Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Part 1 to II is the support Part I: Priority Actions for a Car-Lite Future 2 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions © 2024 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank and the Global Facility to Decarbonize Transport (GFDT) with external contributions. The findings, analysis and conclusions expressed in this document do not necessarily reflect the views of any individual partner organization of The World Bank, its Board of Directors, or the governments they represent. Although the World Bank makes reasonable efforts to ensure all the information presented in this document is correct, its accuracy and integrity cannot be guaranteed. 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Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions i3 Contents Executive Summary..............................................................................................................01 Strategies Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds 07 1.1. Abstract..................................................................................................................................................08 1.2. Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................08 1.3. Objectives..............................................................................................................................................13 1.4. Recommendations............................................................................................................................21 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility 30 2.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................31 2.2 Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................31 2.3 How to create livable streets.........................................................................................................40 2.4 Recommendations............................................................................................................................53 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 58 3.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................59 3.2 What is Tactical Urbanism?...........................................................................................................59 3.3 Choosing what to implement........................................................................................................62 3.4 How to implement.............................................................................................................................68 3.5 Case Study: the first Tactical Urbanism project in the Pacific.........................................68 3.6 Recommendations............................................................................................................................72 4 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions ii Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility 75 4.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................76 4.2 Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................76 4.3 Recommendations............................................................................................................................77 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city 86 5.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................87 5.2 Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................87 5.3 Best practices in the Pacific and globally.................................................................................92 5.4 Recommendations............................................................................................................................106 Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact city development 111 6.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................112 6.2 Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................112 6.3 Recommendations............................................................................................................................114 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life 119 7.1 Abstract...................................................................................................................................................120 7.2 Motorization Management.............................................................................................................120 7.3 Motorization Trends in Pacific Island Countries.....................................................................120 7.4 Recommendations for each Stage of the Lifecycle of a Vehicle.......................................122 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions iii5 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic 158 8.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................159 8.2 Issues and opportunities.................................................................................................................159 8.3 Objectives..............................................................................................................................................163 8.4 Recommendations............................................................................................................................166 8.5 Further Reading..................................................................................................................................166 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 177 9.1 Abstract..................................................................................................................................................178 9.2 Guiding Principles..............................................................................................................................178 9.3 Micromobility.......................................................................................................................................183 9.4 Electric Two-Wheelers and Three-Wheelers............................................................................186 9.5 Ultra-light Electric Four Whelers.................................................................................................188 9.6 Light Duty Battery Electric Vehicles..........................................................................................191 9.7 Heavy Duty Electric Vehicles (Truck and Buses)....................................................................194 9.8 Developing Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure...........................................................196 9.9 Digital Infrastructure for Urban Mobility.................................................................................199 9.10 Alternative Energy Options for Road Vehicles......................................................................200 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................... 200 References.......................................................................................................................................... 202 iv List of Figures Figure 1 Sustainable Mobility Pyramid 02 Figure 2 Regional examples of road geometry that encourages inappropriate speeds 09 Figure 3 Relationship between speed and crash outcome 11 Figure 4 Survivable impact speeds 12 Figure 5 Environmental and health benefits of lowering speeds 13 Figure 6 Steps in developing a speed strategy 14 Figure 7 Guidance on speed limit setting using the “Roads for Life” Framework 15 Figure 8 Appropriate speed limits based on road type and use 16 Figure 9 Indicative changes to speed limits in Nuku’alofa, Tonga if the Roads-For-Life Framework were applied 17 Figure 10 Maximum urban speed limits (based on international reporting) for selected countries 18 Figure 11 30 km/h speed limits in Nuku‘alofa, Tonga (Left) and Betio, Kiribati (Right) 18 Figure 12 Maximum rural speed limits (based on international reporting) for selected countries 19 Figure 13 Roundabout in Nuku‘alofa, Tonga 24 Figure 14 Gateway treatment in place in South Tarawa, Kiribati 24 Figure 15 Example of how a gateway treatment could be applied at very low cost 25 Figure 16 Example of raised pedestrian crossing 25 Figure 17 Airport Road in Tongatapu 30 Figure 18 Hibiscus Avenue in Honiara 30 Figure 19 Cycle of automobile dependency 31 Figure 20 Hierarchy of interventions 31 Figure 21 Road user hierarchy based on social impact 32 Figure 22 Road user hierarchy based on safety impact 32 Figure 23 Footpaths are unpaved and discontinuous through building entrances in South Tarawa, Kiribati 33 Figure 24 In South Tarawa, with no footpaths available, students walk on the road 33 Figure 25 Footpath in Suva, Fiji is mostly blocked by a food vendors. The footpath pavement causes a 33 tripping hazard Figure 26 Without a footpath network, pedestrians in Honiara are left walking on the streets 33 Figure 27 Intersections lack pedestrian crossing facilities in Tongatapu, Tonga 34 Figure 28 Teachers run across to reach the school entrance in Tongatapu, Tonga 34 Figure 29 Queens Road in Nadi 35 Figure 30 Street and intersection designs in Downtown Nouméa 36 Figure 31 Nouméa’s cycle network includes scenic, seaside greenways 36 Figure 32 Population Distribution in Betio 37 Figure 33 Intermittent curbs in South Tarawa 38 Figure 34 40 km/h zone in South Tarawa 38 Figure 35 Numerous speed tables keep traffic speeds low 38 Figure 36 Students walk from school to the bus stop in Bairiki 38 Figure 37 Rendering of Tongatapu’s Airport Road (an Urban Main Road), connecting the airport and southern suburbs to the city center 40 Figure 38 Rendering of Honiara’s Hibiscus Avenue (a Main Street) 40 Figure 39 Rendering of Honiara’s China Town (a Main Street) 41 Figure 40 Rendering of Honiara’s Kukute Street (a Local Street) 41 v Figure 41 Wide footpaths in Nouméa (New Caledonia) 44 Figure 42 Wide footpaths in Nadi (Fiji) 44 Figure 43 Suva’s new bicycle lane along Queen Elizabeth Drive 44 Figure 44 Separated bicycle path along the waterfront in Nouméa (New Caledonia) 44 Figure 45 In Nuku’alofa (Tonga, Left) and Apia (Samoa, Right) 45 Figure 46 Intersection in Honiara 45 Figure 47 Example of an intersection design 46 Figure 48 Example of a raised intersection design 46 Figure 49 Tau Maru Road in Suva 47 Figure 50 Mendana Avenue in Honiara 47 Figure 51 Sketch of a crossing in Honiara (option 1) 47 Figure 52 Sketch of a crossing in Honiara (option 2) 47 Figure 53 Pedestrian and traffic volumes outside the Suva Morning Market 48 Figure 54 Traffic signals prioritize traffic, awarding 84% of time, to only 30% of people passing by this location 48 Figure 55 Honiara’s Mendana Avenue 49 Figure 56 Honiara’s Vara Road 49 Figure 57 Public seating in Nadi 49 Figure 58 Public seating in Solomon Islands 49 Figure 59 Honiara’s seafront 50 Figure 60 Seafront in Nuku’alofa 50 Figure 61 Hardware Lane in Melbourne 50 Figure 62 Nouméa’s streets 50 Figure 63 Children playground in Betio 51 Figure 64 Public square in Tongatapu 51 Figure 65 Sheffield bicycle stands with tapping rails 51 Figure 66 A hoop welded to existing street signs is a low-cost way to provide more cycle parking 51 Figure 67 A possible cycling network for Tongatapu, over a length of 59.5km 53 Figure 68 Segregated, on-street bicycle track 54 Figure 69 Bicycle Lane at footpath level 54 Figure 70 Shared streets 54 Figure 71 Many streets in Suva 55 Figure 72 Tactical urbanism in Fortaleza, Brazil 60 Figure 73 Examples of tactical urbanism to install pedestrian crossings 60 Figure 74 Building cycling infrastructure with various tactical urbanism (quick-build) measures prior to permanent infrastructure 60 Figure 75 Interim Lane in Belo Horizonte, Brazil 62 Figure 76 In the Byculla neighborhood in Mumbai (India) 62 Figure 77 Rendering of a possible interim intersection transformation on Tongatapu’s Taufa’ahau Road 63 Figure 78 An interim transformation at an intersection in Salt Lake City, Utah, US 63 Figure 79 Interim creation of a roundabout in South Tucson, Arizona, US 63 Figure 80 Sketch of a crossing and intersection treatment in Honiara 64 Figure 81 Sketch