmosphier-ic carhon realistic dollar values to these various Costs and beniefits dioxide concentrations? Ii'( C(alIeLares that srabiliza- has provedL extremely dicfficmiIt. In spite of im uch effort, tion at today's levels WvoUld require that today's carhon analyses are still soniewhat rudimnenitary, with results Lioxide emilissions lc Cut 60 percenit and that ceilissions varving from stuLId to stuLdy licaMuse of differences in lIe niaintailied at these reduCed levels throuLghlout the background assulilptiomis sucLh as the availab ilit and next centuL-x; cost of new energy-efficient technologies or the pro- The iieed to curtail emiissionls to stahiiize atiospheric jected growth in the global econiomiys (and thus the carlion dioxide concentrations is illustrated in FigLure growth in eitiissiomis). Estimiates depenid, in particular, 14.4, whichi shows IPCC 's assessmient of possilile emis- omi whetiher they are liased on "top-downi anialyses- si f0ii t'/icad Il C h.i ge. ID)lfft' rtlC' te JI`, ' X ist 1`bt'tsvt'it tIlit )O LCDi pulls irs itmcithecs oiii emiussionis withi Amitiax I ofl i/ic C >Mo'eimuI U>iiictld \altiiii'i tWo i It t. t.ibIt's ill tIlietsm i S t t-s itCS inf IILtlotI LLStI n'st i iiiiticts thtat trc c itompl ett'd lit the ct-It- (tt' tt-al Asst'nit N , A/At 1.23 7,/8 I, New Yv X ik, I -H.) cmioissiotis,. These tMi i atIa tttble.s pro- va tt .tciiii a stt is ial ISt'rv ite trciic etgiee. 7 Dcct'iiilit- I9 94), and itlInttgiv ci 'itiI sLI i lt' lffert'Ciit V'it'ws iif tt' stint pliCt'iiiTit'tiin ('11(1 tDdtesIO 11ti 11 IIIpTdiit at i tteeteit t'stintia- Negotiatinig tL iiitiiiirtt't fur a Eramietwourk .tittig'h'rgivt.t t'tr cir'tiat'itl' tioiit Capaibility. (lumve1tInutoi Lllitntt' tl.i1mg',C Matters Re- EM LI) .iid F(t P cepiict etiitsi iiits iii tt'cit1' /atin'o to) C uiitiuo ciia'is-F-o'st Ri'cu'ci/' olit1 gitltbl apint're l)at 'Imlbt' 14.2 peuusit mlt a iif theC eCetHitttal Cuimttt'tt if Suilfur,l Wltt1C.'r,s frinatioii Ciommni cai t eadha In Pacb Pcar libt itit s'ristiii ittiulsata OF( .1) repiirts its tetissio ns Inl terets if tiins Incutd/ edia In Anunex I if /'u tb (IMICi,i'eu I:'it101SLi, o 'tll,t(l1,1-lM IS l of ixitlt' iif stilfur. IMLIIi itnd LI P temissioni (tlmiitutl NatiutiiS Getttr,tl I Asseniitll, cits,tls dtitblt'piitts iitutu CS1iIlIatCS were COIlVeII7CLI to tIlCit- WCi e, t~~~csitttatt's if tach natmioti's otwit etuiss]iutis. estittiates were ti i 3g t il A/A 127W[ , Ness 'York, 6s Febru,sarv IIN l%ltIIStS'lai1,11 pCfCL S0). EN-IEP atid F(DLt! r iicpt nittrogen etitis- (995). Pittla1it: Mintistcrv iif lFiiviittittcir,il uitisaint the iiits ofu futttbt'r diotfiieiti,ittiti PNiituOt,/ Ni/oural Ritesourcs! I,ii'iitt Yor t/-N' invcnt-ttor t'SttiIttt'S. Th is d.ttat t.t lilt' . Iso t't'p i Ost)LtID d.i ta fior Part/a's ita iba' Ln'tua'a 5wm in H'rauu'u 'irk LIt)- Ciiiissi( i is froiiti fosil e t/ ie/s iiicttlitdet carboiti ttiiioioxtie a iiii paitt'tulditt' mtaittec Co'mutuatimiu in Cimattet C (.Ltitgi' Mliiiistrs of- emtissitons froIiti t'uu IIttIust 1ut aitd otIchr ititLtIS- tIIiiSSIOtIs aTiti totibitincs lkith FNPIFI aitt PityiruuttiL1tte .l licutuecition Natttrail RC- tri.tl prioctsst'. (It) tettissiiins frittit /tud itsu' ORD I) ta ti tadttstr ci- rlt'-it mi ss ii its iof voiia- SI IiiCes,, .nd tit l i tstret, a rsa w', I1994 i. Iul . caI abtongc art' Ct's ,tiCit tt (I f thet'ii ci ssii t ssion itto - tilt' iucgaIHtC tCiiiii Miittts. l)ifft'relites ill dCfiti1- NS1i1ttiste' itLit icoiitittet ititlan Mittistra if hI ittlihtt'tt-rtgii atliritces' tiiitt tati liltlit thle Cuuitip.i.hlI tt iif tIltst tLI`tIstr Natiuunal IPuag.t?iMtin for i/i,' Lomita- fitsttvtrirfutt iii.s. at'sii s estimattes. thun iif Caribliui i oi u'ala' J'ittssuuots tai i/' sum' t'ttt'rgt it I titlll 1tt'g.ttivt tepiiStivti, tUI1s- Carbin m1 ontox Ytl ILCIt), is foi iritct l'oti it 199( Litv'u/ by t/ae )"ar 2000(A )NI ilt st rt of sMolls fri iit f iMctst growi iwtt liatural Llilti l-0111 HLILISIttal procescs, III FnNiroliLmand M 1l11tIMu-i/1das'LtittimssiIcuis frittito aft/I v m alan asga si's- tlttr lg ait fh 1COMiitt iitasC(i,tIL pIucesO s fiSi- En 99 iitititttr attlemisisiotrnsiifrtidistvc, Rtiit' atd ot1 tlitrc.i crliioni- e.trintg, festc . Autoi t ii uiIt' Asptt ift i tsiii i tst ihrte ait 'i siisfittvtttg .indt lteakagte fcoiiit emtissiions art' t[Ilt tiiost imtpoirtant sturtct (tf F'ratmetvwork tluuIICiltiiuii Oiil Lllitt.c Lh.tit, tiil Jutld giAs prudtlCut'cuuit d dtiti tlisebUttliit st's- (It, t'vpt'tIaIIIllt iiitibati t'lIVtiitt0et1tt11s. (It etchi "piarty' listt'tl in Atittt'x I of thec C Iinveni- tt'ttis. lIII uttttssiin1% froiiiit uuesttutk iiCltitLit' produt lt igtclirotir i.itixii,\, Itaiditigtoi illntess r, toliv'ettiittOl lt'Httt'rit liitti fiirt'e ittfutrttt.itiuuit ( )thcr aigriruilturil Souurces uiiicltid- sw'tt net' ill tIlt' eaISt' of itt.iSSirt .ulud tCLute poisoiit nig, thatc itlulCtLIS 1VI21tovnt riesotif mntiitital emiissiiits ig"c"itltirtC, (H4 Ict'l'.stULI fr(iitt stils, .tttd the eveti tdecli. t t) ailsii scav'tilgt-s I)vtyto\uu l ratdi- if grt'enhboHst' gaLiSt' Othetr tb.tt1 thoust' toiittriil- Iaictui- lg iif .tgrict'iltHtrAl wa,itt' .ittt gr,Ittg Cails th.it vviUld uthltt'rvist' tOiitttibUteCii0 tiit' let' be k tlit' N-iintrt'al liriitiiciil fur. the Plritt.e l,ttsCIsc tlttstit siii tsIO S fr(iiila tl1Lfill s rtemouva.l iif tttethatie-. Ilutenit grtCtitiitLise tioiil itf tlit O,oiiet Ltret. Tlit first if theste itt ot/har un1LItltCS t'illIssiiitt fr(itti l1itdlistrit11 g.is-from ititlie airmtu spliitet. ittt icieraitdit'liS-ptttier2I,I94 pr uc"est' .il i~l itl list' th lttgt'. SeC teC r I '' ICII- Th ai't t', 11t ffleets of /iairitiruaitt' iattctr Pazrtit's vs-rc aiskc t'd ti iIStC got ie lilies Ce-C(`C ctti i'Lt.t i\orus ru D a 'Lta hT'bl 14.2 Ii i fti rtlit'r 1PM) airte i pr tdependtenit iili the biiiliigitcal b- thec littergi 'imtit-iitatl PaJiel (1i L'lltt.t' i Iiitrilti.itii 1m .ttlld Llie1ti1t.t1 titikeupJ Jitld aittIVitV iiftlit' Lpir - tliat1tig Wyit-i II prt'pJtrIItg their itseutirit'es if N\'rituui usia/ I \$ ) Iis. antheittr poitett' riLdeS. Hets tk muuet.l pairtiCclts air ltt-,drocurhtriti I 9901 etimissititi, Sii is tai trihiuict' ti iip.im.ilil- gut-tttlhiaist gis, rthr Is (liffuk tilt tii motdel. lIn nOitdt'ims-tLI (iiitu di`, t t pattIt'It's1 tamulit hes lit'' itt - The'se 11iiL vt-iti cc .1cc, il fI-Jt, tdtta iletd tdesctm iti g iordetr o~f imiipiortancet, thit p'rinitacV L-1.l1V tXiixt. PiMv inst-s fr(iiii IluttlIit-routs 1ttIliit- eStiiiLtattts if t'itissiiits itit lioit iilVist'ntiirit' as ilit' iMilC No t )V a-irt igriUttitrt'. i1itluisut, diutd 1iiig'ttlit .tidt 1WIttait IsHiCtres. Ailtitng thte the wvircd is Lomnttuiuuuil 11dtititlesioid. Fstimautte t'nctrgt- List' fur tranispiirt. Wutrldl Ra'sources 1(99-97 337 Acknowledgments World Resources 1996-97 is the product of a unique The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and international collaboration involving manv institutions Development (OECD) and individuals. Without their advice, support, infor- T'he Organization of American States (OAS) mation, and hard work, this volume could not have The Oxford Committee for Famine Relief (OXFAM) beeon producerd. work,thisvlum The Population Reference Bureau The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements We are especially grateful for the advice and assis- (Habitat) tance of our many colleagues at the World Resources The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Institute (WRI), the United Nations Environment Pro- The United Nations Department of Economic and Social gramme (UNEP), the United Nations Development Pro- Information and Policy Analysis (UNDESIPA) gramme (UNDP), and the World Bank. Their advice on The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural the selection of material to be covered and their diligent Organization (UNESCO) review of manuscript drafts and data tables, often under The United Nations Population Division time pressure, have been invaluable. The United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT) The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) The World Conservation Union (IUCN) The World Health Organization (WHO) Institutions We wish to recognize and thank the many other institu- tions that have contributed data, reviews, and encour- Individuals a.gement to this proMect. They include: any individuals contributed to the development of The Carbon Dioxide Information Analvsis Center (CDIAC) ti v b p The Earth Council thiS volunle by providing expert advice, data, or careful review of manuscripts. While final responsibility for the The Food and Agriculture Organization of the LJnlted Na- chapters rests with the World Resources staff, the con- TheiGlobal Environmental Monitoring Svstem nf UNEP tributions of these colleagues are reflected throughout The(Global Environmental Monitoring System of UNEP the book. We are especially grateful to our authors, who The International Council for Local Enviroiinmental liitia- performed diligently and then endured patiently our tives (ICLEI) numerous queries and often substantial editorial The International Federation of Red Cross Societies changes. The outside authors are listed at the end of each The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) chapter. Many of our colleagues at the World Resources The International Institute for Environnmenit anid Develop- Institute contributed to the writing of this volume as nient (IIED) well; they are acknowledged below. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) Special thanks to Marion Cheatle of UNEP, Michael The National Aeronautics and Space Administration Cohen of the World Bank, and Ralph Schmidt of UNDP, (NASA) who coordinated access to pertinent experts at their The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) agencies: World Resources 1996-97 339 Acknowledgments UNEP These six chapters were written by a team of writers. Yirka Adebayo, Jacqueline Aloisi te Larderel, Alex Ou tside experts are ackinowledged at the enid of each Alusa, Michael Atchia, All Ayoub), Fritz Balkau, Moria chapter. The staff writer-s were Carolina M. Katz, BjorkLlund, Monica Borobia, Shahida All Btitt, Franklin Rober-t L ivernalshi, contributing editor Gregory NMock, CJardv, Harvey Croze, Arthur Dahl, Antlhonyv K. Ed- an1d Leslie Roberts. wards, Hirenlagalur Gopalan, Ivonne Higuero, Jan This sectioni profited enormouslyV from the insightful HLuisIlmans, Jaime Hurtubia, Stejpan Keckes, Sergei commiilienits providcd by our group of special advisors, Khroniov, Chr-is Kirkcaldy, Hanne T. Laugesen, Mark who painstakingly reviewed every chapter: Mike McFarland, Asenatlh Omwega, Peter J. Peterson, jeenv Douglass. lUnliversity of Hawaii at Manaoa; David Foster, Plahe, Walter Rast, Nelson Sabogal, MukLlI Sanwal, U!S. Agency for International Developilelt (U.S. AID); Madhava Sa rmna, Gerh art Scliieider, Mirianm Hilda Herzer, (Cntro Estudios Sociales v Ambientales; Schomilakel, David Smith, Linda Spenicer, Magdaleina Gordon McGranahan, Stocklholm Environmlient lnsti- Steiner, Bai-Mass Md. Taal, jeffrey A. Tlhornton, Peter tote; lay Mootr Habitat; Jonas Rabinovitch, UN[)P; Usher, Veerle Vandeweerd, Deborah Vorhies, Kaveh Carole Rakodi, Jiliversity of Wales, College of Cardiff; Zahedi, Hamdallah Zedani, Carlos Zulberti. Raquel Rolnik, Instituto Polis; David Sattcrthwaite, IIED; C'arolyn Steplhcins, London School of Hygienle &t UNDP Tropical Medicille. We are especially grateful to the individuals who G. Shalzbir C'heenial, Sakkiko Fukuda-Parr, Thomilas B. contributed background papers: jeff Abbott, Habitat Johansson, Karen Jorgensen, Eric KashamlIbuzi, Jonas for Humllanitv Interinationial; jonathan Baker, Scanidinia- Rahinovitch, Friedr-icih MunIml von Mallinckrodt, M. vian Institute of Africani Studies; Kalvani Biswas, Gov- Robertson Work. crnnlent of West Bengal; Jose Antonio Borello, CEUR; Ernlst Brugger, F-iindacioin para el desarrollo sostenible World Bank eni America Latina (FUNDES); Horacio Eduardo Carl Bartone, Boris Blazic-Metziler, Eduard Bos, David Caride, IIEI)-AL; josef Leitmaunl, the World Bank; C assells, Alisonl C ave, MVIike C ollinson, Uttam Dabhol- Tlanvi Nagpal, WRl; (;reg Newhouse, California Energy Casslls Alsoi Cae, ikeColliisil,UttillDabol- Commiiissoion; David Pearce, Centre f or Social ain1 Ecu- kar, Betty Dow, Asif Faiz, john Flora, Colin A. Gannon, (noicsearch o the Gbenvronmen E E); Christiaan Grootaert, Keninethi Gwilliam, Rita Hilton, noJie Researcv i on the Glofal Eanvia-o,iilci;t (CSERsa Gordon HuLghes, Josef L. Leitmnann, Joan Martin- Browin, Alex McCalla, Thomas Merrick, Colin Rees, Salem, (Cenitre for Environmiiienit anid )evelopment in the Zmarak Shalizi, K.C. Sivar-amilakrishilaln, David Steeds, Arab Regioni anid EuLr1ope (CEDARE). Andr-ew Steer, P~aula Stone, D)avid Williams. U.S. Agencv for International Development Again, we wish to thanik our colleaIUes at U.S. All) for Part I: The Urban Environment their financial support of this special sectioni, as well as This special section of W/orld Resources reflects the the comilents on each chapter: Orestes Anastasia, John colliaborative efforts of colleagLIes at Lnleous 11StitLl- AuStin, john Borrazzo, Laurie D)eFreese, j. Pail E. ties colaboatie efors o coleauesar umeou institu-dzvFliidof avdFstr ivai tions around the world who contributed ideas, data, Rosers, Lindsay Elmendorf David Foster Viviann background papers, and reviews. Gary jack Gisiger, Joanne (Grossi, Al van Huyck, Peter Sprecial tliaiiks to GordolnMcGranaha of tle Stock- M. Kimmin, Miclhael Lippe, Robert MacLeod, Ivani holl Ecviroaliith ean toGordotn, WIO pGlaved a nia or role Pochlalt, Tamara IRickinani, Liz Satow, Steveni Sharp, hol ii nvionmnt Istiute wh plaed maor ole David WVallinga, John Wilsonl, Bill Yaeger. in shiapitng tlis sectioni anid wlho gave consistently excel- lent advice, often on short notice; to Carolvn Stephens of the Londoni Schlool of Hygiene & Tropical Mcedicile, Urban E,wironnent Reviewers who coordinated the contritbutions of maniy exper-ts on We are grateful to the following individuals for their hum.1all healthl and the environment; and to Carl Bartone thoughtful comllmiienits on this special section: Richard H. of the World Bank. Josef Leitmann of the World Banik, Adamis, jr., ITPRI; Abdlatif Y. Al-Hamad, Arab Fund and David Satterthwaite of IIED-wlho graciouslv re- for EcoInomic and Social Developmilent; Deborah Ble- spo)nded to ourl maniy requests for advice and inforimia- viss, lnterinationial Institute for Energy Conservation; tion. Franicisco Mata of the Earth CouLIcil coordiniated llona Blue, South Bank Universitv; Elleni Brennan, the contribution from ICLFI, as well as several hack- United Nations Population Division; J. Alan Btrewster, ground papers. WRI; Ernist Brugger, FUND)ES; Jeb BrugmIanni, ICLEI; 340 Worldt Resorces s 1996-97 Acknowledgments Sandy Caimrcross, London School of Hygiene & Tropi- john Whitelegg, Eco-Logica lttd.; R. Wirasinlia, WHO; cal Medicine; Fantu Clheru, Americanl UJniversity; Tas- Nicholas YOLI, Habitat. neem Chowdhurv, York University; Kathy Courrier, WRI; Devra Davis, WRI; Ximena de la Barra, UNICEF; Part -I: Global Conditions and Trends and Harry DimirriouL, University of Hong Kong; land Douglas, University of Manchester; Marc Dourojeanini, Data Tables Inter-Anic-ican Developmenlt Bank; Jochen Eigen, Habitat; Oscar Figueroa, Catholic University; Keith Basic Econromic Indicators Florig, ResoLirces for the Future; Tom Fox, WRI; Robert Principal author: Dale S. Rothnian Of the SuStainable M. Friedman, H. john Heinz III Center for Science, Development Research Institute at the LJiversitv of Economics, and the FEnvironment; Christine Furedv h CnL.a- , ' . , . ' @' Rr~~~~~~~~~~I-tISl C(.1-1m11bl, witli a conitribi-ItIO11 by Alleii L. Hll York Universlty; Ralph Gakenheimer,l Massachusetts m Institute of Techlinology; Greg Gioldsteini, WHO; Her- manin Habermann, tUNSTAT; Peter Hall, University Reviewers and other contributors include: Christian College Londonl; Marjorie Harper, Natural Resources Averous, OECD; J. Alan Brewster, WRI; Herman Daly, Conservation Service; Carl Haub, Populatiol Reference University of Maiyiland; Anne Forrest, Fnvironmental Bureau; Larry Helignian, United Nationis Poptilationi Law Institute; Tom Fox, WRI; E Mehran, 11(): Walt Division; judith A. Hermanson, Cooperative Housilng Reid, WRI; Robert Repetto, WRI; Beven Stein, OFCD; FouLndation; Gueniter 0. Karl, Habitat; John Kasarda, David Stcrin, Bostoni ULniversity University of North Carolina at CChapel Hill; Gary Kraus, National Academliy of Sciences; Xia Kutnbao, Population and Hlumazn Detvelopmnent China National Environlimienital Protection Agenlcy; Vi- Principal aluthors: Robert livr-nash of the World Re- nay Lall, Society for Developmenlt Studies; Diana Lee- souirces staff and joe Palca of National Public Radio. Smith, Mazi ngira InstitUte; Todd Litma n, \Victoria Tranisport Policv InIstituIte; Jim MacKenizie, WRI; Reviewersandothercontributorsilude: J.Alan Brew- C-laudia Marcondes, University of Toronito; jos Ma,1.1se- ster, WRI; Col. Donald S. Burke, Walter Reedi Arimiy land, Habitat; Patricia L. eCoarney, University Of Institute of Researchi; Giovanni Andrea Cornia, . ' , ~~~~~UNI(.EF; Bolh Eingelillaii Populationl Actioil Intitriia- Toronto; Steve McCoy-Thomp son, International U C'itv/C'otintvMana.lgemilenlt As.soci l(IC'MA)- tionial; Paul R. Epsteini. Cambridge Hospital; Faid El Cit/Count Association A.. BoSt UNS To Fox WRI; osepi-Alfred McMIichael, Londoni Schiool of Hvgiene & Tropical B U T F IGrinblat, U.N. PopLulation Division; Hermann Haber- Mediciiie; Robert H. M.