A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 2 ©2010 CIAT / Neil Palmer 3 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas © 2021 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO or those of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. 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Examples of components can include, but are not limited to, tables, figures, or images. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Cover design: Fernanda Rubiano A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 5 • Economic Community of West African States Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel • • The West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development CGIAR Research Program • on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations • World Bank A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 6 Table of Contents I. Foreword 13 II. Acknowledgments 15 III. Abbreviations and Acronyms 16 Executive Summary 23 1. Part One: An Overview of the Current State of the West African Food 39 System 1.1 Context 39 1.2 Food System Resilience Concept 41 1.3 Five Principal Food Systems of West Africa 43 1.4 Food System Drivers and Shocks 53 1.5 Emerging Trends in Agriculture Production and the Food System 76 1.6 Impacts and Implications of COVID-19 on West African Food System 85 2. Part Two: Priority Intervention Areas at the Regional Level 93 2.1 Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food System’s Productive Base: Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) at Farm and Landscape Level and Related 98 7 Approaches Stocktake and Overview 98 Initiative Mapping 129 Entry Points and Reflections 139 Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Build the Sustainability of the 149 Food System’s Productive Base 2.2 Enabling Environment for Intraregional Value Chain Development and 155 Trade Facilitation Stocktake and Overview 155 Initiative Mapping 172 Entry Points and Reflections 178 Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Promote Intraregional Value 184 Chain Development and Trade Facilitation 2.3 Regional Risk Management Architecture and Farmer Decision Support 191 Tools Stocktake and Overview 192 Initiative Mapping 214 Entry Points and Reflections 221 Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Improve the Regional Risk Management Architecture and Strengthen Decision Support Tools 228 Available to Farmers References 235 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Table of Contents Boxes Box ES.1 Under the Palaver Tree: Unpacking Food System Resilience in West 34 Africa Box 2.1 A stakeholder conference contributed to Unpacking Food System 95 Resilience in West Africa Box 2.2 Regional programs under preparation that offer opportunities to 96 implement RFIs Box 2.3 A Promising Delivery Model for Providing Climate Information Services 122 Box 2.4 Land Tenure and Rights to Resource Usage 128 Box 2.5 Food and Nutrition Security Situation in West Africa, March-May 2021 191 2020 Box 2.6 Overview of Food Security-Related Regional Policy Frameworks 193 Box 2.7 Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanisms 202 Figures Figure ES.1 Priority Areas for Regional Intervention 26 Figure 1.1 Food Systems Framework 42 Figure 1.2 Per Capita Income (PPP, Constant 2017 International $) for West 54 8 African Countries, 2000 and 2019 Figure 1.3 Gini Coefficient Across West African Countries, 2005 and 2018 55 Figure 1.4 Headcount and Poverty Gap of West Africa, 1981–2018 56 Figure 1.5 West Africa Population Growth 57 Figure 1.6 Share of Intra and Extraregional Trade of Food in West Africa 60 Figure 1.7 Public Agriculture Expenditures Relative to Total Expenditures in 62 Selected West African Countries Figure 1.8 Agriculture-Supportive and Agriculture-Specific Public Expenditures 63 in Selected West African Countries Figure 1.9 Expenditures on Agricultural Consumer Policies in Selected West 65 African Countries Figure 1.10 Evolution of Violent Events by Type in West Africa, 1997–2020 73 Figure 1.11 Agricultural Total Factor Productivity (TFP) Growth Rates for West 78 African Countries Figure 1.12 Land and Labor Productivity for ECOWAS and Other Economic 79 Regions, 2015 Figure 1.13 Price Trends for Selected Food Staples in West Africa, 1995-2020 82 Figure 2.1 Priority Areas for Regional Interventions 94 Figure 2.2 CSAIPs and CSA Profiles 101 Figure 2.3 Agricultural Research Spending 112 Figure 2.4 Scaling Up Climate Information Services (CIS) Through Public-Private 123 Partnership Business Models Table of Contents Figure 2.5 Share of Intraregional Trade for Agricultural Products, 2005–17 157 Figure 2.6 Quality of Infrastructure, 2018 159 Figure 2.7 Net Exports of Agricultural Production by ECOWAS Region (total, in 164 US$, millions), 2000–18 Figure 2.8 Schematic Overview of a Food Value Chain—From Farm to Fork 165 Figure 2.9 Enabling the Business of Agriculture for West African Countries, 2019 171 Figure 2.10 Three Types of Risk 193 Figure 2.11 Natural Disaster Occurrence Trends in West Africa and the Sahel, 195 1990–2019 Figure 2.12 Occurrence Frequency and Mean Duration of Drought Across West 196 African Countries, 1970–2018 Figure 2.13 Occurrence Frequency, Duration of Drought and Average Affected 197 Population in Sahel vs. Non-Sahel Countries of West Africa, 1970–2018 Figure 2.14 Occurrence Frequency and Mean Duration of Flood (Months) 197 Across West African Countries, 1970–2018 Figure 2.15 Occurrence Frequency, Duration of Flood and Average Affected 198 Population in Sahel vs. Non-Sahel Countries of West Africa, 1970–2018 Figure 2.16 Food Price Volatility in Senegal, 2005–14 200 9 Figure 2.17 Regional Architecture Supporting Agriculture and Food Risk 203 Monitoring, Hydromet Services, and Early Warning Systems Figure 2.18 AGRHYMET Operating Scheme 205 Figure 2.19 Cadre Harmonisé (CH) process 207 Maps Map ES.1 Acute Food Insecurity Across West Africa, March-May 2021 25 Map 1.1 Agropastoralism-Based Food System 45 Map 1.2 Grains and Legumes-Based Food System 47 Map 1.3 Rice and Horticulture-Based Food System 49 Map 1.4 Coastal Maritime Fisheries-Based Food System I 51 Map 1.5 Coastal Maritime Fisheries-Based Food System II 51 Map 1.6 Tropical Mixed Tree and Food Crop-Based Food System 53 Map 1.7 Rurality and Urbanization in West Africa 58 Map 1.8 Projected Temperature and Precipitation Changes 68 Map 1.9 The Geography of Conflict in North and West Africa 74 Map 1.10 Land Use Change in West Africa, 1975 – 2013 77 Map 1.11 Food and Nutrition Situation in West Africa, spring 2021 and lean 86 season 2021 Map 2.1 Solutions and Registered Users (Millions) by Subregion of HQ and 117 Subregion of Primary Focus, 2018 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Table of Contents Map 2.2 Intraregional Trade Flows, 2017 157 Map 2.3 Mapping of Road Harassment, March 2015 162 Map 2.4 Victims of Violent Political Events, 2011–19 201 Map 2.5 Food Stock Capacities in the Sahel and West Africa 210 Tables Table ES.1 RFIs by Priority Intervention Area for Food System Resilience at 35 Regional Level Table ES.2 The FSRF is Organized Across Three Pillars 36 Table ES.3 RFIs and Corresponding Deep Dives 36 Table ES.4 Overview of Proposed Deep-Dive Technical Studies 37 Table 1.1 The Agropastoralism-based Food System 44 Table 1.2 The Grains and Legumes-based Food System 46 Table 1.3 The Rice and Horticulture-based Food System 48 Table 1.4 The Coastal Maritime Fisheries-based Food System 50 Table 1.5 The Tropical mixed Tree and Food Crop Food Systems 52 Table 1.6 Undernourishment in Africa and West Africa, 2005–19 80 10 Table 1.7 Prevalence and Number of Stunted Children under the Age of Five in 81 Africa and West Africa, 2000–19 Table 1.8 COVID-19 Impacts on Different Food Subsystems 89 Table 2.1 Initiative Mapping for Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food 129 System’s Productive Base Table 2.2 Regional Flagship Initiative #1 149 Table 2.3 Regional Flagship Initiative #2 150 Table 2.4 Regional Flagship Initiative #3 152 Table 2.5 Overview of RFIs related to section 2.1 and corresponding analytical 154 work Table 2.6 Border-Related Measures (by region), 2018 161 Table 2.7 Ranking of Countries by the Size of Their Agroprocessing Sectors 167 Table 2.8 Summary of Major Constraints for Key Commodities 170 Table 2.9 Initiative Mapping for Enabling Environment for Intraregional Value 172 Chain Development and Trade Facilitation Table 2.10 Regional Flagship Initiative #4 184 Table 2.11 Regional Flagship Initiative #5 185 Table 2.12 Regional Flagship Initiative #6 187 Table 2.13 Regional Flagship Initiative #7 188 Table 2.14 RFIs relating to Priority Intervention Area II and Proposed Technical 190 Work Table of Contents Table 2.15 Natural Disasters Reported in 17 West African and Sahelian countries, 195 1950–2019 Table 2.16 Hydromet Services Benefits by Groups of Beneficiaries 211 Table 2.17 Initiative Mapping for Regional Risk Management Architecture and 215 Farmer Decision Support Tools Table 2.18 Regional Flagship Initiative #8 228 Table 2.19 Regional Flagship Initiative #9 229 Table 2.20 Regional Flagship Initiative #10 231 Table 2.21 Regional Flagship Initiative #11 232 Table 2.22 RFIs Relating to Priority Intervention Area III and Proposed Technical 234 Work 11 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 12 Foreword Since the 1970s, West Africa has been exposed to a reflected in the ECOWAS Agricultural Policy growing diversity of shocks and stressors affecting (ECOWAP). To further increase its technical and regional food security. They include extreme strategic support to ECOWAS, CILSS, and CORAF, weather events such as drought and flooding, the World Bank has recently initiated the multi- market volatility and trade disruptions, pests and partner West Africa Food System Resilience zoonoses as well as worsening insecurity, state Facility (FSRF). fragility and conflict. In 2020, the region was hit by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has further This report is the first output of FSRF. It was compounded an already challenging situation. developed in collaboration with ECOWAS, CORAF, Thanks to regional and international cooperation, CILSS, CGIAR CCAFS, and the FAO Investment West Africa has been largely successful in Centre to critically inform the preparation of large- mitigating the food crises that this continuous scale, regional-level investment programs that aim stream of shocks has caused. Despite this effective to address some of the food system’s structural mitigation, the concentration of available human, long-term challenges. Focusing on three priority institutional, and financial capital on short-term intervention areas, including i) Strengthening humanitarian response has often come at the the Sustainability of the Food System’s expense of long-term investments to address the Productive Base – Climate-Smart Agriculture structural causes underlying the persistence of at Farm and Landscape Level; ii) Promoting an food insecurity in the region. Enabling Environment for Intraregional Value Chain Development and Trade Facilitation; Recently accelerating trends related to climate and iii) Improving Regional Risk Management change, growing populations, urbanisation, Architecture and Farmer Decision Support Tools, changing consumption habits and recent the report reviews the region’s most pressing 13 technological advances have created new food system issues (the ‘what’) and summarizes challenges and opportunities, reaffirming the lessons from successful past approaches on need for long-term investment. In parallel, the which the region could build going forward importance of taking a systemic food system (the ‘how’). Based on this review, the report also perspective, which embraces multiple outcomes, identifies (i) knowledge gaps requiring further sector contributions and value chain functions, analytical work and (ii) possibilities for impactful is increasingly recognized. Based on a long key initiatives at regional level, several of which history of successful collaboration, West African are already earmarked for further development governments, regional institutions, and other and implementation through regional programs food system stakeholders have developed under preparation, most notably the West Africa the shared understanding that systematically Food System Resilience Program (FSRP). addressing the above-mentioned trends requires strong collective action anchored at the regional The World Bank looks forward to collaborating level. with ECOWAS, CILSS, CORAF and the region’s partners in the context of both future analytical The World Bank, along with other technical and work under FSRF and upcoming investment financial partners, has been a longstanding operations to bring some of the report’s partner of West Africa’s key regional institutions recommendations to life. in advancing the regional food security agenda Alain Sy Traoré Dr. Souleymane Ouedraogo Director for Agriculture and Rural Development Chief Executive ECOWAS Commission AGRHYMET/CILSS Regional Center Dr. Abdou Tenkouano Chakib Jenane Executive Director Practice Manager, West Africa Food and CORAF Agriculture Practice The World A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Bank Resilience Group in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 14 Acknowledgements The report “A Blueprint for Strengthening Food like to especially thank the numerous experts System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority from diverse sectors, including agricultural policy, Intervention Areas” was developed by a core research, development, and civil society who team led by Tobias Baedeker (World Bank) and have generously shared their knowledge, insights James Tefft (FAO Investment Centre), comprising and views in the context of qualitive interviews Sebastian Heinz, Mitik Ayalew Zegeye, Lucie conducted during the report’s development. Aicha Sanou, Leonard Krapf, Kaja Waldmann, Shaikh Moniruzzaman, El Hadj Adama Touré, Åsa The authors would also like to thank a team from Giertz, Corey Pattison, Laura Bonzanigo (all from Wageningen University & Research (WUR) led the World Bank), as well as Claude Side and Frans by Bart de Steenhuijsen Piters, and comprising Goossens (both from the FAO Investment Centre). Joost Nelen, Bertus Wennik, Verina Ingram, Special recognition also goes to Katrina Brandon Fabien Tondel, Jenny Aker, and Froukje Kruijssen for technically editing the report at different for enhancing the report by contributing an development stages. insightful analysis of key food subsystems of West Africa that was financed by the Ministry of The authors wish to thank Alain Sy Traoré, Director Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands. In addition, the of Agriculture and Rural Development, Economic authors wish to express their gratitude towards Community of West African States (ECOWAS), valued external partners and collaborators, Pierre Haas, Technical Advisor for Food Security of notably Philipp Heinrigs and Leopold Ghins, both ECOWAS, Emmanuelle Maillot, Technical Assistant from the Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat at of ECOWAS, Dr. Souleymane Ouedraogo, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and 15 Executive Director of the AGHRYMET Regional Development (SWAC/OECD), Abdoulaye Mbaye Center of the Permanent Interstate Committee from the Food and Agriculture Organization of for Drought Control in the Sahel (AGHRYMET/ the UN (FAO) Subregional Office for West Africa, CILSS), Dr. Abdou Ali, Head of Information as well as Peter Le Poole from the Ministry of and Research of CILSS/AGHRYMET, Dr. Abdou Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands for contributing Tenkouano, Executive Director, West and Central valuable comments and suggestions. African Council for Agricultural Research (CORAF), and Dr. Niéyidouba Lamien, Programmes The report benefitted significantly from Manager of CORAF, for their guidance, comments comments, strategic guidance and advice from and suggestions during all stages of report Deborah L. Wetzel, Chakib Jenane, Marianne development. Grosclaude, Laurent Msellati, Amadou Ba, Makoto Suwa, Paola Agostini, and Sossena Tassew (all from The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Robert the World Bank) and Ismail Oudra (FAO Investment Zougmoré, Africa Program Leader of the Centre). The team gratefully acknowledges peer CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, reviewers Erick Fernandes, Diego Arias Carballo, Agriculture and Food Security (CGIAR CCAFS) Pablo Benitez (all from the World Bank), and John and Anthony Whitbread, Research Program Ulimwengu from the International Food Policy Director at the International Crops Research Research Institute (IFPRI). Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), who have continuously provided invaluable technical The report was copyedited by Helen Overmeyer guidance, inputs and suggestions. from Dina Towbin and Associates LLC. The graphic design was carried out by Fernanda Rubiano. Expert conversations have critically informed the report’s main lessons. Therefore, the authors would A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Abbreviations AAA Adaptation of African Agriculture ABEE West Africa Breeding Networks and Extension Empowerment ACMAD African Centre of Meteorological Applications for Development ACLED Armed Conflict Location and Event Data project ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States AFD The French Development Agency AfDB African Development Bank AFSLD African Food Security Leadership Dialogue AgGDP agricultural GDP AGRHYMET Regional Training and Application Center in Agrometeorology and Operational Hydrology AGIR Global Alliance for Resilience Initiative-Sahel and West Africa AGRA Alliance for a Green Revolution for Africa AICCRA Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa AMU Arab Maghreb Union 16 ANCAR National Agency for Rural Agricultural Advice (Senegal) ARAA Regional Agency for Agriculture and Food ARC African Risk Capacity ASECNA Agency for the Safety of Air Navigation in Africa and Madagascar ASDIA Agricultural Services and Digital Inclusion in Africa ASTI Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators AU African Union AVDP Agricultural Value Chain Development Project BCEAO Central Bank of West African States BOAD West African Development Bank BHA Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance CA conservation agriculture CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program CARD Coalition for African Rice Development CARG competitive agricultural research grant CARI2 Competitive African Rice Initiative Phase 2 CBA community-based actions CCAFS Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security CCRIF Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance Facility CDCS Centre de Crise et de Soutien CERC Contingency Emergency Response Component CET Common External Tariff CEWARN Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanism CEWERU Conflict Early Warning and Response Units CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CGS competitive grant schemes CH Cadre Harmonisé CHSAN High-Level Committee on Food and Nutritional Security CILSS Permanent Inter-state Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CIRAD French Agricultural Research Centre for International Development CIS climate information services CLCPRO Commission for Controlling the Desert Locust in the Western Region CNRA National Center for Agricultural Research COCOBOD Ghana Cocoa Board COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa CORAF West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease-2019 17 CREWS Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems CRRP climate-resilient rice production CSA Climate-Smart Agriculture CSAIP Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment Plans CSIR Council for Industrial and Scientific Research CSV Climate-Smart Villages CSPM Climate-Smart Pest and Disease Management CTDC Commodity Technology Delivery Compacts DIAPER Permanent Diagnosis project DLIM Desert Locust Information Service DTTM Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa DRM Disaster Risk Management EAC East African Community EBID ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development ECCAS Economic Community of Central African States ECDPM European Centre for Development Policy Management ECOAGRIS ECOWAS Agriculture Regional Information System ECOWADF Regional Fund for Agriculture and Food ECOWAP ECOWAS Common Agricultural Policy ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States ET evapotranspiration ETLS ECOWAS Trade Liberalization Scheme A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas EU European Union EVD Ebola virus disease EWS Early Warning System FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FARA Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa FARM-TRAC Family Farming, Regional Markets, and Cross-border Trade Corridors FAW fall armyworm FCV fragility, conflict, and violence FEWACCI Federation of West African Chambers of Commerce and Industry FEWS NET Famine Early Warning Systems Network FIRST Food and Nutrition Security Impact, Resilience, Sustainability, and Transformation FMD foot and mouth disease FMNR farmer-managed natural regeneration FOLOR Food Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact Program FSCCP Food Security under Climate Change Program FSRF Food System Resilience Facility FSRP Food System Resilience Program 18 GEF Green Environmental Fund GFDRR Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery GGWI Great Green Wall Initiative GIEWS Global Information and Early Warning System GMet Ghana Meteorological Agency GRiF Global Risk Financing Facility GT gestion de terroirs HEA Household Economy Analysis HPAI avian influenza ICBT informal cross-border trade ICRISAT International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics ICT Information and communication technologies IDA International Development Association IDB Inter-American Development Bank IDP internally displaced people IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFDC International Fertilizer Development Center IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGAD Intergovernmental Authority on Development IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture IMF International Monetary Fund INSAH Sahel Institute IoT Internet of Things iSAT Intelligent Agricultural Systems Advisory Tool IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPES-Food International Panel of Experts on Sustainable Food Systems IPPC International Plant Protection Convention IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature LECZ low-elevation coastal zones LGB larger grain borer LSMS-ISA Living Standard Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture M&E monitoring and evaluation MAFAP Monitoring and Analyzing Food and Agricultural Policies MDTF Multi-Donor Trust Fund MERET Managing Environmental Resources to Enable Transition MIS market information systems MoFa Ghanaian Ministry of Food and Agriculture MOLOA West African Coastal Observation Mission MPA Multiphase Programmatic Approach MS Member state NAIP National Agriculture Investment Plans 19 NAP National Adaptation Plans NARES National Agricultural Research and Extension Services NARS National Agricultural Research Systems NCA National Committees on Accreditation NCD noncommunicable disease NcoS National Centers of Specialization NEPAD New Partnership for African Development NGO nongovernmental organization NIBIO Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research NMHS national hydro-meteorological services NRI National Research Institutes NSO National Statistics Offices NTM non-tariff measures OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD/SWAC Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development/ Sahel and West Africa Club ORFAO Regional Land Observatory in West Africa OSBP One Stop Border Posts OSS Sahara and Sahel Observatory PAEPARD Platform for African-European Partnership on Agricultural Research for Development A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas PAIAD Project for the Dissemination and Implementation of Good Practices for Sustainable Agricultural Intensification in West Africa PAIRED Partnership for Agricultural Research, Education, and Development in West Africa PARIIS Regional Support Initiative for Irrigation in the Sahel Project PARM-SAFIN Multistakeholder platform for agricultural risk management PATAE Support Project to the Agroecological Transition in West Africa PAU common agriculture policy PEPISAO Integrated and Secure Livestock and Pastoralism Project in West Africa PES payment for ecosystem services PESCAO Programme for the Improvement of Regional Fisheries Governance in West Africa PFP partial factor productivity PHEIC Public Health Emergency of International Concern PHL post-harvest losses PoU prevalence of undernourishment PPR peste des petits ruminants PRAOP/ Regional Support Programme for Professional and Farmers’ 20 ECOWAP Organizations within the Framework of the Implementation of the Regional Agricultural Policy PRAPS (I and Regional Pastoralism Support Project in the Sahel (I and II) II) PREDIP Regional Dialogue and Investment for Pastoralism and Transhumance in the Sahel and Coastal Countries of West Africa Project PREGEC Charter for Food Crisis Prevention and Management PRESASS Prévision Saisonnière en Afrique Soudano-Saharienne PRTAD Degraded Agricultural Land Restoration Program PSNP Ethiopian Productive Safety Net Program PTAE West Africa Agro Ecological Transition Support Project R&D Research and Development RAHC Regional Animal Health Center RAIP Regional Agriculture Investment Plan RANIP Regional Agriculture and Nutrition Investment Plans RBO River Basin Organizations RCAP Regional Economic Communities Agriculture Policies RcoE Regional Centers of Excellence REC Regional Economic Community RESOGEST Network of National Public Stocks RFI regional flagship initiative ROPPA Network of Peasant Organizations and Agricultural Producers of West Africa RPCA Regional Food Crisis Prevention Network RUFORUM Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture SADC Southern African Development Community SAGI Irrigation Development and Management Agencies SAWAP Sahel and West Africa Program in Support of the GGWI SDGs Sustainable Development Goals SIGMAT Interconnected Transit Freight Management System SIIP Sahel Irrigation Initiative Support Project SLWM Sustainable Land and Water Management SPS sanitary and phytosanitary standards SME small and medium enterprise SNV Netherlands Development Organization SONAGESS Société nationale de gestion du stock de sécurité alimentaire TAAT Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation TAD transboundary animal disease TFP total factor productivity TFSP West Africa Trade Facilitation Support Program UEMOA West African Economic and Monetary Union UN United Nations 21 UNDRR United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organizations UN-OCHA United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs WAAPP West African Agricultural Productivity Program WACIP West Africa Common Industrial Policy WACSAA West Africa Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture WACTAF West African Association for Cross-Border Trade in Agro- Forestry Pastoral and Fisheries Products WAFP West African Fertilizer Program WAICSA West African Initiative for Climate-Smart Agriculture WAMEU West African Economic and Monetary Union WAMIS-NET West African Market Information System Network WASCAL West African Science Centre on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use WB The World Bank WFP VAM World Food Programme (WFP) Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM) WAHO West African Health Organization WASP West African Seed Program WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 22 Executive Summary Synopsis This report provides an overview of food multiple deep-dive studies) under FSRF. Linked to system resilience in West Africa,1 examining the West Africa Food System Resilience Program three mutually reinforcing and interconnected (FSRP) currently under preparation, the report priority areas for intervention at the regional also aims to serve a broad range of development level: partners and other actors in formulating policies and designing investment projects in West Africa. 1. Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food System’s Productive Base: Climate-Smart This report was inspired by the 2019 Kigali African Agriculture (CSA) at Farm and Landscape Level Food Security Leadership Dialogue (AFSLD) that and Related Approaches called for joint action to tackle the African Food 2. Enabling Environment for Intraregional Value Security challenges. ECOWAS, CILSS, CORAF, Chain Development and Trade Facilitation Consultative Group on International Agricultural 3. Regional Risk Management Architecture and Research (CGIAR) Research Program on Climate Farmer Decision Support Tools Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS), and the World Bank provided overall leadership For each intervention area, the report provides for the process and analysis that underpins 23 (a) a technical stocktake, (b) a mapping of this report. Wageningen University prepared a existing regional initiatives, (c) potential entry background paper as input to the report. points for intervention, and (d) identification of potential flagship initiatives in the region. The information presented in this report represents a synthesis of the analysis of relevant The report is the first output of the Food secondary data and information as well as System Resilience Facility (FSRF), a multi- interviews with over fifty West African experts partner technical advisory facility that provides working on the food systems’ issues presented strategic, technical, and capacity-building in this document. Findings from the draft report support to the Economic Community of West were presented and discussed in a four-day African States (ECOWAS), the Permanent virtual conference with over 300 West African Inter-state Committee on Drought Control in actors working in diverse areas of the food system. the Sahel (CILSS), and the West and Central The results of this conference, together with African Council for Agricultural Research and detailed comments from all the relevant partners Development (CORAF).2 associated with the report, guided the revision process and production of this final report. The results emerging from the report inform the programming of future activities (including 1 For the purposes of this report, West Africa includes the combined membership of ECOWAS and CILSS, that is, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bis- sau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. 2 Formerly West and Central African Council for Agricultural Research and Development (CORAF/WECARD). A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Introduction A griculture and food systems are at the absolute number of undernourished people in heart of both the opportunities and West Africa increased from 32 million to 56 million the challenges facing West African people, raising the prevalence of undernutrition countries. Agriculture and food systems are the from 10 percent in 2014 to 15.2 percent in 2019.4 largest source of livelihoods and employment More recently, between March and May 2021, in West African economies. They have the 19.6 million people across the region were potential to generate economic value added and estimated to require food assistance (CILSS and job creation for inclusive growth and poverty RPCA 2021); map ES.1 shows their geographic reduction that could propel the region to capture distribution. In addition, an estimated 52 million its significant demographic dividend. The region’s West Africans are overweight or obese and suffer rich and diverse agriculture sector spans multiple from micronutrient deficiencies, representing production systems across coastal, savanna, and 15 percent of the subregion’s population. Over- Sahelian zones. Together with rapidly evolving nutrition fuels noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) food systems, the sector is primed to meet such as Type 2 diabetes, high blood pressure, heart changing consumer food demand through attacks, and some forms of cancer. Nearly half of production of safe, nutritious, and convenient all women of reproductive age in West Africa (49 food products. Strong agricultural and food percent) suffer from iron deficiency anaemia, and system performance is needed to meet the food 47 percent of children aged 6–59 months have needs of rapidly urbanizing countries and ensure vitamin A deficiency (GNR 2018). food access for low-income consumers while also 24 driving down the real cost of food. Developing Climate change and environmental more productive and competitive food systems degradation driven by population growth is essential to reverse rising food imports. West and intensifying competition over natural Africa has both extensive experience and resources, together with the increasing well-developed institutions at national and incidence and severity of conflict, are the regional levels that are positioned to help the main drivers of worsening food insecurity. region address changing climates and fragile Impacts from more frequent extreme weather environments while preserving increasingly events such as droughts and floods are scarce natural resources. This strong foundation already being felt across the region. Increasing and expertise must be mobilized and enhanced precipitation variability may critically affect food to strengthen the sustainability and resilience of system resilience. Near term projections suggest food systems. significant wetter conditions and increased flood risks (WMO 2020). In the medium term, Across food systems, vulnerability has regional climate models consistently predict increased since 2010 on the heels of increasing both fewer days of rainfall and shorter wet spells frequency of agroclimatic shocks, rising food over 70 percent of the region’s land area coupled insecurity, and declining and more volatile per with higher precipitation intensity on wet days capita food production. This situation reverses (Dosio et al. 2019). The overall water availability a trend of increasing per capita availability of for food production and other uses is projected calories, protein, and fat previously observed in to decrease, and competition for resource almost all West African states between 1980 and access between different livelihood groups may 2009. In contrast, between 2010 and 2018, the further intensify. Without adaptation measures 4 FAO 2020 MAP ES.1 Acute Food Insecurity Across West Africa, March-May 2021 Source: RPCA 2021, based on Cadre harmonise analysis, regional concertation meeting, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, March 2021; map: © CILSS 25 and excluding extreme weather events, climate to increase rates of undernutrition among models anticipate median yield decreases of 20 vulnerable population segments. Although percent for irrigated rice, 14 percent for sorghum, COVID-19 infection and mortality rates in West and between 5 and 7 percent for maize, soybeans, Africa have remained comparatively low to and groundnut by 2050 (all of which are rainfed) date, the pandemic has contributed to a rise in (Jalloh et al. 2013). Further, high levels of land food insecurity. Restrictive measures, including degradation also put downward pressure on government-imposed curfews, lockdowns, and yields. While current figures on the extent and border closures, have caused supply disruptions, severity of land degradation in West Africa are rising food prices, and income losses. As a hard to obtain, it is widely acknowledged that result, food availability and financial access to land degradation ranks among the major threats food have decreased, particularly for the poor. to regional food security.5 Finally, fragility and The cumulative effects of health, economic, conflict have been proliferating across the Sahel, and security crises will continue to affect food with rapid increases of armed conflicts and large and nutrition security trends over the coming and growing numbers of internally displaced months. Without appropriate interventions, 23.6 people. million people might require immediate food and nutrition assistance during the next lean season The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic is putting in 2021 (SWAC/OECD 2020a). further strain on the food system, threatening 5 Earlier studies estimate that 90 percent of rangelands and almost 80 percent of farmlands in the Sahel are severely degraded (FAO 1995). A recent study covering Burkina Faso estimates that 34 percent (92,345 million ha) of cropland in the country is degraded. The same study also estimates an annual land degradation between 100,000 and 250,000 ha (Hien 2015). A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Three Priority Intervention Areas at the Regional Level F ood system resilience, or the ability to sum of its parts. For instance, trade and the withstand adversity and continue to resulting business opportunities generate market perform and deliver multiple economic, incentives that farmers rely upon to invest in social, and environmental outcomes—jobs, new resilience-strengthening technologies. Both accessibility, nutrition, health, biodiversity— farmers and traders require improved information has become increasingly important given and decision-support systems to reduce risks the frequency and severity of agroclimatic, and maintain the viability of their activities under socioeconomic, zoonotic, and security-related intensifying climate change. Risk management shocks challenging West Africa. West Africa’s and related farmer advisory services require quality history has shown that regional cooperation and frequently updated climate and market data allowing countries to work together to achieve to be effective. economies of scale, social solidarity, and reduced risks is critical to the region’s ability to resist diverse Building on the ECOWAS Common Agricultural threats and achieve interlinked food system goals. Policy (ECOWAP), ECOWAS, together with CILSS and CORAF and with input from To strengthen food system resilience, this extensive stakeholder consultations, has report proposes three priority areas for prioritized these three regional intervention intervention at the regional level in West areas. Further, the World Bank Africa Strategy, 26 Africa (see figure ES.1). The three areas are Africa: Food Security under Climate Change,6 mutually reinforcing in that simultaneous provides a technical foundation to complement investment promises to yield more than the this prioritization process. FIGURE ES.1 Priority Areas for Regional Intervention I. Strengthening the Food System’s Productive Base: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) at Farm and Landscape Level and related approaches Food System Risilience III. II. Regional Risk Enabling Environment Management Architecture for Intra-regional Value and Farmer-Decision Chain Development Support Tools and Trade Facilitation Source: World Bank 6 The WB Africa strategy’s three pillars are (1) to scale up CSA at farm and landscape level, (2) to enable the private sector to build more efficient value chains at national and regional levels, and (3) to create a more effective enabling environment at all levels of the food value chain, farm to fork. For each intervention area, this report synthesizes simultaneously with the priorities for the flagship the results of a stocktaking exercise of available FSRP. They are not exhaustive of other regional knowledge and a mapping of existing initiatives. initiatives that could have a positive impact Based on this analysis and insights assembled on food system resilience in areas outside from over 50 in-depth expert interviews in the the priority intervention areas that this report region, the report suggests potential entry covers, for example, in those relating to forestry, points for intervention. Priorities were chosen infrastructure, health and social protection PRIORITY REGIONAL Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food INTERVENTION AREA System’s Productive Base: CSA at Farm and Landscape Level and Related Approaches Takeaway #1: Widen focus of Takeaway #2: Access to input and regional research system and output markets is crucial for strengthen linkages to the private CSA adoption but can be boosted 27 sector through digital technologies The agriculture research system should Resilience and mitigation gains, yield trends, widen its focus beyond varietal development and technology uptake have remained and give greater weight to technology below expectations despite the availability dissemination through linkages with the of an increasing number of climate-smart private sector. To increase the region’s ability to technologies allowing for greater on-farm promote agricultural innovation, the West African productivity. The principal barriers to technology Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) uptake are the absence of financial incentives achieved significant progress in establishing due to poor market access. This situation makes a regional agricultural research system that upfront investment costs prohibitive, contributes pools resources and allows for positive cross- to risk aversion, and leads to poor availability of border spillovers of agricultural innovations. The inputs and lack of awareness of CSA technologies regional research agenda should add focus to (Bayala et al. 2016; Ouédraogo et al. 2015). other important issues such as natural resource management, efficient water use, locally adapted Increasing farmers’ access to markets and mechanization, and digital agriculture. Research providing commercial opportunities are the institutions, however, cannot and should not most promising ways to boost adoption of act as the key distributor of technologies. CSA practices. Without access to markets, farmers This role is best filled by the private sector in will remain unable to afford perceived riskier collaboration with national extension services. investments in high quality inputs and fertilizers. Future interventions should thus aim to increase Without available marketing channels allowing the private sector’s ability to act as a catalyst for farmers to reliably sell their produce, efforts in technology dissemination. other fields (for example, increasing access to A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas finance and inputs) will be futile. Subsistence Digital technologies offer an opportunity to farming alone does not provide a sufficiently overcome the longstanding structural issue strong incentive for farmers to justify investment of high transaction costs in farmer outreach in high-yielding crop varieties or modification for multiple actors and unlock new extension of farming practices, which may be perceived models. Given the already extensive penetration by some producers as too risky. CSA projects of mobile phones, digitally disseminated climate should also address other critical value chain information combined with tailored agronomic segments (including aggregation, processing, advice can be a powerful tool in reaching more and distribution) to achieve lasting impact. One beneficiaries than traditional extension methods. pathway toward better market access is enabling Promising examples in the region include ESOKO, producer associations to deliver aggregation, a Ghana-based public-private partnership value addition (for example, cleaning, grading, with 300,000 subscribers. To inspire long-term and quality control), and commercialization behavioral changes, digital extension needs to be services to their members. coupled with more interactive sensitization and follow-up training. As state-led extension services Improving inputs and technology availability are often overburdened, producer organizations through strengthening both demand- and should play a bigger role. The agricultural research supply-side policies should be an urgent system should work more closely with farmer priority. Access to credit and improved inputs organizations to support farmers as diffusers and (both related to soil fertility management and get technologies to scale. seeds) to grow food crops remains low by global standards. To bring down the cost of 28 credit to farmers and to confer more agency to Takeaway #3: Landscape farmers in choosing the inputs best suited to their conditions, governments should consider restoration measures are effective reorienting government resources toward CSA responses to the increasing credit-subsidizing schemes or smart subsidies. Funding could be redirected from funds currently degradation of agriculture’s spent on input subsidies or other distortive forms productive base, but efforts should of public support. Financial innovations could be made to manage and limit their also play a central role. For example, the West African Initiative for Climate-Smart Agriculture complexity (WAICSA), implemented by the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID), plans Integrated approaches to natural resource to provide subsidized loans or guarantees to management at landscape or watershed 80,000 small farmers through a blended finance scales protect the ecological foundations of fund. On the supply side, the private sector is agricultural production and thus support currently unable to provide inputs at affordable medium- and long-term food system prices and required volumes. Input dealers resilience. Landscape or watershed scale and related service providers should be more interventions can yield sustainability gains that strongly incentivized to deliver CSA inputs and cannot be achieved by focusing exclusively on the technologies at scale. Options include capacity- plot level. Although estimates of land degradation building measures to improve local small and vary, low levels of soil organic matter and land medium enterprises (SMEs) capacity to meet cover need to be addressed to reduce sensitivity regional quality standards and loan guarantees to climatic shocks. To maintain the viability and matching grants allowing firms to enhance of the regional food system in the long term, production and distribution volumes. integrated approaches should particularly focus on protecting the hydrological basis underlying indicate that programs should start with a focus food production. Safeguarding and rehabilitating on low-hanging fruit and build toward more the resource base in hotspot areas may lessen complex interventions in line with growing conflict over scarce resources and reduce negative institutional capacity. To ensure resilience gains spillovers resulting from forced migration and last beyond the duration of projects, resource displacement. One promising entry point is users should be included in decision-making promoting farmer-managed natural regeneration from the outset and should directly benefit from (FMNR), one of the few success stories at scale. restoration efforts through guaranteed resource Offering strong productivity and resilience gains usage rights or secure land tenure rights. Also, while contributing to climate change mitigation, supportive conflict-resolution institutions such FMNR should be mainstreamed in CSA initiatives as accepted grievance redress mechanisms are in all agroecologies where it achieves good needed to sustain collaboration of resource results. users in the long run. In addition, combining project-driven rehabilitation efforts with a more For lasting resilience gains, integrated systematic application of economic instruments, landscape projects should be simplified and such as water pricing and payment for ecosystem embedded in a favorable institutional and services schemes, could have a positive impact policy environment. Integrated approaches on safeguarding the sustainability of the food are complex by nature. Successful examples system’s productive base. Enabling Environment for Intraregional PRIORITY REGIONAL Value Chain Development and Trade INTERVENTION AREA Facilitation 29 Takeaway #4: Existing regional Development Community (SADC) and 17 percent policies—except for sanitary and in ECCAS (IFPRI 2020a). At present, regional policies promoting free trade among the region’s phytosanitary standards (SPS)— states, such as the ECOWAS Trade Liberalization provide a strong framework, but Scheme (ETLS), lag in implementation. This is reflected in excessive number of controls with implementation is lagging high illegal fees charged to traders and time- consuming border crossings that decrease the West African intraregional trade in food crops competitiveness of regional products compared is low compared with other continents and with international imports. below other Regional Economic Communities in Sub-Saharan Africa. Official figures likely More consistent implementation of regional underestimate trade volumes significantly due trade policy could contribute to increased to under-recording linked to an estimated 75 food system resilience and contribute to jobs percent of staple food trade transactions that for economic transformation. Intraregional take place informally (Torres and van Seters trade could smooth fluctuations in production 2016). In 2018, intraregional trade of food crops across ECOWAS countries, increase the was estimated at 12 percent of total production nutritional diversity of consumer choice and in the ECOWAS area, third within Africa behind allow countries to focus on the production of the estimated 23 percent in the Southern African crops where they have comparative advantage. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Expanding markets for agricultural value chains Achieving inclusive value chain development with proven regional comparative advantage requires addressing widespread informal through facilitating intraregional trade flows cross-border trade which approximately could be a powerful engine of growth and accounts for 75% of the region’s food crop generate employment opportunities to spur trade. Informal cross-border trade (ICBT) is a economic transformation. The establishment multifaceted response to the context in which of a regional accountability framework that trade takes place. On the one hand, from the monitors the implementation of regional policy traders’ perspective, operating outside legal (that is, benchmarking implementation against frameworks allows them to bypass inefficient a regional standard) by national governments and sometimes predatory public agencies, could improve transparency and increase avoiding taxation, reacting dynamically to incentives for implementation of regional trade market opportunities, and taking advantage of policy. In addition, setting up conflict-resolution low barriers to entry, especially in times of high mechanisms allowing traders to seek recourse in price volatility, exchange rate misalignment, case of border harassments may also contribute emergencies, and other shocks. On the other hand, to ease regional trade flows. traders involved in ICBT usually face difficulties in accessing credit and other services from formal Harmonizing SPS across member states could financial institutions and are either denied credit foster intraregional trade, increase business or forced to access credit at high interest rates. opportunities for the agrifood sector, and This is particularly striking for women traders, greatly contribute to limiting the spread of who play a substantial role in the local economy zoonotic diseases. At present, each country but continually face stigmatization, violence, 30 has its own criteria and norms complicating the harassment, and poor working conditions. circulation of both raw and processed foods. For example, some West African countries lack Practical actions exist to better integrate grades and standards for maize. Without regional informal traders and improve inclusive standards, multinational companies and buyers in formalization processes. First, policies West Africa cannot ensure consistent and reliable supporting small enterprises, such as One Stop quantity and quality of the products they wish Border Posts (OSBP) or trade facilitation desks at to trade. SPS regulations and improving states’ district levels within member countries, can be capacity to carry out quality control measures expanded to offer better quality services. A second could dynamize both intraregional trade and food action consists of strengthening partnership- processing activities across the region. Finally, based approaches that bring together formal livestock are carriers of zoonotic diseases and private sector organizations, nongovernmental SPS measures can play a role in avoiding future organizations (NGOs), development partners, disease outbreaks such as COVID-19 and Ebola. and governments to develop joint value chain structuring strategies that take all actors’ interests into account. Third, incentives and Takeaway #5: Regional value compliance-based approaches include measures chain integration begins with at the national or regional level to encourage formalization through incentives tailored to the the integration and inclusive needs of informal traders. formalization of informal traders Takeaway #6: Barriers to cross- as information gets lost or distorted across large numbers of intermediaries working in different border value chain development countries. Also, bottlenecks are often multicausal are mostly cutting across and interdependent, their resolution stymied commodities and regional by the lack of functional mechanisms. ECOWAS recently created a department promoting cross- interventions are well placed to border investment, joint ventures to promote unite the diverse actors required investment, and public-private partnerships. Other regional platforms to enable information to address them exchange and network creation across borders have recently been put in place, such as the A gap exists at the regional level for cross- African Rice Advocacy Platform. These efforts border value chains since national value chain could be pursued further. Other cross-border platforms coordinate and facilitate the flow value chain development-related challenges of information between retailers, processors, concerning most value chains include the lack of and producers within national borders but not adequate cold-chain infrastructure and storage beyond. Many cross-border food value chains facilities. have poor communication and information flows PRIORITY REGIONAL Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food PRIORITY REGIONAL Regional Risk System’s Management Productive Architecture Base: CSA at Farm and INTERVENTION AREA INTERVENTION AREA and Farmer Decision Support Tools Approaches 31 Landscape Level and Related Takeaway #7: Regional and and market shocks mainly related to unexpected national risk management changes in input/output prices and food price volatility. systems are often well established but need institutional Numerous risk management mechanisms and systems under CILSS and its specialized reform agency, AGRHYMET, aim to address food security-related challenges, yet they do not Managing and mitigating risks represents a always efficiently and adequately address major challenge for all food systems and actors the region’s needs in practice. AGRHYMET and is a key feature of resilient food systems. is the premier training and climate services Smallholder producers, largely operating in family institution in the region with a mandate to enterprises, are responsible for the vast majority provide and collaborate on hydromet services of agriculture production in West Africa. Given and Early Warning System (EWS) with its national their low level of assets and access to productive counterparts. The Cadre Harmonisé (CH) is a resources, they are particularly vulnerable to harmonized regional framework, coordinated the diverse shocks that threaten West African by CILSS, for monitoring the region’s food agriculture and food systems. Agriculture shocks and nutrition insecurity. Despite the strong that most affect food security in the region performance of AGRHYMET and the effective are production risks arising from erratic rainfall application of the CH in recent years, a variety of (droughts, floods), pest and disease outbreaks, constraints complicates addressing the growing A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas threats and demands in the region. These include as a bulky process involving lengthy field resource-challenged national data collection missions and validation meetings. Transforming systems, limited technical capacity for information existing mechanisms into more agile systems service delivery, lack of sustainable financing to and processes requires sustainable financial strengthen existing systems, and more effective investments in technical institutions. At present, coordination and linkages between regional relying on short-term donor funding undercuts and national level institutions. Revitalizing and the regional institutions’ ability to adequately improving existing regional and national risk sustain continuity of existing initiatives and retain management systems is crucial going forward to their technical experts. The regional organizations better meet the needs of the region. and development partners need to work toward a system that secures and stabilizes funding Regional and national hydromet agencies directly for CILSS and AGRHYMET with a long- should strengthen institutional coordination term view of capitalizing and strengthening these and technical capacity for effective data institutions. This challenge is equally present at generation, information service delivery, and the national level. access to information for timely decision- making. Weak linkages and coordination between institutions (such as global centers Takeaway #8: There is a need to of excellence, AGRHYMET, and national agencies) at national and regional levels lead to engage the private sector to inefficiencies and incomplete information on add value to climate information food security-related issues. Coordination could within and beyond state-led public 32 be improved along four major pathways. These encompass the following: (a) streamlining the information services “chain of information” across regional, national, and subnational levels to provide demand- Private sector and local service provider driven information services by leveraging state- delivery of hydro-meteorological and other of-the-art technologies and new business relevant farmer-level information services that models; (b) considering new delivery models; (c) supplement regional and national institutions reorganizing and structuring the system through represent a major opportunity. Given the need focused support for critical modules relating to for highly effective systems to provide the variety climate information services; and (d) upgrading of services needed in countries, championing the and digitizing the system through modern private sector is critical to revitalizing data systems database management applications. AGRHYMET and increasing the availability of and access to performance could benefit from adopting a information. Creating a conducive environment results-based operating model for service delivery for the private sector by fostering innovative and and value addition of data collected through a collaborative technical-level partnerships with transparent and collaborative approach. regional institutions that maximize the value and potential of farmer-level information and advisory Transforming the current technical services is important to improving performance. frameworks and analytical tools for food Removing barriers related to accessing data insecurity assessments into a more agile, collected at the national level, such as the fees less costly system is needed to improve the businesses are required to pay and availability efficiency and sustainability of EWS and of financing to provide services, are examples of the broader needs assessment process. how to foster a conducive environment. Although the CH functions well as an analytical tool, the needs assessment is often perceived Information services that specifically target pastoralists should also be explored for the relevant agencies could improve their services, Sahel. Pastoralists have limited access to relevant including those geared toward farmer decision climate information data such as water points, support systems, by effective use of products availability of pastures, and flood risks, all of which from global centers (for example, impact-based can negatively impact animal health. Pastoralists’ warning in conjunction with ensemble forecasts). mobility is often restricted due to border closures and insecurity in the region. Growing herd size, land degradation, and insecurity contribute to Takeaway #10: New financing increasing conflicts between herders and farmers. Pastoralist-targeted climate information advisory instruments could complement services can assist herders and associated existing procedures for the communities in resolving these challenges and regional reserve to reform crisis contribute to a healthy and prosperous livestock sector in the Sahel. prevention and response The regional food reserve is well Takeaway #9: Enhance regional conceptualized but suffers from financing EWS responsiveness to user needs shortfalls and the suboptimal location of physical stocks; these features could be through better leveraging of improved. The reserve rests on a subsidiarity digital solutions based three-tier system from local, to national, to regional physical (minority) and financial (majority) stocks. To date, ECOWAS and member 33 Digital solutions for EWS should prioritize countries have been unable to mobilize sufficient understanding user needs. The current systems financing to lift stocks to target levels. Physical at the country level are typically engaged in data stocks are often located at great distances from collection and data analysis geared toward the the populations most frequently in need of their provision of information to regional counterparts, services. development community partners, and other relevant government agencies, not to producer- New risk financing instruments could place level end users. Any entities involved in hydromet the reserve on a sustainable footing and service provision should have regular interactions enable it to become an effective regionally with users and feedback on services so that owned vehicle to replace ad hoc food crisis evolving user needs and user satisfaction are emergency response. The multilateral system regularly tracked by service providers. is still weighed too heavily toward responding only after disasters hit. A suite of new instruments High quality weather, climate, and could be deployed to reverse this longstanding hydrological services, as used in global structural deficit. The African Risk Capacity centers of excellence, underpin effective (ARC) aims to play such a role. The experience digital advisory services and farmer decision of the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance support systems. Traditional infrastructure- Facility (CCRIF) could offer important lessons heavy investments in hydromet services have a for the region. The Global Risk Financing Facility poor track record in service delivery. Experience (GriF), a new investment vehicle that focuses points to the development and delivery of on improving financial resilience to climate and services that meet user needs by widening the disaster risks, has agreed to explore opportunities hydromet “ecosystem” to include the global for regional food insecurity risk mechanisms. The centers of excellence, academia, private sector, reserve would be a natural entry point to advance and NGOs. The national meteorological and other these agendas. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives T his section proposes a set of potential intervention area. A short list was subsequently regional flagship initiatives (RFIs) for established following an innovative large-scale each priority intervention area. Under virtual stakeholder conference, which mobilized the FSRF, it is envisaged to establish RFIs to 400 participants for four days of interactive group mobilize innovative actions that address priority work (see box ES.1). Prioritization of this short list of issues affecting food system resilience in West RFIs is an ongoing process led by ECOWAS, CILSS, Africa. RFIs represent program concepts with the and CORAF. For example, several RFIs, including potential to strengthen food system resilience at #1, #2, #4, #9, and #11 (see table ES.1), are already regional scale by capturing economies of scale earmarked for implementation through regional and regional spillovers and fostering collective programs under preparation such as the FSRP. action on common challenges and opportunities. This set of RFIs aims to enhance regional sectoral This set of potential RFIs, emanating from the strategies by offering new ideas for their analysis presented in this report and widely implementation. discussed with a large and diverse group of West African stakeholders, addresses many of RFIs were identified in two steps. A long list was the opportunities and challenges to enhance initially compiled based on the analysis for each food systems resilience in the region. Cast 34 BOX Es.1 Under the Palaver Tree: Unpacking Food System Resilience in West Africa The four-day interactive virtual conference “Under the Palaver Tree: Unpacking Food System Resilience in West Africa” was hosted by ECOWAS, CILSS, and CORAF in cooperation with CGIAR, UEMOA, FAO, and the World Bank between July 6–9, 2020 to inform this work. Evoking the image of the palaver tree under which community members gather to discuss shared issues, the bilingual, virtual stakeholder conference brought together 400 participants from West African countries, regional bodies, development partners and representatives from the private sector, academia, and civil society. Providing a virtual space to engage in times of travel restrictions and social distancing, the event’s reach was far greater than that of a physical event at comparable cost. The virtual format allowed a high degree of interactivity. Up to 250 participants at a given moment spent 70 percent of the time in discussions in groups of 5–15 participants in up to 20 parallel virtual breakout rooms. Results were documented using online collaboration software. The discussions, participants’ ideas, and proposals fed into this reports’ recommendations and the preparation of several emerging regional initiatives, including the West Africa Food System Resilience Program (FSRP). Participant feedback on the conference was overwhelmingly positive, with an average participation of 160 people connected throughout all four days. The image links to a short video summarizing the event. within this integrated, systemic food systems’ several RFIs in the context of the FSRP. Given the framework, it allows diverse organizations, actors, magnitude of both present and future challenges and partners to prioritize and focus on a given affecting food systems in West Africa, other actors priority area, while ensuring coherence with the and partners must coordinate to support the broader regional vision and outcomes to which implementation of other RFIs presented in this it will contribute. As described above, the World report. Bank, ECOWAS, CORAF, and CILSS will address TABLE ES.1 RFIs by Priority Intervention Area for Food System Resilience at Regional Level Priority Areas # RFI Title 1 Accelerate evolution of regional research system I. The food system’s productive base: CSA at Systematic targeting of hotspot areas with 2 farm and landscape level flexible integrated approach 3 Leverage digital technologies Develop regional food trade monitoring 35 4 scorecard for increased transparency and accountability Invest in private and public capacity to perform II. Enabling environment for key enabling functions such as traceability 5 intraregional value chain systems, food safety and quality control, and development and trade standards facilitation Set up integrated market information systems 6 across national and regional levels 7 Harmonize agricultural support policies 8 Enhance Regional Food Security Reserve III. Regional risk 9 Leverage rapid technological change to achieve management architecture near real-time EWS and farmer decision 10 Regional pest- and disease-monitoring systems support tools based on a One Health approach 11 Establish innovative risk financing instruments for food crisis Source: World Bank A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Next Steps T he FSRF will support ECOWAS, CILSS, (b) evidence, analytics, and delivery mechanisms; and CORAF in the operationalization and (c) learning and capacity building, as shown of several RFIs. Its support is organized in table ES.2. across three pillars: (a) strategy and partnerships; PDO: To support ECOWAS and CILSS with advisory, analytics and capacity building towards the identification TABLE and design of regional flagship ES.2 The initiatives forFSRF is Organized resilient Across and sustainable Three food Pillars systems in West Africa. Pillar 1 Pillar 2 Pillar 3 Structure Strategy and Partnerships Evidence, Analytics, and Learning and Capacity Delivery Mechanisms Building Support ECOWAS, CILSS and (Co-)Develop technical, Continuous and needs-based CORAF in design of regional policy and strategy notes to convening of topical flagship initiatives and related build the evidence base and communities of practice, Description partner engagement close knowledge gaps in organization of south-south collaborative way with and north-south exchanges technical partners, led from World Bank side by relevant topic leaders Source: World Bank 36 The immediate next step for FSRF is to the design and implementation of RFIs. Some develop deep-dive technical studies under of the proposed technical work cuts across Pillar 2 to close knowledge gaps required for several RFIs as shown in table ES.3: TABLE ES.3 RFIs and Corresponding Deep Dives #RFI Title Corresponding technical work (Deep dives) 1 Accelerate evolution of regional research system  Covered through existing tech. work led by CORAF 2 Systematic targeting of hotspot areas with exible integrated approach  Hotspots, Fragility, and Integrated Approaches 4 Develop regional food trade monitoring scorecard for increased transparency and accountability   Trade: Toward more data and a scorecard 6 Set up integrated market information system across national and regional levels  methodology 8 Harmonize agricultural support policies   5 Invest in private and public capacity to perform key enabling functions such as traceability systems, food safety and quality control, standards Food Safety: Priority Issues, Investments and Other Interventions 10 Regional Pest- and disease monitoring system based on a One Health approach  7 Enhance regional food reserve system Regional Risk Architecture and Financing 11 Establish innovative risk nancing instruments for food crisis   Mechanisms Leverage rapid technological change to achieve near real-time early warning 9 systems  Digital Climate Information and Agriculture 3 Leverage digital technologies      Advisory Delivery Mechanisms Source: World Bank The deep dives seek to carry out a comprehensive to achieve the following objectives presented in investigation and analysis of these topics, seeking table ES.4. TABLE ES.4 Overview of Proposed Deep-Dive Technical Studies Deep Dive Objective Regional Risk Architecture To increase knowledge of food system resilience risks and and Financing Mechanisms responses (early warning, risk financing) Hotspots, Fragility, and To increase knowledge on linkages between climate and Integrated Approaches agriculture production risks and conflict or fragility Trade: Toward More To create a broadly owned methodology for a country Data and a Scorecard scorecard on intraregional trade of food commodities Methodology Food Safety: Priority Issues, To develop a consensus on priority foci and measures Investments, and Other to address food safety risks in selected West African Interventions countries Digital Climate Information 37 To identify viable delivery models for climate information and Agriculture Advisory and agriculture advisory to reach farmers at scale Delivery Mechanisms Source: World Bank A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 38 1.1 Context T he West African Economic Monetary Union (UEMOA)’s common agriculture policy (PAU) in 2001 and the ECOWAS Common Agricultural Policy (ECOWAP) in 2005 represent major policy landmarks for West Africa’s agriculture sector. UEMOA’s participatory formulation and approval of PAU 1 and ECOWAP are based on a desire to build PART ONE: AN an integrated regional market as part of an economic diversification strategy. These policies helped move countries and the subregion OVERVIEW OF THE away from project-driven approaches toward a coherent, sector-wide approach to agricultural CURRENT STATE development. Based on broad stakeholder consultation processes and incisive analyses, these policies established a systemic vision, OF THE WEST AFRICAN priorities, and guidelines for actions and investment plans at national and regional FOOD SYSTEM levels supporting agriculture development. ECOWAP identified six priority fields of action: (a) improved water management; (b) improved 39 natural resource management; (c) sustainable Part 1 begins by laying out the context of the agriculture development; (d) agriculture West African food system before introducing supply chain and market development; (e) the notion of food system resilience. This crisis prevention; and (f ) institution building is followed by a description of five food (ECOWAS 2016; Hollinger et al. 2015; UEMOA subsystems of high regional relevance. 2001). Subsequently, this part discusses important drivers and emerging trends related to ECOWAP made significant achievements agriculture production and the food system. in its first 10 years of implementation, Part 1 closes with an overview of COVID-19 including the sustainable rice production impacts on the region’s food value chains and initiative, improving how information is their implications for regional food security. produced and harmonized, establishing regional food reserves, adopting the 2011 Charter for Food Crisis Prevention and Management (PREGEC) and institutionalizing multiactor policy dialogue and multisector policy coherence. Building on this success, the Agriculture Commission of ECOWAS, together with UEMOA, CILSS, and CORAF, continues to work with their member states to address the evolving challenges confronting the region. The agriculture sector in West Africa faces multiple challenges. In West Africa,7 as in A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas much of the world, a changing climate, more food system exerts an equally strong influence extreme weather events, and insect infestations across the evolving rural-urban geography, worsen agricultural production problems in influencing the industrial and service segments environmentally fragile environments. Insecurity of the economy, affecting nutrition and health, and protracted crises persist (particularly in livelihoods and jobs, and the sustainability of the cross-border zones), eclipsing the capacities planet (Tefft et al. 2020). Broadly speaking, food of local governments, worsening poverty and systems, or agrifood systems, include all activities, food insecurity, displacing people, and requiring actors, and processes in primary production, governments to reallocate budgets to peace and industry (that is, processing), and services. In security. A weak business environment (in some West Africa, the agrifood economy generates countries) and inconsistent implementation of 36 percent of regional gross domestic product, regional market policies increase costs to do with 40 percent of value addition occurring in business, constrain agriculture investment, and non-agriculture activities (that is, in industry and hinder inclusive growth in value addition and services). employment. In 2020, the SARS-CoV-2 virus and the COVID-19 disease present yet another shock Resilient and sustainable food systems are to the region and the agriculture sector, disrupting a central pillar of the World Bank’s Africa supply chains by restricting movement of goods, Strategy for 2019–23, “Supporting Africa’s people, and services, closing markets, infecting Transformation’’ (World Bank 2019). Food workers, and reducing consumer demand for systems are equally fundamental to (1) achieving food from the resulting economic downturn. the vision and integrated goals in the African Food security is threatened by loss of livelihoods Union’s (AU) Malabo Declaration on Accelerated 40 and jobs and rising food prices. Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods (AU 2014); Several trends bode well for the region’s and (2) the objectives of the 2016–25 ECOWAP/ agriculture sector despite the seemingly Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development endless exposure to these diverse Program (CAADP) (ECOWAS 2015b). Food systems agroclimatic, security, socioeconomic, and are a common thread linking all 17 Sustainable zoonotic shocks. The combination of population Development Goals (SDGs), given their far- growth and a youthful population, broad-based reaching and interconnected economic, social, urbanization (including small towns and cities), and environmental dimensions and their use as dietary diversification, and rising incomes in a powerful lever for sustainable development. certain segments of the population provides The 2019 Kigali Call to Action reaffirms the unprecedented opportunities for the sustainable commitment of the AU, African Development development and growth of West African Bank (AFDB), International Fund for Agricultural agriculture (Hollinger et al. 2015; ECOWAS 2015b; Development (IFAD), Food and Agriculture OECD/SWAC 2016 UEMOA 2001). Organization (FAO), and the World Bank to implementing the commitments on agriculture These opportunities and diverse challenges and food security in the Malabo Declaration, shape the overall context for agriculture in the CAADP results framework (2015–25), West Africa and its rapid transformation. Agenda 2063, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Agriculture has traditionally centered on Development, the Paris Agreement on Climate producing staple foodstuffs to meet national food Change, and climate resilience and low-carbon demands, with a focus on rural farms. Yet there is development plans of AU member states. increasing regional awareness that the broader 7 For the purposes of this report, West Africa includes the combined country membership of ECOWAS and CILSS, that is, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo. 1.2 Food System Resilience Concept Food System Approach F ood systems include the range of activities climate), or endogenous, such as policies and in producing, processing, distributing, infrastructure, which shape its structure and marketing, preparing, consumption, performance. Diverse conceptual frameworks and disposal of goods that originate from that underpin food systems approaches help agriculture, forestry, or fisheries, including the elucidate how and where the food is produced ecosystem services impacted or generated. and how it influences the broader economy, Composed of traditional, modern, and informal environment, and society (see figure 1.1). The channels, food systems also involve the people food systems perspective contributes to the and institutions that initiate or inhibit change emergence of territorial approaches that embrace in the systems as well as the sociocultural, geographic specificities of subnational food political, economic, natural, and technological systems. The COVID-19 crisis has underscored environments in which these activities take place. the importance of local food systems and their This definition includes food security and the governance to resilient economies faced with wider set of systems in which food operates (FAO diverse supply chain disruptions. 2017; Global Panel 2020; HLPE 2014, 2017; Tefft et al. 2020; UNEP 2016). In line with Tendall et al. The holistic nature of the food systems 41 (2015), we prioritize the functional goal of food concept and resulting frameworks naturally systems to ensure the provision of sufficient (in incorporates consideration of behavioral terms of nutritive value and quantity), accessible, and governance issues that condition the and culturally appropriate food for all. public and private decisions that help shape it. In this context, governance perspectives The food systems concept embraces a may illuminate the effect of diverse stakeholder systemic approach to examine the diverse interests on policy and investment decision- outcomes to which they contribute, including making, or on relationships between different environmental sustainability and resilience; levels of government (that is, vertical), or across safety, nutrition, and health; accessibility; and sector ministries or departments that intervene in incomes and employment (inclusiveness and food systems (that is, horizontal) (Tefft et al. 2020). equity). The concept’s holistic nature and related approaches makes the interrelationships and trade-offs between outcomes, and the dynamic interactions between drivers, outcomes, and impacts—both positive and negative—explicit (David-Benz et al. 2020). The concept also helps to identify important food systems drivers, whether exogenous to the sector (for example, urbanization and A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas FIGURE 1.1 Food Systems Framework 42 Source: courtesy by Wageningen University & Research 2020 The Notion of Food System Resilience R esilient food systems are characterized access resilience, which mutually influence each by the ability to withstand and adapt other (Steenhuijsen Piters et al. 2021). Importantly, to exogenous or endogenous shocks resilience is not a binary attribute but manifests and stressors. The Intergovernmental Panel on in varying degrees and may differ across multiple Climate Change (IPCC) defines resilience as “the levels and scales; for example, from the individual ability of a social or ecological system to absorb to the national level (Tendall et al. 2015). Even disturbances while retaining the same basic when food systems can be considered resilient at structure and ways of functioning, the capacity the macrolevel, the ability to absorb shocks and of self-organization, and the capacity to adapt disruptions can be unevenly distributed within to stress and change” (IPCC 2007). This definition them. Specific societal segments within a region applies to all subcomponents of food systems and or a country may be more vulnerable than others thus encompasses climate resilience, economic (for example, lower-income households vs. well- resilience, sociopolitical resilience, and food endowed households) due to socioeconomic disparities. In this work and in line with above Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural definition, resilient food systems are understood as Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity retaining their ability to deliver multiple economic and Improved Livelihoods, only four countries in and social outcomes—accessibility, nutrition, West Africa (Ghana, Mali, Mauritania, and Cabo health, safety, and jobs—in a sustainable manner. Verde) are making progress toward implementing Resilient food systems are of critical importance the Malabo Commitment on Enhancing to meet United Nations (UN) SDGs, particularly Resilience of Livelihoods and Production Systems SDG1 (No Poverty), SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG to Climate Variability and Other Related Risks. To 3 (Good Health and Well-Being), SDG 5 (Gender meet the Malabo Commitment, signatories must Equality), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). In West ensure that by the year 2025, at least 30 percent Africa, core development objectives such as of the farm, pastoral, and fisher households have eliminating hunger, reducing poverty, and improved their resilience capacity to climate and enhancing resilience to climate change cannot weather related risks; investments into resilience be achieved without strengthening the region’s building initiatives, including social security food systems. for rural workers and other vulnerable social groups, as well as for vulnerable ecosystems, are West Africa is currently not on track to meet enhanced; and resilience and risk management the resilience targets of the AU. According are mainstreamed into their policies, strategies, to the Second Biennial Review Report of the and investment programs. AU Commission on the Implementation of the 1.3 Five Principal Food Systems of West Africa 43 T o reflect the great diversity of food systems upon request. We summarize the findings below. across West Africa, this report commissioned Maps 1.1 – 1.6 show the geographical distribution a background study completed through of the subsystems. Wageningen University8 to map the principal food systems and their interrelationships. Five archetypal West African food systems were selected based on the agro-ecological systems analysis following Garrity et al. (2017). These are the (a) agropastoralism-based food system; (b) mixed grains and legumes-based food system; (c) rice and horticulture food system; (d) coastal maritime fisheries-based food system; and (e) tropical mixed tree and food crop food systems. The complete food system mapping is available 8 The development of the background study was led by Bart de Steenhuijsen Piters, Wageningen Economic Research (2021). The food subsystem summaries are based on the study and the contained references. The summary of the subsystems on the following pages is based on the food system mapping and the references therein. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas TABLE 1.1 The Agropastoralism-based Food System The agropastoralism-based food system Overview • The agropastoralist food system is characterized by the involved households’ reliance on livestock keeping with varying degrees of mobility and transhumance. • In total, West Africa is home to between 17 and 25 million agropastoralists with strong demographic growth rates. Seventeen percent of the Sahelian countries’ population can be considered part of the agropastoralist community (UNOWAS 2018; FAO 2018b). Economic outcomes • Animal products account for 12–19 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP) in the Sahel countries and for less than 6 percent in coastal countries.Intraregional trade of livestock is estimated at nearly US$400 million per year for the 2013–15 period, which is six times higher than for cereals (Tondel 2019). • Due to its high informality, the true extent of livestock trade is not captured by official statistics. • Agropastoralists are the most important supplier of livestock products to consumers living in urban centers in West Africa. • High transport, handling costs, and illegal taxes profoundly affect profit margins for both producers and traders. • There is high market potential through income growth in urban centers. Nutrition outcomes 44 • Around 24–30 percent of the pastoralist population is moderately to severely food insecure9 • One of the most important determinants of household malnutrition is access to forage, which accounts for half of agropastoralist household expenditures. • Agropastoralist families in Sudanian areas combining livestock and cropping are less concerned by food insecurity than pastoralists. Environmental outcomes • Extensive pastoralism with unconstrained mobility has low environmental impact and causes comparatively little greenhouse gas emissions compared with other livestock production systems. • In recent years, intensifying competition over resources and different mobility patterns have led to rising levels of land degradation. Recent trends • Agricultural encroachment onto rangelands through population growth and a lack of secure land access, rising incidence of animal and zoonotic diseases, and more extreme climate events increasingly affect the production system. • Shifting herd routes have seen conflicts rise over water points and pastures. • Due to natural resources constraints and natural reproduction cycles, herd growth is unable to match the pace of population increase. • Intensifying agropastoral production systems through market orientation, secure access to water and feed resources, and improving animal health services could enhance the sector’s resilience to climate change. • Complementary adaptation strategies for responding to the above pressures include diversification of revenues and income sources, including farm, horticultural, and livestock products as well as salaried employment. 9 Based on data from WFP VAM ENSAN 2018. MAP 1.1 Agropastoralism-Based Food System Tagant Hodh El Chargui Brakna Hodh El Gharbi Gao Gorgol Tahoua Zinder kaolack Tambacounda Tillabery Kanem Kayes Koulikoro Sahel Dosso Maradi Lac Ségou Plateau Boucle du central Mouhoun Est Borno Labé Kano Sikasso Extreme Mamou Bauchi Nord Kara Borgou Niger Savanes Nothern Kaduna Plateau Nord Oyo Plateaux Zou Adamaoua Pastoralism Livestock movement in dry periods Agro-pastoralism Livestock movement in wet periods Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB Table 1.2 The Grains and Legumes-based Food System 45 The grains and legumes-based food system Overview • The grains and legumes-based food system is characterized both by highly market-oriented and subsistence- based farming households and is the typical agricultural production system in the Sudano-Sahelian zone. • An estimated 32 million people are at the heart of this grains and legumes-based food system and represent about 15 percent of West Africa’s total population, excluding Nigeria. Economic outcomes • During the 2014–18 period, the regional production of cereals increased 5 percent annually: 3 percent increase for sorghum, 6 percent for millet, and 5 percent for maize • West African traders in millet, sorghum, maize, and cowpea operate through a highly informal but well- coordinated international network that links countries to regional West African markets. • In-country trade flows of millet and sorghum in Burkina Faso and Mali generally transfer surplus from areas in the south to deficit areas in the north, with urban centers in the north being hubs from where cereals are distributed to smaller markets. • No reliable data exists on the volumes of the regional market and trade flows of coarse grains and legumes (cowpea) in West Africa because the vast majority of transactions are informal and involve small volumes, and unprocessed products are exempted from customs duties and are not captured by official statistics. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Nutrition outcomes • According to the most recent household surveys in Burkina Faso (2012), Ghana (2012), Benin (2017), and Mali (2018), about 1 percent of the population (persons or households) were in a severe food security situation in Burkina Faso and Mali, and 3 percent and 8 percent in Ghana and Benin, respectively. Ninety-six percent in Mali, 84 percent in Burkina Faso, 81 percent in Benin and 79 percent in Ghana were in a limited food secure situation. Millet, sorghum, and maize represent 50 percent of the daily food intake (energy) in West Africa with root crops accounting for 20 percent11. • In the Sahel countries (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Senegal), cereals account for 60 percent of the daily food intake and root crops only for 2 percent. About 60 percent of the daily food intake through cereals is accounted for by millet, sorghum, and maize, and 30–40 percent by rice12. • In West Africa, vegetal products contribute to about 80 percent of the daily supply in proteins (quantity). Pulses represent 15 percent of this supply through vegetal products. Environmental outcomes • Population growth remains the main driver for land use change, mainly for agricultural purposes, resulting in degradation, declining soil fertility, biodiversity loss, and fewer non-timber forest products. • Land use change and forestry, energy, and agriculture are the main sources of greenhouse gas emissions, with 32 percent, 27 percent and 23 percent respectively for the enlarged West African region (USAID 2019). Recent trends • The last 20 years point to a greater variability of annual rainfall and a higher number and recurrence of localized climate extremes. 46 • Demand for unprocessed and processed coarse grains and legumes will increase as urbanization of the West African population continues. • Trends over the last two decades show an increased production capacity of grains and pulses in response to the rising demand, although closing yield gaps remains a challenge. • Since 2012, the security situation in Sahel countries has worsened in parts of Niger, Burkina Faso, and Mali, with spillover effects in other areas. For instance, farmers in Central Mali are not always able to cultivate their fields because of recurrent attacks and massacres. 10 Based on FAOSTAT 2020. 11 Based on data from WFP VAM 2014, 2017 and 2018; WFP 2012; FAOSTAT 2017. 12 Food intake data based on FAOSTAT (2017). MAP 1.2 Grains and Legumes-Based Food System MAURITANIA MALI NIGER SENEGAL CHAD 47 BURKINA FASO GUINEA BENIN TOGO NIGERIA SIERRA LEONE IVORY COAST GHANA CENTRAL AFICAN REPUBLIC LIBERIA CAMEROON ECUATORIAL Commodity Average flow size GUINEA Large All Grains CONGO Medium GABON Livestock & cash crops Small Whear 2018/2019 flow compared to Millet & Sorghum average Maize Average Rice Above average Below average Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas TABLE 1.3 The Rice and Horticulture-based Food System The rice and horticulture-based food system Overview • The bulk of rice production in West Africa comes from numerous small- and medium-scale family farms. • In West Africa, over three million (small-scale) family farms or 18–24 million people13 are involved in rice and irrigated horticulture production. Economic outcomes • Rice is staple food for almost all West African households, including poor urban and rural households, and is the most consumed cereal after sorghum-millet, accounting for more than a third of all grain consumption. • In 2017, the consumption of rice in West Africa was 15.86 million metric tons and is projected to grow to 22 million metric tons by 2025 based on the trends in the last five years. This is close to a 50 percent increase between 2017 and 2025 with per capita consumption equally expected to rise from 43 kg in 2017 to 49 kg in 2025 (ECOWAS 2019c, p.8). • Horticulture production has risen quickly in parallel to increasing rice production, at 5 percent per year in the past decade (6 percent per year in 2000–18). In 2018, West Africa produced around 26.4 million tons of primary vegetables (on estimated 4.43 million ha)14. • The overall vegetables production finds its destination in nearby markets. The gross value of primary vegetables (dry and shallot onions, pepper, tomatoes, sweet potatoes) was estimated at US$8.3 billion in 2016, with Niger representing US$1.8 billion and Mali US$1.4 billion15. Production is concentrated in the Sahel (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Senegal) and near urban markets in coastal countries. 48 • The rice diet transition has stimulated local production and led to a rapid increase in rice imports (2017 imports of 9.2 million tons equal 40 percent of its total demand (ECOWAS 2019c). Nutrition outcomes • For caloric intake, rice has overtaken the individual coarse grains and can exceed 33 percent of calories for the urban poor (Soullier et al. 2020) • Rainfed upland and lowland subsystems, and mangrove and floating rice, are part of broader systems, and we observe the same tendencies as described for households in the mixed grain-legumes and mixed tree-food crops systems. • Households in lowland irrigated or horticulture areas consume fewer dairy products than those in adjacent agropastoral areas. Environmental outcomes • Rice fields use total seasonal water inputs that are up to 2–3 times higher than those for other cereals. • Rice affects the environment through releasing greenhouse gases and changing water composition • Rice and horticulture have encroached on the region’s wetlands, on grasslands for livestock, and on water plains and ponds, which play a key role in livestock and fishing systems. Encroachment has contributed to conflicts over land and water access. 13 Estimates based on ECOWAS 2019 and FAOSTAT 2020 14 Based on FAOSTAT 2020 15 Ibid Recent trends • Farming households face increasing land fragmentation and smaller plots. They are also confronted by land pressure and tenure insecurity. • Increases in rice production have been largely driven by increasing production areas and less by productivity gains. • The lack of economic incentives constrains the adoption of innovations requiring capital investments. MAP 1.3 Rice and Horticulture-Based Food System ALGERIA MAURITANIA MALI Senegal River Valley SENEGAL Office du NIGER Niger GAMBIA BURKINA FASO GUINEA-BISSAU Kano Sikasso GUINEA Guínée Maritime Upper east BENIN Northern region Tanguiéla Glazouë Abuja Guínée forestiére IVORY COAST TOGO SIERRA LEONE NIGERIA 49 GHANA Dogbo Dangbo Enugu LIBERIA CAMEROON Rice (& vegetables: onion, potato, tomato, pepper) Vegetables (pepper, onion, tomato) Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas TABLE 1.4 The Coastal Maritime Fisheries-based Food System The coastal maritime fisheries-based food system Overview • Coastal communities’ livelihoods are highly diverse, and households are often involved in both land and marine or freshwater-based activities. • People in West African fishing communities rely on livelihood diversification but also use migration as a livelihood strategy, since fish migratory patterns lead to seasonal variation in West African fisheries. Economic outcomes • Marine capture fisheries from the Eastern Central Atlantic fishing area (which covers West Africa) equalled 5.5 million tons in 2018 (FAO 2020d), and on average just over 4 million tonnes annually in the period 2005–14 (FAO 2018c). • Marine capture fisheries are the most important, contributing 71 percent in volume, followed by inland fisheries (19 percent) and inland aquaculture (10 percent) in 2018 (FAO 2020e). • Recent data on the contribution of fisheries to GDP in the West African region is lacking. Older estimates from before 2010 indicate a contribution of the sector of around 4 percent, including both production and post-harvest activities. Nutrition outcomes • Fish is of key importance to food and nutrition security in West Africa, serving as an important source of key micronutrients (especially vitamin A, calcium, iron, selenium, and zinc), essential fatty acids 50 (especially omega 3), and protein. • The availability of fish for human consumption depends on the fisheries resources and competing uses. When caught by the industrial fishing fleets, most small pelagic fish, which are rich in macro- and micronutrients, are converted into fishmeal and oil as ingredients for aquaculture, livestock, and chicken feed. This raises important questions for food and nutrition security, as aquaculture tends to convert wild fish into farmed fish, which is inefficient, particularly for the carnivorous species. Environmental outcomes • An (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assessment of 1,288 species in marine waters from Mauritania to Angola showed that 51 were threatened or near threatened, with 39 of these species caught for both industrial and small-scale fisheries (IUCN 2016). Many of these species are staple food sources for West Africans. Overfishing is not the only concern for healthy fish stocks; pollution from activities such as oil drilling, coastal development, poor waste management, and agricultural runoff negatively affect coastal ecosystems. • Fisheries subsidies (that is, financial payments from public entities to the fishing sector) have been widely identified as a major driver for overexploiting fisheries resources. Recent trends • The West African coastal marine fisheries are under pressure because of intense harvesting (legal and illegal) of marine resources, pollution, and degradation due to economic activities on land and at sea and because of climate change. • Coastal and marine pollution affect the structure and function of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and benthic, and thereby have important effects on ecosystems and fisheries. • Expected increase in demand for fish due to population growth, urbanization, and rising incomes in West Africa will put significant pressure on the marine fisheries food system. MAP 1.4 Coastal Maritime Fisheries-Based Food System Morocco Mauritania Cape verde Senegal Togo Gambia Guinea Benin Nigeria Côte Ghana Guinea-Bissau d’Ivoire Cameroon Sierra Leone Equatorial Guinea Congo (Brazzaville) Liberia Gabon Congo Sao Tome and Principe (ex-zaire) Cabinda (Angola) Equatorial Guinea Angola Namibia 51 Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB MAP 1.5 Coastal Maritime Fisheries-Based Food System II MAURITANIA MALI NIGER Kayar Tamba SENEGAL Bamako GAMBIA Diobo GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA BURKINA FASO NIGERIA Bobodioulasso BENIN Conakryr Nzérékoré Paga Maiduguru TOGO IVORY COAST GHANA Lagos LIVERIA Accra Abidjan ATLANTIC OCEAN Flow of frozen fish Flow of smoked fish Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas TABLE 1.5 The Tropical mixed Tree and Food Crop Food Systems The tropical mixed tree and food crop food systems Overview • In tropical West Africa, there are two broad mixed tree and food crop-based systems: lowland humid tree farming systems and highland forest perennial systems. • An estimated 30 million farmers on 64 million ha practiced lowland humid tree farming systems in Sub- Saharan Africa in 2015, most in West Africa (Gockowski 2019). • These systems generally consist of several plots with different, rotating mixes of annual/seasonal food crops (both subsistence and cash crops such as roots and tubers and vegetables) and perennial tree crops (cash crops such as cocoa, rubber and coffee). Economic outcomes • On a national level, cash crops contribute to food security through generating export revenues that allow to import food or to invest in domestic production. • Cocoa has consistently been the major export cash crop in West Africa. It has the largest land area coverage that spans West Africa and accounts for the largest share of exports. In Ghana, 800,000 people were active in the cocoa sector in 2014, accounting for 50 percent of national employment with a value of US$2 billion in 2017, equivalent to 10 percent of agricultural GDP (Marcella and Kolavalli 2017). Another country where cocoa is a key cash crop cultivated by smallholders is Côte d’Ivoire, where cocoa is estimated to account for 75 percent of national employment. • For cash-crop cultivating households in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, cocoa is the most important source of income. For example, an estimated 78 percent of household income in Ghana comes from cocoa and even 52 90 percent in Côte d’Ivoire (Fountain and Hütz-Adams 2018). Nutrition outcomes • Around half of farmers studied in countries in the lowland humid zones had high risks of food and nutritional insecurity. • Diets depend on production shares of subsistence and cash crops, as well as the overall share of purchases of local or imported foodstuffs. Poverty and distance from markets reduce food purchases. • Fallows and forested areas have traditionally been an important source of animal protein in the form of bushmeat and fish. Yet supply has rapidly declined to crisis levels in the last 40 years due to over hunting, land use change, and changing agricultural practices such as shorter fallow rotation periods. Declines in traditional protein supply has not yet been offset by alternative protein sources. Environmental outcomes • Farmer’s expansion into secondary and primary forests to gain new land and overcome soil fertility issues leads to rapid land-use change • Intensive cash crop systems requiring large amounts of inputs lead to soil degradation • Overharvest of forest products results in decreased natural regeneration rates of native crop species such as baobab and shea trees and decreases biodiversity in both forests and fallows. Recent trends • Declining soil fertility and soil degradation pose a risk to the productivity of the main cash crops • Trade-offs between cash crop intensification and ecosystem services present a risk to the long-term sustainability of this food subsystem. • Increased climate variability is expected to impact the cocoa and coffee sector. The area suitable for cocoa production is predicted to decrease significantly. • Agroforestry can be a promising option to increase food security and co-deliver a range of environmental benefits. MAP 1.6 Tropical Mixed Tree and Food Crop-Based Food System MAURITANIA MALI NIGER SENEGAL CHAD GAMBIA BURKINA FASO GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA BENIN NIGERIA TOGO SIERRA LEONE IVORY COAST GHANA CENTRAL AFICAN REPUBLIC LIBERIA CAMEROON Highland forest perennial ECUATORIAL Lowland humid tree crops GUINEA CONGO Source: de Steenhuijsen et al. 2021, developed with support from WB 53 1.4 Food System Drivers and Shocks T his section examines several key drivers that • population growth, urbanization, and transcend the variation across local food migration systems and condition the opportunities • trade and public policy and pose challenges to governments and actors • gender inequality, land rights, post- in the food system of West Africa as a whole: harvest losses • climate change, zoonotic diseases, • income growth and distribution insecurity, conflict, and violence. Drivers: Income Growth and Distribution W est Africa is comprised of a social structure, education and health attributes, heterogeneous mix of countries, and linkages to the global economy. roughly divided by its bioclimatic subregions – Sahelian, Sudanian (middle belt), The agriculture sector is important in all Guinean (or Coastal), and denser Guinean– countries as a key source of livelihoods and Congolian. The region’s countries have notable jobs. In some countries, a natural resource differences in physical size, population, natural boom and extractive industries drive economic endowment, resources, economic resources, growth. In other countries, the agriculture A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas sector still predominates. The service sector has contrast from those emerging or currently driven growth in many of the region’s countries involved in protracted crises. Three countries— while the industrial sector has been relatively Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana—account for less important. Food systems are important to three-fourths of West Africa’s population and all three sectors (agriculture, industry, services), 80 percent of its GDP, so the health of these generating value addition, employment, economies has a profound impact on the rest and livelihoods. Between 2000 and 2015, the of the region. following employment trends by sector in West Africa have been observed: Agriculture The strong economic growth in much of West from 58.8 percent to 52.3 percent; Industry Africa has not been inclusive, whether within from 10.4 percent to 12.5 percent; and Services or across countries. The region, like much of from 30.8 percent to 35.2 percent (AfDB 2019). the developing world, has shown economic Macroeconomic statistics continue to minimize progress since the mid-1980s (Radelet 2015). important contributions of the food system to GDP per capita in the ECOWAS zone grew agriculture, industry, and service sectors, both at an average annual rate of 3.8 percent over in terms of value addition and employment. the period 2000–15, with all countries of the region except Liberia experiencing positive per There is a large variation in all capita GDP growth during that period (World socioeconomic variables and trends among Bank 2016). Most West African economies grew the 17 countries of the ECOWAS and CILSS quickly in the past 20 years (see figure 1.2), yet zones. Yet regional averages obscure these their structural transformation is uneven. Large large variations. Agricultural and economic segments of the population are employed in 54 growth rates have varied widely across the low productivity jobs in the informal service region, with star economic performers in stark sector. FIGURE 1.2 Per Capita Income (PPP, Constant 2017 International $) for West African Countries, 2000 and 2019 8,000 GDP per capita, PPP (constant 2017 international $) 6,000 4,000 2,000 2000 0 2019 Niger Sierra Leone Mali Guinea Gambia Benin Ghana Nigeria Liberia Senegal Cabo Verde Mauritania Chad Togo Burkina Faso Guinea-Bissau Cote d’Ivoire Source: World Development Indicators Database (WB 2020c) Inequality, while high, did not change Gini coefficient oscillated narrowly between 40 significantly in West Africa between 1985 and 46 (figure 1.3). Persistent income inequality and 2018. Guinea-Bissau, The Gambia, and stems from reasons that include human capital, Cabo Verde have the highest inequality, and informality, education, nutrition, health, civil Mali, Sierra Leone, Niger, and Guinea have the conflict, wasteful public expenditure, natural lowest, although the differences are not great resource dependency, and inadequate (AfDB 2018). For the years 2005 and 2018, the secondary education. FIGURE 1.3 Gini Coefficient Across West African Countries, 2005 and 2018 50 40 Gini coe cient (%) 30 20 10 2005 2018 55 0 Sierra Leone Benin Senegal Chad Nigeria Cote d’Ivoire Ghana Niger Gambia Cabo Verde Guinea-Bissau Mali Mauritania Guinea Burkina Faso Liberia Togo Source: PovcalNet (WB 2020b) While less widespread than two decades between the average income of the poor and ago, poverty in West Africa persists at high the poverty line (see figure 1.4). Seventy-five levels and progress to reduce them has percent of the West African population lives at slowed recently. At present, approximately under US$2 per day. Consequently, consumers 43 percent of West Africans live below the spend a large proportion of their income on international poverty line. After rising between food, ranging on average from 39 percent in 1981 and 1996, poverty fell consistently Côte d’Ivoire to 65 percent in Nigeria. The price between 1997 and 2013 before plateauing of food is a critical determinant of the real at around 43 percent (see figure 1.4). While incomes of the growing mass market of people poverty declined in most of the region, there still living under the poverty line, who are is considerable variation in poverty across West therefore highly sensitive to increases in food African states. As poverty rates fell, the poverty prices (Hollinger et al. 2015). gap declined— poverty gap is the difference A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas FIGURE 1.4 Headcount and Poverty Gap of West Africa, 1981–2018 60 50 Percentage points Poverty gap 40 30 20 Poverty headcount 10 1981 1987 1993 1999 2005 2011 2017 Source: PovcalNet (WB 2020b) In parallel, the middle class—those incomes between US$2 and US$4 per day individuals or families earning more than (AfDB 2011). The middle class is concentrated 56 US$2 per capita per day (in 2010 dollars)— in the three largest countries: 50 percent live in has expanded as West African economies Nigeria, with an additional 27 percent in Côte have grown (AfDB 2011). In 2010, 25 percent d’Ivoire and Ghana. However, the countries of West Africa’s population met that definition, with the highest share of their population in accounting for roughly 70 million people. Over the middle class are Ghana (47 percent), Cabo half (53 percent) of these people fall into the Verde (46 percent), Côte d’Ivoire (37 percent) “floating middle class”—people with per capita and Senegal (36) (Hollinger et al. 2015). Drivers: Income Growth and Distribution T hree main demographic drivers West African population growth is generally are shaping food system structure high, and millions of people enter the and performance: the growth and labor market each year, representing both composition of population, the rate and a challenge and an opportunity. With the composition of urbanization, and migration. regional population growing annually at 2.75 While these factors pose a challenge to agrifood percent, the current 400 million people in systems to produce enough food with lower West Africa will be 500 million people by 2030 per capita endowments of natural resources and reach 789 million in 2050 (see figure 1.5). (notably land and water), they also provide Nigeria, with 200 million residents, is the most livelihood and job opportunities for young populated country in the region and will be the people in production, processing, and services third most populous country in the world by in both rural and urban areas. 2050, after China and India. The region’s coastal countries will have the greatest population working-age share. This youthful population, growth, with population densities 6 to 15 times increasingly urban and plugged into digital higher than in the Sahelian states. The region’s media, is adopting new lifestyles and changing population is trending younger, with 44 percent food consumption patterns, spreading different under age 15 and 60 percent under age 25. modes of consumption from metropolitan West Africa may benefit from its demographic areas into the hinterland. The youth bulge is dividend, given the larger working-age also raising aspirations, fueling the demand for population and millions of people entering rewarding and adequate jobs. the labor force every year, relative to the non- FIGURE 1.5 West Africa Population Growth Ghana 200 Nigeria 30 Cote d’Ivoire Niger 150 Burkina Faso Population (in Million) Population (in Million) 20 Mali Senegal Chad 100 Guinea 10 Togo Sierra Leone 50 57 Liberia Mauritania Gambia Guinea-Bissau 0 Cabo Verde 0 2000 2010 2000 2010 1965 1970 1980 2019 1965 1970 1980 1990 2019 1990 Source: World Development Indicators Database (WB 2020c) West Africa has experienced explosive for job creation and economic growth, these urban growth with a 30-fold increase in factors also increase pressure on scarce natural the number of urban residents, from 5 resources and biodiversity which affects agro- to 150 million, between 1950 and 2015. ecological resilience of the food system, e.g., This trend is expected to continue, with the through driving agricultural expansion and percentage of urban residence projected to deforestation. increase from 48 percent in 2018 to 64 percent in 2050, compared with 40 percent and 58 West Africa’s coastal countries are more percent for all of Sub-Saharan Africa. Since the urbanized, and populations in vulnerable 1980s, the number of people born in cities has coastal zones are increasing rapidly. Some exceeded those arriving from rural areas. These coastal area increases reflect rapid migratory metropolitan areas are the main interface flows from the Sahelian areas (Moriconi-Ebrard, with global markets. While strong population Harre, and Heinrigs 2016). For example, in growth and urbanization create opportunities Nigeria’s low-elevation coastal zones (LECZ), or A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas areas located 10 meters or less above mean sea urban food habits into rural areas. Globally, level), the population density is 491 inhabitants 40 percent of people live in small towns and per km2 compared with 134 inhabitants per cities with less than 300,000 people, while in km2 nationally. By some estimates, Africa’s Sub-Saharan Africa the number is 44 percent. populations in LECZs will rise at an annual rate The flip side of urbanization is rurality—looking of 3.3 percent between 2000 and 2030—more at how much, and what parts, of countries than double the world’s average. For example, are rural. In 1960 almost all of West Africa was in Senegal, the share of the LECZ population primarily rural (map 1.7), with over 80 percent may skyrocket to 50 percent by 2060, up from 20 of the population (shown in green). By 2020, percent in the early 2000s. LECZs are vulnerable the shift to less rural and more urban is visually to flooding and sea-level rise associated with evident; there is little green left on the map, climate change (Mbaye 2020). and most of the region has shifted into less rural categories. Niger remains the most rural Small towns and cities in Sub-Saharan Africa country, with only 16 percent of people living are among the fastest growing in the world. in urban areas. By 2050, only 28 percent of the These areas are the main interface with the rural population will reside in cities. economy and serve as a means for spreading MAP 1.7 Rurality and Urbanization in West Africa 58 Source: © Sahel and West Africa Club Secretariat (SWAC/OECD) West Africans mainly move within their Africa and the Sahel region hosted around country or the ECOWAS region. Approximately 1.2 million refugees and 4.4 million internally 7.5 million people are expatriates in another displaced people (IDP). Driven by insecurity, country in the region compared with 1.2 million the number of IDP in the Central Sahel immigrants (that is, 0.5 percent of the West countries grew at dramatic rates between late African population) living in OECD countries 2018 and the end of 2019. Increases over this (for example, Europe and North America). Ivory period have reached 300 percent in Niger’s Coast and Nigeria represent the two main regions of Tahoua and Tillabéry, 66 percent in migratory poles, followed by Senegal and Mali. Mali, and 1,270 percent in Burkina Faso (FSIN Coastal areas continue to attract most migrants, 2020). In the long term, climate change and largely due to opportunities for employment in environmental degradation may dramatically cash crop production, the development and increase internal migration within West Africa. growth in coastal cities, and the increasing Assuming a pessimistic scenario low levels environmental and livelihood challenges in of economic growth and high global carbon the Sahel (Moriconi-Ebrard, Harre, and Heinrigs emissions, recent projections suggest that 2016). The effective implementation of the the number of internal climate migrants may ECOWAS protocol on the Free Movement reach 54.4 million (6.87 percent of population) of Persons and Right of Residence and by 2050. The magnitude of climate migration Establishment in the region should facilitate will be determined by global efforts to reduce this mobility and the resettlement of migrants. emissions and regional development outcomes. In a more optimistic scenario assuming more Regional migration and displacement will inclusive development and strong climate likely continue due to the combined effect action, projections anticipate 17.9 million 59 of conflict and insecurity, climate change, climate migrants (2.27% of population) (Kumari and socioeconomic factors. In 2019, West Rigaud et al. 2018). Drivers: Trade A s markets provide two-thirds of food trade has a positive impact on food security. supply in West Africa, trade impacts For example, trade, by increasing supply and each of the four dimensions of food competition, can lower staple food prices or security, including food availability, access, dampen price rises and facilitate access to food utilization and stability. (Dorosh, Dradri, and Haggblade 2009). Trade impacts each of the four dimensions of food security as markets provide two-thirds of Most of West African trade in food food supply in West Africa, the vast majority commodities appears to be extraregional, of which is imported from outside the region. with intraregional trade only representing Trade impacts incomes, prices and inequality, about 10–20 percent of the total (UNCTAD and stability of supply, linking food-deficit 2020). The vast majority of food available on areas with food-surplus areas, food safety, West African food markets is imported from variety, and quality of food products. These all outside the region. The share of intra-regional help determine the food security and nutrition trade has grown only slowly over time as shown of individuals (Brooks and Matthews 2015; in figure 1.6. However, these figures are FAO 2015). With adequate policies in place, A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas highly imperfect representations because of in the region is informal in nature and almost the generally poor level of trade flow records in completely unrecorded. the region. Most importantly, most food trade FIGURE 1.6 Share of Intra and Extraregional Trade of Food in West Africa 100 Extra-regional trade 80 Share of trade (total,%) 60 40 20 Intra-regional trade 0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 60 Source: based on UNCTADstat 2020 Intraregional trade is constrained by limits as fruits, vegetables, and animal products on the free movement of goods in West (FAO 2015). Other important barriers to trade Africa posed by physical, infrastructural, are tariffs and import and export restrictions and political barriers (Torres and Seters through bans or quotas implemented by many 2016). As a result, markets are fragmented and West African countries (Roquefeuil et al. 2014; staple food shortages and price volatility are Engel and Jouanjean 2013; World Bank 2015). common. Poor infrastructure and governance of the transport sector has led to high costs of Being largely dominated by livestock and moving goods by road or rail within West Africa. staple crops, intraregional trade within This situation mainly affects producers in rural the ECOWAS region is largely informal and areas because transport cost per ton kilometer poorly documented. According to official from farm to primary collection markets tends trade data, intraregional trade involving to be more expensive than that from secondary livestock products, including cattle and small markets to wholesale markets located in the ruminants, represents the most important countries’ capitals (FAO 2015). In addition, the product category in terms of value. According bad quality of infrastructure reduces market to Tondel (2019), official data from CILSS/USAID access based on the geographic distance for the 2013–15 period estimates the total between producers and consumers and by value of livestock trade at US$400 million, six the availability and quality of connecting times higher than for cereals. This data likely infrastructure. Buyers face high transaction underestimates the true trade value as most of costs for product aggregation and quality the livestock transactions are informal and thus control, especially of perishable products such remain unrecorded (Valerio et al. 2020). Sahelian countries are the region’s primary livestock countries frequently export starchy roots such producers, serving the coastal markets. The as cassava and yam to Sahelian countries. As region’s most commonly traded cereals include in the case of livestock, intraregional trade maize, millet, rice, and sorghum; the most concerning cereals and staples such as roots frequently traded starchy roots are cassava, and tubers is often informal and thus not yam, and sweet potatoes. The largest sources of captured by official statistics. For example, it exports of maize are Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and is estimated that 75 percent of regional trade Burkina Faso (Maliki 2014). Burkina Faso, Mali, in staples goes unrecorded (Nedelcovych and and Nigeria are the most important exporters Mainville 2013). of sorghum and millet. In contrast, coastal Drivers: Public Policy T o achieve maximum impact, public and Agricultural Policies (MAFAP) program at investments into agriculture are better FAO, data on these expenditures is available for spent on public rather than on private four West African countries from 2006 onward goods. While most activities within the food (see figure 1.7 and figure 1.8). From 2006 to system such as agriculture and food production 2016, public agricultural expenditures are the are private enterprises, their functioning relies highest in Mali and Burkina Faso in relative critically on public goods that private actors are terms. For instance, Mali reached the 10 percent unable or unwilling to provide efficiently. Public target over the entire period. Expenditures 61 spending can benefit food systems through show strong yearly fluctuations, suggesting productive investments into public goods that that macro developments have a large impact contribute to generating and disseminating on the annual agriculture budget (figure 1.7). technologies, reducing transaction costs, and attracting private capital (Goyal and Nash 2016). For example, investments in rural roads and market infrastructure can have significant effects on poverty and may boost trade. The resulting reduction in transport costs mean that farmers pay less for inputs while being able to retain a higher share of their product sales (Chamberlin et al. 2007; Khandker et al. 2006; Minten and Kyle 1999). Public investments in private goods are often inefficient and risk crowing out private sector investments (Goyle and Nash 2016). Although mostly remaining below the CAADP Maputo target of 10 percent, ECOWAS member states have recently increased levels of public agricultural expenditure as a share in total expenditure. As part of the Monitoring and Analyzing Food A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas FIGURE 1.7 Public Agriculture Expenditures Relative to Total Expenditures in Selected West African Countries 20 Share of agriculture espenditure (in %) 15 Senegal Mali 10 Burkina Faso Benin 5 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 Source: based on FAO MAFAP 2020 Direct public support for agriculture has A large share of direct public support for 62 grown considerably between 2006 and agriculture is spent on input subsidies 2016. MAFAP divides public expenditure in that frequently show limited effectiveness direct support (agriculture specific) and indirect in raising agricultural yields. The majority support (agriculture supportive) to the sector. of direct public support (agriculture-specific Agriculture-specific measures include producer expenditure) is spent on fertilizer subsidies. support (for example, through fertilizer In Mali, direct producer support accounts subsidies), other participants of the value for almost all of the public expenditures in chain such as suppliers, traders, or processors, the agriculture sector. Estimates for Nigeria, and agriculture research. Agriculture- Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Mali suggest supportive measures include investments in they spend US$425 million a year on input rural infrastructure or general education. In subsidies (Goyal and Nash 2016). For Nigeria, the countries included in the MAFAP study, these estimates might even be conservative agriculture-specific expenditure has markedly as state-level subsidies are not included grown between 2006 and 2016. For example, (Searchinger 2020). While input subsidies Senegal’s agriculture-specific expenditure are a popular tool among policymakers, a reached more than US$600 million in 2016, growing body of evidence from farm-level representing a more than twofold increase from surveys strongly questions their effectiveness levels seen in 2006 (see figure 1.8). Agriculture- in sustainably raising agricultural productivity supportive spending trends are more mixed and reducing poverty (Goyal and Nash 2016; in the examined countries with three in four Jayne et al. 2018). Reasons why fertilizer countries reducing expenditure levels in these subsidies often fail to significantly increase category over the reference period. yields include weak fertilizer responses due to FIGURE 1.8 Agriculture-Supportive and Agriculture-Specific Public Expenditures in Selected West African Countries (constant, 2011 US$) Senegal 800 600 Mali Million US$ (constant 2011) Burkina Faso Benin 400 200 Agriculture-supportive 0 Agriculture-speci c 2016 2020 2016 2020 2016 2020 2016 2020 63 Source: based on FAO MAFAP 2020 low soil organic matter, suboptimal agronomic extension services. High public expenditure practices, pest and disease infestations, on input subsidy programs reduces funds inadequate formulations of subsidized fertilizer available for other, more impactful spending (Tittonell and Giller 2013; USAID 2019), and categories such as R&D (Goyal and Nash 2016). large inefficiencies in implementing support Despite evidence of high returns, estimated schemes (timing, quality, procurement, and at 34 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa between so on). The ECOWAS Regional Agricultural 2000 and 2011, support to agricultural R&D in Investment Program for Food Security and the region in Sub-Saharan Africa is generally Nutrition (RAIPFSN, 2016–20) has called for low. Over the last decade, spending on harmonizing public support policies across agricultural research accounted for only 0.4 member states to address the region’s limited percent of agricultural GDP in Sub-Saharan performance of fertilizer subsidy programs and Africa compared with 1.3 percent in Latin the lack of cross-country coordination. America and the Caribbean and 0.9 percent in South Asia. This also applies in large measure Higher returns to poverty alleviation and to the subregion of West Africa. Although greater resilience to climate change could agricultural spending has generally risen over result from a shift in spending from private the last decade in West Africa, agricultural to public goods such as agricultural research research spending as a share of its agricultural and development (R&D) and improved GDP (AgGDP) has declined from 0.53 percent A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas to 0.33 percent, remaining far short of the New families (Bundy et al. 2009). There is no “one size Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) fits all” approach for school feeding programs. target of 1 percent and falling considerably They work best when addressing needs of the below levels seen in other Sub-Saharan African community, ensuring local ownership, and subregions (Stads and Beintema 2017a). involving parents and the wider community (WB 2016). Investing in quality agricultural higher education is essential to ensure human Policies directly targeting consumers capacity equal to the scale of regional food represent a small fraction of total system challenges and opportunities. To agriculture expenditures. In Burkina Faso, inform research policy, the International Food Mali, and Senegal, public expenditures on Policy Research Institute’s (IFPRI) Agricultural demand side policies increased from 2010 to Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) and 2015, whereas in Benin they remained roughly the Regional Universities Forum for Capacity the same. The largest increase took place in Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM), a network Senegal from US$20 million to around US$60 of 105 universities in 37 African countries, have million (figure 1.9). These four countries differ jointly initiated two online data portals. To in how much they spend on consumer policies; support decision-making and the setting of Benin, for instance, spends all its resources on priorities for agricultural training, the portals school feeding programs. In Mali and Burkina monitor trends related to student population, Faso, transfers that reduce the cost of food, so- teaching staff, and available degrees. North- called food aid, play an important role. Senegal, South collaboration can contribute to capacity however, transferred more than US$40 million 64 building through facilitating knowledge in 2015 to consumers to raise their expenditure transfers. For example, the Forum for Agricultural in food consumption (cash transfer). In Mali Research in Africa (FARA)-led Platform for and Senegal, some consumer policy transfers African-European Partnership on Agricultural cannot be sufficiently identified to allocate Research for Development (PAEPARD) facilitates them to a specific category (other payments to African-European collaboration among farmer consumers). organizations, civil society groups, research and education institutes, and the private sector. Other policy measures supporting consumers include temporary or permanent Public policies targeting demand side export bans, which have become relatively such as school feeding programs can play common in the region following the 2008 an important role in strengthening food food crisis. Export restrictions are usually security and improving nutrition outcomes, justified by those who implement them based especially during crises. School feeding on a national shortage, most often of basic programs were one of the key responses to the foodstuffs. For example, Burkina Faso applies growing food insecurity that followed the food a large per capita tax on exported livestock crisis of 2008. In West Africa, school feeding and poultry; Nigeria has banned the export systems exist in Cabo Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, of certain staple foods such as rice and closed Ghana, Mali, and Nigeria. These programs are its border. In 2012, Burkina Faso’s Ministry of a long-term social investment and contribute Agriculture banned cereal exports, and in Mali, a productive safety net for children and their exports were subject to authorization. Liberia FIGURE 1.9 Expenditures on Agricultural Consumer Policies in Selected West African Countries 60 Million US$ (constant 2011) 40 20 School feeding programmes Food aid Chash transfers Other payments to consumers 0 2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015 2010 2015 Burkina Faso Mali Senegal Benin 65 Source: based on FAO MAFAP 2020 banned all food exports in 2008 in response to system, including agriculture production, the crisis. Export restrictions create distortions and avoid discouraging private investments in intraregional trade. In the countries where in the provision of subsidized goods. they are in place, export restrictions act as West African countries do not have enough indirect consumer subsidies by keeping prices financial resources to subsidize consumers lower than they would be in case produce and producers at the same time. Trade policy could be freely traded. On the other hand, measures that aim to reduce price volatility export bans prevent trading partners from through safeguards rather than protecting accessing competitive supplies. In importing producers by permanently using fixed rates countries, export bans create artificial scarcity are also likely to be more achievable. Effective and therefore negatively affect consumers regional harmonization of regulations related prices. to subsidies and other taxes could enhance competitiveness of West Africa’s food sector Public policy should favor enhancing the and promote intraregional trade. long-term resilience of the wider food A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Drivers: Gender Inequalities P ersisting gender inequalities in terms et al. 2014). Due to low access to productive of access to resources, education, and factors such as land and credit and to prevailing decision-making negatively affect social norms, women dominate off-farm food system outcomes. Women make critical activities such as processing, where women’s contributions to West Africa’s food system but share (regional average) in employment continue to be seriously disadvantaged. While amounts to 83 percent (Allen et al. 2018). 75 percent of females are employed in the Despite their high growth potential, public agriculture sector, they are less likely to head policies frequently overlook these downstream agricultural production units, have less access segments and rarely address gender-specific to higher value land, and usually own smaller barriers (Staatz and Hollinger 2016). To enhance farms (IPAR 2015). For example, household women’s role in the food system, both issues survey data for Niger suggests a 19 percent relating to access to resources and entrenched gender productivity gap associated with power imbalances within and outside the unequal access to resources and education, household need to be addressed (O’Sullivan et with negative implications for food security, al. 2014). undernutrition, and infant mortality (O’Sullivan 66 Drivers: Land Rights A llocating and enforcing land rights While West African women generally have mostly operates through a diverse access to land, their decision-making in and overlapping set of customary land management, control over the use of arrangements at the village or local level land, and ability to own land is virtually in rural West Africa. Increasing pressure on non-existent. This is especially true in the natural resources and the absence of written customary systems where land relations are documentation regarding land use have largely informed by a patriarchal orientation given rise to land conflicts over inheritance where women are usually excluded in land and disputes among villages, farmers, and management and inheritance. Women’s rights pastoralists. These elements, including lack to land are usually secondary and related to of formal land rights, suggest that tenure rights obtained through primary rights holders insecurity may limit access to land, deter such as brothers, husband, fathers, or sons. investment in agriculture, and lead to There may also be shared rights that are vested suboptimal yields (Goldstein et al. 2015). Other in the community, such as access to wood fuel challenges associated with customary systems in the forest and non-timber forest products. of land ownership are undefined boundaries, Access to land and the uses to which the land unclear rights and titles, and undocumented can be put are also gender sensitive (AUC-ECA- transactions (AUC-ECA-AfDB Consortium 2011). AfDB Consortium 2011). Drivers: Post-Harvest Losses E ach year, a large share of food is lost by 2025 (AU 2018). Major reasons for PHL are during post-harvest handling, storage, poor infrastructure, harvesting methods, post- and packaging. In Sub-Saharan Africa, harvest handling procedures, and inadequate post-harvest losses (PHL) for grains alone are distribution policies. The COVID-19 pandemic estimated to range between 20 and 40 percent has compounded structural causes for PHL. of total production, corresponding to the For example, Guinea, Senegal, and Nigeria are annual caloric requirement of at least 48 million reported to have experienced potato harvest people (Zorya et al. 2011). Rates of loss are even losses between 20 and 50 percent (Bancal and higher for horticultural crops, reaching 40 to 50 Kouamé 2020). Addressing PHL data constraints percent (Gustavsson et al. 2011). At present, West as well as improving both post-harvest African countries are not on track for reaching handling techniques and market access could the Malabo Declaration target of halving PHL reduce PHL. Drivers: Climate Change and Agroclimatic Impacts C limate change impacts are already West Africa has experienced rising mean evident globally, with changing temperatures, decreasing precipitation, weather patterns and extreme and more hydrological extremes such as 67 events among the many impacts affecting drought and flooding. Average temperatures agriculture. In coming decades, climate in West Africa have risen between 0.5°C and change impacts on the stability of food supply 0.8°C between 1970 and 2010 (Collins 2011; will likely worsen dramatically. Climate change Field 2014). The recorded increase in average will challenge farmers with an array of climate temperature varies across the region, with risks, including lower and erratic rainfall, shorter the lowest values over the Gulf of Guinea and rainy seasons, and a higher incidence of pests the highest over the Sahel (Sylla et al. 2018). and diseases. The world is locked into warming During the twentieth century, West Africa saw of above 1.5°C given annual global emissions an overall decrease in rainfall, although annual of about 37 gigatons (Gt) of CO2 equivalent precipitation rates have somewhat increased (CO2e). If 580 Gt more of CO2e are emitted, the since the 1980s (Ibrahim et al. 2014; IPCC probability of exceeding warming of 1.5°C to 2013). Yet recent studies point toward higher rises above 50 percent (Hoegh-Guldberg et al. interannual variability, delayed monsoon onset, 2018). The IPCC projects that 1.5°C warming will and early monsoon retreat (Diallo et al. 2012; cause periodic food shocks across regions and Seth et al. 2013; Stocker et al. 2013). Variability that warming beyond 2°C will cause sustained observed on both annual and interdecadal global food supply disruptions. Apart from time scales makes trends since 1960 difficult to food supply disruptions, rising atmospheric categorize. CO2 levels and more frequent climate shocks could also significantly decrease the availability Trends of rising average temperatures and of critical nutrients, further complicating the sea levels are expected to continue (see challenge of tackling food insecurity and map 1.8). The rise in mean temperatures in the malnourishment (Beach et al. 2019). region is anticipated within a range of 1.5°C up A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas to 6.5°C by the end of the century, depending makes disaster forecasting, preparedness, and on the planet’s future emission pathway (Sylla management more challenging. An increase in et al. 2018). In the medium term, Jalloh et al. the temperature of tropical sea surface by 1°C (2013) simulate average temperature rises increases wind speed by three to five percent varying from 1.5° to 2.3° until 2050. Within the (Mbaye 2020). Sea levels are expected to rise region, the Sahel is consistently projected to between 40 and 80 cm, the increase dependent experience the strongest temperature increases on tides and the strength of the wind or ocean (Sylla et al. 2018). Climate change brings about swells triggered by storms off the coast. This more violent cyclone activity by substantially causes sea level to rise and it leads to flooding, increasing sea surface temperature and storm coastal erosion, and increased salinity of soils surges on coastlines, generating higher wind (USAID and USGS 2020). speeds and heavier precipitation, which MAP 1.8 Projected Temperature and Precipitation Changes 68 Observed and projected changes in annual average temperature and precipitation. (Top panel, left) Map of observed annual average temperature change from 1901–2012, derived from a linear trend. [WGI AR5 Figures SPM.1 and 2.21] (Bottom panel, left) Map of observed annual precipitation change from 1951–2010, de- rived from a linear trend. [WGI AR5 Figures SPM.2 and 2.29] For observed temperature and precipitation, trends have been calculated where sufficient data permit a robust estimate (i.e., only for grid boxes with greater than 70% complete records and more than 20% data availability in the first and last 10% of the time period). Other areas are white. Solid colors indicate areas where trends are significant at the 10% level. Diagonal lines indicate areas where trends are not significant. (Top and bottom panel, right) CMIP5 multi-model mean projections of annual average temperature changes and average percent changes in annual mean precipitation for 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 under RCP2.6 and 8.5, relative to 1986–2005. Solid colors indicate areas with very strong agreement, where the multi-model mean change is greater than twice the baseline variability (natural internal variability in 20-yr means) and ≥90% of models agree on sign of change. Colors with white dots indicate areas with strong agreement, where ≥66% of models show change greater than the baseline variability and ≥66% of models agree on sign of change. Gray indicates areas with divergent changes, where ≥66% of models show change greater than the baseline variability, but <66% agree on sign of change. Colors with diagonal lines indicate areas with little or no change, where <66% of models show change greater than the baseline variability, although there may be significant change at shorter timescales such as seasons, months, or days. Analysis uses model data and methods building from WGI AR5 Figure SPM.8. See also Annex I of WGI AR5. [Boxes 21-2 and CC-RC]. Source: Reprinted from “Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change”. IPCC 2014, p. 1207. There is considerable uncertainty over projected changes in precipitation patterns future precipitation trends in West Africa. are more pronounced under high-emission Long-term predictions of future precipitation pathways, with the western Sahel likely to be are still highly uncertain given persisting most affected by the lengthening of dry spells discrepancies between global and regional (map 1.8) (Sylla et al. 2018). The region will climate models over both sign and magnitude likely witness a rise in torrid, arid, and semiarid of future precipitation changes (Dosio et al. climate conditions with the changing temporal 2019; Field 2014; Sylla et al. 2018). There has distribution of rainfall and rising temperatures been high multidecadal variability in rainfall (Sylla et al. 2016a). with prolonged dry periods over the last 50 years (Hollinger et al. 2015). The 1980s were In the near term (2020–24), the Sahel might very dry and are linked to the severe 1980s experience significantly wetter conditions Sahel drought. Compared with the 1976–2005 than the recent past, leading to higher flood reference period, recent regional modeling risks that may hurt agricultural production projects mean precipitation changes ranging and displace large numbers of people. In line between −10 percent and +10 percent by 2100. with the World Meteorological Organization’s While climate predictions are relatively detailed (WMO) seasonal forecasts, the Sahelian zones for countries located north of The Gambia, experienced a wetter-than-average rainy temperature and rainfall data are less specific season in 2020. From Senegal to Ethiopia, record for countries further south. levels of flooding with extensive damages to fields and livestock have been reported. The There is a high likelihood of more frequent overflowing of the Niger river has seen 226,000 extreme weather events and a shift toward persons displaced while 500,000 hectares 69 less frequent but more intense precipitation, of farmland have been severely damaged in along with more frequent drought. Extreme northwestern Nigeria, triggering local price precipitation events affect human activities spikes (Smith 2020). According to the WMO’s and natural systems to a much larger extent Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update than slightly less rainfall overall (Parry et al. (2020), wetter-than-usual conditions can be 2007). Regional climate models consistently expected in the region through 2024. The latest predict fewer days with rainfall with longer WMO projection highlights the critically urgent dry spells and shorter wet spells over 70 need to review and adapt existing regional and percent of the land area. Drought frequency national risk management arrangements and has dramatically increased, from an average of capacities. once every 12.5 years over 1982–2006 to once every 2.5 years over 2007–16. These droughts Climate change in West Africa will reduce have also become more severe and prolonged, crop yields as well as labor productivity diminishing the productive capacity of the land. while the region’s population grows, Modeling results also indicate more intense leading to less food availability per capita rainfall on wet days (Dosio et al. 2019; Field and rising food prices. Both the Sahel and 2014; Sylla et al. 2016; Sylla et al. 2018). This West Africa are regarded as areas particularly suggests that both drought and widespread sensitive to climate change. By some estimates, flooding may become more frequent in the Africa could face a near double-digit reduction coming decades (Sylla et al. 2018). Generally, in crop yields and production volumes over A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas the next decade16, as well as rising food prices percent of Chad’s exports. According to CILSS by similar margins. Climate change will reduce and USAID estimates, intraregional livestock suitability for major crops, especially beans, trade (75 percent cattle, 25 percent small maize, and banana, and production will likely ruminants) was worth approximately US$400 decline unless new cropping systems will be million per year in the 2013–15 period, six times introduced (Rippke et al. 2016). A large body of more than intraregional cereal trade (Tondel existing studies consistently predicts decreases 2019). Pastoralism provides growing urban in crop yields and livestock productivity in populations with meat at competitive prices West Africa (Palazzo et al. 2017 and references and secures livelihoods for millions of primary therein). For example, the IPCC (2014) projects producers and also for tens of thousands of that crop growing periods in West Africa may people employed in livestock value chains. decline by an average of 20 percent by 2050, Climate change poses significant threats to entailing a 40 percent drop in cereal yields the sector. Livestock are most directly affected and a fall in biomass production for livestock by heat stress and water scarcity and also by without adaptation. These decreases are reducing the quality and quantity in forage mainly associated with expanding arid and resources, altered suitability of species and semiarid agroecologies caused by longer and breeds of livestock, changing livestock mobility more frequent dry spells and slightly reduced patterns, and rising incidence of disease overall precipitation. Comparing global climate (Thornton et al. 2014). Despite the significance models and assuming no productivity changes, of the livestock sector to West African that is, no changes in management, improved economies, studies quantifying climate change varieties, and so on, Jalloh et al. (2013) report impacts on the sector are limited (Thornton et 70 median crop decreases of 20 percent for al. 2014). irrigated rice, 14 percent for sorghum, and between 5 and 7 percent in the case of maize, In the long term, transhumance may no soybeans, and groundnuts. As the region’s longer serve as an effective climate hazard population is growing and expected to grow adaptation strategy for pastoralists. at a high rate, the projected yield reductions Pastoralists used an opportunistic operating are estimated to result in rising food prices, system of grazing resources to face seasonal complicating food access for resource-poor forage crisis by using the ecological diversity strata of the population and thus exacerbating and the complementarity between the food insecurity (Zougmoré et al. 2016). various agroclimatic areas. While widely seen as an effective way for ongoing climate Livestock is important in West Africa and change adaptation and sustainable natural climate change may negatively affect resource management, climate change and the sector. In the Sahelian countries, the farm expansion have made it challenging livestock sector’s share of GDP ranges from for traditional pastoralists to feed animals 12 to 29 percent, while in coastal countries and provide them with water. Pastoralists are it is around 6 percent.17 Cross-border trade migrating sooner to the humid areas, staying of animal products is the second source of longer, and sometimes not going back (CILSS, export revenue for Niger and accounts for 30 2019). While this helps pastoralists and their 16 Current projections likely underestimate yield/productivity reductions as possible impacts from declining labor productivity due to climate- change induced increases in heat stress are not yet considered (Hertel and Lima 2020). 