of a crossing outside Honiara’s St. Nicholas Anglican College 64 vi Figure 82 Outdoor seating venue in Hobart, Australia 64 Figure 83 Public space on Piazza Dergano in Italy 64 Figure 84 Interim footpath widening at a school entrance in Istanbul 65 Figure 85 Footpath widening in Fortaleza (Brazil) through paint, planters and public seating 65 Figure 86 Pop-up bicycle lane is created by narrowing mixed traffic lanes, graffiti paint and traffic cones 65 Figure 87 Interim bicycle lane created by traffic lane narrowing, paint and the use of planters 65 Figure 88 Two Renderings of what an interim street transformation in Tongatapu (Tonga) 66 Figure 89 Tactical urbanism process 67 Figure 90 New pedestrian crossing outside the St. John Bosco School 69 Figure 91 Students design road markings, some days before implementation 69 Figure 92 A zebra crossing in the making 69 Figure 93 Through doing the implementation themselves, the students learnt about teamwork, communication, and the value of putting in hard work 70 Figure 94 A team of twenty-five students and eight adults got the tactical urbanism work done 70 Figure 95 Completion of tactical urbanism in Betio, South Tarawa 70 Figure 96 Artists perform for students at a street carnival to celebrate the achievement 71 Figure 97 Local designs, inspired by the students’ work, enhance the road markings’ visual appeal 71 Figure 98 Potential locations for tactical urbanism as identified in 2023 and 2024 LUTP workshops 72 Figure 99 A “virtuous cycle” leads to more active travel to school 76 Figure 100 Students identify problems outside a school in Christchurch, New Zealand, as part of a Safe Routes to School program 77 Figure 101 A ‘school bus’ of Auckland students jointly walking to school 77 Figure 102 The Buffalo bike is carefully put together to meet the need for sturdiness and low maintenance 78 Figure 103 Buffalo bicycles are made for carrying heavy loads 78 Figure 104 AfricroozE e-bicycle used for delivery of heavy goods 79 Figure 105 Service center for AfricroozE bicycles in Uganda 79 Figure 106 Oahu’s bicycle sharing system 79 Figure 107 Proposed bicycle sharing stations 79 Figure 108 Triple teez’s Mangere BikeFIT 80 Figure 109 Car-free Sunday in Noumea 81 Figure 110 Children in Nouméa maintaining their bicycles 81 Figure 111 The #BikeIsBest campaign included advertisements around the city of London 82 Figure 112 Example of the city council actively communications 83 Figure 113 Comparison of space requirements of different urban transport modes 86 Figure 114 Alighting and Boarding Space (Left: Nuku’alofa, Right: South Tarawa) 86 Figure 115 Buses in Nuku’alofa (Left) and in Port Moresby (Right) 87 Figure 116 Bus stops near Honiara Central Market 88 Figure 117 Alighting and Boarding along Main Road in South Tarawa (Left) and Honiara (Right) 89 Figure 118 Bus stops (Left) and bus parked on the road (Right) in Port Moresby 91 Figure 119 Some general principles of bus network redesign 91 Figure 120 Hierarchy of bus route relationships to the urban core 93 Figure 121 Conditions where trunk and feeder services perform better and conditions where direct services perform better 93 Figure 122 Central market and Honiara City Council (HCC), Honiara (Left) and routes the two terminal serves (Right) 94 Figure 123 Examples of improved bus stopping pattern 95 Figure 124 Proposal of bus stopping pattern in Nuku’alofa 95 vii Figure 125 Transit Service Regulation 97 Figure 126 Type of Contracts (Net or Gross) 98 Figure 127 Examples of Control Fare Revenue in Nouméa (Left) and Rewards and Penalties for Quality Performance (Right) 98 Figure 128 The bus industry formalization process 100 Figure 129 Low-cost options to improve public transit in Palau (Bus stops with time schedule and public transit board game) 101 Figure 130 Bus Stops (Left, Nouméa, New Caledonia, Right, Ahmedabad, India) 102 Figure 131 State of the art fare collection can use a regular smart phone 102 Figure 132 Key elements to a successful bus depot (Left) and operational control center in the Philippines (Right) 103 Figure 133 Rendering of a Dedicated Bus Lane and Bus Station in Honiara 104 Figure 134 Rendering of a transit mall on Airport Road in Tongatapu 104 Figure 135 Proposed Transit Priority Corridor in Suva, Fiji 105 Figure 136 Next steps for public transit improvement 106 Figure 137 Public Transit as an Urban Core and Axis 114 Figure 138 Urban Form with Public Transit and Bus-oriented Development Area 114 Figure 139 Densify and mixed-use development with active streets within walking distance 115 Figure 140 Image of urban center with commercial, office and residential land around central transit nodes in Pacific Island Cities 116 Figure 141 Concept and Synergy Effects of (Bus) Transit Oriented Development 117 Figure 142 Vehicle Ownership Rates for Various Countries 120 Figure 143 Comparison of Emissions Factors of Different Vehicle Types and Emission Specifications 124 Figure 144 The underside of an internal combustion engine vehicle 125 Figure 145 Fuel drums being unloaded, Honiara 130 Figure 146 Total Cost of Ownership for Various Vehicles Types 133 Figure 147 Car sales “yard”, Yap, FSM 135 Figure 148 Automotive parts store, Honiara, Solomon Islands 142 Figure 149 Stock of Toyota Engines Imported Used for Distribution from a Parts Supplier in Suva, Fiji 143 Figure 150 Door and other panels recovered from ELVs, Tongatapu 143 Figure 151 “Field mechanic”, Honiara, Solomon Islands 144 Figure 152 Inside an automotive workshop, Pohnpei, FSM 144 Figure 153 A roadside garage, Pohnpei, FSM 144 Figure 154 A variety of Essential Scan Tools, Workshop in Pohnpei, FSM 146 Figure 155 Waste Oil Collection Drums, Workshop in Yap, FSM 147 Figure 156 Battery drop area, Yap, FSM 147 Figure 157 Vehicle Wrecker 150 Figure 158 Example of a village with ELVs once stored by a mechanic for parts salvaging and now abandoned (Chuuk, FSM) 150 Figure 159 Director SAP Pacific Co Ltd, between two rows of processed ELVs 144 Figure 160 Loaded engine blocks in preparation for export. Mai Xiong Pacific, Pohnpei, FSM 153 Figure 161 Battery cells from a lithium-ion battery removed from a hybrid electric vehicle, found swept into the corner of a mechanic’s garage in Suva 155 Figure 162 Examples of footpaths blocked by parked vehicles 159 Figure 163 Off-street parking buildings are not the solution to chaotic streets with rampant parking 160 Figure 164 Woman in South Tarawa, Kiribati walking on the road, dodging past traffic and parked vehicles 160 viii Figure 165 Nouméa’s city center is filled with parking, both off-street (shown in red) and on-street (shown in yellow) 161 Figure 166 Overview of four kinds of parking in the Pacific 162 Figure 167 Tonga’s Planning and Urban Management Agency’s approach 163 Figure 168 Car parking in Suva and Nadi, Fiji 164 Figure 169 Possible on-street parking zones in Tongatapu, for illustration only 166 Figure 170 A rare example of paid parking at Tongatapu’s Talamahu market 166 Figure 171 Park Mobile app in the Netherlands 167 Figure 172 Parking coupon in Sorocaba, Brazil 167 Figure 173 School students in Kiribati slalom through illegally parked cars to reach school 169 Figure 174 Wheel clamp and a US$34.20 fine for illegal parking at Bairiki Square in Tarawa, Kiribati 168 Figure 175 Setback parking disrupts the continuity of building fronts. Incursions should be minimized 169 Figure 176 Samoa’s setback requirements from Urban Design Standards for Apia CBD and Waterfront 170 Figure 177 Samoa’s driveway requirements from Urban Design Standards for Apia CBD and Waterfront. 170 Figure 178 Honiara’s Master Plan includes the identification of new off-street parking buildings shown in yellow 170 Figure 179 Honiara’s Mendana Avenue 171 Figure 180 Empty off-street parking lot in Honiara 171 Figure 181 A near-empty off-street parking lot only 100 meters from Honiara’s Mendana Avenue, where on- street parking conditions are chaotic 172 Figure 182 Honiara’s parking standards for new developments 173 Figure 183 Comparison of ‘Parking Sharing’ versus conventional approach 174 Figure 184 Inside Tik e-bikes’ workshop 184 Figure 185 Different forms of e-bike 184 Figure 186 Electric Two-Wheelers and Three-Wheelers 185 Figure 187 The Wuling Air EV, a model of e4W, Bali, Indonesia 188 Figure 188 Early Model Nissan Leaf, a Battery Electric Vehicle imported to many PICs over the last 10 years, Tongatapu, Tonga 190 Figure 189 Electric bus in service in Thimphu, Bhutan 193 Figure 190 An AC public charging point provided outside the National Energy Office, Majuro, RMI 197 Figure 191 Tap-on ticketing, Thimphu, Bhutan 198 Figure 192 Ridehailing app 198 ix List of Tables Table 1 Three Game-Changing Goals and Nine Synergetic Strategies 3 Table 2 Road safety outcomes in selected Pacific Island countries 10 Table 3 Recommended infrastructure solutions for speed management 20 Table 4 Differences between Tactical Urbanism and traditional transport projects 59 Table 5 Process of Tactical Urbanism in South Tarawa 69 Table 6 The 5 E’s of active transport planning and design 75 Table 7 Methods to communicate with the public about active mobility 82 Table 8 Four categories of success measures that indicate reduced car dependency 94 Table 9 Bus operations, public or private ownership, variety of island cities 96 Table 10 Land System Distribution of Tenure Systems in the Pacific Island Countries 112 Table 11 Recommended vehicle import requirements to introduce immediately 132 Table 12 Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of electric micromobility and small format vehicles against ICE and non-motorized alternatives 163 Table 13 Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of light and heavy duty vehicles against ICE 173 and non-motorized alternatives Table 14 Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of electric micromobility and small format 180 vehicles against ICE and non-motorized alternatives Table 15 Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of light and heavy duty vehicles against ICE 181 and non-motorized alternatives x Acknowledgements This report was prepared by a team comprised of Mr. Sam Johnson, Mr. Andrey Asian, Mr. Damon Luciano, Mr. Yoichiro Kono, Mr. Bram van Ooijen, Mr. Andrew Campbell, Mr. Blair Turner, Mr. Walter Hook, Mr. John Lieswyn, Mr. Rajesh Rohatgi and Mr. Andrew Irvin. The Greenhouse Studio did the report graphic design. The report benefits from peer reviewers Mr. Andre A. Bald (Lead Urban Specialist for the Pacific, World Bank), Ms. Mokshana Wijeyeratne (Senior Environmental Specialist, World Bank), Ms. Joanna Moody (Transport Specialist, World Bank), Ms. Skye Duncan (Executive Director, Global Designing Cities Initiative), Dr. Mr. Joeli Varo (Adjunct Research Assistant Professor in Urban and Regional Planning, Fiji National University), Professor Ms. Susana Taua’a (Professor of Geography, National University of Samoa), and Ms. Sara Stace (President of Better Streets and Director of Cities, WSP). The team also owes a debt of gratitude to World Bank’s Country Office in Tonga, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Marshall Islands and Fiji for their organizational support in setting up the meetings required to conduct the work. This report is an activity within a broader World Bank executed Advisory Services and Analytics (ASA), which aims to provide Pacific cities with a comprehensive roadmap of viable policy and investment options to shift away from car-centric transportation. The ASA is being funded by a Global Facility to Decarbonize Transport (GFDT) grant. GFDT Partners Endorsements The Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) is happy to endorse the “Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities.” This comprehensive guide offers a vital roadmap for Pacific Island nations to embrace a sustainable and equitable transportation future. ITDP commends the World Bank for recognizing the unique challenges and opportunities facing Pacific cities and for providing a practical framework for prioritizing climate, equity, and people´s quality of life through walking, cycling, and public transportation. The guide’s focus on active mobility, public transit, and smart land use planning Heather Thomson, aligns with ITDP’s