-Nultv, Par-tilers for Livable 'iaii LJSX;Cr ab 'tliinRfrneBI ComIullliltles; Dieshi Mehta, National Institute of Ur- a U C H banAffairs;JonathanMiler,U.SEA;EricMille, reau; Larry Heli gnian, UN DESI PA; Donald A. University of Toronto; Luc Mougeot, International le- Hendetsoi, The johns Hopkins Unliversitsl; Gerald T. velopimient Researchi Centre; Ricar-do Neves, IistitLIto dc K T U Tecnologa pr . CLostinibo, National Council for InternationIal Healtil; Tecnologia para o Cildadao; Stephent B. OlIsenl, Unilver-- Cleraldo Nascimenito, UNESCO; WCalr Reid, WRI; G,ita sity of Rhode Island; Bart Ostro, California Enivironi- Sen1, India i Institute of Nanagement; ary Wilson, menital Protection Agenc;v Horst Otterstetter, Pan tt, *M . I,ount Auibuli-i Hospital. Americaini Health Organization; Mary Paden, WRI; David Pearce, CSERGE; Eduardo Plerez, Environmental Forests and Land Cover Health Project; Walt Reid, WRI; Robert Repetto. WRI; Andr-ew Robertson, National Oceanic anid Atilmosphieric Prinicipal aiuthor: Dirk Bryant of the World Resources Admiinistration (NOAA); Dale Rothlimlani, University of staff, wvithi a contribution by Bruce Cabarle of WRI. Britishi Colunibia; Lee Schilpper, University of California Reviewers and other cont1ributors include: j. Alan Rrew- at Berkeley; Dieter Schwela, WH\ O; David Sheer, Inter- ster, WRI; Nigel Dudley, Equilibriuma1; Philip M. Fearn- national Managemilenit and Developmienit Group, Ltd.; side, InIstituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazonlia jac Smit, Urbani Agriculture Network; Elisabeth Soin- (INPA); Curtis Flatiher, U.S. Department of Agriculture; merfelt, Demographilc and Health Survey; Richard Toni Fox, WRI; David Giordon, Pacific Ernvironment Srren, C'entre for Urbani and Commun(itV Studies; M.S. and Resoujrces Center; Alan Grainger; University of Swaminathan, M.S. Swaminathiani Researchi Founida- Leeds; Richard A. Houghton, Woods Hole Research tion; Geetani Tiwari.l Idia Institute of Techlinology; Dan Institute; Lynn HLntsinger, University of California, Tunstall, WRI; Michael P. Walsh; Greg Watters, WHO; Berkelce; AlexalIder \I Korotkov, FAO; j.P. Lanly, FAO; Worl(i Resources 1996-97 341 Acknowledgments Julia Morris, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Walter Andreas Kahnert, U.N. Economic Commission for Parham, China Tropical Lands Project; Walt Reid, WRI; Europe; Richard Neal, Southwest Fisheries Science Cen- K.D. Singh, FAO; Nigel Sizer, WRI; Lisa Tracy, Pacific ter; John B. Pearce, NOAA; Walt Reid, WRI; Robert Environment and Resource Center; Bruce Wilcox, Insti- Repetto, WRI; Aaron Zazueta, WRI. tute for Sustainable Development. Atmosphere and Climate Food and Agriculture Principal authors: Gregory Mock and Eric Rodenburg Principal author: Robert Livernash of the World Re- of the World Resources staff, with a contribution by Liz sources staff, with contributionis by former WRI staff Cook of WRI. May Mercado Peters and Steven McCann. Reviewers and other contributors include: Christian Reviewers and other contributors include: Nikos Alex- Averous, OECD; Thomas A. Boden, CDIAC; Roger andratos, FAO; William Bender; Bob Blake, WRI; Tom Dower, WRI; John Harte, University of California at Fox, WRI; Peter Hazell, IFPRI; Francesco Pariboni, Berkeley; Mary J. HLItzler, Ul.S. Department of Energy; FAO; David Pimentel, Cornell University; Per Pinstrup- Michael Jefferson, World Energy Council; Andreas Andersen, IFPRI; Walt Reid, WRI; Neill Schaller, Wal- Kahnert, lU.N. Economic Commission for Europe; Mi- lace Institute for Alternative Agriculture; Gary H. chael MacCracken, Office of the U.S. Global Change Toenniessen, Rockefeller Foundation; S. Zarqa, FAO. Research Program; Walt Reid, WRI; Michael Schom- berg, World Energy Council. 3iodiversity Principal author: Dirk Bryant of the World Resources staff. Production Staff Reviewers and other contributors include: Tundi A talented team of editorial, prodUCtion, and publishing Agardy, World Wildlife Fund; Devin M. Bartley, FAO; expertsampied the enoroustako preparing Chris Bleakley, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Author- experts accol mpishedting. Weothank thask Of phreirdedng ity; J. Alan Brewster, WRI; Brian Groombridge, c h w a WCMC; Richard Neal, Southwest Fisheries Science addition to the World Resources staff they include: Center; John B. Pearce, NOAA; Walt Reid, WRI. a Additional Factchecking and Research: Nicole Schofer, Ener~~' and Materials ~~~Stephen J. Latham, Steven McCann, Peter Grim1es Principal author: Eric Rodenburg of the World Re- ,, . . . . . , ~~~~Copyeditors: Michael Haves, Michael Edingtoil sources staff; with contributions by Jim MacKenzie of WRI, Roger Dower of WRI, and Gregory Mock of the Index: Bland Blackford World Resources staff. Cover design: Pamela Reznick, Reznick Design Reviewers and other contributors include: Christian Photographs: Theresa de Salis and Mark Edwards, Averous, OECD; J. Alan Brewster, WRI; Colin Camp- Still Pictures bell; Joy Dunkerley; Tom Fox, WRI; Herniann Haber- Maps: Daniel Nielsen mann, UNSTAT; Mary J. Hutzler, U.S. Department of Energy; Anatoly Konevsky, UNSTAT; Walt Reid, WRI; M P Michael Schomberg, World Energy Council; Kirk We are especially grateful to WRI Librarian Beth Smith, Hawaii East-West Center. Behrendt for assisting us with research and materials. It has been a privilege to work with so many out- Water and Fisheries standing individuals throughout the world in producing Principal authors: Gregory Mock and Dirk Bryant of World Resources 1996-97. the World Resources staff. Reviewers and other contributors include: J. Alan Brew- ster, WRI; Francis T. Christy, IMARIBA; Adele Cris- poldi, FAO; Bob Engelman, Population Action International; Jean Marc Faures, FAO; Tom Fox, WRI; Serge Garcia, FAO; Peter Gleick, The Pacific Institute; Leslie Roberts, Editor-in-Chief 342 WVorld Resources 1996-97 The World Resources Institute (WRI) is an independent center World Resources Institute for policy research and technical assistance on global environ- 1709 New York Avenue, N.W. mental and development issues. WRI's mission is to move hu- Ngtork 20006 U.S. man society to live in ways that protect Earth's environment Washington, D.C. 20006 U.S.A. and its capacity to provide for the needs and aspirations of cur- rent and future generations. Because people are inspired by WRI's Board of Directors: ideas, empowered by knowledge, and moved to change by Maurice E Strong, Chairman greater understanding, WRI provides-and helps other institu- John Firor, Vice Chairman tions provide-objective information and practical proposals John H. 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B.ox 3)552 RItada ililtnitr Avenuir Nairobi, Kenya Bangkok 10)00) Ih'iland Cairo: lINEI Ara h I tagitc I .iaison O)ffice Executive Director 31 I.AhdeiL MNoncin Riad )tokki PO). ttox 212 Elizaherli I)owdcswciI C(airo, IFgvpt Deputy Executive Director Other Outposted Offices ReuLhei C)n cnho Iiite-atiotnal Register for l'otettiitl;lv - I otiC Itetitls Itrograninitic Activity (t L crc ii IR TC PItA I (,CIltVl ExeCUtive C entrie Regional and liaison Offices I i Chhtiin tIds Arirtoncs ( .ase Potsled i.56 Latin America and the Caribbean: 1219 ( hI a111 li, CitCli UVA. Swit/erialiad LINlEl' Regional C)ffiee ftor Iatin America id ttrhe Ca rihbeant LINI) Indliisrrv intlE i V0 Le lrtogr.i lit .Ativitve(:trrt [oiiilevartl de (its Virreyes No. 155 IE/PAC C ol. It as \irIVirt-eves 1'0. Box I 0--93 I 1))) Nslexico CitCv, elxico e9 ti 39-43 7riai .Atldre C :w-t 1- 1 739 Europe: taris Cede'x I , France LINEIt Regitnal C)ffice fotr Euirope (,CleCVa ]xeCCtU T Centre U[NFI' Interiatiotal FTnviroitiienital Techniolotgs C( nttr (IFTC) 1 5 C hertin tes Ar\it&tities, ( ase Postale .3.5h C)salka Office 1219 (i Chtait ine (reneva, Switzerlaitd 2-1 1) Rrikiclhi koeii Africa: TSI SU lll lisii -ki. l, )saka a S *8. japan (INE-P Regioiil Office for Africai U NFP/D)uparteilieint of Huiinatiitanri;ii Affairs (I)HAi C NFP Heatliqiia rters ( tLimtva/Rclief C(M'dirtinaitinl ta11ch1 I ilittI Nationts Avelie, (C igi ri P,t1lak ties Nirtions 1'(). Box tt (5.52 8-14 avenetied, Ia Pais Nairoih, Ktunva 12 1 I C leCva Ii), Switerrianti The Uiniteti Nations EI vilro01itiTIt PrOgar iiit' C (iNFt) was Cs- mental probill ems, pri-oilote ctvironiein mentilly s01it ( ilii aii;lgciiictii talilisheti in 1972 aind given lhy tii LinitCtLi Natioiis (Ucrteril As- Lt htiori national anid inrernartionil levels lv citCouLr-aging thc alp- sCT'iMV a hrroadi aitli CIhallengilng 1iall.iate to stimulate, toortli- plicatioin of assCssniellnt results, alnti make sIth actitilis A;nd findl- ii ate, iltl providte polit v gitidlaCLe ftor sooin ti environ mielital aic- irigs kiotnv to the pir hi lic-ftroin scicrltists and plit licyitakers to tioii thitoLglout the voirid. Initia1 impetus ftir UNEIt's for,ia- intitistr-alists anti sciioolchildreln. The pr-ogr-aitt is vrun in toopera- tioht ca3ieC otir of the Iargei noigotig ivernrtienrai anti antipollution tiOti With rtlile-oius otither Uniteti Nations agencies, govCrn- l101lie ill nt i dstr-i ai1CI CeOUctoicst This interest in pollutrnts cc- iiit'iist intergoerrmilienxll organiizatilis, notlgovte nC iILlit l niamis, hlit right frior tile carly years, as perceptionils tf eiivirol- organi/ationls alti specitiliizt ilistittitionis. lil ental problmhit s biroialdened to enciililmpass thlose arisirig fro il Froiti thit 1j996-97 hi-t Iinil, LIN Pl is strenigtiCnirig< its rI- thie iniisise anti a Fuse of reinewa11e natullral rsoirces, the proiu0- giolial (tIlvry antd atioltilig a itiore ilitegllrarei approiaeh. Activi- ttiol oif rieVi-ri 01niell tially soi in1 t1- Sistaial hie tdevelopiltiitr lie- tits art' ill 0v g ri toC tI trntr fie' igPr i nilit'IC a,t s' stistaiiialilet canic a ni aain Tiurpose of LIN ER i1lialragc lilt t antl us of iat rLralI rest- SitCs; sstaIIa lit1'11 protlu- Frtiii thle glolhal htldqu.larttrs in Nairohi, Kt'iya,z alti sCvCIe Ie- tioii anti COIIsrLIptiollt a blett'r ct itiniilltlit foir htuinla hen1tih gitonil antd itison offices worltiwiie, LINEP's staff of soilC .321) anti wt'I-lartig gith1ali tili ailti tilt tilvirtliitt'lt; gitihal al SciCtltists lawvcrs, atidiiistrators, anrid inforit til oni specialists rtgit tnal 5t'Vreicig a ltl pit T.F prroi railllilt is i t t'i1H tt'd early out t.JNFt s prOgralrit, Whitich is laiti town a1itd rtvist'i tiroLigIl thrtC tiiVisioris: Prograglimillt'; Envirtiilrlt'met Infornlaltion vcer-y two Vears liy a (l oterililg C ouncil of rtplrcst'ltaties fromil ailti Asst'silimelt; It vlit :ltl Externial Relatioins. its S8 mullii r F ti1ts. Tlts lil1hers art' t'eCrt't tn a Staggeretl Thie Division of Friviroiilliciit Inforniti on al nd AssCssiltit hasis fOli fO1(1 Vct rS hyl tei LJlirtiL Natiiis ( ;niiral Asselliiy. vworks withi a Witlde rling, if pa r-tieTCls ro keep tiiitlc revie-W alitd lJNI I's nmission is to providt Ic3ilctrshilp antI tncitouragt p 't- repoirt onii tht Sta tt if thie worlit tIleitt liiitilt. Provide Ci irta ntrsipir in tcaiiig for tile enivi toililltent hy it spirilig. inftlming, Wearning oft tlirVil t'ta I tiic:ts. tICetC0ip hiarlittinisCt' titlthot- atlld clilllelii liltiolis .llLth p'oples to ilprtove titir i aqu1itv of life ologits anti tools for policy rticvaint ;iSStSsittCl'tt. it tiP tVC tlCtCCS WittiOLlut Coil;lpotltliSiig that of fiturt' gt'llt'trtionls. Oroatdi, to ilif-ililatiotli fo- t'itvirollTlt'litlI tdttisitni itiikirig iltl tiCli.lltt' llNF:l's pro,grani lilillS to 'MiIul1ltC atIC[ on Oll 1aj(1 Cllivrl-OI dCVI0I)oing' CouL1t17cs~' Ca;nIMbilities to Lnse infOrniation. United Nations Development Programme I U N. Plaza New YorkI New York 10)17 U.S.A. Regional Bureau for Latin Aflerica and the Catibbean Assistant Administrator antd Director Administrator Fernando Z.u i)7 hado James Gustave Sperh Associate Administrator Regional Bureau for Africa Rafeeuddini Altbmed Assistant Administrator and Director Flein Johnsvmn Sirleia Regional Bureau for Asia and thye Pacific Assistant Administrator and Director Bureau for Programmnie and Polic-v Support Ntay Htorn Assistant Administrator and Director Anders Wijkrnan Regional Bureau for Arab States Assistant Administrator and Director Buread for Resources and FErternalA ffairs Saad Alfarargi Assistant Administrator and Director Regional Director for Europe and tlhe Commonwealth of Normand I a1u7(n Independent States Anton Krirderiiik The United Nations Development Programmile JUNDP) is the arid pragmatic coniceprs, measures an(d policy instruments for world's largest mtiltilatcral source of grant fuliding for develop- promoting more people-orientedc development. ment cooperation. It was created in 1965 through a merger of Fnvironmient is one of the 1main themes for UNI)P's 1992-96 two predecessor programmenics for Unite(d Nations technical coop- prograimming cycle. Fnvironmcnital objectives are therefore io- erationi. Its funds, which totaled USS1.9 hillion in 199% come cluded in 87 per cent of the coUntry prograiimmes approved for from yearly voluntary conitrihutiolIs from mimlier States of the this period ant] virtually all activities are screened for their erivi- UN or its relatetl agenclies. ronmlient lI impact. Programmes to huild Capacities for sustain- Through a network of I136 oftices worldwide, LUN)jP works ahle developmnient andt natural resource riiaiiagenient are with 1 75 governments to huild developing countries' capacities supporred in such sectors as food sec- urity, forestry, wV.ater an1(d fol sustainahle human developmeit. To execrLte the programmes sanitation, energy and urhan developiiient. arid projects it supports, it draws uiponI developing coumntries' na- UND)P assistedt developing couinitry governments ald lorcal tional technical capacities, as well as the expertise of over 30 in- NGOs and grassroots organizarions in preparing tor thc 1992 ternational and regional agencies and non-governmelital Untited Nations Conference on F ovirontiient anI( Developmient organi7ations. UNC'FD) As a follow-up to I INCED, it is (i) assisting the tlevel- People are at the centre of all UINDP activities, which focus on opirig Countrics in integratinig environmental conceernls irito devel- fotur priority areas: poverty climiination; crearion of jobs antI SUS- opirerit plans, alId (ii) provitling support in strengthening tainahle livelihootds; advanceriient of women; and protection capacity for mariageriient of environimilent antd surstainahle devel- arid regeneration of the enivironmeit. Within this context, opmeit programmes as callerd for in A( GEND)A 21 UN(ET)D's lJNDIP is frequrently asked to assist in pronliotirig sound govern- hlneprinit for action. For this purpose UND)P launched 'Capac- ance and mnarket developmient, arid to supporr the rehuilding of itV 21", which hecame fullV ope rational inJ June 1991. Br h)L- societies in the aftermath of war ailLi huiuariitarian eriergentiCs. cember 1994, Austria, C anada, Deriiark, Finland, France, Glohal and interregiorial prograrmies address worldwide proh- Germany, Italy, Japan, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzer- lems, including food secuLity and HIV/AIDS. land, the Ulnited Kingdom, the tlnited Sataes and the LIUS Fiviroii- Fifty-eight per cent of UNl)P's total resources are allocated for mental Prorectioni Agency had pledgetl a total of $ 50.3 millhion the couLntries designated as "least-developed" hy the UN Gen- and fuirther support Was expected. eral Assenibly. Eighty-seven per cent of UNDP's CouLntry pro- Forry-one new national llNI)P posts for sustainahle ulevelop- grariime funds go to coulitries with arinural per capita GNPs of nienit officers were cstahlished im early 1994. The nlew national S7.50 or less. staff riembers will advocate the integration of environilieritial A Humran Developmrent Report, puhlishied yearly for IIN)P considerations inti UNDP-supported activities, and proniote since 1990 and tirafted hv a tearii of indepeindent consultarits, as- and surppoit specific initiatives such as ( apacity 2 I and the sists thec international coriiniuiiity in developing riew, practical (dlohal Fnviroriorent Facility (G FF). E The