17 Dosio et al. 2019. livestock, farmers are unhappy with the influx many fish species’ physiology, including their of people and livestock and the need to share size, value, and their reproductive capacity, scarce land and resources. Concern among leading to declining stocks. Changes in water farmers in the receiving areas in the Sudanian temperature cause species to migrate and zone (400–600 mm) has increased. These new diminish the number and size of catches. conflicts are related to climate change effects Local fishers in West Africa report that that of depleting the quality and quantity of natural some previously abundant fish species are resources in the Sahelian belt (less than 300 increasingly scarce and even disappearing. mm per year). Without robust restoration For example, the sardinella fish species, which programs and with harsher climatic conditions, used to be abundant in Senegalese seawaters, the availability of forage biomass and the have now disappeared. From 2000 to 2050, nutritional value of grazing are decreasing. fish landings of 14 West African countries are modelled to decline by about 8 percent and Artisanal fishing in both fresh and marine 26 percent depending on differing carbon waters is negatively affected by climate emission scenario pathways (Lam et al. 2012). change. West African fisheries are critical to the Reaching approximately 20 percent of the food and nutritional security of an estimated region’s total fish production, inland fisheries 200 million people and to the livelihoods of make an important contribution to the region’s over 10 million people employed in the fisheries food and nutrition security (Katikiro and sector (Belhabib, Sumaila, and Pauly 2015). In Macusi 2012). Both increased demand for dam Ghana alone, 2.2 million people depend on infrastructure and decreasing precipitation fishing for their livelihoods, including nearly will affect production of inland fisheries by 125,000 artisanal fisher folk. Rising water reducing floodplain zones used for seasonal 71 temperatures and acidification levels damage inland fishing (Zougmoré et al. 2016). Shocks: Zoonotic Disease and Other Pests—Ebola, COVID-19, Fall Armyworm, Locusts W est Africa, like many parts of and peste des petits ruminants (PPR) have the world, has been exposed to been equally damaging to different countries diverse types of zoonoses, insect in the region. There are equally slow-onset infestations, and diverse crop and animal agriculture-related illnesses affecting human disease. These shocks disrupt food systems, health, such as aflatoxins and antimicrobial damage crops or decrease yields, inhibit resistance. trade, and have devastating negative effects on livelihoods, food security, and the overall The EVD periodically emerges in West Africa. economy. These diseases and pests include Formerly called Ebola hemorrhagic fever, this the EVD, locusts, grasshoppers, fall army worm, zoonotic disease jumps from animal reservoirs and the SARS-CoV-2 virus and related COVID-19 to humans and is often fatal. Four of the five disease. Outbreaks of transboundary animal known Ebola viruses cause human illness. On diseases (TADs) such as foot-and-mouth disease, August 8, 2014, the World Health Organization swine fever, rinderpest, avian influenza (HPAI), (WHO) declared a Public Health Emergency A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas of International Concern (PHEIC) for Ebola in crops. These are mainly the larger grain borer West Africa, a designation signaling events (LGB), fruit flies (that is, Bactrocera dorsalis ), with risk of potential international spread or tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta ), fall armyworm requiring a coordinated international response. (Spodoptera frugiperda ), papaya mealybug During this epidemic, EVD affected primarily (Paracoccus marginatus ), banana bunchy top virus, Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone and spread palm red weevil (Rhynchophorus ferrugineus ), and to Mali, Nigeria, and Senegal. The outbreak potato downy mildew (Phytophthora infestans ). was fatal to many and also adversely affected agriculture, food security, and nutrition in Aflatoxins are highly poisonous compounds Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone. National that contaminate a range of crops, pose agriculture production decreased by 8 percent serious threats to human health, and and 5 percent respectively in Liberia and Sierra reduce export earnings. Aflatoxins are Leone. Guinea suffered PHL of 40 to 50 percent. produced by the Aspergillus fungus. After Food system disruptions, reduced economic first infecting plant pod or cob, the toxin is activity, and loss of livelihoods and jobs reduced produced in large quantities both before and household income, led to volatile food prices, after harvest depending on field and storage and reduced purchasing power. conditions. Contaminating maize, groundnut and peanut-based products along the entire The desert locust (Schistocerca gregaria) is value chain, aflatoxins affect both human considered the most destructive migratory health and trade in West Africa. At high doses, pest in the world, found in various parts of aflatoxins can cause acute poisoning (for Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Locusts are example, liver cirrhosis) and death. Cumulative 72 highly mobile and can form swarms containing buildup can cause liver cancer and chronic millions of locusts, leading to devastating immunosuppression. Aflatoxins also contribute impacts on crops, pasture, and fodder. There to severe undernutrition in children. As of have been six major plagues in the twentieth 2010, Aflatoxin contamination was estimated century, with a major upsurge in 2003–05. to contribute to an estimated 7,761 cases of According to the FAO, this major locust crisis liver cancer per year in Nigeria (Narayan et al. has affected the livelihoods of about eight 2014). Recent studies estimate high levels of million people and control campaigns have contamination of rice in West Africa. Aflatoxin- cost more than US$570 million, with nearly 13 susceptible commodities that do not meet million liters of pesticides used to contain the internationally accepted standards result in an plague. The current outbreak in East Africa is estimated loss of export earnings of between one of the most serious in the last 25 years. As €400 and €600 million a year (Okoth 2016). of Autumn, 2020, the risk of a locust invasion into the Sahel from eastern Africa remained low (FAO 2020b). Other grasshopper species (such as the Senegalese grasshopper) and bird species also significantly affect food crops in West Africa. Intensifying cross-border trade and the effects of climate change are increasing biological invasions by crop pests and diseases unknown in the region, with unknown but likely negative impacts on food and cash Shocks: Insecurity, Violence, and Conflict S everal parts of West Africa have suffered • Violence is increasingly targeting from various types of insecurity, violence, civilians and protracted conflict from insurgencies, • Forty percent of violent events take illegal trafficking of drugs and arms, or conflict place within 100 kilometers of borders over access to natural resources (see figure • Military intervention may not lead to 1.10 and map 1.9). Between 2011 and 2019, the long-term stability number of violent events in the region jumped • Most conflicts are local and do not from 581 to 3,617 (OECD/SWAC 2020a). The spread number of associated fatalities rose from 3,361 • One-half of the conflicts are low recorded in 2011 to 11,911 in 2019. These intensity, lingering, and spatially trends in conflict and violence have taken place clustered; the other 50 percent are parallel to a globalized security environment spatially clustered and high intensity where the boundaries between what is local • Political systems are the primary reason and global, what is domestic and international, for conflict, not natural resources or what is military and civilian-related are • Ethnicity and religion are used to increasingly blurred. Analysis of conflict and further goals. violence suggests several defining features in West Africa: FIGURE 1.10 Evolution of Violent Events by Type in West Africa, 1997–2020 73 4000 Violence against civilians 3000 Battles Number of events 2000 Riots 1000 0 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 2020 Source: based on ACLED 2020 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas MAP 1.9 The Geography of Conflict in North and West Africa Source: © OECD/SWAC 2020a 74 Competition over land and other scarce ecosystems. Sedentary farmers are investing resources is increasingly turning violent in livestock to face risk while pastoralists are in Sahelian countries and may intensify investing in lands to secure their livelihoods. with climate change. Dwindling resources, More than 3,600 people died in conflicts shifting livelihood patterns, the transformation between farmers and herders in Nigeria of agropastoralist systems, and—perhaps most between January 2016 and October 2018, importantly—weak capacity and contested largely over land, water, and access to pastures. legitimacy of government institutions, together help explain the rising number Access to water is increasingly becoming of violent clashes. A main driver of conflict a flash point due to climate change effects between farmers and herders in the Sahel has of longer dry spells and more frequent been policies that disrupted the relationships drought. Inter and intracommunity conflicts between pastoralists and farmers. Combined arise from discrepancies over access and with increasingly scarce resources and high management of pastures and water resources population growth, the support for agricultural (seasonal water bodies and pastoral watering lifestyles has led farmers to encroach on holes). Water shortages after the 1984 drought traditional pastureland. Diversification of particularly reduced crop yields and led farmers economic activities and human and livestock to expand the total area under production— mobility in quest for livelihoods (water, pasture, including into herder migration routes—and and financial resources through outmigration) advance sowing dates. At the same time are socioeconomic strategies adopted by pastoralists, having more trouble finding agropastoralist families to face the challenges grazing grounds during the dry season, also of natural resource scarcity and water deprived had to encroach on farmers’ fields earlier and for longer than normal, hurting farmer crops. land and water disputes among farmers, Since the frequent droughts in the 1970s and between farmers and herders, and between 1980s, the dichotomy between pastoral and herders are more frequent. It is often thought agricultural livelihoods within families and that climate-conflict linkages result from farming systems has become less marked. different livelihood groups directly competing for natural resources such as land and water. Local government institutions are often Instead, one example from Lake Chad shows unable to reconcile the competing interests that uncertainty can be at the root of conflict. and increasing intracommunal tensions with Uncertainty over who can access and use a dwindling resource base. While increasing these natural resources at different times given pressure on land and other resources heightens changing weather patterns (or changes in intracommunal tensions, the inability of population dynamics with incoming climate institutions—whether traditional or set up by migrants). Because many conflicts occur in the central state to mediate these tensions and rural areas and target productive agricultural regulate access to resources—is at the heart of assets such as infrastructure, land, and the violent turn. In Chad, livestock population livestock, the economic impacts often hit the growth increased tremendously on the heels of agriculture sector, particularly women farmers, the oil boom; 30 percent of Chad’s 114 million disproportionately hard. head of cattle graze around Lake Chad. Food security outcomes have worsened Food insecurity and conflict are interlinked. significantly in conflict-affected areas There are three major hotspots in West Africa of Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, Chad, and for food insecurity: the Lake Chad Basin which northeastern Nigeria. As a result of conflict, 75 consists of subnational areas in Cameroon, crops are often lost as farmers are forced off Chad, Niger, and northern Nigeria; the Central their fields and the provision of crucial services Sahel (Liptako Gourma region) overlapping is interrupted. Border closures can restrict trade between Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger; and and worsen food insecurity as noted above. eastern Mauritania. In these areas, the presence One underlying driver is increased uncertainty of armed groups led to massive displacement over access to natural resources, partly driven of people, destruction or closure of basic social by population growth, as West Africa’s labor- services, and disruption of productive activities, to-land and livestock-to-land ratios are rapidly markets, and trade flows. These hotspots have deteriorating, leading to a vicious cycle as fallow several common features. They are cross-border periods are reduced, soil erosion and nutrient and located in remote areas with an isohyet of mining increase, and forests, vegetative cover, less than 300 millimeters and with harsh climatic and biodiversity are lost—further increasing conditions. Except for the region around Lake pressure on a diminished base. Chad, these areas have low population density a low level of basic services and weak presence The lack of presence of state systems and and authority of states. functional local government and security forces creates an institutional void, making The increased incidence of conflict and access difficult for outsiders. This lack limits fragility in West Africa is interacting with access to basic services, local participation in the food insecurity challenge in complex governance functions, control of borders, and ways. Conflict, forced migration, and food providing essential security that is a prerequisite insecurity can become interlinked and create a for socioeconomic development. These vicious cycle for rural populations. Preexisting limitations are particularly acute for pastoralist A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas communities, who are underrepresented in insecurity and ending conflicts. The inclusion local public institutions, which prevents both of civil society in peace deals and national communities and local government from dialogue enabled agreements to take hold, addressing the agriculture- and livelihood- supported by strong post-conflict leadership related drivers of conflict and fragility and and foreign assistance for reconstruction their consequences. Therefore, it is important and development. Similar investments are to build capacity in local institutions to design required for today’s problems, but at a more and implement community-based approaches. decentralized level of government. Regional institutions such as the ECOWAS have played a pivotal role in reducing 1.5 Emerging Trends in Agriculture Production and the Food System T his section summarizes important trends • Worsening food insecurity resulting from the food system drivers • High level of food prices and food price identified above: volatility 76 • Shifting demand patterns • Land use changes and land degradation • Agribusiness sector in transformation. • Stagnant agricultural productivity Land Use Expansion and Soil Erosion C hanges in land cover have been by changing the amount and timing of water significant over the last fifty years. availability to vegetation (CILSS 2016). Acreage expansion in West African farms doubled in area between 1975 and 2013. Cropland has expanded rapidly, first Vast areas of savanna, woodland, and forest along main transportation routes and now landscape have been replaced or fragmented across the whole region. Between 1975 by cropland. Meanwhile, villages, towns, and and 2013, the fastest average annual rates cities have grown in area—taking up 140 of cropland expansion were in Togo, Benin, percent as much land as they had in 1975. Chad, Mauritania, and Burkina Faso (map 1.10). More than a third of the dense forest cover The area covered by crops doubled, reaching present in 1975 was cleared for farms and a total of 1,100,000 square kilometers, or 22.4 settlements. In savanna and steppe landscapes percent of the land surface during these 38 of West Africa, drought and unsustainable land years. In every country, agriculture is exerting use practices have degraded the vegetative pressure on the natural landscapes, replacing cover, contributing to a 47 percent increase and fragmenting savannas, woodlands, and in sandy areas. Climate variability and change forests. Only scattered protected areas remain have and are impacting West African land cover and many are degraded and isolated within the West Africa Land Use Land Cover Time Series West Africa Land Use Land Cover Time Series Started in 1999, the West Africa Land Use Dynamics project represents an effort to map land use and land cover (LULC), charac- terize the trends agricultural in time and space, landscape. These and understand their protected areaseffects on the environment still across Westexpanses Africa. The project was carried out Started in 1999, the West Africa Land Use Dynamics project represents anmaintain effort to map land great use and of charac- land cover (LULC), unbroken the AGRHYMET through terize Regional Center in Niamey, Niger, with partners from 17 participating countries, the Sahel Institute, and are particularly Geological the U.S.through visible the trends in timein space, and Faso, Burkina and Survey (USGS), with understand major Ghana, their effects on wilderness. supportNiger, fromwith But the environment across the U.S. Agency for change West Africa. The International has also project Development/West begun was carried outthere Africa the AGRHYMET Regional Center in Niamey, partners from 17 participating countries, the Sahel Institute, and (USAID/ Togo, Benin, West Africa) the U.S. and (Comité permanent GeologicalNigeria. Chad Inter-états Survey (USGS), and withde Liberia Lutte major contre support (CILSS la Sécheresse from the U.S. Agency 2016). dans le for Sahel [CILSS], International 2016). The Africa Development/West overarching (USAID/ goal of the WestLand West Africa Africa)Use Land (Comité Cover Time permanent Series Inter-états dedataset (Tappan Lutte contre and others, la Sécheresse dans2016) le Sahelis [CILSS], to promote theThe 2016). awareness of landscape overarching goal of the and land resourceWest Africa changes Land and andCover Use Land trends, Time national to inform Series dataset and (Tappan regional and others, 2016) decision makers. promote is toAll Westthe awareness Africa LULC of products landscape are and available land to the resource public for changes download trends, and andcharge at no from inform to the national project and regional website at decision makers. All West Africa LULC products are available to the https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica. MAP 1.10 Land Use Change in West Africa, 1975 – 2013 public for download at no charge from the project website at https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica. 1975 1975 EXPLANATION EXPLANATION Land Land use use land land cover cover (LULC) (LULC) class class Forest Forest Degraded forest Degraded forest Gallery forest and riparian forest Gallery forest and riparian forest Woodland Woodland Swamp Forest Swamp Forest Mangrove Mangrove Plantation Thicket Plantation Mauritania 2000 Mali Sandy area Thicket Senegal Mauritania Niger 2000 Savanna Mali Sandy area Gambia Niger Sahelian short grass savanna Senegal Guinea Burkina Faso Savanna Bissau Herbaceous savanna Gambia Guinea Sahelian short grass savanna Shrubland Guinea Benin Nigeria Sierra Burkina Faso SteppeHerbaceous savanna Bissau Leone Togo Guinea Côte d'Ivoire Ghana Liberia Benin Nigeria Shrubland Wetland—flood plain Sierra Cabo Verde Leone Water bodies Côte d'Ivoire Ghana Togo Steppe Bowe Liberia Wetland—flood plain Cabo Verde Agriculture 2013 Water bodies Agriculture in shallows and recession Bowe Cropland and fallow with oil plams Agriculture 2013 Irrigated agriculture 77 Agriculture in shallows and recession Rocky land Cropland and fallow with oil plams Bare soil Settlements Irrigated agriculture Open mine Cabo Verde Rocky land Bare soil Base from U.S. Geological Survey Global 0 375 750 1,500 KILOMETERS Figure 1. The West Africa Land Use Land Cover Settlements Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation Data, 2010 (GMTED 2010) Time Series dataset maps. These baseline maps Open mine Cabo Verde 0 200 400 800 MILES at a 2-kilometer resolution provide a complete and Mauritania highly accurate record of the LULC for three time Mali Source: Cotillon 2017 The Niger periods (Tappan and others, 2016). Base from U.S. Gambia Senegal Geological Survey Global Chad 0 375 750 Figure 1. The West Africa Land Use Land Cover 1,500 KILOMETERS BurkinaFaso Multi-resolution Terrain Elevation Data, 2010 (GMTED 2010) Guinea Guinea Benin Nigeria Time Series dataset maps. These baseline maps Widespread soil erosion causing 0declining Bissau Sierra Côte Liberia d'Ivoire Ghana 200 400 water 800 MILES and wind, ator unsustainable resolution agricultural a 2-kilometer provide a complete and Leone levels of soil fertility Mauritania Mali is a major threat to WestTogo highly accurate record activities such as intensive tillage. Soilof the LULC for three time erosion The Niger periods (Tappan and others, 2016). Africa’s food security Gambia Senegal BurkinaFaso and a key production Chad is accelerated by the region’s demography- Department of the Interior U.S. Guinea Fact Sheet 2017–3004 constraint. Bissau Falling Guinea U.S. Geological Survey Côte soil Nigeria Benin fertility is frequently driven land use changes such as rapid February 2017 Sierra Liberia d'Ivoire Ghana considered Leone to be the single-most Togo critical factor expansion of agricultural land, reduced length threatening food security in Sub-Saharan Africa. of fallow periods, and the increased use of Nearly 90 percent of rangelands and 80 percent firewood. Unless sustainable land management U.S. Department of the Interior Fact Sheet 2017–3004 farmlands of U.S. Geological Survey in the West African Sahel are practices are deployed at a much larger scale February 2017 seriously affected by land degradation of which than is presently the case, both the projected soil erosion is a major contributor. Senegal, intensification of agricultural activities and the Ghana, Mauritania, Nigeria, Niger are among anticipated rise in extreme weather events are the countries most heavily impacted on the expected to further aggravate soil erosion (FAO continent. Soil erosion in the region is mainly 2015). caused by deforestation, removal of topsoil by A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Stagnant Productivity A gricultural productivity varies given level of agricultural inputs. The growth considerably across West African rate of agricultural TFP varies strongly for West countries. The measure of agricultural African countries over time (figure 1.11). In the Total Factor Productivity (TFP) can be used recent period 2011–15, Burkina Faso, Cabo to determine how efficiently the totality of Verde, Chad, The Gambia, Niger, and Senegal agricultural inputs (for example, land, labor, have exhibited negative agricultural TFP capital, and material) are used to produce growth rates. Over the time span, both Sierra agricultural output. It is measured as the ratio Leone and Benin have shown more positive of total agriculture output to total production trends with more than 3 percent of agricultural inputs (IFPRI 2019). Thus, positive TFP growth TFP growth, respectively. implies that more output is produced from a FIGURE 1.11 Agricultural Total Factor Productivity (TFP) Growth Rates for West African Countries 6 4 Growth in TFP (%) 78 2 2001-2010 0 2011-2015 -2 -4 Gambia Guinea Mali Guinea-Bissau Nigeria Ghana Burkina Faso Cabo Verde Chad Liberia Senegal Benin Niger Sierra Leone Cote d’Ivoire Mauritania Source: based on IFPRI 2019 Agricultural land productivity in ECOWAS as the ratio of total output to the number of countries ranks lowest among African economically active persons in the agriculture economic regions. Unlike TFP, partial factor sector. PFP measures typically show larger productivity (PFP) measures such as land growth rates than TFP. Growth in output per and labor productivity allow for comparisons worker and output per hectare can result from of productivity related to these specific more intensive use of other inputs such as production factors. Land productivity is fertilizers, while TFP nets out an increase in these calculated as the ratio of total output to total inputs (Fuglie and Nin-Pratt, 2013). Compared area under cultivation and labor productivity with other African economic areas, only the Southern African Development Community (figure 1.12). ECOWAS, however, lags behind (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern all other economic areas on the continent in and Southern Africa (COMESA) show higher terms of land productivity. levels of labor productivity than ECOWAS FIGURE 1.12 Land and Labor Productivity for ECOWAS and Other Economic Regions, 2015 2,500 2,000 US$ (constant 2004-2006) 1,500 1,000 Land Productivity Labor Productivity 500 0 ECOWAS ECCAS EAC SADC COMESA Source: based on IFPRI 2019 79 Agricultural productivity remains low for production (Mutegi and Zingore 2014). For reasons such as poor agricultural practices, example, cereal yields in West Africa average lack of modern inputs, and limited market between 1 and 2 MT/ha compared with 7 and 9 access. In addition to low soil fertility, another MT/ha for wheat and maize in Western Europe crucial limiting factor is water availability (OECD/SWAC 2013). In the case of cassava, a with over 90 percent of agriculture in West major food staple in the region, smallholder Africa depending on rainfall alone. Soil farmers’ yields vary between 5 and 10 t/ha cultivation techniques are still far behind on average. Better growing conditions and what has been adopted in most of the world. improved seeds have led to significantly higher Agricultural productivity also is inhibited by yields reaching up to 35 t/ha (Adiele et al. 2020). underdeveloped linkages between farmers The low productivity levels of agriculture in and markets, limited access to affordable West Africa do not meet the growing demand and reliable high quality seeds and fertilizer, for food from urban centers and the region is and a lack of information on new agricultural increasingly dependent on food imports. technologies and best practices. As a result, the region has experienced some of the lowest per hectare crop yields in the world. Across Sub- Saharan Africa, yields of most important cereals still reach only 25 percent or less of potential, contributing to declining per capita food A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Worsening Food Insecurity and Nutrition Outcomes F ood insecurity has recently worsened Since 2010, malnutrition trends in West after improving for several years. Africa are worsening again (table 1.6). The prevalence of undernourishment Nigeria, with half of West Africa’s population, (PoU) is an estimate of the percentage of the has faced deteriorating commodity prices while population whose habitual food consumption Niger has faced population displacements is insufficient to provide the dietary energy and civil insecurity. In Mauritania, local levels required to maintain a normal active and food supplies are stretched by the influx of healthy life. Undernourishment in West Africa refugees, while Guinea has suffered localized exhibits the highest rise in Sub-Saharan Africa. production shortfalls as it recovered from the The prevalence of undernourished people in EVD. Food security in Nigeria has worsened by a West Africa has increased from 10.4 percent in depreciating currency, leading to high inflation, 2012 to 15.2 percent in 2019. In 2019, 12 million also reflected in food prices, especially rice, people in West Africa and the Sahel comprising rising sharply in the second half of 2016 (FAO 15 countries were in crisis or worse (CH Phase and ECA 2018). In addition, in northeastern 3 or above). The highest numbers were in Nigeria, civil conflict has left millions in need northern Nigeria (5.0 million), Cameroon (1.4 of urgent assistance. Based on the Cadre million), Niger (1.4 million), and Burkina Faso Harmonisé (CH) analysis of March 2018, 2.9 (1.2 million). Around 48 million are “stressed” million people were deemed severely food (CH Phase 2) with minimally adequate food insecure during the 2018 lean season (June 80 consumption; they are unable to afford some to August), although the situation improved essential non-food items without resorting to in 2017 (FAO and ECA 2018). While Ghana and harmful coping strategies. They were likely to Cabo Verde have relatively low prevalence of slip into a higher phase of acute food insecurity hunger and malnutrition, 12 percent of the if they faced an additional shock or stressor total ECOWAS population is undernourished (FSIN and GNAFC 2020). and there are alarmingly high figures for the Sahelian zone. TABLE 1.6 Undernourishment in Africa and West Africa, 2005–19 Prevalence (%) Number (million) 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019 2005 2010 2015 2017 2019 Africa 21.0 18.9 18.3 18.6 19.1 192.6 196.1 216.9 231.7 250.3 West Africa 13.8 12.1 14.3 14.6 15.2 36.9 37.0 50.3 54.2 59.4 Source: based on FAO 2020a Many different types of risks and shocks percent higher than in 2018, when pastoralist lead to food insecurity, and it is prevalent areas faced prolonged dry spells compounded in diverse types of households. The growing by conflict and insecurity. Recurrent shocks, intensity and severity of extreme weather events such as localized deficits in cereal and forage contributed to the increased number of people production arising from drought or floods, in food crises in 2019 relative to 2018. The level have eroded people’s coping capacities. Food of acute food insecurity in the Sahel was 3 insecurity has historically been most common in rural areas. Yet in low-income countries, 50 Children are defined as stunted if their height- percent of urban residents are food insecure for-age is more than two standard deviations compared with 43 percent in rural areas (FAO’s below the WHO Child Growth Standards Food Insecurity Experience Scale) (Tefft et al. median (WHO 2014). While between 2000 2017). and 2019, overall prevalence of malnutrition declined both on the African continent and the Stunting is the impaired growth and subregion of West Africa, the absolute number development that children experience of stunted children increased over the same from poor nutrition, repeated infection, period (table 1.7). In 2019, the prevalence of and inadequate psychosocial stimulation. stunting amounted to 27.7 percent in West Stunting in children under age five captures the Africa, which is slightly below levels recorded effects of long-term deprivation and disease at the continental level. that often starts with maternal malnutrition. TABLE 1.7 Prevalence and Number of Stunted Children under the Age of Five in Africa and West Africa, 2000–19 Prevalence (%) Number (million) 2000 2019 2000 2019 Africa 37.9 29.1 49.7 57.5 West Africa 36.6 27.7 14.8 17.8 Source: based on UNICEF, WHO and WB 2020 81 In West Africa, 25 percent of adults are Niger, and Togo, while rates are similar for men overweight (17.6 percent) or obese (7.6 in rural and urban areas. These results differ percent); incidence is higher in urban than from global trends that show that body-mass rural areas and coexists with high rates of index is increasing equally in urban and rural undernutrition. As elsewhere in the world, areas (Jonas et al. 2019). The rising prevalence this situation reflects rapid shifts in diet and of overweight and obesity in the region, and activity that take place as certain segments increases in diabetes, hypertension, and other of the population become more prosperous noncommunicable disease parallel trends (van Wesenbeeck 2018). Obesity in West Africa in other parts of the world. They are strongly is most pronounced among women in urban affected by changing consumption patterns areas, particularly in Burkina Faso, Ghana, discussed below. High Level of Food Prices, High Sensitivity to Prices, and Market Volatility H igh and volatile food prices contribute 40 percent higher than in the rest of the world to widespread food and nutrition at comparable levels of per capita income insecurity by reducing purchasing (Allen 2017). Strong fluctuations in production, power of large population segments. Food combined with weak spatial market integration prices in Sub-Saharan Africa are 30 percent to and low volumes of marketed output, contribute A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas to high seasonal and interannual price volatility lack of access to improved risk-management (see figure 1.13). Risks driving food price volatility products and services by producers and other include uncertain availability, timeliness, and food supply chain actors. Higher food prices quality of inputs, advisory services, and finance. and strong food price volatility have a negative Combined, these risks and uncertainties act as impact on purchasing power and result in a strong disincentives for producers to invest in welfare loss for households. Given the strong productivity-enhancing technologies. They also reliance on food markets and the subsequent discourage other private actors from investing exposure and sensitivity to food prices, access in input supply, support services, marketing, to food and food prices are strong determinants and processing and other food businesses. of food insecurity. The situation is compounded by the general FIGURE 1.13 Price Trends for Selected Food Staples in West Africa, 1995-2020 Maize Millet Sorghum 4 Rice .5 3 Price in US$/kg Price in US$/kg .4 .3 1 .2 .1 0 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 82 Average price change over 5 years Average price change over 5 years Maize Millet Sorghum .2 .3 .15 .2 .1 .1 .05 0 0 -.1 -.05 -.2 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Source: based on WFP-VAM 2020 and IMF 2020 Price spikes are common when the multitude volatility appears to be lower for processed and of agroclimatic, socioeconomic, security, tradable food than for non-tradable food; prices and zoonotic shocks affect countries in vary more in secondary cities than major ones; the region. Erratic government interventions and maize price volatility is actually higher in and spillovers of international price volatility countries with the most active intervention to further complicate the picture. The sharp stabilize maize prices (Minot 2013). Favorable price increase of imported rice in 2008 can be conditions for regional and international trade explained by export restrictions in Asian rice can arguably contribute to reducing food price producing countries in the wake of the global volatility more effectively than traditional price 2008 food price crisis. Ad hoc policy decisions stabilization efforts, e.g., through allowing food and reversals create an uncertain and risky trade flows from areas with surplus production business environment for market actors. Price to areas with production deficits. Evolving Food Demand and Related Opportunities A griculture is an engine for growth largest changes occurred in countries with and poverty alleviation in West Africa the most robust economic growth, such as and the wider continent. Africa as Cabo Verde and Ghana. Budget-consumption a whole has experienced faster agricultural studies reveal that urbanization and per capita growth (+4.6 percent from 2000–17) than the income growth are pushing demand strongly global average over the same period (+2.9 toward perishables and products that are percent). There is further headroom as African more convenient to prepare and consume. In agriculture could be two to three times more the next decades, there is is high projected productive if it intensified further (Goedde et demand growth for animal-based products, al. 2019). Increases in agricultural productivity fruits and vegetables, and vegetable oil (Zhou have twice as much impact on reductions of and Straatz 2016). extreme poverty than productivity gains in other sectors (Ivanic and Martin 2018). In relative terms, imbalances between domestic production and demand will Despite this strong output growth, increase more quickly for foods with high agricultural production in West Africa income-elasticities of demand, such as has not kept pace with demand growth meat, dairy products, seafood, fruits and and shifts in consumer preferences. This is vegetables and vegetable oils. Yet as income particularly pronounced with respect to many elasticities of demand across urban and food staples such as rice, livestock products, rural areas are similar and high overall, rising 83 and processed products. Productivity growth consumption of perishable foodstuffs and has been inconsistent and slow compared diversification are essentially due to income with other regions. As a result, West Africa’s growth in cities. Depending on the commodity, competitiveness has been declining for many urban demand will grow two to four times faster tradable agricultural products. This is evident than rural demand, putting increased pressure by its growing food imports and the region’s on already stressed urban food marketing declining share in several of its traditional systems. and substantial intraregional variation export markets. in supply and demand gaps suggest that fluid regional trade could help individual Feeding urban populations has always been countries cope with these challenges (Zhou a major political priority of governments and Straatz 2016). The evolving pattern of food in the region. This task is becoming harder as consumption implies that a clear understanding food preferences and consumption patterns of the nature and dynamics of consumption is are rapidly changing. Between 1980 and 2009, critical to designing demand-driven policies per capita availability of calories, protein, and (Hollinger et al. 2015). fat increased, in some cases dramatically, in almost all of the 15 member states of In urban areas, there is higher demand for ECOWAS. Diets diversified to a wider range of convenience and a greater consumption of starchy staples, fruits, vegetables, and animal packaged, processed, and ultra-processed products. Improvements in grain processing food, meals that are more frequent, have increased the willingness of consumers snacking, and a greater percentage of to substitute milled coarse grains, such as meals eaten outside the home. These maize, millet, and sorghum, for rice during changes in demand and consumption result periods of price increases for the latter. The from greater disposable income, a youthful A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas population, changing lifestyles, exposure to While income level affects overall consumer digital media, and new consumer preferences. demand for food, purchasing choices are There is convincing evidence that globalization influenced by taste, price, convenience, and is shaping diets, leading to dramatic increases consumer perception of and trust in product in the supply, availability, advertising, and quality. This involves notions of safety, promotion of high-calorie, nutrient-poor foods appearance, cleanliness, and freshness. In (especially processed food) in many countries middle- and higher-income segments of the (Hawkes, Chopra, and Friel 2009). It is equally market and among those who use digital due to the spatial concentration of consumers media, greater importance is given to a set in cities who are further away from production of value- and aspirational-driven preferences, areas, which increases the need to process including health and wellness, social impact, foods for more convenient transportation and animal welfare, and shopping experience (Tefft storage. et al. 2017). An Agribusiness Sector in Transformation T aking advantage of opportunities and safety issues need to be addressed as part related to changes in food demand of agribusiness expansion. requires a transformation across the agricultural sector, with strong Growth in the agribusiness sector will have 84 implications for agribusiness across value strong positive effects on employment, chains, spanning production, processing, expanding jobs for women, and creating storage, transport, and marketing. With new jobs in both rural and urban areas. income growth and urbanization leading The food economy comprising all parts of to the commercialization of agriculture, the the food value chain is the largest employer shares of downstream agribusiness activities in West Africa, accounting for 66 percent of are growing rapidly (Africa Investment Forum total employment. Of this total, 75 percent is 2018). There are many dimensions to reshaping in direct agricultural production; 15 percent the agribusiness sector to increase efficiencies in food marketing and services (transport, and reduce waste, while also securing strong logistics, retail, and wholesale), and 5 percent employment benefits. The expansion of mobile in food processing. The food economy is critical technologies is shaping how the sector can for West African women; 68 percent of all respond quickly in numerous ways, such as employed women in West Africa work in the by improving logistics coordination, reducing food economy, representing 88 percent of those information asymmetries for farmers, or employed in food service catering businesses improving storage with Internet of Things (IoT) (that is, food away from home), 83 percent in technologies. Agribusiness expansion in food food processing, and 72 percent in marketing. value chains and improving food safety will Food economy jobs currently account for 35 need to be mainly private sector driven but percent of employment in urban areas, while accompanied by a strengthening of related 31 percent of total non-farm employment in public functions and regulatory frameworks. West Africa is related to food processing and For example, the problems related to aflatoxins service jobs. The potential for agribusiness in rice, noted earlier, leads to estimated export growth is demonstrated by Senegal, where losses of €400 and €600 million a year (Okoth food processing is the largest manufacturing 2016). These and other food storage, processing, sector (68 percent) and growing by 7.4 percent per annum (2000–10). In Côte d’Ivoire, food contributor to formal employment (14 percent) processing is the largest contributor to formal (Allen et al. 2018). sector value added and the second largest 1.6 Impacts and Implications of COVID-19 on West African Food System T riggering a worldwide health and term deterioration of vulnerable livelihoods economic crisis, the COVID-19 (SWAC/OECD 2020a). During the lean season pandemic is the most recent shock from June to August 2020, 17 million people affecting the West African food system. In were acutely food insecure - 5 million people late February 2020, the first COVID-19 case more than the 5-year average of 12 million was confirmed in Nigeria and within one people. In the period from March to May 2021, month the virus spread to all West African 19.6 million people (7.3 % of the population countries (SAWC/OECD 2020c). The evolution analysed) required immediate food assistance, of COVID-19 cases in West Africa has remained as shown in Map 1.11 (below). The situation is far below early predictions even when unlikely to improve in the near term. Without considering limited testing capacities and appropriate countermeasures, the number limited data quality. Despite comparatively low of people facing acute food insecurity is 85 infection and mortality rates, the pandemic projected to reach a new record high of 27 has severely affected the West African food million (9.1% of the population analysed) system and will likely continue to do so during the upcoming lean season from June (SWAC/OECD 2020a). This section outlines the to August 2021 (CILSS and RPCA 2021). impacts of the pandemic on food security, as well as its economic and social consequences From March 2020 onwards, West African in the region. governments imposed public health measures to contain the spread of COVID-19. West Africa faces an unprecedented food Governments in West Africa have imposed and nutrition security situation due to the movement restrictions and social distancing cumulative effects of a health, economic, measures from March 2020 onwards to and security crisis. In April 2020, members prevent the spread of the virus. International of the Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA) borders were closed, and domestic movement estimated that the combined effects of these was limited to a minimal level by imposing crises might push 50 million people who are curfews, lockdowns and market closures. classified as food-stressed (Phase 2) into a From May 2020 onwards, governments food and nutrition crisis (Phase 3). To date, started easing restrictive measures including comparatively low infection and mortality through extending curfew hours and partially rates as well as an effective rollout of social suspending lockdowns. As of August 2020, safety net programs have prevented such a governments had lifted most measures, steep rise in food insecurity. Nevertheless, including curfews (except in Chad, Sierra the COVID-19-induced health and economic Leone, and Togo), lockdowns (except in Togo crisis has adversely affected regional food and and Nigeria) and states of emergency (except nutrition security and will likely cause a long- in Niger, Togo, Chad and Sierra Leone) (CILSS A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas DE L’OUEST : SITUATION DE LA SÉCURITÉ ALIMENTAIRE ET NUTRITIONNELLE MAP 1.11 Food and Nutrition Situation in West Africa, Spring 2021 and lean season 2021 Situation courante : Mars-Mai 2021   Situation projetée : Juin-Août 2021 uation projetée : n-Août 2021 27 millions de personnes soit 9.1 % de la population analysée en situation de crise ou pire (phases 3-5) ahélienne et ouest-africaine 19.6 millions de personnes ases 3-5). Ce chiffre pourrait s (y compris 1.9 en urgence) géria, 2.9 millions au Burkina u Tchad, 1.8 million en Sierra million au Libéria. ujours une préoccupation u Liptako Gourma (zone des so et le Mali), au Nord-Est, au eria (Borno, Adamawa, Yobé, Situation courante : Mars-Mai 2021 Situation projetée : Juin-Août 2021 tat du Niger). Phase 1 202.2 millions de personnes erre et aux autres moyens 19.6 millions Phase 1 197 millions de personnes Légende 27 millions de personnes Phase 2 51 millions de personnes de personnes Phase 2 67 millions de personnes e des moyens d’existence Phase 1 : minimale Phase 5 : famine troupeaux, la destruction Phase 3 18 millions de personnes Phase 2 : sous pression Non analysé Phase 3 25 millions de personnes entre de santé…) et des = 7.3 % de la population = 9.1 % de la population Phase 4 1 million de personnes Phase 3 : crise Zones partiellement analysée risque d’être en Phase 4 1.9 million de personnes ons. Les déplacés internes analysée sont en situation de crise ou pire inaccessibles situation de crise ou pire Phase 5 aucune s dont 3 millions au Nigeria, Phase 5 aucune Phase 4 : urgence had, 381 000 au Niger et 340 (phases 3-5) (phases 3-5) Facteurs déterminants Situation courante : Mars-Mai 2021 alimentaire et nutritionnelle Source: CILSS and RPCA 2021, based on Cadre harmonisé analysis, regional concertation meeting, Ouagdougou, Burkina Faso, March 2021; maps: © CILSS. disponibilité alimentaire 0,4% de la campagne 2020-2021. 6,9% 6,9% 0,4% e satisfaisant en lien avec la Les prix alimentaires restent Recommandations quinquennale dans toute la Insécurité civile Inflation 19,1% 19,1% Actions urgentes : Fragilisant les moyens d’existence des ► Assister les 27 millions de personnes en insécurité alimentaire et nutritionnelle en and RPCA 2020). Baisse du pouvoir d’achat populations et notamment dans les zones du des populations en lien The measures have helped as de assistance, phase well as crise ou pire danstechnical and tous les pays afin d’éviter financial l’érosion totale des moyens 268M lac Tchad et du Liptako-Gourma ainsi qu’au d’existence et sauver les vies humaines; to contain the pandemic but contributed to avec la détérioration du taux de change des centre et au nord du Mali. emergency 73,6% support. 73,6% Renforcer ► In de close les capacités de résilience cooperation près de 67.2 millions de personnes en phase « lyses nationales qui se sont monnaies locales en sous pression » dans tous les pays pour protéger leurs moyens d’existence ; 86 tilisant le nouveau support nisé. L’absence de données increasing Sierra Leone, au Libéria, au Nigéria, au Ghana et food insecurity in West Africa. with CILSS Sécuriser and UEMOA, et faciliter les mouvements de transhumance et le dialogue entre les pays ► ECOWAS launched Bénin et au Cap Vert, dans en Guinée. Situation projetée : Juin-Août 2021a Regional Task Force to monitor COVID-19 pour favoriser l’accès aux ressources pastorales ; dans deux Etats au Nigéria Nombre élevé de déplacés internes compte dans les analyses ► Poursuivre et renforcer les actions de prévention et de prise en charge de la malnutrition (PDIs) au Nigeria, au Burkina Faso, au Tchad es de sécurité alimentaire ation alimentaire, score de Governments et au Mali. as well as regional 8,5% and 0,6% impacts and 8,5% 0,6% support decision-making in dans les zones à travers des plans de réponses actualisés. e réduit des stratégies de Pour renforcer le dispositif de veille et de suivi : s), des analyses d’économie onnelles (MAG- P/T ou PB) international organisations implemented member states.Organiser une In au Libéria; missionBurkina conjointe de suivi de Faso, ► Mali, la situation alimentaire Niger en Sierra Leone et M). Les analyses nationales s par le Comité technique measures Dysfonctionnement des marchés to mitigate COVID-19 22,7% impacts 22,7% and Nigeria, ECOWAS ► provided humanitarian Appuyer les dispositifs de collecte des données intégrées de sécurité alimentaire et ougou, 22-31 mars 2021). Les échanges nutrition au Bénin, en Côte d’Ivoire, au Cabo Verde, au Ghana, au Libéria et en Sierra CILSS avec l’appui de ses EC-JRC, FAO, FEWS NET, FICR, and commerciauxsecure sont fortement perturbés Lathe pandémiefood Maladies et épidémies de la COVID-19 continue nutrition security and 296M assistance 68,2% by Leone ; 68,2% mobilising the Regional Food à impacter négativement les moyens ► of the West Africa population. West African Security Reserve (see also section 2.3) (SWAC/ Unifec). par l’insécurité et Renforcer les initiatives en cours pour l’analyse genre dans le cycle du cadre harmonisé d’existence des populations pauvres et très au niveau national et régional à travers une prise en compte dans la collecte des les déplacements pauvres limitant jusqu’ici les opportinutés données SAN des indicateurs sur le genre; internes dans les zones countries affectées. launched public d’activités génératrices de revenus. programs to i) Partenaires financiers OECD 2020a). Despite these efforts to reduce supportClub the most vulnerable parts of their Secrétariat du DU SAHEL ET DE L'AFRIQUE DE L'OUEST COVID-19 food security impacts, the pandemic Communication CILSS /CRA populations, ii) ensure the functioning of affected the food system from farm to fork the food system and iii) secure agricultural by creating both demand shocks and supply production. For example, Burkina Faso, Cabo constraints. Verde, Chad, Mali, Niger and Senegal have established national response plans with a To date, COVID-19 impacts on primary total volume of CFA 400 billion (around USD production have largely remained limited 740 million). Both regional and international as farmers in rural areas could, in many organizations including AU, ECOWAS, UEMOA, cases, continue business-as-usual without the Central Bank of West African States major disruptions. While in some areas, (BCEAO), the West African Development Bank mobility restrictions reduced productivity (BOAD), West African Health Organization of farmers by lowering the availability of (WAHO), the European Union (EU), FAO, UN, agricultural labor and agricultural inputs such the World Food Program (WFP), AfDB, IFAD, as seeds and fertilizers, overall harvests proved the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and to be decent (despite severe flooding in some the World Bank have provided humanitarian areas as described in section 1.4). Estimates for aggregate cereal output across West Africa Supply disruptions caused by restrictive during the 2020-2021 agro-pastoral campaign measures to halt propagation of COVID-19 ranges from 71 million tons (FAO 2020f ) to triggered food price increases particularly 74.4 million tons (SWAC/OECD 2020b), which during the first months of the pandemic. is 4% to 9% higher than the previous five-year In April 2020, a decline in food availability average. Thus, overall agricultural production led to rising food prices in Ghana, Mauritania, trends at the regional level cannot explain the Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. observed rise in food insecurity. Pastoralists Transportation problems for both imported and livestock herders, however, were affected and domestic food products have contributed to a larger extent than farmers as movement to higher food prices in Chad, Ghana, restrictions limited their ability to access Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Sierra grazing grounds (see Table 1.3). In the Leone. From September to October 2020, conflict-affected areas in Mali, Burkina Faso, cereal food prices remained above average Niger, Nigeria and Chad continues, insecurity in most West African countries, although continues to affect agricultural production to differing degrees. While cereal prices due to reduced access to cropland. remained almost flat in Mali and Mauritania, they increased by 50 percent compared to the Consumers’ financial access to sufficient, 5-year average in Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra safe, and nutritious food was reduced due Leone. According to CILSS data, 9out of 17 to COVID-19-induced income shortages West African countries experienced cereal and rising unemployment. On an individual price increases above 10 percent compared to level, food insecurity is often not due to a the 5-year average (SWAC/OECD 2020a). lack of food availability but due to a lack of 87 financial access to food (Sen 1983). COVID-19 In 2020, West African food trade was under and the restrictive measures taken to contain strain as COVID-19-related containment its spread, lead to income losses, e.g., through measures have reduced the availability unemployment, reducing consumers’ ability of food on domestic markets. Despite the to pay for (high quality and nutritious) food. trade of food products being excluded from In a household survey implemented by WFP, restrictions, containment measures have ECOWAS, CERFAM and ECA in May and June disrupted trading across West Africa and 2020, 90 percent of households reported that lowered volumes of informal trade, especially restriction measures have had a negative in the first months of the pandemic. Mobility impact on their income. Due to the relatively restrictions complicated the transportation of high percentage (55 percent on average) West agricultural outputs, with perishable products African consumers spend on food products, being particularly affected. This led in some pandemic-induced income losses negatively cases to food loss and waste (IFPRI 2020b). affected dietary choices. 60 percent of the West African traders of perishable products households interviewed resorted to coping and livestock are reported to have losses of 10 strategies such as eating less preferred foods, to 30 percent due to disrupted transportation skipping meals or eating less than usual, and illegal tax collection at checkpoints (Ross or spending a whole day without eating 2020). Transportation problems for imported (ECOWAS, WFP and UNECA 2020). The gradual food items and some domestic food products repeal of measures from May 2020 onwards lead to difficulties in supplying food to has led to a timid resumption of income- domestic markets, particularly in Chad, Ghana, generating activities, especially for poor Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and households (CILSS and RPCA 2020). Sierra Leone, particularly affecting the food A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas availability of urban consumers. In most West free cereal distribution, subsidised cereal African countries, traditional urban food retail prices and cash transfers (SWAC/OECD 2020a). markets were closed by governments for a limited time and reopened under strict health As a result of the pandemic and the ensuing security measures to ensure food availability economic crisis, the number of people living in urban areas. As of August 2020, internal in extreme poverty is expected to increase and external trade of food was improving significantly. The West African economy was due to the continued relaxation of COVID-19 expected to expand by 4 percent in 2020 but restrictions. Most food markets are operating is now projected to contract by −2 percent in again with adequate supply to meet demand 2020 (AfDB 2020). Rising unemployment in at below-average levels. In some regions, both the formal and informal sector will lead however, markets remain disrupted, mostly to a loss of income and reduced purchasing due to persising insecurity (CILSS and RPCA power for households. Worldwide extreme 2020). poverty, defined as people living under the poverty line of US$1.90 per day, is expected to COVID-19-related lockdown measures rise with estimated ranging from an additional disproportionately affect the food and 119 to 124 million people in 2020 of which 32 nutrition security of the poor. The poor to 34 million live in Sub-Saharan Africa (Mahler are most affected by income losses and et al. 2021). The expected increase in poverty unemployment due to COVID-19 measures rates is likely to have a negative effect on food as their principal productive asset, (physical) insecurity in the long-term. labor, is most affected by mobility restrictions 88 and measures to control the pandemic’s COVID-19 impacts have varied across spread. As most of the poor work in the informal different food subsystems. Table 1.9 sector, the closure of informal markets and summarizes COVID-19 impacts on the five food stands cause significant income losses food systems 18 as of June 2020. for vulnerable households. The same is true for mobility restrictions, which stop migrant workers from accessing their workplaces. As the poor generally spend a higher share or their income on food, their financial access to food is particularly vulnerable to income decreases. Furthermore, food security for the poor depends to a large extent on public support programs such as school feeding programs, which are common in West Africa (see section 1.4). In 2020, more than 20 million children were missing out on school meals due to school closures (SWAC/OECD 2020a). Due to the high vulnerability of the poorest population segments, many countries and regional and international organisations provided direct support including through 18 The study on Covid-19 impacts on the five food subsystems was led by de Steenhuijsen Peters et al. (2021) and supported by the World Bank. TABLE 1.8 COVID-19 Impacts on Different Food Subsystems Impacts of COVID-19 Agropastoralism-based food system • Pastoralists are dangerously affected by the preventive measures taken by the various governments of West Africa against the COVID-19 pandemic. The movement restrictions jeopardize the possibilities of providing feed and water to the herds with a direct effect on the productivity of the system, both in terms of traded meat and secondary milk. This results in an accumulation of animals in specific grazing areas and close to borders, inducing health risks both for humans and their animals. Thereby, the pandemic puts extra pressure on local natural resources, hampering the future production of these areas. To cope, farmers invest in animal feed and reduce the number of animals. A vast majority of households are put in a precarious situation by the COVID-19 crisis with an estimation of 81 percent vulnerable (agro)pastoralist households (daily income under US$1.90 per person per day; sample of eight countries and 1,935 households) (bulletin de veille APESS May 2020). To cope with the situation, individuals (61 percent men and 45 percent women) complement their incomes with non-farm jobs. In a context of current and potential conflict, tensions are rising between herders and between herders and farmers. Mixed grains and legumes-based food system • In the mixed grains and legumes-based food system in the Sudano-Sahelian zone, the 2020 off-season crops are expected to reach markets and provide substantial income to farmers. However, the closure of borders and the restriction of internal and cross-border movements may limit people’s access to markets (WFP 2020). The planting period extends between May–June 2020 for the 2020–21 agricultural season, while at the same time the COVID-19 pandemic forces governments to reduce agricultural spending and prioritize spending related to health. • In Burkina Faso and Mali, COVID-19-related restrictions, including closing down markets and evening curfew, 89 have been related to decreasing household incomes in two ways: earnings from casual work and incomes from the sale of agricultural products decreased (WFP 2020). The restrictions have led to a drop in demand for cash crops such as cowpeas and peanuts, which are usually exported to Mali, Togo, and Benin. This drop in demand has, in the short term, led to a slight decrease in price and therefore a decrease in household income. Rice and horticulture food system • There has only been a limited impact on the production of rice and vegetables. However, supply chains for farming inputs are directly impacted by COVID-19-related trade restrictions as shipments and trucks get stuck due to closed borders and health checks. This is especially problematic for countries that are largely depending on external markets for seeds, fertilizers, and the import of rice. • The Gambia, Ghana, and Senegal have rice self-sufficiency ratios of 60 percent or less due to COVID-19 impacts. Price shocks will therefore be more severe for these countries as they are still largely dependent on Asian exports to meet the gaps between production and consumption. Coastal maritime fisheries-based food system • Globally, fisheries activities declined during the COVID-19 crisis because of restrictions on people’s movement, curfews, and a ban of fisheries in some countries and because of closure of markets (FAO 2020e). The recommendations to prevent COVID-19 (for example, face masks, physical distancing) have been difficult to apply on fishing vessels and markets. • Negative impacts are felt by households that are dependent on artisanal fisheries, who are less resilient and have little financial buffers to bridge a period with reduced or no income. Industrial fisheries have been similarly affected and reduced their activities. A positive outcome of this decline in fishing pressure is a potential recovery of some over-exploited resources. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Tropical mixed tree and food crop food systems • Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire together represent over 60 percent of the total world cocoa production. In case COVID-19 further emerges in these countries and forces the national governments to upscale the measures (for example, stricter curfews or lockdown of ports), the cocoa production might be harmed by these measures, which could cause shortages on international markets (CBI 2020a). • Tree and food crops that are sold on domestic markets could face challenges in transportation. The transportation of crops from the producing to consuming regions could be made difficult by travel bans, lockdowns, and curfews. Due to West African high dependency on the export of rice from some of its major on global food markets, its food system suppliers (India, Vietnam, and Cambodia) were is particularly vulnerable to the risk of particularly worrisome and impacted prices international supply chain disruptions in some countries (Clingendael 2020). Overall, and rising costs of trade. Covid-19 food global supply chain disruptions have been mitigation measures have imposed shocks less extensive than in 2008. However, the risk on all segments of food supply chains on the reveals the systematic vulnerability of West global, regional, and national level and have Africa’s dependency on food imports, especially increased transaction costs for trade (mostly combined with the concentration of supply of due to higher transportation costs caused by key crops by some countries. Countries with border closures, additional inspections, and high levels of food insecurity and volatile 90 reduced hours of operations of check points). export earnings are especially sensitive to the Due to West Africa’s high import dependency effects trade disruptions could have. on imported agricultural inputs and grains (rice and wheat) and animal products (poultry, When dealing with food crises, a few lessons dairy, and fish), it is vulnerable to global supply can be learned. CILSS (2020) highlights that chain disruptions. They can affect the food the global community must ensure that the availability in West Africa and can lead to price immediate food needs of poor and vulnerable increases and raised price volatility and thereby populations are met with food aid programs increased food insecurity in the food importing where lockdowns shut down markets and cash countries. Global supply chain disruptions can transfers when a shock drastically reduced be caused by exporting states restricting trade income opportunities and, in the long term, of agricultural products. The 2007–08 food crisis the support of social safety nets. Moreover, the showed the impact such food export restrictions global trading of food products must continue can have: the crisis, initially triggered by bad so that global food supply chains can keep harvests of wheat and corn, was reinforced running. In the long term, monitoring the food and multiplied by protectionist reactions of production, trade, and consumption trends one-third of the world’s governments. The with the help of local extension services or WB estimates that globally, about 45 percent online surveying technologies can help to of the increase in rice prices and almost 30 reduce negative impacts of shocks as responses percent increase in wheat prices was due can be planned pre-crisis and targeted. to insulating behavior (WB 2011). As of July 2020, only 5 percent of food exports in terms This part summarized the most important of calories were restricted, compared with 19 drivers of the West African food system percent in 2008. For West Africa, the restrictions and their implications for food security. On the demand side, these include fast demographic growth, urbanization, and changing consumption patterns, while climate change and increasing levels of conflict are significant factors affecting food supply. In part due to stagnant yields and weak intraregional trade output, growth was unable to keep pace with growing food demand, leading to rising levels of import dependence. In recent years, food security and nutrition trends have been deteriorating. In 2020, the implications of the COVID-19 outbreak has put additional pressure on the West African food system. Given the convergence of multiple drivers that will increasingly affect the food system, it will be critical to carefully balance immediate preparedness for rapid intervention with enhancing foresight and anticipation capacities that allow to build long-term resilience. The urgent need for increased investments to reverse the pandemic’s adverse food security and economic impacts may provide a unique opportunity for addressing West 91 Africa’s structural food system vulnerabilities in a systematic and strategic way. Part 2 examines three key thematic areas for priority interventions at the regional level that future actions need to target for increasing the food system’s resilience. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 92 T he three priority areas for regional intervention build on the ECOWAS Agricultural Policy (ECOWAP) and were identified in a process led by ECOWAS in consultation with CILSS and 2 CORAF. ECOWAP priorities were adapted PART TWO: to focus on areas (1) where subsidiarity favors interventions at regional level and (2) that correspond to those priorities that are PRIORITY particularly urgent in the current context. The World Bank Africa Strategy Africa: Food INTERVENTION Security under Climate Change 19 provided a useful technical underpinning1. The three selected areas were chosen simultaneously AREAS AT THE with the priorities for the flagship Food System Resilience Program (FSRP) and REGIONAL LEVEL are not exhaustive of the domains where regional initiatives could have and are having positive impact on food system resilience, such as fisheries, forestry, infrastructure, health, social protection, and other agendas The previous part has provided an overview and sectors. Linkages to these agendas were of a selection of key drivers, constraints established throughout. and trends cutting across a broad range of 93 components relevant to West African food The proposed regional priorities are: (1) system, this part focuses on three priority strengthening the sustainability of the areas for regional level intervention. For each food system’s productive base: climate intervention areas, this part provides: smart agriculture (CSA) at farm and landscape level and related approaches; • A stocktake and summary of technical (2) enabling environment for intra- aspects and past experience regional value chain development • A mapping of regional initiatives and trade facilitation; (3) regional risk currently operating in this space management architecture and farmer • Entry points for future interventions decision-support tools (see figure 2.1). based on the stocktake and over 50 The three priorities are mutually supportive. interviews with regional and international For instance, trade generates the market experts incentives farmers rely on to make the • Potential regional flagship initiatives necessary investments to adopt new (RFIs) for further development resilience strengthening technologies. • Proposed technical work to close Both farmers and traders require improved knowledge gaps of the identified RFIs information to reduce risks and maintain the viability of their activities under intensifying climate change. Risk management and related farmer advisory services require quality and frequently updated data from traders to be effective. 19 The strategy’s three pillars are (1) To scale-up CSA across farm and landscape level, (2) to enable private sector to build more efficient value chains at national and regional levels and (3) to create a more effective A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System enabling Resilience inenvironment at all levels West Africa: Regional of the Priority food value Intervention chain, Areas farm to fork. FIGURE 2.1 Priority Areas for Regional Interventions I. Strengthening the Food System’s Productive Base: Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) at Farm and Landscape Level and related approaches Food System Risilience III. II. Regional Risk Enabling Environment Management Architecture for Intra-regional Value and Farmer-Decision Chain Development Support Tools and Trade Facilitation Source: World Bank Regional flagship initiatives (RFIs) are • Regional/subsidiarity: Initiatives best concepts for concrete intervention areas at approached at regional level (economies a regional level to strengthen food system of scale, spillovers, benefits from 94 resilience. They seek to mobilize innovative coordination/harmonization, etc.) and/or action at regional levels in ways that capture of regional relevance. economies of scale, regional spillovers and • Scalability: Going beyond localized foster collective action on common challenges and scattered project impacts towards and opportunities. This report and the set systemic change or with the potential to of RFIs thus do not replace regional sectoral do so. strategies such as ECOWAP/CAADP but rather • Actionability: Aligned with client aim to enhance the latter by offering new ideas. strategy frameworks (in particular the RFIs therefore avoid restating already existing 2016-25 ECOWAS Agricultural Policy programs or interventions and focus on (ECOWAP/CAADP) & ECOWAS Regional influencing initiatives under preparation and Agriculture Investment Plan (RAIP) and on the incubation of potential new initiatives. priorities. Availability of requisite means to achieve objectives (domestic, regional, As a starting point, a longlist containing technical & financial partners). over 30 possible regional flagship initiatives • Immediate urgency: Potential to (RFIs) was compiled based on a review of the positively affect food security outcomes literature by applying the following criteria: of a large number of beneficiaries at 20 The overall objective of the ECOWAS 2025 Strategic Policy Framework is to “contribute in a sustainably way to meeting the food and nutritional needs of the population, economic and social development and poverty reduction in the Member States, and inequalities between territories, zones and countries” (ECOWAS 2017). BOX 2.1 A stakeholder conference contributed to Unpacking Food System Resilience in West Africa The four-day interactive virtual conference “Under the Palaver tree: Unpacking Food System Resilience in West Africa” was hosted by ECOWAS, CILSS and CORAF in cooperation with CGIAR, UEMOA, FAO and the World Bank in July 2020 to inform this work. Evoking the image of the palaver tree, the bilingual, virtual stakeholder conference brought together 400 participants from West African countries, regional bodies, development partners and representatives from the private sector, academia and the civil society and offered them a virtual space to engage in times of travel restrictions and social distancing. The event’s reach was far greater than that of a physical event at comparable cost. The virtual format allowed a high degree of interactivity up to 250 participants at a given moment spending 70% of the time in discussions of groups of 5-15 participants held in up to 20 parallel virtual break-out rooms and documented using online co-working software. The discussions, participants ideas and proposals fed into this reports’ recommendations and the preparation of several emerging regional initiatives including the West Africa Food System Resilience Program (FSRP). Participant feedback on the was overwhelmingly positive and participation strong with an 95 average of 160 people connected throughout all four days. The image links to a short video summarizing the event. regional level in the near term and The prioritization of the identified RFIs for particularly under COVID-19. implementation through regional programs is an ongoing process led by ECOWAS, CILSS This long list was discussed during a four- and CORAF. At the time of writing of this report, day virtual stakeholder event ‘Under several major regional programs are under the palaver tree’ (see box 2.1) and RFIs preparation (see box 2.2) that propose to tackle were prioritized based on the outcomes crucial aspects of food system resilience in of the conferences’ interactive sessions. West Africa. They offer important opportunities Participants’ contributions were captured to implement several of the regional flagship in google slides and inputs subsequently initiatives identified in this report. A non- systematically harvested and synthesized into exhaustive selection: the shortlist presented below. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas BOX 2.2 Regional programs under preparation that offer opportunities to implement RFIs Food System Resilience Program (FSRP): FSRP is a 10-year regional investment program (~US$1.2 bn) under preparation to strengthen food system resilience in West Africa through a strategic regional approach. Under the leadership of ECOWAS, the program will finance investments in three mutually reinforcing components (1) Digital advisory services for agriculture and food crisis prevention & management; (2) Sustainability & adaptive capacity of the food system’s productive base (sustainable land and watershed management, agro-ecological approaches); (3) Market integration & trade (value chain development of regional staple foods), with each component led by a mandated regional institution (AGRHYMET, CORAF, ECOWAS/UEMOA) to ensure coordination and build lasting capacity. At the time of writing, several RFIs or selected aspects thereof are undergoing further development for implementation under FSRP. CGIAR Two Degree Initiative Sahel Grand Challenge: By adopting an R4D approach, the objective of the ‘Sahel’ grand challenge of the CCAFS led ‘two-degree initiative’ is to improve the capacity of agricultural producers, women & youth, and enhance institutional resilience to shocks and vulnerabilities to climate change. This includes increasing producers’ access to climate services and agroecological technologies, sustainable management of productive assets, development of resilient agro-silvo-pastoral value chains linked to youth entrepreneurship, and enhanced governance of land and water resources to prevent and manage conflicts. 