mission to promote sustainable urban Chief Executive Officer mobility globally. We believe this guide can contribute Pacific Institute for Transportation and cities create healthier, more vibrant, and resilient communities Development Policy for generations to come. The Global Designing Cities Initiative (GDCI) is proud to endorse the Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities, which draws significant inspiration from our Global Street Design Guide (GSDG). In 2023, we were honored when World Bank President Ajay Banga formally endorsed the GSDG, pledging to promote its shared vision and principles across governments and the private sector. The release of this new guide marks a meaningful step in fulfilling that commitment, and we look forward to seeing more World Bank-funded projects guided by the GSDG’s Skye Duncan, innovative framework in the years ahead. Executive Director Global Designing Cities Initiative xi Abbreviations ADB Asian Development Bank ASA Advisory Services and Analytics AUD Australian Dollar BAU Business as usual BRT Bus Rapid Transit BTC Betio Town Council CBD Central Business District CO2 Carbon dioxide DIY Do-it-yourself FAQ Frequently Asked Questions FJD Fiji Dollar GDCI Global Designing Cities Initiative GFDT Global Facility to Decarbonize Transport GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GRSF Global Road Safety Facility GRSP Global Road Safety Partnership GTFS General Transit Feed Specification ISO International Organization for Standards ITDP Institute for Transportation and Development Policy ITF International Transport Forum KLTA Kiribati Land Transport Authority km kilometer km/h kilometers per hour LMICs Low- and Middle-Income Countries LUTP Leaders in Urban Transport Planning NGO Non-governmental organization NPS-UD National Policy Statement-Urban Design NSW New South Wales NZ New Zealand NZD New Zealand Dollar NZTA New Zealand Transport Agency PDAs Personal Digital Assistants PIANGO Pacific Islands Association of Non-Governmental Organizations PICs Pacific Island Countries PRIF Pacific Regional Infrastructure Facility PUMA Planning and Urban Management Agency  SBD Solomon Islands Dollar SMART specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound SMTU Syndicat Mixte des Transports Urbains du Grand Nouméa SPC (Secretariat of) the Pacific Community SUV Sport utility vehicle xii Glossary a ACTIVE TRAVEL e E-BIKE Active travel, also termed active mobility, describes An electrically assisted or electrically propelled bicycle- many other forms of travel beyond walking and like vehicle. Regulatory distinctions regarding different cycling (e.g., manual wheel chairing, kick-scooting, classes of e-bikes are typically based on speed and skateboarding, skating, running, and skiing). Walking whether the rider must be pedalling for the electric and cycling comprise the vast bulk of active travel in motor to engage (ITF, 2023). most contexts (ITF, 2023). c g CAR Car is synonymous with automobile, and both GATED COMMUNITY are used to describe light-duty vehicles that carry A gated community is a residential area that is enclosed people or a small amount of cargo. This includes by gates or walls, with access typically restricted to sedans, SUVs, 4x4s, pickup trucks, vans, and taxis. residents and their guests. The use of car does not include heavy-duty vehicles, such as buses and trucks/lorries (Miner et al., 2024). GENERAL TRANSIT FEED SPECIFICATION (GTFS) The General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) is an Open COST–BENEFIT ANALYSIS (CBA) Standard used to distribute relevant information about A systematic method for summing all the expected transit systems to riders. It can allow public transit benefits and costs arising from a particular action agencies or operators to public their transit data in a (e.g., a proposed transport project) and comparing format that can be consumed by a variety of software them using discounting to make benefits and costs applications, such as Google Maps. accruing at different times comparable (ITF, 2023). GRADUATED LICENSING SYSTEM A graduated licensing system (GLS) provides a staged d approach for new drivers or riders. It typically involves greater restrictions for new drivers, such as limitations on passengers and types of vehicles used, and zero tolerance for alcohol use. It often also involves an extended period of fully supervised driving. “DECIDE AND PROVIDE” A vision-led approach to transport planning that involves making infrastructure investment decisions in response to stated goals (ITF, 2023). DISABILITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEARS (DALYS) A measure of degraded life years combining years lost due to premature deaths as well as years of ill health (ITF, 2023). xiii k p KICK SCOOTER PEDELEC A human-powered street vehicle with a handlebar, A type of pedal-assisted electric bicycle where the deck and wheels propelled by a rider pushing off electric assistance cuts off when the vehicle reaches the ground. Models exist with two, three or four approximately 25 km/h (exact limit depends on local wheels. Standing scooters are distinguished from regulations). A pedelec only provides assistance skateboards by the presence of a central control when the user is pedalling (ITF, 2023). column and a set of handlebars (ITF, 2023). “PREDICT AND PROVIDE” An approach to transport planning that involves making infrastructure investment decisions in l response to existing or projected demand (ITF, 2023). PUBLIC TRANSPORT All modes of transportation accessible to the public for the movement of goods and persons from place to place and the various means by such movement is accomplished. LIVEABILITY PUBLIC TRANSIT Liveability typically refers to environments Local public transportation system within mainly (especially cities) that are safe, attractive, socially urban areas using buses, for the movement of cohesive and inclusive, environmentally sustainable, people. and with good transport connections, especially for walking and cycling. m s SYSTEMIC VIOLENCE The harm people suffer due to social structures or MICROMOBILITY the institutions sustaining and reproducing it. Much Micromobility encompasses compact, lightweight of this violence is not deviant, neither departing vehicles, either human or electric-powered, ideal for from usual and accepted standards nor necessarily short to medium distances, often with speed caps, intending to cause harm (ITF, 2023). designed for one and sometimes two or more riders. Micromobility includes e-bikes, e-scooters, and speed-limited e-mopeds. t MOTO-NORMATIVITY Decisions about motorized transport, by individuals and policy makers, that show unconscious biases due to cultural assumptions about the role of private cars and which may systematically distort policy decisions and prevent addressing the role of the car objectively. It can result in a built-in acceptance of risks and harms from motor vehicles (ITF, 2023). TRAFFIC VIOLENCE Bodily physical harm related to motor vehicles (Culver, 2018, p. 147). MOTOR VEHICLE Refers to all road vehicles with engines, i.e., cars, buses, trucks, and motorcycles but not micromobility devices (Miner et al., 2024). 1 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Executive Summary Authors: Sam Johnson and Damon Luciano Who is this Guide for? • National and subnational government staff • Development partner staff • Consultants and civil society • Others in the urban planning, transport, economic development, and climate sectors How is this Guide designed to be used? Part I is primarily written for top government decision-makers and representatives of civil society and development organizations who are tasked with defining strategies for the future development of Pacific cities. It provides an overview of the context of rising urbanization and car ownership in Pacific cities and the social, health, economic, and environmental benefits of providing a balance of safe and convenient urban transportation choices that includes walking, bicycling, micromobility, and bus transit. Drawing on lessons from cities around the world, Part I provides a menu of island-appropriate strategies and interventions to help decision-makers develop sustainable, affordable, and accessible urban transportation, as well as guidance for how to formulate strategies for implementation. Notably, most of the population of Pacific cities lives less than three kilometers – a short bus or bicycle ride – from the city center, meaning that cars are far from a necessity for most residents of Pacific cities. Part II is written for working-level technical practitioners who seeking to understand and implement strategies developed under Part I. It provides detailed technical data, reference information, and guidance for implementation of the strategies. Individual chapters of Part II are designed to be read from front to back to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the issues affecting successful implementation of the strategies. Sam Johnson is a Sustainable Transport Specialist with the World Bank. He has worked on transport infrastructure projects in the Pacific Islands since 2017. He co-leads the World Bank’s Active Mobility Community of Practice. He has a Bachelor of Engineering (Civil) (Hons1) at the University of New South Wales, and a Masters of Global Development Practice at Harvard University. Damon Luciano has been working as a Consultant in World Bank Transport Practice since 2018, and previously held various roles in the World Bank since 2005. He earned his Master of City and Regional Planning with a focus on Urban Transportation Planning from the Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey in 2012. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 2 Overview of the Coming Transformation The twelve Pacific Island Countries (PICs) that are members of the World Bank1 have been experiencing rapid urbanization for several decades and are now experiencing rapid growth in reliance on private cars. For most of these countries, at least 50% of the population resides on the main island where the capital city is located.2 Populations in Greater Port Vila in Vanuatu, Honiara in the Solomon Islands, and South Tarawa in Kiribati are projected to at least double by the 2050s.3 Meanwhile, as an illustration, Fiji private vehicle registrations grew by 254 percent between 2014 and 2022 and is currently increasing at 4 per cent per year (Ministry of Trade, Co-operatives, Small and Medium Enterprises, 2024; Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2024).  Similar trends can be observed in other Pacific countries. This combination of rising urban populations and increasing reliance on private cars could mark a turning point for Pacific cities. Many Pacific cities are understood to have had historically large mode shares of public transit and walking; however, these modes are declining as car ownership increases. Although rising car ownership can be a sign of rising prosperity, challenges will inevitably arise when cars become too prominent in the transportation mix. Rising car use leads decision-makers to feel pressure to expand road capacity to ‘keep up’ with traffic congestion, but this strategy almost always fails for several reasons. Infrastructure is very costly and time consuming to build compared to the cost and time involved in acquiring cars. Moreover, expanding road capacity for cars has feedback effects of simultaneously encouraging more people to rely on cars and discouraging alternative ways of getting around by making roads less safe and convenient for people relying on walking, cycling, micromobility, and public transit. Cities that try to keep up with rising use of cars by expanding road capacity all too often fall unwittingly into a self- fulfilling cycle of dependence on private cars as these alternatives to cars become less and less desirable. There is strong demand for a car-lite development pathway in the Pacific that provides more sustainable urban transportation choices. A ‘car-lite development’ pathway is in many ways more suitable for the Pacific; it reduces climate changing emissions and reliance on costly imported fuels and vehicles, and promotes health, safety, and social inclusion. Prioritizing urban transportation choices is essential to developing car-lite Pacific Cities. As shown in the Sustainable Mobility Pyramid in Figure 1, pedestrians and bicyclists located at the top of the pyramid receive much more priority (represented by the width of the triangle) under the sustainable transport priorities, whereas people in cars receive the most priority under the current or ‘default’ priorities. Figure 1: Sustainable Mobility Pyramid. Pedestrians Cycling & e-micromobility Public transport Freight & services Taxi & ride-sharing Private cars Current priorities Sustainable transport priorities Source: Baker & Campbell, 2021 1. Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, and Vanuatu. 2. World Bank staff projections done in support of publication World Bank. (2021). Archipelagic Economies: Spatial Economic Development in the Pacific. 3. Ibid. 3 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Pacific cities are well positioned to adopt a sustainable urban transport pathway that better responds to their needs. As shown in Figure 3 of Part I, a large proportion of residents of Pacific Cities reside within a three-kilometer radius– i.e., 15-minute cycle trip (or similar duration public transit trip) – of the city center.4 This includes 83% of the population of Nuku’alofa, Tonga, 65% of Honiara, Solomon Islands, 64% of the population of Suva, Fiji, 76% of the population of Apia, Samoa, and 89% of the population of Port Villa, Vanuatu. Pacific cities generally have a mix of land uses and relatively favorable climates for a mix of urban transport choices such as walking, bicycling, micromobility and transit. Thus, there are large untapped opportunities for Pacific Cities to avoid reliance on car travel by creating conditions that promote and maintain a higher mode share of healthier and more environmentally friendly transportation choices. In conclusion, there is simply no need for Pacific Cities to become car-dependent places. Strategies for Car-lite Pacific Cities The strategies presented in this guide were identified through in-depth dialogue with leaders in the Pacific region and are broadly supported across PICs. This guide was developed based on dialogue with senior staff of PIC governments, private sector, civil society, Pacific Infrastructure Investment Facility (PRIF)5 members, and other Development Partners during the Pacific Leaders in Urban Transport Planning Pacific (LUTP) Regional Capacity Building Program carried out from October 2023 to May 2024.6 Technical content was prepared by subject-matter experts and informed by literature reviews7 and field observations.8 These consultations identified a strong consensus around for the managing this ongoing transition through three game-changing goals and nine synergetic strategies outlined in this guide. Table 1: Three Game-Changing Goals and Nine Synergetic Strategies. Goal A Create Livable Streets for People Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Goal B Promote Public Transit Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development Goal C Manage Private Vehicle Ownership and Use Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use, and end of life Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Strategy 9: Encourage the import and use of island-appropriate electric vehicles 4. World Bank analysis using 2022 World Pop data. 5. The PRIF is a multi-partner coordination and technical assistance facility established in 2008 to help improve the quality and coverage of infrastructure in the Pacific. Members include the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), World Bank, United States Department of State, Asian Development Bank, Australia Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, New Zealand Ministry for Foreign Affairs, European Investment Bank, and the European Union. 6. 129 representatives participated in Pacific LUTP workshops in South Tarawa, Kiribati (October 24-25, 2023); Nuku’alofa, Tonga (October 30 - November 1, 2023; Honiara, Solomon Islands (March 28-29, 2024); and Suva, Fiji (May 21-23, 2024). 7. Readers can refer to the extensive reference list for all literature reviewed. 8. South Tarawa (Kiribati); Nuku alofa (Tonga); Honiara (Solomon Islands); Nadi and Suva (Fiji); Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea); and Pohnpei, Yap and Chuuk (Federated States of Micronesia). Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 4 While all three game-changing goals are critical to adopting a car-lite development pathway and appropriate to PICs, cities must prioritize the right actions to achieve those goals in each situation. Part I of this guide is designed to support this prioritization. It provides a summary of key actions for each strategy in rough order of priority and profiles each action in respect to complexity, capital cost, ongoing cost, priority locations to implement each action, and which agency should lead implementation of each action. Readers can use the long menu of actions in Part I to shortlist the most suitable actions under each strategy considering strategic fit, feasibility, and acceptability to implement in their context. Based on these shortlists, cities can formulate prioritized and time-bound action plans for implementation. These plans can be revisited and additional actions can be adopted over time as cities develop. Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds (pages 7-29) Managing urban speeds is the most critical priority for sustainable urban transport as it is impossible to provide safe and desirable transportation choices if vehicle speeds are not controlled. Urban speed limits are far too high in PICs. As pavement conditions improve, speeding and associated traffic violence are expected to increase. The economic cost of injuries and fatalities from road crashes ranges from 1.5% to 5.9% of GDP in PICs. Speed impacts on both the likelihood of a crash occurring, and the severity of the crash outcomes. Accordingly, lower speed limits and effective measures to support speed compliance, especially infrastructure and enforcement measures, are urgently needed in PICs. PICs should adopt the World Bank and World Resources Institute (2024) Roads-for-Life Framework and reduce the speed limit on urban main roads to less than 50km/h, and less than 30km/h for all other streets. This will save lives, but also make streets more pleasant for children, elderly and the general community. Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility (pages 30-57) Rather than giving exclusive priority to mixed traffic, streets must be designed for all road users, and give priority to pedestrians, cyclists, micromobility users and bus passengers. This is especially important in town centers, near and along routes to schools and markets, and all other routes with large pedestrian numbers. This frequently includes the main road linking villages to towns, markets, or transport depots. Cars will remain an important part of the street mix, but more space and better infrastructure must be dedicated to footpaths, bicycle lanes and bus priority. Moreover, basic facilities such as signs and pavement markings have outsized importance to safety and must be maintained and/or replaced regularly. To cater to pedestrians, improvements are needed to footpaths, intersections, crossings, landscaping, and amenities. Bicycle lane networks can provide safe and convenient corridors for people on bicycles. Electric bicycles can help counter the challenges of hilly terrains and heat. Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations (pages 58-74) Pacific Cities can use ‘tactical urbanism’ to rapidly implement actions under Strategies 1 and 2, demonstrate results on the ground, build public support, and facilitate experimentation and learning for long-term impact. Tactical urbanism is a design methodology and engagement strategy, implementing temporary ‘tactical demonstrations’ and ‘trial interventions’ to test living versions of designs with communities in real time, focused on delivering streets that put people first, making them safer & more livable. Whereas traditional infrastructure development in the Pacific requires large capital investments and multiple years for planning, design and implementation, tactical urbanism can improve infrastructure in a matter of weeks and at minimal cost using materials available at local hardware stores. Proposed measures to be trialed using this method include pedestrian crossings, traffic calming, intersection narrowing, plazas and parklets, and footpaths and bicycle paths. The first tactical urbanism demonstration in the Pacific was implemented in March 2024 in only four hours at St. John Bosco School in South Tarawa and achieved a 50 percent reduction in vehicle operating speeds and 72 percent increase in drivers yielding to pedestrians near the school entrance. Government agencies, local communities and development partners can all use tactical urbanism to implement quick, cost-effective, and inclusive measures to enhance road safety and improve the environment for walking, cycling and transit. Tactical urbanism is well suited to the Pacific culture of strong, tight-knit communities as it assigns an important role to communities and volunteers. 5 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility (pages 75-85) Infrastructure improvements to enhance the safety of streets for active mobility is the most essential step Pacific Cities can take, but it is not enough. Streets that prioritize active mobility need to be complemented with education and encouragement measures to attract more people to take up walking and cycling. Active mobility education involves providing information, tools, and skills for school students, as well as to adults through employer-led initiatives. Active mobility encouragement includes improving access to bicycles and micromobility devices, community events, active communication with the public, and addressing the issue of (stray) dogs. It is critical to evaluate these programs to make improvements and demonstrate, communicate, and celebrate success. Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city or town (pages 86-110) Most Pacific cities currently have rudimentary transit systems that fail to meet the public’s existing transit needs. Introducing high-quality public transit in these cities would significantly reduce dependence on expensive imported oil and motor vehicles, alleviate congestion, improve air quality, and enhance the overall appeal of city centers. Many medium and longer distance trips could be efficiently replaced with public transit if high-quality services were available. However, transit in Pacific cities faces numerous challenges, including poor reliability, unsafe bus stops and driving conditions, uncomfortable vehicles, unnecessary bus-to-bus transfers, and frequent delays. To address these issues, Pacific cities should adopt global best practice strategies for improving bus transit, which include enhancing route and network design, regulating providers, and investing in infrastructure development and maintenance. Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact city development (pages 111-118) Effective land use planning and density are crucial for developing car-lite urban areas. An integrated approach to transportation and land use planning can foster compact, energy-efficient urban development and enhance accessibility to services and activities. Pacific Island cities need to adopt simple and effective land use controls and regulations that support the policy goals of existing urban plans and align with transportation infrastructure and plans. Additionally, institutions must develop the capacity to effectively guide and control land developments towards these policy objectives. Efforts should be concentrated on areas where new urban development is being encouraged. While most large Pacific cities have land use plans, few are detailed enough to support a car-lite development pathway, and even fewer are enforced through land use regulation. Critically, land regulation in Pacific cities often promotes reliance on motorized transport, including cars, by planning new developments in greenfield areas and restricting development to single-use or low-density zones. To counter this, Pacific cities should adopt strategies that encourage efficient land use, bringing people closer together. This includes densifying areas near public transit, planning and zoning for mixed land use, placing more intensive land use near transit, and prioritizing the development of vacant land, including land currently used for parking, in town centers before expanding into nearby rural areas. Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use, and at end of life (pages 119-157) While motorization improves access to essential conveniences and services, it also introduces significant environmental and public health challenges that call for comprehensive management strategies. To manage these negative impacts, PICs will need to make substantial changes in how vehicles are managed by adopting ‘motorization management’ strategies that shape the type, condition, and number of vehicles that are imported and used on public roads. Effective motorization management covers all aspects from vehicle design to manufacture, operation, maintenance, and the eventual retirement and recycling at the end of the vehicle’s lifecycle. Driven by affordability, the majority of vehicles in PICs are imported in used condition and are often relatively old. PICs also face many logistical challenges due to distance from main vehicle markets, a widespread lack of maintenance knowledge among vehicle owners, suboptimal vehicle operation, and high costs for maintenance, repairs, and end-of-life vehicle management. The ongoing modernization of vehicle technology further complicates many of these aspects and resource constraints, especially in terms of manpower, severely restricting PICs’ ability to implement comprehensive motorization management initiatives. This section covers global good motorization management practices that could be integrated within the unique contexts of PICs and identifies context-appropriate recommendations for management of each stage in the vehicle’s lifecycle. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 6 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic (pages 158-176) With increasing car imports and limited land availability, parking has become a major issue on the streets of the Pacific Island cities. Chaotic parking on roads, footpaths, setbacks, and public spaces affects mobility, livability, the economy, and health. Building additional parking risks locking cities into car dependency for decades to come. Instead, Pacific cities can focus on managing parking better to ensure it is available to those who need it most (those with extra accessibility needs, making deliveries to local businesses, and taxis), improve traffic flow and conditions for walking and biking, and generate revenue for transportation improvements. Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles (pages 177-200) Selectivity and proactive planning will be critical to manage the electrification transition in PICs. Some electric vehicles are better suited to the Pacific than others. Small form electric vehicles like e-bikes, electric two-wheelers and micro-cars (e4Ws) are a cost-effective personal mode choice for short to medium-distance travel. These vehicles are affordable, increase energy security by reducing reliance on imported fuel, and can be charged with limited changes to public infrastructure. Households can charge these vehicles using their existing electricity supply, potentially even via solar panels. This Strategy provides a comprehensive overview of the pros and cons of various EVs and supporting technologies including: Micromobility • Throttle and pedal-assist e-bikes • E-push scooters • Electric mobility scooters (typically used by the aged) Small Format Vehicles • Electric two wheelers (e2Ws) • Electric 3-wheelers (e3Ws) • Ultra-light electric 4-wheelers (LE4Ws) Light-duty Electric Vehicles • Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) • Plug-in hybrid vehicles • Hybrid vehicles • Electric minibuses Heavy-duty Electric Vehicles • Electric buses • Hybrid-electric trucks (non-plug-in) • Battery-electric trucks (all electric, plug-in) Accompanying digital technologies • Ride-hailing apps • Electric vehicle charging infrastructure 7 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Strategy 1 Ensure safe urban speeds Author: Blair Turner Dr. Blair Turner is a road safety expert with 25 years’ experience in the transport sector. He is a Senior Transport Specialist consultant with the Global Road Safety Facility (GRSF) at the World Bank. Prior to joining GRSF he held positions within government and consultancy, and most recently led road safety research and consultancy activity at the Australian Road Research Board. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 8 1.1 Abstract Effective management of vehicle speeds has a significant impact on the safety of road users and the potential to develop vibrant and multimodal streets. This is because lower speed environments are safer and more attractive for other modes of travel, including walking, cycling and use of public transit. This chapter discusses the issue of speed management, and its links to road safety outcomes as well as modal shift and other benefits. Information is provided on the current arrangements regarding speed management in Pacific Island Countries. The different options for managing speeds, including institutional arrangements and interventions are then discussed. These interventions include deciding on appropriate speed limits, and supporting these limits with infrastructure, enforcement, in-vehicle technology, and communications/education. This chapter provides specific actions for Pacific Island Countries to improve speed management and facilitate a shift to reduce car dependency. Applying the Roads-for-Life framework in the Pacific Islands would mean reducing the speed limit on most urban roads down to 30 km/h. This speed is proven to produce significant safety benefits, can encourage uptake of active modes of travel by improving safety and comfort, and has limited impact on transport efficiency. 1.2 Issues and opportunities Inappropriate speed (whether faster than the speed limit or travelling within the speed limit but too fast for the conditions) is a significant contributor to road injury and death. Moreover, there is also a strong link between speed management and improved transport system efficiency because providing a safe speed environment helps encourage walking and cycling, and greater use of public transit (i.e., a modal shift away from cars). According to the World Health Organization, approximately 1.19 1.19 million people die in road traffic crashes each year, and million this is the leading cause of death amongst those aged 5-29 years of age (WHO, 2023). Road trauma inflicts immense people pain and suffering on those impacted, along with their families and friends. It also produces a significant toll on economic development. The Global Road Safety Facility calculates that road traffic crashes cost the economies of Low- and Middle- Income Countries (LMICs) 1.7 trillion dollars and over 6.5 percent die in road traffic of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) every year (GRSF, 2020a). crashes each year This includes high costs to health systems, but also damage to infrastructure and vehicles, and loss of earnings and income for those impacted. Country wealth is deprived due to this loss of human capital, with the largest impacts on the poor and those at an economically productive age. A large share of these global fatalities are related to speed (GRSP, 2023). This finding holds true across all countries, including High-, Middle- and Low-Income Countries. It also holds true in cities where speeds are typically low (either due to traffic congestion, or poor-quality road surfaces) because even these locations experience high speeds at certain times of the day, or in specific locations. Typically speeding is involved in more than half of all severe crashes. For example, speed is a factor in around 60% of fatal crashes in New Zealand (Job & Brodie, 2022) and almost 70% in India (MoRTH, 2021). The percentage of speed related deaths is generally higher in LMICs, due to the larger number of vulnerable road users (pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists; GRSP, 2023). These road users are termed speed is a factor in around 60% vulnerable because, unlike motor vehicle occupants, they have very little protection. In a crash which involves a large, motorized vehicle and a vulnerable road user, the latter who is much more of fatal crashes likely to be injured. The International Transport Forum (ITF, 2023a) highlight that the vast majority of the deaths involving vulnerable road users occur when they are struck by large, motorized vehicles (cars and trucks). 90% of pedestrian deaths involve being struck by these motorized vehicles. in New Zealand and 70% in India 9 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Figure 2: Regional examples of road geometry that encourages inappropriate speeds. Suva, Fiji. Tongatapu, Tonga. Downtown Suva, Fiji. Betio, Tarawa, Kiribati. Robust data on the incidence of road crashes and injuries in Pacific Island Countries is limited.9 Most countries collect data on this issue, typically through police records. Some countries have reliable data, while others only collect data on a small proportion of the crashes that occur. In some countries it is estimated that only 10% of fatal road incidents are reported in official figures (based on a comparison between published data and estimates by WHO), while in other countries the reporting rate is reasonably good. Similarly, information on the incidence of excess speed in road crashes is very limited in PICs as only anecdotal information could be found. Table 2 below provides the most recent data on road safety outcomes in a selection of PICs, although it is noted much of the data for this region is very dated (for example the Nauru data is from 2001) (WHO, 2023).10 9. A recent study (Kome, 2024) assessed data on speed as a c3ause of crashes from every country. Data was obtained from 104 countries on this issue, but no data was identified from any PIC, highlighting this significant gap. 10. Year of most recent data sourced by WHO is as follows: Nauru 2001, Fiji 2016, Kiribati 2021, Marshall Islands 2013, Niue 2021, Palau 2013, PNG 2016, Samoa 2021, Solomon Islands 2016, Tonga 2016, Tuvalu 2007, Vanuatu 2016. WHO data was not available from American Samoa, French Polynesia, FSM, Guam, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Pitcairn, Tokelau, or Wallis and Fatuna. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 10 Table 2: Road safety outcomes in selected Pacific Island countries. Country (and Population Vehicles Reported WHO Estimate WHO rate Reporting year of data) Deaths (per 100,000 rate11 people) Fiji (2016) 924,610 110,760 60 49 5.3 122% Kiribati (2021) 128,870 - 8 8 6.2 100% Marshall Is (2013) 42,050 2,120 3 5 11.9 60% Niue (2021) 19,40 - 0 0 0.0 100% Palau (2013) 18,020 7,100 1 4 22.2 25% PNG (2016) 9,950,000 100,990 158 1483 14.9 11% Samoa (2021) 218,760 29,760 19 21 9.6 90% Solomon Is (2016) 707,850 - 11 79 11.2 14% Tonga (2016) 106,020 8,150 18 9 8.5 200% Tuvalu (2007) 11,202 906 1 2 17.9 50% Vanuatu (2016) 319,140 - 9 13 4.1 69% Nauru (2001) 12,510 - 1 1 8.0 100% Total 12,411,462 258,496 285 1,670 13.4 17% For each country, road trauma exerts a considerable financial burden. Using World Bank data (GRSF, 2020a), the impact for Pacific Island countries ranges from the equivalent to 1.5% of GDP (for Kiribati) to 5.9% (Tonga). A high proportion of road fatalities involve pedestrians and other vulnerable road users. GRSF (2020a) reports that on average, pedestrians account for around a third (31%) of these deaths in PICs.12 In some cases, the proportion of pedestrian fatalities is far greater, with pedestrians accounting for 45% and 43% of people killed on the roads in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu, respectively. International effort to address road safety is focused on adoption of the ‘Safe System’ approach, which is both comprehensive and effective. Countries and international agencies are taking action to address the global road safety crisis. At the global level, the World Health Organization (WHO) recently introduced a Global Action Plan (WHO, 2021). The United Nations also proclaimed a second ‘Decade of Action for Road Safety 2021-2030’ to address this problem. Global targets have Pedestrians account for a third (31%) been set to reduce road traffic deaths and injuries by at least 50 percent by 2030. The Safe System approach acknowledges that human error is unavoidable, but that road deaths and serious injuries are unacceptable and avoidable. This knowledge helps dictate the design, use and operation of the road of road deaths in PICs network to provide safe transport for all road users. At a practical level, the approach promotes a shift in thinking away from blaming victims for ‘user error’ towards acceptance of road safety as a public health issue that 11. In some cases, the reporting rate is greater than 100%. This indicates that more crashes have been recorded in a country than expected compared with the WHO model. 