World Bank The World Bank Group 1818 H Street, N.W The World Bank Group is a partner in opening markets and Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A. strengthening economies. Its goal is to improve the qualitv of life and expand prosperity for people everywhere, especially the Executive Directors: world's poorest. Khalid H. Alvahya A first-rate financial standing and access to the world's capital Khalid M. Ai-Saad markets enable the Bank to invest broadly in societies-from Marc-Antoine Autheman health, education, and the environment to infrastructure and Ali Bourhane policy reform. Andrei Bugrov The World Bank Group of institutions includes: Marcos C. de Paiva * The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Huw Evans (IBRD), fouLided in 1944, is the single largest provider of Fritz FiscIer development loans to middle-income developing countries and jean-Daniel Gerber a major catalyst of similar financing from other sources. The Leonard Good Eveline Herfkens IBRD funds itself primarily by borrowing on international Ruth Jacoby capital markets. Bimal jalan * The International Development Association (IDA), founded in Abdul Karim Lodhi 1960, assists the poorest countries by providing interest-free Leonard Mseka credits with 35- to 40-vear maturities. IDA is funded primarily Peter W.E. Nicholl by governments' contributions. Atsuo Nishihara D The International Finance Corporation (IFC) supports private Julio Nogues enterprises in the developing world through providing loan and Jan Iasca equity financing, and through a range of advisory services. Walter Rill * The Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) offers Pasugswad Suwan investors insurance against noncommercial risk and helps de- Jorge Terrazas veloping country governments attract foreign investment. Li Yong * The International Cenrer for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) encourages the flow of foreign investment to Officers: developing countries through arbitration and coniciliation fa- James D. Wolfensohn, President cilities. Rachel Lomax, Vice President and Chief of Staff Jessica Einhorn, Managing Director Over its 52-year history the World Bank has become a global Richard Frank, Managing Director partnership in which more than 179 countries have joined to- Gautam S. Kaji, Managing Director gether for common goals: to improve the quality of life for peo- Caio Koch-Weser, Managing Director ple throughout the world and to meet the challenge of Sven Sandstrom, Managing Director sustainable development. Index Agricultural research and extension service, Aligarh City; India, natural resource extrac- developing countries, 236 tion, 62 Abidjan, Cote d'Jvoire, 4y Agriculture Alliance of Small Island Stares (AOSIS), sea bLus lanies and high speed huses. 94 and environment, 232 levels, 322 Accra, Ghana and food, 225 Aluminum, 290-91 cauises of death, 34 and greenhouse gases, 232 Amazonian forests, 212 holusehold environmental indicators, 46 inrernational assistance, 236 Ambient air pollution, 45 mortality rates by socioenvironmental zones, and water use, 303 electric power plants, 18 49 Agronomic practices, improvement, 234 and motor vehicles, 45 and Sao Paulo, Brazil. 49-51 Agronomy, teaching of, 234 Amphibians, threatened species, 266-67 urban niarket gardens, S Aguablanca, Cali, Colombia, 1 38-39 Anopheles stephensi mosquito, malaria, 41 Acid precipitation, 279, 315 AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syn- Antarctic, ozone hole, 316 forest degradation, 23 drome). see Diseases, AIDS AquacultUre, 295-97 Acquired immune deficiency syndrome Air basin management districts, 1 13-14 as an ensironmental risk, 301 (AIDS). see Diseases, AIDS Air basins, and air pollution, 113 Asia, 301 Actioii for Security Health for All (ASHA), Air pollution, 81, 279, 282, 315 and mangrove degradation. 254 Delhi. India, 38 see also Ambient air pollution; Indoor air pol- supplementing marine fish stock, 301 Administrative capacity, energy manage- lution; Urban air pollution Aquifer, overextraction, 7 nieot, 273 and air basins, 113 Aquifers, 301 Administrative legal resources, 125 cleaner fuels. 97 depletion, 64 Aedes aegypti mosquito and deforestation, xiv Arab NGO Network, 144 deoigue fever, 41 domestic sources, 42A44 Aral Sea, water diversion, 301 exrended range, 182 and economic growth, 113 Archer, Dennis, 17 Acedes albopictus mosquito, dengue fever, 41 and eneray cons20ption, 85 Asbestos-related lung disease, Bonibay, A frica and inorme level, 21 India, 45 see ,ulso East Africa; sub-Saharan Africa lead, 6 Asia AIDS, 177-78, 180 Los Angeles, 68-69 see also East Asia; South Asia cholera, ISO and motor vehicles, 82, 86 aquaculture, 301 crop yieldLs. 232 nickel smelters, 206 bicycling, 95 food shortages, 227 particulates and lead, 104 cholera, 180 migration, 7 priorities for action, 113-16 chronic undernutrition, 236 population projection, 175 in selected cities, 154 coastal ecosystems, 248 tropical forests, 205, 211 temperature extremes, 18 energy demand, 278 tuberclIisisI, 180 traffic congestion, 20, 24 food pr(oduction, 225 urbanization trends, 3 and two-stroke engines. 98 marine biodiversiry, 252 African cities, fertility rates, 4 and two-wheel vehicles, 98 migration, 7 African H ousing Board. 137 urban, I motor vehicles, 82-83 in urban areas, x population projection, 175 Age, bv countrv 192-9Z an urban srasl x tropical forests, 205,211 .1 and urban sprawl, 9traiainte(s Agendal 21, 144 voluntary substitute emissions reducrion urbanzation trends, 1 3 Agricultural growth meaSures, 69 seastepickers,112 and biodiversity, 2 32 Air pollution sources Asian Coalition for Housing Rights, 144 land and water resources, 212 energy generation, 1 13 Aswan Dam, and Nile River, 254 Agricultural inputs, 240-41 industry, 113 Athens, Greece, traffic bans, 93 Agriculmtral productioni transportation, 113 Atmosphere, and climate, 315-337 developing coiintries, 228 Air quality standards Australia anid food, 2.38-39 monitoring and enforcement, 114 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, 259 growth rates, 227 World Health Organization (WHO), 66, 66 marine biodiversity. 2.52 and loss of genetic stocks, 234 Air and water pollution controls, costs and Australian Institute of Marine Science, 253 and soil degradation, 234 benefits, II 0-1 1 Azidothymidine. see AZ-E (azidothvmidine) Agricultural research, 2 30 Algal blooms, Guatemalan coast, 256 AZT (azidothyniidine), 187 World Resoufrces 1996-97 347 Index B But ilt enivirolilnient, atid humina n health, 1 87 participaitorl planining, 142 Bus lanies and high spced hoses, 94 C.hattriec, Rachel, 26 Biarc, Aiitoii S Buisiniess training, 1-39 Chernrov iticlnu r I zit ccident Badshah, Akhtar, 13.3 js 1 factr in illness and birth defects, I 78 Baltic Sea, euriophiication, 71I g rest dci n iato ioi, 206 Bangkok 'Fhiilaiid 0 Chesapeake Baiy Bangkok, Thailand e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rosioii coiiitriil 73 garbage collection, 1 30 Cadilliunl, 2(0-91 uirrophlocation. 71, 74 griollik, s5 Cairo, Igypt, Zabbaleen. 1.3i overharvesting, 255 hazardius wastes, 23 Ca jamarca, Per( regionaia coastal zone managerneni, 7.3-74 lauid subsidenve, 64 aiwid drceiirrali,ed governiment. 12.Y ( Chesapeake Bay Program, initiatives, 74-7.5 pollution redtitiiou recomtiiendations, Pro0vi4tiii Sustainabl l) topneut Plan, 12Y (:hld labor, ta poor, i4 tradfic collgestiott reduction recoimitndicla- Calcutta, Inulia, wastewater treatmient, 1 IO Cl .ild mi itnality. 177 tiotis, 104 Cali, Colombia, housinig priogram, 1 9S- 39 Abid jan, (tc ' Ivoirie ', Baniks, 1 3S, 143 (talifornia Air Resourci s Board (:tA RB), as an iiditirca of htirnaii well-being, 1 73 P4stisevi'kas, Dclhi, ilndia, 39 68-69 diarrhtal dca eiseasC, 2 I Beaches aiid sand dLuIiCs, anid coristrutrio u, California (Clean Air Act, 6id i ifood onr trrima in in. 40 in feetIOn', aiid paurasitic disen se, 1 8 1 61 Canada, forests, 204 lak.arta, Indonesia, 6 Berkeley, California Cancer, and sociocoinoinic status, 48 Urban areas, 36 ilnitiinucleated urbanii egioins. 1 19 Carhoo dio\xidc cm issilols, 67, 71, 2Si-SI1, iirba -rin raI., s2 wastepickers, 11.3 3 1 .5-1 9, 3 1 9. 33, I ir:ban iiatill), 3I Beriiii ClillatC SU1imit, .27 see i/so Ctrcenhouse gas ciiiissioi ii C(liidretn Berlin Mantda te, .322 anthropogeii ic and natural, 317 biological atid social risks, 3.5 developiig countrics, 22 con tcentraitions1 320 intestinal disorders, 36 Rhopal, Itidia, Union Carbide factorv acci- and consuimer piirchase power. 31.8 and poverrt, 14 dutit, 15 ciists ot ciintrrolI 3i20 respiran rv infectionis, .36 Bicyclinlg. SI, 831, 88, 90-91, 9.-96. 97 developirin COUntrie,s 31 - 19 and siliid naste, 44 effcCts Luplon lc mutLrt if niatiiinal wealth, /60 -hildren's health, 36, 42, 11.3 Bii diversity. 247-61) from fossil lil con stiiuption and ceiiieiit AI )S, I S4 sCer a/so Marime Niodiversirv ilianutifacrtirc. 310 DcIhi, liicla, 38 aid agriulttiuralI gr i'tlL2S32 tistria, 3 186, a26-27 atitd ucari /9h-97 ciiral reefs, 253 srta bilisaririn of coi -entra tiii , .32f) ex pisure o Ilead. 47, /04 and infectious diseasc, IS 3 technoiilogics, 1 1 immunizatni ion. 1)6-97 iilnd logginig, 21S-(19 rransirioin ciitiirie s 319 in.toor air poillutioll, 22 Biodiversitv assessment, Uiniited Nations F.n- (initeed Staris, t 16 lead CXliiSUtr, 1 S, 20, 24 vironment Progrutaiiitie WlINFP1), 247-A4 Carhiio clioxidce relaiscs, pet capita, 319 iiutriioTi, 2336 Biol(igical priidictiotl, C.osta IcisVstemiSs, (a rhion moinoxide, 44, 86, 90, I 11, .3 31 in iiirb-an areas, 1 7 .58 Carhin storiige .apicitv' 2.32 tirbun violenrce, .36 Biil)njss fuel, 278 (Carilibearl, coastal ecosstcnis, 253 v lcciii ativils, 12 Biomiass ftuels, dcveiopitig coiliitries, 6.3 Caribbuean cOUnties, urIaiiz.tin, .3 wastCpickig. /12 Chli iia Bioniass loss, and forest degradatioin. 208 Ca rtegeia(, Colombia, sewage system, 1106 cial gasification planti, II i5 Bioregioria l maniiagemi eniti 2S4 Carval jal Foundation, C(ali, (Colombia. forests, 2104-05 Birds, thrcatened species. 264- 5i 13,'- 3,9 reliaiic on c(ial, .319 Birth rates Causes of death r(UidiWoid iniports, 2116 by coiiiitry, 1 92-9. chronic diseases, 34 silftir di oxide, 67 urblianization, .S coiimimiunica ble diseases, .34 Thr ee (urges i'roje t, 279 Black Deatli . see Plague. uitonlic dcceli pcd cioiuntvics, 1,51 C hlorine, anit wastel'vtcr, 72 Black Sea, pillitiion alnd overfishinog, 2.54 levclopilig COiii1tries, .34, 1 79, 18() C:hlorofluorocarbioiis (CICs), 3(6 Bomiiiiiay, India. asiestuos-rclated lung Lis- CDC. see (:cntcrs for Disease Ciontroul and ChoilerI . 1ra I -I 1 case, 45 Irevenitiioni Chriiic t and dcgeiierative disealses Boston, Long Ratige %Vater SupplW IPrograinl Cement lialnlUaCrUre and fossil fucl CO1t- aS CiiiseS oi dIc ith, 34 iLRWSP1, 1(09 suMPriuil. cariiori diiixide emiissions, 3.3.31 soici ttcrauiis 1, Brazilianit Institute iOf Munici pal Adntlinisira - Center fior Africatn Settlenieit Sitidies ainid (:iliwung RicVR lakartva, Indolnesia, 7 tion, extensioni service, 1 30 Development, 144 Cisneros, I lenrv, 1 Brazilian rosewood fDualln'rgia tigrt), 212 Cunters for Disease Ciiontrol anii lPre,enrioin (:ties Bribery, 2139 (.[)C) se alsoi (Compact cities; Megacities; Llrbati atr- r tiosatetv level-4 couta inniienti facilities. 1 87 c is; lirhailiZ3tion Bronx .cnteR, 141 identificatioii of Fbiol a virtis. I 8 I "ciologictil foorprinit" 58 Bronix, New York, citizeti participation. 141 C:entral Ftirope andl edcali tioii, I74 Brown Agetida, 19-24 pujipl.riiil, 1 77S anI rnvironmeint, 1-27 definiitioin, 19 urban p, >wei. 1 2 a itdniivi mittenr protection, 1.3 Broiwi, Lester, 228 Centro Intern-acionl de I e joiramiento dc grcarer than 750,00(0 population, I 150-iI Br-ownfield" sites Naizy frigiz T i CI1NMYT), 2.1( greater thin 5100400 residents, 61 Iefiii it iuiii, 16 (~~~~~~~~~~~i P id ti mu~~~id health, I 74 aiicd urhan conrainimcenr lolicies, I 1IS grovvth i-ates, 227 .1lid iand omes of residents, 174 Brkuginiani, Jeb, 129 vields, 228, 2 ,_89 iieq us lit a iiing residents, 14 Brundtilild Commission, 14.5 Chagas' disease, mod triaiomiita hugs, 41 irlir-cris puiohlems, 13 Buienoi Aires, Argentina, Prograria Aliiuoen- ChatIatioogam, Tentiessee neighborhioods, .3 3, 39 tario Integral v Soliciario WPAN1S, I 3.5 air polluti on, 142 See alsio Ititter-cut tieighhborhoods 348 World Resources 1996-97 Index opportunities, ix, 2, 25, 58 marine bodiversiry 248 Comimunity- based development, (mnanial political accotintabilitry 126 amid miarinle bioloiica l prodLcIVisM, 2S I resourCes 1 4(0 piollttion. ix threatened hv urbanization ardi tourism, 61 Commnuiti-level approiacli. ciiviroi in neural population of largest, 9 thrreats to, 248-49 mannagellment. 131 priorities for actioL, x urbani inmpacts, 58 resource consumiption, ix Urban land coiiversi'in, 60 COmmUnirtv-orientCd strategics, water and social environnmerit, x Coastal erosion sanlitationl, xi aid sLIstainiable developmeiit. 26, 26, S8, 1I4 and sliorel ie developiipenmt, 61 O mi uter oiriiesys as "transnational spaces for economic activ- Tanpgiers. Miorocco, 62 amid roiad sIsreins. 84 ity," 1I Co astal haihitats, cci Isstcils ar risk, xiv anid tran(Sit s stems. 84 vulnierable grioups, 14, 35-37 coastal aid marine ec'osystem' s, 26( (0Comipat cities, 26 wetlanid conversion, 62 arm d tranpiportarimn, i X Cities of wealth Cmoastal poillition, vsatersled priitectioii 27 Co inipost plants, 1, 5 comiipositioii of waste, 70 Coastal urban ceiltersh 60 CiaiilIlillial wastewvater ollectioiin sssteini cOInsLiiliptioii and wa ste generatioi, 57, 62. Coastal wetlands, conversion and degrad.r- IQh6, 1 ( 70 ttiOni s (i3Olfereince of the Parties (to the Berlin ('h- natural resource extraction and depletioiin 62 (iastlines mIate SniFltnit), 324 regional and glohbal eniviron mental effects, I laiid reclanmantiTin 6 I (aConsen sus buildingp, an d pubIiL participa- and sustainable development.lt, 145 poreiirial thrrats, 2iO tio5 I2)) Citizen participation, 140 stilev ot, 61 Brim x, New York, 141 trutait encroaclhentc, 59 Corisersvatioin City and cOti MiiUnity, and envirionmi ruiental (Coasts, coloversioln if 60 at d imarite endin iIsiii 2 52 sustainahility, 125-45 Coa sts and coastal waters iaonstruction nc acriais Manufacturers I )28 City indicators, India, 154 pollutcoim, 298 Constaticr i riUm te Internatiters,gi- City location, aiid environmentital impact, 59 populariiii pressures, 254 ciulturaltRes Grohp(ConIAR)t ii A3 g 2 i4 City size and wealth, household cnviroin- Codc ot Coinduct for Responsible Fisheries, CotumralRearch I(WI R, 23d 2.34'n*di nieital problenis, 46 30)0) (:oisdmer ptitSh.is1 p1S twet, and carhmmn di- City-wide problens, urhan cnviroiiniient (Collection of solid wastce.35 iixosidumetioissions, 31s 44-47 Collective action nteighborhood anid soiis- (:lean Air Act, enfore nileiit, 142 nlnits ISSueS, 1.35 (:uiitiiiated sediments, cos It l clean-up, "Cleain" prodtictioll, niartufacturiiig, 18 Cominnloditv indexes, world, /7' 0 1 Climate ComModity prices, world, I m0 ConrtcntiumriO aiid fertil ity re 1 and atmiiosphere, 31 5-337 CoriininiUrcable diseases, as CauISCS if death, i i iv t anid energy, xiii 34 2o(1 huniai influence, xiv CM ites and citizes, aid hrbati ntnti Itriati Trade in n- and infectious diseases, 182 rodiniaentalnagetit, 125 dangered Species (C:HES), 259 protectiton, 32 3 rone.l,aaeen, iWild FaIHTiia and Fltira I research anid nionitoring, 324 Coiiiuiinitv atiti,n Hondtiras, 1 34 Ctoopcraition of loc,l and regional goverli- stabilization, 315, 321 Ciommunity banks, Nigeria. 14 mtents. 12) Cliniate change, 257, 3 1 5, 320 CimIII1iut1itV and city, and enviroititietital Cuoopcrative Hoiisiiig i-oundattoni ((CHF) global warming, 117 sustainibilitv I 2S Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 1.39 scetitific assessnieit, 317 Communllilt credit programs, 140 (tipei7hagen 1)enmark bievelitig 9' Climate changes, 20)8, 281 Coi tniu in nty dcvelopiipenit,n nogigoverinmental ( oppr,l 290-91 greenihouIse gas emissions, 273, 279 organizatiotns (NG,OsI 1.33 ( Coral rtefs Cliniate convention, .316 CommuVlity inputs, rbai rcdevelopmielit, biurdivsrsitN, 253 Climate Technology Initiative. 32 3 141 bIleaching of, 249, 2S3 (limate treaty, 322 Cii in tilnit iilvolvciiIcniit, 52 degradatmion atid dkstrttoiCtO, 2S3, 25 Climatic conditions, and occupationital haz- Ahidjian, :ote dlvoire, 5 Liseas., 257 ards, 45 einviroutiineital initiatitcs. 128-29 and tmi.rinc hiodtidversity, 25I C02 Reduction Program, In ternatii 'I retvironiterital plannin ig pad decisiotiniakitig, Philippities 298 C.Os Reduction Program Internationill 131 31 pollutio,l darnage ro 7 Council for Local Einviroimnciital Initia- I 3 I Iiillut d.itiip to, 7 tives IICLEI), /29 ~~~~~~~~ill etivirotnniental SOiLutitiOlS, 105 GiSt iOf cle.rti-1p, Citttafniltaced sediinients, tives (ICLEI), 129 JaatsIrdleill 2 Jakarta, Itidone,ta, 7 7 Coal, 288-89, 318 Karachi, Pakiitin. 