96 AICCRA: Implemented by the CIAT-led International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), AICCRA will aim to increase access for agriculture research and extension service providers in Mali, Ghana and Senegal to knowledge, technologies, and decision-making tools relevant to enhancing the resilience of agriculture and food systems in the face of climate change. AICCRA will fill a critical gap by making cutting-edge CGIAR research and innovation available to NARS and other key stakeholders in Africa. PRAPS II: Pastoralists in West Africa rely on unimpeded mobility to move livestock across borders in search of pastures, water and markets. After decades of neglect, the role of pastoral societies in providing sustainable livelihood options and contributing to food security is increasingly acknowledged. The Regional Pastoralism Support Project in the Sahel (PRAPS II will support the objective of the Nouakchott declaration of “securing the lifestyle and means of production of pastoral populations and increasing the gross output of livestock production by at least 30% in the 6 concerned countries over the next 5 years with a view to significantly increasing the incomes of pastoralists within a period of 5 to 10 years”. Proposed activities include scale up pastoral agreements; the rehabilitation of critical water infrastructure such as boreholes; restoration of degraded areas as well as to facilitate livestock mobility; improve animal health and the inclusion of women and youth in livestock value chains. PRTAD: The ECOWAS-led Program for the Restoration of Degraded Agricultural Land for Food and Nutritional Security in West Africa will aim to increase the area under cultivation through the sustainable restoration of degraded agricultural land while promoting sustainable land management. Activities will include knowledge-sharing on strategies for land restoration, the development of financial mechanisms to foster land restoration as well as the dissemination of seed varieties allowing farmers to adapt to negative effects caused by soil degradation. WAISCA: Initiated by ECOWAS, the West African Initiative for Climate Smart Agriculture (WAISCA) intends to foster the uptake of CSA technologies through establishing a blended finance mechanism. WASICA comprises two components: a financing facility (implemented by the ECOWAS Bank for Investment and Development (EBID)) will provide grants for loans with subsidized rates, guarantees and equity investments for smallholder farmer organizations and agricultural businesses. A technical facility, to be implemented through the Regional Agency for Agriculture and Food (RAAF), will provide technical assistance to help farmers adopt CSA practices, and to support local finance institutions to integrate climate-smart metrics into their loan products. 97 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas 2.1 Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food System’s Productive Base: Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) at Farm and Landscape Level and Related Approaches Stocktake and Overview Introduction: Setting the Scene for Climate-Smart Agriculture in West Africaon P romoting sustainable agricultural climate impacts. The growing recognition of transformation to guarantee food CSA among regional and national policymakers 98 system resilience under climate change is increasingly reflected in the region’s key is essential across the African continent in policy frameworks. light of deteriorating food security trends. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated Section 2.1 is centered on the main approach for climate-aware agricultural structural factors driving the generation, development simultaneously increasing dissemination, and adoption of climate- agricultural productivity in a sustainable way, smart technologies with the potential strengthening resilience, and, where possible, to enhance resilience of regional food lowering carbon emissions. Encompassing production both on a farm and landscape a broad spectrum of both traditional and level. After briefly sketching out recent political recently developed knowledge, practices, and commitments for promoting CSA, the section technologies, CSA aims to systematically take outlines current CSA technologies relevant for advantage of synergetic relationships between food production on a farm and plot level. Given productivity, adaptation, and mitigation West Africa’s high levels of land degradation, while managing related trade-offs. These there is a strong need to safeguard the ecological relationships will not always be field based; health of the food system’s productive base they can also include policies, institutions, when increasing agricultural production. and finance. The recent flagship report by Therefore, this section continues by providing a the Global Commission on Adaptation (2019) summary of integrated resource management indicated that all actions in the agricultural approaches and their implementation potential. sector should consider climate-smartness The section then reviews recent developments given what we know are existing and inevitable in regional agricultural innovation systems with an emphasis on the regional research salient findings contained in the preceding landscape and agricultural extension, followed subsections and suggests corresponding by a discussion on adoption drivers, including key priorities and related RFIs for future access to inputs and credits. The section closes interventions. by summarizing and reflecting on the most Overview of the current enabling environment for CSA T he Regional Agricultural Policy for Smart Agriculture Stakeholders in West Africa, West Africa (ECOWAP) remains the ECOWAS adopted a new CSA intervention major framework for agricultural framework to respond to gaps that ECOWAS transformation and regional integration in stakeholders identified in the first generation West Africa. ECOWAS adopted ECOWAP in 2005 of RAIP, such as gaps between agriculture and and it has emerged as a regionally owned policy climate change adaptation, resilience, and framework in line with the Comprehensive agricultural risk management (ECOWAS 2015a). Africa Agriculture Development Program In line with the ECOWAP/CAADP Intervention (CAADP). African heads of state signed the 2003 Framework for CSA, the ECOWAS 2025 Strategic Maputo declaration with the goal of enhancing Policy Framework21 and the second generation food security and agricultural productivity. RAIP 2016–2020 consider promoting CSA as The New Partnership for African Development a major challenge that the region needs to (NEPAD) established CAADP shortly after the address. During the above-mentioned High- 99 2003 declaration. Main CAADP objectives Level Forum of Climate-Smart Agriculture include raising public agricultural investment Stakeholders in West Africa, ECOWAS also to at least 10 percent of national budgets and initiated the establishment of the West increasing agricultural productivity by at least Africa Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture 6 percent. On a continental level, the need for (WACSAA) to support the member states in employing CSA was identified at the twenty- the implementation of the ECOWAP/CAADP third summit of the African Union (AU) in Intervention Framework for CSA. Malabo in 2014, where African leaders decided to integrate CSA into the NEPAD program on West African governments have started to agriculture and climate change. make provisions for CSA in their national adaptation and agriculture strategies. On ECOWAP/CAADP saw the elaboration of the national level, ECOWAP/CAADP requested a Regional Agricultural Investment Plan that member countries develop National (RAIP) promoting sustainable productivity Agriculture Investment Plans (NAIP). Thanks to increases in the agricultural sector. In 2015 the Support of WACSAA and ECOWAS and in during the High-Level Forum of Climate- line with ECOWAP/CAADP recommendations, 21 The overall objective of the ECOWAS 2025 Strategic Policy Framework is to “contribute in a sustainable way to meeting the food and nutritional needs of the population, economic and social development and poverty reduction in the Member States, and inequalities between territories, zones and countries.” The overall objective of ECOWAP is further broken down into four specific objectives. The first objective is to “contribute to increased productivity and agro-sylvo-pastoral and fisheries production through diversified and sustainable production and reduce post- production losses” (ECOWAS Department Of Agriculture, Environment And Water Resources 2017). A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas countries including Burkina Faso, Mali, Ghana, science-policy dialogue platforms at both and Senegal have recently made progress national and subnational levels. These integrating CSA into their NAIPs. The process platforms have proven an effective mechanism of mainstreaming climate change and CSA into for bringing academia, policymakers, and civil agricultural development plans was further society together (Zougmoré et al. 2019). supported by establishing multistakeholder Climate-Smart Agricultural Investment Plans (CSAIP) I n close consultation with governments uncertainty, and quantitative modeling, which and other key in-country actors in the is explored in stakeholder consultations. Where agriculture sector, the World Bank has available, CSAIPs are informed by CSA country developed Climate Smart Agriculture profiles. Investment Plans (CSAIPs) in four West African countries. CSAIPs are aligned with CSAIPs contain a suite of country-supported both national and regional policies and and evidence-based investment options priorities. They propose concrete investment that are most likely to achieve national options that have the potential to scale up in- food security and climate targets. They country adoption of promising CSA options. summarize (1) the need for CSA in the national CSAIPs in ECOWAS and Permanent Inter-state context; (2) which investments would, if 100 Committee on Drought Control in the Sahel financially supported, be most suited to (CILSS) countries exist for Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, achieve the desired positive CSA outcomes; Burkina Faso, and Ghana. and (3) a general framework for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) for CSA that supports Relying on participatory methods, and reinforces other national monitoring CSAIPs identify concrete CSA investment frameworks. For example, Mali’s national opportunities and policy options with CSAIP2 prioritized a set of 12 investments to transformative potential for productivity, strengthen crop resilience and drive-up yields resilience, and mitigation in support of for over 1.8 million beneficiaries and their countries’ national priorities and NDCs families. Large-scale initiatives at the national (Nationally Determined Contributions). level propose investments in remote sensing- The CSAIP approach was developed by the enabled monitoring of farm productivity World Bank in collaboration with CIAT (The and in ramping up provision of agroclimatic International Center for Tropical Agriculture), information through ICT (information and Consultative Group on International Agricultural communication technologies). Priorities for Research (CGIAR), Climate Change, Agriculture crop-specific interventions include restoring and Food Security (CCAFS), the International degraded lands and promoting integrated Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and millet-sorghum-legume cropping systems. others.22 The choice of analytical tools used is Four CSAIPs have been completed for West adapted to each country and spans visioning African countries: Mali, Ghana, Burkina Faso, exercises, robust decision-making under and Côte d’Ivoire (see figure 2.2). 22 For example, the CSAIP Mali was developed with support of the AAA (Adaptation of African Agriculture) Initiative and the World Bank and with technical assistance from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture, the World Agroforestry Center, and the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture, Climate Change and Food Security (CCAFS). FIGURE 2.2 CSAIPs and CSA Profiles Climate-Smart Agriculture in Côte d’Ivoire Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) considerations • Agriculture is the main economic activity in Côte d’Ivoire P • With livestock contributing 63% of total agricultural M contributing 21.2% to the country’s gross domestic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, there is the need to product (GDP) and employing 46% of the labour force. conduct research on livestock-based CSA practices to The country is at the forefront of Africa for many support mitigation actions. At present, the livestock- agricultural products such as cocoa, rubber, palm oil, based CSA practices focus largely on adaptation and banana, pineapple, cotton, coffee, coconut, and cola nut. resilience. • P Despite the importance of agriculture in Côte d’Ivoire, the • Several policies, strategies, plans and programs are being I sector is confronted by several challenges including high implemented to fight climate change and promote CSA. A deforestation, soil erosion, land tenure insecurity, weather Of relevance to CSA are the National Communication on I variability and climate change which has manifested in Climate Smart Agriculture (NCCSA), National Strategy the form of declining rainfall amounts, shortening length for Disaster Risk Management (NSDRM) and the National of the rainy seasons; rising temperatures, increased Programme on Climate Change (NPCC). duration and rigor of dry seasons, as well as increased incidences of floods. • CSA policies and actions are implemented mainly I by the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable • I While CSA practices exist in Cote d’Ivoire, most of the Development (MINEDD), the Ministry of Agriculture and practices are not widely adopted. At present, banana- Rural Development (MINADER), the Ministry of Animal A cocoa integration system seems to be the most adopted Production and Fisheries Resources (MIRAH) and the M covering about 13% of the agricultural land. The wide Ministry of Water and Forest (MIREF). The Institution P spread adoption of this practice has been enabled by for Aeronautical and Meteorological Development low technology needs, private sector engagement in the (SODEXAM), plays a key role in monitoring and sharing implementation and its’ multiple benefits such as food, climate and weather information. There is limited income diversification and contribution to improved involvement of civil society on CSA in the country. resilience of the system as a whole. • Although the country is eligible for multiple international I • I Challenges to the adoption of CSA include lack of capacity climate finance instruments, funding for CSA is building of farmers and limited access to information on $ limited. Greater effort needs to be placed on accessing A available innovations and their provision in accessible international climate finance instruments while at the M and usable format so that small rural producers can same time, ensuring availability of local level public and P understand and apply them. private financing instruments for investments in the agriculture sector. CLIMATE -SMART AGRICULTURE INVESTMENT PL AN MALI A Adaptation M Mitigation P Productivity I Institutions $ Finance The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition that address challenges in environmental, social, and economic to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA development goals under a changing climate and increasing food already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, require planning to address trade-offs and synergies between and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected about entry points for investing in CSA at scale. to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems PAGE A PAGE A 101 Source: World Bank CSA Technologies at the Farm- and Landscape Level in West Africa T he Food and Agriculture Organization innovations such as drought-resilient crop (FAO) Sourcebook for CSA lists water varietals and genetically improved livestock and soil management, climate-smart breeds. A brief overview of climate-smart crop production systems, and climate- technologies frequently mentioned in West smart livestock systems as important CSA African agroecologies is compiled below. categories. Given its strong focus on outcomes Below, we summarize three of the five CSA that work for farmers means that CSA is just categories included in the FAO sourcebook as inclusive of agroecological approaches (based on Faurès et al. 2013), excluding forestry leveraging natural processes for increased and genetic resource conservation. resilience as of recently developed agricultural A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Water and soil management techniques W ater management measures crop diversification. CA practices increase soil increase water availability for crops organic matter, decrease erosion, improve water when water is scarce or prevent retention, and increase carbon sequestration. erosion of fertile topsoil by torrential Studies show positive but limited effects of downpours. Common examples of the region’s CA practices on crop yields for maize, millet, soil and water management techniques include and sorghum in West Africa, moderated by contour ridges, stone bunds, furrows, ditches, biophysical context (Bayala et al. 2012). CA and terracing and rainwater harvesting. In the alone is unlikely to allow West African farmers to Western Sahel, zai- and half-moon-shaped overcome low productivity and food insecurity. pits are traditional techniques preserving soil According to the most comprehensive study moisture and restoring degraded lands (Lahmar to date of CA yield impacts on crops yields in et al. 2012). Another well-known and efficient Sub-Saharan Africa based on a meta-analysis of water harvesting technique is boulies. These 933 observations from 16 different countries, consist in “over-dug” ponds that are placed in average yields under CA are only slightly higher an area where runoff water is concentrated than those of conventional tillage systems during heavy rains. (3.7 percent for six major crop species and 4.0 percent for maize). Larger yield responses for West Africa only has 5 percent of agricultural maize result from mulching and crop rotations land irrigated (Burney et al. 2010). Field studies or intercropping. When CA principles (reduced 102 point to high yield gains with solar-powered drip or no tillage, crop rotation) are implemented in irrigation, especially for high-value horticultural parallel, maize yield increases by 8.4 percent. crops (Wanvoeke et al. 2016), but structural The largest yield benefits from CA occur in barriers such as high upfront investment costs combination with low rainfall and use of and low water supply generally complicate herbicides (Corbeels et al. 2020). adoption (Partey et al. 2018). This said, the FAO reports substantial resilience gains of smallhold Integrated soil fertility management farmers through the implementation of small- combines locally available organic matter scale solar drip irrigation systems in The Gambia, (crop residues, green manure, and compost) Mali, Burkina Faso, and Niger. A low-cost with mineral fertilizers and N-fixing alternative to irrigation systems is to increase legumes such as soybeans to increase fertilizer soil organic matter by enhancing on-farm tree efficiency. Integrated soil fertility management cover, leading to better water retention. both increases and stabilizes yields under adverse rainfall conditions but uptake in Sub- Agroecological approaches including Saharan Africa is still limited (Roobroeck et al. sustainable land management (SLM) 2015). or conservation agriculture (CA) foster natural biological processes to achieve high yields while preventing natural resource degradation. Examples encompass minimum or no tillage, crop rotation, mulching, intercropping, and permanent crop cove and Climate-smart crop production systems A daptation measures such as the preventive management practices such as cultivation of heat and drought- using resistant varieties, timely planting and resilient varietals and improved harvesting, and crop rotation. Preventive management practices can offset climate measures are flanked by reactive measures change impacts. Breeding and disseminating such as using biorationals (biopesticides, drought and heat- resilient cultivars can botanical pesticides, and biological control) and contribute limit expected yield losses and even environmentally safer and low-risk synthetic lead to yield gains despite climate change. For pesticides. example, the Drought Tolerant Maize for Africa Project (DTTM), CIMMYT (The International Agroforestry systems incorporating trees in Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) and IITA crop or livestock systems can be considered (International Institute of Tropical Agriculture) climate smart. Benefits comprise increases in have developed 200 new high-yielding and soil organic matter and better water retention drought-tolerant maize varieties. Millet is also leading to higher soil fertility, less soil erosion, frequently referred to as a climate-smart crop more biomass, and foliage-provided protection due to its drought resilience (Bandyopadhyay against extreme temperatures (Matocha et al. et al. 2017). In addition to the choice of cultivars, 2012; Verchot et al. 2007). Increasing tree density field management practices are pivotal. Studies is observed to improve crop yields considerably. have shown that agricultural practices may Yield gains linked to agroforestry are further influence yields more than climate change- enhanced when coupled with mineral 103 induced weather variability. For example, fertilizer. Agroforestry practices are widely increased fertilizer application combined with acknowledged to contribute to food security increased plant populations has led to yield and climate resilience by diversifying sources gains ranging from 20 percent to up to 256 of farmer income, increasing their resilience. percent (Adam et al. 2020). Existing germplasm The success of farmer-managed natural also may contribute to climate resilience when regeneration (FMNR) (see also correspondent management practices such as sowing dates subsection further below) in achieving higher are adapted. As Akinseye et al. (2020) have crop yields, enhancing resilience, and carbon demonstrated using crop modeling studies, sequestration is a case in point. changes to the phenology of staple cereals such as sorghum, along with better management practices, can offset negative climate change impacts. Climate-smart pest and disease management (CSPM) reduces crop susceptibility to pest and disease outbreaks by favoring agroecological practices such as crop diversification and habitat management and conserving indigenous natural enemies. It limits pest population buildup through A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Climate-smart livestock systems R ecent modeling demonstrates that there endemic livestock breeds and improved is scope for both increasing resilience fodder production could stabilize livelihoods and volume of livestock production (Zougmoré et al. 2016). across Africa’s drylands. In the absence of adaptation measures under a business-as- Future adaptation measures should (1) usual scenario, more than 50 percent of both generally give priority to enable herders pastoralists and agropastoralists may not be to rapidly adjust to climate or other able to subsist at 50 percent of the poverty line shocks over productivity increases and (2) by 2030. By contrast, adaptation measures will incentivize the development of alternative allow pastoralist and agropastoralist producers sources of income. Research shows high to increase their contribution in meeting levels of productive efficiency of well-managed the rising demand in West Africa for animal- livestock systems in African drylands. In addition source products. Investments to, among other to the above-mentioned measures, creating things, improve the quality of animal health enabling conditions for a resilient livestock services in parallel with measures to facilitate sector requires guaranteeing livestock mobility better access to feed resources (for example, to semiarid or subhumid zones when drought through developing underexploited grazing strikes, better market integration, and systems areas or enhancing feed supply systems) that allow for rapid and early destocking and could contribute to decreasing the share of restocking of herds (Cervigni and Morris 2016). 104 households under pressure to exit the sector to In parallel to technically optimizing livestock below 7 percent by 203023 (Cervigni and Morris management, the development of income 2016). sources, both within and outside the sector, should be an important component of any Climate-smart livestock management adaptation strategy (Cervigni and Morris 2016). approaches increasing resilience and Last, given the rising incidence of herder-farmer productivity include “zero-grazing systems,” conflicts across the area, setting up accepted using feed supplements, rotational grazing, and inclusive conflict-resolution mechanisms is planting fodder crops, and efficient manure crucial. management (Sova et al. 2018; Zougmoré et al. 2016). Climate-smart livestock strategies are Whether any given approach, practice, or site-specific, so they vary by agroecological technology is climate smart depends on zone. For example, in arid and semiarid the characteristics of the local biophysical zones where drought is the biggest risk, a environment. West African farming practices shift toward small ruminants and camels and are highly heterogeneous due to the large pasture management using the feed balance diversity of agroecologies. A farming practice sheet approach could strengthen the adaptive that would be climate smart in one area does capacity of livestock-based livelihoods. not necessarily meet CSA criteria elsewhere Where climate change will lead to a higher in the region (Partey et al. 2018; Thornton et risk of flooding, thereby increasing exposure al. 2018; Williams et al. 2015). For example, of livestock to vector-borne diseases, using 23 The modeling results apply to all of Africa’s dryland regions including West Africa. CA might not be suitable for all soil types. themes. Based on expert solicitation and CSA Agronomic analysis suggests that CA practices country profiles, the greatest gains in improving such as mulching are more effective on loamy household resilience increases are likely from soils compared with sandy and clay soils. better water and soil fertility management, On poorly drained soils, by contrast, mulch agroforestry, and drought-tolerant germplasm. can result in waterlogging and crop diseases Moreover, managing pests and diseases and (Corbeels et al. 2014). Despite the need for genetic improvement of livestock breeds are context-specific measures, scientific literature other priorities that are frequently mentioned and expert solicitations point to recurring (Cervigni and Morris 2016; Sova et al. 2018). Landscape-level CSA approaches B roader agricultural land use patterns (Scherr, Shames, and Friedman 2013). Given and other sectors’ activities on the the fuzziness and ambiguity of the notion of landscape level have implications “landscape,” different communities of practice for both quality and quantity of available and international research organizations natural resources, influencing farm and have, depending on their main concerns (for livestock yields. Realizing the potential example, biodiversity conservation, water of climate-smart food production systems management, or community-based resource thus requires following a more holistic and governance), advanced many different integrated landscape management approach landscape management concepts whose 105 on multiple scales such as community or definitions, objectives, and operationalizations regional levels (Faurès et al. 2013). According frequently overlap. For example, the integrated to the FAO’s CSA Sourcebook, adopting a watershed management concept focuses on landscape approach to CSA implies that the coordinating and planning natural resource use “management of production systems and at a hydrological unit, while the main objective natural resources covers an area large enough of sustainable land management (SLM) lies to produce vital ecosystem services and small in scaling up landscape-level sustainable enough so the action can be carried out by the agricultural practices—for example, integrated people using the land and producing those soil and nutrient management to rehabilitate services” (Faurès et al. 2013, 45). degraded land. International organizations and Integrated landscape management governments have moved to mainstream describes the variety of approaches where landscape management concepts into collective economic and ecological benefits investments or development visions, are larger than the sum of plot- or farm- policy frameworks, and climate adaptation level gains accruing from individual land and plans. This is because the limitations and water management interventions (Scherr, shortcomings of sectoral approaches in Shames, and Friedman 2013) (Gray et al. 2016). addressing the nexus of environmental Scherr, Shames, and Friedman (2013) have degradation, poverty, and food security identified several key principles underlying have grown more evident over recent years the integrated landscape management A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas approach: (a) promoting multiple objectives; institutionalizing collaborative action and (b) reducing negative trade-offs and fostering broad stakeholder engagement. An example synergies associated with ecological, social, of integrated landscape management consists and economic interactions; (c) recognizing in mobilization of community members for the role of local communities; (d) ensuring collective action in managing surface and adaptiveness of interventions; and (e) groundwater resources. The West African context T he path toward solutions needs Adopting an integrated landscape rethinking given rapid climate change, management paradigm appears particularly depleting natural resources, and relevant in the Sahel. In the semiarid and arid expansionary agricultural growth. Land and areas of West Africa, resources are scarce and labor productivities, while increasing in recent dispersed and livestock are an integral part of years, remain well below global benchmarks. In agricultural production systems. In this context, West Africa, yield growth only contributed about introducing isolated technologies at the plot 16 percent to overall growth in production, level are hardly ever successful (Bado and compared with 80 percent for developing Bationo 2018; Birhanu et al. 2020). Employing countries. Consequently, the area of total SLM practices at the landscape scale is crucial agricultural land harvested in West Africa has to safeguard agricultural productivity and the 106 grown by 17 percent from 2005–17. Projections region’s food security given land and resource show that increasing crop areas in eastern degradation (UNCCD 2019). The urgent need to parts of West Africa would significantly deplete halt land degradation to guarantee food security forest and grassland by 2050. Almost two thirds is well recognized in the region, with most of West African countries will be facing water of the region’s countries adopting voluntary scarcity by 2025 and almost 80 percent of land neutrality targets. Apart from land- and surface waters face eutrophication. Promoting watershed restoration, another important type landscape restoration, including through of landscape-level intervention includes the agroforestry, could significantly enhance both restoration of floodplains and riverbanks to coping strategies of local communities and mitigate impacts from flooding and to improve strengthen their resilience to weather shocks. natural habitats with attended benefits for If covering sufficiently large areas, improved biodiversity. Restoring floodplains frequently tree, shrub, and forest cover in the Sahel region involves the reconnection of floodplains to could increase water infiltration, groundwater main waterways and the reestablishment of a recharge, and the potential for rainfall while more natural hydrologic regime. In the Sahel, providing land surface cooling (Ellison and constructing water spreading weirs is widely Speranza 2020). Currently ongoing initiatives, considered a promising option to increase as discussed further below and shown in yields in rainy season (Amdede and Whitbreat more detail further in table 2.1, provide major 2020). opportunities to target restoration at landscape scales. Past experiences and learnings: gestion de terroirs (GT) I n francophone West African states, the committees without legally conferred powers, gestion de terroirs (GT) approach became insufficient local capacity, and the frequent a widely promoted landscape approach for failure of newly created community-level sustainable land use planning in the 1990s institutions to build on local cultural traditions (Bernard 2014; Gray et al. 2016). This approach (Bernard 2014; Cleary et al. 2003; Gray et al. 2016). emerged as an innovative response to failures Yet increasing local agency in decision-making of preceding top-down rural development has been associated with better food security programs (for example, Community-Based outcomes. When promoting any climate-smart Natural Resource Management) (Degnbol landscape approach, historic experience with 1996). Due to its emphasis on bottom-up and the GT-approach forcefully demonstrates the decentralized management of natural resources importance of improving stakeholder capacity at the village or community level that anchored at local level and building strong institutions decision-making at local-level institutions, that are attuned to their respective cultural GT is a pioneer of participatory landscape context (Bernard 2014). Communities must management approaches (Bernard 2014). The have the legal authority to select investments effectiveness of GT was generally constrained (for example, in irrigation) that are best suited to by unresponsive policy frameworks at higher their specific conditions for effective, bottom- administrative levels, the often purely informal up management approach, making stringent decision-making authority of local village political decentralization measures critical. 107 Climate-Smart Village (CSV) T o ground research on context and clusters of villages within a local government location-specific enabling conditions jurisdiction (involving one or several villages). for scaling CSA at landscape level, The selected climate-smart villages are in high- CGIAR CCAFS and local partners have risk areas across a wide range of agroecological developed the climate-smart village zones, climate risks, and farming patterns, (CSV) approach. Based on the principles of allowing for site comparison, learning, climate participatory action research, the CSV approach analogue analysis, and extrapolation of research aims to (a) generate actionable evidence on findings. Since project launch in 2011, CCAFS CSA effectiveness in real-life settings and social, has established CSV in Burkina Faso, Ghana, biophysical, and gender constraints to adoption; Mali, Niger, Senegal. Other CSV can be found in and (b) facilitate codevelopment of proven East Africa, Latin America, and Southeast Asia. mechanisms for CSA-scaling at landscape, subnational, and national levels. CSV AR4D (applied research for development) sites are 24 See also subsection on adoption barriers further below for findings on CSA adoption constraints based on CSV research. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Productive safety nets S ince the early 2000s, integrated decentralized implementation mechanisms, landscape management has chose manageable scales (that is, watershed increasingly been promoted in the level), and were flanked by supportive land context of government-initiated safety net tenure policies (Gray et al. 2016). Cost-benefit schemes. In these schemes, poor households analyses attested overall favorable results receive food and cash payments for increased including long-term improvements in soil food security in exchange for rehabilitating fertility and productivity on the farm level as land and water resources and working well as increased groundwater levels and the around community infrastructure. In India, for prevention of soil erosion on the landscape instance, farmers contributing their labor to level (WFP 2005). Major learnings from SLM interventions were compensated with past experience with integrated landscape wages and agricultural loans (Gray and Srinidhi management efforts in Ethiopia and elsewhere 2013). Widely known and analyzed examples indicate the importance of a long time- on the African continent include the Ethiopian horizon to achieve positive returns as increased Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) and productivity is conditional on prior ecosystem the Managing Environmental Resources to restoration (Gray et al. 2016). In the case of Enable Transition (MERET) program (Gray et Ethiopia, cash-for-work or cash-for-food projects al. 2016). Applying lessons from earlier SLM have enabled scaled-up SLM interventions and interventions and other approaches, these strengthened farmer awareness of ecosystem 108 programs successfully introduced participatory, restoration (Gray et al. 2016). Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) F armer-managed natural regeneration letting remnant tree seeds remain in the soil (FMNR) is a SLM practice that has taken to germinate naturally instead of clearing land root in Sahelian countries through for crop cultivation. Additional planting of trees a largely bottom-up driven process with or inputs is not required. Per hectare, farmers little coordination. Having contributed to regenerate 20 to 60 trees and prune them on transformative landscape changes in areas a yearly basis (World Future Council 2019). across the region, FMNR is widely seen as FMNR benefits include rising yields through a prime example for successful large-scale soil fertilization and better water retention, rehabilitation of degraded lands based on firewood and fodder production, and biological community action. Originating in an integrated pest control through increased biodiversity development project started in Niger in 1984 (Carey 2020). Overall household income gains to halt desertification (Tougiani, Guero, and from FMNR have been estimated at around Rinaudo 2009), FMNR has been credited with US$1,000 per household and year (Pye-Smith both improving food security and increasing 2013). In its early days in the mid-1980s, drought resilience for 4.5 million people pioneering NGOs such as Serving-In-Mission (Cameron 2011). The practice has allowed (SIM) and an IFAD project (PPILDA) promoted around 200 million trees to grow on more FMNR dissemination through farmer-to-farmer than five million hectares (Reij, Tappan, and visits and extension and communication Smale 2009). FMNR, typically categorized as activities. an agroforestry practice, mainly consists in FMNR helped farmers to develop a significantly boosted farmers’ motivation to common understanding that tackling invest in protecting and regenerating trees land degradation and declining soil on their farms. Owing to a large degree the fertility required action on farm, village, diffusion of FMNR, Niger is frequently referred and intervillage levels, although no to as the African country with the most positive explicit landscape-level goals had been set landscape transformation over the last decades in advance (Gray et al. 2016). While word- (Bilsky 2018). Thanks to its well-documented of-mouth exchanges of experience largely achievements and its perception as an drove the dissemination of FMNR practices, easily scalable and cost-effective approach, widespread adoption was critically aided by community-based FMNR is now promoted by an increasingly favorable policy environment. a variety of NGOs such as World Vision and Beginning in the 1990s, the Nigerien other actors across the continent (World Future government decentralized natural resource Council 2019). Yet despite this abundance of management, leading farmers to perceive that success stories surrounding FMNR, community- they could reap the full benefits from on-farm based regreening efforts have so far reached tree management (Gray et al. 2016; Reij and only a small proportion of the degraded lands Winterbottom 2015). These developments in West Africa (Carey 2020; Bado et al. 2020). Ongoing large-scale landscape initiatives C ountry commitments to halt and inspiration from bottom-up initiatives such as 109 reverse land degradation and greater FMNR that are considered highly successful ambition on what can be achieved has and cost-effective. GGWI now supports been catalyzed by the SDG agenda, the Paris community-driven interventions that create Agreement, and increased public attention. a mosaic of diverse and adapted landscapes For example, 28 African countries have while relying on traditional land regeneration committed to restoring 113 million hectares techniques (Carey 2020; Davies 2017; GEF of land by 2030. With a continental vision, the 2019). While experts generally commend this Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI) may be the change in orientation, reliable, transparent, most frequently mentioned landscape-level and systematic information on GGWI’s current initiative in West Africa. Launched in 2007 status is surprisingly scarce. This is attributed under the auspices of the AU, it was originally to the lack of centralized M&E under one conceived as an almost 8,000 km-long and 15 competent steering agency, the great number km-wide band of trees leading from Senegal of actors, and the distribution of funds and to the Horn of Africa to halt the Sahara desert projects over a multitude of countries absent expansion. Attracting large amounts of donor a clearly established management mechanism funding, its initial strategy consisted in tree- (Vizcarra 2019). planting on a massive scale. Yet the GGWI was criticized for misconceptions about the Sahara’s The Sahel and West Africa Program in advancement, the GGWI’s top-down driven Support of the GGWI (SAWAP) is particularly mode of operation, and the high mortality of relevant. SAWAP was launched in 2011 by planted trees (Carey 2020; Wade et al. 2018). The the World Bank and the Green Environmental GGWI has recently moved away from its original Fund (GEF) under the TerrAfrica partnership, vision of erecting a literal “barrier of trees” a coalition to rapidly expand continent-wide toward a more nuanced approach drawing adoption of SLM. SAWAP is a US$1.1 billion A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas multitrust fund to implement SLM practices and Resilience for Food Security Sub- in climate-vulnerable areas in the Sahel and Saharan Africa (FS-IAP, 2017–2022) is West Africa. By 2016, US$231 million had been another currently operational multicountry disbursed across one regional and 12 country program involving Sahelian countries.25 projects (WB 2016). Running from 2013 to 2019, Covering 12 Sub-Saharan African countries, the regional project titled “Building Resilience including Burkina Faso, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, through Innovation, Communications, and and Senegal, it aims to improve management Knowledge Services” (BRICKS) under the on 10 million hectares of land and seeks to auspices of the CILSS, the Sahara and Sahel leverage US$900 million from various donors. Observatory, and the International Union Aside from continental programs, global large- for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) sought to scale programs that West African countries improve accessibility of best SLM practices can tap into for scaling up SLM practices and monitoring information within SAWAP to restore productive landscapes include countries. The goal was facilitating South-South the recently launched World Bank-led Food learning and scaling up innovations across the Systems, Land Use, and Restoration Impact region. By 2019, SAWAP has contributed to SLM Program (FOLOR) and the FAO-led Dryland adoption of over 1.6 million ha of land, reaching Sustainable Landscapes. Last, the World Bank’s in total 22 million direct beneficiaries while also new PROGREEN multidonor trust fund will leading to increased uptake of participatory also represent a potentially abundant source approaches for natural resource management of integrated resource management funding (GEF 2019). given its objective to assist countries in fulfilling their national targets such as the land neutrality 110 The GEF-cofinanced Fostering Sustainability targets. Challenges linked to integrated resource management in West Africa A t present, a lack of both horizontal approach requires that communities have and vertical integration and the legal authority to select investments that capacity constraints complicate the are best suited to their specific conditions. sustainable implementation of integrated Institutional arrangements need to promote resource management. Relevant actors both adequate coordination mechanisms and (for example, agriculture, water, and forestry empower different stakeholders according to agencies) still act too frequently in silos while their respective mandates and competencies. the distribution of responsibility between state Closely related to this, limited staff capacity actors at the national, subnational, and local and financial resources, particularly in poor level often lacks coherence. As mentioned or isolated rural areas, make development before, the effectiveness in implementing interventions unsustainable in the long run a participatory landscape management as integrated approaches are not sufficiently 25 For other relevant programs, including those led by ECOWAS and CILSS, such as the West Africa Agroecological Transition Support Project (PTAE), please see also the initiative mapping further below. anchored locally. While projects often provide previous big-donor financed project with eight funding for local investments, funds are also packages and 43 different activities provides required for establishing and sustaining the an illustrative example. Subcomponents ran public administrative structures that provide the gamut from development of catchment technical and administrative support after the management plans to the development of project ends. agricultural value chains and the development of market information systems. With so much Coordinated land restoration programs that complexity, little can be achieved within two have proven successful in other regions may years and it is questionable whether activities not be fully transferrable to the West African would be continued after the external support drylands where both physical and social for the project has ended. For long-term characteristics differ. The case of Ethiopia, adoption of CSA, benefits should materialize where government-coordinated landscape within one or two years (Reij, Tappan, and programs are credited with having achieved Smale 2009). The Integrated Keita Project in considerable success, provides an illustrative Niger provides another example of the pitfalls example for the importance of context. It of complexity. Started in the mid-1980s, it appears questionable whether similar programs restored thousands of hectares of degraded could be successful in West Africa. In the hilly land through Food-For-Work programs to Tigray region in Ethiopia, it is straightforward mobilize labor and involved heavy machinery. to delineate water catchments, whereas this While its achievements during implementation is not the case in the largely flat savannahs in were obvious, restoration has all but ceased West Africa. Furthermore, collective action in after the end of the project since techniques Ethiopia was mobilized by building on well- promoted by the project relied on external 111 organized local governance structures at the support (Reij 2018). village level. In contrast, in many West African countries, local government institutions are There is a need to clarify land tenure or much less developed, if not practically absent. resource usage rights in the areas where A more fundamental criticism of conventional project activities are to be implemented. landscape restoration programs relates to the In West Africa, land governance is often based use of integrated landscape management both on modern legal provisions (modern in development interventions. Farmers and law) and traditional provisions (customary resource users’ perceptions of landscapes and law). The overlap between two approaches priorities tend to differ considerably from those is often conducive to disputes and a lack of of scientists or development practitioners. tenure clarity. In many cases, land rights are Farmers will adopt a practice when they see not clearly defined and land rights of farmers an immediate benefit for doing so but not are insufficiently protected. Women frequently necessarily when it would be reasonable from a face particularly severe constraints in accessing landscape perspective. land. In the absence of clarifying tenure, farmers have little incentive to make long-term Integrated landscape management projects investments into their lands, which complicates are often highly complex, which makes achieving sustainable outcomes. them difficult to achieve transformation on a large scale. The complexity of big landscape projects often complicates reaching long- term sustainability of project activities. A A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Agricultural Innovation System Agricultural research trends in West Africa D espite high expected returns 2000 and 2014, agriculture expenditure in total on investment (ROI), support to public expenditure in ECOWAS countries has agricultural R&D remains low. For remained well below the CAADP Maputo target Sub-Saharan Africa between 2000 and 2011, of 10 percent (Stads and Beintema 2017b). the ROI was estimated at 34 percent. Over the Moreover, growth in investments in agricultural last decade, spending on agricultural research research lagged behind general agriculture- accounted for only 0.4 percent of agricultural related spending growth. Consequently, GDP in Sub-Saharan Africa compared with 1.3 agricultural research spending as a share of its percent in Latin America and the Caribbean agricultural gross domestic product (AgGDP) and 0.9 percent in South Asia (Goyal and Nash has declined from 0.53 percent to 0.33 percent, 2016). While the region has witnessed growing considerably falling below levels seen in other public investments into agriculture between Sub-Saharan African subregions (see figure 2.3). FIGURE 2.3 Agricultural Research Spending 112 Source: © ASTI 2017 National Agricultural Research Systems by unstable external donor support. Across (NARS) are underfunded in the region. the region, national governments often fund While spending ratios should be interpreted staff salaries while non-salary-related expenses with caution as they omit countries’ differing are covered by external funding. Francophone socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics, countries exhibit particularly high levels of they suggest that there is systematic donor dependency. This excessive reliance on underfunding. Public investments in external aid has led to harmful fluctuations in agricultural research largely have been driven sector funding and also to a lack of national ownership and alignment of research priorities USAID, EU, Japan, and others). The rationale with national development plans (Stads and has been to enable participating countries to Beintema 2017a). While it is highly desirable for follow a more ambitious research agenda by the region to decrease donor dependence by combining resources and talent. One approach setting up sustainable funding mechanisms, has been to conduct agricultural research of achieving this in the near term will be unlikely. regional interest through commissioned or This applies especially to Sahelian countries competitive agricultural research grant (CARG) where security and defense spending is schemes administered by the West and Central consuming growing shares of the national African Council for Agricultural Research and budget due to worsening conflict. Development (CORAF). Given the absence of regionally collected taxes or levies, however, The effectiveness of regional research CARG schemes are currently limited since they systems has been constrained by depend on external funding (Lynam et al. 2016). fragmentated research capacity across Yet efforts are underway to continue CARG countries, a lack of regional coordination, schemes by mobilizing internal resources. duplication of research agendas, and Another recently pioneered approach to outdated research infrastructure. In the increase the regional clout of Sub-Saharan past decades, research capacity was highly agricultural research has been promoting fragmented, with scarce resources spread too much-needed coordination and cross-country thinly over a wide range of research themes. collaboration among NARS in the context of Moreover, many countries in the region have agriculture productivity programs facilitated by simultaneously pursued similar research the World Bank. agendas, leading to duplication of efforts. 113 Considering that returns to research and The West African Agriculture Productivity development increase with scale (Goyal and Program (WAAPP) directed by CORAF is Nash 2016), it is unsurprising that the overall widely considered a game changer for the research effectiveness has remained limited West African agricultural research landscape. (Lynam et al. 2016). Also, the high dependence From 2008 to 2019, WAAPP has made important on external donors is not conducive for strides in reforming the regional technology pursuing coherent mid- and long-term generation and dissemination regime for strategies. With donor support frequently tied increased impact and effectiveness. By dividing to the addressing of specific research agendas, up responsibilities for agricultural research actual research efforts are occasionally at odds between national, regional, and international with national and regional mid- and long- research centers, the West African Agriculture term strategic research plans. Last, extended Productivity Program (WAAPP) has sought to time periods of underfunding of National create a system of mutual interdependence Agricultural Research Systems (NARS) are also that leverages resources and encourages reflected in outdated research equipment and technological spillovers. With extensive facilities, a low number of female researchers, capacity-building and training measures, and rapidly aging staff, which all further impede the five-year-long first phase of WAAPP performance (Stads and Beintema 2017b). established nine National (research) Centers of Specialization (NCoS) concentrating on national Since the 2000s, donors have increasingly priority commodities aligned with the regional turned toward promoting supranational priorities as defined in ECOWAP. To scale up collaboration to increase agricultural generation and dissemination of improved research effectiveness by funding of technologies under phase two, WAAPP foresaw regional research programs (World Bank, the upgrading of eligible NCoS to Regional A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas (research) Centers of Excellence (RCoE) clearly based on subsidiarity and comparative capable of undertaking world-class research advantage. in cooperation with international research institutions such as CGIAR research centers To guarantee long-term viability of an that bring global knowledge and expertise to integrated and effective regional research the region. WAAPP also piloted successfully system, sustainable endogenous funding participatory innovation platforms facilitating mechanisms for both national and regional the identification of value chain constraints research must be established. For example, as well as the selection and dissemination of CGSs for multicountry research could be technologies most relevant to producers and reformed following the FONTAGRO model, processors. Between 2011 and 2016, WAAPP which has proven an effective instrument was complemented by a Multi-Donor Trust to multicountry research related to climate Fund (MDTF) that strengthened the CORAF change adaptation, sustainable intensification, Executive Secretariat and funded projects of and food security in Latin America. FONTAGRO regional interest through Competitive Grant is a regional cooperation mechanism that relies Schemes (CGS). on country contributions for its functioning. Established in 1998, 15 Latin American countries Much more needs to be done to enable the have contributed a total of US$100 million in West African agricultural research system capital to the Inter-American Development Bank to overcome multiple challenges and meet (IDB)-administered cooperation mechanism. critical needs. WAAPP has directly benefited around nine million producers and is credited The large-scale Technologies for African 114 with having improved food security for around Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) Project 50 million people and has released over 200 was launched as part of the Feed Africa improved technologies. Alongside upgrading Strategy as a continental flagship program research equipment, the program has enabled to accelerate technology uptake with high 1,000 young scientists (30 percent female) relevance for the region. It was launched in to receive scholarships for higher academic 2018 by the African Development Bank (AfDB). education and on the job training. This has In contrast to the WAAPP research program, maintained critical human resources in the face TAAT is an outreach campaign for boosting rates of the imminent retirement of senior researchers of varietal deployment. TAAT aims to rapidly and generally improved the outlook of West diffuse already existing high-yielding cultivars African agricultural research. For West Africa while promoting diversification and processing to attain its ambitious agricultural growth and around nine priority commodities. Managed food security targets, however, the regional by various CGIAR research centers through technology generation and dissemination Commodity Technology Delivery Compacts structures need further strengthening. First, (CTDC) organized by commodity, TAAT works thus far two in nine countries with NCoS have closely with National Agricultural Research and successfully completed the second phase of Extension Services (NARES) as the main agents WAAPP, meaning that presently only two RCoE for technology delivery and scaleup. A major exist that are capable of executing world-class innovation compared with earlier approaches programs. The other NCoS aspire to graduate to scaling innovative technologies lies in the into RCoE but currently face resource shortages. clearinghouse (C-house), TAAT’s main decision- Moreover, responsibilities between national making body. Its core objective is selecting research systems and regional/international eligible technologies to disseminate and roll out research institutions need to be defined more across similar agroecological zones based on a consultative peer review process. The C-house Network). Of special regional relevance is the steers efforts to harmonize seed regulation TAAT sorghum and millet compact launched in and registration processes. At present, lengthy 2019. Managed by ICRISAT (International Crop variety release procedures are replicated in each Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics), it country and result in slow technology adoption focuses on transforming sorghum and millet and fragmented seed markets. To harmonize value chains in Senegal, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, seed registration and release protocols across Sudan, Chad, and Burkina Faso. It is frequently the region, TAAT is working with Sub-Regional argued that TAAT should collaborate more Organizations (CORAF) and International closely with the regional research system to Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and its improve technology dissemination. partners (Africa Technology Policy Studies ATPS Role of Private Sector in Regional Agricultural Innovation System Private sector involvement in agricultural research is still lacking 115 M aking the regional research system 2020–2027” highlights the importance of better more impactful and raising more integrating the private sector in agricultural resources by better involving the research. For example, as part of the IR4D private sector is a widely acknowledged approach, the plan calls for fostering a regional need. West Africa’s public sector has historically enabling environment for scaling technologies spearheaded investments in agricultural R&D. and innovations, including through mobilizing Information on research activities by the partnerships with the private sector. private sector in the region is scarce and rarely documented (Beintena and Stads 2011). Except Recent interventions encouraged private for South Africa, private investments in R&D sector participation in research and are generally still low in Sub-Saharan Africa, dissemination, but more needs to be although there has been considerable growth. done. The USAID-financed WASP (West This applies especially for parts of the seed African Seed Program) attempted to increase sector that are linked to commercially integrated private sector participation in seed breeding value chains, such as maize (ibid). As a potential activities. A midterm review, however, stated source for sustainable financing, the private that the current supply and production of sector remains underutilized in most countries breeder seeds lacks a business approach (Beintema and Stads 2014). Increasing private and still depends on project funding due to sector interest requires “developing explicit lack of support, capacity constraints, and the market demand for the products of agricultural reluctance of some countries to allow private research” (Lynam et al. 2012). CORAF’s current production of foundation seeds (USAID 2017b). regional strategic plan “Catalysing Innovations Most countries continue to rely on public A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas breeding. To encourage private investments between private and public actors frequently in technologies and their dissemination, it is complicates collaboration, for example, vital to allow local and foreign firms to enter through Private-Public Partnerships. Yet while providing them with a stable policy positive examples exist. Farmers and related and regulatory environment (Pray et al. 2014). agribusinesses (such as formal associations) can Addressing issues around intellectual property generate additional resources for agricultural is important. At present, research products research through collective action. A unique from publicly funded research frequently example in the region is The National Center cannot be taken up by the private sector due for Agricultural Research (CNRA) in Côte to licensing issues. As discussed elsewhere in d’Ivoire. Established as a public-private entity, this report, corresponding regional regulation it obtains 40 percent of its funding from the exists, for example, in terms of free circulation public and 60 percent from the private sector. of registered seeds, but implementation is still Private contributions come from membership lagging and needs updating. subscription fees from commodity-specific producer organizations. At least 75 percent of Public-private collaboration in the region funding raised in a subsector is assigned to may allow the raising of significant levels programs responding to private sector needs of private funding complementing public (Beintema and Stads 2014). sources and boost innovation. Mistrust 116 Digital agriculture presents new opportunities for increasing private sector involvement in working toward increasing food system resilience A lthough funding is still largely donor nonprofit organization, launched an innovation driven, West Africa has an active start- hub for agriculture technology, food technology, up scene developing digital solutions and water technology in West Africa based in with potential resilience gains from farm Ghana in 2019. At present, most registered users to fork. Between 2016 and 2018, the number (over 20 million) are in East Africa (see map 2.1). of tech hubs in Sub-Saharan Africa has almost Despite counting many emerging solutions, doubled, from 239 to over 440 (GSMA 2018). totaling 145 with headquarters in the region, Across Sub-Saharan Africa, the number of users the number of registered users, estimated at 3 that have registered to use one or more types million, is still small. With public contributions of digital agriculture services is projected to totaling US$207 million compared with US$55 rise from 33 million to 200 million users from million from private sources (2018), funding 2019 to 2030 (Tsan et al. 2019). Tech companies of agriculture tech start-ups remains largely such as Alphabet and Facebook have recently donor driven. set up start-up incubators and agriculture and agribusiness-specific innovation hubs have been established. For instance, SmartHectar, an operator of innovation hubs backed by many multinational agribusinesses, and enpact, a 106 CHAPTER 3 MAP 2.1 Solutions and Registered Users (Millions) by Subregion of HQ and Subregion of Primary Focus, 2018 Figure 24 Regional breakdown of D4Ag solutions solutions and registered users (millions) by sub-region of HQ and sub-region of primary focus, Registered users EOY 2018) Solutions by primary region Western Africa Solutions Users Eastern Africa HQ: 145 3.1M Focus: 162 4.3M Solutions Users HQ: 124 21.0M Focus: 146 21.8M 27 solutions headquartered in the G5 Sahel, account for 573k users. Another 33 solutions have users in the region. Central Africa Solutions Users HQ: 18 0.60M Focus: 20 0.85M Southern Africa Solutions Users HQ: 43 3.9M Focus: 46 5.8M Source: © CTA 2019 EU Financing Figure 25 Most D4Ag enterprises are now generating some earned revenues 117 Emergingnumber ofdigital solutions range survey respondents 82 from and value chain orchestration. For example, by use case Never generate revenue advisory and extension services 7 to e-market 75 combining dense networks of automated rain 3 places and applications enhancing 4 financial 4 gauges with earth observation Will generate revenue data enables access. In Mali and Senegal, MyAgro, a banks to develop clearer Generating risk profiles of farmers, revenue nonprofit, has become a successful mobile decreasing the cost of agricultural credit and layaway platform, allowing at present around weather insurance (Traore 2020). 71 39 50,0000 farmers to pay for seeds, fertilizer, and 68 2 4 31 29 training via piecemeal1 1 instalments. Users of the To fully harness 2 the potential of 2 application report 50–100 percent increases in digital 33 solutions and expand business 29 harvest yields, corresponding to an additional opportunities, the region 25 needs to tackle income of US$128–390 per farmer (IFC 2018). a variety of barriers including but not A noteworthy example Financial private-public Market limited toSupply of a Advisory human capacity Data constraints, weak access services linkages chain systems partnership is Senegal-based agCelerant. data infrastructure, and the absence of a Resulting from a partnership between CGIAR regulatory framework related to data and institutes and a private organization (Manobi) privacy. The CTA Report “The Digitalisation and EU- Horizon 2020 funding, this innovation of African Agriculture” coauthored by Tsan program aims to connect smallholders with et al. (2019) concludes that access to mobile credit, insurance, and input and output phones will unlikely pose major hurdles for the markets. It aims to leverage both Internet of scaling of digital solutions in the medium term. Things (IoT) and earth observation data for Based on current trends, more than 80 percent data ecosystems that allow an increase in of smallhold households will have access to smallholder access to credit and insurance at least one mobile phone with sufficient A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas connectivity. According to Tsan et al. (2019), the and farmer-specific data. Individual operators region should address the following stumbling are poorly placed for building data ecosystems blocks to allow digital technologies to play a by themselves. Much greater investments are transformative role: First, digital literacy among needed in providing such data as public goods officials in the public sector and smallholder based on which digital providers can build their farmers needs to be improved. Related to solutions and tailor them to the specific needs that, the regional research system should of their target groups. Third, related to the increase investments to harness the potential need for a publicly funded data infrastructure, of an increasingly tech-savvy and youthful is the necessity of an appropriate regulatory population by supporting start-up ecosystems framework on data. At present, there is no and encouraging youth involvement dedicated digital policy at the ECOWAS or CILSS in incubators, university initiative and level. Apart from providing safe legal operating accelerators. Second, “the missing middleware space for the creators of digital solutions, a core infrastructure” needs strengthening. Digital objective of a digital legal framework should solutions require availability of a wide range of be to safeguard the interests of producers and data encompassing weather data, data on pests other value chain actors. and diseases, soil mapping, market information Adoption barriers for CSA technologies D 118 espite the multiple efforts to promote 900 households in CSVs across Niger, Ghana, CSA scaleup, regional adoption of and Mali identified poor technical capacity, climate-resilient technologies both limited availability of inputs and equipment for on a farm and landscape level remains implementing CSA technologies and practices unsatisfactory. Evidence suggests that as well as low dissemination of information on context-specific biophysical, social, economic, CSA as the most important constraints to CSA and political factors inhibit farmer uptake of uptake (Ouédraogo et al. 2018). CSA practices such as sustainable resource management (Cordingley et al. 2015). Past adoption of CSA and SLM innovations Biophysical adoption determinants include soil frequently failed to materialize as fertility, pests, and unreliable rainfall (Sietz and interventions focused too narrowly on Van Dijk 2015) while social factors run the gamut biophysical problems while ignoring from low resource endowments, insecure land socioeconomic conditions both at tenure, limited extension and infrastructure, household and landscape level. For example, unreliable market prices for agricultural low labor availability within households products, and a lack of credit access (Adimassu, frequently prevents farmers from adopting Kessler, and Hengsdijk 2012; Kassie et al. 2015). labor-intensive soil and water conservation Frequently mentioned barriers to CSA adoption techniques such as zai pits or contour bunds in West Africa include high upfront costs, lack of (also referred to as “digues filtrantes”). The awareness of CSA, chronically low access to loans absence of land security disincentivizes farmers’ to make on-farm investments and purchase long-term investments into soil health. Food inputs, and an absence of financial incentives system aspects such as processing, transport, due to a poor market access (Bayala et al. 2016; and distribution of food products are also Ouédraogo et al. 2015). A recent participatory crucial adoption determinants but appear to be study observing CSA uptake of approximately underresearched (Barnard et al. 2015). A meta- analysis found that SLM adoption in West Africa the observed gender gap (O’Sullivan et al. 2014). is an emergent property of farming systems This includes, for example, the gradual exiting requiring the simultaneous occurrence and of men from agricultural production, which interaction of both socially and biophysically frequently sees on-farm labor requirements for favorable conditions. Furthermore, adoption of women rise. These gender-based constraints CSA practices may not last if farmers abandon imply that women may benefit less from new techniques to respond to pressing short- CSA technologies. A case study on uptake of term financing pressures (Barnard et al. 2015). drought-tolerant maize in Uganda concluded A lack of knowledge and advisory through that women might be indeed more exposed extension services often means that adoption to the identified adoption barriers than men of improved technologies is only partial, (Mastenbroek et al. 2020). To ensure that CSA preventing farmers from achieving higher technologies benefit both genders equally, productivity gains. For example, an empirical a gender-responsive approach needs to be investigation employing Living Standard adopted. This implies adequately recognizing Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on and addressing the “specific realities, needs and Agriculture (LSMS-ISA) data to detect input use priorities of women and men in the design and patterns in Africa found that only a fraction of application of CSA” (WBG, FAO, and IFAD 2015). Nigerien farmers pair modern agri-inputs such Accordingly, interventions promoting CSA must as inorganic fertilizer and improved seeds in a consider implications for labor distribution and synergistic way, leading to forgone production labor impacts on all household members and benefits (Sheahan and Barrett 2017). adopt gender-sensitive indicators to measure progress in narrowing the agricultural gender Gender-based constraints slow down CSA gap (Huyer et al. 2015). 119 adoption by female farmers and need to be addressed to decrease the persisting In sum, adoption barriers include a lack productivity gap between men and women. of market access, insufficient knowledge As mentioned in Part One “An Overview of the dissemination, poor access to inputs, and Current State of West African Food System”, gender-based constraints. After a brief evidence from Nigeria and Niger suggests a synthesis of the importance of lessons for persisting productivity gap between male and scaling up CSA, this section continues with female producers in the region. In addition to a more detailed discussion of extension and structural barriers such as less control over land, knowledge delivery services before turning low access to resources, and limited agency to recent developments on farmers’ access to in agricultural decision-making, ongoing input and credit. socioeconomic changes may also contribute to Lessons for scaling up CSA technologies I nterventions should systematically example, CSA interventions should emphasize incorporate scaling considerations during adaptive capacity over having the perfect both design and implementation. Based plan at an early stage, as successful scaling on a review of evidence from across the normally involves repeated changes in strategy developing world, the scaleup sourcebook and intervention design during innovation proposes several lessons that should be applied rollout and must be supported by “theories when promoting CSA (Cooley et al. 2019). For of scaling” complementing technical theories A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas of change. To drive adoption, the whole value members with adequate marketing, financial, chain needs to be considered from the outset and technical services for better market access. of any intervention through forming strong partnerships with value chain actors that can The importance of functioning value chains provide equipment leasing, input provision cannot be understated. While a detailed and aggregation services. Such partnerships discussion of requirements for functioning could also encourage local agro-input dealers value chains is certainly beyond the scope of this and service providers to offer extension and section, it is essential to take them into account. product verification services to farmers who It is widely acknowledged that West Africa are currently underserved by public extension had the lowest commodity transformation services (Cooley et al. 2019). rate in the whole continent. A case in point is the success of (imported) rice progressively Markets are needed to catalyze change and replacing millet in Mali and Senegal. Although producer organizations can play a central certainly not the only reason, this development role in better linking smallholders with is at least in part due to the ease of preparing markets. Existing output markets are core rice compared with millet, which requires a requirements for encouraging farmers to adopt cumbersome and time-consuming cooking new technologies (for example, seeds) with process. In the absence of transforming millet increased yield potential and practices. The into a more convenient product, it is unlikely prospect of generating income from selling that it will present an attractive choice for surplus produce on domestic or regional farmers despite its good overall fit with climate markets is a key driver for CSA adoption. When conditions. 