12. In countries where this data is available: Fiji, Kiribati, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, and Vanuatu. 11 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds governments, decision-makers, and stakeholders have the responsibility and power to address together. Based on research from the ITF, and the World Resources Institute (WRI), some key principles of this Safe System approach are as follows (ITF, 2016; WRI, 2019): 1. People make mistakes that can lead to crashes. The transport system needs to accommodate human error and unpredictability. 2. The human body has a known, limited physical ability to tolerate crash forces before harm occurs. The impact forces resulting from a collision must therefore be limited to prevent fatal or serious injury. 3. Individual road users are obligated to act with care and obey traffic laws and those who design, build, and manage roads and vehicles, share responsibility for preventing crashes that cause serious injury or death and providing effective post-crash care. 4. All parts of the system must be strengthened in combination to multiply their effects, and to ensure protection of road users if one part of the system fails. 5. Road safety should be managed proactively to reduce crashes by identifying and resolving potential hazards. This contrasts with traditional reactive approaches where we need to wait for crashes to occur before taking action. Although the Safe System approach has been the basis for improving road safety across many countries globally, including New Zealand and Australia in the Pacific region, there is little evidence of the Safe System approach being mainstreamed into road safety management in PICs. Capacity building on the Safe System approach is needed in the region. Speed management plays a critical role in this Safe System approach. The role of speed is substantial because speed has an impact on both the likelihood of a crash occurring and the severity of crash outcomes, regardless of the cause. The relationship between speed and crash outcomes is well-documented based on considerable international research. Comparing safety outcomes before and after interventions that changed traffic speeds has enabled development of models to predict the impact of a change in speed on crash outcomes. It is estimated (Nilsson, 2004) that a 1 percent increase in average speed results in approximately a 2 percent increase in injury crash frequency, a 3 percent increase in severe crash frequency, and a 4 percent increase in fatal crash frequency. This means that even small reductions in speed can result in substantial road safety benefits. This relationship is demonstrated in Figure 3, below. Figure 3: Relationship between speed and crash outcome 80 60 Change in crashes % 40 Fatal crashes 20 Fatal and serious 0 injury crashes All injury crashes -20 -40 60 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 Change in mean speed % Source: World Bank, 2024 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 12 To avoid death or serious injury in a crash, speeds need to be at or below Safe System survivable impact speeds for the type of crash. These survivable impact speeds are based on various studies (Wramborg, 2005; Tingvall & Haworth, 1999) that analyzed the outcomes of real-world collisions. Although the speeds are ‘indicative’ with results varying between studies, and new research becoming available, these impact speeds provide a very useful benchmark for avoiding death and serious injury. As indicated in Figure 4, the chances of a pedestrian surviving an impact rapidly decline as speeds increase above 30 km/h. 50 km/h is the critical speed for intersection side-impact crashes between cars. In modern cars, head-on crashes between cars can be survived at speeds up to around 70 km/h, but survival rates decrease above these speeds. Figure 4: Survivable impact speeds 100% Fatality risk Pedestrian, or Side roadside objects impact Head-on 10% 30 50 70 Source: Derived from GRSP, 2008 Impact speed (km/h) Effective speed management generates many benefits beyond reducing serious injuries and fatalities. These include better air quality; quieter, healthier, and more vibrant multimodal streets; and improved traffic flow. Many of these have major significance with a transition to less car-dominant mobility system in PICs. Globally, the transport sector contributes almost one-fourth of total carbon dioxide emissions (CO2; World Bank, 2021a) and countries have committed to reduce CO2 emissions. There is a close relationship between vehicle speed and fuel use, and this in turn has an impact on vehicle emissions (OECD, 2006). Speed reduction can be a highly effective solution for cutting CO2 emissions on high-speed urban arterials as well as inter-urban roads (WHO, 2023). Like speed, intense acceleration and deceleration can increase emissions, and greater levels of acceleration and deceleration are seen at higher urban speeds (Omar et. al. 2018). Slower and calmer driving can reduce these emissions (Rakha et al. 2000). An additional benefit is that lower speeds encourage active modes of transport, including walking, cycling, and catching public transit. This cuts down on vehicle use, particularly in urban areas, but also reduces emissions and improves public health, in a virtuous feedback loop illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 5: Environmental and health benefits of lowering speeds Increased Cycling and Walking Reduced Safer, Healthier Vehicle Travel Environment for All Reduced Vehicle Speed Reduced Emissions and Air Pollution Source: adapted from WRI, 2018 Fewer Crashes and Fatalities 13 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Other benefits from reduced speeds include reduction in traffic noise, which can produce a positive effect on physical and mental health (WHO, 2011). Lower speeds can enhance an area’s ‘livability’13 and economic activity, making locations more attractive (GRSP, 2023). Contrary to popular belief, effective management of speed can improve traffic flow. Vehicles can follow closer together at lower speeds, and there are likely to be fewer “shock waves”, (e.g., ripple effects of vehicles stopping and starting) which can contribute to congestion (VicRoads, 2019). Additional journey times from lower speed limits are also often overestimated; this is because speeds are often already below the posted speed limit due to congestion and the need to stop at intersections, especially during peak periods (Fondzenyuy et al., 2024). 30 km/h speed limits are now used in many European cities, with significant safety benefits. In locations where detailed evaluations have been undertaken (London and Brussels) there is no evidence of increased journey times or congestion (TOI, 2024). In summary, lower speeds contribute to efficient urban transport, safety, health and livability. They can avoid deaths and serious injuries and improve public health, reduce emissions and noise, make journey times more reliable, and increase livability. A key objective for Pacific Island cities and villages is to better manage speeds to help achieve these outcomes. Greater awareness of these benefits is needed across Pacific Island countries. The following section outlines how such improvements can be obtained. 1.3 Objectives While speed management is critical for reducing car dependency and saving lives, many speed management strategies are ineffective. This section identifies essential steps towards improved speed management. 1.3.1 Institutional objectives Actions are needed to: • Increase the awareness and understanding regarding the importance of speed management among politicians and government staff • Increase the awareness and understanding by the public • Put the right speed limits in place across the road network (including through legal mechanisms) • Ensure the most appropriate solutions to support speed limits are available, including through regulatory requirements and availability of funding • Establish the right framework to monitor interventions, set targets, and track the performance of speed management interventions Ideally, these actions should be captured in a dedicated speed management strategy and subsequent action plans, then implemented in a coordinated manner by the responsible entities. In practice, individual agencies often carry out activities as uncoordinated policies and initiatives, which is less effective. The new World Bank and World Resources Institute Guide for Safe Speeds (2024) identifies the key actions in developing a speed strategy, which are shown in Figure 6, below. Figure 6: Steps in developing a speed strategy.14 Assess the Classify the Engage Gain political Develop, Monitor and existing speed roads basedon high-level key support implement and evaluate the management the Roads stakeholders promote the strategy status and for Life (R4L) and establish a strategy identify framework working group speed-related adn select safe problems speed limits for different types of roads 13. According to Alderton et al. (2019) urban livability can be defined in different ways depending on the country context. They cite a definition from Australia which includes cities as being safe, attractive, socially cohesive and inclusive, and environmentally sustainable. They also highlight affordable and diverse housing that is well-connected via convenient public transport, walking, and cycling infrastructure. They suggest that livability is closely linked to social determinants of health, and so improving livability can promote health and wellbeing as well as reduce environmental impact. 14. The Roads-for-Life (R4L) framework is a core part of this new Guide and used as the basis for setting speed limits. This is discussed further below. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 14 Establishing a strategy is just the beginning. While implementing the strategy, barriers will present themselves, with many of these barriers based on myths or assumptions that are not true. Some of the commonly held but false speed management myths are below (Turner et al., 2024). Speed Management Myths 1. Myth: Lower speeds will reduce productivity through increased journey times and/or congestion. Reality: lower speeds typically do not reduce productivity.15 2. Myth: The public want higher speeds. Reality: the public more often does not want higher speeds.16 3. Myth: Changes in speed have little impact on safety outcomes. Reality: they have a big impact.17 4. Myth: Education and training will make drivers safer by travelling at safer speeds. Reality: Education and training alone are rarely effective, and other interventions are required.18 Source: Turner et al., (2024) These myths are likely held by many in the Pacific Islands region, including the general public, politicians and development partner and government staff. Clear information and communication is needed to counter these myths. Ensuring this information is available is a key part of developing an effective speed management strategy. 