106 (to(t IrCeVemme, 1()3 ash, 279 uLrbani entviroimmnmental dIallemige. 2 water a dl sewer, 108-0)9 gasificationi plants, I 15 water aiid sami tatioin. 106-()7 C ost-effective w.ste manzigemnent, urhban .tr- industry lobbyists, 323 Conimtiiiiity managemetit, e llemlets of sLu- eas 58 iiniiiiig. 63 c 5 Coal- aiid oil-fired power plants. podllIron cess 1.34 Costs anid cle fits, water aid air pollution reduction, 114 Cm1imIIIUmIIiitV mem bersh ip control, I11(1-11 Coastal degradatioin, 295 and enviusr)mentaI iipriveimmcmiit, 1 ; C:ore drlvoire, gross dLIIIiestiv. proiduoct. 4 discards, 298 C niisii m o 'li tairv. i 2, Crop proditttion and total land Hse, devil- Coastal developnmemit, and habitat loss, 254 1.32-.3 3 opinig comuitmrres, 2.30) Cioastal ecosystemils 247 CommUnitVitc ietworks 1 32-3 135 Cimop yields, 2.31-32 biological prodt ntmim), 58 AL. ri,ii s 23. Caribbean, 253 Commlltyorganizations 13' ccr.l, 2 3 CLirrenit conditions, 253 CimuiitI.111ity perceptions I ;tin Aiiierica, 232 and developnment. 248, 249 amid healtlh solutiills, 5/ postharvest lmisses. 234 factors in decline of, 253 ot tirban hcalth risks. 5o Stintli Asia, 232 indicators of risk, 248 CoFinILiiiUitV plamiiiig atiid niiuagenuit, (ropland, 2 1 6-17 Indo-Western Pacific, 253 wvvietn's role in, 136 by coiintrv, 24o-41 Wk"orld Resoufrccs 1996-97 349 Index continuous cropping, 233 carbon dioxide emissions, 3 18-19 emerging or reemerging, 180-81 developing countries, 230 causes of death, 34, 180 hanravirus, 181-82. 182 expansion, 230 causes of urban problems, 18 heart disease, 179 management of, 233 cereals, 227 hemorrhagic fever, 181 as percent of Earth's land surface, 201 crop production and total land use, 230 hepatitis, 20 rehabilitation, 234 croplaiids, 230 HIV, 180, 184 Cropland expansion empowerment of women, 176 infIluenza. 185 Latin American, 231 energy consumption, 273-75 Japanese encephalitis. 182 sub-Saharan Africa, 231 fertility rate, 174 Lyme disease, 18 3 Crutzen, Paul, 316 food security, 229 malaria, 4.i, 180, 182, 183 Curitiba, Brazil food yield, 226 measles, 186 integrated transportation and land use, 88 forest degradation. 201 nosocomial inifectionis, 185 integrated transportation nerwork, 120 grain imports projected, 236 occupational, 45 growth in crop yields, 227 plaguie. 1 81, 182, 1 85 health, 178 polio. 180 D housing, 15 Rift Valley fever, 183 indoor air pollition, 22, 114 smallpox, 180, 185 Dam construction, and infectious disease, industrial pollution, 164 tuberculosis (TB), 20, 180, 184-85 183 industry location, 66 vector-borne, 182 Data needs, of municipalities, 103 infant mortality, 179 West Nile fever, 182 Decentralization ~~~~~~~institutionial capacity, 110yelwfvr 8 Decentralization 3jriditina cmpexty 27yelwfvr18 Cajamarca, Peru, 128 uand transformation, 201 Disposable diapers, and solid waste, 44 Quito, Ecuador, 131 life expectancy, 32, 177 Dolphins, die-offs, 249, 256 Deforestation, 63 local governments, 126 Douglass, Mike, 145 see also Forest degradation and destruction; maize, 227, 227 Drainage channels, and flood control, 121 Forests, defoliation mosqulitos and flies, 41 Drinking, and socioeconomic status, 48 anid air pollution, xiv nationial wealth, 160 definition, 203 political accounitabilitv in major cities, 126 Drinking water, safe effects upon measuire of produced assets, 160 population growth, 1, 3 see also Freshwater; (Grounidwater; River hbi- Europe, 2]0 population trends, 173, 174 sins; Water Middle East, 204, 210 risks of occupational hazards, 45 access to, x, 1, 1.52-5.3 North Africa, 204, 210 solid and hazardous wastes, 23 Drug abuse, and urbanization, x, 31 Deforestation rate solid waste maniagenment, 11 2 Duckweed, and wastewater treatment, 110 by country, 204 strengtheniing local govern1menits, 126-31 tropical forests, 205, 209 toxic waste, 24 Delhi, India traffic accidenits. 47, 87 E Action for Security Health for All (ASHA), 38 ujrban enivironments, x housing, 40 urban expansion, 59 Earth Summit, 128, 144, 211, 315 tax collection, 130 urban growth, 4. 4 East Africa, marine biodiversity, 252 transportation, 90-91 urban poor, 1-2 East Asia urban poverty, 38 urban tranisportation, 81 education of women, 176 Dependencv ratio, urban-rural, 1.50-SI urbanization, I fertility rate, 175 Depression, and urbanization, 31 water pollution, 302 genuine savings, 160 Detroit water and sanitation, 19 East Calcutta, India, wetland loss, 62 infant mortality, 16 Development, and coastal ecosystems, 248, Eastern Europe, urban poverty, 12 national redevelopment grant, 17 249 suiburban flight, 16 Development assistance, and external debt, Ebola virus, 181 Developed countries 168-69 "Ecological footprint," of cities, 58 see also specific countries Diarrhea, 11, 181 Economic costs, urban environimiiiental degra- causes of death, 32, 179, 180 Dioxins, 256 dation, 24 chronic and degenerative diseases, 32 Disease Intelligence Unit, World Health Or- Economic development dependence on imported energy, 274 ganization (WHO), 43 environmental Kuznets curves, 163i fertility rate, 174 and global environmental goals, 213 forest ,degradation, 201 Disease surveillance, 186-87* cnmcefcec 0 forested area, 201 Pan American Health Organization, 187 Economic efficiencv 103 indoor air pollution, 114 World Health Organization, 187 Economic growth infant mortality. 179 Disease transmission access to jobs, 84 life expectancy, 177 hospital-acquired infections, 1 85 and air pollution, 113 national wealth, 160 international travel and commerce, 185 demand 277-78 population trends, 3, 174, 175 overcrowding, 184 and environmental protection, 2,25 threats to public health, 31-32 Diseases and environmental prtcin, 2, 25 toxic wastes, 24 see also Infectious disease and environmental quality, 159, 162-65 urban consumption and waste generation, 57 AIDS, 4, 37, 177-78, 180, 184-85 ruiral-urbani trade links, 84-85 and social dislocation and alienlation, 1 34 urban environments, ix break-bone fever, see Diseases, dengue and social and economic inequities 134 urban-to-urban migration, 3 cancer, 179 water maniagement, 109 cholera, 4.3, 180-81, 183, 186 Economic incentives, and zoning, 121 Developing countries chronic diseases as a cause of death, 179 Economic indicators see also specific countries comnmunicable diseases, 180 alternative methods of measurement, 159 agriculture research and extension service, cryptosporidiosis, 186 genuine savinig, 160 236 dengue, 180, 184-85 human capital, 160 air pollution, 86 diarrheal diseases, 180 natural capital, 160 Berlin Mandate, 322 diphtheria, 20, 184, 186 produced assets, 160 biomass fuels, 63 easterni equine enicephalitis, 183 wealth, 160 350 World Resources 1996-97 Index Economic inequality, and gross domestic patterns of use. 62-63 poor cities, 57 product, 162 policies, 115, 273, 278, 281, 282. 324 of urban poor, 18 Economic opportunity prices, 281 of urban wealthy, 18 and environmental improvement, 5 pricing, 324 wealthy cites S7 urbanization, 3 subsidies, 273, 282 Enviroahiiental improvement Economic policy instruments, solid waste technologies, 322-23, 324 and commniercial enerprises, 134 collection, 112 trends, 273 and couemuolity meuership, 13S Economic productivity, and human health, Energy consumption, 274, 286-8' and houseliold securits, 135 104 and air pollution, 85 Economic rationale, pollution prevention, bioniass, 278 Environmental improvements, marketing 116 commercial. 275 opportunity. 142 Economic and regulatory instruments constraints, 279. 282 Environmental indicators, by income level industrial effluents, 111 developing countries, 273 of country, 19 urban environment, 104 environmental costs, 279 Environmental initiatives urban pollution control, 106 industrialization, 273 conmmulitv involvenment, 128-29 Economic sustainability and land use planning, 1 19 local, 128-29 see also Sustainable development projections, 280-81 conventional economic indicators, 161 taxes, 282 "Environmental justice," aiid urban poor, Economist's (The) Big MaC TM index, put- and urban sprawl, 59 1 5 Economist'se power parity, 162 ™index,pu Energy conisumption and production, 273 Environmental Kuznets curves chase power parity, 162 commercial, 284-85 catbon dioxide emissions, 165 "ECOPROFIT Label," pollution reduction patterns, 114. 274, 282 econtomic development, lb 3 incentive, 129 pollution, 273 Environmental laws and regulations, spatial Ecosystem based units, and land use plan- transition countries, 274, 274 planning law, jakarta. 7 ning, 121 Energy demand, and greenhouse gas emis- Environmental management Ecosystem change, and infectious disease, sions, 2 administrative legal resources, 125 182-83 Energy generation, and air pollitioni, 113 community-level approach, 131 Ecosystem diversity, 251 Energy infrastructUre, 279, 282 and iiicome generation, 134 Ecosystems at risk, coastal habitats, xiv Energy production and distribution facilities integrating into life of urban poor, 134-35 Education investment capital. 273, 279, 282 jurisdictional complexity, 26 and children's health, 196-97 privatizationi, 273 political will, 125 females, 32 technology, 273 public support, 125 Education of women, and population Energy resources, 275-77 in very large cities. 16 growth, 176 alternative sources, 324 women's role in, 136 Educational opportunities, urban, 10 environmental constraints, 273 Environmenital priorities, methods ot estab- Efficient use of resources, and minimization geological constraints, 273 lishing, 142 of waste, 145 natural gas, 276 other sources, 277-79 Environmental protection El Molino, Mexico City, 135 petroleum. 275, 278 and ecoiiomic growth, 2, 25 El Nino/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events renewable, xiii, 273, 278-79,280,318,32 expeniditiures in urban areas, 58 cholera, 186 solid fuel (coal, lignite, peat), 276 Environmental quality, and economic vector-borne disease, 182 urban impacts on, 63 growth, 159, 164 Electric buses, 142 Energy sector emissions Environmental sustainabilirv Electric power plants, ambient air pollu- decisions made at national level, 114 city and commUuuIutu 125 tion, 18 reduction of, 114-15 cost-effectiveness, 142 Electric vehicles, 69 Energy-driven equipment, technology, 273 urban populations, xi Elizabeth, New Jersey, 33 ENSO. see El Nino/Southern Oscillation "Epidemiological transition," 32 Emission standards events Equity, among races, genders, nations and enforcement, 24 Environment regions, 1 73 Jakarta, Indonesia, 7 see also Urban enivironnment Erosion coiitrol, 235 and taxes, 104 and agriculture, 2 32 Chesapeake Bav 7? Emissions and cities, 1-27 abatement, 315, 323 definition, 33 Estuarine ecosystems, mangroves and sea- control, 324 and uirban form, 118 grass, 251 projections, 317 Environment protection, and cities, 13 Estuary hydrology, and shoreline develop- stabilization, 319 Environmental costs, and energy consunip- ment, 61 of various transportation modes, 93 tion, 279 Ethanol, 97 Emissions reductions Environmental damage prevention, 121 Europe economic benefits, 322-24 Environmental degradation coastal ecosvstems, 248 timing, 321 and agricultural production, 229 deforestation, 210 Endangered species. see Threatened and en- and urban poor, 15 Eutrophicationi, 71, 254, 256 dangered species Environmental degradation, irreversible, ex- Baltic Sea, I1 Energy amples, 164 Chesapeake Bay, 71,74 alternative fuels, 97 Environmental deterioration, and globaliza- Hong Kong, 76 and climate, xiii commercial reserves and resources, 288-89 tion, 7 Exclusive economic zone (EEZ), 260 conservation, 115, 145 Environmental education, 140 Extension service, Brazilian Institute of Mu- demand, 273, 277-78, 282 Environmental health risks, Quito, Ecuador, nicipal Administration, 130 efficiency, 58, 280-81, 282 38 External debt fuel consumption, 82 Environmental impact anid developnient assistance, 168-69 and materials, 273-82 and ciry location, 59 siib-Saharan Africa, 225 World Resources 1996-97 351 Index F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a Idii irati,g I I elCkItIttnIIels, I2) Innu I 11111 T L IltlIcatttrs titrSf(I SL ltsraIiialstli Irv.V 2 12 F Florida Fvcrgincics,~~~~~~~~~~~~ %,tLi dix,isrtion, .301 tire sitppri ssit i, 211)) Faiiins ila[harming, 1 .12-U. Flotrida Keys Naniriomal \ariiic SJiietIiiarv, ins5titiltional ai titleIgal strrCticttie 207 cot,ts, 176 2154 Patt- 'IT ii pCl ll u VI(inkit tatIA[lt i ', 2 12 pl(rogal is, I 76 Food R1uss itt Fideit ititi ~I((,_( Famittil pI,nittitg, piotgraits, Mnd PtO[sLitIoit iaci'ss Tot ____36 ~ liis st.2),2 trends. I 73 afdii igi ilri pitt(ihiiir, 2 5- 3')Vi s [AO is'stet iitnis ltet,2 lIarrldlinig tIlld storageL~ pictiuuS, 4)1 ,iitt iv hy tctiiitrv', )20 fkit'c't dwellers. Rioicde Jttsncirtt Br/i,i lU~t3igiilatitiil aidL il4rctijttii, 4) ltrw rv iru,2 8 t [ec:tl-oal rout distass, aridsarntatrin, 41 [ odtr )d Ji lt] ;griei iti . FOIrtst RLSirtirces Assessiticiut, Foodi mid Ag, FCI1-err `ii i raOLtes dsau,a d m to ,4 pitditctitttI artd triadc 2 )5 16, tictilttirc O)rgatiii/tioii )I,\1W 2011 her tilit tNiry, I tlt3crteit ricuts d 22___ S _ Ft Inst SteWa dS hip C' vst tici (VS( 2 I .3 .ttiil ittiittttik[lihitt. [7~ l-ottd mid Agridulturtl,, )rgaisiiaui1 cottf useiFstresi asI a cit3i Utdnii fdtrig.pscsai- Liited Nation irs . Al, ) 2 8 296_ 3()) sitc also l)fttresttiritirr irripical ftrusts itt,i I)O Liato tctrus7 ~HCt ResCinUirs Assi-sttrii, 2011 horet l, i 036, 1 ) ttih.it-rl.ir,1I. 32 [treuss, 21)6 drloil,ttitr, 210 stdir t irhaiti,rirtri. [ 74 Fototd aid Oft) mteu tisi ii, 21I. Fer i lets, ilVUilt t3lti t pitSiCit!i,i, 227 FLII rlpari, 2 )(t ctlistitilttiii, 2332 240t41 / iIt ftittd tritE, 244-45 I A( tIssi-Sstliitt1 SLIitittIirY. 203) tirgamtc, 21.,3 Ftittd tclt mi,t iuit.itii, 40-41 titld [rutd Cotvitl 211-2 I Fi1nanc1ial rISiltiFCes, CtiriiuiiLIiltV-baISed deLVe'l' antI hildli itittahits, 4)1 isotUrrIl 2 S- [ tt[llllt'ili, 14)) K~~~~~~~~Foo 115ditIn 22- ritmiite etittr aluts.ru]tad,2 Fishi pttsttsh)) giwl.29)Itittrttion ire:, 21)5 it Isurirtait tILt. 29n l.,tt~~~~i wti, 2t29iii 22.5lito iiitttruticlitis. 21 mtreui.riurirt,l rtt,ittagrrrniiti coltuirj,ts .300 pe 1tsos 23 ttcttiinlavis, 2tt9 inrerturs CitiriHtri./,n!srjltrtiertrit 11 Sisertain, 2t31t pirIces. 296 irsid Si!C,1 d1rt Itsit,ir. 228 st_8 at. if, 2101 thals.tutellC s3leCIeS. 2'66-6,7 11 S oil A-011 22 2 it its mi ii 2104-0i), 2)36, 21)9-10 21) isih arid slsellftshs Striet [ItiMits Irurrith ),225i nLstir role irsd vatiii, 2011 ctiutoiittim.mitnti 186 Atl-,la t tr.licat, 229 itid trade, 212 tlccliiuiiilg c.,:itcss, 7)1 172 ttltA1pCItrL ZotIti irtirt0lis. _228ailwttlii.2 rruII Tir ces, 25i4 trenlds, 21i, 2t FttVSSII feLCS, _273, 27-9 Fish) sutocks 2 U' %ztrai s Ctart i 's 228 ard carblti dit\idtie. diccltttt 149- sl.298 Fitiod srttdtiLHOtt p1ttiisial1, VOitrld KhatE ei11SUitllitittlt dllld prldtCltitrii Xiii uurlltrriuttrtig, iii)) Ntuck. 228 Flssil fulsc eoltisiittslip io.l antd Ccittilt r11isai1.- Fislsicritskttdsecri1'-28.2 .36launr, )33) £itdl tO COtitRtUct ftot Rtspttttihlc fishlICries l' trdtittmi trvlcittr2 it8 , 2.)~ 36 Frmt.newttrk Cottivuiriiot oiti Infliati 1301) ai ciisti.23,(IttirlgCe 329, 21 1 31.5, 32 2, .34 tOpen ii tiss, 29, ill' elorpinig cttini fIts. 22) lresltvv,tcir itantagumitt t, ittrtati tiontl cti- itt r~i gtilts _1J7 itserfishldig. Nil liperartiti, .3)34 )ilOLILICitjttti '28 sitil rliosio Tintitd tligr it]tid tt, vii FrCS11vaitrl StiplreliS, 3)02 altUiils.iit susdec, 72 siri-Saltatir AIrii., 225i llitsigtiUtitlI t i)Slt,iectl WyanirsLtuds 111 riVer arid vwiter. 25i- 304 .ini1 Uirlurri iv)Xpttsiitlt 6)) basins, vii Fisheries ianiageitten, _295 FtntLf trade, anid fttttd aid, 244-4.i pstlicies tltilt uttitsirvr. vii tier t-c artiont coot[erti ttrari , .3)3) VFoit] vie .ici, dlevtltpmrg Iointtiries, 22o( w ate lprtcrrig. xii fit irccittcr1 .Ild tIsrsattt1,Ii1thiir 199 Fishing ~~~~~~~~~~FittLeSt, dlefititioti, 2)1.3 [sti otil I rift nlets, 3)13 tie.tUirCs til, 2138 l'l,it filshitg, 25.5. i98 11it) satellite tiragLil s. 2 1 1-I I P(;Ll)w trChast" progr.irti, trashi tilletIU- Ctch t ic tgirlatiit s. 2cs6i) [torest ci tie tutu, 1213 Cttrtiti1,ttit1It,is-11 tiVaL gitet .)) chantges il uvtirtit ired clsiri lsriutri.i 2)13 i arlsauc Ilsat Is Not m-baulag," recycling, diiseaurIs, '98 299 Iad jittcj. 202 12 1 fitititig. 2L Nttrls Attti-t,i,2) ILeet tILifLtCtiOlt, 299 torginii,l (prcilts ioi i. 20)5 Gc um antIgrIsuias nilcveto ittnt, 6 ?( glIrthI caicls. 296, trnpical. 16.51siiit ttgesIiuaii;31 inlspecttionan .ill p59 ititig ti)iNrrtIHIC ICts Itrl 111truuth 11tr Vt, 2)) C ,ITrriiii sariligs, de-fiiiitittii, 16 1 Itits. .3)1) Ftirest diregrad titit indl destrii trttri (C 11 I113 fuel., 284-85 tuu.rirue tIattii.l's, 298 r1Id prlrti)tiatitrt. 2) ([LASOD) (aI stirrer ttf sOit Ciltgil:citihOii), lit- itrtiievpllttitiitl. 2.55 lim 'illas. hiss, 2)3. ternait ira!i Sitil Referutite .ini litfoitiniii- i Trifishitig. 