120 farmers feel certain about market opportunities, they make efforts to adapt. Farmers in Burkina In essence, scaling CSA requires perceiving Faso have started growing tomatoes after farmers as a business actor instead of learning from traders that city dwellers in beneficiaries of development interventions. Ghana and Togo would buy these at a higher Development assistance alone, while being margin than previously cultivated staple crops. able to make important contributions, cannot According to anecdotal evidence, no extension drive adoption rates to the levels needed for agent had come to the village to educate agricultural transformation. As described in them. The importance of available distribution the paragraph above, commercial markets channels is also underlined by a telling and a conducive policy environment shaping example of CSA disadoption. In the context producers’ incentives are vital scaling forces of WAAPP, a high-yielding manioc cultivar with the potential to catalyze positive change developed by a regional research center and for more farmers and value chain actors than subsequently piloted with farmers in Ghana. projects ever could. Commercial scaling up Yet despite high yields, farmers abandoned requires a perception change toward viewing the varietal in the following cropping season farms as businesses and customers rather than when they were unable to sell their harvest. as beneficiaries. This said, given the importance In West Africa, producer organizations are of the enabling environment as a driver frequently considered a key actor with the for scaleup, future initiatives and programs potential to facilitate farmers’ market access should focus more on facilitating policy and strengthening value chains. A promising change as opposed to simply taking the policy avenue could thus be to improve the capacity environment as a given (Cooley et al. 2019). of producer organizations in providing their Extension services and delivery mechanisms A major problem hindering the promoting new technologies coming fresh out dissemination and uptake of CSA of the laboratory.26 practices lies in the generally low awareness of farmers. This is in part due to Developing participatory pluralistic patchy and outdated national agricultural extension systems comprised of a wide extension services across the region. With few range of actors is important for ensuring exceptions, extension services in the region widespread and inclusive CSA scale-up. are understaffed, insufficiently resourced, and The need for including actors such as farmer aging. In Ghana, for example, extension agent and civil society organizations, agribusiness, to farmer ratio is 1 to over 1000 (Opare and and research is now widely acknowledged by Wrigley-Asante 2008). In Mali, the average age of policymakers, academia, and development extensionists is 50 years (Simpson and Dembélé practitioners. Examples of pluralistic extension 2011). Moreover, extension agents lack both delivery mechanisms consist in farmer or up-to-date knowledge to address new demand community-led extension services which and the skills to assist farmers with adopting promote peer-to-peer learnings, public- innovative CSA practices. Furthermore, private partnerships, and initiatives by the traditional state-led top-down technology private sector. So far, however, existing “de- transfer approaches excluding farmers from facto pluralistic extension systems” have been technology development and dissemination often unsystematic, weak, uncoordinated, and have rarely proven effective in responding to dependent on short-term project funding (Sala, 121 the highly variable individual needs of farmers. Rossi, and David 2016). In recent years, new Also, extension services have adopted an approaches such as participatory innovation overly one-sided emphasis on technology that platforms (for example, under WAAPP), and failed to address adoption barriers emanating climate-smart villages (for example, under from cultural and gender dimensions. More CCAFS) bringing together research, producers, broadly speaking, a modern extension system and extension workers, have emerged as a should be geared toward creating a favorable new instrument to accelerate the diffusion of environment for encouraging behavioral and uptake and adoption of improved technologies organizational change instead of mechanically and practices. Digital farmer advisory N ew digital extension tools have the example, via telecommunications (for example, potential to enable widespread through text messages) it has become possible access to information given recent to disseminate agronomic, climatic, and market breakthroughs in information technology information to a greater number of farmers and increasing penetration of mobile than ever before. Digital climate information phones (see box 2.3 and figure 2.4). For advisory services draw on intraseasonal 26 In addition, extension services should be responsive to farmers’ differing abilities to adopt new technologies. For example, extension information should be adjusted to local conditions by considering resource constraints, land holding modalities, risk perils, and so on. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas weather and seasonal climate outlook to inform Agricultural Services and Digital Inclusion in farmers on farm decision-making, for example, Africa (ASDIA), an initiative launched in 2020 for informing farmers on suitable crops and by the FAO in Senegal, is another example planting dates (Partey et al. 2018; Zougmoré et of recent efforts to tap into the potential of al. 2016). For instance, in Senegal, intraseasonal digital farmer advisory. This service provides weather and seasonal climate outlooks seasonal and daily weather forecasts along reach approximately 740,000 households with information on best practices spanning via a large number of rural community- land preparation, optimal harvest times, market based radio stations (CCAFS 2016). Although prices, animal and human health, and nutrition scientific findings on costs and benefits of information to initially around 100,000 rural such technologies are still scarce (Partey et al. producers. Including an application dedicated 2018), some studies indicate that profitability of to preventing and mitigating the spread farmers using climate advisory services is higher of COVID-19, the advisory tool is available thanks to a reduced and more targeted use of via mobile applications, websites, and SMS inputs (CCAFS 2016). Digitally disseminated broadcasting. To disseminate the application, advice can involve a broad range of thematic ASDIA collaborates with Senegal’s national areas spanning correct land preparation agency for rural agricultural advice (ANCAR), techniques, pest and disease management, whose extension agents will train producer and timely market price information. networks that will then sensitize their members to the application’s benefits. 122 BOX 2.3 A Promising Delivery Model for Providing Climate Information Services New promising agricultural service delivery models have recently emerged. Between 2011 and 2017, CCAFS West Africa successfully piloted a public-private partnership (PPP) model centered on delivering climate information services (CIS) to farmers though a mobile phone platform. The ICT-based delivery model includes ASOKO, a Ghanaian agricultural profiling and messaging service and private ICT firms such as Toto Agriculture, aWhere, and Vodafone Ghana. The public institutions involved in the PPP include the Ghanaian Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFa), the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet), and the Council for Industrial and Scientific Research (CSIR). Toto Agriculture, aWhere, and GMet provide daily, weekly, and seasonal weather information to ESOKO. The company then processes and delivers this information via Vodafone-supplied mobile services such as text messages and a hotline to the farmers. CSIR and MoFA advise farmers on the suitable CSA-options based on the received information and assist farmers navigating reception and handling of the information. Within two years, this ongoing public-private partnership now reaches over 300,000 paying subscribers (21 percent women) and might constitute a model that could be rolled out across the region (Partey et al. 2019). FIGURE 2.4 Scaling Up Climate Information Services (CIS) Through Public-Private Partnership Business Models Partnership Business Models Figure 2. Public-private Source: S. T. Partey,model partnership G. K. Nikoi, M. Ouédraogo, for climate and information R. B. Zougmoré services in Ghana 2019 Preliminary results Further Reading Relying on a light-touch information Recent surveys indicate that more than 300,000 (21% relied  Etwire upon PM, Buah for delivering S, Ouédraogo extension M, Zougmoré R, services. women) farmers subscribed and are now being 123 dissemination strategy without putting served with CIS and market alerts through the PPP. OnePartey ST, Martey E, Dayamba, SD and Bayala J example is the USAID-led (2017) An assessment of mobile phone-based Nataal Mbay This also includes farmers from the PFJ program. boots on the ground is not enough. To Interviewed farmers indicated their interest to project, where producer networks were trained dissemination of weather and market information in the Upper West Region of Ghana. Agriculture and Food continuously receive weather forecast, market alerts achieve lasting impact and the desired and agro-advisory services through the Esoko enhance to Security the 6: 8. DOI capacity of their own members 10.1186/s40066-016-0088-y behavioral changes, digital extension needs platform. through  Partey ST, trainingZougmoré Dakorah AD, in best agricultural, RB, Ouédraogo M, quality Nyasimi M, Kotey GN, Huyer S (2018) Gender and to be coupled with more interactive Conclusions follow-up and policy implications control, and climate risk postharvest management: practices. of climate The project evidence information use in Ghana. Climatic Change pp 1-15(in training through traditional state-led extension With over 300,000 subscribers within 2 years, this also trained press). farmers in basic data literacy to https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-018-2239-6 ongoing PPP has the potential to reach millions of community-led services or farmers in Ghana with climate engagement. information services measure  their Partey S, Nikoi fields GK (2019) and help A CCAFS-informed them to make public- (CIS). The linkage with the Planting for Food and Jobs private partnership reaches 300,000 farmers with initiative ofis Technology adoption much the more Government likely of Ghana if field is strategic to more informed climate decisions information. CCAFS blog on seeds and fertilizer staff sensitizes farmers to the value of digitally make a strong case for the mainstreaming of CIS into agricultural development programs, strategies and post.https://ccafs.cgiar.org/news/ccafs-informed- use. The project worked with 123 producer public-private-partnership-reaches-300000-farmers- provided advice and policies subsequently in Ghana. supports This notwithstanding, more networks that integrated farmer-owned and climate-information#.XS8a2ZP7SL8 evidence on the drivers of success and risks of the the farmer in PPP choosing are and needed to applying ensure the successful farmer-led extension systems comprising operationalization and long-term sustenance of information most relevant to their individual the model. 771 network field agents and is credited with needs. It is widely understood that farmers learn having reached over 150,000 beneficiaries and best from farmers. Thus, producer organizations average household income gains in the order should be Csystematically CAFS INFO NOTE strengthened and of US$1,000 (Poublanc 2019). 3 Access to inputs P oor access to inputs including improved agricultural production increases was achieved seeds, fertilizers, and machinery have through expansion of cultivated land instead of constrained yield growth over the last yield growth (Keyser et al. 2015). Average staple few decades. In the last 30 years, a large part of crop yields in West Africa, which amount to less A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas than 1.5 tons per hectare for key cereals (millet, improved seeds that no longer provide sorghum maize, and rice) remain among the yield advantages due to over-recycling. lowest in the world and have shown little Estimates related to the uptake of improved improvement in recent years (Nin-Pratt et al. varietals found in scientific and gray literature 2011). Providing access to inputs including vary considerable but generally point to low improved seeds and fertilizers is crucial to levels of adoption. Compared with other enable producers to improve yields. Using high African subregions, West Africa has the lowest quality seeds and fertilizer could allow farmers adoption rates of improved seed varietals and to double or triple yields of major cereals a low supply of open pollinated varieties and with relative ease (Nin-Pratt et al. 2011). While hybrid seeds (Keyser et al. 2015). According inputs for industrial cash crops such as cotton to adoption estimates by CGIAR (2018), across are often supplied to farmers by processors West and Central Africa the average area planted in more integrated value chains, food staples with improved varieties of the nine dryland remain underserved. cereals and legumes amounts to 27 percent. In Nigeria, a recent peer-reviewed study asserts Major factors inhibiting widespread input that improved varieties are sown on only 5–10 use include the long distances to reach percent of land under acreage by about 10 distribution points of improved seed and percent of rural farmers (Uduji and Okolo-Obasi fertilizer, high prices, uncertain quality, and 2018). Cultivated area shares planted with a lack of technical capacity for proper input optimized varietals of sorghum, a key staple usage due to low availability of extension crop for food security of poor households, services (AfDB 2019; Maur and Shepherd 2015). is estimated at 3 percent in Burkina Faso, 15 124 Moreover, prices of agri-inputs vary excessively percent in Niger, and 20 percent in Nigeria from country to country, which complicates (Ndjeunga, Mausch, and Simtowe 2015). Past economies of scale. Both anecdotal and and major stumbling blocks slowing adoption empirical evidence (see, for example, Dillon and rates of improved food crop cultivars include Barrett 2014) indicate that agricultural factor underdeveloped commercial seed distribution markets remain dysfunctional, constraining channels and an understandable risk aversion of the ability of smallholder farmers to achieve resource-poor farmers to pay cash for varietals higher productivity. It is important to note with dubious advantages (Smale et al. 2018). that higher input usage appears to be strongly correlated with market integration. Levels of Market integration seems to play an mechanization remain low in West Africa. The important role in the adoption of improved picture related to adoption of machinery and seeds. Market incentives are a significant driver mechanized tools replacing manual labor is in encouraging farmers to adopt improved little different. Although investments have varietals or diversify to higher-value crops. For risen over time, they remain inferior to those of vertically integrated value chains such as rice other countries on the continent. For example, grown in the river valley of Senegal or cotton, in 2012, Morocco, Kenya, and South Africa all adoption rates of improved varietals approach featured higher levels of investments in tractors 100 percent. Commercial seed producers per hectare than any of the West African nations. have little incentive to enhance production Land tenure insecurity constitutes a key issue capacities for improved staple crop varietals discouraging investment into mechanization given the lack of integrated value chains for key (Zhou 2016). staples including sorghum and millet. Most farmers still rely on unimproved Low usage rates also apply to fertilizers, seeds such as traditional landraces or severely limiting the ability of West African farmers to achieve high crop yields. Signed zones cutting across country borders, West in 2006 by the African heads of state, the African governments have regarded regional Abuja Declaration set the objective of reaching collaboration as a key lever for increasing fertilizer application levels of 50kg of nutrients input availability, including through achieving per hectare of cultivated land. Recent estimates economies of scale, technology spillover, suggest that fertilizer use in West Africa and trade facilitation. In 2012, ECOWAS, remains the lowest in the world, remaining well in coordination with UEMOA, adopted below 20kg/ha (AfDB 2019). The naturally low harmonized procedures for variety release availability of nitrogen and phosphorus in West and seed certification aimed at improving African soils (Bationo, Egulu, and Vargas 2013) quality and facilitate regional transactions. An makes the application of fertilizers particularly analogous regulatory harmonization process important. Without adding nutrients, continued for fertilizer established, among other things, cropping results in soil nutrient depletion and truth in labeling and harmonized quality control thus lower yields. Applying inorganic fertilizer standards. To benefit from harmonized trade also is required to realize the full potential of of inputs, countries were asked to undertake improved varietals. Poor soil health across Africa several specific steps such as establishing has been estimated to limit yield increases national bodies for seed and fertilizer control from genetically improved plant material to and publishing regional regulation in national only 28 percent in Africa as compared with gazettes (Maur and Shepherd 2015). 88 percent in Asia (Evenson and Gollin 2003). Fertilizer usage has been constrained by high Recent regional projects including WASP, costs at farm gate, often linked to logistics, West African Fertilizer Program (WAFP), and a lack of timely access (Liverpool-Tasie et and WAAPP have sought to support 125 al. 2015). Recent estimates suggest that half of regional organizations in increasing input the fertilizer costs are related to its distribution availability with respect to both seeds (CRU Consulting 2017). To increase fertilizer and fertilizer. As mentioned before, WAAPP use, many West African countries have various has developed many new seed varietals. fertilizer subsidy programs which vary widely Between 2012 and 2017, the USAID-funded in design. At present, however, the cost- WASP and West African Fertilizer Program effectiveness, performance, and sustainability (WAFP), respectively implemented by CORAF of these programs has been called into and the International Fertilizer Development question (Goyal and Nash 2016; USAID 2019). Center (IFDC), who were given a mandate to From a food security standpoint, it appears facilitate implementation of regional regulation suboptimal that fertilizers are mainly used for in member countries and promote better cash crops (AfDB 2019). As with seeds, market private sector involvement and organization linkage is a powerful driver of adoption. For in both seed and fertilizer industries. Apart example, anecdotal evidence suggests that from providing technical assistance for the cotton growers are prepared to pay high prices implementation of regional seed policy, WASP and receive the loans for fertilizer as they can activities included, for example, facilitating links be sure of selling their produce year after year. among research institutions, seed producers, certifiers, and farmers by creating a multiactor ECOWAS and UEMOA are trying to increase regional-level seed alliance and support to the the availability of improved inputs by private sector to increase its ability to produce promoting the harmonization of seed and certified seeds. WAFP featured analogous fertilizer policy and regulations across West components to enhance fertilizer availability Africa. They are also supporting the emergence by improving private sector capacity for supply of a strong private sector. With agroecological and distribution by forming a private sector- A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas led Fertilizer Trade Association and technical (USAID 2017b). In the fertilizer sector, a recently assistance for implementing regional fertilizer organized West African Financing Fertilizer regulation. Furthermore, WAFP developed up- Forum named limited access to finance, to-date fertilizer recommendations to suppliers underdeveloped logistics, and an absence and users and facilitated recommendations for of quality control as key stumbling blocks national subsidy programs. Building on WAFP, weighing on the dynamism of the sector (AfDB the follow-up project EnGRAIS, again led by 2019). Furthermore, member states still lack CORAF and financed by USAID (2018–2023), necessary technical, human, equipment, and seeks to promote effective private sector-led financial resources for effective implementation fertilizer markets, for example, by supporting of the harmonized regional legal framework private sector associations such as WAFA. The concerning quality control (Diagana et al. 2018). objectives of “PAIRED,” a CORAF-managed project that will follow WASP and is currently Input production should be based on being prepared, include improving seed comparative advantage. Inputs should be registration procedures, addressing persisting produced in areas with a proven comparative trade barriers, and fostering private sector advantage and freely traded across the whole involvement. region. Some countries may have comparative advantages over certain inputs and have WAAPP, WASP, and WAFP have made facilities that are well placed to supply the progress in increasing input availability, whole region. Such champions should be but the private sector is still unable to systematically identified, strengthened, and ensure producers’ broad-based access to valued. Although this may be politically 126 high quality inputs and regional trade of challenging since every country aspires to a seeds continues to face barriers.27 According maximum degree of autonomy, strengthening to a midterm evaluation of WASP, 12 out of existing production units with high potential 17 ECOWAS, UEMOA, and CILSS member would be a more cost-effective approach than countries have published the ECOWAS regional attempting to set up input factories in every seed regulation in their national gazettes. country. Furthermore, 17 countries established a National Seed Committee and high implementation rates at the national level have been observed. But challenges remain. Control, certification, and quality assurance services do not yet allow for an efficient and viable seed system in West Africa. In many countries, the seed sector still faces a lack of political support (for example, access to loans and prerogative to produce foundation seeds) and incentives to step up production 27 At the time of writing, the development of a regional agri-input strategy is ongoing. Led by ECOWAS and coordinated by CORAF, its specific objective is to “Enhance the availability, accessibility and use of quality agri-inputs (seed and fertilizers) for priority crops in West Africa.” The draft strategy has been validated by national stakeholders and is now ready for presentation and adoption by the council of ministers. The potential of digital technologies to improve targeting of public support for producers T he World Bank report “Future of Food: smallholders at a cost of approximately US$96 Harnessing Digital Technologies to million. The system also created opportunities Improve Food System Outcomes” for the private sector while facilitating (Townsend et al. 2019) details opportunities financial inclusion of farmers. A review of for how public services can be improved pilot e-voucher programs for subsidized farm using digital technologies such as e-wallets. inputs covering Guinea, Mali, and Niger that is Nigeria provides a case in point as for how cited in the report highlights several success e-wallet programs for subsidized fertilizers factors. For e-wallet programs to be impactful, can improve coverage of beneficiaries while mobile phone coverage, actual mobile phone reducing leakages and costs. In 2011, the possession by intended beneficiaries, especially government spent approximately US$180 women, program literacy, and knowledge million for 600,000–800,000 smallholders. Few and availability of farm inputs at right time of of the intended beneficiaries received the season through well-organized agro-dealers funds. In 2013, an innovative e-wallet digital with functioning procurement channels are key payment system allowed to support 4.3 million (Townsend et al. 2019 and references therein). Access to credit 127 A ccess to credit for smallhold farmers climate-smart agricultural technologies. One continues to be low for a variety of big hindrance consists in unclear land tenure reasons, including insecure land and usage modalities; these often mean that tenure, unknown or high-risk profiles, and producers cannot provide enough collateral to a lack of market integration (see box 2.4). qualify for loans. General use of agricultural credit to purchase inputs is low. For example, according to the recently collected LSMS-ISA, less than 1 percent of agricultural households in Niger indicated that they received credit to purchase agrochemicals or inorganic fertilizers (Sheahan and Barrett 2017). Based on a survey of 15,850 farms in Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, and Senegal, only 11 percent of smallhold producers have regular access to agricultural loans. The difficulty of accessing loans is a major constraint hindering the adoption of A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas BOX 2.4 Land Tenure and Rights to Resource Usage Land tenure security plays a key role in encouraging on-farm investments, from improving soil health to adopting climate-smart agricultural technologies and practices. Empirical evidence finds that land tenure security drives productive and environmentally beneficial agricultural investments and may empower women under certain circumstances (Higgins et al. 2018). A regional study conducted in West Africa found that secure land tenure encourages farmers to plant trees and take measures that increase soil fertility (Fenske 2011). Generally, West African women are disadvantaged, and their lack of land access holds back productivity increases (Gnisci 2016). Studies also suggest gender-specific effects. For example, women with land security were more committed than men to long-term soil fertility investments by letting land lie fallow (Goldstein et al. 2015). Conferring land rights and use rights to producers, including the right to benefit from natural resources such as trees, is thus very important. When farmers lack these rights, they also lack incentives to improve or restore lands and resources, actions with long-term benefits such as natural tree regeneration. Securing land and resource rights are thus key to promoting investments into soil health and inputs. There is also potential in combining the decentralization of decision-making authority with measures to ensure land tenure. When municipalities can freely decide how to use land, they are more likely to invest in productive infrastructure such as dams for irrigation. A Burkinabe expert cited an example of a village where rain-fed rice fields were upgraded to irrigated rice when land rights were transferred to the village and a cooperative management structure put in place. 128 It is hard to establish equitable and effective land tenure arrangements given high demographic growth rates, increasing conflicts between herders and farmers, emerging and sometimes predatory land markets, and traditional land customs that are sometimes at odds with formal land titles. WAMEU (West African Economic and Monetary Union) is in the process of setting up a Regional Land Observatory in West Africa (ORFAO) to advise decision-makers on land tenure policy questions. Once operational, the observatory will monitor land tenure policies and log lessons learned and best practices to inform policymakers. ECOWAS has signaled interest in expanding the observatory to anglophone countries. Commercial banks are reluctant to lend to for production increases are duly implemented. producers with unknown risk profiles. These Preventing adverse selection and moral hazard, typically result in prohibitive interest rates such a data-driven approach might bring down that small-scale producers are unable to bear. the cost of credit considerably and accordingly Recent technological advances might provide expand credit coverage of smallholders. At an avenue to ease up credit flows to producers. present, the WAICSA, currently scheduled for For example, establishing a dense data implementation in 2020 through the ECOWAS ecosystem based on the combining satellite Bank for Investment and Development in imagery and mobile field data could lead to collaboration with ARAA (Regional Agency more precise risk profiles, allowing banks to for Agriculture and Food), is the most recent cost-effectively verify whether CSA practices initiative at regional level aiming at facilitating access to agricultural credit by providing Farmer organizations collect and aggregate subsidized low interest loans to both farmers data both on a plot and farmer organization and agribusiness through mobilizing public level. While farmers receive information on their and concessional capital. farm’s performance (cultivated area, yields/ha, and profitability), farm data is aggregated at the Digital agriculture may have the potential producer organization level, giving an overview to make credit access, and thus access to of overall quantities produced and marketed. inputs, more widespread. In the USAID- Accurate data about their operations enables financed Naatal Mbay project in Senegal, producer organizations to apply for bank loans. farmer organizations were trained to engage in Farmer organizations also use this data to systematic gathering of data at different scales negotiate better deals with input providers and and leverage the former to obtain better access processors (USAID 2017a). to credits, and, by extension, agricultural inputs. Initiative Mapping T able 2.1 (below) provides an overview initiative mapping contained in the ECOWAS of selected initiatives and projects, RAIP, the overview is not intended as a complete either ongoing or under preparation, collection of all existing initiatives but focuses that relate to the priority intervention area of on programs which are (a) regional in scope strengthening the sustainability of the food and (b) considered most relevant and impactful system’s productive base. Building on an at regional level 129 TABLE 2.1 Initiative Mapping for Strengthening the Sustainability of the Food System’s Productive Base Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Technologies for African Agricultural Transformation (TAAT) (1) Selecting promising Harness proven technologies technologies to raise around eight priority SSA including agricultural productivity intervention areas for ECOWAS/ in Africa; mitigate dissemination and risks and promote scale up through TAAT CILSS CGIAR centers, Grant; AfDB diversification and clearing house Member NARES, FARA 2018–25 processing in 18 (2) Harmonizing crop States agricultural value chains variety regulation across within eight priority countries to fast-track intervention areas release and adoption of new technologies A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume EnGRAIS (1) Provide input recommendations and packages for key crops and agroecological Develop well- zones 2018–23; functioning private (2) Facilitate ECOWAS Grant; Base sector-led fertilizer implementation Member IFDC USAID funding US$10 markets at regional and of fertilizer States million national levels recommendation (3) Mobilize and engage key stakeholders at national and subnational levels PAIRED (Partnership for Agricultural Research, Education, and Development in West Africa) 1) Strengthen stakeholder capacity of stakeholders within the 130 To strengthen agri-input value chains CORAF and increase (2) Link the agri- ECOWAS 2017–22; the production, input system to crop Member CORAF USAID Grant; US$15 technological upscaling, management practices States million and availability of quality as a package agri-inputs (3) Improve and harmonize regional input regulation West Africa Breeding Networks and Extension Empowerment (ABEE) Dryland crop varietal improvement. Support CORAF, CIRAD, Fostering breeding to breeding networks AfricaRice/ networks and and modernized institutional breeding Burkina Faso, Integrated Grant; 2020– breeding capacity in capacity in West Africa Mali, Niger, Breeding Platform EU 25 US$8.8 West Africa to develop to develop climate- Senegal National Institutes million climate-resilient resilient crops for African of Agronomic crops and delivery of smallholder farmers Research improved varieties to smallholders Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume AICCRA (Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa) (1) Development of ag-data hubs, design of climate service and visualization tools and dissemination systems, Increase access for and strengthening agriculture research of partnerships for and extension service the delivery of early providers in Africa warnings, climate to knowledge, 2020–23; services, and climate- technologies, and Mali, Ghana, World Grant; US$60 informed digital CGIAR decision-making tools Senegal Bank million (across agroadvisory to support relevant to enhancing all of SSA) agricultural decision- the resilience of making agriculture and food (2) Identify tailored systems in the face of CIS and digital climate change agroadvisory packages for use in building new extension systems or strengthening existing extension systems 131 Support Project to the Agroecological Transition in West Africa (PATAE) and Additional Support (1) Support for the agroecological transition of family farms through support to producer organizations to Burkina Faso, 2018–24; Improve the promote sustainable Côte d’Ivoire, Grant; € 8,96 performance and collective management Mali, Senegal, ARAA (mandated million + resilience of family of natural resources at Togo, to be AFD by ECOWAS) € 8 million farming to climate the village level (village extended to additional changes lands, watersheds, and all ECOWAS financing irrigated perimeters) countries 2) Support for capacity building in contribution to policy formulation in ECOWAS member countries A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Pan-African Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI) 20 African countries, To restore 100 million including hectares of currently Multiple Specific activities are Mali, Niger, Decentralized degraded land, technical depend on location and Chad, Ghana, implementation: sequester 250 million partners 2007–30 contributing projects Mauritania, AU provides tons of carbon, and and and programs. Benin, leadership create 10 million jobs in donors Senegal, rural areas Nigeria, The Gambia Regional Pastoralism Support Program in the Sahel (PRAPS I + II) (1) Animal health Improve access to improvement and CILSS; FAO could productive assets, veterinary medicines make important 2015–21 services, and markets control logistical (PRAPS I), for pastoralists and (2) Sustainable Burkina Faso, contributions Grant/Loan; agropastoralists in landscape management Chad, Mali, given comparative World Indicative transborder areas and and governance Mauritania, advantage in Bank US$335 million 132 along transhumance (3) Livestock value Niger, Senegal epidemiological (US$20 million corridors and strengthen chains improvement monitoring, earmarked for country capacities to (4) Improving social and transboundary CILSS) respond to pastoral economic inclusion of pest management crises or emergencies women and youth Regional Dialogue and Investment for Pastoralism and Transhumance in the Sahel and Coastal Countries of West Africa Project (PREDIP) (1) Improve knowledge management of pastoralism and transhumance Strengthen the (2) Facilitate Mali, Burkina contribution of peaceful transborder Faso, Niger, 2018–23; pastoralism to food transhumance CILSS Côte d’Ivoire, EU Grant; US$27.5 security, socioeconomic (3) Secure herd (coordination) Ghana, Togo, million development, and movement and and Benin, Nigeria regional integration provide herders with market and resource access (4) Control transborder animal diseases Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume One Million Cisterns for the Sahel Initiative (1) Ensure better access to clean water during the dry season through the construction of rainwater harvesting and storage systems (cisterns) (2) Support climate- Enable widespread resilient agricultural access to drinking water production by providing and enhance agricultural agroecological inputs production through Burkina Faso, Resource Program (3) introduction of FAO (Sub- promotion of rainwater Chad, The mobili- currently social safety nets mainly Regional Office for harvesting and storage Gambia, Mali, zation under through cash-for-work West Africa) systems for vulnerable Niger, Senegal ongoing preparation activities communities, especially (4) Capacity-building women through cistern construction, use and maintenance of cisterns; good water management techniques; and 133 adaptation to climate change in agriculture and agroecology West African Initiative for CSA (WAICSA) 1) Mobilize public and concessional capital to provide subsidized low interest loans to ECOWAS Scaleup adoption of CSA smallholders (90,000 region through blended finance households) and (instrument fund providing technical ECOWAS Bank for agribusinesses in will be Not yet 2020–27; assistance and accessible Investment and collaboration with local piloted in deter- Loans; US$80 credit to smallhold Development financial institutions six countries mined million farmers and subsidized (EBID) (2) provide technical within the loans or guarantees to guidance on CSA next two small-scale farmers implementation to years) facilitate adoption and increase loan compliance A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Scaling up Agroecology Initiative Dissemination of Possible agroecological partners Program ECOWAS FAO (Sub- practices (both for include currently Not yet defined Member Regional Office for uptake by farmers IFAD, under States West Africa) and consideration by AFD, EU, preparation research system) WB Promoting CSA (1) Dissemination of climate-resilient practices related at local level (2) Integration of Benin, Burkina Reduce farmers’ and climate-resilient West African 2018–22; Faso, Ghana, Adapta- pastoralists’ vulnerability practices into national Development Grant; US$14 Niger, and tion Fund to climate change strategies, policies, and Bank/ARAA million Togo projects (3) Knowledge management related 134 to climate-resilient agricultural practices Regional Program for the Restoration of Degraded Agricultural Land in West Africa (in planning) TBD - Outcome of validation workshop Generate and held from March 11–13, disseminate 2020 in Lome not yet technological and publicly available. organizational Programme will be innovations and based on the learnings ECOWAS strengthen the enabling TBD TBD TBD of the Regional region environment for the Programme for SLM and establishment of an Adaptation to Climate investment fund for the Change in the Sahel restoration of degraded and West Africa (PRGDT) agricultural land funded by the EU between 2011–2017. Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Regional Support Initiative for Irrigation in the Sahel Project (PARIIS-SIIP) (TBD - Outcome of validation workshop Generate and held from March 11 to disseminate 13 2020 in Lome not technological and yet publicly available at organizational time of writing. Program innovations and will be based on the ECOWAS strengthen the enabling TBD TBD TBD learnings of the Regional region environment for the Programme for SLM and establishment of an Adaptation to Climate Investment Fund for the Change in the Sahel restoration of degraded and West Africa (PRGDT) agricultural land funded by the EU between 2011–2017. Regional Program to Support Resilience In West Africa And the Sahel Focusing on Water Resources Integrated water Program ECOWAS FAO (Sub- resource management Not yet currently n.a. Member Regional Office for to increase resilience of defined under 135 States West Africa) rural populations preparation RICOWAS Project (1) Strengthen human and institutional capacity in climate- resilient rice production (CRRP) Scaling up climate- (2) Assist farmers to scale ECOWAS Sahara and Sahel Adapta- 2021–25; resilient rice production up climate-resilient rice countries Observatory (OSS) tion Fund US$14 million in West Africa production (CRRP) (3) Strengthen communication, advocacy, and partnerships to scale up CRRP A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Competitive African Rice Initiative Phase 2 (CARI2) Increase the competitiveness of West African small-scale rice producers, millers, BMZ; US$11.25 Create better linkages Burkina and other actors in the GiZ, JAF-K, Kilimo B&MG million; Grant; among value chain Faso, Ghana, value chain and achieve Trust Founda- actors Nigeria 2018–21 long lasting reduction tion in poverty in Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Tanzania Integrated and Secure Livestock and Pastoralism Project in West Africa (PEPISAO) To ease conflict among farmers and herders Create knowledge base ECOWAS by building a shared and dialogue platforms Member US$6 million; ECOWAS, CILSS AFD regional view of the that lead to better public States, Chad, Grant different forms of policies Mauritania livestock farming West Africa CSA Alliance (WACSAA) 136 ECOWAS Member States, Coordination platform to Four working groups: Mauritania, support implementation (1) Investments for CSA Chad; many ECOWAS Regional of the ECOWAP/CAADP (2) Institutions for CSA international Agency for Intervention Framework n.a. n.a. (3) Resources for CSA organizations, Agriculture and for CSA and provide a (4) Partnerships for CSA donors, NGOs, Food coordination platform for and farm alliance members organizations active in the region Programme for the Improvement of Regional Fisheries Governance in West Africa (PESCAO) Enhance the contribution Improve regional ECOWAS of fisheries to sustainable fisheries governance Grant; 2017– Member ECOWAS, FAO, development, food in West Africa through EU 21; US$16.5 States; Chad; CRSP, FCWC, EFCA security, and poverty better coordination of million Mauritania alleviation in West Africa national fisheries policies Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Food and Nutrition Security Impact, Resilience, Sustainability and Transformation (FIRST) in the ECOWAS Region (1) Modernize and protect artisanal and coastal (maritime and inland) fisheries with a strong focus on food and nutrition security and the fight against poverty (2) Support small and medium-sized aquaculture enterprises Facilitate the creation of (Aqua-Business) an enabling environment (3) Mobilize and for the development strengthen public and and implementation of private investment the ECOWAS integrated in fisheries and and coordinated aquaculture for food regional fisheries and and nutrition security in ECOWAS Grant, aquaculture policy and West Africa Member FAO, ECOWAS EU 2020–24 its implementation (4) Improve the States 137 strategy to enhance collection of information the contribution of on food security and the sector to food and the nutritional status nutrition security and of populations at the poverty reduction in national and regional West Africa levels (5) Strengthen weak and insufficient human capacity at the regional and national levels in terms of integrating food and nutrition security concerns into the sustainable development of fisheries and aquaculture, and vice versa A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Land Policy Support Project Phase 3 Mali, Niger, Support to West Burkina Faso, African countries for US$6 million; n.a. Senegal, Côte AFD AFD strengthening land Grant d’Ivoire, Benin, policy Guinea Three-Border Project Concerned AFD, Support Burkina Faso, (1) Increased resilience Burkina Faso, ECOWAS Centre Mali, and Niger in efforts (reduction of food Mali, Niger countries, NGO de Crise US$60 million; to achieve stabilization, insecurity) (Liptako Consortium et de Grant; 2019–24 development, and peace (2) Prevention of Gourma) (IRAM, GRET, AVSF, Soutien of cross-border territories conflicts CIEDEL) (CDCS) CGIAR Two-Degree Initiative: Food System Resilience in the Sahel (1) Increase farmer uptake of agroecological technologies and access ICRISAT (together SImprove the capacity of to climate services with consortium 138 agricultural producers, (2) Develop climate- of regional ECOWAS/ women, and youth and resilient communal partners including UEMOA/CILSS enhance institutional development plans ECOWAS, CILSS, n.a. 2020–30 member resilience to shocks and and resilient agro-silvo- UEMOA, CORAF, states vulnerabilities to climate pastoral value chains and other change (3) Enhance countries’ partners such as capacity to implement the World Bank) National Adaptation Plans (NAP) and NDCs Agricultural Services and Digital Inclusion in Africa (ASDIA) Strengthen West African 1) Farmer training on use Farmers’ resilience with of digital tools access to comprehensive, (2)Deployment of critical information about applications throughout Senegal, agricultural production countries Niger, to be Resource Program from preparation to (3)Inform farmers FAO, ANCAR extended mobili- currently postharvest activities, about best practices in (Senegal) and to other zation under animal health and agriculture, livestock, other partners ECOWAS ongoing preparation nutrition, market and human nutrition; countries prices, human nutrition provide financial and health including education for farmers COVID-19 prevention and including access to mitigation information credit Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Alliance for Agroecology in West Africa (3AO) 3AO is a coordination and information Develop a joint strategy platform composed of for 31 regional and farmers’ organizations, national organizations research institutes and outline a concrete ECOWAS/ and universities, action plan to support CILSS ROPPA, IBES-Food n.a. n.a. international NGOs, and the development countries social movements to of agroecology and promote agroecological sustainable food approaches in West systems In West Africa Africa Entry Points and Reflections 139 Knowledge and technologies for boosting productivity exist in the region but adoption levels are still low W hile recent regional initiatives establishment of innovation platforms bringing such as WAAPP raised the capacity together a more comprehensive set of value of the West African agricultural chain stakeholders, WAAPP also marked the research system and increased decision- start of a much-needed paradigm shift away makers’ awareness of CSA, adoption of from supply-driven research toward a more emerging technologies and improved demand-oriented approach that responds to practices remains limited. Experts almost farmer needs. In parallel, both international unanimously agree that the WAAPP has high-level platforms such as the WACSAA28 greatly strengthened the capacity of the and national level science-policy platforms regional agricultural research system by have advanced the mainstreaming of CSA into pooling resources, promoting a regionally agricultural investment plans and generally coordinated research agenda with RCoE, and sensitized decision-makers to the importance facilitating technology spillovers. Through the of agricultural policies that promote climate- 28 See also introduction of section 2.1 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas smart agricultural practices on both a field- other critical value chain segments and landscape level to achieve resilience and including aggregation, processing, and productivity gains in the face of climate change. distribution to achieve lasting impact. These developments, however, have thus far Promoting the professionalization of failed to translate into high levels of farmer producer associations and cooperatives uptake of CSA and agricultural productivity would also benefit farmers’ market trends have consistently failed to come up to access. By supporting their members expectations. with aggregation and extension services and by enabling farmers to negotiate Many innovative CSA technologies and binding contracts with processors, practices supporting on-farm productivity producer organizations organized by growth and increased resilience are value chain have the potential to greatly available. The large number of climate- facilitate the commercialization process resilient varietals of core commodities released and with it access to high quality seeds, over the past years, a well-documented catalog fertilizers, and credit that farmers would of adapted agricultural practices, and recent be otherwise unable to afford. This breakthroughs in climate information and said, academic research points out (for supporting communication technologies example, Smale et al. 2018) that a large suggest the possibility of considerably higher share of poor smallhold farmers in remote food production levels than what is currently areas growing staple crops will unlikely observed. Both expert conversations and generate sufficient commercial interest a review of the relevant literature suggest, in the foreseeable future to allow for their 140 however, that CSA adoption will likely remain inclusion in vertically integrated value subdued unless longstanding structural chains. Strengthening farmers’ market impediments and non-technical adoption linkages in remote rural areas poorly barriers are addressed: served by road infrastructure thus need structural transformation before value • To boost CSA adoption, increasing chain integration can be successful. farmers’ access to markets and commercialization is key. Without • Improve input availability through access to markets, farmers will remain demand-side measures such as unable to afford high quality inputs strengthening farmers’ access to and fertilizers in the absence of strong credit. Governments should consider re- support measures. Without available orienting government resources toward marketing channels allowing farmers to credit-subsidizing schemes that bring reliably sell their produce, efforts in other down the coast of credit to farmers and fields (for example, access to finance that confer more agency to farmers in and fertilizers) will be unsustainable. choosing the kind of input best suited to Subsistence farming alone does their conditions. Funding can come from simply not provide farmers with an funds currently spent ineffectively on incentive strong enough to justify input subsidies. At present, the WAICSA, risky investments into new varieties currently scheduled to launch in 2020, or efforts to modify farming patterns. is the most important regional initiative The importance of market access for aiming to facilitate access to agricultural improving uptake of new technologies credit by providing subsidized low and improved CSA practices also interest loans to both farmers and means that CSA projects should include agribusiness through mobilizing public and concessional capital. Donors creating employment opportunities should consider strengthening WAICSA for young experts (graduates from or examine how to complement this universities and start-ups) should also initiative. Other promising measures be included. Private sector promotion include fostering the phased and could take the form of capacity-building incremental use of fertilizers via smaller measures to improve SME capacity to and hence more affordable bags, and meet quality standards and tailor input implementing laws enabling farmers to packages to local conditions, while use risk-free collaterals and investments loan guarantees and matching grants in rural education by supporting could be deployed on a large scale to producer organizations that can enhance production and distribution train their members in organizational volumes. This would address the widely management skills (see Agwe et al. 2007) lamented scarcity of inputs in West for a more detailed discussion). African countries. The CORAF Integrated Strategy for Sustainable Management of • On the supply side, it is critical to Agri-inputs in West Africa and the Sahel facilitate private sector development (2020) lists strengthening local capacity and intraregional trade to bring down for private production and rational use costs. Agribusinesses that produce of agri-inputs, promotion of intraregional and distribute improved varietals and trade in quality agri-inputs, and the fertilizers should receive both logistical creation of an enabling environment for and financial support. Innovative service the promotion of quality agri-inputs as providers (for example, start-ups) priority intervention areas. 141 targeting value chains or commodities With some targeted reforms, the regional agricultural innovation system could contribute to reducing adoption barriers and become more sustainable S hifting the focus from generating accessible at affordable cost. Tools seen as to disseminating technologies. All promising for technology dissemination are the interviewed experts talked very highly establishment of regional technology platforms of WAAPP, arguing that any future project that complement national and regional should make efforts to support more National research centers by making proven innovations Centers of Specialization to graduate to RCoEs known to a wider audience and accelerating while promoting synergies between national their dissemination. Existing devices include and regional institutions. The focus of any the WAAPP-established regional seed catalogue new project building upon WAAPP, however, and TAAT, which is a platform promoting should shift from technology generation to rapid diffusion of improved varietals. The last technology dissemination. New technologies phase of WAAPP saw the establishment of the need to be disseminated to farmers and made Marketplace of Agricultural Technologies and A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Innovations (MITA), which at present remains Make regional research more impactful and underexploited. Regional technology diffusion increase its financial sustainability by reforming platforms should be further strengthened and current funding mechanisms for regional- analogously established for inputs other than level research. Research activities that need seeds such as fertilizers and mechanical tools. to be conducted at regional level, such as multicountry trials of new technologies or While continued innovation around crop practices, are currently underfunded and varietals tolerant to a rise in weather highly dependent on donor funding. Setting extremes is critical, the scope of regional up a research grant scheme based on country research should be widened. The regional contributions to finance research with cross- research agenda should also include other boundary relevance could provide an avenue important issues, such as natural resources, to increase both impact and sustainability of water use, and mobilization and mechanization the regional research system. The FONTAGRO of digital agriculture. RCoE reflecting this cooperation mechanism (see also subsection expanded focus should be created, such as “Agricultural Innovation System”), which is one for digital agriculture, bio-risks or a RCoE based on financial contributions of 15 Latin on Land and Water Management. Plans for American countries, could provide a promising establishing a RCoE for mechanization already model the region could use for inspiration. exist. Increase NARS awareness and Increase collaboration and trust between understanding of benefits resulting from different research actors. The upward regional cooperation. Some national 142 potential for collaboration between CGIAR research systems appear to still question the centers and NCoS, with a shared focus on value of sharing information and data with specific commodities, is widely acknowledged. RCoE or other research units in other countries. Deepening collaboration between CGIAR This lack of collaboration detracts from the commodity-based research centers and effectiveness and sustainability of a regional WAAPP-established research centers would research architecture that aims to mutualize allow better awareness of CGIAR-generated research advances and pool resources for the innovations and allow for better coordination of greater benefit of the whole region. To promote research themes between CORAF-established openness to sharing knowledge and data, more and CGIAR-run research units. Furthermore, the outreach, advocacy, and sensitization efforts coordination between the TAAT Project and the are warranted. Increasing the willingness of WAAPP-established regional and specialized NARS to collaborate with RCoE may also require national research centers and the CGIAR the latter to find ways to better relate and share research centers should also be improved. their knowledge with NARS. Measures could include financial support to TAAT to publicize technologies developed Further strengthen the R4D-paradigm. under WAAP that are ready for rollout on Under WAAPP, important steps toward regional dissemination platforms. Discussions application and demand-oriented research of better coordination and collaboration were made. For example, on a subnational among actors has gone for a long time with few level, the innovation platforms pioneered by results. Collaboration between different actors WAAPP are bringing together relevant value should be more rigorously monitored and chain actors to exchange learnings and best made subject to accountability mechanisms to practices. Many of these platforms still lack evaluate its effectiveness, for example through strong private sector buy-in, making them regular and transparent reporting. unsustainable. While they often represent interesting social setups, they need solid purchase a new type of fonio husking machine financial sustainability and technology scaleup. that was developed by the CERAAS center in Research for development (R4D) generally Dakar. Yet the husking machines were not implies stronger private sector participation available in the needed volume. In general, in the research process. At present, most research institutions cannot and should not act funding is still targeted at public actors and the as the key distributor of technologies. This is a region should actively explore the potential of role best filled by the private sector. Against this technology scaleup through awarding grants backdrop, future interventions should increase and funds to the private sector-led initiatives the private sector’s ability to act as a catalyst through public-private partnership schemes for technology dissemination. The need to (for example, similar to the EU H2020 Initiative). better involve the private sector in technology especially applies to the seed sector. RCoE National research still places too much established under WAAPP have generated emphasis on developing technologies purely many seed varietals, but it is incumbent on based on optimal agronomic properties the private sector to make these available to without factoring in market considerations producers in sufficient quantity. or engaging in market research. Without strong market demand, adopting new To enable the private sector to fulfill its technologies will continue to be disappointing. role, both political support and capacity- Therefore, stronger encouragement is needed building is required. National research for research into seeds with favorable properties systems often continue to hold the prerogative that also provide higher-value products and of producing and diffusing seeds, although proven market potential. The region’s research some countries have created a better enabling 143 institutions need to move from a fixation on environment. In Senegal, for example, the productivity and agronomic considerations, for national agricultural credit union shows strong example, by strengthening the role of social commitment to support agribusiness with loan scientists. Both capacity-building measures guarantees for seed producers. Private business and adding fresh expertise knowledgeable and start-ups could be supported in producing about the region’s food markets and consumer new and sought-after technologies at scale trends would be useful. Future research should through a mix of measures, including technical also prioritize innovative ways to process and capacity-building measures such as supporting transform commodities for better storage and SME to develop bankable business plans, value added. loan guarantees, and matching grants. New interventions should support capacity-building The agricultural innovation system needs and training measures so that the private sector to better involve the private sector in can produce seeds and fertilizer at the required disseminating innovations and new scale and quality in line with regional standards. technologies. Knowing what fertilizer formulas Sufficiently high quality of both seeds and work in which agroecological zone is of little fertilizer are a must to inspire trust and create use when seeds and fertilizer blends are not demand growth. To this end, improving lab available in sufficient quantity. Producers need testing capacities for better quality assurance to have information on new technologies, was mentioned as a key priority going forward. but these inputs and technologies must be Related to that, strengthening seed and also readily available for subsequent adoption fertilizer certification facilities and establishing at an affordable price. One expert illustrated cost-effective certification procedures would this point with an anecdote of a farmer who also have a positive impact. traveled all the way from Nigeria to Senegal to A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Continue supporting regional harmonization such as the regional seed catalogue, every effort processes and capacity building around should be made to allow uninterrupted flow ECOWAS regional policies and regulations. of seeds across borders by private actors. To The wider policy environment modulates further remove impediments to fertilizer trade, the probability of technology spillovers, efforts to assist member states in implementing independent of the quality of innovations the regional seed or fertilizer regulations like emerging from research. One high-ranking phytosanitary regulations should be continued official based in Guinea-Bissau noted that by building upon achievements made under even though it is now possible to locate high- WAAPP, WAFP, and WASP. There also needs to potential varietals existing within the region be better capacity-building and sensitizing thanks to the regional seed catalog established measures for actors such as border officials under WAAPP, cross-country transfer of new and policymakers, who are unaware of existing seed technology still poses challenges. One regional regulations and thus slow intra- expert detailed a case where it was unclear how regional trade. The same applies also to private a new cassava seed varietal could be procured traders who are frequently ignorant of regional from Ghana and shipped to Guinea-Bissau. To seed trade provisions, too. fully take advantage of regional achievements Diffuse CSA knowledge by increasing involvement of 144 farmers in research and extension F armer organizations should be a coordination and information platform generally better included in knowledge composed of farmers’ organizations, research generation at an earlier stage given the institutes, universities, and international NGOs importance of achieving behavior change to promote agroecological approaches in at the field level. How could collaboration the region, including through strengthening between producers’ and the region’s regional farmer-to-farmer training systems. and national research centers be improved and operationalized? How could producers Many national agricultural technology fairs be more systematically involved in the organized by the national research systems propagation of new technologies and best are still much too technical in nature and practices? Jointly with the region’s regional and are not sufficiently adapted to producers’ national research centers, farmer organizations needs and knowledge. Thus far, these fairs could develop extension packages adapted to and technologies are not sufficiently inclusive the respective conditions of the agroecological and do not provide an optimal space for region. This would ensure a better fit with discussions between producers and other farmer needs. The Alliance for Agroecology field-level actors. Including farmers at an earlier in West Africa (3AO) provides an example stage of organizing such outreach events of more systematically involving farmers in might enhance their effectiveness. Generally, extension and knowledge exchange around both NCoS and RCoEs and CORAF should agricultural practices. Launched in 2018 by work more closely with farmer organizations ROPPA (Network of Peasant Organizations such as ROPPA to improve outreach to farmers and Agricultural Producers of West Africa) and to rely more on farmers as diffusors and and IPES-Food (International Panel of Experts multiplicators of technology. on Sustainable Food Systems), 3AO provides Many farmers remain underserved by agencies. To support underfunded public extension services, leading to low awareness extension services struggling to keep abreast of improved CSA technologies. There is a lack with both demography and the emergence of of readily available information and knowledge disruptive technologies, the following avenues on CSA that hinders adoption. This is might hold promise to sensitize and train compounded by a low technical capacity to use farmers on new CSA technologies. agronomic information provided by technical Utilize potential of emerging digital extension solutions T he region holds many promising through digital technologies alone will examples of ICT-powered extension likely remain limited if not complemented solutions. Given the growing penetration by field-level person-to-person advice and of mobile phones, digitally disseminating sensitization. Outreach campaigns to educate climate information with tailored agronomic farmers on how to use digitally transmitted advice can more easily reach a large number information are thus still needed. Farmers learn of beneficiaries, considering the importance best from farmers, meaning that farmers should of both input and output markets. At present, be much more involved in the technology however, a systematic analysis of all models dissemination process. An extension agent 145 implemented and piloted in the region still from afar is much less able to convince and seems to be lacking. train farmers on new production methods than a trusted community member living nearby. Collect best practices and guidance for how digitally enhanced extension models Farmer knowledge can be increased supplying agronomic and climate information through field-based action and farmer-led to farmers (and other value chain actors such as extension. Producer organizations themselves traders) could serve as a first step in rolling out can select lead farmers, paid by the producer promising and scalable models more widely organization, who then set up demonstration across the region. Examples of these include plots and organize physical field schools the following: for community members. Well-structured value chains with aggregation services • E-extension and digital decision- provide an environment allowing producer support systems should provide organizations to operate farmer extension farmers with up-to-date market- services sustainably. The USAID-financed related information and tools Naatal Mbay project in Senegal is a case in facilitating contract farming, in point, enabling producer organizations to use addition to agronomic advice digital technology to monitor productivity • Explore alternatives to directly and cultivation techniques. Employing a data- sending information to producers, driven approach has allowed farmers to make such as introducing new technologies evidence-based decisions on how to improve via online videos and radio programs. yields. Farmer-led extension services supported by Naatal Mbay are currently on track to reach The positive effects of knowledge delivery self-sufficiency. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Leverage potential of integrated approaches for initiatives at landscape level C onsidering both near- and midterm production in the medium term. While climate projections, strengthening estimates of the exact extent of West African the hydrological basis of resilience land degradation vary, there is an urgent in agriculture and food systems will be need of reversing the current soil degradation increasingly important. Climate change trends and halt soil widespread soil erosion is likely to increase the severity of both to guarantee food security and build drought and flood events, affecting food resilience against climate change. Allowing production potential. In the midterm, severe the regeneration of trees on fields leads to a freshwater shortages will likely affect West wide range of benefits including increased African river basins (Sylla et al. 2018). In the crop yields and should therefore be, where near term, however, production risks from an possible, mainstreamed in CSA initiatives in all overabundance of water seem just as acute. In agroecologies where it achieves good results. its Global Annual to Decadal Climate Update, The GGWI is large, albeit fragmented, and critics the WMO (2020) projects wetter-than-usual point out that the program’s larger stakeholders conditions over the Sahael in the 2020–2024 have not yet incorporated the learnings of period, which is, absent swift adaptation community-based regreening measures such measures, likely to give rise to both large-scale as FMNR for achieving lasting sustainable 146 population displacements and significant impact. Many global and regional initiatives on damages to agricultural production. Reviewing landscape restoration are already underway, and and adapting existing regional and national Sahelian countries generally qualify.29 Except risk management arrangements is thus an for transboundary watershed governance and urgent priority. In addition, strengthening remote-sensing based landscape monitoring, local capacity for water management and most activities are subnational level in nature. investing in complementary land conservation There are, however, some activities that appear measures at the watershed level could both underexploited by current projects. improve rainwater productivity, decrease soil erosion and siltation, and reduce flood risks. Map areas where land restoration was Such measures could include regreening of successful for complementary action. Doing peripheral areas around small reservoirs and a stocktaking in each West African country to establishing buffer strips in riparian areas (see, examine where SLM techniques had impact for example, Cecchi et al. 2020). at scale and determine complementary actions to further increase productivity would A landscape approach to natural resource be a cost-effective no regrets option with management greatly enhances the significant potential for improving agriculture- effectiveness of CSA by protecting the based livelihoods. For example, where FMNR ecological foundations of agricultural has successfully built up soil organic matter, 29 This includes, for example, the GGWI and related initiatives as well as ECOWAS-led Support Project to the PTAE (see also initiative mapping of section 2.1) applying mineral fertilizer becomes much may result from adoption of CSA practices more rational and effective (Reij 2018). Land and technologies. It would be thus useful to restoration mapping allows for tailoring organize and institutionalize exchange visits of extension and input packages so yields could resource management personnel from different be cost-effectively enhanced and food security Sahelian countries to improve the cross-border strengthened. flow of learnings and experiences related to the reversal of land degradation. For example, M&E is essential to track progress and Senegalese foresters and land management measure the impact of land restoration specialists should visit areas in Niger, where activities on the ground. For example, the FAO large-scale land restoration has taken place, program Action Against Desertification30 has to draw lessons for policy and practice in their developed an innovative monitoring system own country. using remote sensing imagery to observe all land under restoration in the areas where Explore the use of economic instruments it operates systematically and continuously. to build resilience such as water pricing, Collect Earth is a free, open source and user- water quotas, and payments for ecosystem friendly tool to understand the dynamics services. For example, in the Sahel, many of the landscape. This and other innovative Irrigation Development and Management technologies for measuring the progress of Agencies (SAGI) only charge a portion of the restoration efforts are key to the long-term operating and maintenance costs related success of such programs. to irrigation and drainage systems and rarely readjust their prices (CILSS 2017). This Seeing is believing: expand cross-border mispricing both disincentivizes rational use 147 regional peer-to-peer learning so that of water resources and contributes to the farmers can listen to farmers who have deterioration of public water infrastructure. achieved positive change under similar Setting water services at appropriate levels conditions. This would call for organizing many that allow recovery of actual operating and more exchanges of farmers and public officials maintenance costs through appropriate between farmers that live under similar climatic pricing of the water service could increase conditions but have not yet done FMNR, both water use productivity and long-term with farmers in other regions where FMNR water availability through better maintained is already practiced. Analogously, field-level facilities. Another pathway toward enhancing exchanges should also take place at the level the resilience of the food system’s productive of government and administrative staff. While base could be promoting payment for the CSA has been increasingly mainstreamed ecosystem services (PES) schemes. Appropriate in key regions as well as national policy payments have been shown to motivate documents over the recent years, there is still farmers to take up sustainable land practices significant potential to improve awareness at while having the potential to encourage the level of local government in terms of how diverse livelihood strategies (Innis 2015; Ola CSA can be implemented and what benefits and Benjamin 2019). In the context of the Sahel 30 Action Against Desertification is an initiative of the African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP) to restore drylands and degraded lands in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific to tackle the detrimental social, economic, and environmental impact of land degradation and desertification (FAO 2020c). A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas and West Africa Program in Support of the adding high quality mineral fertilizer is much GGWI, ecosystem payments mechanisms have more effective in raising crop yields than in been piloted. At present only a small fraction areas where soil organic matter is low. Using of Voluntary Carbon projects or projects under natural regeneration techniques such as FMNR the Clean Development Mechanism are in to restore soil organic matters thus strengthens Africa (Bernard et al. 2017), so upward potential the rationale for using mineral fertilizer. Regions exists. Furthermore, technological advances where increasing access to fertilizer could have around soil carbon monitoring, reporting and a huge impact include, for example, the Maradi verification, and remote sensing could expand and Tahoua regions in Niger and the Bam and opportunities for scaling up deployment of Yatenga regions in Burkina Faso (Reij 2018). PES-schemes across the region. This is a good example of where gradually adding complexity instead of starting with an Two findings on best results are that all-encompassing list of activities could yield they often are achieved when combining real benefits. While transforming agricultural different practices that complement one systems to CSA may be a goal, trying to apply another, and that projects need to start all possible actions in an area will likely result off simple, remain adaptive, and add in a complex project. Greater success is likely complexity responding to emergent needs. through starting with simple actions that In dryland areas where soil degradation produce gains, and that can be combined with has been successfully reversed through other actions that move toward complexity, if agroforestry or water management techniques, needed to adapt to greater challenges. 