29.5-96 (hurntr . [I uiuCClc 1tttsv t r ila l' arciL deletr 2rt itiort Cenlter, 2.3.3 ptithe f.rrltries, )9.i tInt eIlopdCi l 1citn itrie, 2)) ( 1lcitae late i qtrtit.ts, 258. 299-3di0 daeclnipitig c mimtti s, 2)) I h~IC:nsaeClivntlt,xv 8 slItrimpt~ r-alivsI , is'299 Iita 5.I64-i,) SrllbSidiCs, 21)7_99 hirlitnit fr agitticitatitttr, '3)5 0N Glolhm Fitm riirmnerir Facilirt' (CK3 122 t. lig.2.S. tIId l'lurti,tl trt i(fftt, 2ht (lobsal ettvirottt ittt rrtll gtials. anti tilonlitic nitretrt3ilttv iumreur 29.5 lrtggirrg., 2)16 Ji -lv pmthrtttt, 21I.33 n>ilstfiul )li.cticns.~ 298 .iti1 lrtCutLtiliduItt iLhtugus, 2(Q5 C ;olm~~l vwarminiig. 86, 1 [, [2 9, .322 tvritld's fishing fleet, 295 pltuirma)irot critI. 216 ,itlapsrtrt starettegies, 324 (L-Ittt c.rirtiitl, 6)1 tI-rest rIIllaiaguincint Cillttat clt.tj,tgi. 37 352 WXorldi Resrniare-cs f 9)6)g97 Index cia itia,ges. 322 and anl agiilg p13LILIatoil. lI /114ti/Ii ' etrlTitielirt, Q1I ,1111 IlilILctlOii L1disease IS82 and suilt eIInv Iioi)elit, IS /f1/eI'.1 jinld niarille lilodtNlseritN. 2s .111Ld econl tic1 proIClteoIty. 1)04 ka pinptig villages of lakart,i, (' poiiN Clrepi lThe to , 32 3 \spciiduitutres, 194-`,` ku/,it abfdu, 1 32 rare of, ,2 1 andhiiai devlopIttetj,It, 7 it er-watrer seirleitieiiisN, I t11iear to COastaIl cljues, 7) andL 1Indlstrialiuarimir, 1897 squaRtte sc2tt1lnieirIts. 4, I S. iS. 60) and werhlads, 2'- oCeiipatoila I\pl,uL:tires II'liaards. 4s Liiraii1 holiOsil, 4)) (,l10saIisill. antLi IxICLebIIoii6 iOf Ii)CcLIlitIleS, .111d relatie ineclti. \.uN 411 till rIsI-ait por I I sewlf help initiatives, I 32-B-- 3. I 3' 1 Housing SeCiIrit\ do11bali,artiiin, an1d elIVjelOIjlfleltalI detvriora- a11Id si ialiiirginaliaiioii. 48 Inll enlvironmental IIIprii(Ve'inlWlt. tioll, I I and~~~~~~~~ul slleitWellmiiiIk iieqitine. 32 anI nrI1111 pill, IS~ GHilm, Ir I ill levcs. ,icll iirbiii cut jlu vo'dillc oldmit status, 4~ HonI1 beha,vucir, aid dfiseaise. 183-84 rllilnientaIl mianagemienit, 1 25 and rba phseleiirilnit 1-Ion. caIpital, as ao cdolio illic Indicliatoir. Goxceei- eotirs role, in urban eilvironiiieIltal uran,1 pilir, I ioanagentent.1 I ildc lirbail1 pin rtt 38 Iillilla dcleiIlogr IIi pllics ChAl be lu Ii ;ilid (rail imports proLCrecl,.1developingt ciino1- anld urTbanl soLIJI eitvirooutc'it. 48-ilI LIlSC,.Ls, I 8 s-84 tries. 2 36,1C aLid 1rbaii1,jtion., I/i UI-I iimai dvlCVi ipiIllter G,ra,. Austria. piilnttiiin redoeitionl, 121) Wiiitieii 17, 22, Bs6-37, 3, 42., 1 32-3 3 definlitniii, 176 jreat Karrier Reef Ma1,rinei. Park AuithorityN HetiC2 It i1LteqiaMlities.' tirb1t11 l iptpulationi, 35 ii cici'i tWI((1.17(1 7 258 He.ilrh proihles IndI&Cators IW genderT aiid llpp'rtOIIliiltr. "(reell perforiti.iCUe ratinus. oIf mnanti c- cliferrciices a11In TIi 4iig Itis,_ 3)1 7iil1 111lllI , I - Wrriiig faclities. I 1( t6laiit les 2ted.IT Green Rex IIltitiiIi), 2> 1-l~~~~~earbt risk-s H tmnai I level 'pmeint Indes, U)), 176 (.reell RL.%ollilioll, 226 ~~Kansas, ( it, Nlisoilri, 35 I /liilullt1 I)'l1Il/ill'l R'iii, 1713 Glrecitllcts, I 18 LondonM, Vi Htiin.t I)U,lltIl Grehi se 31 c1111i5s11t1s. \Si; 5i5 7, Ness birlk (tyi, 38 and Mtirbaii C1i)1irliiiilei, 31I 71), 86, 282. 31 I5, 317 31). 322. 322-2 3. folr t IIbirsa chI idrenI , 'n-s ' ILI 3Irb I Il C T1 xets 31 3 2 -2') tile IlrlIi Womiien) 31s 3I onaniiin ilideIcL ILes' VIrtiS II IIVI. Sit .1 iii agrieli ni re, 2 32 I-l~~~~~~~~eald ihservices DI isca L-S. HI V Ltnil teir.itiill stabiliiatiiii, 322 pll el'i]ttc'.I I 8 6 S/ Clkg.ic.i.tiiiii ot. 1511 II)k I eIICI,-rg deILaild. 24 Lirls.Iii. 10l 1~1 itlt.isiii1 of) tciloiliic well lseiiig, 15S9 Iliat naI.l tlrleiitolries, 33 Healtlh SOIitiiiiiS, .Lcl eiin]nlt.ioit1r. perI-cp- LIilI/WeI-beiiig. andL Lirbanuiation, I C rLcn I0ltt(2 tic1 (/(lc i -ClepIer ilIU g gaPIse, alt- rio l , Hvlicilsiielisiii.(i iltispberi, CiilIceltrtl_Molls.I 331 -He.inlth trantsitionl. 32 H lrdiocarbllns, 86. 9(1 reccnht iii 1ck5armili 1g. / 1 ', 132)1 Hele]Idi Iof iirh.imit ciwell crs, imu I i srctIir.al lc i~ Iclcc Ini pliwet; 2S8-S') Gridliek, XlI. 85. >3 iStrategies. 52 1Icr llia yl.31 rl leery ti lees. ') FIca I V ( it i-s Pri i cl, 144 Hvcl ri i i igv If etlIvcdsat t cI eJi ii r c, at t I Gri ss dl IllcLSttCl rp11 ictid (GD)P), I lo(-o7 Hen ci rt dcli~ase, .1nd s CiOe C iei101111iC stat Ii ~48 5l rlicdxIllrii ,6I-1 lii cil)stlIit11158 i)tcrtt.tilliii (IllIlrs /64 Helsiinki I)ecl,Ir,ltiot iif AtiIlii toie1 Lnvirln- IllxcdropowIxvr. 284-55 aIs Illc.1Istir f lIt c'Liiiil)iC pel'gress I 5'). NH I itct ciH ithi Iiri,48iirlitiitl111siiiisliilI, 75 9 (liti reti `,t.itrs, /64/H~ [ri,h(1 [Hvii MII i o rpi ra ioni, clear-cutlintlg. Gr155 nlatiiil.ll rlicllodtic I( PI', I//s-6 Highevr plintits tltreateitecl spec-cc, 2(s-0-( 5 Is, isICistiru iit economliic proligr-, I 9 H IV hiilioait iilIltItIiodh C llefci Nc Vir-is). MT, Gro ,idti wl atei; extractionl, 2 32 D)iseaises, H IV (h1iiiauilad seaIter supplvy, JI7 Hoilig I ring, 75-76, Sollidi aid has.Ircdout w5ast(s. 2. 3 hlad rULL11IttaI'ii. 5 niirri'i,tl'ild Visd ) (tierreri. Rodcrigol, I 31) water 1p.l1tilln. 75-76, Iiiciiioe I Iliosc-ll, iiid sailitatilil, 41 IIfLities. 17-18,, Hous0k, jnd ~~~zmir,aion, 41 (~~It LiTir iillllsellclllcls, IX H ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Hoii.eholdlenvirionimental indlicarolrs IitlIC IIeC gCtIltaItioi, hild ddIIiiiit H aAi[tccseieiIli,23ia,kae. ll ( l ilnia . 4 ( .UCIge U)llt,I.4-5 hull, 2118-119 c~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ni~~laka gd.i] rand ogia 46 Ct1itc,I3 cest safet3iI. Hahit.It LICS-iLnked , N.tiii 6 i0 ete iitt Iitiseiic itiin etilo, Brazilem4 air Cl1I'LVlili )f'Iru, rlolito , 8 H ihi],itI SertileitetitsrI. ind (tloreiisiitit,g i lcatirs 1 HOIlealtes -ni m ltali,aenet n 11O1CsVC to ir H iohi,t 2itrntllll uilnii.1)9 4 cotealth ndrcit ing , actviitIiii53Clci)5. SJll Wastes. lN Hilals t Ills) Hiitiscltiilci and n)(ighjiorho(di I)rIlslCTtII ite.iel 11C-'1C I lIttI. 1111 li urblai eliVIseiiitittttall anId cl asta Idtlvell plilldiit. 254 39-44 inicIet. iors. 1, 3 11, p l r:1VItCS 8 4 Hlllist.-holid sectiriits, .1ld enivirioiititle itl itt]- Id' Htimiltoii-Weiirsorrh, (..n,Icl., public cioii- prIocvem tt, 135 Lit) 11Iiitlatle. I '1 suilt.ltilin prilccss, 128 HolhisclnIdic ~rhlt,adc iiiiii ltc - 1ISCIsellI, cl11llctiitS toI uilIItmes. 1854 Harves,ters. 24)-41 Iershi ip, 1 35 plaZgLue ep)KLtillie. 42 Havx'im., lsiv,ling, 95i Hotisi itcIlIIIaiiK ciis 8 Ha/ardlos wjistcs, 2.3 M1)1ii,1 Iticia, 4))0liic r111Llii M Ill *11, I') lainghilk, IThailantd, 23) /1nveks )squtt,i[cr seteiiirs Rio de Ii1- sic.LtltILT( )ittitIIt lw Ctics, I i-I H eailth iieiro,. [lreasil,I I Itralisl,plltatiil paralidg-lli. 90/i- I WcOdlt Rc'somure's 1996c)97 353 Index Ininiti i National Familv HlealIth Solr\e, Iniiormaiitioili clearinghotises. polltiri[in prc-- International Soil l(efere-nce andic Intiirma- 1 992-93, 17.5 venttioli, I i6 tioii ( oltcr, (dAS0I) (a surver ol soil India's Naitional InIStitLute for ('oittiti1.1nita- lInformatiiion souirces oun uirban areis, 141) Li gradctltitn) 23 3 Nc-e Disea sew plague rest-arch iii it, 4 InfrH striicti re l- nte rnationa iiI ri pical I itn her A greententi Indcividc-cil rrIStraits fer iL qiOMtaS (IFrQS). repl;tcemen t-dcci sitins, 321 il I1 TA) tj I2 13 299-30M0 traiisporrarion, I 1 hIntlnarion l dIrpitpcal limber Olrganiziation 5;ci i/Sit Fisilgh ciiiig,qoas wa,terF Miiid Sa1iittMii, I) i0tll I 0/ stistititaltle imanlagemin-it to tWopi- Iticlo -Westrii Itacitic, 2 52 Inf rastruciture co sts, Lit rh-iil sprawl. 59 ci I f rc ts I 2 ciiastali ecsytei iis.mN 25 3 Ineri- cities Inn. rmt ioo ali I ionii oi I oc.11 Aiitltirritis. Initido r air poillutiiit. 22, I 14 public trr iispiiirition, Ift 144 Chilclreni's hecalthi. 22 Liirbati pivcrtis I l ittirn:ttioital Lorbait ensvirtinititeilt prgitgaiiis, cigarette sinok ing. I I 4 Initt er-cits neigh hi rhi idS, I4 &l cc ClIipc CiOMMi rieS I 1 4 vci a/si' ( it ic-s neivl-4 h o1rliidcs n ie_ 9- I dc/c'li'pIiitg ciiiintries, I114 Flizabechh Ncss ICIScN, Irrigatiiii, 2-40-4/. .301, 303 low qultyL,1t frl]Cs. 22 hIiSti t itC liii UChc Inc l hi Fngintcri ng. 1.;rae and pest co ntriol, 4 I I.litiiversits- (if lechni i iii 9 ipro niisctents. 2 4 trural entviriiniieints, 421 Institute fo` Sm i litgx. 129l lI1 m c5P iii5i tiiin. o s2.3I) sick I'L li Ligst' oclndrome. 44 fu utial eetpinicadslu aiito ol 3 sntiikc- riitii etitkstites, 36, 14 1151), 205 Islanid tilitiOnS, and global warming, 3231 Sutoks' 11IttSUlltIld tir-es. 42-43 IiistitiUttotal Capacity, Jclte1ltipiig COii tiiitts, le i. or y.ptittit iiril 10 strategies tii iecliicct I 14 I1 moieni, 22 Iititt444aIn llgl4rtctirs. itorest lincitre, India, dlratintge iiipriivemieit- proi- ii;nageittc-ilt, 21(7 ject. 0 hInsritutittnil structure, andL pitlitiCal piower. J~csnile lrdi ci iiOnt% cittoolida- lindclstriJl air potllutioin. I 1I3 I 26 ) akiivll,Flrda it-o .uv az/st Air piilliititii Iisuiraitt HitLILstr, StableI climlate, I2 titirt Ba ciio diii oiisde-, / IS, 34(4-2 Imclit-eg cc-I a1ppriLahC.s, flesiourcet Pi irtectiliii, co ia I reefs. forest dlegr idarin, ii.2(h 73 ilciCLI Indci Strial pt P I otit in. .58 In tegra ted co astal zilet in anaenti.259 jkra i ieia - dccv Iopint, count 44r ies I4 I ntegratecd( tOAsta I /1.4iC NIJ.t agCItnent llI usiti d en vi ri tnn I indlicart rs, 46 mitd efftllticit laksts I (6 fiM F 3kmtitpitng v-ill.tgc-.11itll in al plathug iiperatiiiis. 72 InItegratled erans,pirratitmn andI Land uise plait- 1Itaicira resouirce extrattimm l. 62 pctlp iitills ttiitg, Cut~~~~~('Lritihla, Bratuil, 1 2 0-2 I Japan, per capit,t griiss dlomiestic prdiCtect refilt itto s t2 Inter\-ctiitn (ttniiil of F ormeir iIc-atis of /(D)i, 1(64 sewer tees. 1((i Sea7 r Maidl (oteenm eni, 2 12 tanineries. 72 IntutrgiivrinilientAi Painel oiii (lin atet aitcl iirman runutoff. 72 Chtaige ( IP(:Q , vvxi, 7I- IidtdistrialI sitIventts, 6N Inti-gioternmttetttal I'mlea ncI i Fitrests, 21 2 K a tpo ig I oip rovi is ti it Ptroject, j1a kirta, In- Incdii serial wastc iia niginemct optitonis, Inteirntabtrioal agreiC rIcntS. 1m.1 ri111t rest ictres dttn esia,7 I1.5-I 6 protiectioni, 2.59 K.uiip riitg village-s, jakartii, litdltittesiai, 6 IntduistrialI wastes In tentna riottral ( it i-s ftori (li m.ie Protiecttiot K anti. H al. 228 I-o itig Kotig., 76 ( aiitp-imgit. 1 29 K ansas (itv, N-I issoi iiri, hecailrlh risks,, .3.5 Ill selected cilltiiilrc- mt) Itntertaitioial Civil A-viationi 1. rg:titiatiitit Karaclhi, PItakistani .tid wasreisatc-r trearietictt, I I c[iLaraifiiol- ett:Siircs. 4 )' COiIITIWiciiit invot[ctlvemetr iticli participatittit Indotstr ializatiton litl-ri-1tiiinal (>ttttpariSiit Ptrotiect l(KIlt), 14(3 ailcl cite rg ciii 4 sititpti t itt. 27puirchtasing po we r pa ri ty, 162 I a tigi Pt i l lit ticoi-ct. I 06, 1 32- ,titcd 1ltititti health, I[87 lItnterna tittoalI (onivscntttitit' tin the Preve-ntiton Kathtmrantcu, Nepal, itonigois-ritnitt-ttal tir- aticl ciOiiatto f PtIiceiii triom Shtips M0ARPOII.), galiz iis. ltts. 1.3 I n~lListreV anid coi tnt otrcc, .advanita ges (i f tir- MiARPI,.P 1'Petoitcolt, 2 59 Kctsa ba i ta tionit, 1(1 Infant ll itl), CXP SLire to tld, 47Intttcrntationial COI ttp-r.tiin decitmographtics ;tttd htcaltlt. 1 Iitl.int health, exptisctrc- 64 lid,ch[irittlttirttarbitims (.1l st, 36 tmhant-riira[ pi)punlalttn. I( Infatnt mtttrtality-, / d4bt) tliitt:tn prittettitti, 32 3Kikwit, /airc- stce i/Sit Child fitiirtainm- Cfifiti,i iii sci ~st;tii.tlc- mtt.iiigc-nent oft ttoiti lc-inmrt-raic t:- crv. I S I A hid imi, ~ o -C LIs-ire, i cil fours rs, 2 I 2 rceimergin dispclisea54 I 83) Derlon, If" cmismon, cont-nd, 3 24 ~~~~~~~~~~~~Kocite8icc-. Plti and, W Si stWaIce treatment. iliLtfluCiltciitg acitors. [ 79 lislterics ni.titagc-ieiil (((4I jakarta. lcItitnesia, itlreshsw-ateT llIaiiagcTnlt.IU 304 M.itila. Pthilippines. 3.5 lulttc-itnatioiial (omttparisiii Projc-ci 1It. lrtl Kraik(iw, PIitnadc, Icinig lanicer, 210 irhan irt t is. 36 lIntlrittiitottl Cotuncil ttir litc,il t2itirttti KLcoolerS CLi rvecs. Set,4 FIlvi riot ncitta K cizitcS itrh.tiiiatittit 3,1 1794 iunctd litiriatices (KT4Fl;, I 1.5, 144 cLii yes Iltfcct iIS irsdiseaSC-, I 79-8. II Ui,rlai ( ReL ttCti(iilif Piograitt. /2 C Sir i/sit IDiseases In ternitott itdit IDrintk inig %VatIcr Sti ppIY antd ac c-sn [teAltht carl .tit[ santinatitn, Io Sattttttl)ccc. L I(. rug lIes eli poet t. ~~~~~~ Inite-ritatiionialI Fntc-rgv Ageuncy II-A), 2' .1. tt,1S Ii 4 cdrtig resista ice. I 8.S 7,5nPz to va nitcroimial adlapstationi aiid cli.iigc-. I85 Squatter scltlcintcit, I IS :iilld cciwlni,[4 8 Intterniautitnal Fto dc 1Pt lic ResPcsearch IitSitnLtc I .:l)ir t tree, :tiic pi pul:iltitti grttwthi, vatccines, I 85. [87- iiurnrt:tiitii:l NIcinctary Fund, purcltNisig ILa:goomns. 2.53 wa le bitt lire [ieisses, IS( l6 4ower pi rits, / (t2 Lui ll 354 Worldt Resiouresm 1 1996-97 Index See I Iso(I (rpI LInd: Ral,L!hiigri%id I CLagl111g ~,tIeI-11tsei, telitirii ad provision NlJakiig the i Ailil Use-JIransportation-Air aica iiinieIr forest co%c r, 2l02i of Rerv L, I 37 Qaa lire ( "OiVin netli n, ( )11e EhMIasild fr houiii gi , pritet1 l. leicster, I nglanLl iiatioilll grant Cur iineir- 1-riends, at )regOan, 92 Land a rea anid LISe, 2 11 lano.16 ii s,a rtliein11 si,I7 la 11iLI co nse rvatiiin, LiiCIS ise etLemen't paIM l.ishmama1.1 d and: il1 and flies, 4 Ni ammakli Isthired tilid Species, 26,4-6 tLIIS 58 .(2rneLr, a i me1, (20 Ni a lgrvi: ieAreds, lcit c io ii, 25 Land cn ri ini 55 ,2 If ek x peeranCtIIC Nlargraoes. 253-54, 3(11 agriaculrore. 2 (2 as an l~~~~~~111Illilt1o f at 1liriin1i1 %sell-L'iiig, 173Tieinatianl anld dlestrUiiiiai,25-4 urid'll Illipicts on, . kv coimiirr~ 1'U-9) 3sL\ILTli alld liss. 2 )6 I.Jid cver andlorsts i)012 11CNeCiiped uiinItrIeS. 1-- Maviiila, lihilippines, wasrepicking. ( 12 Laiiil curer, d forests 1-2 ileirh plug ciiilllriis, 3, I Ma n ila, Iihiiippiieis, infanlt Miortaiiry, 3.5 Lildi degradatiiin, mecrgriaing. 2.3 laai.itansa ;iii,itrn Land atd houusiiig tilmorre. mud Li etirlte, 16 li 1 t-en . 1 77-71 A i iliuctuioli IS Land ouwncrshup, I.itifiuuid/i landIL sst(.inl if irndni InI Russia. I S liiiear maiteral floiws, 18 Land re,l.inmatii n and turlhanyiation, I)1 N2rn huiiiv-Yiv.27,24-4,291 co iihri lis, 61I diii Witil aiind >aiiildtioil. 2n 6 5-62 Homi,g Kollg' 75 ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A-Iaaia , 25 ~2 San I ranuciseo hiaN, 6 I light rail transit, 94i>.1 i sslns 4 Sungapoire. I aI luguie, ('4 Fis -L,fr ta m 25 2 4 Liad redisr hui tiuun 1.iimia. ltienI, water prices, 201 aiid global WaIrTiiiiiig 257 IaIfii haujkl>lug.1 1)7 Lund iead~~~~iisrmeiie. I I ~~~I inear material flaws. mi.iiitautruiig, 1 iau tIc: Island>. 252 laiidl Siiariing, I I- .I-itLirJ ni>irr ul,2 (diii) trilure seiiirit), I if' triiii(e, I ~6. 1'iii 1tl)(1> (oT priiti-cing, 258 I ,iid snhsilerucureit, I4 4ilii 17t,,' Q(- Marine hiulougueal pruLiidnelVute ItangkSuukidenciiaiid. o4 lui-ti ksiuiiutiui and Liastail eLOse >i-MS, 251 JAkara. lindoneiak,j, 7 fCLd( Ceiiisiiiiitiiin, 242-4 3 dt tii 5 laud tranisfourimatioin, develuiping cuni-iurris, pop'iltilaions o minuimNi, 242-4 3 NLarini- i-.ItCii trends. 296, 2t) I LoucalI Ageiiila 2 I Mia rolei debrIs,- 7 IAlld HS dilelelipiiig' luiiAi lidldLarlirs, 12S NIariie ecossstenin> briwnii'iiid ntis, /6 Lliiecd Nitiuiis ( .iniereiice ani 1- rviraniiiiut ndi) )iiii iii rvuval. 2411 grecuihelts, 1 15 .11111 I)eeelapnieun fiNs LI) (25 anl regiuinal warmiiiig. 25~7 priiIIiles tiir action, 1 16-21 I uuCii gi ,,ernillelt pL'rs1iiiilUI Marnte LindinIislil, anid cuuuusersatiuin, 2 52 aii(i trdiispoitiriniii 87-85, I 19 limii(duni teeluica) ~Iii> plriitesiiillal culuilpe'- Narlne Fish catch, 253 diii) ltranspiortato 111St ra leg>., X7-5 tel e, I27, 30 Mar-Ine fish Stocks. 31 I uirban guiowth boiiundaries. I I 8 ial iig I 3( Mairine fisheries, vield aiid stare oufexpliiita- wa'tersheds1. 2.5-4 I i ,:a Ig ne s 1 35 (iii , il'0 I iiid vNse caluges, Sa Puil,oli, Brazil, (it) iumpuueilrs of stliiiig iiistitiitiiii.i Ia)I'aIir, Maimie fishinig trenlds, 295 l.anld nise patternis, a liiid urba forti in, I 16 I 21' Nb il ld1eh avrc c" iiatl Laiii vise planiniiig LieVC0I(lphilg COiMMni, IL12I!( .\I.i , r lld 11i1f freshwalllter athe, uai and ecas>sriii based nits, 121 ilil iiiilisii >. I IMarine huhitat loi>, murhaniizatiruii 248, 254 rldi enirgec cliisnidptiiiiit, I (9 .iiiii fliii\i-iiiI ir.iiiiii,I3 1iii lalnas 4 siring .iiii deii.site i iir-baii indus'tries, I (I dli ( an ,TstaIta1 serice ICC Cni)allles, (21) poi lluiioini, lt6 amid trranspiitat.ionii 12(1-21 iiid paiurl-Oiersips 12'. 1i 31-3 Ihiiiiriieiie Ad a iiii iiiagLreii Spekihis, 255 Liii ir,aii iieriisiis, I s~I ' priimiar~ respi uusibilutnes, I 2a MarIIi-IU parks, Iluii[g lKiiiig 76 .1lld iirl'aii elieIruliICilt,ii I I 6 lii 'Indpi'atlai/dlii I 31-3)I NiariFii- pOillUtiOn, miajor soiireeS, 257 lan)d use planning laws, 203') 111dil ii banl elivin'11i'lnet, I 25-2 N-,riiii iiipIilariiiiis aiid species, treiiis, 2.501 Land anii Water resources, .igriinltiiral I okal llilti,ilie, I-auitir fur- U rbani lIneivir m NJ-Iarii 1priiteitd arias l -MlAs), 215) groNkth, 2(21 ineiic tiff.11-. 