148 Promote sound land tenure policy A focus for the regional level could be help some regions to deal with the combined encouraging countries to improve pressures of a large influx of refugees, reduce their policies and regulations related conflict potential between new arrivals and the to the natural resources use rights usage. existing populations, and contribute to reining At present, restrictive or poorly interpreted in soil and landscape degradation in a timely forestry laws frequently discourage farmers in manner with positive effects for social stability many West African countries from regreening and food security. their fields. If trees are (perceived to be) in the formal ownership of state agencies with limiting farmers’ rights to benefit from the resource, effectiveness of land restoration efforts are likely to be limited. Finally, while the sustainability of cash-for-work programs can be questioned, they might still represent an impactful entry point for the scaling of integrated landscape management in or near conflict-affected areas. Implementing productive safety nets might Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Build the Sustainability of the Food System’s Productive Base RFI #1: Accelerate evolution of regional research system TABLE 2.2 Regional Flagship Initiative #1 Type Investment Consolidate and expand regional agricultural research systems and identify Objective sustainable finance mechanisms for future growth The WAAPP established a regional agricultural research system. It aimed to pool scarce resources, facilitate cross-boundary knowledge spillovers, and avoid duplication of research agendas. The regional research system, however, still lacks a sustainable financing mechanism Context and and many national research centers set up under WAAPP continue to require support to meet rationale the requirements for operating effectively at regional level. In addition, cross-cutting agendas relevant to the food system such as mechanization, and natural resource management and 149 the leveraging of digital technologies are not yet sufficiently considered. Last, private sector involvement in technology generation and dissemination is still below expectations. (1) Reinforce and grow regional network of NCoS and RCoE: • Continue process of maturing NCoS into RCoE • Explore establishment of new research centers on relevant agendas (for example, natural resources, including production of detailed soil maps); digitalization of agriculture (linkage to RFI #3); bio-risks (linked to RFI #4); and mechanization. • Establish partnerships with regional and international tech companies and the African Institute for Mathematical Sciences (AIMS). (2) Develop sustainable funding model for regional-level research: • Strengthen linkages between R&D and private sector through setting up incubation platforms at regional level Activities • Move toward grant schemes based on country contributions (for example, by adopting the FONTAGRO model) • Create innovative financing models for regional-level research centers (for example, core funding plus project-based funding with competitive research grant schemes); collaboration with private sector through innovation competitions (3) Accelerate diffusion of innovative technologies and cross-border technology exchange: • Strengthen digital technology dissemination platforms (MITA, WASIX) • Promote suite of technologies targeting integrated soil fertility management (soil mapping, targeted fertilizer blending, promotion of soil testing, complimentary packages of seed and fertilizer) • Strengthening the role of social science in agricultural research to move away from one-sided focus on agronomical properties toward a value chain approach A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas • Support agribusinesses and service providers that aim to distribute improved seeds and other research innovations through capacity building, matching grant, and loan guarantees • Promote demand-led research by enhancing the role of farmer organizations and other value chain actors in technology development and dissemination (for example, by better including producers in selecting criteria for varietal development) • Strengthen capacity of producer organizations to provide extension services to Activities farmers • Strengthen capacity of other value chain actors including processors, aggregators, and distributors to diffuse and adopt technologies • Systematic use of ICT campaigns and e-extension (for example, radio and TV, social media) to raise technological awareness of farmers using local languages (4) Foster linkages of NARS system to CGIAR research system through collaborative research projects RFI coordination CORAF; CGIAR Research Centers; USAID; WASCAL (West African Science Centre on Climate and potential Change and adapted land use); CILSS and ECOWAS (particularly regarding the use of digital partners technologies); and financial partners Past or existing Initiative will build upon WAAPP; opportunities to collaborate with Partnership for Agricultural initiatives with Research, Education and Development in West Africa (PAIRED) and EnGRAIS; CGIAR AICCRA potential for on climate-informed digital agro-advisory packages; CGIAR Two-Degree Initiative; IFPRI collaboration Akademiya2063; AfDB TAAT to leverage proven technologies for scaleup • Scoping studies for additional regional research centers (listed above) in terms of 150 mandate and mode of operation Knowledge gaps • Explore models for sustainable financing mechanisms for agricultural and food and areas for deep research of regional relevance and related convening processes dives • Develop concept for innovation competitions to increase involvement of private sector in agricultural research RFI #2: Systematic targeting of hotspot areas with flexible integrated approach TABLE 2.3 Regional Flagship Initiative #2 Type Investment Enhance vulnerable populations’ food security and resilience to climate change in Objective hotspot areas in the medium term through targeted interventions that (a) scale up integrated landscape management and (b) strengthen conflict-resolution mechanisms An increasing number of West African countries is confronted with a complex, multidimensional crisis caused by a nexus of interrelated drivers including climate change, land degradation, and fragility, conflict and violence. By some estimates, Africa could face a near double-digit Context and reduction in crop yields and production volumes over the next decade, as well as rising food rationale prices by similar margins. Between 1975 and 2013, the area of land under cultivation has doubled severe land degradation and water shortages are threatening the sustainability of agriculture’s productive base. Nearly 90 percent of rangelands and 80 percent of farmlands in the West Africa An increasing number of West African countries is confronted with a complex, multidimensional crisis caused by a nexus of interrelated drivers including climate change, land degradation, and fragility, conflict and violence. By some estimates, Africa could face a near double-digit reduction in crop yields and production volumes over the next decade, as well as rising food prices by similar margins. Between 1975 and 2013, the area of land under cultivation has doubled severe land degradation and water shortages are threatening the sustainability of agriculture’s productive base. Nearly 90 percent of rangelands and 80 percent of farmlands in the West African Sahel are seriously affected by land degradation, including soil erosion. Almost 3 million hectares of forest are lost. Exacerbated by climate change and poor management, forest degradation threatens water supplies and ecological functions that are essential for the productive basis of the food system. In parallel, West Africa has witnessed a substantial rise in the incidence of political violence. According to the OECD (2020), the past five years have been the most violent on record, with over 12,000 conflict events and 50,000 fatalities through June 2019. This multidimensional food and security crisis is most acute in areas where large population growth, an influx of migrants, and competing claims by different groups (herders and farmers) on the right to use natural resources occur simultaneously. Adopting a regional approach to addressing land, forest, and water resource issues in hotspot areas could short- Context and circuit this vicious cycle of vulnerability to climate shocks, landscape degradation, and FCV risks. rationale First, landscape restoration measures and watershed management may reduce negative or enhance positive cross-border spillovers, particularly with respect to water resources quality, quantity, and variability, as well as air- or waterborne soil transport. Complementary investments in agroforestry and improved forest management can also increase community resilience by reducing soil erosion and promoting infiltration, groundwater recharge, and land surface cooling. Both approaches will safeguard and rebuild the foundation of agricultural productivity in the midterm. If flanked by accompanying measures to strengthen local governance and conflict-resolution devices (for example, through the establishment of grievance redress mechanisms), adopting an integrated approach at the landscape and watershed level will also contribute to reducing migratory pressures and the probability for conflict between different livelihood groups such as herders and farmers. The choice of targeted areas will be based on vulnerability to climate change; natural resource degradation or depletion (deforestation, 151 erosion and land degradation, water depletion); extreme poverty; prevention of or recovery from FCV outcomes (for example, cross-border refugees fleeing terrorist violence, migration from degraded areas); and potential to improve regional food security needs. Where possible, this initiative could rely on existing projects (those co-financed by the World Bank and by other donors) as implementation vehicles. (1) Interventions to restore the productive base in hotspot areas of regional relevance with high levels of land and forest degradation and FCV risks: • Watershed restoration on the slopes and flood plain restoration in valleys through integrated and participatory planning at the community level • Promotion of CSA on restored lands (for example, adoption of improved seeds and fertilizers, CA) and systems, including for livestock activities, irrigation, and water mobilization (for example, water harvesting and monitoring surface water and underground water table for sustainable use) Activities • Promotion of agroforestry and sustainable management of forests (2) To reduce FCV risks, strengthen or establish local institutions and governance mechanisms related to conflict resolution (for example, grievance redress mechanisms): • Identification and implementation of community-based actions (CBA) • Capacity building for community-based adaptation • Build capacity for digitizing landscape at communal level to support integration of sustainable agriculture into local development planning (assessment and monitoring of natural resources, land cover and land use, and land surface climatology) A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas • Policy facilitation and dialogue for creating enabling environment for community- based initiatives, including through the NAP (3) Link social protection (adaptative safety nets) programs with science-powered (for example, remote-sensing based) information on the natural resource and productive base for efficient and timely intervention to reduce target populations’ vulnerability in hotspot areas (4) Establish regional knowledge hub on the analysis, design, and implementation related to Activities integrated approaches: • Dedicated training courses for senior staff of relevant development projects and government programs around the region including demonstration visits • Promote (COVID-19 situation permitting) cross-boundary farmer-to-farmer exchanges to scale up adoption of proven practices such as FMNR • Robust monitoring and impact assessment of CBA activities RFI coordination CILSS AGRHYMET, CORAF, ECOWAS, technical and financial partners including EU, AFD, FAO, and potential CGIAR, OECD, UN organizations (for collaboration on peacebuilding and conflict-resolution partners initiatives) Build on existing regional and country projects targeting natural resource base such as PRAPS II, PREDIP, RFP-GDT/FFEM-FAO; collaborate with WB Analytics Sahel Adaptive Social Protection Past or existing to link adaptive social safety nets with data-driven monitoring mechanisms of productive base; initiatives with establish linkages to the Project for the Agroecological Transition in West Africa (PATAE); the potential for Project for the Dissemination and Implementation of Good Practices for Sustainable Agricultural collaboration Intensification in West Africa (PAIAD); the Degraded Agricultural Land Restoration Program (PRTAD); explore linkages to the Regional Fund for Agriculture and Food (ECOWADF) and WAICSA 152 • Development of hotspot diagnostic methodology (for example, through remote- sensing-derived data and geospatial information) and regularly renewed updates to improve targeting of interventions Knowledge gaps • Assessment and mapping of climate-security risks and potential remedies and areas for deep dives • Best practices and past learnings of landscape restoration and management interventions in volatile FCV environment; accelerate mitigation and adaptation actions through strengthening national adaptation processes and community-based adaptation RFI #3 Leverage digital technologies to enhance food system resilience TABLE 2.4 Regional Flagship Initiative #3 Type Integrated analytics, policy, and investment To enhance the use of digital technologies including big data, artificial intelligence, Objective and IoT-approaches in West Africa in areas relevant to food system resilience Digital technologies may provide manifold opportunities for increasing West African food Context and system resilience in a multitude of areas, for example, through connecting different value chain rationale actors for decreased transaction costs; improving pest and disease monitoring and crisis times; and facilitating farmers’ access to loans. At present, however, innovative technologies such as big data or AI (for example, to process remote-sensing and GIS data) are not widely used in the region. A regional approach could pool scarce resources to increase digital literacy of regional decision-makers, scientists, and producers; identify and promote promising digital applications and best practices as well as generate positive knowledge spillovers. Furthermore, Context and a harmonized digital legal framework related to data issues and privacy across ECOWAS rationale member states is still absent. A harmonized ECOWAS Digital Policy could spur development of agriculture-related e-infrastructure by facilitating private sector-led innovation and avoid regulatory fragmentation preventing economies of scale. This RFI would have linkages to both the regional research system and RFIs listed under priority intervention area “ Regional Risk Management Architecture and Farmer-Decision Support Tools” as detailed in section 2.3. (1) Assess potential of digital technologies such as remote sensing, digital mapping, and IoT solutions to improve farmers’ market linkages and financial inclusion and to deliver tailored climate information to a both farmers and private sector actors; assess infrastructure constraints hampering the development of digital agriculture; facilitate creation of data-driven ecosystems for climate, agriculture, and market information to develop granular level farmer risk profiles and reliable climate information allowing to broaden access to finance (for example, credit and agricultural insurance) (2) Identify and design promising big data and AI applications (drawing on global experience) that could be integrated into operations of regional programs under preparation (for example, Activities early warning; agriculture R&D; digital services for producers and food system actors; supply chains and regional commerce); explore partnerships with leading tech companies (Microsoft, Alphabet, and others) (3) Increase digital awareness and capacity of regional actors; set up a platform or regional-level repository for digital solutions and services (for example, CIS, agronomic advisory, e-vouchers) ready for sharing best practices; develop adapted curricula on digital technologies for various 153 types of value chain actors and build regional capacity of NARS and decision-makers related to digital agriculture; organize hackathons with data-savvy West African youth and start-ups to catalyze development of home-grown digital solutions (for example, in collaboration with African Academy for Mathematical Sciences) (4) Determine regulatory needs and develop a region-wide digital regulatory framework RFI coordination ECOWAS, CORAF, CILSS/AGRHYMET, FAO, IFPRI, African Academy for Mathematical Sciences, and potential OECD Club de Sahel, global technology companies partners Past or existing initiatives with Potential initiatives that could be built upon include FAO Geospatial data platform; IFPRI AI potential for Predictive Tool; World Bank SD Geospatial Group; and others collaboration • Delivery mechanisms of digital climate information and agriculture advisory Knowledge gaps • Feasibility of digital monitoring emerging risks including GIS enabled conflict early and areas for deep warning and monitoring systems on natural resource conflicts dives • Regulatory needs A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Proposed technical work to close knowledge gaps of the identified RFIs T he West Africa Food System Resilience well-covered by past and ongoing work led by Facility (FSRF)31 will support CORAF. To address knowledge gaps related to ECOWAS, CILSS, and CORAF in the RFI #2, technical work titled “Hotspots, fragility, operationalization of RFIs in the context and integrated approaches” is proposed to of regional programs that are currently establish what climate-conflict hotspots exist under preparation. RFI #1, #2, and selected in West Africa and what kind of interventions aspects related to #3 are earmarked for are best suited to short-circuit the emergence implementation through regional bodies in the of vicious cycles of climate change, resource context of the Food System Resilience Program degradation, and conflict risks. The deliverable (FSRP) and other regional programs. FSRF) “Digital Climate Information and Agriculture support to develop RFIs is organized across Advisory Delivery Mechanisms” will explore three pillars: (1) strategy and partnerships; (2) in more detail most promising modalities evidence, analytics, and delivery mechanisms; related to the transmission of digital climate and (3) learning and capacity building. The information and agriculture advisory to farmers. immediate next step for FSRF is to develop In addition, the core rationale pertaining to RFI deep dive technical studies under pillar 2 #3 of how digital technologies can be utilized to close knowledge gaps preventing the for making West Africa’s food system more 154 implementation of RFIs. resilient will be mainstreamed across all follow- up analytical work. Last, it is important to note Table 2.5 (below) provides an overview of the that the proposed enquiry on “Digital Climate RFIs aimed at improving the sustainability Information and Agriculture Advisory Delivery of the food system’s productive base and the Mechanisms” also responds to knowledge proposed analytical work that will contribute needs of other RFIs that are related to priority to further develop them. RFI #1, “Accelerate intervention areas (see sections 2.2 and 2.3) as evolution of regional research system,” is already set out in this report. TABLE 2.5 Regional Flagship Initiative #3 Proposed technical deep Relevance at regional Potential programs for RFI # dives to address knowledge level implementation gaps Cross-border spillover of Building on WAAPP, CORAF; #1 Accelerate knowledge and research its partners have already evolution of innovations, pooling of FSRP, AICCRA completed several preparatory regional research scarce resources, avoidance studies covering a wide range system of duplication of research of aspects relevant to RFI #1 agendas 31 See executive summary for more information on FSRF. Proposed technical deep Relevance at regional Potential programs for RFI # dives to address knowledge level implementation gaps #2 Systematic targeting of Conflict risks exacerbated by hotspot areas climate change and resource FSRP, PRAPS II, Social Safety Net Hotspots, fragility, and with flexible degradation may spill over into Programs, PREDIP integrated approaches integrated neighboring countries approach Digital Climate Information and Pooling of scarce resources Agriculture Advisory Delivery #3 Leverage to generate cross-border Mechanisms digital spillovers of knowledge and FSRP, AICCRA, PRAPS II technologies best practices while avoiding Usage of digital technologies duplication of efforts to be investigated across all analytical work 2.2 Enabling Environment for Intraregional ValueChainDevelopmentandTradeFacilitation 155 T his section begins by outlining the currently complicating regional value chain current state of intraregional food development. Last, the section also touches trade before outlining main reasons on policy areas that are relevant for regional for low trade volumes. This is followed by an integration. overview of a selection of major challenges Stocktake and Overview State of intraregional trade T he Economic Community of West regionally sourced goods (inputs, agriculture African States (ECOWAS) Treaty of products, and so on), reduce the time and cost 1975 established a regional free of moving products throughout the region, trade area stipulating free movement of and harmonize tariff levels for goods of non- persons, goods, and vehicles within the 15 ECOWAS origin, promoting transparent and ECOWAS member states. Under the ECOWAS consistent application of tariffs across the Trade Liberalization Scheme (ETLS), goods are region. traded and transported through the region duty free. Effective implementation of this ECOWAS is now one of the regional ETLS was supposed to eliminate tariffs on economic communities in Africa with the A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas highest intraregional trade shares for both other Asian countries (for example, Benin then total trade and agricultural trade (Bouët et al. reexports rice from Thailand). Regional demand 2019). Unfortunately, the ECOWAS intraregional and trade of local cereals such as maize, millet, trade is largely underreported because trade and sorghum is strong as consumers prefer data are fragmented and of uncertain quality. local over foreign varieties. The regional trade In 2008, the African Development Bank volume is estimated at 20 percent of production. (AfDB) estimated the value of intraregional Trade of fruits such as mangoes, plantains, and trade at US$8.6 billion. In 2010, the volume avocado, is well developed between coastal of intraregional trade of all commodities was and Sahelian countries. Livestock trade is also estimated at 16 percent of the total value of a pillar of regional integration as trade volume commercial trade of the region. The intra- and value are relatively high, and around 60 ECOWAS imports decreased, however, from percent of all livestock products consumed 13.2 percent in 2000 to 10.4 percent in 2009, in the ECOWAS area are produced locally. For with an average of 12 percent over the decade roots and tubers, no extraregional import exists, (see figure 1.6 above). This suggests that as the ECOWAS region is self-sufficient with member countries import more from the rest a production of around 200 million tons per of the world than from neighboring countries. year. Potential exists to further enhance these For example, 35 percent of the rice consumed internal trade flows in the ECOWAS region. in ECOWAS in 2017 comes from Thailand and 156 Regional trade and food security R egional trade is one of the main Niger; the main exporter of cereals and cassava contributors to food security of West is Nigeria. The largest importers for livestock are African countries. Regional trade enables Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal; for countries to benefit from their local comparative maize Niger, Senegal, and Burkina Faso; and for advantages and regional consumer demand, sorghum and millet, Benin, Ghana, and Niger access a broader range of food products, and (Elbehri et al. 2013). Map 2.2 below presents the balance fluctuations in national production intraregional trade flows of cereals, root crops, and prices with imports and exports. However, livestock, fish, fruit, pepper, and colas. This map the level of agricultural trade in the ECOWAS shows that the main exporters of cereals are region is volatile from year to year and is still Burkina Faso, Mali, and Nigeria. Nigeria exports low compared with other economic regions in its cereals mainly to Niger. ECOWAS and the Africa such as the Common Market for Eastern Permanent Inter-state Committee on Drought and Southern Africa (COMESA) and Southern Control in the Sahel (CILSS) aim to expand the African Development Community (SADC) (see number of monitored corridors to improve knowledge of trade levels and promote better The top five intraregional food importing circulation of goods and services. countries are Nigeria, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Mali, and Niger, which absorb 77 percent of intraregional food imports. The largest exporters of livestock are Burkina Faso, Mali, and FIGURE 2.5 Share of Intraregional Trade for Agricultural Products, 2005–17 Source: Bouët et al. 2019 MAP 2.2 Intraregional Trade Flows, 2017 157 Source: CILSS 2017 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Intraregional trade value T he value of intraregional food export Ibadan-Lagos-Accra conurbation, comprising and import was estimated at US$2,149 agglomerations in Nigeria, Benin, Togo, and million and US$2,328 million, Ghana with flows of maize and reexports of rice; respectively, in 2019 (UNCTAD 2020). Soule and (e) the Sahelian belt spanning Mauritania, et al. (2010) identified five principal market areas: Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, and Nigeria (millet (a) a western area centered on Senegal, trading and sorghum). The top five food exporting mainly in local rice, millet, and sorghum; (b) a and importing countries have a market share central area comprising Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, of around 70 percent of the total intraregional Togo, Mali, and Burkina Faso, trading mainly in trade. The most imported and exported food maize; (c) an eastern area comprising Nigeria products are tobacco, vegetables, edible food and its neighbors Benin, Niger, and Chad, which preparations, and live animals. The top five accounts for 60 percent of total intraregional intraregional food exporters are Côte d’Ivoire, flows of millet, sorghum, maize, cowpeas, and Senegal, Niger, Nigeria, and Ghana, with a reexported rice (from Benin to Nigeria); (d) the market share of 76 percent. The reasons for low intraregional trade T 158 he ECOWAS intraregional trade is Regional transport infrastructure linkages growing but flows remains weak are also deficient (see figure 2.6). In West compared with imports from the Africa, road transport accounts for 80–90 world. West Africa’s low intraregional trade is percent of total interurban and interstate mainly due to inadequate internal transport transport of goods and is often the only option infrastructure (roads and rail networks) for accessing rural areas. The regional road and to road harassment, leading to higher network is insufficiently developed, and its transport and transaction costs and weak quality remains highly variable given irregular competitiveness of regional products. Terms maintenance. Road infrastructure provides the of trade are biased, favoring food imports from link between countries in the ECOWAS region outside ECOWAS to the coastal cities because and its periphery. The regional road network of low shipping and transaction costs. Sourcing comprises two main highways: (1) the Trans- them from hinterlands imposes high domestic Sahel Highway, from Dakar to Niamey via transport and transaction costs. Between Bamako and Ouagadougou; and (2) the Trans- 1996–2000 and 2006–10, imports of most basic Coastal Highway, from Port Harcourt in Nigeria food commodities from outside the ECOWAS to San Pedro in Côte d’Ivoire, via Cotonou, region grew at an accelerating rate: rice and Lomé, Tema, Accra, and Abidjan. The interlinks wheat, palm oil, dairy products, poultry and between the two highways originate from the other meats, tomato (paste and peeled), main seaports. The Trans-Coastal Highway links carrots and turnips, potatoes, green onions, Abidjan to Port Harcourt over nearly 2,000 km and various processed vegetables. Among and accounts for two-thirds of trade volume fruits, accelerating net imports include apples between ECOWAS countries. Two key future (16 percent), grapes (14 percent), oranges (14 challenges are constructing the missing links to percent), dates (23 percent), and all kinds of interconnect the main capitals and secondary fruit juices (Hollinger et al. 2015). cities in West Africa and ensuring fluidity of traffic on the existing network. This will require to ECOWAS, COMESA and SADC, the figure removing border stops and other barriers to includes data for ECCAS (Economic Community traffic, maintaining and improving roads, and of Central African States), AMU (Arab Maghreb developing alternative modes of transport— Union) as well as EAC (East African Community). for example, railways for heavy or bulky This shows that the quality of infrastructure in materials (livestock, cotton, onions, and so on). Africa as a whole and specifically in West Africa Figure 2.6 compares the level of infrastructure is low; the index ranges from 1 (low) to 5 (high). quality in 2018 by economic region. In addition FIGURE 2.6 Quality of Infrastructure, 2018 4 3.5 3.5 3.6 3.4 3.2 2.8 3 2.2 Scale:low to high (1-5) 2.5 2.2 2.3 2.4 2 1 159 0 ECCAS ECOWAS AMU EAC COMESA SADC Quality of trade and transport related infrastructure Quality of port infrastructure Source: based on Bouët et al. 2019 Gateway and intraregional corridors G ateway and intraregional corridors Cotonou to the landlocked countries of Burkina are the two main types of corridors in Faso, Mali, and Niger. As a transit country, the ECOWAS area. Gateway corridors Burkina Faso plays a key role in several corridors. link the hinterland to the main seaports, The nine gateway corridors are (1) Cotonou– primarily supporting overseas trade of the Niger; (2) Cotonou–Burkina Faso, extending to region and marginally supporting intraregional Mali; (3) Lomé–Niger; (4) Lomé–Burkina Faso, trade. Intraregional corridors provide extending to Mali; (5) Tema or Takoradi–Burkina key transport infrastructure and services Faso, branching either to Niger or to Mali; (6) constituting a pipeline for a mix of regional Abidjan–Burkina Faso, extending to Niger; (7) trade flows. Several gateway corridors share Abidjan–Mali; (8) Conakry–Mali; and (9) Dakar– common ports. The main corridors link the Mali. The only example of a pure intraregional seaports of Dakar, Abidjan, Tema, Lomé, and corridor is the Abidjan–Lagos Corridor. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Informal cross-border trade W est Africa has a high level (75 • Weak capacity of public institutions percent) of informal cross-border (e.g., border authorities) in member trade (ICBT). ICBT largely involves countries basic food products, cereals, livestock products, • High market response of ICBT to vegetables, low quality consumer goods, and so market signals and market imperfections, on. Informal traders often trade across borders especially in times of high price with small volumes, at irregular intervals, to volatility, exchange rate misalignment, benefit from price differences and local market emergencies, and other shocks opportunities. However, at an aggregated level, • Weak formal employment opportunities these numerous small transactions represent while ICBT offers jobs and revenues to large volumes. Informal trade linkages also millions of unskilled and semiskilled extend across national territories. For example, traders and workers ICBT in petrol, cereals, and fertilizers from Nigeria has expanded from the border areas of The traders involved in ICBT usually face Niger into Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ghana. ICBT difficulties in accessing credit and other presents major regulatory challenges since the services from formal financial institutions and transactions and the details of the businesses are either denied credit or forced to access or traders involved are rarely recorded or credit at high interest rates. While women included in official statistics. For example, engaged in informal trade play a substantial 160 informal exchanges between Nigeria and role in the local economy, they continually face Benin are hard to trace along the very porous stigmatization, violence, harassment, and poor 800 km land and sea border. Weak enforcement working conditions. of regulations creates loopholes for trade in substandard or illegal products that negatively ICBT can be formalized in three main ways: affect consumer welfare through health and first, by reducing bureaucratic obstacles and safety risks and undermines efforts to develop transaction costs traders face when trying efficient value chains. to access the formal market. This approach relies on policies and legislative approaches Informal trade is grouped into passive that directly promote professionalization; smuggling and informal trading with low improve the business environment and border transaction volumes. Causes of ICBT in West infrastructure; and address power imbalances Africa are as follows: between traders and border staff. Examples of policy and legislative interventions include • Difficulties and high transaction costs expanding ongoing initiatives of One Stop associated with meeting all formal Border Posts (OSBP) and establishing Trade documentary requirements motivates Facilitation Desks at district levels within traders, especially women, to engage in member countries to facilitate the completion ICBT. of border formalities and reduce opportunities • Inadequate policy coherence and for harassment. Second, partnership-based lackluster political will to implement approaches involve establishing partnerships regional regulation in some member that encompass formal private sector states organizations, nongovernmental organizations (NGO), development partners, and governments trade associations in policy formulation to develop joint formalization strategies. Third, processes incentives and compliance-based approaches • Create incentives for formalization include taking measures at national or regional aligned to the needs of informal traders, levels to facilitate formalization through that is, providing technical support incentives tailored to the needs of informal through, for instance, incubation traders: services and capacity-building initiatives; financial support through initiatives such • Implementing measures eliminating as establishing national and regional barriers to technology, credit, and business development funds for informal market access and actions promoting traders; and promoting contractual compliance with formal business agreements between producers and requirements, such as registration and distribution companies through short needed permits circuits and product standardization. • Make trade policies more gender responsive and promote women’s Controls and road harassment B oth the excessive number of controls hours) is higher in ECOWAS compared with with high illegal fees charged to other regions such as COMESA or SADC (see 161 traders and time loss decrease the table 2.6). Therefore, if exported products are competitiveness of regional production perishable or have a seasonal nature, losses compared with international imports. The will be more important since such products time to export for border and documentary will not be sold at an appropriate time to allow compliances (176.6 hours) and to import (229.5 consumption. TABLE 2.6 Border-Related Measures (by region), 2018 Hours Hours Hours needed Hours needed Logistic Days needed needed for needed for for border for border Performance Region to clear documentary documentary compliance compliance Index exports compliance compliance (Export) (Import) shipments (Export) (Import) COMESA 6.3 71.7 69.1 115.7 90 2.9 SADC 4.7 81.8 64.4 94.7 58.8 3.0 AMU n/a 57.2 60.6 127.1 85.2 2.9 ECCAS 6.7 145.3 89.1 197.8 142.7 2.7 EAC n/a 68.0 65.0 204.6 133.5 3.3 ECOWAS 12.8 100.6 76.0 120.7 108.8 2.8 Source: Bouët et al. 2019 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Existing restrictions of intraregional trade price of tomatoes in Comè, Benin dropped by in ECOWAS can worsen dependencies on 40 percent compared with September 2018 imports from extra-regional markets. A levels and 47 percent compared with the five- typical example is the trade of local onions year average. that have to compete with imported onions arriving by boat from other countries such as Options exist to reduce negative trade the Netherlands. Routing local onions between impacts of widespread road harassment. Burkina Faso and Côte d’Ivoire costs about one A reduction of harassment (see map 2.3 for million CFAF per truckload. With traders unable location of documented road harassment to cross borders between countries, large stocks points) could be achieved by (a) sensitization and underperforming markets are reported and capacity building of actors involved in trade at the borders, which impacts market prices (border inspections, customs) and growing the and leads to local surpluses and shortages. For number of controls; and (b) the strengthening example, large quantities of rotten fresh fruits of the regional reserve, as most regional and vegetables have been reported in border producers do not have the possibility of storing markets in Benin. The result is that prices their products (West African Economic and of perishable, fresh food items dropped to Monetary Union (UEMOA) is currently creating abnormally low levels. According to the Ministry additional storage facilities). of Agriculture of Benin, in September 2019, the MAP 2.3 Mapping of Road Harassment, March 2015 162 Source: CILSS 2015 Several firms in West Africa report that customs, where NTM are typically enforced, they face more non-tariff measures (NTM) and trade regulations are a major constraint within ECOWAS member states than in third to trade (51 percent in Mali; 45 percent in Côte countries. NTM are defined as any measures d’Ivoire). (public or private) other than tariffs that influence international trade flows. While NTM Policies for the free movement of goods may serve to protect public goods including and people exist yet are not implemented public health or the environment, they often or are impeded. Regional trade policy constitute politically motivated impediments seems to be a policy of “convenience” that to favor domestic over international suppliers. is implemented only if aligned with short- NTM frequently act as impediments to term political considerations. For example, in international trade by obliging importers and 2015, Nigeria banned imports of a range of foreign exporters to charge higher prices or commodities, including rice, as a response to limit import volumes. For instance, firms in the trade practices of neighboring countries Guinea report that 65.9 percent of NTM are and to promote local production. This was also imposed by ECOWAS countries, while only a reaction to Benin’s imports of cheap rice from 18.3 percent are imposed by Organization for the international market to repackage and re- Economic Co-operation and Development export to Nigeria to profit through favorable (OECD) countries and 15.9 percent are imposed exchange rates and price differentials. Potential by other developing countries. High prevalence solutions could be (a) strengthening the of NTM within ECOWAS may partly explain tools for auditing good trade practices; (b) regional trade patterns (shares of extra-regional strengthening the formal aspects of trade trade in overall trade volume: 84.5 percent through better mechanism to verify product 163 for OECD and 5 percent for other developing origin; or (c) adopting a list of strategic and countries; share of intraregional trade within sensitive products (rice, grain) that border ECOWAS: 10.5 percent). Also, many West African services would inspect more closely. At present, countries have longer export timescales than no concrete examples of these measure exist in other countries, mainly Asian counterparts (WB Africa, but there is a system of regular controls 2020a). The firms, which are monitored in the of dairy products between Mercosur countries World Bank Enterprise survey, indicate that that West Africa could turn to for inspiration. Regional value chain development T he aggregated net exports of billion. Developing sustainable value chains for agriculture products are mostly food staples and strengthening agribusinesses negative for ECOWAS between 2000 in the region are key to achieving a more to 2018 (figure 2.7). This deficit was particularly balanced long-term trade balance. severe in the years 2012–14, when annual imports surpassed exports by more than US$4 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas FIGURE 2.7 Net Exports of Agricultural Production by ECOWAS Region (total, in US$, millions), 2000–18 Net exports of agri-products in million US$ 2000 0 -2000 -4000 -6000 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012 2015 2018 Source: based on FAOSTAT 2020 West Africa has an export profile that as enhancing intraregional trade. This includes 164 is dominated by extractive products the ECOWAS Common Agricultural Policy (crude petroleum, natural gas) and a few (ECOWAP), the West Africa Common Industrial agricultural commodities (for example, Policy (WACIP), and the continental 2014 African cocoa, rubber, cotton). Processed food Union (AU) Malabo Declaration on Accelerated products (rice, wheat, poultry, milk and dairy Agricultural Growth and Transformation for products, edible products and preparations) are Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods, in prevalent in imports. The region has a negative which African heads of state and government food trade balance that is expected to further committed to strengthening agricultural value deteriorate given fast-growing populations, chains and tripling intra-African agricultural urbanization, and lagging food production. trade by 2025. Intraregional trade is believed Key policy frameworks at regional and national to create opportunities for economies of scale levels put great emphasis on sustainable and and allow food to flow from food surplus to inclusive agricultural value chain development food deficit areas. (including processing for value addition) as well Status of value chain development and agribusiness in the region T he scarcity of data on value chains and and performance. While many agricultural agribusiness in West Africa complicates products are consumed locally, there is a vast obtaining a clear overview of the network of both formal and informal sector sector, including the overall size, structure, enterprises that transport, process, store, package, and sell the region’s products in urban added of businesses involved in agriculture areas and across borders. Official data either along the supply chain. Where data exist, they undervalues or does not count these thriving are largely focused on specific value chains, businesses in West Africa because many such as cocoa, cotton, or livestock, that have operate as part of the informal economy. Broad high regional importance. Figure 2.8 provides scale information, such as the composition of a schematic overview of all relevant food value different enterprises in the sector, for example, chain segments that need to be considered in agroprocessing, is largely absent. Also lacking when collecting data on value chains. is solid data on the size, scale, value, and value FIGURE 2.8 Schematic Overview of a Food Value Chain—From Farm to Fork Purchase Orders, Consumer Preferences and Information Input Suppliers Farmers Processors Retailers Consumers Products and Information Source: World Bank 165 Employment data for agriculture and value dichotomy (FAO 2015). Generally, the more chains (the food economy) provide a proxy important commodities are within an economy, measure for the economic importance of (for example, cocoa in Ghana), the more agribusiness. These off-farm activities account likely that the value chains are more vertically for 31 percent of total non-farm employment integrated and have larger firms operating across the region (Allen et al. 2018). Over 70 with more capital (FAO 2015). Small and percent of all non-agricultural food economy medium-sized enterprises are often focused jobs are in food marketing, which includes on a specific commodity and are often tied to transport, storage, wholesale, and retail. larger domestic or multinational enterprises Overall, these jobs represent 27 percent of that are focused on exports. The “missing the West African service-sector employment. middle,” a lack of medium-sized agribusiness Jobs created by agricultural value chains are enterprises, follows a pattern that exists across increasingly important within the urban sector Africa in manufacturing (Dinh et al. 2012). There and represent 35 percent of West African are relatively few formal-sector agribusinesses; urban employment (Allen et al. 2018). The food most micro- to small-scale enterprises are economy is vital to women; 68 percent of all dominated by the informal sector, with little employed women work in the food economy, regulation or information on their numbers, and they dominate off-farm employment. value, or value added. Yet this vast informal sector, linked to small producers, forms most of The agroprocessing sector is highly the agribusiness sector in West Africa. segmented and marked by a strong A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas While the number of medium-size farms is fresh produce directly from farming rising, increased smallholder productivity communities, giving buyers, processors, will be the biggest growth driver. This and service providers access to markets increase in smallholder productivity will across the entire fresh produce value necessarily increase the agribusiness sector as a chain. It helps farmers purchase the best whole. There are several trends that are working seeds and inputs, identify yield and profit to boost smallholder productivity. First, there is opportunities, optimize production increased attention to closing yield gaps and decisions, and map their farmlands. increasing resilient production, for example, • Wefly is an Ivorian start-up climate-smart agriculture, and boosting comprising three products. It promotes agriculture by supporting agroclimatic, administration, storage, processing, advisory, and financial services (see also section analysis, and providing automatically 2.1). Second, rural youth are increasingly collected data using spatial locations engaging in agribusiness, and they use ICT to help farmers establish new farms; (information and communication technology) they manage, monitor, and optimize more often than older farmers (Yami et al. farming and harvest, package, and store 2019). The expanding use of ICT offers a range agriproducts. of new possibilities for the services farmers • INVESTIV specializes in using precision and small agribusiness ventures can access, agriculture to improve conditions for from extension information to microcredit farmers throughout Côte d’Ivoire and to transport services for products. A third West Africa. As a pioneer of drone potential trend will be toward larger-scale applications in agriculture, INVESTIV 166 farms, where ICT and other changes in practices provides partners with technical and offer the potential for improving economies of innovative solutions that reduce losses, scale and productivity for farmers. Production increase outputs, and save time. increases will require an equivalent increase in agribusiness, fully incorporating all elements of Formal-sector agroprocessing is most value chains, from farm to fork. closely linked to specific commodities and countries, notably the “big three” countries There are an increasing number of start-ups of Nigeria, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana. Table emerging across West Africa targeting small 2.7 presents a ranking of 13 of the 15 ECOWAS producers and enhancing value chains, countries for which data are available; the table largely driven by improving use of ICT. These ranks the countries in terms of their volumes start-ups aim to provide farmers with the tools of production of raw material and primary and technology to boost their activities and processed products for several major crops deal with increased demand. Examples include: (FAO 2015). • Farmcrowdy focuses on providing Both urban consumers and export markets farmers and agribusinesses with the demand improvements in food safety necessary tools and technology to and packaging, while urban consumers increase yields, lower costs, and improve also need improved and expanded marketing. It uses a tech-powered retail markets. There is strong potential network of agricultural commodity for expanding agribusiness to meet these aggregation centers to aggregate demands. The preferences urban consumers have for a wider variety of products, improved domestic and international markets. More packaging, nutritional information, quality modern retail outlets, including supermarkets, and safety assurances, branded products, and hypermarkets, and convenience stores are convenient foods opens the way for increasing increasingly demanded by urban consumers. formal-sector agribusiness operations for both There is potential for substantial increases in TABLE 2.7 Ranking of Countries by the Size of Their Agroprocessing Sectors All crops(include Country Rice Cassava Palm nut oil Sugar cane Cocoa Cotton Rubber footnote to below text) Nigeria 16 1 1 3 4 3 1 3 Côte d'Ivoire 25 5 4 1 8 1 5 1 Ghana 28 7 2 2 2 2 8 5 Guinea 43 3 5 6 13 6 6 4 Benin 49 10 3 8 3 8 4 13 Liberia 57 8 7 7 13 7 13 2 Mali 60 2 11 13 5 13 3 13 Togo 60 13 6 4 13 4 7 13 Sierra Leone 61 4 8 5 13 5 13 13 167 Senegal 64 6 9 13 1 13 9 13 Burkina Faso 71 9 14 13 7 13 2 13 Niger 79 14 10 13 6 13 10 13 Guinea Bissau 86 11 12 13 13 13 11 13 Source: AGWA background research based on FAOSTAT data The “all crops” figure represents the sum of the individual rankings for the crops listed in this table. The lower this score, the larger (in volume, compared to the other countries in the region) a national processing subsector industry is deemed to be. While the aggregate score implies comparisons across different subsectors solely on the basis of the volume of raw material processed, which varies greatly between subsectors, it provides a rough guide to the relative size of the entire agro processing sector in each country. On the other hand, the subsector scores allow direct comparisons between countries on a like-for-like basis. The ranking does not include the processing of imported raw materials such as sugar, wheat and dried milk, but since Nigeria leads the regions in all three commodities, followed by Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, the overall rank- ings of the leading countries would not change if these products were included in the calculation. small- and medium-sized agribusinesses to Yet if the trajectory follows that of other work closely with supermarkets to developed regions, agribusinesses will likely emerge as a domestically processed, packaged, and growing sector with a substantial influence on branded foods. While this expansion of agribusiness development. supermarkets is relatively small in West Africa, it is more significant in Ghana and Nigeria. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Constraints to value chain development M ost farms and producers in Rice is one of the largest food staples West Africa are small and their imported in West Africa, substituting for integration into value chains traditional staples as urban consumers seek faces significant barriers: lack of access to more storable and easily prepared foods. information on the rapidly changing food Consumers also show a distinct preference regulations and quality standards in global for higher-priced imported rice with aromatic markets, technical knowledge to comply qualities. During the food crisis of 2008, when with complex food safety and hygiene several rice-exporting countries implemented requirements, and financial means to export bans, world prices temporarily tripled, make the necessary investments. Moreover, and price volatility increased (Baharom et al. labeling, certification, and hazard control 2009); several West African countries decided systems typically require large investments to stimulate domestic rice production. With that are only feasible on a large scale. All improved policy incentives and higher world these reasons contribute to reducing the prices, local production has risen sharply in participation of farmers and producers in food some countries: related value chains. To increase the benefits for small farmers through their participation • Senegal River Valley rice is irrigated and in value chains, it is necessary to improve partially mechanized at costs only slightly their capacity to respond quickly to emerging higher than in Thailand, the main source 168 food safety issues; enhance administrative, of Senegal’s imports. Local rice can be infrastructure, technical, scientific, and quite competitive with relatively efficient judicial capacity; support farmer and business milling and transportation. Demand assistance programs; stimulate investment in will grow if the aromatic rice varieties the agrofood industry; reduce transaction costs; now being tested can be produced favor investment in infrastructure and farmers’ commercially. While Senegal has made associations; and strengthen the bargaining major progress in increasing yields, its power of farmers. competitiveness is restrained by the difficulty of accessing secured, tradable Constraints for downstream value chain land rights, which discourages significant development are highly specific to the private investments in irrigation systems. relevant commodity and location. For • Ghana produces rice at a higher cost food staples and traditional exports, high and faces a greater competitiveness transport costs, border logistics, and erratic challenge, even though tariffs and other government interventions are more important charges add 40 percent to the price of than other constraints, whereas for high-value imported rice. High production costs are products for domestic and export markets, partly caused by low yields and low levels major challenges are high food safety, other of mechanization. Low milling ratios and standards and financial issues. In the following, high transport costs further disadvantage these key constraints are demonstrated for rice local rice, especially rice from the main in Senegal and Ghana and cocoa in Ghana (see producing area in the north. As in also table 2.8 further below). Senegal, more flexible and strong seed systems are needed in Ghana to provide a wider range of high-yielding varieties prevent producers from reaching new and to meet diverse growing conditions more resilient markets. These are national and consumers’ preferences. Hence, as policy decisions with regional implications. grain quality, cleanliness, and packaging Policies that give priority to national products are main determinants of consumers’ or that limit imports can boost demand and preference for imported rice, Senegal prices but can limit competitiveness and access and Ghana domestic value chains need to regional-scale markets. Unfortunately, there to focus on these characteristics. are many national policies in different sectors that can impact regional policies. These in turn Cocoa is one of the most important create seriously barriers to private investment. agricultural exports in Sub-Saharan Africa, valued at about US$6.9 billion in 2018 and ECOWAP developed a strategic framework providing livelihoods for about 20 million to reduce these barriers and support private people. Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, and Nigeria have investment across the region. Among the key been the star performers in cocoa exports in findings were that domestic trade barriers (formal recent decades. Ghana’s performance is aided and informal, tariff and non-tariff barriers) were by a reduction in export taxes, a program to discouraging investment in regional markets upgrade technology and management, and and slowing intraregional trade flows. Other close attention to quality, spearheaded by a studies show that these barriers have reduced reformed parastatal institution, COCOBOD (The trade performance within the region, especially Ghana Cocoa Board). However, productivity is by limiting access to finance (Ekpo et al. 2019). still far below potential, so concerted strategies The same study found improved integration of will be needed to maintain competitiveness value chains would increase income levels. To 169 and ensure sustainability by reducing address these value chain constraints, ECOWAS deforestation. With the aging of farmers and created a department promoting cross- the aging of trees, substantial investments border investment, joint ventures to promote will be needed to modernize plantations and investment, and public-private partnerships. engage a new generation of more professional Other regional platforms to enable information farmers. More promising ways to add value exchange and network creation across borders could include improving quality and branding have recently been put in place, such as the and implementing certification programs, African Rice Advocacy Platform. This platform although these are expensive to run in a small, works across 11 countries on issues such as largely unorganized industry such as cocoa in cross-border trade, tariffs, and the creation Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. of an intra-Africa Rice Network supporting interprofessional bodies. Public sector policies and programs play an important role in private investment both The 2019 Enabling the Business of at regional and national levels. Both within Agriculture (EBA) (WB 2019b) revealed countries and in the region, national policies low scores overall for the 12 West African impact regional outcomes. For example, the countries, but there is substantial cross- elements identified earlier, such as cross- country variation. The EBA indicators comprise border and transport issues and a lack of a unique data collection that helps to evaluate harmonization of standards, cause significant whether governments support farmers to regional challenges. Subsidies and pricing conduct their businesses. The EBA score ranges policies (or a lack thereof ) can serve as barriers from 0 to 100 and is a composite of eight to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) and sub-indicators: supplying seed, registering A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas TABLE 2.8 Summary of Major Constraints for Key Commodities Constraints Rice: Ghana Rice: Senegal Cocoa: Ghana Output markets Policies distorting markets * * * Quality issues ** ** * Food safety * Social and environmental issues ** Regional integration issues ** ** Price risk ** ** ** Inputs and technology Policies distorting markets ** ** * Access issues *** *** *** Land access issues *** *** ** Infrastructure issues Transport ** ** ** Other ***(irrigation) ***(irrigation) *(energy for grinding) Access to finance issues ** ** *** Skill issues * * ** 170 Note: Number of asterisks denotes relative importance as a constraint, with *** as the highest priority. Source: World Bank 2013 fertilizer, securing water, registering machinery, Some West African countries have recently sustaining livestock, protecting plant health, implemented reforms to improve the trading food, and accessing finance. Ghana agribusiness climate. In Benin, the fertilizer and Nigeria (see figure 2.9) were the best quality control system was improved by making performing countries with EBA scores of 50, it legally mandatory for all fertilizer containers whereas Liberia—at the lower boundary— to be labeled in the country’s official language. has an EBA score of 16. Ghana, Liberia, Benin, In Burkina Faso, the government increased and Mali have particularly weak scores in the safety controls for feed manufacturing as the subcategory supplying seed. Scores for it now requires the approval and inspection registering machinery or fertilizer are scarce due of manufacturing facilities before the start to lack of data. The data reveal large disparities of operations. In Côte d’Ivoire, the trade of in the strength of agribusiness regulations agricultural products was simplified as the and the efficiency of their implementation government introduced an online application within West Africa. For regional policies to be for phytosanitary certificates. In Ghana, the most effective, it is crucial to account for the regulatory system for plant protection improved heterogeneous constraints that agribusinesses through the introduction of a list of regulated face. quarantine pests and making it available on FIGURE 2.9 Enabling the Business of Agriculture for West African Countries, 2019 50 40 EBA score (0-100) 30 20 10 0 Liberia Togo Sierra Leone Niger Mali Nigeria Ghana Benin Guinea Burkina Faso Cote d’Ivoire Senegal Source: EBA report 2019 (WB 2019b) the International Plant Protection Convention the previous paragraphs, benefit from more (IPPC) website. In Liberia, the government regional consistency and reduced barriers ameliorated the access to finance by introducing for companies to operate across markets and 171 laws on agent banking. Nigeria introduced countries. several incentives geared toward encouraging investment in the agricultural sector, including no duty on agricultural machinery; unrestricted capital allowance for agribusinesses; and up to 50 percent of the capital for agriculture- related plants and equipment. Ghana allows foreign ownership in local companies and joint start-ups and corporate tax rebates of 40–75 percent. Moreover, foreign investors are, among others things, permitted to lease land for a period of up to 50 years, and they are exempt from customs import duties on plant and machinery, equipment, and accessories imported exclusively for establishing enterprises (FAO 2010). While policy reforms in individual countries can undoubtedly set attractive incentives, greater private sector involvement would, as touched upon in A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Initiative Mapping T able 2.9 (below) provides an overview of an initiative mapping contained in the ECOWAS selected initiatives and projects, either RAIP (2016–20), the overview is not intended to ongoing or under preparation, that relate be a complete collection of existing initiatives to the priority intervention area II—Enabling but focuses on programs which are (a) regional Environment for Intraregional Value Chain in scope and (b) considered most relevant and Development and Trade Facilitation. Building on impactful at regional level. TABLE 2.9 Initiative Mapping for Enabling Environment for Intraregional Value Chain Development and Trade Facilitation Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Network of Market Information Systems in West Africa (WAMIS-NET) Inform farmers, agrodealers, and Various Benin, Burkina other stakeholders partners Data collection and Faso, Côte in the agriculture since Since 2000; dissemination of market d’Ivoire, 172 sector of the prices information through multiple Guinea, Niger, CILSS, ECOWAS- estab- market and availability of UEMOA lishment information channels including internet, Nigeria, Mali, agricultural products including system radio, print, email, and SMS Senegal, and and inputs via web- USAID, EU, Togo based platform to DGIS ECOWAS countries West Africa Trade Facilitation Support Program (TFSP) Promoting Trade in West Africa (WATIP II) (1) Develop and implement regional policies and instruments for trade facilitation, such as the Implement regional ECOWAS Common External Multido- resolutions on trade Tariff and the ECOWAS nor con- and customs policy Trade Liberalization Scheme sortium 2018–22; at national level, 2) Promote the efficient ECOWAS including World Bank, GIZ Grant; US$20 in dialogue with transport of goods in selected countries USAID, EU, million government, civil trade corridors Nether- society, and private (3) Coordinate with the lands, sector stakeholders private sector to address Germany trade-specific concerns and promote the role of private actors in the trade facilitation process Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Regional Food Trade and Resilience (1) Improve predictability of Govern- policies and public-private ment dialogue to incentivize private of the sector to increase investment United Increase food trade Alliance for a and trade across borders King- 2018–23; in Sub-Saharan East Africa, Green Revolution (2) Improve coordination dom’s Grant; US$ 48 Africa to fulfill the Southern for Africa (AGRA) between regional Depart- million (not anticipated increase Africa, and and IDH— investments in production, ment for limited to and shifts in food West Africa Sustainable Trade processing, and trade to Interna- West Africa) demand Initiative improve the flow of finance to tional the sector and generate more Devel- income and resilience for opment smallholder farmers (DFID) Family Farming, Regional Markets, and Cross-border Trade Corridors (FARM-TRAC) in the Sahel (1) At operational/ground 173 level (that is, economic clusters/markets/trade corridors), support a better knowledge and evidence- based understanding of the role of a sustainable To develop at and climate-resilient family regional level a farming model able to sustainable model diversify regional agricultural of operational and Burkina Faso, production while addressing policy stakeholders’ Cabo Verde, better integration of markets platforms Chad, The and consumers’ needs International supporting the Gambia, (2) At policy and institutional Food Policy 2020-22 Grant; development Guinea- IFAD level (that is, UEMOA, AU, Research Institute US$3.5 million of a family Bissau, Mali, bilateral commissions, and (IFPRI) farming model Mauritania, so on), favor a more efficient that optimizes Niger, and coordination, concertation, economic and Senegal and harmonization of social opportunities relevant institutions/ of cross-border organizations concerned regional trade by the development and management of agricultural markets and cross-border trade corridors generating and implementing more adequate sectoral strategies and policies reforms A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Agricultural Value Chains Support Project in the Southwest, Hauts-Bassins, Cascades, and Boucle du Mouhoun Regions (PAFA-4R) Contribute to (1) Support to agricultural poverty reduction productivity and production and stimulate (2) Support to the increase in 2020-25; economic growth in value addition and marketing Burkina Faso IFAD IFAD Grant; US$ 124 the Cascades, Hauts- of agricultural products, million Bassins, Boucle including through civil society du Mouhoun, and engagement Southwest regions Feed the Future West African Trade and Investment Hub Attract finance and investment, Nigeria, 2019–25; build links among Data collection and Senegal, Co-financing businesses and dissemination of market Côte d’Ivoire, grant to supporting information through multiple Ghana, and USAID USAID leverage institutions, and channels including internet, other West private capital; strengthen the radio, print, email, and SMS African 174 US$60 million agricultural and countries trade sectors West African Quality System Support the implementation of the regional quality policy of ECOWAS aiming (1) Encourage the use of the at “establishing regional quality infrastructure a framework for and harmonized legal the development framework and operation of (2) Favor private sector to get United Nations suitable, relevant, access to standards Industrial 2014–20; efficient, and (3) Allow private sector to ECOWAS Development EU Grant; €12.9 effective quality get access to a network of countries Organization million infrastructures accredited and competitive (UNIDO) to facilitate conformity assessment intraregional services provided in the and international region trade, protect the (4) Strengthen quality culture consumer and the in private sector environment, and promote sustainable economic development” Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume The West African Trade and Investment Hub Reduce the cost and risk of doing (1) Serve as leaders in business in Africa, adopting improved practices East Africa, leveling the playing (2) Attract buyers and USAID, Southern 2014-19; Grant; field and cutting investors USAID Creative Africa, and US$ 49 million through red tape to (3) Promote implementation Associates West Africa make investment of regional trade agreements and trade freer and fairer for everyone ECOWAS Informal Trade Regulation Support Programme (1) Implement of an independent mechanism for data verification and West validation African (2) Extend product coverage Associa- Increase intra- and standardize customs CILSS and tion for regional trade coding ECOWAS; funding Cross-Bor- as part of the (3) Involve National Statistics to be mobilized der construction of ECOWAS Offices (NSOs) in data through Trade, in 2019-22; n.a. 175 the common countries verification and validation programs by Agro-for- market and poverty activities international estry-pas- reduction in the (4) Conduct capacity donors toral and ECOWAS region building activities of apex Fisheries organizations with the NSOs Products (5) Conduct advocacy (WACTAF) activities for the removal of barriers to cross-border trade Regional Rice Development Program FAO (Sub- Regional Office Supporting for West Africa), ECOWAS in Program ECOWAS, achieving ECOWAP under ECOWAS ECOWAS objective of rice n.a. n.a. development countries member states, self-sufficiency in at the time of Coalition for 2025 (Regional Rice writing. African Rice Offensive). Development (CARD) A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Market Access Support Project for African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States (ACP) Fruit and Vegetable Producers and Exporters (“Fit for Market” - F4M) Enable smallholders, producer groups, farmer organisations, EU/ Facilitate exports Europe-Africa- and micro, small and medium ECOWAS French of vegetable and Caribbean- 2017–22; enterprises, to access countries, Devel- fruit producers Pacific Liaison Grant; US$25 international and domestic Chad, opment to international Committee million fruit and vegetable markets Mauritania Agency markets (COLECAP) by complying with SPS issues (AFD) and market requirements Mobilizing Sahelian Enterprises for Innovative and Large-Scale Responses against Malnutrition (MERIEM - Nutrition Sahel) AF- Decrease prevalence Support to agrifood SMEs 2018–21; Mali, Burkina D/B&MG of malnutrition in specialized in the production GRET Grant; US$11 Faso, Niger Founda- West Africa of nutritional products million tion Competitive African Rice Initiative Phase 2 (CARI2) 176 Increase the competitiveness of West African (1) Knowledge management small-scale rice and cooperation support producers, millers (2) Inclusive business BMZ; Burkina and other actors models and productivity GiZ, JAF-K, Kilimo B&MG US$11.25 Faso, Ghana, in the value chain development Trust Founda- million Nigeria and achieve long- (3)Financial services tion lasting reduction in (4) Policy advice poverty in Nigeria, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Tanzania Program to Build Resilience to Food and Nutrition Insecurity in the Sahel (P2RS) - Phase 1 Burkina Faso, (1) Rural infrastructure Build resilience to Chad, The Loan/Grant; development food and nutrition Gambia, Mali, 2015–19 (2) Value chains and regional CILSS AfDB insecurity in the Mauritania, US$191.7 markets development Sahel Niger, and million Senegal Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume Support Project of Meat and Livestock Marketing in West Africa (1) Improve functioning of live cattle trade along transnational corridors, Swiss especially cross-border areas Grant; Develop Agen- (2) Strengthen organization ECOWAS competitive, cy for 2017–21; of private stakeholders for the Member regional, and n.a. Develop- livestock sector in West Africa States, Chad, US$8.3 million inclusive livestock- ment and (COFENABVI-AO) Mauritania meat value chains Coopera- (3) Stimulate innovative tion investments by entrepreneurs or producer groups in the livestock-meat sector Agricultural Value Chain Development Project (AVDP) (1) Support for smallholder IFAD; rice production and OPEC productivity Fund for (2) Support for tree crop Interna- production and productivity To increase tional the income of (3) Strengthening Devel- Grant (insert 177 the business skills of it above 2018- smallholder opment, agribusiness centers, farmers’ 25); farmers through Sierra Leone IFAD National organizations; farmer field the promotion of Govern- US$86.93 schools; facilitating value agriculture as a ment, million chain organizations; and business Benefi- deal making through the ciaries, establishment of provincial private multistakeholder platforms sector (4) Strengthen climate- local resilient rural infrastructure FARM-TRAC Sahel Project (1) Contribute to an improved knowledge of the functioning Enhance food of trade in agricultural and CILSS, IFPRI, security, food products in West Africa West African economic growth, (2) Ensure progress on the Association resilience, and free movement of agricultural ECOWAS for Cross- Grant; 2020– poverty reduction in products in West Africa MS, G5 Sahel border Trade in IFAD 23; US$3.5 the Sahel and West (3) Contribute to countries Agro-Pastoral million Africa through an the formulation and and Fisheries integrated common implementation of regional Products market policies and strategies for WACTAF promoting trade agricultural and food products A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Duration, Focus Funding Objective Activities Countries Implementation Type, and Source Volume African Sustainable Livestock 2050 (ASL 2050) Anticipate and predict opportunities and challenges for (1) Facilitate multistakeholder society that will dialogue and partnering with emerge in the years ongoing livestock initiatives ahead due to fast- (2) Build upon available data, 2017-2021; changing African information, and tools to Implemented livestock systems; examine livestock systems in the identify actions to and generate long-term Burkina Faso, framework of FAO USAID be taken now for projections Nigeria the Emerging tapping into coming (3) Build a series of livestock Pandemic opportunities scenarios to identify Threats (EPT-2) and dealing with alternative policy options and program the emerging capacity requirements for a challenges sustainable livestock sector associated with growing and changing livestock systems 178 Entry Points and Reflections Recommendations to facilitate intraregional trade flows T he degree of private sector dynamism yet well organized at the regional level. For can be considered a measure of example, most activities of such organizations regional integration. The flow of people in the rice and livestock sectors remain limited is intricately linked to private sector commercial to the country level. Promoting both financial activities under the ETLS, allowing measures inclusion of farmer’s organizations that work of the level of integration in West Africa. in cross-border trade and technical support Strengthening professional associations, such and capacity-building measures that enable as herder organizations or trading associations, professional organizations to better organize could play an important part in facilitating should be priorities. Traders often move with commercial activities and thus supporting large amounts of money and are often robbed. regional integration. At present, these are not Therefore, they should be enabled to deposit their money at the point of sale and recover it formalities; make investments in upon return to their country of origin. storage facilities and improvement of the warehouse management system At the regional level, harassment and other for better aggregation around strategic trade issues resolution systems should be value chains. These could also be a strengthened, and an online complaint starting point for promoting contract system should be put in place. ECOWAS farming and thus better traceability. staff and member state representatives meet • Creating one-stop shops at national regularly to discuss the status of implementation levels to conduct transactions and of regional regulation and challenges such as obtain export and import certificates road harassment. These meetings, however, that are not too expensive and would have thus far failed to lead to significant simplify border formalities and reduce reduction in border harassment of traders. To opportunities for corruption improve their effectiveness, there is need for • Implementing a system where each systematically involving famers’ organizations country declares the origin of its products in these exchanges to find solutions adapted before reexporting them to neighbor to traders’ circumstances. Furthermore, countries. Such measures should be professional organizations should be given a accompanied by building awareness more prominent role in facilitating trade flows on regional regulation of ground-level by more closely collaborating with existing actors. For example, both customs staff cross-border trade facilitation centers. When and producers could be handed cards traders arrive at the border, these centers could informing them of the commodities that then more effectively assist them to prevent are authorized for free movement. 