144 255N-5 9 Landfills, for dleposit of Soiliid waste, 7t1 Loiggiiig, 2))', 2/S-29 a>esiiii 2551 Large 1maineFI e'CiisSte i Nl2 259 aiiii h1IufLIsIrsit, 2118-69 piltelialdi thieateiilid, 25(1 I ,itiii Aiiieeica ~~~~~~~~icIir-ciitiiig, 2en, NIiriii resairCis IDiiaigeiICII-it, iMiadeipuare Iluiloera, ISO iiiud iCiiiiiiiiiu.ii(x C-lieabi inlrIi-s, ilsriuitiiiil,l srrktiuriie, 254 Criip v elI)s, 2321 2ain)%ure sCtOl,Ineraioa flLeest uiegraidatni ),g Nlriursorispire oi6tretamma eriipiaiii \ld iipaSioiii 2.30-.1 lelihiui¾ ( j7agrecinieits, 259 ed ucatiiin iof wi iiin, 176-h ilo .ilrh risk,- 35 Nalariii speCIes ueriirg d1ciimandii) 1.5i.iili1, iiii h iss,i) onsirri atio n prii cities. 25i2 tu-rtilirx rati-, 175 I is Aiigeles, iii piulluinriii n5-69)iuuiuiingeliciii 5 (ii d prdm iiuion, 225 esAteli intl variety, 2 i) tc.[iipicai fii-i-rs, -2(., 2 I I hiabitatlohss, 254 Urbaii pus erIe, 12 IV 1iVI(Lmtcideiii )57 liirbaie ai,,non, -iN1io mc A iiL 4btdighha,2~ Liaes. seei Lnmiv nirolI n1tAl liWS JimiL regiila- Mdhigii.Akn1 4(aso r-iigfiia,2 rioll's Mad~~~~~~~~~~iira s, Inl dii, scVi ri-iige r, 1 12--i 3 icri\p1iiiitatiiu 255 tie 11w~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~plutolSsepiiiy I v-id 20, 2224. 35, 4.5, 47, s., (((4 \Slahi1li N-1aieidals, IDulIli, Iiiidl,, ~)m line>>diii iiu cisevtiiuii 252 air pa11il vi i Hi inseicurkif cities~, (5~4 NI . hi galiy (SwICtan,i /Ih , 1/'bv/Li. 2 I 2 sp,iAiii ig griomusd, 251I is a ai ieufi,2"i(-91 M \I/,ii I 10 NMarui-e speccies iitriiilUCriiiii 257 Le,id liilluitioiil, IBangkiik, Thaiiland, 47 iJLi- lopelig cunutICruis, 227. 22 ic Also Species ierrodhiCtl(iii Wuirfld Resouorces 1996i(-9 355 Index N%iarketring oppirtUrt lits clvxiroinmeital imi- 5(c' ((/5( chld. itliottal IV, iithtiilt iiioitalit5' mtl- Ndolo. Zaitibia, mitcroutilerpristsŽ5, MApro 1(L r ococo] itt42 ttil tcITa1ss deaT(Jth.I7% 9 7-i Neighblorhiood tiiti coiitltiitiTitv sus,e tint] oil tile Preveintioni 4f C illtioti (miioi jiIde(CtioLi an1d p)IaSraitc disease, IS/ NULee1tiet aet(Iot. I(( 35 IIS eihoho s Ships MARIN)l ) -( 9 ~and nutrition. 194¾95 itb)bos e te,Nihohos Ships (MAR1101.), -59 d~,itld p1OPIItia(it treCTldS, 173) imctr-citev iteighboirhoods M awe a IIS anid Leltergi 73-- roadiwas dea h raties, 57 Net herilandts. bi evc1in1g. 96 NMaterin;t I tttrtalits 19'4-9 MoNi ratlire rates. tea (ffic aiccicdents, 47 Netwoi ks, c (11111ii till r, 1 12-.? /, I 3.5 Mlathare Slhimi (Ippi tmditg S'iteitie, Nairobi, Niorealitv raitcs bv socotexirtutnmental zonets NCxt-S. RI?CArdLo, 96 Kenya. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~Acera., Chant, 4( New York (its, 2 Nit' cities, 6 S SJo Paulo1, Brazil, 49) heLa lt risks, 3.5 d1 titted, 8 \itsqmtiiis and flies, dec 1'eopintg comiltries, Newairk, New Jer-sey, rccyclinig iitdulSt ieS, / 6 Ito0isthold enls iHotMItite al peoibieits, 4( 4 1 Nickel, 2NO-') I popultioint till rowthi rtet, 9Miitor vehicles Niger-il, CtitttitlLii]tit batiks, 1 41 xv tere sloltages 6~ 3t ee ,lsc Trttispirtatioti, ntodes~ Of NiIle River, and Aswait Dait, 2.54 Mellritse (OititTIttlis. Niis Quiedaitos Co - and ti pll unOLIioi, 56, 97>98 Tititrec, 141 and aliticiett air pollutiotn. 45 Nitrt cigei oxide etiissitrins, 86 NiettitoT Sitbhltdr t.52 griwtht ill owntershtip, 82-5. "'S NireiigeCTI utXidCS, 2(,1.`66, 6IS-69, Ill , ill3 Merctitrv 290 91 itttprored efficieiicv, 52 Nitritotis oiidte, 2 32,. / , Mecrtnix hr lvtiitt1],TtlititI iltipeetNiol atmd tl.tiitetatC e. tt711 i-5 Nobel o(¾t itittt ctc, .116 Jaikarta Ba% rae-2t pltnoites 9 2Nobel Pr ize ini chemtistri- i 16 twit and titter wheel, S2-5.3. ) tie(liLto,S t NMettctey Colitttt it] fiShI, urbitizair I)OLtItii, , S siTld 11Ittittia heariit S Net1 tiPlating opcetra ttios. indtistrial potllti- Mri.rifaiitile kitrcltits, commutitir iWtWorw ks, teisttlst 5 utio] - 135 -atid pISecintlogiCil We'll wl Metl s, pri dLtictiii, c 01tsiAiItttptut, Feseexes, Mriltisectoeai strateg,ieS. fir itilproitsitg Niti-Ftirop1i-ti on'tittrt i proLess, fittest 2W 91 ittalil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1 gemtent, 2 12 N 90t 1 itealth31Of Lir-baIt dwellers, .52 N iiiietittiial tets-,adsiiIeti NICH)AVIC, 2 )2, ., I 5 Mu~N niicipal gttverilnnttttt ritliltenit, 48 ftrItit itiltt'1)tOi10elitC Siti-CeS, ,2.N-29, 1 ; atid uettegs cot1t.'u 1ttriolt patternis of res-iN igxriteitt igti.aitsIC) INieti o itallrttFs io teir l lntrto tCitIItlt dleiirs. I 1 4Nog VLrll(ltl IJli;lIS( G s) Progra tilli NWll), 144ptitttis iin prtse.I 1 401 144, 21. 3 NiesNito (it attd taxes. 1217 Altidjait. Core dFIVOIee, 5 air po0LutO11t '(1) 24, ontheir role itt pollititii prieettoon. I 16i Acrioln for SeCUritv Health foe All tASIIAI, 38 Iii Mt hut I Niniticipal imtrtiiersltips. 111.3 t~~~~~~~~~~oittilitittiy developtieicir. lI I Fl Molino, 135 Mmimpal partnerships, 103 L-~~~~~~~~~ttimroitnteiiltal ittitiatises 12IS Nitrtotpoilita (i OI oittnlisiol ftie the Piottci-eoti NitittiCipalI rest-oneC SOit-tt , stlcuedt co LIlt- intformial swaste ctillectioit, I 1 2 tof Air Quality.~ 1 31 tries, 1217 Karhttcttidii, Nepal. 1 37 Miceroelttiate'V cbattgc, t or-ttigaa Ni LRinlgailo Vottein's Group. Nattrobi antid local p e0 iiHtie1tts, I3I Xtcr1 h at111.gs 2n9o9,; d uaa Kcya, 1.36-37 Oiarigi Piltit Proijeet. _ 2 3 Niitiotlet' tp2 s itn,11)NieiIbetr iit ob c(it,I8 paimetieshitips withi, I 37-41) Microunterprisc S%'ItC111, I .CC- i/oD isetSe. t1ICHIO11lts .ttd urban etieoiviroI 1tiiltl IIlJaiagt-iiCIetit 12.5 NMicnot-itterprises. Ntolit, Z.titbia, s as wattchdo gs ftr iludlurriA l ioillutiuioii prob- Nididle I [lSt s tdtft Ctesatho it, 2(04, 2 I))m, Itt. 116 .M icrantion N Noiiitiotiorizcd transportatiton, bicyclts zintl Al ).1DSaeli.K ir, 144 petie-Striats, 96 dk esism amtitt, utligraTnts. I I N io iKcva 14N 1iiOtttm itrZCtd VRe iciS tutlectiotis dije 1 I Nlt.r1lui lg:dtgS thu- links withlt N piit ratlsporrationl, 95-96 alttd Tlaruiral [iipiilanittiOll1Ce-Ais, I I MuiAttt\(ttt r ~ I~ild pt-desreLTItt , 9 5i')h rnur,tl-1r0-LiTrba11 - National gioveennments Nortdic eCOLIntrics, pitlicie's for- WOIttitCI 5tll- urb1aiT, 4 atnd cerge policies. I I ip w im n,1- Hirban-ro-Lrb,ii. 3 nataiontal tecititicail tssts nt,tic pritgratim, I Norrh Africaittt, d176 sntO1 04 )1 NiMina1ttit Bay, ruce-CLirs contamintitaion, 72 N:tiottal weal th Ntt \rc,ttfrs;tot 0,2( SIc' 9/st Wealth Nirtrhl NAmtterica Miinimtiizationt of waste, .titt efficientt Ilse it cm oiintl 10IOC~ (Vr ( resiLtieCt-S. 14.5 dev-Vl1ipt-td Cotitiries. It) tette~l paris 54 Mitti ng turlipigttntrie.(anebt pot ett 12 laudi tlegratdatuiO. 27 ntld genlLi1itt sax ilp. /60-6 I sIstim of fLittirc. 142 water poll1iHrioil. 279 N.t iata.Ietcti f 6-1Niis Qlned,iiiis lioitttliutre, NMelruust- Coi- Niires, andt stabies. 4 1 2)Nattial CAplital. effCtcS upon ntationtal itii 241-42 NiX i xt fal r1 11tt i t s stt-tits 135 weatIth, /t) t ea0nl 7 Noiiibiii, iilt-att dwsellers. 8 I Natural gais, 276, 28/ , 288-S9 Nticlear power, 28(1, 254-8.5 NiOiStisttu conuservatiotn. 2.3.5 Nalttitail rtsoturce extr;tctionti aii(itrs-vs 7 Mitlinta, N'Irteo , 16 Aligarht (its Intd1ia (, Ntitrieiitl rccvclitig, 2.3.5 Nio1tt IitoItig aitti eltfOrCeItnet IJakarta, Indtoiiesiat tO NLuttuituon, suni tie gnualirs '% nattdtrti,s. I 14 NatLirtl rt-siniree extractioni ani deCplerioti, situiLit)iettiitV, 194-0.5 regulattit titols, 10(6-07 1.rbaut1 itmpacts on, .57-58, 62-63 Moumotitsi, I iberni, fond COuTtatllintatiton, 41 Nartit-AI rest nices NMoutretal Protocol. .122 1LegratLaIotI or deCpiethitI, 164 Vietitam h-amutssotk (Xonvvilttimn oNl Ozonte- mitattaemtenr of, 23If O CI.) npational hazairdS D)eit'l-ittg SLibISn,tttCtS, .16 til itntstt 5 d cliiattnic Coiidiriiins 4.5 Mortalit Nanneail siilks fitr carbon tlixid\te, 317I in tuthauTl enveiromii ntitir 4.5 356 World Resources, /996-97. Index OCCal i Ti trnperat ires rriati He cci dciits, 47 A ilI 1111(t l 1211 7.3-5.7 a minesic shellfisIT poi si tong, I s' P>on W orld Table, Puirc ha sing po wer parci ts cci-liii0,1 IItil 'l ccICLs. 175 anid infeCtiouIs disease, I/S2-8 1 6,2reiolItrils 1 Oceanis and seas Peckasie, lPeinisvlvaliia, solid v%sistc manage- plitiot 11A Iioii iitei;tota,3) aiccess r0 fishi stock,, 296 iiictit, I I 3 P p lto cii ltraiil 0 Internaitioiial niaIM -iape iitii ciintrtils. 3(0( Perthi, Australia, urban spru \N,~l ti4 Poi pulatioin griowtl noise poll i11oiW. 255Ps oirld\clpn,o iiW,I iortirterln Atlantic, 296Ps dieoin tirre,I sca level, 3 I7, 31 1, ~ ~~~aiid indsoor cut iritiiieiital heal1th tilit ats, 4 1 ciT i k iILia1li1d1 277-;9 upsceiiings. 251.255 anT"AlIIW OL [ll)or, 2 (,11d laord 1(l.11cc. f 1 2(29 sIPentci irn ii ii tie, 2 i5 Pests jdLbifrL,M 9 venrcommunirics, 2ii ~ ~~~~~iiitroltltt LIct' rCL'' 2(h,i 21(1 politics ilIat iii(liieiie ic'tIilItV ri.les. \II Ogallala aquiifer, 1.liiitcdl States, 301I LIirb,IHiareas, 4 1 P)Opola.titlt grotihcii \i Oil. 288-89, 3 18 Petroconsultants S.A., 27t-_? PiOPiilatiOir tincr-e.is, atid Mitgrationi, II SetC lsii P'etrOIeuiii PCIoitu1titt1 Pitiplatiiiii pIOcrii('iii, Ulniteti States, 17. depeiicdeiice, 27,5 ~,L > ouaiiited,I7- Oil inloCLstrv libby ists, 32 n i V!gs Lresures, 2-5, 278 siiIiIciti t uuedii,icsiir' Onie Thousand 1-ricnds, of Oregon, Nia i resers,c -7 , > sour,cs. the Landi Use-Tran spo rtatit n -Air QUalit\ PetrroeI m 1111 esoi iirces, productict n,i 2-Tn- - dciV''cipiLd cOHIrni ric's, 3 Coiionectioiin, 92 Philippines, coca Il recfs, 298 ii IL dL'li('lO)d and tranlititoii.l cc' ominiiui's (73 Ontrario. CanaMda. Urbaii L\pansitin, .59 Plio'iuix, sotlidi wsc te~ cllctioiin I I amit1 prccioie n,111, I 74 Oppoictunities four pc'ipie. 173 hiuttucultajc Cells, 27,) ulrhiim/atioill 174 aiid h1ci1ii,iT LcivcliipIjicnt. 17biiic leah, 4 Ptortlancd. ( rgion, 98S Oranlg Pitt Proect, Karah a i,r anlan, ,,c bIisl sc is cc, 1(2 gi6 Pi 3) I Pi I. h [tkitapIagpure erpidc/em ic' uirbani gitowt ii uncI aiesC, 1)2 11)6, 1 32-3 3 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~,:IUCaLss oi i reelini-Ocgcnc 42Sit,at pe csIitiii e ii 4 Organisation for Econolliuc Cou-Operation cost, 4 3 P Tt,JIISCiSllrdItO 4 aiid Development IOF( 21D)) 2714, 32.3 Pioia 2-3lircItN mitotr vechicic's. 82 ,nii 4 - ITIi c 111IiLdcti 14 sewagc. 21I Pl.gtie. plieLlF)itiiic. 4' antLI clipIlitlicri, I84 solid anid hazardous wa',stes. 2plantattion arcas, 2/Si T IIIdt1 llc' c'itvirl11ITT Itc'T, 25 Organochlorines, 2i6 ~ ~~~~~ififfirciriitti, 2 10 intl( iIiiic'rcnlosis, I 84 Organutchiittines. 256 ~~~~~~~laTIiittimii cover, 21(5 IIII Hiiil1ii C'C'10iliiis I 31 -34 Ooir C tottiioini Flto/net', \World (XOiniTilSSIOH tithes optiotis, urban ens'rtlititn.'lt, 1(14 ii LIc ubanl 1iiiriiitc'it On1 Fl ' ivirn men r a oci D'es eli pmenrt, 145 Ozonie, 66, 67, 6S-69 Puihesimaking. de'finition iif cmiitrotntniit, 33 IILcI Hiirbii social eIVic'rOnliTcitr. 48 and plant cia iii apc'. 67 I~~~Poiiltical aCCAiLiTitaI)ili iln mlajir Cities, de- iT111d lili 14 Ozoiieclaniae to L.S., cst of,20, 24Polithical power, aticLi ITstIiitTiiiI stuctlce 171, rl PL-Iii tcr .tic 'iioor petopie Ozonle hiole, Antarctic, 6 1 26 2 37 popla1.titti lcl 17 i; Ozoite liver (strattisphericl 31.5, 31 P ltclwill, 10 ,I1CII1 ( OzMtIC'-cdep let iTi'g Chei IMC'AS, p1H OI sttct, 1)eeg,ii tgtic ,2 PIT 511' PIVIirchsilig potwer pitltx' Ozonie-cdepletiii itip cl prIc'C'ulT icOISe gaIseS, at- Pl'tiitical Iwcill oifI lca I t1 crd I-S '152, 12- tactic.l FIrImacii s ofi itowa, 2 34 nitisphlerit' cioitceritrcatiotii , 3(1 Poillutaints, mnthrtpoic'nic'. 33 I raptic..(e litiholisikit, cLitsc's of cdcith, 34 P0ti1,cititin, 8 1 lPret riit c clear i, incd pa rtic'utl.t al11 itllti- p ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~sii' alsit Au'- pl111.titin; ITiiLIistri.il1 p)itlciItItli thini, 46 Noitie ptltliOi1ii PirimtituI.ky rc'giiin, bitdtcli-csitv, 20(1 Paic'ific IsIa,ndis, imarite biodi%ciiersitIs. 2 52 co sts oif, /1(4 PriV.1i Ic'1c11itc'rIprises, atd Ill tIc ii. nv e iri i i- Palca, Ji,I8'ic't'i'cli'lilolttTillIil.2 3tcttIlin.oagc'itc'tr. I-' P.rni A merican i-ealIth (Organiiizaict ion diiseasc' antI ftorests. 20 1 Piacsco,rl nsldw senaa sUrveillance, 1 87 liTicIsciiiicii.itit, 5557net. I 1.3 Pani-El,iroipai H-ilsitiki protcess, forest tini,i- tasesS, 27 Privati/atioin .ipenteiir. 2 12 tranlsitilin rciioitmic's it (Central IIL I I l.,isc'riic'l prg(ldUiCHlttit (icil1itis. 23 Paper priidluctioin, 22(0-21 UnAripe. 2(1 atid Itici gVI Is' IIIIeiits. I 3(-31I Par.tstitail SerViCe cililipalieS, aniiiidlc'ai pits- PuIllitititi coiititrol, 21,11 wat r I t'i n cr aa' T.l.goc'itcir 1,0314 cri11 mciitIs, 129 Qticst il (.' ts Phlilip iics. 121) [Pct iliCtiVrite. .1icld t .r tic co ngestiion, 24 Patti cipa tort 'v panTi vi~triter eo threes nmiiji i r.tgcniet , 31 [itt p'rt \' t. ,1 .I27, I 31) Chihttaiiiiga,i Teninessee, 1 42 1)itiutititii emlissionis, fiirec'ast, 1 64-5 P'clssb CistIcIa illtitsSCS. 11 itici-bImni..rtitii, 3 I municipalI gtov'ernmients, I 3I Piollttititii piievetititiil, I10, 145.P8 [iibIC C'iinsliJIt,titi pi'iic'sS. I hl.itiitit- PartieCLi.ite emisiii5 n1t, .86, I II 31, .is the best si01LItiOlit I 1(9 \We'ntwoitht'i Caiinida,, /2S aiir poitittiotin, InII c'Cti11itTTC r.t1iiiti,i1e, I I6PiNtII bliiath tc',rshtrc's, bi-cc'Ikc 'llst to1, I 186 ,iir piilliitiotii Ini stlCIect i ctieis, /8~4 iiic iniduistrial emiTissioins, I I i PtUbIls I.itic'ipaiIiiO, ahid C'tiisC'1it5S1)5iitt - atid prenliatUre cle.ithi. 41, mfiniittii,tiii clearimip-1t01-1c's, I1 I 16L Partniershiips mciiicipil gic'c'miT tTc'is crIcL. I II f, 11 ltical polscrninientit, 1 27, I 3)(1-31 wsatcr, 101) Piublic. transitst 1it0TIgtis'Cilii11Teiltl itrgttuatlti7 Ts (NI 0s), POiItltitiit 11Cc'lItiin01 iticcittiSC c' i+ 0-Iii[SL', 94 I 3,7-41) PROFIT Label," /31) imTprvin ti servic, c(4-.. ftic silidl waste c'iillecttioiii I I 2 Pitil1tittiol SuISCeptibilit%, man,tleTc specic's, 25 I rmati tiosit 94 - PaStUrteland, 2/1-I1 PokIchlioriuiat[C'd l'iphc'ticls 1WI'Bsi, 256l Public trinlsphtrt.ttitut Patniaik, Rajesh, il Poitrc'st cuountric's, c rolttt Undcltrntttrtttiii, tilIler clIN, It, Pedestriatis 1) 25 aliciI it1' tpp rtinci ic's. 1(6 andtioiitiioiirimrzecl sehicles, 95-96 Poiptulatitoti tranisporctationl, ti1Lticl1ts l. Witrld Resomu'ccs 1996-97 357 Index Public trarisportatito linl', arid urban itrl l prowp , 5 I ut), \Vict N;riit. 12 growth, 1 119 watert, J5t"s o. Schistoso snists, ard snailds, 4 Putblic-Priv;ate Paartnerships Pogrora miric 144, Risk ht aviors, ail socirt'Olonilic statis. Schlool of) a rchirteelire, partnrirs)ip with, I'ilp mills, inclustrialI pollItit, 72 48 1 IS' Purchasing po iwer parirv rWIT' 1 evo-nT River ha sits. 3i4 SCtlg.1 ss Itcds, 25.3 The Fri iimon ist s Biig i l at % I rode 162 Rioad iiti illit 'iltI1itt' t's, 89 SCaIs, dic-ofs 24' 2.56 ctliiiitiol, 161 Ro 'ad s stermits Seattle. 9'S developing coLiritries, I 3 and o nt1itiLtiter j.tilurn s, 84 Si 'ci,ilttargitailivatior, 4S linteroariirol; Comirp.airsont Project UT.) 1( (' cord pricilig. 5T-sc SCa asall tionstrrl-Cioll, 61 rnd orirker exchatige rates, Ih ' Rolislspriiiit, ()7 Sccirir\, lan a ltitttsittg trlire I 36 Peiiit W 1.1 ir? Lit/i', 1* Rot its a wI it o r hrs, iS Id br c kdit c ry 3S- N SLd*dIIl'IItatirlo, aMid polLItioll, 2.5.' -s57 RK ioud ivood itmports ScIf-perctpti it, a itnd eela :1tIe iiieLt1ility. 49 ( Iii, 2(h6 Q.ptst C'intrtl 206 S itI l, ClarCial IrotlLictiol, 63 Qu;a raotine Illea sirres, In t'erenat i onal CIviI 1ilittli Stat tl. 20h1 Sc turcirc r p tiros, an L sit vatiri, 58 Aviation Orgimizartiuo, 41 RroildtW'odl prodiLottirit, 2)-20 / te'ICWge 72 Q iezrin C(ity, Philippines, p clltioncntrol, ROwlad(. I. Slherswoid, .3 1 6 Sir' isati; [ fori I s (e II(w;rgeO llion 12 9 Rural groivr lt rate * coItrr, I - ItlIl l)c'v'eIipittettr I )F( 10, 21 Qtiito, FEcuadoir Russia Se ;wge s stirii, ( artegcna, ( oilmbria, 1)6 decnttrraljrumion, I Ifsit' .iisfl SOVii t (liThit Ii JirierLi; 'raii,itioor St'Vst,g'3t-I r-TlCt JItrOgens 72 citvironimetitelt ta ltatli riskss, X toLiitt tIe C;l11,(s or. tlt, I t7- sS1v lrc;tltl,rt (iCe' 'ii , 5s cIitiiitl( do il. IiI 6 R ~~~Walrh carc Nci % icc~~~~~~~~~~~~~~, I -8 and~~~~~ itori'lirrt water, 7 ifC C\11CCIalk) 11 lIdS, (7 flIM'd SrorilU, I;r I ' Rahinivitch, iJioias, 121 Russian [edCratiMi Sborelini Jtv1opment RadiacJ> tive wasteI 2Sh tf(.irets. 21)4, 20(_(- 7i : c Ij,ad cr1isiln. O-6l Rangelarlis, 2.32 Pilo ,itiii iriiject6oori, hN drologV utsittliS, 6?I set ,l/sti Pastirellarrd tiithri'r iittliistrs. tO- Sieria Overgrazing, 233 1o*- ST,, 2((,_(7 proitbcI ivit6 228 Nit iS,Likpm R2 nd, 2() Rapid transit, 94 s Sick bo1ildiig l sl clrtlf e. iCinMdoor air pollu- Recycling, 135 iltion, 44 In citiCe, .58 5 li rt I i re,r tt'rsIted, 2°h Singaporle' organii wastes. I- 3 5 San Ft rancisco KINa area Iitcensinrg stchet,ie, 59 riolid waste mlanlagement, I I 3 I iitd icL Lia til l,rio. l lit rd 1'.