179 agricultural products from being subjected • Implementing a regional mechanism to unlawful harassment. In the medium and allowing representatives from involved long term, professional organizations should in transport and logistics to receive be assisted in creating remote support centers information on inspections and trade that collect complaints and can assist traders formalities in their respective trade at border crossings without trade facilitation corridor and to lodge complaints centers through mediation and advisory about cross-border harassment to the services. competent authorities (ECOWAS). A number of measures taken at both the national and the regional level could help to effectively address impediments complicating intraregional trade. There is widespread agreement that the main issues holding back intraregional trade consist in harassment and infrastructure deficiencies. Key actions with the potential to promote trade flows include the following: • Setting up traceability systems at the regional level through certification, standardized border controls, and A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Reducing the implementation gap of regional policy R educing the current gap between • Strengthen dialogue with trade and regional trade regulation and their transport departments in ECOWAS. implementation at national level, Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) related strengthening national-level policy to implementation of regional policy incentives and increasing monitoring cannot be done by ECOWAS alone capacity of regional organizations. Increasing as its M&E department is presently compliance and awareness of ground-level overburdened. M&E should be done actors related regional policy requires both through a multi-actor mechanism stronger accountability mechanisms relying (two-tiered mechanism with technical on peer effects and improving monitoring committee and broader evaluation board capacity of ECOWAS to more precisely measure including state representatives, ECOWAS/ outcomes against policy ambition (e.g., CILSS/UEMOA/CORAF, interprofessional agreed policy commitments). More specific organizations, agricultural commerce suggestions include: chambers, and technical committee). Recommendations could be made by all • A regionally owned accountability to an evaluation board. mechanism (such as a country scorecard) • Strengthen regional (ECOWAS with strong country buy-in could reduce commission) technical capacity for the widespread noncompliance with collecting and analyzing trade data 180 ECOWAS regulation within member related to agricultural products. states, e.g., through rewarding those that • Strengthen national (ministries of are working toward common objectives. agriculture, port authorities) trade • Increase involvement of private sector monitoring capacity through capacity organizations, civil society, professional, building for border personnel and and farmer’s organizations in policy customs staff to internalize relevant formulation, implementation, and regulation (e.g., CET (Common External monitoring and evaluation of regional Tariff ) and ETLS). market policies at both regional and national level. Measures for increasing the competitiveness of the West African agrifood sector R egional-scale coordination of to focus on the products in which they have a agricultural value chains is necessary comparative advantage, rather than watching for a balanced development of the each country try to produce all types of food sector. Coordination at regional level is commodities to ensure its self-sufficiency. Intra- needed both for exchanging best practices and regional trade based on comparative advantage research results, and for each member country could improve food system resilience in the region through boosting food trade between • Improve transport and communication countries with food surpluses and deficits. infrastructures, both regional roads and The promotion of intraregional agricultural links between the main production areas value chains requires the support of regional and main regional markets institutions tasked with advancing regional • Improve access to international market integration, that is, ECOWAS and UEMOA. information systems. Specific ECOWAS/UEMOA-led measures could • Support the development of public- include the following points: (a) Adopt a private partnership initiatives along the resolution recommending that all member value chains for the improvement of countries integrate the value chain approach in production and services infrastructures their agricultural sector development strategy including markets and phytosanitary and with a special emphasis on food crops; (b) veterinary borders control points. Ask community financing organs to integrate into their action programs a component for There are tools available to improve structuring and financing agricultural value market access for producers and help chains; and (c) Recommend the ECOWAS and stabilize agricultural prices. Problems in UEMOA Commissions to create an organ for value chains functioning could be overcome the promotion of agricultural value chains and by strengthening marketing channels and for facilitating the access of small producers to partnerships with the private sector to regional and international markets. address problems of scale. There is also a need to strengthen financing mechanisms for West African agriculture needs to achieve agribusiness and incentives targeting both more economies of scale to become more producers and consumers. More specifically, 181 competitive. This requires strengthening all measures could include: segments of the food value chain: • Establishing mechanisms at the • Increase production through a more regional level to promote producers’ efficient use of inputs and enable farmer access to technical and financial support. groups to sell surpluses to markets. Where possible, contract farming • Foster regular consultations between should be promoted to increase farmers’ the private and public sectors to put production incentives. policies in place that support developing • A regional agricultural-inputs value chains, e.g., by following the market could be organized to avoid examples of Côte d’Ivoire and Nigeria. differentiation of input prices across countries, which is currently the case, • Promote local consumption and the and to cut down the price of most basic market prospects of regional products. inputs for farmers. Apart from making products more • Encourage agribusiness to operate at attractive through better packaging, it each value-chain segment. Studying is important to promote local products models of functioning value chains through media campaigns that for key commodities such as sorghum, emphasize local products’ superior quality maize, millet, and livestock could help to compared with imported products. promote value chains. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Regional market information systems need also important to support innovative start-ups to be upgraded and harmonized to reduce specializing in local products distribution. For market price volatility and facilitate cross- instance, technical support to SME could be border trade. Market information systems add value to agricultural raw products, but also (MIS) provide publicly available data on prices consist in support for producers’ organizations and traded volumes to market actors to by mobilizing and involving private sector enhance decision-making. With EU support, players and creating supportive networks. AGRHYMET developed a market information Finally, improving domestic competitiveness system (West African Market Information of food production and food supply by System Network – WAMIS-NET, see also section improving transport links between inland and 2.3) that is operational since 2000. Between coastal cities is needed. Accompanying policy 2000 and 2010, USAID supported CILSS in measures could include mandatory quotas for developing a market information monitoring regional produce, e.g., by requiring grocery program. Capacity (only two or three full-time stores to include in its offer at least 30 percent staff in the market unit) and financial limitations of local products. affected the program’s effectiveness. In the recent decade, in the ECOAGRIS project, led by Future investments should address ECOWAS and supported through EU-funding, sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) issues for aimed at strengthening WAMIS-NET. However, maize and other important value chains. limited capacity to monitor market information Recommendations include: and low uptake by users continue to hold back system effectiveness at the regional level. At • Conducting national testing on 182 the national level, certain countries including biopesticides. Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, Mauritania, Chad, and • Supporting the development of private Senegal have developed MIS that work very commercial seed markets. This requires well. Going forward, the challenge is how to conditional licensing of multiplication harmonize existing systems across countries and distribution rights of public domain (for example, information on stock levels) seed to firms with the capacity to meet through an integrated market information conditions. system and beef up monitoring capacity at the • Further harmonizing national seed regional level. One entry point for intervention policies with the ECOWAS framework. could be dispatching innovators from the • Building processor awareness of regional start-up landscape to regional bodies mycotoxin hazards and facilitate to make existing market information systems commercial distribution of mycotoxin more attuned to user needs. test kits. • Training farmers and aggregators in the Advance harmonization of processed proper use and disposal of pesticides, product standards and support SMEs that aflatoxin controls, and grain-storage create high value addition in agricultural fumigants. production to capture economies of • Foster the extensive use of scale. It is necessary to advance regional- e-certification to facilitate agricultural level harmonization of standards related to product trade in the region. processed product. At present each country has its own criteria and norms complicating the circulation of processed products. It is COVID-19—an opportunity to strengthen intraregional trade C OVID-19 aggravates food security should be made, and additional sanitary challenges, but there may be ways measures introduced. To guarantee policy to seize new opportunities from coherence across different countries, this crisis to foster intraregional trade. decision-makers should negotiate a In a context characterized by high illiteracy, regional consensus regarding when and the negative influence of social media (fake how such exemptions apply. news), and a lack of trust in relation to state authorities, countering COVID-19 impacts is challenging. However, COVID-19 may be ushering in a new era that may offer new opportunities for West Africa to decrease import dependence. Strategies to increase food security should focus on increasing local production since relying on imports poses considerable risks as international trade flows might continue to suffer disruptions in the near- and midterm. West Africa extends over two main geo-agricultural zones that both have 183 added-value agricultural products to share and that are complementary. To counter COVID-19 impacts on food insecurity, future interventions contribute through • Creating social conditions and political will that catalyze a new spirit of West Africa feeding West Africa. • Facilitating and strengthening commercial exchanges within the region. • Identifying the main products to be traded within the region (for example, meat, cowpeas, vegetable products, and oilseeds in the hinterland countries and rice, maize, tubers, and fish from the coastal countries). The closure of the borders due to COVID-19 has negatively affected the cross-border trade of some products that require physical border crossings of traders (for example, livestock and perishables). For traders circulating such goods, exemptions A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Promote Intraregional Value Chain Development and Trade Facilitation RFI #4 Develop regional food trade monitoring scorecard for increased transparency and accountability TABLE 2.10 Regional Flagship Initiative #4 Type Policy/analytics Objective To facilitate intraregional trade by promoting the implementation of regional policies Despite ongoing efforts, the current levels of implementation of policies related to agricultural 184 trade fall far short of the defined targets. Although the ETLS was adopted to promote free trade, its implementation by ECOWAS member states is lagging behind. This has resulted in various intraregional trade constraints including border and road harassments (often referred to as tracasseries). Moreover, border crossings are reported to be very time-consuming, leading to high trade costs. Border staff misconduct, including the collection of illegal fees and customs, Context and results from the complexity of administrative rules and low levels of stakeholder awareness of rationale regional trade regulations. New mechanisms are needed to improve implementation of existing policies such as ELTS and to increase compliance of border and customs staff with regional regulation. In addition, facilitating intraregional trade in agrifood commodities also requires strengthening both awareness and capacity of ground-level actors such as traders (for example, through supporting them to organize and coordinate under the umbrella of interprofessional organizations) and customs staff. (1) Update and harmonize critical regional policies and regulations • Diagnose reasons for lack of implementation of regional regulation • Update regional regulation related to cross-border trade • Disseminate regulatory information through digital platforms and other ICT to increase information access (2) Foster implementation of regional policy Activities • Establish and strengthen ECOWAS capacity to monitor and evaluate the implementation of regional policy • Strengthen awareness of farmers’ organizations, interprofessional bodies, and private sector • Set up traceability systems and one-stop shops to fast-track completion of border formalities • Establish monitoring committees on issues related to cross-boundary agrifood trade led by civil societies and interprofessional bodies (3) Establish scorecard monitoring mechanism and improve transparency at government level • Design, validate, and implement regional trade scorecard mechanism including improved trade data collection • Enhance regional conflict resolution system (including online or remote complaint Activities system to facilitate border-crossing for trade purposes) • Support private sector and farmer’s organizations through setting up cross-border trade facilitation centers • Promote high-level policy advocacy through mutual reviews and agreed-on reporting mechanisms RFI coordination ECOWAS; UEMOA, CILSS, USAID, UNIDO, Federation of West African Chamber of Commerce and and potential Industry (FEWACCI), Borderless Alliance, farmers’ organizations, ROPPA, financial partners, AGRA, partners FAO, AfCFTA/AU Past or existing West Africa TFSP, WACTAF, Feed the Future West African Trade and Investment Hub, initiatives with Regional Food Trade and Resilience, Regional Support Program for Professional and Farmers’ potential for Organizations within the Framework of the Implementation of the Regional Agricultural Policy collaboration (PRAOP/ECOWAP) • Bridging the gap of policy implementation Knowledge gaps • Design and data-gathering related to scorecard implementation and areas for deep dives • Cost-effective solutions to strengthening dialogue between stakeholders • Capitalize on past experiences of regional institutions 185 RFI #5 Invest in private and public capacity to perform key enabling functions such as traceability systems, food safety and quality control, and standards TABLE 2.11 Regional Flagship Initiative #5 Type Investment and policy Identify and develop more efficient intraregional value chains and promote value Objective chain innovations (quality control, contracting, standards, and traceability) West African food value chains remain less developed than those in other parts of the developing world. Most of the agricultural products exported within and outside the region are raw materials. This is mainly due to the lack of processing and transport infrastructures as well as Context and the lack of financial resources to support the private sector in their activities. In addition, there rationale are weaknesses and disparities between ECOWAS member states relating to SPS regulations and state capacity to complete accredited and certifiable quality controls. Last, producers and other value chain actors, including producer organizations, frequently lack organizational capacity. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas (1) Strengthen and harmonize SPS regulations, awareness, and capacity for testing and verification • Harmonize SPS within the region to build trust between countries; for example, through using blockchain technology for traceability of imported agricultural inputs and exported agricultural products • Support quality approach linked to the geographical origin of products through producer structuration, quality control committees • Establish and disseminate regional quality standards aligned with national quality standards • Support digitalization of certificate of origin and dissemination to countries through SIGMAT (Interconnected Transit Freight Management System) (2) Strengthen private sector organizations (farmers, traders, and processors) • Improve capacity of interprofessional bodies to offer logistical and organizational Activities support to traders • Enhance farmers’ organizations organizational capacity to manage logistic and transport needs in order to improve market linkages • Promote smallholders’ inclusion in contract farming agreements • Improve the legal framework and access to finance (3) Support soft and hard infrastructure of regional key value chains • Promote certification of origin systems and their digitalization • Enhance regional commodity coordination covering aspects such as marketing, production, aggregation, quality, contracting, traceability 186 • Identify the side streams of the value chain that could provide valuable inputs for other value chains and make them more circular • Consolidate and invest in critical infrastructure including markets, storage, and aggregation facilities RFI coordination ECOWAS; UEMOA, AfDB, IFAD, IFPRI, WACTAF, CILSS, IFDC, FAO, European Center for Development and potential Policy Management (ECDPM), SNV (Netherland Development Organization) partners Past or existing West African Quality system, F4M SPS, PRAPS II-livestock value chain improvement and inclusion initiatives with of women and youth, AVDP, FARM-TRAC Sahel Project, CARI2, Regional youth employment potential for program in the agriculture, agroforestry, livestock, and aquaculture value chains collaboration • Learnings from farmers’ organizations involvement in value chain development Knowledge gaps across Africa and areas for deep • Sustainable financial value chain best practices across Africa dives • Value chain specific constraints for private sector investments RFI #6 Set up integrated market information systems across national and regional levels TABLE 2.12 Regional Flagship Initiative #6 Type Investment Objective To improve and promote access to market information The performance of markets critically depends on the quality of and access to information of the various actors involved in the agricultural value chains. Limited usage of information and communication technologies in West Africa complicate fast and convenient access to market Context and information. Farmers frequently have incomplete and faulty information on input, output, rationale and other agricultural products prices. Apart from access to information, weak data collection systems and low collection frequency result in generally low availability of reliable market information, which acts as another constraint to the intraregional trade. (1) Strengthen and consolidate existing information systems (for example, ECO-AGRIS) along the value chain • Improve data collection mechanisms and systems • Capitalize data and information and build capacity of actors • Support digital regional agriculture market information systems • Support platforms that connect buyers and sellers for strategic agricultural 187 commodities (regional seed market, commodity exchange) • Promote public-private partnerships around cross-border market information Activities platforms and systems • Enhance integrated market monitoring systems at the regional level • Support the process of choice and decision-making for producers by providing elements to decide on the dates, market outlets, and the places for the sales of agricultural products (2) Enhance market access • Support regional market to expand national production for priority products • Strengthen farmer and processor organizations and cooperatives to favor market access RFI coordination ECOWAS, UEMOA, FAO, USAID, CILSS, UNCTAD, WTO, WFP VAM (World Food Programme (WFP) and potential Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM), private sector partners Past or existing Market Access Support Project for ACP Fruit and Vegetable Producers and Exporters (“Fit for initiatives with Market” or F4M), WAMIS-NET, CommodAfrica, AfDB market information project, SONAGESS MIS potential for in Burkina Faso collaboration Knowledge gaps Potential of differing data sources to ensure a better transparency on the market of agricultural and areas for deep products and improve negotiation capacity of producers dives A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas RFI #7 Harmonize agricultural support policies TABLE 2.13 Regional Flagship Initiative #7 Type Integrated analytics and policy Promote more effective, ECOWAP-based public agricultural support policies across the region through (a) facilitating farmers’ access to credit, (b) harmonization of producer Objective support regimes, and (c) realigning public spending toward incentivizing the adoption of sustainable, climate-smart practices Over the past decades, ECOWAS member states have increased levels of public agricultural expenditure. Most of this rise in agriculture-related public spending can be attributed to input subsidies, especially for fertilizers. Nigeria, Senegal, Ghana, Burkina Faso, and Mali alone spend US$425 million on input subsidies, excluding Nigerian state-level expenditures that have been estimated as high as US$800 million. In addition to high opportunity costs caused by underspending on higher-return public goods, frequently mentioned limitations of existing input subsidy regimes include a mismatch between targeted groups and programs’ main beneficiaries, crowding out commercial market purchases, and low yield responses to single- fix solutions such as synthetic fertilizer application in the absence of other inputs as well as in carbon-depleted soils. Promoting more effective support policies through further developing ECOWAP could strengthen food system resilience via two pathways. In the past, inconsistent input subsidy regimes across ECOWAS countries have encouraged rent seeking by entrepreneurial traders 188 engaging in cross-border arbitrage at a net cost to taxpayers. Considering the unsatisfactory Context and performance of fertilizer subsidy programs in the region and the lack of cross-country rationale coordination, harmonizing public support regimes across member states and replacing ineffective subsidies with measures to enhance producers’ credit access would contribute to (a) functioning regional input markets and (b) diffusing best practices on the retargeting of public support (increasing producers’ credit access, smart subsidies). Second, ECOWAP could also explore promoting the replacement of input subsidy schemes through other less distortionary forms of producer support in targeted areas. For example, by tying income support to the fulfillment of a set of environmental criteria, pillar one of the European Common Agricultural Policy aims to enhance the provision of public environmental goods while reducing market distortions. Applied to the context of West Africa, targeted support to producers’ incomes in conflict-prone and environmentally degraded hotspot areas conditional on landscape restoration measures with long-term benefits both in terms of agricultural productivity and the sustainability of the productive base (for example, reforesting slopes and increasing soil carbon and the soils’ water retention capacity). The necessary means for such highly targeted income support measures with regional benefits could stem from repurposing existing, nationally funded input subsidies that could be potentially supplemented by regional funds raised through a more stringent application of the ECOWAS CET (Common External Tariff). (1) Establishing ECOWAP-based regional framework for harmonized and more effective public support regimes • Establish regional public support monitoring and accountability mechanism • Encourage countries’ implementation of harmonized support regimes (for example, Activities by relying on a stick-and-carrot approach) (2) Promote implementation of credit schemes and smart subsidies that allow producers to access inputs adapted to their conditions • Increase producers’ access to loans (for example, through loan guarantees or matching grants) • Map regional soils in terms of organic matter content to better target fertilizer subsidies (and to identify areas where producer support for increasing soil organic matter is more useful) • Develop guidelines for targeted smart input subsidies drawing on international best practice (3) Support income of producers (both sedentary farmers and agropastoralists) in hotspot areas conditional on landscape restoration and soil rehabilitation measures that safeguard agriculture’s productive base Activities • Identify hotspot areas with high levels of conflict and fragility risk and natural resource degradation with regional relevance • Explore technological possibilities (for example, remote sensing) of verifying site- specific landscape restoration measures with minimal ground-truthing requirements • Support income of farmers in return for landscape restoration measures (4) Strengthen ECOWAP/RAIP through establishing viable fundraising mechanisms for example, through application of CET RFI coordination ECOWAS, CORAF, CILSS, IFRPI (for M&E); FAO; EU; USAID-Servir, USAID-EnGRAIS, UN organizations, and potential OECD CSAO partners Past or existing initiatives with IFRPI RESAKKS, AKADEMIYA 2063, USAID-EnGRAIS and precursors potential for collaboration 189 Knowledge gaps • Review of current input subsidy regime and cross-country comparison and areas for deep dives • Pathways to implementing CET and political economy of subsidy harmonization Proposed technical work to close knowledge gaps of the identified RFIs T he West Africa Food System Resilience preparation. For example, both RFI #4 and #5 will Facility (FSRF)32 will support ECOWAS, likely be pursued under Food System Resilience CILSS, and CORAF in the development Program (FSRP). Going forward, FSRF will and operationalization of regional flagship support regional organizations by developing initiatives in the context of regional programs deep dive technical studies to close knowledge that are currently under preparation. At the gaps preventing the implementation of RFIs. time of writing, selected RFIs are earmarked for implementation through regional bodies Table 2.14 (below) provides an overview of in the context of regional programs under the RFIs related to the priority intervention 32 Please see executive summary for more information on FSRF. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas area of regional integration and value chain to harmonize food security standards on development as well as the corresponding both national and regional levels. An ongoing analytical work proposed to further develop technical study on regional risk management them. RFI #4 will be refined through analytical architecture will contribute knowledge to RFI work with the objective of establishing a #6, which is considered for implementation robust and broadly owned methodology under several regional programs, including to benchmark countries’ implementation FSRP. Last, selected aspects of RFI #7, especially performance of regional trade regulations to those related to the implementation of regional facilitate intraregional trade flows. At the time regulation aimed at facilitating commercial of writing, regional organizations are currently exchanges of food products between ECOWAS/ deliberating how RFI #5 could contribute to the CILSS member states, are elaborated on under regional food system resilience agenda when the proposed deep dive on developing a broadly pursued under FSRP. To fill related knowledge owned scorecard methodology. In addition, gaps, a deep dive on regional food safety aspects related to policy harmonization across priority issues will determine food security member states will be mainstreamed across the capacity building needs within selected West entirety of technical pieces that are proposed African countries and assess regulatory needs to inform RFIs. TABLE 2.14 RFIs relating to Priority Intervention Area II and Proposed Technical Work Potential Proposed technical deep Relevance at regional RFI # programs for dives to address knowledge 190 level implementation gaps Increased accountability and #4 Develop regional food transparency related to the trade monitoring scorecard for Trade: toward more data and a implementation of regional FSRP increased transparency and scorecard methodology regulations may reduce accountability barriers to intraregional trade #5 Invest in private and Harmonized food safety public capacity to perform standards and improved Food Safety: priority issues, key enabling functions such capacity to implement quality FSRP, PRAPS II investments and other as traceability systems, food control protocols may facilitate interventions safety and quality control, and intraregional trade flows standards Regional Risk Architecture Strengthening integrated and Financing Mechanisms: #6 Set up integrated market market integration systems market information systems information system across may encourage cross-border FSRP, PRAPS II are explored in the context national and regional levels trade through enhanced of risk mitigation; RFI also market access being developed as part of preparatory work for FSRP Harmonized agricultural Trade: toward more data and support policies may increase a scorecard methodology; to #7 Harmonize agricultural ECOWAP, WAICSA, opportunities for intraregional be mainstreamed across other support policies FSRP trade and improve regional deliverables, governance, and input markets coordination mechanisms 2.3 Regional Risk Management Architecture and Farmer Decision Support Tools T he West Africa region is vulnerable Update indicated that from 2020–24, the Sahel to episodic weather-related shocks, region is likely to be wetter than the recent past security risks, pests and diseases, and (WMO July 2020) and is expected to worsen volatile markets affecting productivity, displacement of vulnerable populations due food security, and the agriculture sector. to floods. A sharp uptake in violence starting Especially in the dry regions, recurring weather- in 2012 has metastasized and localized into related risks cause food crises resulting in loss diverse forms of conflict across the subregion, of lives and livelihoods. As of October 2020, 16.7 encompassing violent extremism, armed million people in West Africa are severely food rebellion, and banditry, among other things. insecure, a number which may further rise to As a region that produces at least 30 percent 23.6 million by August 2021 (see also box 2.5). of the African continent’s food requirements, The impact of COVID-19 pandemic and related increasing the resilience of West Africa’s food restrictions to control its spread have further system is critical to achieving food security and compounded the food security situation. The building a strong food system (Zougmoré et al. World Meteorological Organization (WMO)’s 2016). latest Global Annual to Decadal Climate 191 BOX 2.5 Food and Nutrition Security Situation in West Africa, March - May 2021 Some 19.6 million people (9.1 percent of the population) in 17 countries across West Africa and the Sahel were severely food insecure (CH Phase 3 or worse), requiring immediate food assistance in the Sahel and West Africa between May 2021. Despite the humanitarian and food assistance provided to vulnerable populations, some 1.1 million people were estimated to be in an emergency situation (CH phase 4) with significant numbers in Nigeria (493,345), Burkina Faso (177,364), Niger (101,871), Liberia (100,272), Mali (29,847), and Senegal (3,797). In five countries, the number of people in crisis or worse exceeds one million (CH phase 3): 8.7 million in Nigeria, 1.9 million in Burkina Faso (corresponding to approx. 1 in 10 people), 1.5 million in Sierra Leone, 1.5 million in Niger, and 1.2 million in Chad. In addition, at least 51 million people were deemed at risk of falling into a crisis situation (CH Phase 2). In the absence of adequate countermeasures, the number of severely food-insecure people could reach 27 million, or 9.1 percent of the total population in the June to August 2021 lean season in the 17 Sahelian and West African countries. In northern Burkina Faso, eastern and western Chad, most regions of Niger, and central and northern Mali, acute malnutrition touches 10 percent of the population, which the World Health Organization (WHO) considers to be “high.” The combined impact of simultaneously occurring health, economic, and security shocks is driving this unprecedented food and nutrition crisis. Source: RPCA 2021, based on CH Analysis (February-March 2021 assessment period) and OECD SWAC 2020 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas This section discusses how West Africa and the medium term. Much has happened in the the Sahel region might improve its regional- region, from developing regional food security- and national-level risk management and related policy frameworks to establishing both farmer decision support systems to build national and regional institutional mechanisms resilience against food and agriculture- and initiatives to support food and agriculture related risks. First, this section will discuss risk management. Yet, challenges remain and prevalent agriculture-related risks before more needs to be done to strengthen the reviewing region’s existing risk management resilience of the region’s producers. Producers systems and mechanisms. As section 2.1 and will need regular access and use of high-quality 2.2, 2.3 closes with a discussion of possible weather and climate information as well as entry points for future interventions and early warning, market, and other relevant identifies a set of RFIs that can be taken up by information to make informed decisions, along future regional programs. with the ability to understand the information. This requires the existence of well-functioning The growing multitude of food and farmer decision support systems that work in agriculture-related threats is a significant tandem with national and regional food and challenge for the region. While short-term agriculture risk management institutions. This measures are needed to address immediate calls for addressing the capacity, institutional, needs, the recurring nature and severity of and technical constraints hindering these these risks require a more structural response in agrifood risk management systems. 192 Stocktake and Overview Prevalent Risks in the West Africa and Sahel Region A grifood sector risks are uncertain The World Bank’s Agriculture Risk Management events that negatively impact framework distinguishes three types of risks: agricultural production, trade, (a) production risks, (b) market risks, and (c) markets, and consumption. For agriculture- enabling environment risks (figure 2.10). These based countries, or in countries where a risks can be either manmade or natural, and large share of the population still depends exogenous (caused by external factors) or on agriculture, risks impacting the agriculture endogenous (caused by domestic factors) (WB sector adversely affect sector growth, poverty 2016). Risks often are interlinked; for example, reduction, and national gross domestic production risks often cause price fluctuations product (GDP). Agrifood sector risks also can due to production volatility, or erratic policy compromise food and nutrition security among changes may cause the exchange rate to poor producers and consumers in both urban fluctuate. To effectively manage a risk, it is thus and rural areas. important to identify its root cause. BOX 2.6 Overview of Food Security-Related Regional Policy Frameworks • The “Strategic Framework for Sustainable Food Security in the Fight Against the Poverty” (CSSA) of CILSS. CSSA helped develop the national food security strategies and agricultural information and early warning systems. The Regional Food Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA) was created in 1984, the PREGEC Charter adopted in 2011, and the Harmonized Framework, which are relevant tools of this framework that needs to be strengthened and improved. Additional details on these tools are found in later sections (European Development Fund 2017). • The “Agricultural Policy of the Union” (PAU) of WAEMU, adopted by additional act in 2001 (with eight countries) is considered the first agricultural policy for the whole region. The PAU has concrete actions within the framework of a 10-year Community Program of Agricultural Transformation for Food and Nutritional Security (PCD-TASAN) 2016–25. • The ECOWAS “West African Regional Agricultural Policy” (ECOWAP) adopted in 2005 by the ECOWAS Heads of State (with 15 countries). ECOWAP is implemented through National and Regional Agricultural Investment Plans (NAIPs and RAIPs). The PRAISAN 2025 (second generation of the RAIP), validated in December 2016, refines the 2025 vision of the ECOWAS/ECOWAP and integrates food security, nutrition, and resilience dimensions. (ECOWAP/CAADP Process 2025). 193 Alternative symbols (light): Figure 2.10 (BP) FIGURE 2.10 Three Types of Risk Production Risks Market Risks Enabling Environment Risks • Weather events • Price volatility • Conflict / instability • Pests and diseases • Exchange rate volatility • Erratic policy changes • Bushfires • Interest rate volatility • Erratic trade restrictions • Counterpart default Source: World Bank A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Production risks are often the most visible or business regulations, fiscal and monetary risks in the agriculture sector. They include policy settings, agricultural or tenure polices, weather-related events (such as droughts, external trade restrictions, political instability, floods, and cyclones), outbreaks of agricultural corruption, regional conflict, and domestic pests and diseases, and damage caused unrest (WB 2016c). by animals, windstorms, or fire (WB 2016c). Production risks are mostly associated with The food security and agriculture sector yield reductions but can also affect product in West Africa and the Sahel are mainly quality. exposed to production, market, and macrolevel risks. A recent agriculture sector Market risks affect the price and availability risk assessment in the region found that the of outputs and inputs. Commodity markets agriculture shocks that most affect food security can have a high degree of volatility caused by are production risks arising from erratic rainfall, changing local and global supply and demand. dryness (droughts, floods), pests and diseases, Producers worry about low prices (reducing and market shocks mainly from unexpected their income); consumers are worried by high changes in input and output prices and food prices (raising their expenditure). Another price volatility (Mbaye, Atta, and Tedesco 2019). market risk is exchange rate volatility, which Other enabling environment shocks related can affect the price of outputs and inputs (WB to political instability and conflict have also 2016c). affected the sector, including high-intensity violence, that have reduced farmers’ access Enabling environment risks also affect the to fertile farming areas. Climate change will 194 agriculture sector. Enabling environment likely worsen many of these risks, especially risks cover unexpected changes in the broad production risks, leading to food supply economic environment affecting agriculture. instabilities. They can include changes in government Production risks P roduction risks pose a serious threat increases the risk of water stress for agriculture to agricultural productivity and food (Mbaye, Atta, and Tedesco 2019). availability in Sub-Saharan Africa, where several regions are already food and One of the most significant risks in West nutrition insecure. In the Sahel, weather- Africa and the Sahel region are related to related events have been characterized by extreme weather events (see table 2.15 and significant variations in temperature and figure 2.11 below). Between 1950 and 2019, all rainfall, with an increasing trend in temperature West African and Sahelian countries recorded levels. The rise in temperature contributes to 803 natural disasters, with 52 percent related more extreme weather events (such as extreme to extreme weather and hydrometeorological temperature, higher intensity of rainfall leading events, accounting for 98 percent of affected to flooding, and unevenly spaced rainfall populations (or 126.5 million people) and 99 patterns leading to longer dry spells) and also percent of damages (US$2.21 billion). The high variability and unpredictable duration of 70 years affecting 28.4 million people) that is rainfall disrupts the crop calendar and reduces widespread across the region, highlighting the crop yields. Erratic rainfalls also result in high transboundary nature of these risks (Mbaye, incidence of flooding (292 events in the last Atta, and Tedesco 2019). TABLE 2.15 Natural Disasters Reported in 17 West African and Sahelian countries, 1950–2019 Source: based on EM-DAT 2020 FIGURE 2.11 Natural Disaster Occurrence Trends in West Africa and the Sahel, 1990–2019 195 Source: based on EM-DAT 2020 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Droughts are a common phenomenon in eight droughts over the same period of time. West Africa and the Sahel region. According Durations of drought range from one to three to EM-DAT data (see figure 2.13), the region’s years. Considering both occurrence frequency countries experienced drought one-third of and mean duration of drought across West the time over the last 50 years. Each country African countries, it is found that over the last encounters seven droughts on average and 50 years, drought occurred in Niger for 23 years, each drought lasted for over two years. Niger and Mauritania for 22 years, and Mali for around 19 Mauritania face ten droughts each, followed by years. Burkina Faso with nine droughts and Mali with FIGURE 2.12 Occurrence Frequency and Mean Duration of Drought Across West African Countries, 1970–2018 Cote d’Ivoire Cote d’Ivoire Liberia Benin Liberia Benin Togo Cote d’Ivoire Togo Cote d’Ivoire Ghana Liberia Ghana Liberia Cabo Verde Nigeria Cabo Verde Nigeria Mali Guinea Mali Guinea Ghana Burkina Faso Ghana Burkina Faso Guinea-Bissau Guinea Guinea-Bissau Guinea Togo Guinea-Bissau Togo Guinea-Bissau Cabo Verde Gambia Cabo Verde 196 Gambia Gambia Gambia Mauritania Mauritania Senegal Senegal Niger Niger Mali Mali Senegal Burkina Faso Senegal Burkina Faso Benin Mauritania Benin Mauritania Nigeria Niger Nigeria Niger 0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8 10 Mean duration of duration drought (in years) (in years) Occurenceof Occurence frequency drought of drought frequency Mean of drought Source: based on EM-DAT 2020 Sahelian countries experienced a higher more pervasive compared with the non-Sahel number of droughts compared with non- countries in terms of the number of affected Sahel countries over the last 50 years. Each people. Figure 2.13 shows that one drought drought in West African countries lasted around impacted 1.77 million people on average in the two years on average, and the average drought countries located in the Sahel areas, while for length is longer for Sahel countries (2.27 years) non-Sahel countries this number goes down to than the non-Sahel countries (1.74 years). Each 1.51 million. drought affected 1.57 million people on average in the region. Droughts of Sahel countries are FIGURE 2.13 Occurrence Frequency, Duration of Drought and Average Affected Population in Sahel vs. Non- Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Sahel Countries of West Africa, 1970–2018 Sahel Sahel West Africa West Africa Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Sahel Sahel 0 .5 1 1.5 Sahel2 2.5 Sahel 0 20 40 West Africa West Africa drought Mean duration ofWest (in years) West Africa Africa Occurrence freque 0 .5 0 1 .5 1.51 21.5 2.52 2.5 0 20 0 20 40 60 40 80 60 80 Mean duration Mean duration of drought of (in drought years)(in years) Occurrence Occurrence frequency frequency of drought of drought Non-Sahel Sahel West Africa Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Sahel Sahel 0 .5 1 1.5 2 West Africa West Africa Affected population of drought (in million) 0 0 .5 .5 1 1.5 1 2 1.5 2 based on EM-DAT 2020 Source: population Affected Affected of drought population drought of (in (in million) million) Floods are another major shock that Floods lasted for a shorter period of time endangers food security in West Africa (see compared with the length of droughts. The figure 2.14). Over the last 50 years, an average average duration of floods in the West African of 25 floods affected each West African country. countries is one and a half months while the Nigeria ranks first with 51 floods, followed by average duration among the countries ranges 197 Niger with 29 floods and Mali with 26 floods. between one and two months. FIGURE 2.14 Occurrence Frequency and Mean Duration of Flood (Months) Across West African Countries, 1970–2018 Guinea-Bissau Guinea-Bissau Cabo Verde Sierra Leone Sierra Leone Guinea-Bissau Cote d’Ivoire Cote d’Ivoire Liberia Gambia Gambia Gambia Senegal Senegal Sierra Leone Mauritania MauritaniaCote d’Ivoire Guinea Guinea Togo Liberia Liberia Guinea Nigeria Nigeria Mauritania Benin Benin Benin Ghana GhanaBurkina Faso Mali Mali Senegal Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Ghana Togo Togo Mali Cabo Verde Cabo Verde Niger Niger Niger Nigeria 0 .5 1 1.5 2 0 .50 10 1 20 1.5 30 2 40 50 Mean duration of flood (in month) Occurrence Mean duration month) of flood frequency of flood (in Source: based on EM-DAT 2020 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Over the last 50 years, a total of 330 floods compared with the non-Sahel countries (1.38 occurred in West African countries. As with months). But the floods of Sahel countries drought, Sahelian countries experienced a are more destructive than the non-Sahel higher number of floods compared with the countries in terms of the number of affected non-Sahel countries over the same period. Each people. Figure 2.15 below shows that one flood flood lasted around one and half months on impacted around 77,000 people on average average in the countries of West Africa, while in the Sahel countries while for non-Sahel lasting longer for Sahel countries (1.54 months) countries, this number came down to 60,000. FIGURE 2.15 Occurrence Frequency, Duration of Flood and Average Affected Population in Sahel vs. Non-Sahel Countries of West Africa, 1970–2018 Non-Sahel Non-Sahel Sahel Sahel Non-Sahel Non-Sahel West Africa Non-Sahel Non-Sahel West Africa Sahel Sahel 0 .5 1Sahel Sahel 1.5 0 100 200 West Africa West Africa West West Africa Africa Mean duration of flood (in month) Occurrence frequen 0 0 .5 .5 1 1 1.5 1.5 0 0 100 100 200 300 200 300 400 400 Meanof Mean duration duration flood (in ofmonth) flood (in month) Occurrence Occurrence frequencyfrequency of flood of flood Non-Sahel Sahel Non-Sahel Non-Sahel West Africa 198 Sahel Sahel 0 20,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 West Africa West Africa Affected population of flood 0 0 20,000 20,000 40,000 40,000 60,000 80,000 60,000 80,000 Source: based on EM-DAT 2020 Affected population Affected population of flood of flood Source: Emergency Database (EM-DAT) - Université Catholique de Louvain (UCL) Increasing frequency of extreme weather across the region (Chad, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, and hydrometeorological events leads to the Burkina Faso, and Senegal). Vulnerable pest and disease outbreaks that negatively communities took years to recover from the affect yields and can also affect product impact of the 2003–05 locust crisis, which cost quality. Desert locust invasions severely an estimated US$2.5 billion in harvest losses. In affect producers’ livelihoods, including their March 2020, the FAO Desert Locust Information livestock, if nothing is done upstream to stop Service (DLIS) forecast a risk of a desert locust or limit the locusts’ spread and to strengthen invasion of the western region of the Horn of household resilience. In the last 70 years, the Africa, starting in July and August 2020 during West Africa and Sahel region has experienced the summer breeding period and/or from insect infestations that accounted for 5 percent October 2020 during the autumn period. Yet of total natural disasters in 1978, 1985–88, 2004, contrary to these projections, West Africa has and 2009. In 2003–05, West Africa and Sahel fortunately not been significantly affected by already faced a major desert locust invasion. the infestation seen in Eastern Africa and the More than 12 million hectares have been situation is expected to remain calm through destroyed and more than 8 million people have early 2021 (FAO 2021). been affected, leading to higher food insecurity Regional efforts are underway to promote West Africa at the beginning of 2016. In the the use of innovative digital tools and Sahel, FAW mainly attacks maize, but it can approaches to strengthen national capacity also attack rice, sorghum, cotton, and some to respond to locusts. FAO works with the market vegetables. In a 2018 Nigerian survey, technical expertise of the Commission for fall armyworm was present in all 12 surveyed Controlling the Desert Locust in the Western states such as Abuja (87.1 percent), Jigawa (57.8 Region (Commission de lutte contre le Criquet percent), Kano (59.3 percent), and Kastina (56.3 pèlerin, CLCPRO) to promote tools such percent). Over half of cultivated land area in the (a) mobile application ‘eLocust3g’ using Ondo (70.1 percent) was infested by the crop GPS, mobile application ‘eLocust3m’ using pest (FAO 2018a). While the FAW severity level smartphones, and the web version ‘eLocust3w’ was observed to be low under steady rainfall, using the smartphone web browser to significant yield loss of more than 50–70 increase surveillance capacities and collect percent was reported in the 2018 cropping field information about the locust populations, season across surveyed locations (FAO 2018a). location, and movement; (b) the use of drones In Cameroon, FAW resulted in yield losses for desert locust surveillance; (c) the promotion ranging from 25–75 percent (Ndzana Abanda of biopesticide and insect growth regulators; 2019). and (d) the import of pesticides from existing stocks in Morocco and Algeria to Chad, In addition to desert locusts and the fall Niger, Mauritania, and Mali. This South-South armyworm, other pests such as fruit flies cooperation will allow the recycling of old but also threaten agricultural production, still functional pesticide stocks before their product quality and livelihoods. Fruit expiration date, moving them from countries flies negatively impact 50–80 percent of the 199 where they are not needed to countries that horticultural sector (that is, fruit production) lack such products. Before use, the pesticides in the region, particularly targeting mangoes are analyzed by an international laboratory to (AFD 2019). According to ECOWAS, in 2006, confirm that they are still usable. Environmental fruit flies caused the interception of shipments and health assessments are also foreseen at EU borders worth 9 million euros of mango to ensure the strict respect of international exports, representing more than one-third standards. of the total value of that year’s shipments (ECOWAS 2019). Therefore, preparedness and A concerning development is the emergence anticipatory action are key to safeguard and of other pests as the fall armyworm (FAW), diversify producers’ livelihoods for their early which was detected for the first time in recovery. Market risks T he sharp increase in international imports from the international market and the food prices from late 2006 to late 2008 extent that this rise was passed on to domestic raised major concerns within West consumer and producer prices. In 2008, Africa. The consequences of this international maize and rice prices in Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, price spike for West African food security were Mali, and Niger reached their highest levels a function of the region’s high dependence on in the previous 10 years. West African urban A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas consumers and net cereal buyers in rural areas consumers turned to locally grown foods such were the hardest hit by the food crisis. Many city as cassava. Even these, however, end up being dwellers and the poorest farming families end more expensive, in part because of increased up consuming cheaper foods or even skipping fuel prices needed to transport and process meals because the cost of food usually takes up local foods (Staatz, Diallo, and Me-Nsope 2017). half or more of their income. In some countries, FIGURE 2.16 Food Price Volatility in Senegal, 2005–14 200 Source: © PARM and IFAD 2016b For example, food prices in Senegal vegetable crops, sesame seed, and rice were increased by 3 percent on average annually most affected by output price risks over the between 2005–14 (as observed from the food period 1993–2012, with an average annual component of the consumer price index; see price loss due to price volatility of greater than 5 figure 2.16 above). The highest annual rate of percent and an average loss of 40 percent once 13 percent was recorded in September 2008 every four years for cabbages. Input import (PARM and IFAD 2016b). According to the prices have risen by 15 percent or more at least Cadre Harmonisé (CH) results for the March– once every three years for farmers in Niger May 2020 assessment period, prices of food since 1995 (PARM and IFAD 2016a). In addition, products in Senegal are rising compared with market risks can be induced by variable trade other Sahelian countries. Senegalese farmers policies related to border closures. (The impact also face some input price risks as seen by the of trade restrictions due to border closures variation in annual average import prices for and the presence of ICBT has been addressed fertilizers and pesticides. The import price for in section 1.4 Food System Drivers and Shocks fertilizer increased by 300 percent between and section 2.2 Enabling Environment for 2003 and 2008 and, in contrast, average Intraregional Value Chain Development and pesticide prices halved between 1999 and Trade Facilitation, respectively). 2010 (PARM and IFAD 2016b). In Niger, certain Conflict and security risks I n West Africa and the Sahel region, casualties—more than 40 percent of violent conflict and security risks are among the events and fatalities occur within 100 kilometers leading drivers of challenges affecting the of a land border. Moreover, the number of enabling environment at the macro level. regions experiencing local intensification of The Sahel region continues to be destabilized political violence are higher than 20 years ago by terrorist groups and intercommunal and violent events are more likely to occur near violence often exacerbated by these groups. one another. Multiple clusters of high-intensity The last five years have been the most violent violence have formed in the Sahel, where they recorded in the region, with more than 12,000 are spilling over into neighboring regions and events and 50,000 fatalities through June 2019 countries. High intensity violence reduces (Trémolières, Walther, and Radil 2020; map 2.4). access to fertile farming areas, triggers fierce Conflicts tend to involve numerous nonstate competition for land in safe areas and drives actors with diverging agendas, and they target the forced displacement of persons. The result civilians more systematically than before. is a drastic reduction in agricultural production Border regions attract a disproportionate and and a decrease in food security in conflict areas. concentrated number of violent events and MAP 2.4 Victims of Violent Political Events, 2011–19 201 Source:© OECD/SWAC 2020 A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas The security situation remains precarious Political instability can further exacerbate in many parts of the region. The results both market and production risks as violence of CH analysis for the March–May 2020 continues to disrupt the functioning and assessment period indicate particular tension accessibility of markets, the conduct of income- in the border area between Burkina Faso, generating activities, and access to land and Mali, and Niger, around the Lake Chad Basin grazing areas in the region. The emergence (Cameroon, Nigeria, Niger, and Chad), and in of new threats such as the pandemic linked the two English-speaking regions of Cameroon. to the COVID-19 virus also led to unexpected According to UN-OCHA (United Nations Office policy disruptions that contribute to enabling for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), as environment risk. The policies and prevention of February 24, 2020, the violence had led to measures put in place by countries in the large population movements, with 3.7 million context of COVID-19 may disrupt markets, internally displaced persons and 804,000 trade, and income-generating activities. refugees. Box 2.7 below presents a selection of conflict early warning and response mechanisms set up within and outside the region. BOX 2.7 Conflict Early Warning and Response Mechanisms 202 The G5 Sahel Joint Force is a partnership among Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Chad in Africa’s Sahel region to improve security along their shared borders. The partnership works to improve cooperation and deployment of joint patrols to interdict the flow of terror groups and traffickers that easily cross these porous national borders. The force comprises up to 5,000 military and police personnel drawn from national battalions and incorporates the existing Liptako Gourma task force established earlier this year by Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger to secure their shared border region (CSIS 2017). The G5 Force also supports regional responses to shared crises through initiatives such as building agrohydraulic projects as part of its mandate to support the development and continuity of regional security activities. It also aims to “contribute to the sustainable improvement of the food and nutritional situation, to the development of natural resources and to the increase of the resilience of vulnerable populations to the effects of climate change.” In 2018, the G5 formed a partnership with FAO and WFP for strengthening regional food and nutritional security. The G5 could benefit from exploring the feasibility and potential collaboration with regional early warning institutions to develop a conflict early warning system to reduce the incidence of security risks and intercommunal violence that negatively affects livelihoods and food security in the region. CEWARN is a collaborative effort of eight Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) member states in East Africa. These member states established CEWARN to fully utilize early warning and early response to prevent violent conflict. It supports peoples’ desire for shared prosperity and a sustained, just peace. CEWARN’s mandate is to receive and share information concerning potentially violent conflicts and their outbreak and escalation in the IGAD region; undertake and share analyses of that information; develop case scenarios and formulate options for response; share and communicate information, analyses, and response options; and carry out studies on specific types and areas of conflict in the IGAD region. Successful implementation of the conflict early warning program in pastoral areas will improve sustainable management of natural resources and food security in those areas. CEWARN presently undertakes its conflict early warning and response function through its national network of governmental and NGO stakeholders, Conflict Early Warning and Response Units (CEWERUs), National Research Institutes (NRIs), Field Monitors (FMs), and Local Peace Committees. They work in three clusters or pilot areas: the Karamoja Cluster (covering the cross-border areas of Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan, and Uganda); the Somali Cluster (covering the cross- border areas of Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia) and the Dikhil Cluster (covering the cross-border areas of Djibouti and Ethiopia). The case of IGAD’s CEWARN can offer important best practices and lessons learned (IGAD 2016). Existing regional risk management systems, information services, and mechanisms in West Africa R isk management strategies need to management. These contribute significantly to be context specific and may vary from food system resilience and are supported by one region to another. Many high and the development community in West Africa middle-income countries, including most Latin and the Sahel. American and Caribbean countries, employ market-based instruments such as commodity This section outlines the main regional- exchange, contract farming, and food and level risk management institutions and agricultural market information systems to instruments in West Africa and the Sahel address food and agriculture-related risks. region. In the following, the institutions Asian countries rely on irrigated agriculture and and initiatives involved (CILSS, AGRHYMET government-based buffer stocks and strategic Regional Center, ECOWAS Agriculture Regional grain reserve for price stabilization and Information System (ECOAGRIS), Regional Food supporting producers (FAO 2016). The regional Security Reserve, and WAMIS-NET) shall be agencies at the forefront have established a briefly described. Figure 2.17 below illustrates set of policy and institutional mechanisms and the main actors in the region, although it is not initiatives to support food and agriculture risk an exhaustive list. FIGURE 2.17 Regional Architecture Supporting Agriculture and Food Risk Monitoring, Hydromet Services, and 203 Early Warning Systems National level technical partners Agro-meteorological and ECOWAS CILSS hydrological agencies; Agriculture & Livestock market information systems ECOAGRIS AGRHYMET International Technical and Financial Partners (FAO, FEWSNET, International National level NGOs, SERVIR West Africa) Member states’ Ministry of Interior; Ministry of Agriculture International Monitoring Systems Cadre Harmonnise (IPC) RPCA International partners PREGEC International community (OECD, FAO, WFP, GIZ, AFD, UN bodies; Bilateral EU, WB, WMO global and partners; International regional centers) NGOs Source: World Bank A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Regional institutions E COWAS, headquartered in Abuja, Nigeria, hydrology. The center provides climate and is a regional political and economic union agromet information services at the regional of fifteen countries located in West Africa level (for example, seasonal climate outlook), with the objective of advancing regional technical assistance, and capacity building integration notably through a trading union services to member countries including with a common market. consultations, trainings, and applied research. It also gathers and processes regional data, Permanent Inter-State Committee for issuing regional forecasts on agrometeorology Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS) is and hydrological alerts—essential services that a regional entity that leverages political benefit farmers for better decision-making and support and helps improve policies help generate more value. mostly related to drought management and agriculture in the Sahel. Through its AGRHYMET is going to be a WMO-accredited subsidiary technical agencies, it provides Regional Climate Center for West Africa and technical expertise to its member states for the Sahel. Their services include seasonal rainfall sharing information, preventing drought, and monitoring and forecasts to inform countries on increasing resilience in the water resources and planting season preparation; 10-day forecasts agricultural sectors. CILSS has three main sites: to monitor and adapt planting and harvest the Executive Secretariat in Ouagadougou seasons; and market monitoring of agricultural 204 that deals with policy related issues, the balance sheet in all 17 countries. At the global AGRHYMET Regional Center in Niamey that level, it is estimated for several countries that provides training and information services, the benefit-cost ratios from improved weather, and the Sahel Institute (INSAH) in Bamako climate, and water services is in the order of that provides research coordination. CILSS has 10 to 1 (Anderson et al. 2015). AGRHYMET’s successfully put in place a set of integrated hydromet and climate information services are early warning and food and nutritional widely viewed as crucial in adapting to climate security analysis information systems set up change and improving food security outcomes. for monitoring and evaluating areas including Yet its capacity to deliver and provide access to the agro-sylvo-pastoral campaign (production, information remains severely constrained by phytosanitary situation, markets, food balance limited data collection capacity. Its organization sheets, and so on), risks, and vulnerable and is shown in Figure 2.18. AGRHYMET also has food-insecure populations. These systems use been a WMO Regional Training Center for years multidimensional tools that are designed and and has provided training for several technical implemented by states, technical partners, experts from West Africa and other parts of the NGOs, the private sector, and universities. continent. AGRHYMET Regional Center, a subsidiary of CILSS, is the regional technical and training center focused on meteorology, hydrology, and specialized knowledge in climatology, agrometeorology, and operational FIGURE 2.18 AGRHYMET Operating Scheme Partners Da ta an d inf orm ati Fin on an Hydrology ci ass al an Crop ist d T a n ec protection ce hn ica l Animal Agrhymet An a lys Husbandry is Di us Meteorology i on Tra Agriculture ini n g Hydrology Data Collection and Storage Crop Countries protection Satellite Data Meteorology Agriculture Animal Husbandry Extension to ECOWAS member countries Ground Observation and surveys Data 205 Source: Traore et al. 2014 Limited capability of regional institutions Low capacity of national data systems at to process, harmonize, and add value the country level is a key bottleneck for to data collected limits the potential to building an effective and innovative early develop innovative information products warning system at the regional level. In the and systems. At present, AGRHYMET is not 2000s, AGRHYMET published regular monthly effectively collecting, processing, and sharing early warning bulletins (for example, rainfall data with partners. In addition, AGRHYMET as and crop development) on a decadal basis an institution has faced challenges in collecting with partners such as FEWS NET, FAO, and WFP. data (for example, rainfall and climate data) AGRHYMET would channel funding received from partner national institutions in the from partners such as EU, USAID, AFD, AfDB region—using, analyzing, and disseminating and multilateral development banks down analyzed data as services—due to low capacity to individual countries’ national services to in analyzing and adding value to the data at undertake data collection at subnational and the regional level. These challenges showcase district levels. Countries would, in turn, feed the need to strengthen the capacity of CILSS- the data collected back to AGRHYMET, which based information systems to enhance their aggregates at the regional level. In recent years, data analysis, mapping, communications, and due to limited funds from AGRHYMET, the administration functions. capacity of national data systems has declined, A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas resulting in discrepancies in data aggregated of national data systems have hampered at the regional level. While AGRHYMET also AGRHYMET’s ability to provide early warning employs remote sensing techniques to collect information. At present, only a handful of data, the bulk of the institution’s data comes countries—namely Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger, from the countries’ national data systems. and Chad—consistently contribute data to Thus, the low capacity and financial constraints AGRHYMET. Risk management instruments and tools C H is a harmonized regional framework experts and support staff throughout the year under the leadership of ECOWAS, as well as national data collected by national UEMOA, and CILSS that aims to early warning system (EWS), meteorological, prevent food crisis by quickly identifying and agricultural institutions across all ECOWAS affected populations and identifying and CILSS countries. The common assessment appropriate measures to improve their tool determines five phases of vulnerability food and nutritional security. Initiated in using outcome results for food consumption, 1999, the CH process is aligned with the global livelihood change, nutritional status, and classification standard IPC (Integrated Food mortality, enabling country stakeholders Security Phase Classification) in West Africa and to jointly decide on emergency status and 206 serves as the major process to assess and classify accurately analyze regional vulnerability to the severity and magnitude of food insecurity better target their aid efforts. The framework’s in the region (bringing together Regional Food vulnerability phase classification is used for Crisis Prevention Network (RPCA) members and triggering food aid distribution by the ECOWAS other stakeholders) similar to IPC is role at the Regional Food Security Reserve and assists in international level. The CH has provided the decision-making for the High-Level Committee reference tool for food and nutrition security on Food and Nutritional Security (CHSAN) of analysis in West Africa and the Sahel under the UEMOA. coordination of CILSS and the leadership of the Technical Committee of the Harmonized The limitations on the national-level data Framework. At its core, the CH is an analytical systems also adversely affect the CH process. process involving field missions and validation The CH, as an analytical tool for monitoring meetings with two different bodies—the RPCA food insecurity levels in the region, relies on and The Charter for Food Crisis Prevention countries’ national data collection capability and Management (PREGEC)—that meet six to provide quality data that is complete times every year. The current assessment and accurate. As only rural populations are missions are conducted by sending teams of covered, urban areas are presently not taken experts to the field two times every year for a into account for the assessment. Concerted duration of two to three months—one before efforts in the past have tried to maximize the the Annual RPCA meeting in December and coverage of the CH analyses across the region. another before the Restricted RPCA meeting in In 2013, the regional institutions developed an April (see figure 2.19 below). The process relies enumerators’ manual and provided trainings to on the input and cooperation of hundreds of data collectors with the goal of maximizing the FIGURE 2.19 Cadre Harmonisé (CH) process RPCA Restricted meeting Assessment missions Assessment missions JANUARY FEBRUARY MARCH APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER PREGEC technical PREGEC technical PREGEC technical validation meeting validation meeting validation meeting PREGEC technical meeting and launch of the agricultural campaign RPCA Annual meeting Source:World Bank coverage of the CH analyses across the countries analysis, and information tools available in in the region. By 2018, the CH analyses country the region come together. The data collected coverage doubled, covering 16 countries in at national and regional levels by the Early the Sahel and West Africa region in addition to Warning Systems, Market Information Systems, almost half of the states in Nigeria. The level of and Permanent Agricultural Surveys are coverage has reduced in recent years due to validated through six regional consultations 207 low capacity of and financing for national data held throughout the year by the PREGEC and systems and countries’ low priority to support RPCA (as seen in above figure 2.20). PREGEC data collection efforts (it has been suggested is presided over by ECOWAS and UEMOA but that in conflict-prone countries, government coordinated under CILSS in collaboration with funds for data collection and research may be its national, regional, and international partners. reallocated to address security-related risks). The process for the CH is static, relying on two RPCA: This platform, jointly organized with data collection “missions” annually. This is not OECD, is a forum for exchange and analysis conducive in an emergency or crisis where of information on food and nutrition security the situation may change quickly in between and a space for consultation on actions to the data collection missions. In addition, each prevent and control possible crises. The country has its own method for collecting and network aims to build a coherent and shared aggregating data, leading to inadequate levels understanding of the region’s food and of harmonization. The systems also lack the nutrition situation and inform decision-making. capacity to conduct real-time evaluation of Network members convene to validate and data on production systems, value chains, and make recommendations based on the results pests and diseases such as locust outbreaks. of the assessments emerging from the CH process. RPCA is the political validation body, PREGEC (Charter for Food Crisis Prevention while PREGEC is its technical body that meets and Management): The PREGEC platform four times a year for technical validation of the is where all the numerous data collection, assessments. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Permanent Annual Agriculture Surveys: The RPCA. In some countries such as Liberia, objective of the surveys is to estimate the areas Sierra Leone, Guinea-Bissau, and Ghana, these cultivated in the rainy season, the water balance, assessments are not regularly conducted. After agricultural production, and product use. The several years of conducting these surveys, surveys form the basis for drawing up the some countries are in the process of making forecast and ex-post cereal and food balances them sustainable with the support of technical and are also used to establish the agricultural and financial partners (Mali, Niger, Mauritania, and food situation, provide data for national Senegal, Chad, Burkina Faso, and northeast accounts, and define and evaluate agricultural Nigeria). For others, these surveys are carried policies (crop forecasts and estimates of residual out on a case-by-case basis and according to farmer stocks). Since the end of the Permanent the needs of local partners based on the cycles Diagnosis project (DIAPER) financed by the EU, of analysis of the CH (PAGR-SANAD 2019). the West African states have taken charge of their implementation or received support of a National market monitoring and information partner. Of the 17 countries of West Africa and systems: market information systems (MIS) the Sahel, only eight (Burkina Faso, Senegal, that are focused on cereals and livestock aim Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad, Togo, and Benin) to collect data regularly on the number and regularly carry out the survey based on the types of products traded, price recording DIAPER project methodology. These surveys are (producers, consumers), demand, market financed with the national budget. The other supply, stock monitoring (traders, institutions), countries (Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, Liberia, monitoring of quantities sold on domestic Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Cabo Verde, Guinea, and export markets, and factors influencing 208 and Guinea-Bissau) do not carry out the survey traders’ behavior. MIS exist in all countries but but they do an estimate. Their methods still face difficulties in providing services. In recent need to be verified (PAGR-SANAD 2019). years, MIS have been financed by the ECOAGRIS project. In some countries, MIS are supported Joint Crop Assessment Missions: Annual through the government’s budget and by assessment missions are organized every year financing from the Food Security Reserve between October and November in all the Stock Management Agencies—for instance, countries of the region to assess the physical SONAGESS (Société nationale de gestion du condition of the crops, estimate the harvest stock de sécurité alimentaire) in Burkina Faso, forecasts, and engage with actors on the OPVN (Office des Produits Vivriers du Niger) in ground regarding the reality and objective Niger, Commissariat à la Sécurité alimentaire in situation of the current agricultural season and Senegal, and so on. Partners such as CILSS and the food prospects. The missions are organized WAMIS-NET occasionally provide support to jointly involving CILSS, FAO, Famine Early national-level MIS. Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET), WFP, and country governments. The Household Economy Analysis (HEA) is an early warning tool for analyzing food and Ad Hoc Rapid Assessments: These are nutrition security across livelihood zones but country-level assessments and are generally it is not a method for collecting information. conducted by the government and its partners It is often funded by the national government (CILSS, FEWS NET, FAO, and WFP). They take and occasionally by CILSS projects or partners place in the countries most threatened by one (ECHO, Save the Children, and so on). The HEA or more shocks identified during the November tool is used during workshops conducted by PREGEC and recommended by the December the national mechanisms using official data (agricultural production, prices), data collected information system launched in 2000 aiming in the field (surveys, sentinel sites, and so on), to support food security and promoting and assumptions for certain parameters, such regional trade. WAMIS-Net aims to facilitate as prices. The HEA results are used as indirect better commercial decision-making by all evidence of changes in livelihood assets and stakeholders. The network is made up of provide information on the potential outlook national MIS organized around a regional for households. HEA results also highlight coordination. It intends to pull data from Benin, the timing of possible production deficits. Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Niger, Mali, HEA information is used in the CH to inform Senegal, Togo, and Nigeria to provide up-to- the food consumption outcome through the date and accurate information on 400 rural livelihood protection gap and the survival gap. and urban agricultural commodity markets The method can provide important insights via different media. WAMIS-NET is one of the into chronic malnutrition. building blocks of the ECOAGRIS project. The network lacks capacity and needs further West African Market Information System support. Network (WAMIS-NET): is a regional market Regional Food Security Reserve (RFSR) S upply disruptions in international increase food security across West Africa markets and a price surge in 2008 through complementing international aid and 209 convinced the region and the national policies while acting as a mechanism international community (G-8 and G-20) to foster regional solidarity. An EU-funded to implement a region-wide food reserve support project has contributed to advancing framework. After 2008, ECOWAS developed the implementation of the RFSR. a comprehensive strategy to respond to food crises through an emergency reserve system. The RFSR is based on one physical and The Regional Food Storage Strategy is based on one financial component. The physical three lines of defense based on the principle of component (accounting for one-third of the subsidiarity. The first line consists of local stocks, reserve) consists mainly of cereals, tubers, and held by producer groups, farmer organizations, other food products that are stored for rapid village or community associations, or at the supply. The financial component (two-thirds) local community level. The second consists serves to mobilize the stocked foodstuffs of national security stocks held by states, and to support affected populations through often with the help of aid agencies. As the purchasing food supplies for emergency main component of the strategy, the RFSR operations if physical stocks are insufficient and constitutes the third line of defense for crises offering cash transfers and food vouchers. As exceeding the national capacity of member agreed by the ECOWAS Council of Ministers in countries. Adopted in 2013 by ECOWAS heads 2018, modalities governing the mobilization of of state, the RFSR33 has potential to significantly 33 The general objective of the ECOWAS Regional Reserve Project is “to effectively respond to food crises alongside State governments and stakeholders whilst contributing to the implementation of ECOWAP/CAADP with a regional food security and sovereignty perspective” (ECOWAS 2012, 34). A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas the RFSR to support a country in the region are malnutrition. Map 2.5 shows the food stock based on objective criteria and are informed capacity at different locations, especially four by the CH analysis and recommendations by subregions: Eastern area composed of Benin, RPCA. Niger, and Nigeria (56.5 percent); Central area composed of Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Country needs are determined by using Mali, and Togo (39.6 percent); West Atlantic the share of population affected by a major area that includes Cabo Verde, Guinea-Bissau, crisis in previous years and estimating The Gambia, and Senegal (2.3 percent); and future population size of countries. Based Atlantic Gulf area composed of Guinea, Liberia, on a retrospective and prospective analysis of and Sierra Leone (1.6 percent). As part of their risks and needs, the regional reserve’s optimal response to the 2020 food security crisis, with intervention capacity was evaluated at 411,000 an estimated 17 million people in crisis or worse tons in 2012. Currently, the physical capital of situation, ECOWAS and the EU have provided the regional reserve is over 32,000 tons and is US$3.6 million to mobilize the RFSR. Between expected to increase to 40,000 tons by March July and November 2020, approximately 2021 (ECOWAS and ARAA 2020). The reserve 6,219 tons of cereals were released to support also plans to have 5 percent of its stock made vulnerable populations in Burkina Faso, Mali, of enriched flours to address severe acute Niger, and Nigeria (SWAC/OECD 2020). MAP 2.5 Food Stock Capacities in the Sahel and West Africa 210 Source:© SWAC/OECD 2016 Although implementation of the RFSR has Rural Hub 2012). However, to date, the Zero made significant progress over the past Hunger tax has not yet been created; financial years, several challenges, including the contributions by the region’s economic lack of a viable financing mechanism, still communities are still pending, and member constrain its full implementation. According states have not yet delivered the agreed to the proposed financing structure, two-thirds quantity of staples earmarked for the reserve of the funding requirements should be covered (Galtier 2019). Another factor limiting the by regional resources and one third by technical reserve’s performance is a mismatch between and financial partners. However, until now the the location of physical stocks and that of Regional Reserve has been largely reliant on the populations that are most likely affected funding by the technical and financial partners, by food security crises. Further challenges most notably the EU. The intended regional that presently reduce the effectiveness of the funding mechanism is not yet operational. RFSR include the absence of a single reserve The proposed funding components include management scheme, differing objectives for a) financial contributions of the regional the use of stock categories across member economic communities including ECOWAS and states, and lack of coordination between UEMOA, to be raised through a new regional national-level and local-level stocks. Last, tax (proposed rate of 0.5%) on extra-regional persistent gaps in technical capacity and imports (also referred to as a “Zero Hunger insufficient linkages to local or regional food tax”), and (b) country contributions in the form value chains still affect the functioning of local of grains (ECOWAS, UEMOA, CILSS and The stocks (ECOWAS and ARAA 2019). 211 Weather, climate, and hydrological (hydromet) services W eather, climate, and hydrological Basic weather and climate information such as services underpin various temperature and precipitation observation and information services to support forecasts can be further tailored and provided agriculture and the food security sector. to assist users’ decisions (see table 2.16 below). TABLE 2.16 Hydromet Services Benefits by Groups of Beneficiaries Benefits of hydromet Type of products and Beneficiaries Climate sensitivity products and services services required More targeted (date and quantities) application of Seasonal climate outlooks; Crop yields and pests pesticides, use of enhanced crop intra-seasonal climate are sensitive to variations varieties, decisions related to the Rain fed crop outlooks; weather forecasts in precipitation, date of sowing and harvesting producers guiding sowing, application of evapotranspiration, and and post-harvest processing, pesticides, harvest, and post- temperature market, and prices of assets or harvest terms of trade, management of productiWon and market risks A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Benefits of hydromet Type of products and Beneficiaries Climate sensitivity products and services services required Seasonal climate outlooks; Availability of surface water Water efficient irrigation hydrological forecasts (for resources for irrigation (surface management based on accurate flood prevention to avoid and groundwater); irrigation forecast of precipitation, ET, Irrigated crop damage to infrastructure and management depends and temperature and water producers pumps, water-level modeling highly on precipitation, levels; assets or terms of trade, to optimize irrigation); evapotranspiration (ET), and management of production and advisory services to water user temperature forecasts market risks associations Climate sensitive fodder and Stocking of fodder reserves; Livestock sector-targeted Livestock water supply; weather and provision of additional water weather and climate forecasts herders climate-related: livestock supply; efficient vaccination and climate-health outlooks diseases campaigns Relevant information on Dependency on water Fishing operations and day-to-day water levels; flood and low Fishing quality; fish stock impacted by management of stocks; water water-level forecasting; (inland) droughts (low water levels, low quality improvement siltation information; relevant oxygen) and floods (siltation) information on water quality Safer fishing operations and Fishing Increased level of storm surges Marine and coastal weather improved day-to-day operations (marine) in coastal waters forecasts and storm warnings 212 of fishing boats in coastal waters Micro Small enterprises at risk of Payouts to farmers based on Forecasts for insurance insurance extreme weather events weather indices Extreme weather and Early warning information and Early warning information climate events impacting Civil increased lead time to provide (rivers, and urban Lomé) and communities and leading to protection more efficiently early warning short to medium-term forecasts increased uncertainties and information (storm surge) need for civil protection Source:ECOWAS and World Bank, forthcoming There are a numer of regional entities Navigation in Africa and Madagascar (ASECNA), collaborating to provide weather, climate, West African Science Service Centre on Climate and hydrological services. West Africa has Change and Adapted Land Use (WASCAL), West two main regional climate institutions: the African Coastal Observation Mission (MOLOA), African Centre of Meteorological Applications and River Basin Organizations (RBO) all play for Development (ACMAD) has already been certain roles in developing and providing certified by WMO as the continental regional hydromet-related services. Among those climate center, while AGRHYMET is in the services, AGRHYMET and ACMAD regularly process of being endorsed by ECOWAS as organize a Regional Climate Outlook Forum, regional climate center for West Africa. In Prévision Saisonnière en Afrique Soudano- addition, The Agency for the Safety of Air Saharienne (PRESASS), to update seasonal climate conditions and their outlook for the capacity providing such services in the region next few months. While regional services have varies greatly from country to country. However been steadily improved over the years, there there are common gaps identified across the are gaps to fill: (a) technical limitations in region: (a) lack of accurate, timely, and actionable seasonal forecast and provision of subseasonal climate information to national institutions, forecast; (b) absence of an archiving database decision-makers, and local communities; (b) system and technical and user guides on limited observation network and weak data forecasting and verification; (c) absence of data sharing mechanisms; (c) inadequate number sharing mechanisms across ECOWAS; (d) lack of qualified personnel; (d) limited influence of of ICT infrastructure; (e) unsustainable funding the National Hydro-meteorological services mechanism of regional hydromet bodies; (f ) (NMHS) at the decision-making level; (e) lack of technical capacity at AGRHYMET; (g) low access of climate and water vulnerable absence of an integrated hydrometeorological communities to actionable weather, climate, forecasting system in the region; and (h) lack of and water information; (f ) lack of effectiveness calibration capacity for observation equipment for integrated national and regional platforms (ECOWAS and World Bank, forthcoming). in climate and hydrology information and multihazards early warning; and (g) limited National capacity providing hydromet capacity of NMHS to set a sustainable business services in West Africa varies from country model and proactive use of public-private to country. A recent report (ECOWAS and WB, engagement in strengthening hydromet forthcoming) highlighted that the national services. 213 Farmer decision support systems and services T wo examples of needed systems for analytics, implement the decision tree, supporting farmers that deliver context- and generate and disseminate SMS specific, real-time climate information messages to farmers and associated using ICT and decision support systems are as actors. iSAT was piloted between follows: 2017 and 2019 with 2,100 farmers in Anantapur, India. The system generates • Intelligent Agricultural Systems a weekly decision tree integrating Advisory Tool (iSAT): ICRISAT and forecasts, crop and soil scenarios, and partners have developed and piloted the systems information (Rao et al. 2019) iSAT system, which initially started as a • YeZaRe Market Information System: This sowing app in 2016. Using a decision tree platform was developed by an Ethiopian approach, a structured and systematic social enterprise called Echnoserve and approach to decision-making, considers provides information on weather patterns the insights from analyzing historical and market conditions to smallholder climatic conditions, climate and weather farmers through an accessible platform. forecasts, and prevailing environmental YeZaRe provides information via text conditions. Microsoft India developed a messages directly to farmers´ mobile platform to access real-time data from phones, customized in their own various public sources, perform data languages. To develop the YeZaRe app, A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Echnoserve conducted a preliminary requirements, including information flow assessment of both the current climate charts, and then an IT application that information dissemination channel in was tested and presented to different Ethiopia and market information. Using stakeholders, cooperatives, unions, an agile software development system, farmers, development agents, and local the Echnoserve team developed system NGOs (YeZaRe, www.yezare.info). Risk financing system M ore governments are moving huge economic losses and governments often toward a proactive (and more cost- incur the costs of those risks, straining national effective) approach to financial budgets. (For context, natural disasters cost planning to protect national budgets and African countries approximately US$1billion the lives and livelihoods of their citizens every few years, with the highest economic loss from the impacts of disasters. Under this of US$7 billion reported in 2003, according to approach, governments consider climate the EM-DAT database). When faced with such and other shocks as part of their fiscal risk shocks, countries have limited avenues for management strategies and develop dedicated accessing risk financing at the regional level. risk financing systems and mechanisms. The Aside from having to rely on the international approach complements other elements of community to finance the response to these 214 a comprehensive disaster and agricultural risks, it would benefit the region to have an risk management strategy, ranging from institutional mechanism to respond to financial investments in strengthening early warning constraints caused by such shocks. African systems and agroadvisory services to irrigation, Risk Capacity (ARC) is active in some countries improved farming practices and innovations, in the region; exploring the feasibility and and social safety nets. potential for collaboration between ARC and the existing risk management institutions and The region lacks a dedicated regional systems, including the ECOWAS RFSR, could be institutional mechanism or system for risk a starting point. financing. Food security-related risks lead to iNItiative Mapping T able 2.17 (below) provides an overview a complete collection of all existing initiatives of selected initiatives and projects, but focuses on programs which are (a) regional either ongoing or under preparation, in scope and (b) considered most relevant and that relate to the priority intervention area III impactful at the regional level. Regional Risk Management Architecture and Farmer Decision Support Tools. Building on an initiative mapping contained in the ECOWAS RAIP (2016–20), the overview is not intended as TABLE 2.17 Initiative Mapping for Regional Risk Management Architecture and Farmer Decision Support Tools Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume West African Food Security Storage Support Project (1) Support the ARAA/AFD/ACEID implementation of the Technical Contribute effectively regional storage security Partners: CILSS/ to respond to food ECOWAS strategy through three AGRHYMET crises and build member 2014–20; different levels of defense RESOGEST, household resilience by states, EU Grant; US$64.7 (local, national, and regional) Regional promoting emergency Chad, million (2) Strengthen information Professional food systems at Mauritania systems on food security and Organizations different scales vulnerability for rapid decision (ROPPA, ROAC, support APESS, RBM) ECOWAS Agriculture Regional Information System (ECOAGRIS) 1) Improving capacities of national technical services in terms of equipment, database management systems, tools, analysis and training (2) Development of an integrated and centralized ECOAGRIS 215 mechanism is database in three centers implemented Strengthen information access points located in HQ of through systems at different CRA, UEMOA, and ECOWAS collaboration of local, national, and (3) Operationalization of the different sectoral regional scales to committees and countries 17 data providers address information of quality control statistical member in 17 CILSS needs for food and methods 2014–19; states of and ECOWAS nutrition monitoring, (4) Updating integrated EU Grant; €18 ECOWAS countries and vulnerability analysis, country databases in a secure million and CILSS institutions in and decision support in and accessible manner regions accordance with order to anticipate food (5) Support for primary data their specific and nutrition crises and collection and standardization competences: to select and target of methods of data collection CORAF on interventions and data analysis research data (6) Specialized training for base; WAMIS-NET; managers and technicians of AFRICARICE national technical services (7) Strengthening the analytical and intervention capacities of regional actors on a common source of reliable indicators and data A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume Improving Governance for Resilience and Food and Nutrition Security and Sustainable Agriculture in West Africa Project (PAGAR-SANAD) Strengthening of information, analysis and monitoring, Strengthen the and evaluation systems of ECOWAS governance of Food ECOWAS, agricultural policies and member 2018–22; and Nutrition Security UEMOA, CILSS programs; capacity building states; EU Grant; US$22.6 and Sustainable of regional and national Chad; million Agriculture in West stakeholders to implement Mauritania Africa and the Sahel CH, RPCA, and PREGEC mechanisms and their review. SERVIR West Africa Improve the capacity of regional institutions in Strengthening the capacity of applying satellite data, AGRHYMET to integrate earth ground-based data, and CILSS/ 2016–21; observations information Implemented by NASA and advanced geospatial ECOWAS US$14.9 216 and geospatial technologies AGRHYMET USAID analytical techniques to countries million into development decision- strengthen the region’s making. resilience to climate change impacts Capacitating African Stakeholders with Climate Advisories and Insurance Development I (CASCAID-I) (1) Improve service relevance Reduce agricultural through embeddedness in investment risk from phygital data infrastructures smallholder farm to that continuously improve whole value chains to stakeholder performance Implemented by improve agricultural through user feedback loops ICRISAT in West productivity and food (2) Target climate services Africa; partners 2015-18; grant; security together with and CSA options more West Africa CCAFS are University n.a. the profitability of efficiently through advanced of Florida, agricultural enterprises, socioeconomic and AGRHYMET in a context of agroecological segmentation increasing smallholder (3) Enhance stakeholder integration in urban- preparedness and decision- driven markets making through real-time, multiscale yield forecasting. Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume The African Risk Capacity (ARC) Agency The AU Specialised Agency on Disaster Risk Management and Financing, ARC (1) Collaborating with CILSS/ promotes harmonized AGRHYMET to create an resilience solutions indicator based on the CH for for protecting African a regional insurance coverage lives and livelihoods against food insecurity vulnerable to natural (2) Offering drought risk disasters caused insurance coverage to several EU/AFD, possibly AfDB; Since 2012; by climate change countries in the region KfW and AfDB, Rockefel- Technical and other perils of West Africa (3) Providing Capacity AGRHYMET, ler Foun- support; importance to the Building on Disaster Risk ARAA, ECOWAS dation US$5.5 million continent. Member Management and Financing states are better as well as customizing ARC’s equipped to manage premiere Drought Risk Tool— the impacts of Africa RiskView—to country natural disasters on contexts the livelihoods of 217 vulnerable populations in a timely manner and build resilience to climate-related shocks. FAO Pest Control Program Possibly FAO (West Africa Program Control FAW and desert IFAD; Support 17 Sahelian and West Sub-Regional under locust threats through ECOWAS AfDB, EU, African countries’ workplans, Office) in support development integrated global pest countries USAID, regional coordination to 17 countries at the time of control program Arab and ECOWAS writing funds A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET) Monthly reports and maps detailing current and projected food insecurity; alerts on emerging or likely crises; special reports on factors that contribute to Provide unbiased, or mitigate food insecurity, evidence-based early including weather and warning and analysis on climate, markets and trade, Managed by Since 1985; acute food insecurity agricultural production, USAID’s Bureau West Africa USAID Technical to governments and conflict, livelihoods, nutrition, for Humanitarian support; n.a. relief agencies who and humanitarian assistance; Assistance (BHA) plan for and respond to access to data, learning, and humanitarian crises analysis of the underlying dynamics of recurrent and chronic food insecurity and poor nutritional outcomes, to improve early warning and better inform response and program design 218 Climate Risk and Early Warning Systems (CREWS) Initiative Improve delivery of hydro World Bank/ meteorological services; Global Facility CREWS Since 2018; improve risk information to Increase the availability for Disaster Trust Fund Grant/ guide EWS development; of, and access to, early SSA LDCs Reduction (Multi-Do- technical strengthen application of ICT; warning systems and Recovery nor Trust support; US$ strengthen EWS awareness; (GFDRR), WMO, Fund) 5.3 million strengthen preparedness/ and UNDRR response plans Support Project for the Regional Fruit Fly Management and Control Plan in West Africa (PLMF/FFCP) Burkina Faso, Senegal, Increase fruit and Benin, Mali, Improve regional and national vegetable producers’ Ghana, The fruit fly infestation monitoring CORAF, NARES, incomes, particularly Gambia, 2015–19 and early warning and National AFD, EU, small producers, to Guinea, Grant US$26.1 response capacities including Committees for ECOWAS contribute to food Côte million through applied research and Fruit Fly Control security and poverty d’Ivoire, regional coordination. reduction Nigeria, Togo, Guinea- Bissau Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume Desert Locust Operational Research in the Western Region (CLCPRO-Research) Phase 3 Burkina FAO, French Faso, Mali, Agricultural Grant; US$2.2 Improve locust Niger, Research Centre million prevention and Operational research AFD Senegal, for International treatment Chad, Development Mauritania (CIRAD) Multistakeholder Platform for Agricultural Risk Management (PARM-SAFIN) The Platform for Senegal, Agricultural Risk Niger, Donor Management (PARM) Cabo Since 2013; consor- focuses on making Verde, Grant; Share Strengthen agricultural tium risk management Liberia, earmarked for risk management (ARM) in IFAD including an integral part of and other West African developing countries AFD, BMZ, policy planning and Sub- countries > KfW and implementation in the Saharan US$7 million others agricultural sector in Africa developing countries. countries Anticipating and managing bio risks to boost farmers’ resilience to climate change in 219 West and Central Africa CORAF, WAVE Develop a robust system for Program (Central early detection and effective and West containment of phytosanitary To help farmers ECOWAS African Virus 2020 – 25; threats to cassava-based anticipate and manage member Epidemiology for EU Grant; US$5.5 cropping systems in the face biological risks states food security), of million of environmental constraints Félix Houphouët- exacerbated by climate Boigny University change of Abidjan. CGIAR Two-Degree Initiative: One Health platform for climate-driven pests and diseases in West Africa Enhance capacity 1) Increase producer’s ICRISAT, of food producers adoption of new biocontrol ECOWAS/ IITA, ICRISAT to manage bio risks technologies CILSS/ (partners include Broad 2020–30; and institutionalize (2) Mainstream pest and UEMOA Norwegian coalition Research capabilities for early disease issues into national member Institute of of donors Program detection of emerging adaptation plans (NAP) states Bioeconomy threats and rapid Research (NIBIO) response. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Focus Duration, Objective Activities Funding Implementation Type, and Countries Source Volume Global Framework for the Progressive Control of Transboundary Animal Diseases (GF- TADs) Strengthen laboratory diagnostic competencies and Reduce the threat strengthen biosafety and posed by emerging, biosecurity transboundary, and training on safe and secure endemic pathogens outbreak investigations, through enhanced sample collection, shipment, capabilities for and characterization of foot preparedness, and mouth disease (FMD); early detection, risk support qualitative risk Liberia, 2020-22; mitigation strategies, analysis and risk mapping Senegal, FAO US DTRA Grant; US$ 5.1 and control of planning at country and Nigeria million transboundary animal regional levels to identify diseases (TADs) of high hot spots to help inform security concern in surveillance activities; target countries across conduct socioeconomic Africa, South East Asia, impact studies to inform Eastern Europe, and surveillance activities and Eurasia decision-makers for FMD at 220 the national and the regional level Entry Points and Reflections T his section outlines the key gaps and and institutional aspects and (b) capacity recommendations for improving the and technical aspects. The first grouping region’s risk management and farmer highlights institutional coordination, the needs decision support systems both nationally assessment process, and sustainable financing. and regionally. It is informed by a large The second grouping highlights issues data number of consultations and interviews with systems limitations, information accessibility technical experts working in West Africa and at the farmer level, private sector involvement, the Sahel. The reflections focus on (a) policy and harmonizing information systems. Enhancing the Regional Food Security Reserve (RFSR) T he RFSR system faces challenges linked owned vehicle to replace ad hoc food to insufficient financing, inadequate crisis emergency response. The multilateral stock levels, and weak management at system is still weighed too heavily toward both country and regional levels. ECOWAS responding only after disasters hit. A suite has aimed for stock level targets at the regional of new instruments could be deployed to level that it is currently unable to finance reverse this longstanding structural deficit. The and, as mentioned before, member states ARC aims to play such a role. The experience 221 have not delivered on their commitments to of the Caribbean Catastrophe Risk Insurance provide the reserve with the agreed volume Facility (CCRIF) could offer important lessons of staples. Establishing viable and sustainable for the region. The Global Risk Financing financing is thus key if the reserve is to reach Facility (GRiF), a new investment vehicle that its full potential. Furthermore, the location of focuses on improving financial resilience to the reserves is one of the main issues because climate and disaster risks, has agreed to explore the chosen locations are not near highly food- opportunities for regional food insecurity risk insecure or fragile areas of the region where the mechanisms. The reserve would be a natural need for food aid is high. A significant portion entry point to advance these agendas. of the region’s vulnerable populations live in landlocked rural areas far away from stock Enhancing the RFSR may also boost locations. Due to their limited access to public intraregional value chain development. A services, rural populations are most likely to fully operationalized and sustainably funded rely on fast access to the reserves in emergency regional food reserve would offer significantly situations. In addition, collaboration between increase targeted purchasing of food stocks. the regional vulnerability analyses and food This could stimulate demand for certain key security assessments and the food security cereals including millet, corn, and sorghum. reserve could be further improved. If accompanied by technical advisory and strategic investments in relevant infrastructure, New risk financing instruments could place smallhold farmers and other value chain actors the reserve on a sustainable footing and could benefit from improved market access in enable it to become an effective regionally the medium term. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Policy and institutional challenges related to the region’s early warning and climate information systems W eak institutional coordination models, revamping communication hinders effective data generation, and a knowledge exchange format that information service delivery, and goes beyond publishing bulletins on a easy access to information necessary for website. timely decision-making on food security- • Prioritize services and consider the related issues. A number of national and mode of development and delivery. regional meteorological and hydrological Defining public good services and agencies are engaged in seasonal forecasting non-public good services is important and monitoring activities across West Africa as it has implication for private sector and the Sahel. Agrometeorology information involvement and financial models is sometimes generated by those agencies or (GFDRR 2020). in collaboration with agriculture stakeholders. • A potential entry point could be to However, the linkage and coordination reorganize and structure the system between institutions (such as global centers in a modular way and provide support of excellence, AGRHYMET, ACMAD, national to critical modules, where public 222 meteorological agencies, and other information intervention is critical, while other generating institutions) at the national and modules can be strengthened in regional levels remain weak, leading to partnership with different partners, inefficiencies and potential duplication of effort. including the private sector. Upgraded A lack of synergy and coordination issues act as and digitized systems through a modern bottlenecks for the easy access to information database management application necessary for making timely decisions on food would consolidate agroclimatic and security-related responses. These issues are also food security information and should prevalent among international development, incentivize innovative and sustainable private sector, and NGO partners of the delivery models. regional institutions. Partners of the CH and AGRHYMET, such as FAO, OXFAM, and Action The food security outlook is sometimes Against Hunger, have difficulty accessing incomplete due to the bulky needs information on food security collected at the assessment process. The CH analysis of the national, subnational, and regional levels given food security outlook and needs assessment inconvenient communication formats and is often perceived as a “heavy” and bulky platforms. AGRHYMET, for instance, publishes process involving field missions and validation its forecasts and assessments on a webpage meetings that occur six times every year. Yet with an inaccessible and poor format. the CH functions well as an analytical tool and the RPCA consultations serve as major regional • Streamline the “chain of information” convenings where stakeholders validate the across regional, national, and subnational food security outlook and are well-regarded levels to provide demand-driven among partners. There is, however, a clear need information services by leveraging state- to upgrade existing CH tools and processes of-the-art technologies and new business toward a more agile, “lighter,” and less costly system. The current lengthy process of validating to be further developed, and the technical findings is a bottleneck that impedes timely experts who worked on the products moved decision-making when effective coordination on to another project. This highlights the need and distribution of resources is needed in food- to insecure areas. Some cite that country-level • Improve the financial sustainability bottlenecks and national data collection and and resources of technical institutions sharing capacities are weak. The national-level such as AGRHYMET to retain expertise data that feeds into the CH can be incomplete or (including local experts’ know-how) delayed, resulting in an inaccurate assessment. within the organization in the long term. A review that aims to improve the format and AGRHYMET can follow the example of frequency of the technical validation meetings UEMOA by establishing fixed budget for and improve engagement with national permanent staff of sufficient seniority. systems in the data collection process would The organization may also request be useful. Furthermore, validating the food regular payments of contributions by security outlook results at the national level, member countries to ensure consistency with oversight and safeguards in place, rather of AGRHYMET initiatives. than at the regional level, can accelerate the • Institutions (such as AGRHYMET) speed of the validation process (for example, should explore ways to transition from validating national results along with relevant donor financing toward generating their country-level UN bodies to ensure accuracy). own financing. One avenue is to privatize certain units within these institutions as a Reliance on short-term donor funding separate stream for revenue generation. undercuts regional institutions’ ability to For instance, the training center within 223 sustain continuity of initiatives and retain AGRHYMET could charge fees for the technical experts within its institutions. trainings it provides instead of having In the past five years, AGRHYMET has lost to mobilize external financing sources; approximately 70 percent of its human or the trainees could pay for the service resource capacity across its various units, enabling AGRHYMET to generate its own including climate, markets, and data. Experts resources instead of providing trainings who are typically hired for specific donor- at no or limited cost. funded projects leave the organization once • Regional organizations and projects are concluded. This issue highlights development partners can work to the institution’s inability to retain expertise establish a system that secures and for the long term. Moreover, the fragmented stabilizes funding directly for CILSS and nature of donor financing leads to technical AGRHYMET with a long-term view of experts being shuffled from one project to capitalizing and strengthening these another instead of continuing to further institutions. develop existing initiatives. (It should be noted • Prioritize information services that the issue of sustainability of financing is development by considering the demand also a challenge at the national level where of users and comparative advantage of data collection and analysis is concerned). A respective regional institutions. Systems case in point is the five-year-long ECOAGRIS to deliver such information services project financed by the EU. During the duration should be designed in a cost-effective of the project, experts had piloted a set of tools manner, taking into consideration various and products for the ECOAGRIS platform. When types of partnerships. the project concluded, however, ECOAGRIS was not continued or taken up by another partner A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas Enhancing the regional information system’s responsiveness to user needs should be a priority U nderstanding user needs is a starting ensemble forecasts, which enables making point. It is important that improved decisions while taking into consideration systems can provide information the inherent uncertainty of weather systems services that meet user needs most effectively. and impacts of hazards (GFDRR 2019). At the The current systems at the country level are same time, numerical weather prediction typically engaged in data collection and data outputs provided by global centers have high analysis geared toward providing information resolution, making most of the national-level to regional counterparts, development efforts to run limited area models irrelevant community partners, and other relevant (GFDRR 2019). Such shift in thinking should be government agencies. These systems, typically duly considered in designing the system. housed within the Meteorological Agencies and Disaster Risk Management Agencies of Holistic approach is needed to address countries, do not usually publish hydromet and both country-level systems and their early warning information with the producers in linkages to regional-level systems first. The mind. Any entities involved in hydromet service data collected at the national level feeds into provision should have regular interactions with the CH framework and regional institutions users and feedback on services so that evolving such as AGRHYMET. Building the capacity 224 user needs and user satisfaction for the current of countries’ national services will thus have service portfolio are regularly tracked by service significant positive spillover effects. This calls providers. for revitalizing data collection at national levels by building capacity of national statistical High-quality weather, climate, and agencies, meteorological agencies, and other hydrological services underpin digital relevant government institutions to develop advisory services for agriculture and food robust data systems and streamlining the CH security. Transforming how hydromet services process. are developed and delivered in the region is needed. Traditional infrastructure-heavy National-level monitoring and data investments in hydromet services have a poor collection systems face different problems track record. Instead, the focus should be on across the region. As noted before, one the development and delivery of services that common issue is the need to improve national meet the need of users by enhancing the entire data collection systems feeding into the CH hydromet “ecosystem,” which consists of not process and hydromet information services. only regional and national entities, but also Coastal countries including Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, global centers, academic and private sectors, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Togo have and NGOs and CSOs. significant needs given the current state of their national data collection systems. In Nigeria, The national meteorological and other there is no institutionalized and formal EWS at relevant agencies could improve their the national and state levels. While the Sahelian services by making use of products from countries’ national food crisis and disaster global centers effectively. In recent years, prevention and management systems are greater emphasis is placed on moving toward relatively functional, the systems are beginning impact-based warning along with the use of to experience difficulties in financing their activities from national budgets. These funding is limited, which also hinders the data countries are making major efforts to mobilize collection process. At the technical level, these state resources to carry out data collection countries also need methodological support with the support of their partners. However, to ensure the adoption of new methods of the economic slump that is currently affecting data collection and analysis that feed the CH almost all Sahelian countries means that state process. Areas for strengthening the technical capacity and value proposition of CILSS, AGRHYMET, and national entities N umerous mechanisms and systems from various sources in developing products. under CILSS aim to address a myriad of food security-related challenges AGRHYMET could benefit from revamping and needs in the region. In practice, most of its model for a results-based orientation for these tools, if they exist, do not work fully to delivery and value addition of data collected. the satisfaction of clients. The main challenges By developing useful information products, are dysfunctional collection systems, lack AGRHYMET could add greater value and secure of primary and secondary data, insufficient sufficient funding for its activities. Promoting analytical capacity, lack of coordination and an open data, open science co-development 225 linkage between early warning and response, approach should be encouraged. Adopting a lack of transparency, and even trust between long-term vision and looking beyond the short- states and other actors. term cycle of donor projects and funding when designing the regional information systems can AGRHYMET is the premier training and enhance creative out-of-the-box thinking for climate services institution in the region, but developing innovative information products. its capacity to deliver and provide access to For information dissemination, the current information remains severely constrained system of communicating climate services at the national levels. Currently, AGRHYMET is and CH survey results through bulletins posted focusing its services at the regional level. In the on websites is not necessarily adequate. The past, AGRHYMET had a national component (in regional institutions can develop platforms like countries such as Mali and Burkina Faso) where a dashboard, similar to FEWS NET, with readily a dedicated unit would meet with farmers available and up-to-date data and information. every 10 days. While it is primarily the national Linking such a platform with MIS in partnership agencies’ responsibility to provide services to with visual media and radio networks also farmers, feedback from farmers on services assists with disseminating data and pushing can also inform how AGRHYMET can support information out to the grassroots. This may also national entities better. When it comes to imply properly implementing and maintaining AGRHYMET’s data analysis capabilities, global already developed market information data, such as satellite-based remote sensing platforms such as ECOAGRIS. and numerical weather prediction outputs, are used. Nonetheless, it can be questioned to what AGRHYMET could add value by closely extent such data is being productively used in monitoring conflict caused by tensions analyses. It needs more streamlined use of data related to use of natural resources, a A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas capacity it currently lacks. This is an important Pastoralists have limited access to relevant and dimension for stability and food security in the available climate information data such as water region. Experts suggest that AGRHYMET can points, availability of pastures, and flood risks, learn from or partner with NGOs actively working which can negatively impact animal health. The in this space in West Africa. One in particular— current system of availing of climate information Action Against Hunger—has developed a GIS website bulletins does not meet the needs remote sensing tool that monitors biomass of many potential users. Furthermore, with of good pasture lands to predict pastoralist pastoralists’ mobility restricted due to border tension and movement. Since AGRHYMET tools closures and political conflict and terrorism can be brought to scale, the institution has the in the region, communal conflicts between advantage of being able to incorporate conflict farmers and herders are rising. This calls for monitoring in its existing systems at scale. more pastoralist-targeted climate information advisory services to better support herders in Hydromet services in the region currently choosing locations for livestock raising. lack sufficient reach to provide tailored information at the producer level. The most The national meteorological and other appropriate way for providing regular and relevant agencies could improve their reliable tailored services for the agriculture services by making their models more sector needs to be considered. There would be sophisticated. In general, it remains variation from country to country given various challenging for meteorological forecast factors, including existing stakeholders and models to accurately provide forecasts of the partners, legal and regulatory frameworks, and cropping season. Furthermore, many models 226 so on. One option is to consider how to broaden are designed for large-scale homogenous the scope of partnership including that with cropping systems, which leads to suboptimal the private sector. Important prerequisites results in a region where small-scale mixed to enable such partnership include provision cropping systems are dominant. According to of reliable basic data from public sector and experts, the crop maps used by countries in the clarifying roles and responsibilities of public region for crop monitoring are outdated and entities vis-à-vis the private sector. It should be too coarse-grained, lacking customization by highly encouraged to consider arrangements agroecology. Likewise, MIS are not sufficiently that allow more flexibility and to quickly accurate and spatially representative. One develop market-responsive technologies that suggestion is to modify or develop customized meet emerging needs of farmers. Further, models that cover the entire region with information can be disseminated via multiple high resolution, quality satellite imagery. channels involving both newer and traditional Generating quality information will increase channels such as apps, SMS, and radio. One demand for data in the decision-making example from Niger could be scaled up, process. A secondary concern is that national where the Agriculture Chamber transforms meteorological services charge fees to access AGRHYMET website bulletins into digestible their data, particularly for non-government messages for farmers and disseminated via entities. Contrary to current practice, making radio. This calls for strengthening collaboration the data easily and freely available enables the between institutions such as AGRHYMET and creation of robust data ecosystems that allow partners that are able to reach end-user farmers for cross-fertilization of innovative products and pastoralists (including private sector and services. Experts have also pointed out the organizations, NGOs, and farmer associations potential to scale up a promising pilot initiative such as ROPPA). in Senegal, working on developing crop maps using machine learning. Services for pastoralists are also needed. Bringing in the private sector to add value to climate information within and beyond state-led public information services and early warning systems C reate a conducive environment for the information by collaborating with private private sector by fostering innovative sector actors and local service providers to and collaborative partnerships that supplement regional and national entities. maximize the value and potential of farmer- Past investments in digitization and data-rich level information and advisory services. ecosystems were rarely built for long-term Given the need for highly effective systems sustainability, adoption, or uptake by local to provide the variety of services within private sector actors (financial institutions and countries, championing the private sector is commercial actors) connected to markets due to critical to revitalize data systems and increase dependency on donor funds. These investments accessibility of information at the national, operated with the limited assumption that subnational, and district levels. ESOKO, simply providing and disseminating general operating in Ghana, is one example, while information (for example, plowing and sowing another example from Mali involving cotton dates) is the end goal, cementing the reliance farmers and a private financial institution also on one-off donor funding. However, substantial highlights this point. When cotton producers value is derived from a more long-term vision, requested tailored information services and such as creating relevant data ecosystems to 227 advisory, the Mali Development Bank partnered monitor activities across the value chain and with the meteorological agency to provide and provide information to connect farmers with disseminate the necessary climate information, intermediate private actors (shifting focus to including through sponsoring advisory intermediate structures of decision-making). information to be broadcast on national TV. Through its Africa Hydromet Program launched This initiative involving the private sector to in 2015, the World Bank has supported such provide climate advisory services to farmers local capacity building that can be rapidly was well received when shared with partners at deployed for decision support from local to a regional donor meeting in Bamako. Removing national levels. barriers for private sector actors to easily access data collected at national level can help develop Apart from serving to improve on-farm creative solutions (for example, while national decision-making, climate information could agencies make data available to government also be used to broaden access to credit and actors and farmers’ associations for free, private agricultural insurance. Recent technological sector actors often have to pay a fee to access advances in remote sensing and the Internet of the same information) and modernize national Things (IoT) offer the potential to add value to and subnational hydromet systems to add climate information beyond improving advisory value to already existing data. services for better on-farm decision-making. For example, creating a dense network of low- Making early warning information available cost weather stations connected to the internet should not be the end goal; it is important allows the creation of an industry-linked and to innovate to further add value to such granular IoT-enabled data ecosystem—an A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas approach pioneered by the firm Manobi in farmer risk profiles. This, in turn, could reduce Senegal. By collecting fine-meshed weather the cost of credit and allow insurers to provide (and by extension risk) information and data, cheaper agricultural insurance premiums. financial institutions could develop better Potential Regional Flagship Initiatives to Improve the Regional Risk Management Architecture and Strengthen Decision Support Tools Available to Farmers RFI #8 Enhance Regional Food Security Reserve (RFSR) TABLE 2.18 Regional Flagship Initiative #8 Type Investment 228 To improve the functioning of the RFSR through strengthening physical and financial Objective instruments After the 2008 food crisis, sharp price increases of imported food led to a drop of confidence in international markets and triggered efforts to create a three-tiered regional emergency reserve system consisting of local stocks, national-level stocks, and regional-level stocks whose mobilization is governed by the principle of subsidiarity. The RFSR aims to cushion temporary import difficulties and reduce reliance on international aid during food crises of regional extent Context and while promoting regional production and regional solidarity. In 2013, the RFSR was adopted by rationale ECOWAS, and an EU-funded support project has subsequently advanced its implementation. The implementation of the RFSR has made considerable progress over the past years, as demonstrated through its successful mobilization to supply vulnerable populations in Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, and Nigeria during the 2020 food crisis. Overall, however, the RFSR is not yet fully functional for a variety of reasons, including a lack of financial resources and disparities between member states’ national storage strategies. (1) Establish viable and sustainable regional financing mechanism (2) Strengthen capacity of RFSR • Optimize location of physical stocks • Support partnerships with the private sector (millers, processors, and producers) Activities • Support the implementation of harmonized national storage strategies in ECOWAS 15 members states • Raise capacity of member states in managing public food security stocks and engage cross-border coordination through sharing or lending stocks • Build linkages with safety net programs (3) Strengthen local-level storage systems • Support training and capacity building to improve local storage management Activities • Improve ties of local storage systems with value chains to improve food supply • Support strengthening staff capacity, governance, coordination, and monitoring of the regional food reserve RFI coordination and potential ECOWAS, CILSS, UEMOA, AFD, EU, other financial and technical partners partners Past or existing initiatives with ECOWAS Food Security Storage Support Project in West Africa (EU-funded and AFD executed), potential for Regional Agricultural Investment Plan (RAIP) collaboration Knowledge gaps Sustainable financing mechanisms of RFSR, best practices related to management of the and areas for deep physical reserve (losses, monitoring sanitary quality, associated costs, and so on) dives RFI #9 Leverage rapid technological change to achieve near real-time EWS 229 TABLE 2.19 Regional Flagship Initiative #9 Type Investment Strengthen regional institutional capacity to provide climate and agriculture information services to manage risks, to ensure rapid early warning, and to catalyze Objective the development and accountable delivery of digital climate and agriculture data, information, and advice to food system actors West Africa and the Sahel region is one of the most fragile subregions globally and is highly vulnerable to climate variability. Climate variability is driving high levels of vulnerability of communities throughout the subregion, worsening food insecurity. The region incurs large losses annually due to various shocks in the form of production risks, market risks, and enabling environment risks. This highlights the need for robust risk management mechanisms in the region. While AGRHYMET’s hydromet and climate information services are widely agreed to be a Context and crucial element in tackling climate change and improving food security outcomes, the capacity rationale to deliver and provide access to information remains severely constrained in the countries of the region. Strengthening region-wide EWS and climate advisory services hinges on i) improving of national-level data collection, and ii) the institutional capacity of the AGRHYMET Center - West Africa’s key regional technical institution. In addition, there is a need to explore new avenues in developing and delivering effective and user-oriented EWS and climate information products, e.g. through increasing the involvement of the private sector and encouraging an open data paradigm. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas (1) Improve data collection systems and enhance information/data sharing • Develop regional communication platform version 2.0 to streamline information chains across regional, national, and subnational levels • Upgrade the Cadre Harmonisé (CH), national meteorological and climate data by optimizing technical validation processes and improving engagement with national data systems • Digitize and streamline the production of information services, including through the application modern database management • Encourage national-level adoption of harmonized data collection methods to improve regional products including CH and weather /climate services • Explore adoption of open-data paradigm to facilitate development of innovative climate information and agriculture advisory products (2) Upgrade technical capacity of early warning and climate information services • Increase accuracy of seasonal forecasts; spatial resolution of cropping models and vulnerability data and the use of probabilistic forecasts Activities • Strengthen the linkages between early warning and early action including early financing for emergency measures and adaptive social safety nets • Foster cross-boundary knowledge exchange related to EWS/Climate-information best practices (3) Strengthen institutional capacity • Revamp AGRHYMET operating model toward results-based orientation for delivery and value addition of data collected, including more systematically collected user 230 feedback • Explore opportunities for public-private engagement to tap into private-sector expertise for developing more effective services • Assess lessons from ECOAGRIS to determine institutional settings for future work and to identify approaches to address current encountered in past actions • Increase collaboration with the West Africa Regional Climate Center and WMO technical programs (WCRP-WWRP, WIGOS, GFCS) • Provide support for graduate programs in food security and nutrition, climate change, and sustainable development to enhance the capacity of national technical services RFI coordination and potential CILSS/AGRHYMET; WMO, FAO Global Information and Early Warning System (GIEWS), WFP, USAID partners Activities under this RFI would build on the significant investment, capacity development, and Past or existing support in these areas provided by multiple partners over the last three decades, most notably initiatives with by the OECD, EU, and European bilateral donors, AFD, and diverse technical partners including potential for FAO, WFP, and FEWS NET. The RFI would continue to collaborate extensively with all active collaboration financial and technical partners in West Africa. • Financing models for EWS-initiatives reducing donor dependence • Feasibility of developing public-private delivery models involving private sector and bundling of climate, agricultural, and MIS • Assess collaboration opportunities between governments, donors, and technical Knowledge gaps actors in regional and national risk management and areas for deep • Detailed and spatially disaggregated assessment of latest WMO “wetter than normal” dives projections on the agriculture and food systems in the region (with considerations of the value chain logistics, infrastructure, social disruptions and displacements, and the risks of FCV) • Potential of open data paradigm, artificial intelligence solutions (AI) and big data in developing innovative EWS/climate information systems RFI #10 Integrated regional pest and disease monitoring system based on a One Health approach TABLE 2.20 Regional Flagship Initiative #10 Type Investment Enhance pest and disease monitoring and early warning technical capability by Objective 231 adopting a One Health approach34 Diverse plant pests and animal diseases, including zoonoses, do not respect borders. Collective action across sectors at the regional level represents the most effective means to address growing exposure to risks of outbreaks of diverse pests and diseases, many of which occur concurrently. With cross-border trade intensification and climate change effects, there is also an increase in biological invasions by crop pests and diseases hitherto unknown in the region Context and and whose impact on food and cash crops is becoming more and more worrying. The recent rationale COVID-19 pandemic, the fall armyworm invasion and the desert locust outbreak further highlight the need to focus efforts on preventative approaches for dealing with zoonotic diseases and transboundary pests. Based on its experience in pest management at the regional level and the established partnership, AGRHYMET can play a significant role in this regard in relationship with the two health related bodies of ECOWAS (West African Health Organization (WAHO) and the Regional Animal Health Center (RAHC). • Upgrade to integrated national and regional monitoring capacities using innovative big data, AI, and geospatial approaches, which are not widely used in the region • Set up an integrated system for collecting, storing, and processing data and Activities disseminating phytosanitary and zoonotic sanitary information • Conduct operation research to promote best practices and effective control methods preserving human and animal health and the environment 34 The One Health approach consists of multisectoral collaboration, communication, and concerted action to mitigate or prevent health threats or challenges that emerge at the human-animal-environment interface. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas • Operationalize and strengthen the regional harmonization of pesticides regulation and registration • Incorporate plant pests and animal diseases early warning in existing regional EWS Activities • Adopt One Health approach management, including focus on zoonotic diseases and linkages to food safety and trade facilitation • Provide support for graduate programs in crop pest and disease control to enhance the capacity of national technical services RFI coordination and potential CILSS/AGRHYMET; FAO, WHO, CGIAR centers (ICIPE, CYMMIT, IITA), CIRAD partners The RFI activities will build on the significant investment, capacity development, and support in these areas provided by multiple partners over the last three decades, most notably by Past or existing the OECD, EU, and European bilateral donors, AFD, and diverse technical partners, including initiatives with FAO, WHO, OIE, WFP, and FEWS NET. Programs include, for example, FAO Emergency Center potential for for Transboundary Animal Diseases (ECTAD), FAO Pest Control Program, WHO, CGIAR ILRI One collaboration Health Institute WAHO, CGIAR centers (ICIPE, CYMMIT, IITA), and Global Locust Initiative (GLI) of Arizona State University. • Mapping of plant pests and animal diseases hotspots as well as assessment of past damages, losses, and economic costs of pests and disease infestation Knowledge gaps • Modeling future incidence of pest and disease shocks to West Africa’s agrifood and areas for deep systems in relation to climate change, including focus on zoonotic risks and antimicrobial dives resistance (AMR), with the objective of ramping up preparedness capability 232 • Monitoring of drivers for new, emerging, and reemerging risks within the agriculture sectors RFI #11 Establish innovative risk financing instrument for food crises TABLE 2.21 Regional Flagship Initiative #11 Type Investment Establish a regionally coordinated risk financing instrument for ex-post response Objective interventions during agriculture and food security shocks in West Africa Unlike other parts of the world, West Africa has not yet developed robust innovative mechanisms for timely risk financing in times of agriculture and food security shocks. Despite the presence of risk management initiatives in the region, a fully reliable financial instrument for responding Context and to food security shocks that meets the different needs of the participating countries in the rationale region has yet to be developed. In addition, there are no clear modalities for how regional risk management mechanisms (notably the RFSR) can collaborate with existing risk financing instruments including the African Risk Facility (ARC) to respond to shocks.. This will first require conducting analytical and scoping studies to assess innovative risk financing mechanisms used in other parts of Sub-Saharan Africa and throughout the world to identify potential opportunities for application in West Africa. (1) Develop food security responsive risk management and finance layering that considers the probability of occurrence and the intensity of different type of risks. Activities (2) Assess feasibility of partnerships between risk management institutions and instruments, including the potential for collaboration between ARC and ECOWAS RFSR, with a focus on financial sustainability (3) Explore and implement virtual options for the RFSR. Instead of storing physical stocks, virtual options could include country commitments, or transfer instruments to mobilize funds for intervention in grain markets if needed. RFI coordination and potential ECOWAS; WFP, ARC initiative, FAO, AFD, AFRACA, USAID, and other non-African partners partners Past or existing initiatives with Potential projects for collaboration include FSRP, ARC, and the AFD ECOWAS Strategic Food potential for Reserve Project collaboration • Forward-looking analysis of diverse risks affecting the agrifood system in West Africa • Modelling impacts from the main production risk perils and correlating them with Knowledge gaps potential triggers such as measures of precipitation to define threshold values and areas for deep dives • Assess effectiveness of current efforts to mitigate risks • Review evaluations of other risk management instruments used in other regions of 233 the world Proposed technical work to close knowledge gaps of the identified RFIs T he West Africa Food System Resilience for implementation in the context of FSRP. Facility (FSRF)35 will support Various aspects of RFI #10 will be implemented ECOWAS, CILSS, and CORAF in the through FSRP and PRAPS II. To fill knowledge further prioritization, development, and gaps and facilitate future implementation operationalization of RFIs in the context of of the prioritized RFIs, FSRF will commission regional programs that are currently under additional analytical work (deep dives). preparation. As in the two other priority intervention areas, prioritization of RFIs is Table 2.22 (below) provides an overview of ongoing. Several activities proposed by RFI #8, the analytical work proposed under FSRF RFI#9 and #11 are currently being considered to further develop the RFIs related to the 35 Please see also executive summary for more information on FSRF. A Blueprint for Strengthening Food System Resilience in West Africa: Regional Priority Intervention Areas priority intervention area of Regional Risk RFI #10 covering regional pest and disease Management Architecture and Farmer monitoring will benefit from findings which Decision Support Tools. Regarding RFI#8, will result from the two above-mentioned a detailed study financed by the European pieces on regional risk architecture and Commission (See Galtier 2019) has already agriculture advisory delivery mechanisms. been completed. In addition, recently launched Moreover, strengthening regional pest and technical work on the regional risk architecture disease monitoring systems will be pursued will inform RFI #8 by exploring supplementary under regional programs which are currently financing options in support of the RFSR. To under preparation, including PRAPS II and the refine RFI #9 and generate relevant insights CGIAR 2DI Initiative. Knowledge gaps related for designing impactful climate information to RFI #11 (Establish innovative risk financing system-related interventions under FSRP, instruments for food crisis) will be addressed by detailed analytical work on digital climate corresponding technical work on regional risk information and agriculture advisory delivery architecture and financing mechanisms. mechanisms is currently under preparation. TABLE 2.22 RFIs Relating to Priority Intervention Area III and Proposed Technical Work Potential Proposed technical deep Relevance at regional RFI # programs for dives to address knowledge level implementation gaps Regional Risk Management 234 Regional food reserve may ECOWAS Strategic Architecture and Financing #8 Enhance regional food lead to economies of scale and Food Reserve Mechanisms for food system reserve system higher regional capacity to Project reserves, assess storage and avert food crises buffer capacity Effective regional climate #9 Leverage rapid information systems require Digital Climate Information and technological change to harmonized data collection FSRP, AICCRA Agriculture Advisory Delivery achieve near real-time EWS and pooling of resources Mechanisms across country borders Regional Risk Architecture Zoonotic diseases such as #10 Regional pest- and disease- Financing Mechanisms and COVID-19 and pests (for CGIAR 2 DI, PRAPS monitoring systems based on a Digital Climate Information and example, locusts) pose II, FSRP One Health approach Agriculture Advisory Delivery important transboundary risks Mechanisms West Africa is lacking ARC, ECOWAS #11 Establish innovative risk mechanisms for pooled Strategic Food Regional Risk Architecture and financing instruments for food risk financing which affects Reserve Project, Financing Mechanisms crisis systemic resilience to severe FSRP shocks Adam, Myriam, Dilys Sefakor MacCarthy, Pierre C. 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