(1eliiairiot, h I and wa stepekers, W iserliT It ills e,rsiii, 2 Single pairent hroisel. IS s chair pinir, I 0 35 wiater, 10)9 S;111 \Mil.C 1 ti ttig \Ii Xit C,o UMllitLI "dSi; rli," r'cvcli,ig Organic wastes, I .3. Red Crt ss. hemlorrrhagic fevr 1, 1 8 I VC-riii isc' S,i i NILigoL i' 'I,iOti loni ([LVO ! 1ladc, 1 uilona jNernr Ill 2 Red tides, 249 1 Sitril. V-laI,, 228 Refinieries, intlistrial p0il1I.or 72 Sarld flis, Jitd Icisittnmtiasis, 41 Smtok'' air pollutiini ill sclecte'd Citiets / 54 Regioinal coastal zoiie miaage let. S'nital lv reviiiriMirr 7 3ntSokc'taks, 1 I C.hesapeake aI , 73-74 SanitarilIt Regional 1i1lntIlst' plainilnig, 121) JSct'55 Ii tSrinikiig, itid soiic' iliiiitari3s 4S Reg ional1 vwaIrming, ag nda illari ne etosvsttiist a til fcci ior ri c Ic l i sea 4 1 Sil ils, ald scit i stiositiasis, 4 1 7 a 7 amd tc)tosels, 4 1 Si(L l dIil(C;rtirIl dildi a) tira (il, ilfitL 'CL(- Regulations5 set, lFilvironitmerital lasws ttnd lariricts. 40 ilmtcl iii w g this It. 1C34 re'grl ltiolts liX-co'ist, I 12I Sitcir I aid ecinroirric mriqe(itirc's lilt1 t'cr- Sariitat rit. adIequT C it, access toi, (IVs i r ica ilte ioiriti ie ri ivl , I 3,4 Repila.torv tools i\tlSt;;lt- "'nlltgo r1 17 molnitori,ro itid eniforc'eterii, We)O Urb.rl, pOllitiott coiitrol, 1I(6 Santiago , hdle id hctlth, 48-S I Relative i'tialit\ Cost, alldst iti lecitSfits % isarelr IlttLl iir polltirri illd iioiciiLtOiMirIIIJIlv' diseases, 4s aind health. 49 Icial iittp.lct. urbanizatiot, I antd self-percept itti , 4 Lsa tit' Ip s 2I Soi iiI i itri n Cts _S.ao Pl;llo' Bla/;il ak'-st. o 1 job1s, 8 Reptilcs. threaiteedSeL species, 266-07 Sari Pain , Bailliccr'ss ii' jolts, 87 aidc ActrLa, ( hani, 49-5 I traiispoiriatiot. 8 I, 5-7 Research like trtbt, Itsad I'mates, 9fo ro el Csts, 87 te ergy-cfficiriit techitiologies. 321 cass it delth ,4 Ai rh;l iaras, s rentevvablt' enlergv souirces, 12 1 1iise(11ltiild CI). irmcriiiit.rl Iiiilicatronrs 46 Siocial itisrilitii . airtl narrte mpllor mcru ir. 48 Resor uliet' Cirils ptiOll I,.IL dr tise cttits, 6() Social n1irgr-ilr lzatrr Urlhan areas. vi ntirtratli> ,late's biv socitetlivirolllle't.tl / 0 v.iir . c"Itg, 48 and swealthl 2 49 itd l li, 4 Resourte pritection , ml egrated a pprra1chCs, bcliii c'.plliisioll iS Seattle, 48 /5 SSa ltlire intlagurs. tJtd foret coitlitioti, Sotizil slrabilitv. rhretts to, 2.5 ReveuiLie generatioln, ocral govcrt ittl, I 27 21 I-1 I Sici (cc iut i nellitis a i.l cli, 32 R'Visi(oo 2000, C hattalooga,1 tl'is'ee, Stabits, altttd mr ite', 41 oSi iot'lclconi cmlqimii nd Sthte115 142 Seac'rllgt'rs, reluintiig healt It riisks to, , 11d.c titLer 4s Rice. 227, 23( Scaevlnges, htirlltirnd dritkiung, 48 Rio de lanteiro, BRazil si'C 1i/st A'sc'pdikers altl lltli, 48 1unI'/1 clwf lIcers. 6() Abicj iII, ( i e l' lvie, a alld itLtalt eisese, 48 358 Work/l ResourcS I 996-97 Index anid risk behaviors, 48 Suburban fligit 'FOiC xvastUxs ind Sniokkilig, 4S Drioi,i i.1 dexel,pedl .olntrie, 24 Soil degradation i 3 232-34 lliited Srirtes, S9 87 dteei eloplrig cotiiitries, 24 and agricultra'li pridulcntion 234 SrtlIn r dioxide, 21) 45, (61,, 1)4, 2on, / I iractors, 240-4 1 s,ilinr1 tiri7,10 2 12 air 1p tlOtlrori ill seleCted cities, 14 Trade sUrceY, 3 i. Ii iii., 67 i rid firrists, 2 I 2 Soil 'rouion, 208 232 S Sultur emrissioris, 66 ind rronexiiroiomic viliitcs of forests. 21 Siolid andx haz airdoi s wastes, 2.3 SritUr of idcs, I I1 Traffic aCCi dtls, 8X7 (rel,iml (i1tyo 2' 3 Suirilarint dcelopriilg. cimiies, 47, S7 Tiokyo Bay. 23 Wa steprekers. 2 ~~~~~~~afrid eccoui i i ili 21)8 mii r'til irj itx', 4- Siilid astc, 44, 71-71 torests, 208 r p'destri.ans. 47, 87, 9) see ajar, Waste disprisal ~~Sirrinralirr's Fiorest Service, 209 Triffic ciingcsrion, 82. 8 5, 1104 Seeat lsow WYaste disposa.l inld children. 44 Sustainl.hl thy. criteria aind iiidicators fire for- ,ir pillrtiori, 211, 24 a iid dispi,ible t plaers, 44 e'st mialaageneitcii I 212 mlotor i Ii elCids, x geinera ted. 71) Sist.1ira blx' C rica PrograliMi U , 144 air iri pridiictuvir, 24 inc ri ar , i. e Scistiilnlablc devclopiirpr it, 206 Fraffic j.1 1ins, ii 10Sss LLIC' to, 2 redricinng generaltion (it, 1 1 3 see ti/So ,i on oisrs liii it 1 ra,isit s oscmls, aid l111 1 1itt' r ne ysini>, 84 trashi collertioi, S aid citi's, 5, 145 Transisioin cointric's if (i r,i- al id Eastern .ind wi stupickcrs, 44, 1 12-1 (, 1 35 aid citici ot xwealth, 14i 1i ciiopC Solid waste collcctiioii, 1. 7. kdefiriitioiir 145 .carbiin diii nidx issiolin, 31' sie rUst Traslr iollectrioii elIit.il'l1 ,listrbunl t M i) (ItrMiriMe, I162 energy crirrsniirpiiro, 2'4 ec miilrc polii ilistrriirrt, 1 12 Stist,iinable si olutiioiis, cities, 26, 2oi .c.'iierp' xiiiis tifl ritii rl rid irtliiductiiii 274 infoi rirail waste colileertion, I I 2 Si r i th1 ,iis,iititiii sfejjstet, 87 inidirstria aI,ctixi tts I S partneships ior,l H-2 urriiitrio id trranspOrt,itriiii, Qn Xift' ehxpectinc, 177 Solid wa ste iiriige irir s-si, I n 1-1 ' piilaltriigerrettIll itll IreAlth 2lr 2 develorpinrg cii riirlt',sI 1 12 pipunlatirorn trtlrds, I 75 piartiiersliips xwitli ningixverriimenitil iirgaiiizt- T reduition i,, gr'eiibllise gis 'llrissilis, 321 ri(ns, I 12 aild rbla povurtiv 12 partnershlips with prix are seeo r, I I 3 Tamgiers. .iiiro icci o, coastal et ision, 62 alld w i att'r poillutimii 31)2 pay -per-bhag sysrerrms, I 1, Taiiiirc'ies, indldLstrial poiiuroll, "2 1 r,i pl i rtitiov prlxelirg70CIo, I 13 Ia rgx', 20((0) 213 SC"' Li/sfi Icrhi trainispotationi aTrid irbalrliL iisiiripitll.l I 1 la ciilecrtiirl l)clhi, lIdia, I 31) and ar piollutirii, I I 3 .a11d U rcnli prrr. I I I lses hill ci st priLi ng, XX-89 Siilid %vasxes, nolitoxic. 287 arid erillssrriil stiaildards, /14 aiid lirixliix', 8 3 SiLith Asi,r energy x'iistiipri , aX8 rir(rasrit crtructm I I crol rieids, 232 idlirrstrill entt itirs, /r)(6 rnd aild1 rise. 88. I l' 120I -2 1 (itd security; 225 anldririrricipalrtic', 12'7 l ingth ot trips, 3 natriiiilo x'e,alrlth 1(0 poltlutiro, 27 . manigirig travel rlcir,iirds, 87-9)3 irb.lin poetny', 12 priolcrts rlx, 27 1 3) g Souchcoiast Air Q 3i Maniagc-mi ntr Dis- -ecnliiiiliis parkrti cit d s, X trict,C lfri, 62 is "siidri eaO -tl, mcmt( ,X'1 tir(?alitliicrlia, St eliee-tixei1sx's Ii)) aliti siixiil liieliiiies 87 SOiitheast Asia, furrilit rate. I75 erierg); 322-2 1 trlfIx sinls. L3 enerp-el-cix'iciell 324 iirba air ic,i ,s Soiutlr'ri C aliii.i Eclisoll, foi (ir rx'xlrix' ciatb i diosaur emiiiisi s. 321 fr ispitiiri rlciriiils, 1iti ilrair t, Sorvuct Lliiiion ltoriic rirrr watere rsd sainritaionii IO) S-U? sit tilSJ Rxsslu.i: Rr1s1'1i11 F ederitioi: 1'rini- Tcchiiloip8 rion cioniteles erjg (i xl riction -ic I 27 1 l nsporittioiir in1rcistrcLiLrcc, 9.3 fuxid pci iduciiiiii,r 225rdutioi aclitc, 2 toods pcodvetr on, '25 'n'rps -drx veir exqlpTlrent. 3 Traiispiortation, Miodes of forest covoei 2t1s_ bi,N ciniog Sl 8s I s, 83I, SX, 8 1 10-i 59(i9 (, life e\speti icsy, 1' gle ipa ip.u1 , 1 011dUris, C(ooaipertive lIoiis- i t clist il eiirrs sr iri ixri ,'3 piipnl,iiiirii. 175 013 l-niriiid,itriiir CI Wi, I 39 r~~Cap,lruiii Ciiiuirih iCiisx s, Ixt5vrius POPLtL101 Is 1i ling Fqoundaltionl (C F10 I IL) e1,vze 1|z1 i-s v Specics' Teuperiature. aird isease sctors. (82 'le-xiccis, 0- estiliarerd totil iUmirr li2e4s US Tiriirteli ' cX[l' (rericlLs, i iir poll irioii, 1 8 j(ie'il'i' tS haliiitatloss, (l TIlT-x'cii1s vi ts. sir ' IIcais an.1id x,is, x lct ktm(i-ka( rii, 9S MintrodLxtiiir. 248-4t1 c liommunitixs isiritr xxiTirs nl .1 ui riiltr-LClcs l Sqtuatter 1iOrLisig, as a1 perccirt of toral hoLs- Fh- arc'ticld anti endt ilgcred species 2 1 I-12' pisseriger cars, 82 tipg stick, I 7 Amur Iico itip i c1 S(r' ti/sir IOtOi VilCiclx's Squi tter seit leirents Ca uses of esrilctioin 247 piNlilc tri isnportatio nX I sAT ti/S sriig, sqt,irtrr sertlcrireirrs lrpirots, 2 52 riick sIrl xs ')(s uccess to (o1s, 134 iarniials, birds. aid liigli'cr plairts 264-o tx r'r-rtrile moritrxvxL, 1(14 Iila, 137 is airme marisr iuials, 255 'Al,uking SI, XX3 S5 9e, Pia IBirlii,l, 18I rteptiles, miphisiil ans, id fishI, 2(06-i Trinsportarorn pi.i'ttx'ils, aid irl,iill dcelisItV, Steel, crIdC, 290-91 Silieria tig.ri 2r) S 1k Srih-S.ihiara Afrci-c Flit-c Giigcs Piroect, ( hina, 279 1 rcnsporttion i trategies AIDS, 1'7 liirlr- WrkWiiknpg (I roiip, 212-1 3 tlscis xsrrrlk holmis, (Il4 chroinic riiidc'rritiotii 236 liii. 2x90-)91 miiprii wurgatx'iriiigx'riic'int, 1(04 croplanid e\paisxiii, 2 ' c ' .11rd 1i1iid iie, 87-SS esrernal; debt, 225i Tiwari.G ,111), 9I'i-gritl lOis sc'cxrv'Lx', 1.4 looud prodructiois 229' Toik o hay, solil aixd IiiL,arxliitrs 5,Wstcs, 2 'rish eollcction toodi seticri '2_5 _ii ills' se . d 'strirs pcixirig ''ra cl ilgte srcx,ls-e pc i pcii, 12 gx'iliiiire s3ixiip 16(6 iorin itoi Uirl_a.ic h is I 'Or I x l dicti ll VOiLt, I I S Iirbcliia jrx'js, 4-I \Vrorld Resoure's 19x)96-x)7 359 Index Travel anid comimierce, and inteQCtijuIS diS- suliurrrhii flighit, 59, 57 I hi ij.istt Uin ', I 8 hrti bait sprtiw 1 Si (I dCv ir tpr1 CLI t IuStries. Urn Vii pa tterrils,a nilc m rha i ft rtn, 83)-84 LnIiiladeil gi hcilint aid littd wecurir r 1,1 Irid ito~i i iie hug, ad ch1.ig.i tS' (JI Sen cc 4 I LUPsceli rgS, OCid iiS iind si'is, 2.5 aIdfrgi'cco rvstlciris, \ Tropicall foesis, 2)(( 2 _ 0-1 2Um1 regiitii tori. SIS 2ift Iirmitrir. C.aj),ad.. 59 Africa, '0 5 2 1 I Uramaumii, 255 Si 59 it VaIrLir, Ilr.r,r, 59) Asia, 2015. 21 I r-U'crvcs, 2I7Irbiii oloirui Corrdiitriin i. 2111 OUrban air- PttLIittiiil 2123 (bt-NI0 ctrnipaii cities, 55' den i,reclirnrt, 20.5, 2t19 Scet a/St Arr porillitirrt displersirir, X 1-84 dcegrdi iriin aird Ctt~rrs er irn, 2(11 aiid riitirt vt liliJcs Si n !x i,'reeci t iclibeirs, rcrs ;ivsard irrini grrtwdi inirri Arieric;r. 2015 2 1 I rcepiratirr driwi\cs5 22tiii.rc. 'Iaiiariiii arzia 205 ULIrha anUl variousisdCfinedL, S innd arid IrSL' n1AtcIR,, I ih ririifrrrcsrs, 21)5, 20S ihi rariiirirariii rcre.8 TYPhloid. I I - SC't LiSt Citinns Vt ir,nnittrii IIrrsck [Alsd rr'r Iunlrsicl 8.5 arr pitlirririti I riiiirrircertniirrtat rgrtrr, 1 U ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~oto-v dciv lii 5stc ni i in erierInlti58 1H'iltr Im,, .54 u ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ericr-gc curiion iv, t arid tr;r prrsiratiriin dctrmatidi' 55 Ultl_Z0O)Cr igi Hi 311iris it ciiriLtal (lriiciir01i vSpleliiiitrri'', iN .iiid Iris l vi iirerrr, 5 1-8'4 LINCED) is'e Earth Simiiillit p'rs, 4 1 iiotrrid;rrrcs. '2 11IS U N DP '. sce L united Naiitiins ID) clipmeiit priorites tot[ ac'imir, 1)-21 irgiti Pri gin iii1 wi 'ia ter i maagigniient prici ices, 6,. c;tisicrs tI, 1(-12 ((NFl'. Set ' I iiiitd NaitiinsFis rtiiroiminet IPrii- LUrlin (CO Riductiorn Projlect, li tunr- z- list puk nrirtipottri; n lr iIU ic> I (9 graliiiiii hriiiil Cioincil for Licai Ensiritnnieiltn iii- r ate, / 311-S/1 UNIVT tOItrifr1ici on 1iriorectioin o titt NI-i- iatlilii> I I L Urbin grwti ih platterils, 3)-lit r-iiie inirtIT(iineiir frOillt I .niICIAMseL Acridi- lUrbani Coltiisimptiiiii and rrnfr;IStr(iierrreC JdcicIt pLcilt, 9 tics, 260 arild ciiii wncse iIarragerMiierlll, I ssrblbiirln ii,atrtii '1 ULlijiri C IrhCid Atactirs nCedLeCAT mt B11IpaI, In1- uAnclet sirs ii ral i- udiirl;r fringc. 4. I di.15 Llrii cttntaiiiiieiit pillicis, niiild ' brirwn- sriaispmastl. Unitedi N tiriiins, 1411, 300 fieldis"," 1( tirhal itihelthl tLiiitLid Nat ills Cenrcir fore Fui ri i Sirtie- I I 8-I 9) diftc rerrcs~ " i liiiii ci ires, .15-37 iiienits i Hahirtai, 144 LUrbmi indiisity., andi traitspirrtatitti pittirns, 1,1-113i11 1i.sAithl r'ks, ci iittilimitY piLrCVipttllIS, irrlaii dati ioleited, 149 5 I 8 Linited Nuiitins "Ilili'ii"t' FVincI (MNC - F), LUrbaii iveS'lipmiili, aiid Lrri iii lnitd lISt'U t3iaii iipiets I 3 p rlniniiig, 6I) Cirstil tLrtOystCri1'. 55 iT1i rar , LInJcI CO eclted, I 49 [Jr han11 dvc'lie rs eiicgv lsti ces. 61 Unirired Njtiiiis Contferencc' iii Finiioiriiiini'iit hecalth prirfiles. 32 ariTd cr,risersitirr, 5- and D)ev'clIpmnie t 1UNCEID)) sci Earthl noinrihit natra resisirCi- s's~ltrItIttI irid1 uL lenirtIrli SLillillilit ricLitiscctstr.i tirltrgICS trirIiipt 1110%lug health.,i 5>55 62( i LUiite'd Nitionls C ntliiterenee n H iiiini Sit- iiirrii rcsitrrc, 17~ tit mull i\ ~~~~~~~~~~~Urh,ii i'iciiniimy wsvt"'e dipsl,8- fcrciiei'itii Sttddliiig IIctCtriirnctiriis, ( 14 Lirbniinintr,,/1) rim ii N liii ills Clii g znil poer~ I ;i L IrliaI LIILIi CiWLrvirSiIl, coit,st;l cctisvstelis, SLto,k I'. ndi High iv Nligin torr Fis,h Stic:ks, L h ici lLvll pitrn(i',II-I2li Uliiit 3iNiiti00 iSciitill tl'IiS i ULIM11 il rCrit,ihliCi'ii, iCi.Stllliis,.59 LUrlill i lud iisc* piiilig,ai lilli.~ ll 11 1 sli'VCi- sliieurli Ntn r 33dlrtiiriCr. 12 I 4tlL L W f 1111 t, 14- tIlC SL"il, 2i9-60, 300 Url~ciiriiirc r0 lI TO )i)t, itgiiiii 4ll riailiuUis,rcddi ii 111.1 Lirirteci Nntntils )C i'iimpnic T ri igrbatonDe- ciiillcas erlt r lsrriiiS 1 1 i40, i144 i gtdus,A en Cm u,. I-Iiuriiari I ieve(tpiiiciit rules, / 1,11 and illirirbrari lisaillinc,d .1) kta, 10 //siite.ii Nm'tiorls Developmet Pogrmmiml laud ilist' pI ilur ryrg I Utt I.rhai p arksati plard ts. C nra;ii reitwld, 14( Virrdivrits DC sC''.)IIiciit, 24d 7-456 ptjid upturns, 1(h14il tuu,71 IZrgiri,niScus grec rrei rts 289 Lirhiucui rridu iiairii iira I It,a Ue .52 rlint pIinirk u~ld ciiitrilSlUbnrnc ;l 4 L'iniredl Nnriiorn I'ipiviriltiiitu l )is isnil. ll iihii rhd ociiiroiiv iititll-l riaiguii 'iiiiieritirba k i~ niiisi iits u0 , mdhat, bwivat r itvl SC11I-1, 4 A 'lictd 1opti onriitls, i ii eilltr4rt lf iii ted States si~~~~~~~~~rln kCii Vr0i Ies I l71MlChC lg,25 2ri',i Ii p11i l OltO srbe list I o-T5 cted,1rhnMMUens ii Ilut llt iltpr ihiiis :.-2wicei riclea ip irriikirr scaler. Ullirri Niitiords P'iiiisstriisn Dlifnt risrln iteaivi uir m ilrnlr'ue gri irstigllIC rIlfisicCoild iChir 14ilI'II 0 c.left ,riliictnr, 2114L cic,I irirliiivriiioi,tiri 2, 2 Ogalinia as(uui(er. 3(11 assit(ve-1111cravd iti ptsiis (72 I'leurri11-Nt ooki(1 U111 aprI gis iuisi SLtilitCD')Cl ) lterrrldiii Ol 1itt l iirb lici p cruiire,(- 1 ( uirpasiltit U rr eiir, 7. e'SitSt cir titmit tid rb 4, IS2 diicN TOpi c1ciridiitrues I. 4 , rinirlidis MIiiiiptrs CISIlrhr prilJtrC CCitiit ci i ll ilcg m l r t Lerlip( liorvrir 14piuriris se(i tto,24 elles__I5iltlniI, 1 Cli lillitnrsrrsuuirubi( l cgradntrI I. 1.82 360 W`orld Rt'siimrets 99)6-97 Index and eiivirottinetiial jtIstICC. I l~~~~~fl r1m IL~ ia anj Id dttIyk %% edL. I Oi hoimiles,nless. 14 ser us, I tie.s; U[ha irra. h-,IIId IIIt(LIisittl tt Is%'IIts I I hIIt I Siiiig, 1 4- 15 benefiC t', I(K I, 1(1 r LCie l' IL lt, I I1 jilIact oilj eiitrirTi11iltlei, i's chIlId nIIrI(Iis;J 31 ILte informial Iranlsir, 95 lersi,31 I ri' s i/S TIT )rikig triteN 1r, c,L-l Iio C1rr ts lIe Patcptv planining, I 3 I d1L lC pn11 l eotii1itrieIs, I PIpIedCI oilr probletiis it, \ I tl ~ tig 11iic, \. I rlliCiCil it ofC I, 234 In11l ro2dc pricig. Ni9d ari,il.ci t.II i i.ire,2153) .i Igle parrlt eiii~iitt 5ceionomic opporriiilitIrs,, irrI irirn. I ITT , i Smnoky furl' 44 ccir0n1inles cr1 scale. I) 0 ileci,- ti, C anti( so1lid ts,istc ii.iaei i,II1adtriit 174piers if st 3) 31 and tsaicr subsidies. 105 a~~~~~~'ndI hitriiaiiN t'll-)ciitI ricing of, Cr, lil'2, Q23, 1 Lirbinspoptiation icloitlisral/-IiIl 3prrtiri7; oisriiibi)I' Irs ciiiilttrr, I ill-cl iiiliiii~~~,11,1 b llm iiiirt, lt-1, 18 IIICtIi, 4. W 1'c! r aer4iir S1SIA , (Milttitil li it,I I icliiLAI1Slcf stpps 3111,2 , bitiOMM ItVc 'tic ~ G int'llife t\pcctaltIie) 31Iciiicsl1 ttilti.t i rlr cietici oincciii.ilit i ls, 55 I) ) T.1 iri lfeC i ('t11Cl. Ishrig T(YII I2Al %li I N%11 LUlban po etyct, 12-14 rgUi(irIil got crTililice, I 3 ilt1IdliC~, 3 citral Frirrpc, 12 Scalc it lcirige.I: 4 tlLirrids, 31) I I cliii. India, 3.r5 socil.1 iImpIct, 33I Water, aCLcss to), 411 Fasterni Luritipe 12 urban)M Vrt1iclr c . I 31. Rirr tIc laiwiiorr lfri,il, 3- ciilroilii iritl imlplctCiiiilis 14 Urbanization. trrcclds iii, b\ region. W \Vttet 1id Ai ll t )Hirioii controls, costs andL cdllnic rliiniortilcs, 1 2 U.S .,1 s ./ Sir Ujllltcd States bcTlcfits. I Ifl-I I anld 1eaLthI, 38 t .S. Deptrtitictit of Flirrg uIDO)O , 2Sr{ S I/ Waa coliserraloil(I human ,I-ittl np, 311 iiiiict citits. I 2 lillorimarIion AcdtllirlisrritionI2. 1O Irig .I(algc- WV.Irr `SipiN III l'crmnral isrl.urioru rII pIcrcr 11111i0iiItICs, 1L[S. Fivtiurounncrltal P'rorccttion \geTid\. I i, I RWVIN1, lilt alilcI tIle /I(ilifitliL/t, 1md1 sSteN rrfll [lra,t/1, I I (IrS \Wacrr Miiditttrc,* Iti lirgciic. 39) Lariin .Aiuirric., 12 \W trrl ~ltI11tt111L, j dltisrial uIses. 311I North A ticr-td.-1 12 \V tc id ersloli, 25i4 Sotttlt r\sia, I2 V AtaL Sea.1"( 111 LUrban pri iritlcs,, ,1icc5 tO wme r lilc sf11111- Vehicle Ipc ltirton, redictioni o,f 97 Fltrrrcl.u l.tegl dudes W I) nion, 1i VcitIt Lc(IiiitII-tliticS, oCea11ii JidL SC,iS, S I \WAtcr liitIiigcilciit pr.tJCticcs, tirlai ,IrF';I, LUrbarl reccics lopihicnt \u6i. Laic ok nl iiii Ii zoi citsplaceuurtii of rcsiclenls. (4) i)~~cgr.dicligS bsaes Motreural Protocol. W;ltcr p'ollution,5,7 -3 .3) Urbani renewal, urbanl pairks iicld plazas., 14)1on Kot ngtrt fIlcrt, 1(1, II U.rb,ii rnn1o1ff, aimd 11Incl Isti,i1 po011intoi 72 \tlilc ih bl u ,t ic, 11111in)itici 11.1 stiqc, Cc Urbain sewNage. 72Visio, 20III 1l42 cltcI ri.11 c,i, oin treatmenctt I 09 I \rt Vstttl Rivcei; cial nmirling-, 6.3 sILIH Lade 511r 14 and fislirrIcs, 22 VolaIle ntrganic C0111pOI)tLIFclS /VO(.y 197(1-9 Total economiclily ;ctiv' popitaioti, Oral rehsdration therapy tist (NP (constant market prices. I S$); 195(1-2o) )5+ Low birrth-weight infants 1 91- I 93 abor force growth rate, 1 98 1-21)01) Percent of I -vear-olcls immuted against: ross dolilestic producit (; 1)'P) (ciiustant Cruder birth rate. 95)-20)2 S TB LIS$); 1 97 1-93 Life expectallnc: DPT 1)1' per capita cuArrent dollars) Both sexes, 1951-20125 P'olho GDI' (PPP) (international dollars) 1eliiales, 1951)-20(25+ Measles ("DI' (PPI') pLr cp.1 pita (internation al dollars) MI as, I 95t)-2()25+ C (I pIes usi ng contraceptiin Averagge atintual gri wth rate of (NP, TI'otal fcrtilitiy rate. 950-2025 1 981(-93 Total popitioui over age 65, 190S-20(25 Aserage aniual growth rate of (;DP 'lotal popularion tuider age Ii. 19.5(0-21)25 Land Cover and Settlements 198(-9 (rirude elath are, 195(-20)25 1 aILnd area, 196 1-93 Average antilll aI growth rate of (,D)I' (P' 1 P) ilt nint rttalitv 1i9.5)-2025 Population d*ensity' 1'961-95 1 98()-92 I n.l r S in ) nrri litt rate, I 96-91 Di0mcst CateVd 1l, nl as a pereent ige of Ia cd GDP (curlent liical cirreincy), 197119.1 Maternal inortalitv rate area IDstrllbuttoll of G; DP (ciirr-enit locI cur- (hild mainluutrition: C ropl and urea, 196 I -93 reicsI: \1mWsttinig Perima nent pasture i rea 1 96 1-93 Agrltural share, 1971-9.3 Smnuntilg Forest aild w'oodland area, 1961-9 3 Indiustrial share 19')1-93 Per capita average calories asailable Other land area, 1 961-93 W'orld Resoure's 1 996-97 363 Database Index Toti aln m- n pipilation, 1 95)-21125 lotial cerealI ruci prs, I9'1-92 Numtber+ ITitnl rural piopiltiont 19.50-20285 [oril edible oil donations 1971- 9) lto I area+ Average ainoinii IMP iULat on ciina Tot:lI cdible oil receipts, 1971-92 Percent sif total lUrbann 1965-595 TOital milk donations 19-92 Protecred areas tLider IUC N cat. I-V of at Rural, 1965-9S Total milk receipts, 19-1-92 least I millioni ha in size: Number of cities with at least 75(1(li00 in- Nutmiber+ habitabits Forests sotsal area+ P5ercentage of psputa t.iso residchring in cities witrh at least 75(0,)(1( ithllahitaats, Ixtetlt of t atslrJI forCsr, I 980 anid 1 99t) Percenr sif tsota l 19).50-20)0 )+ I-xtent of otilee wooded la idt 1 98() and Resouree z1fd ntthropologicalI reserves NuLilbel- Ot peOpIe residitig ill Cities With at I 99) (lUCN ear. VI VIIl:+ leatr 7.50(,0001 inhabhi riots, 1 950-2)1)111+ AnILIal defirestzition stoal forest: Nimber+ I)erxndell.y ratio lExtent lotial area+ U rba Percent I3iospherc reserves: Rutral AnTIlral l Ogging if cls0Cd Lbroadleal fosrest: N1niber leopile in absolimte poseri: ltei xrt lotital area 1)snl PIrcetCit uif c0issed fssrcst \X"clrltl heritage sites: LlIrbati Percent oi wlitie is primanr forest Nrldibere Rtural P1lilaitariolls: Esta I area Ioral labsor force+ Exrtiet W\tlands of internatioaial iniportatice: P'eicentit;ge of labol)r forcc in Anital eh tnge Nlimer Agricitltitre+ Rntilt f iorest: sitTral area liidustry+ Extent, 19Sl980td 1990+ Ml arine andiicoastal protected areas: Servtces+ Ntimber H abhitt i dic atsirs - selected Indian:1 eities' lMciet' CtasiL tleLIS f nge+sr NIiota in e Exsrett 1 9811:1lidi 1 99(0+ xtent uof enangroves Food and Agriculture ltrcent antntilt chalige+ Extent of sziral reefs ildex of agrictltuLral prrodtLieiit: Hill ntid mointtie foret: N mibiher of mamiimial species: Total, 1961-94 Extent, 198(1and 19')9(+ All Per capitt, 196((-94 Pserceot ainnual chailtig+ -itndetitc Itidex of fod prodICerit: [)rv decidc its tforesr: hreateted Tor;, 1 960-94 EIrteit, 1 981 tid 1990+ I'er ea)t)en)dsquarekt l'r capi:ta, 1960)-94 Percenit allitial ehni;lge+ Ntltther osf bird species: Prsdttcristiti oft cereals, I961-94 Verv dry foest N llb Area harvested trCerC eal ls. 1961-9 4 Extent, 198) atid I990+ All Priodttctioii of roots Aitd tlhers. 196 1-94 Peree st ontinr I ehatieg+ EItdeiirn i Area Ihatrvested for roors titid tubers ITesert fssesr:I 9hrearteItd 1961-')4 F xtent 1¶98() atnd 199(1+ Per I ,1()1()(( sqttare kni 1s96ttI 1riil anid atea, In96 I-9 c rcti t atntilaI ehi inge+ Nrlinilher of higher planit species: Iota I irrigalted ar t 1, 96 1-93 Roundtwood prodiictioon, tora l, 1 96 1 -9.3 All Tiotailferilizels ci si 6dI96 Fnlt ci cli:t rcoall, pudttctis 196h-9.3 Eidenotilc PesTticle ltilisCtiSCptillL Iiicltistrial r-otitlwosisc, prsditCrisot, 1 96 193 Threatenied Total tractsirs itsnit Sc, I96 1 93 Pnst td, prodLititio 1 so, I96 -'cr 1(,00(0 square ki n T'stalI h: r-esters in tise. 1961-93 I'apes, produitiion, I 96 1-93 Nitmher of reptile species: it riti inlicreofics ttlee 1 96 1-94 Fapers, lroiedtierisi, 1 96 1-93 All Total nutlmer of sheep 1 96 1-94 itslid irs, sitl witsd, I )6 1-9 Ertet mit TIota I n it her sit goaits I 96 1-94 'i ' I hreatenedl loral ititiiilier of pigs I 6 1 1-'4 I'er I (,(0)()) square kitt Tstdl Utitihcr of htorses 1 )6 1 -94 Biodiversity Number of amphiliian species: tloral nttibee of moles 1961 -94 Iltesrecteti areas iiinder IUJCN caitcgorv (cat.) All sotal Iltli ni im r ot asses 196h-94 I-V: Enidemnic Tiorln iLitiiher of bru-ilots 1 96 1-94 Nttilitcr Threartined TIiotai ii ittiber of c:Lie Is, 1 96 1-94 Total are: IPe,t1(1))) square kii Totial nUiber oit clickens, 1 6 1-94 Perceint ot land area Nutber si freshwater fish speetes: (lenin fed to livestocik i960-94 Prosteted areas linder IU(CN eat. I-Ill: AII Total cereti iI iports, 1961-9.) NUmitber iT a Tsotal cereal exports, 1 961-93 Tora l area Threatened TuttJi I pulSc iltports. I 96 1-9.3 P roteered arcas iitider IU CN Celt. IV and V: Nitiiber of c oastal species: Tistal Pltlsc exsirts. I 96 1-93 NUMIttle Fish T otra I ediblie oil imports, 1 9 i1-9.3 Torta I trca lLi rtiles TOtalt edilble oil exports, I 961-9.3 Perotcred .treas Ltider It 1iN cat. I-V of at Manminials Ti'otsa I cerc I dlitnrioiis, 19 I -92 least I ( 00)(10 ha ill size: Fl- renat cied ima rmmais 364 World Rcsourccs 1 996-97 Database Index Energy and Materials Waste-oil (metric tL)ii5l Toitl* \'i/aste--colltElillilig P('s{er-e nil r,.t of ototks unider stresy Commercial energy productio)n: Wasti-eoitainiig PCBs (metric ton)Pk Total, 1950-92 WXaste-cinical and pharalcLtical (ilietric [Percent discLarded* Solid fuel, 1950-92 tolls) (ilCtit Liquid fuel. 1950-92 Wons) Atmosphere and Climate Gaseous fuel 1950-92 tols): Geothermal and wind, 1 950-92 Photographic iimaterials ( r:.rI,(in dioxide eLlissil(IIs froml iHdLostrii I 1Organic solvcntit oLirccs: Hydro, 1950-92 I'anT ts and pigments Solid fuels. 197(-92 Nuclear, 1950-92 Resins and latex I quid fuels, I70-92 Ci nii erica I energy ci ns un ipti on: Toral, 1950-92 Ga3s fuels,I 1970-92 Per capira, 1 950-92 Water and Fisheries (as flaring, (970-92 Per conistanit 1 987 ULS. dollars of ;NP, ATIiuIal interila I reiiewhble watci resoiirces ( CemeCnlt IilaitIfactUre, 19(9(-92 1970-92 Toital [otal, 19-71-92 Imports 1970-92 per capita ler capitar,i,197(-92 Exports 1970-92 Annual1 river flows: (Carbioii chiOxidC cileissiois troiii: Traditional fuiels consumptioni total From iiothcr touliltries Bunker fueLs 1970-92 To tolier cou,litries LiIC1 -LC use chan,g, Anthracite and bituminous coals: Year if data: annu1IIIaI w ithdrawaI N ethI1a i11i U i )IOiiS froiii: Reserves In place AnInull withdrawal: SolidI waste Recoverahle reserves Total (Ioil mutiing SubbituLiilinols and ligiiite coials: Percetit of watcr resotirces Oil and gas prodiultio Reserves in place Per capita \Wet rIc ;uglriCiltiirc Recoverable reserves Sector-al withdrawal: Lisestock Crude oil-recovera hle reserves I)iiiestic Ttal Natural gas-recoverable reserves Industryv A\tinosplIeriC coICetitatin Of greCIIiuse UraniumID: Agriculture andn/line dOHICINleIig gases:. Recoverahle at less than US$X80 pelr kg Percenit of populaLtion servcd bvy: Ca donuii ICt,,1g g96.5-94 Recoverahle at less thani J1S830 per kg Priiarvy wastewater treatineit (OF(.1 (rlr hIlIC, Is97-94 Hydroelectric: countrics ( arbout.rerralilori, I 9-94' Known exploitable potential SeTcldarv wastewater treariiiet t OV( ID Metlivl clhloroforil, 1(97-94- Installed capacity COLntriesr (T( -I I, I()97-94' Production, hauxite* Tertiary wastewatcr treaitnieit (OLCD) (l(- 12, 1981-94:- Consumiptioii, alumiiniunm* COtuntries) (:F(-] I I, 1983-94 Production, cadmium" All wastewsater treatment (OCD cLouin- Total gaSCOuIs Cllor-lIne, I 975-94 Consumption, cadmium" triesW Nitrous oxiside, 19 5-94' Production, copper* A1iuiicia marine caitcli, bN region, 1970-9 3 Mlethliie 1965-94' (:onsumption, copper * AnIiual freUshwater catch. 197(-93 WOrI.I Carb1)ii d1OXideC ciiiissiOns huOnll fisil Production. leadc* Am1nU;11I aqUacUlttore pro duttiotin: fils: Consuniiptiol, lead" Freshsvater fish, 1984-93 Total 1(95 5-92 Production, niercurv" l)iadroluiliIs fish, (984-9 3 Sohld fuels 1955-92 Consumptoin, mnercurvy M.rinru fisi, 1984-93 I iqiiiid fuels,( 1955-92` Production, nickel" Crustaceans, 1984-93 Gas fuels, 195 5-92 Consuniption, nickel* Molluscs, 1984-93 (as flaring, I155-92 ProdLuction, tin" TotaI fish auid shelIfish, 1984-9, (ii tian-ift 9 55-22 Consumption, tin* Other, 1984-93 (Itlelcilt 11 9511 -92act're I955-92* Production, zinc" Per capita an1uaIftal food sipply froin fih iiaic SPef- cipit s, 1 9 7S-92 3 :onsumption, zinc* fisherv proiduicts ProdUctionn, iron ore" ICigthiof coastline NitrogLi i ii sions, 1 9N(-93 Consumption, iron ore* Maritime area: omm(t n a.tiiropolgenic pollitatirs:' Production, steel cruide" Shelf to 2)(1( meter depth (:arhobit onoxide 1 980(9 ' ConsUIllption, steel crude" Exctiusive ecotioltuunc zone Particulate uiiatter, ( 98(-9 3' Waste generated (metric tons):" Regionial imarine catcil I981-93: Hydlrtialrins, I 980)-93" Froni surface treatuiient tf nierals and plas- Mariic Fish'. Iiveititie tSOf naltitiual grecnhtuse gas hol eus- tics" Cephalopoclds"- sit oe-leul J S6 i5 1 11cullr env irontiiental '-.Ouscos' and "bads" iin are tightly Ihiked to air pollutiiin rates dJuc,uiuu price. $5 55) urban life, coimpare conditionis in and global climiate changes. This onit different cities, anr( envision a tore makes these complex relationships Teacher's Guide Unit on sustainable ftuure. to pages, (est . X fl- understandahle an(d outtlines actions 11 tI,inabl see-t ,t / dueIc uot'. Ireder cidec. ,uidt price students can taLke tor energo Sustainable Development This unit TBA Conservation. 27 p. 5 / s 1t . Is II.lt looks at the concept ot ustainable / $(6 95 ( tiCu.11t 1disc1un pI i ce 55 developimient through ecoinomic, social. ens irotimietital. and technological … lenses. Students will learn what Teacher's Guide Unit onr lidia sustainable development meians In SPECIAL OFFER and China. Students get i view oft developed. newly industriali"ed. and i Order all eleven units for only cach nation s history. cultuire, and major developinhg iations i $49.95. Teachers are entitled to resource issues antd consider a variety 3-4 p:,. 1/2 s t t looise-lea) / $ 9s facultvy an additional 20% discount and of enviruoment and development issues diciuuri puce '5 55) pay only $39.95. tront Chinese. I idi itii. and Western TeacIheI Guiide Units: Elcven Lnits | perspectives. 78 piape' 5 1/2 \ t I lose-Ic a $49.95) (t:iLiltvdusouCLt price .39.95) 6 5695 (t)i,i,,ii dt,, 'lul pru .' 555 i, TO ORDER: Mail: Send amoiont indicated, plus $3.50 shipping and handling tor the first item arid 6(0 cents lor each additional item to: WRI Publications / P.O. Box 4852/ Hampden Station / Baltimore, MD 21211. Phone: Call 1-800-822-0504 or 410-516-6963 with Visa or MasterCard information. E-mail: Send Visa or MasterCard information to ChrisD@WRl.ORG All orders nutis be prepaid. Prices stbjec' tto e'hantge withtout notice. ALSO FROM WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE Global Trends Presentation Set (Color Slides or Transparencies) 1994 / 50 - 35mm slides / List Price: $39.95 / 50 tran sparencies / List Price: $49.95 Looki ii for elflectivye ViSLIlS Onl a broad ranllge ot' Llobhal issues to reilnforce VOLH- lectulles and p)resenitationls? This set of, I'ifty Multidisciplinmary color slicles or tralnsparenicies iliLustl-rtes glohal andi regional trendcis over a 2(0-year period in the areas of populatioll aniid dLII1 evelopenitil. cOFIsLI-i yptiOll. cCOn1101licS. food an-id a-ricUltur-e. lalnd uIse. soils. forests aiid hiocliver-sitv. at nioslihere and clililate, water resoulrces. andICI enere-y. The Global Trends Presentation Set prescits aLit-1or-itatiVe statistics il the f'or-m11 ol' easy-to-re ad graphs. charts, mnaps. anid othcr griaphics. Slicies mnay be used iniclividualIly to pirovi(le vital statistics on a key issue, or the entile set cani he used as the basis ot' a teachiilln-nllit or pirofessiollal Iectule on illobal chaige, sustainable (levelopmielit. or a broad rallge ol'othel- interliatiollal sLibjects. An 8-page guide provi(des hackgr-oL1ind inifornilztioil on each slide or tranispatrenicy iii adlitioni to comIplrlete souIrce retelenlces. What Others Are Saying About WRI's Global Trends Presentation Set: -T)he OUtStilldillLn coloi- slicdes relpresent a phelnomerneal IesoLi1cC... I allticilpate LISillg thelll nlOt onilv olo couises but als(o loi illally difftteicut puLIblic 1CCt.ires. Thlev dieIC pairticLllairly ettiective ways to preselit i mpor-tailt issues." Jeiwit Luhchn co, Distin,guijshldPr Pro..sor, Oreg'oni Slate Universitv 'The new Global Trenidis presenitiationi set ot' 5( Outstanding slides is an excellenit packet for illustratin- the environimilenital] history anIC trelnLis reprOted in the In lstitute's publicatiols." Jack e)eFoure.st, Science Book.x aIndel Film.s 'The slicles aie very iil'oriliative and will be ol'-reat use to a vaariety of'collstitulericies." MVani,ul * ranm 'A., Mexico TO ORDER: Mail: Seild aLm1oun.t indicated pIlus $3.50 shipping and hanldlincg to: WRI Publications / P.O. Box 4852 / Hampden Station / Baltimore, MD 21211 Phone: Call 1-800-822-0504 or 410-516-6963; Fax: 410-516-6998 @a'ORDERINFO = E-mail: Send Visa or MasterCard inforrilation to ChrisD@a)WR1.ORG All olrIsx must he prepuiid. Prices .su hjcct to C(1/1,ige ithot ol/ice. I THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT World Resources 1996-97 focuses on the critical environmental challenges facing the world's rapidly WORLD RESOURCES INSTITUTE expanding urban areas. With their concentration of humans and economic activities, urban areas can be the P sites of intense environmental degradation.Yet with UNITED NATIONS ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME their vitality and efficiencies of scale, cities and towns also have the potential to minimize stresses on the natural environment and improve the quality of life. Achievinge those opportunities will require approaches that reconcile UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME the demands of economic growth, environmental protection, and social justice. = This special section explores the range of urban THE WORLD BANK environmental problems in developing and developed countries and analyzes key policies for addressing them. Specifically, the report examines the impact of urban environmental conditions on the health of the people who live in cities and on urban economic productivity. It considers how urban areas affect the surrounding ecosystems and the global environment. A special chapter examines the challenge of urban transportation and its implications for the urban environment.Turning to solutions, the report examines priorities for action on the urban environment, from providing water and sanitation to reducing air pollution to improving land use planning. Finally, it considers longer-term strategies, such as mobilizing communities, for creating more livable and environmentally friendly cities and towns. CONDITIONS AND TRENDS IN THE GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT As in previous volumes, World Resources 1996-97 also surveys conditions and trends for important global issues and includes core country data in each of the major resource categories from population to land cover to water to energy. Among the highlights of this portion of the report are: * an in-depth look at the threats to marine biodiversity, including a novel analysis of coastlines at risk; * a discussion of future energy demand and its implications for global climate; * an analysis of whether agricultural production can keep pace with the world's growing population; and * a review of current thinking on whether environmental 9 0 0 0 0 degradation increases with economic growth. NATURAL RESOURCES DATA FOR 152 COUNTRIES II 9 780195 211610 ISBN 0-1 9-521 161-8