1.3.2 Interventions This section outlines several achievable and effective interventions to promote road user compliance with speed limits and discusses their current use in a sample of Pacific Island countries. The primary method for alerting road users to the required speed is using speed limit signs. These are widely used internationally, especially at locations where there are changes in speed limit. Speed signs need to be applied based on a speed limit framework, that considers the safety of all road users as its main objective (i.e., NOT maximizing traffic throughput). Speed limits are used throughout the Pacific Islands, but there is a large degree of variation in their application and only limited application of international good practice. An example of good practice is the World Health Organization (2021) suggestion that a speed limit of 30 km/h should apply in areas wherever there are large numbers of vulnerable road users. The World Bank and World Resources Institute (2024) recently created the ‘Roads-for-Life’ (R4L) Framework, which recommends that speed limits should be set to take account of the human biomechanical tolerances, including the critical speeds at which humans suffer severe injuries when involved in a crash. Based on both the ‘movement’ requirement of people and goods, and on the presence of vulnerable roads users (the ‘place’ function), different road types are identified, as shown in Figure 7. 15. For further details see: https://www.roadsafetyfacility.org/faq#id-841. 16. For further information see: https://www.roadsafetyfacility.org/faq#id-1105. 17. For further information see: https://www.roadsafetyfacility.org/faq#id-694. 18. For further information see: https://www.roadsafetyfacility.org/faq#id-690. 15 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Figure 7: Guidance on speed limit setting using the “Roads for Life” Framework. Urban Commercial Mobility Movement of people and goods motorways roads hub Service roads Urban human activity roads/ city hubs Residental City centre roads roads Shared roads Presence of vulnerable road users Figure 8: Appropriate speed limits based on road type and use. Based on these road types, appropriate safe speed limits are provided within the framework. The recommended speeds are shown in Figure 8, below. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 16 Global interest in lower speed limits has grown rapidly in recent years. This is especially the case for urban environments, where the change has often been driven by community demand. As more cities move to lower speed limits, communities in neighboring cities and countries are seeing the benefits. This interest has led to the creation of community-based groups who provide evidence and support for change, including in the United Kingdom (https://www.20splenty.org) and Australia (https://30please.org). Applying the Roads-for-Life framework in the Pacific Islands would mean reducing the speed limit on most urban roads down to 30 km/h. The only road types present in Pacific Cities where higher speed limits are acceptable are urban main roads (max 30-50 km/h) and urban link roads (max 50 km/h to 80 km/h). As an example, Figure 9 shows how almost all downtown Nuku’alofa roads would have speed limits revised down from default 50 km/h to 30 km/h, with the road sections shown in blue the exception. Almost all the city’s schoolchildren go to school within this area (schools shown by blue circles), so they stand to become much safer if such speed limits were introduced. Figure 9: Indicative changes to speed limits in Nuku’alofa, Tonga if the Roads-For-Life Framework were applied. Current Proposed 17 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds While speed limits remain higher, school children remain at higher risk. The Global Status Report for Road Safety (WHO, 2023) identifies that the urban speed limit is typically 50 km/h in Pacific Island nations, and that there is no legal provision for a 30 km/h speed limit in many countries. Figure 10 shows that the default urban speed limit is higher than recommended in the Roads-for-Life Framework for all countries profiled (noting that this data is limited19 and dated - see13). Figure 10: Maximum urban speed limits (based on international reporting) for selected countries. Default urban speed limit 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Marshall Nauru Cook Fiji Tonga Samoa PNG Tuvalu Palau* Is Islands *Palau was reported as having no maximum urban speed limit. 30 km/h should be the speed limit for almost all urban roads in Pacific Island Cities if the Roads-for-Life framework were applied. Isolated site-specific examples of lower speed limits have been identified in Pacific Islands countries, including locations with 30 km/h speed limits in Tonga (Nuku‘alofa) and Kiribati (Betio), shown in Figure 11. Other examples may exist. Figure 11: 30 km/h speed limits in Nuku‘alofa, Tonga (Left) and Betio, Kiribati (Right). Speed limits outside of urban areas also need to be managed. 70 km/h speed limits or less are suitable as a maximum for rural roads, especially in situations where there is limited roadside and central barrier protection, few at-grade intersections, and mixed traffic. In some situations, higher speed limits may be used, but the recommendation is that these be reserved for high quality roads where vulnerable road users are not permitted, and with barrier protection to prevent head-on or roadside crashes, as well as other protective infrastructure including grade separated intersections, wide shoulders, and good alignment. 19. Only the countries that are included in this Figure were reported as providing this data to WHO. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 18 Based on data from WHO (2023), the speed limits used on rural roads in Pacific countries are reasonably in line with this good practice, although there are some exceptions.20 Examples are shown in Figure 12. Figure 12: Maximum rural speed limits (based on international reporting) for selected countries. 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Nauru Cook Samoa Marshall Is Tonga PNG Fiji Palau* Islands *Palau was reported as having no maximum rural speed limit. 20. Only the countries that are included in this Figure were reported as providing this data to WHO. 19 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds In situations where rural roads pass through towns and villages, it is important that urban speed limits are applied (typically 30 km/h) and that these are supported by infrastructure treatments to encourage compliance (see below for information on Gateway treatments). When these elements are not part of the road design, in some Pacific Islands rural villages, residents build their own makeshift speed humps and troughs to slow motorized vehicles down. The process for changing speed limits differs between countries, depending on each country’s legal framework. Examples of this process for Tonga and Fiji are provided below. Understanding the speed limit setting process: Tonga and Fiji as case studies The provisions for speed limits in Tonga are established through Section 23 of the Traffic Act (2020). This Act established that speed limits of 30, 40, 50, and 70 km/h are available for use, set out the requirement to obey the speed limit (and exceptions to this, for instance for emergency vehicles), and established that penalties may be imposed for violations. A Traffic (Speed Limits) Notice provides definitions for different speed limit and when these apply. For example, 50 km/h applies to “built up and congested areas”, and these “include but is not limited to within town boundaries and village boundaries”. Changes to speed limits are enacted by the erection of a sign, and this must be done by the ‘Principal Licensing Authority’, which is the Minister or their delegate. For a change in speed limits in Tonga, confirmation is usually sought from the National Spatial Planning Authority Office (NSPAO) who identify the proposed area for change as defined in the Regulations/Act. Recommendations are made based on the response from NSPAO and the Minister of Police approval sought. Once approved by the Minister of Police, consultations are undertaken through social media awareness, radio and TV programs and broader community consultations. The legal basis for the change in speed limit occurs with the erection of the speed limit sign. A different process is used in Fiji. The Land Transport (Traffic) Regulations 2000 provides regulations regarding speeding, with Regulation 25 identifying a default of 50 km/h for a city or town; and 80 km/h outside. Any other speed limits are given legal standing through the Roads Speed limits Order (LN154 of 1978). Lower speeds of 60 km/h may apply (for instance between villages), while 50 km/h speed limits may apply within villages via this Order process. Each Order provides details of speed limits on specific sectors of road through various amendments. For example, for Queens Rd, a text description is given for the start and end point for specific sections of road. There are around 40 sections described in total, ranging in length from around 300m to 3 km, but averaging around 1 km. The process for speed limit change is that a location will be subject to an engineering assessment by the Fiji Roads Authority (FRA) and checks made to see if a change in speed limit is appropriate. This is followed by a consultation process, including with community, emergency services, education department and others. If supported, the request will go to the Minister of Public Works and Transport. The change (if supported) would then be put to parliament and approved via Gazette, through a speed limit Order. The Order that provides the legal basis for the speed limit change, and only once this Order is made can signs be erected and enforced. The FRA also maintains speed limit maps, essentially a spatial representation of these Orders to help clarify speed limit locations. The process for speed limit change is therefore more onerous for Fiji, especially given the requirement for parliamentary approval. In sum, speed limits need to be revised in all Pacific Island countries to ensure that they are aligned with the Roads- for-Life Framework and provide protection for all road users. In PICs, speed limit signs are sparsely used, leaving road users uncertain about the required speed. This also produces a situation where it is not possible to enforce the speed limit. Vehicle speeds are often higher than the safe level due to both the uncertainty on the appropriate speed as well as this lack of enforcement. This situation is easily addressed. Pacific Island countries should do area-wide speed limit signage installation program to help reinforce the safe speed. This action is a priority given its low cost and high benefit, a conclusion that was also reached through several road safety reviews in Pacific Island countries, including the Solomon Islands, Samoa, and Vanuatu (GRSF, 2020b; World Bank, 2020a; World Bank, 2021b). Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 20 In addition to setting safe speed limits, all countries require a comprehensive and holistic package of speed management interventions to support compliance with the speed limit. A combination of various types of interventions will be required, and this will vary as the road environment changes. Interventions can include road infrastructure provision, policing, deterrence and penalties, education, communication and capacity building, vehicle technology, and land use planning. Infrastructure is a key intervention to support safe speeds. Road designs should create an environment that encourages compliance with the set speed limit. If slow speeds are required, infrastructure should facilitate those speeds. Different techniques can be used for this, including horizontal deflection (‘zig-zags’), vertical deflection (‘bumps’), road narrowing, and changes to road surface texture. Often, combinations of such treatments are best. Although sometimes costly, many of these techniques can be applied quite cheaply. Where budgets are limited, these solutions should be applied on a risk basis by addressing the highest risk (and therefore highest benefit) locations first. Importantly, all the interventions outlined below are highly cost beneficial, meaning that the benefits greatly outweigh any costs. In this sense, all interventions are “a safe bet”. Under the Safe System approach, there is a recognition that the road needs to provide an environment where fatalities and serious injuries are not able to occur. When driver errors do occur (which is often), the road needs to be designed with a good degree of protection to prevent those outcomes. The infrastructure solutions shown in Table 3 all need to be used in PICs to manage speeds. Further details on each can be found in Turner et al. (2024). Table 3: Recommended infrastructure solutions for speed management. Intervention type Description Image All images sourced from World Bank (2024) Gateways Gateways signal the transition into lower speed areas, such as towns, villages, or traffic-calmed areas like school zones or 30 km/h zones. Features like road narrowing, prominent speed limit signs, town or village name banners, and colored pavement treatments contribute to these gateways. Humps Speed humps are raised sections of pavement with a parabolic or flat top that extends across the road to maintain the intended speed and cause abrupt discomfort when traversed at higher speeds. Raised pedestrian The pedestrian walking surface is raised above the crossings surface of the roadway, providing a safer crossing. This intervention reduces vehicle speeds and increases visibility of those crossing. 21 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Intervention type Description Image All images sourced from World Bank (2024) Deflection Straight roads are converted to roads with some curvature. The zig-zag traffic pattern creates a desire to slow down and reduces the visual impression that the road supports higher speeds. Narrow the lanes Medians are either painted or raised vertical using median elements between opposing directions of travel that help physically narrow the roadway and separate opposing traffic. They can be landscaped or hardscaped and, when connected to pedestrian crosswalks, they can provide pedestrian refuge islands. Narrow the lanes Extending the sidewalk or curb width is one way using wider to narrow travel lane widths. The road space is footpaths reallocated to pedestrians, increasing pedestrian safety and reducing the opportunity for speeding. Narrow the Cycling lanes provide designated spaces for cyclists lanes using cycle alongside roads, either through pavement markings facilities or physical separation. In high traffic areas or on wide roads, separate cycling tracks can effectively regulate traffic and ensure lower speeds. Road surface Textured surfaces (i.e., cobblestones) alert drivers about changes in the speed environment and encourage road users to slow down. Roundabout Roundabouts, when appropriately designed with deflections, reduce vehicle speeds at intersections, slowing down approaching traffic. Single lane roundabouts are preferred, especially where vulnerable road users are present. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 22 Intervention type Description Image All images sourced from World Bank (2024) Raised A similar concept to a raised pedestrian crossing intersection and humps, the full intersection is raised to sidewalk level requiring motorists to reduce their speed moving through the intersection. Alternatively, “raised stop lines”, or speed humps can be used on the approach. Intersection – Intersections can be narrowed using curb build-out narrowing and painted islands, effectively slowing vehicles on the approach and through the intersection. Intersection – Vehicles are able to travel more quickly through tighter radius gentle curves, and so one mechanism to slow speeds at intersections is to introduce a tighter radius. Intersection Gateways can be created to slow traffic entering gateway for low-speed environments, particularly off major sideroad roads into quieter side roads. Measures such as signage and surface treatments can be used to create the gateway effect. 23 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds These interventions often have the greatest impact when used in combination (i.e., two or more interventions) as part of an integrated approach (Turner et al., 2019). On their own, single interventions may have only limited effect. Many of these speed management infrastructure interventions are already used in PICs, however they should be used much more. The most commonly used interventions are traffic humps and roundabouts. Figure 13 shows one of several roundabouts in Tonga. Figure 13: Roundabout in Nuku‘alofa, Tonga. Far more extensive use of gateway treatments is needed, especially at villages, when entering towns and cities, and other transitions between higher and low speed environments. This intervention is typically low cost and produces significant safety benefits. Figure 14 shows an existing gateway treatment in Tarawa and Figure 15 is a rendering of how gateway treatments could be applied on approach to villages in Tonga. Figure 14: Gateway treatment in place in South Tarawa, Kiribati. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 24 Figure 15: Example of how a gateway treatment could be applied at very low cost. BEFORE AFTER Entering village. Illustration of gateway. Another high priority intervention not yet widely used in PICs are raised platforms, including at intersections and pedestrian crossings. This intervention is has moderate costs and very high benefits. Raised pedestrian crossings result in reduced speeds and greater visibility for pedestrians. More extensive use of this intervention is needed, especially at-risk locations such as schools and markets, as in Figure 16. Figure 16: Example of raised pedestrian crossing. BEFORE AFTER High speed environment outside a school. Illustration of raised pedestrian crossing. Other priority actions include wider footpaths that are clear of obstructions and accessible, bicycle lanes, and features to narrow intersections. These infrastructure interventions should be used in each country, and where required, training provided on the benefits and implementation of these measures. In many situations it is not possible to provide comprehensive infrastructure, and so other mechanisms, including speed enforcement, are required to ensure there is compliance with safe speeds. Policing can dramatically reduce the number of crashes, with strong evidence that increases in speed enforcement led to safety improvements. One study identified that a two percent increase in speed enforcement can be expected to reduce road crashes by 20 percent (SafetyNet, 2009). Speed enforcement is designed to provide both specific deterrence, which impacts those who are penalized, and general deterrence, or a threat of punishment for violations for the public at large. A variety of speed enforcement approaches may be needed, including mobile speed patrols and use of speed cameras. Both overt (visible) and covert (hidden) speed enforcement should be used in combination (SafetyNet, 2009). 25 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Many countries are realizing the benefits of Automated Speed Enforcement (ASE) in which the license plate number of a speed-violating vehicle is photographed and the penalty notice is later sent to the registered owner of the vehicle. This may include fixed or mobile speed cameras, or even time over distance cameras or section control where speed is measured between two points on the road network. Background support is required to enable such enforcement, including the enabling legislation, accurate vehicle and driver license databases, efficient processing systems for penalties, and rigorous enforcement of rules requiring that license plates are visible. The requirements are explained in detail within the Guide for determining readiness for speed cameras and other automated enforcement (Job et al., 2020). To ensure a deterrent effect from enforcement, offenses must be followed by sanctions. Penalties must be certain, unavoidable, swift, and fair, and can include fines, demerit points, withdrawal/ suspension of the driving license and vehicle impoundment. Further information on penalties can be found in Sakashita et al. (2021). There is currently limited police enforcement of speed in PICs. This is in part due to lack of equipment, although it was also noted that there might be regulatory barriers (GRSF, 2020b). There should be a review of current police enforcement for speed, including the equipment available, and the penalty regimes in place. New vehicle technologies play a significant role in providing safety improvements, and some operate through the management of vehicle speeds. These improvements are of interest to individual vehicle owners but can also play a significant role in managing speeds for fleet owners, commercial vehicles, and public transport vehicles. Of most relevance are ‘in-vehicle’ technologies that can either control or monitor speed. This includes fleet monitoring systems that measure and record speeds of individual vehicles (including when these vehicles exceed the speed limit) and Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA) which either warns drivers they are exceeding the speed limit, or actively controls the speed of vehicles when a threshold speed is exceeded. These vehicle-based technologies can use incentives and penalties to encourage greater speed compliance. In some countries, companies have systems in place to retrain drivers who exceed speed limits or even use dismissal for repeat offenders. Insurance companies also use data from vehicles to provide discounts for drivers who are safe and compliant. A trial of monitoring of fleets, buses and/or trucks should be undertaken in Pacific Island countries. Given that there are very limited regulatory obstacles to commence such a trial, and the low cost, this is recommended as a high priority action. Education and communication about safe speeds can produce benefits, but these activities need to be carefully directed towards effective interventions. Of benefit are approaches that enhance awareness and compliance and help overcome misconceptions about the role of speed in road safety. This includes information for the public, but also decision makers and practitioners. Training of journalists in speed management objectives can improve media coverage and enhance public understanding of how crashes can and should be prevented. Communication campaigns can be beneficial, especially when combined with enforcement. Campaigns in isolation, including those that merely inform road users of increased risk, have limited benefit and are not expected to directly change road user behavior (GRSF, 2020c). Similarly, post-license driver training programs have been found to be ineffective and sometimes even harmful to road safety. Researchers discovered that any benefits gained through this training is usually outweighed by increased risk from overconfidence following the training (GRSF, 2020c). Examples of education and campaigns are occurring in PICs, but a greater awareness regarding which interventions are effective – and not effective – is required. Lastly, land use planning is an important way to improve speed compliance. Slower speeds can be achieved through reducing road users’ need for vehicular trips, offering improved accessibility to a wide range of sustainable mobility options, and reducing motorized individual travel when living in close proximity to destinations and viable public transport options. Dense cities with good public transport, and where more people cycle or walk have fewer crashes per head of population (WHO, 2021). The advantages of compact, mixed land use planning for PICs are many, as covered in the dedicated section of this report. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 26 1.4 Recommendations The following actions are recommended to improve the effectiveness of speed management and reduce dependency on cars. These actions will have wide benefits in the form of improved road safety outcomes, reduced emissions and noise, improved livability, and even improved traffic flow. 1.4.1 Policy reforms Implementation of a combination of policy interventions is critical to maximizing the benefits of speed management interventions. It is likely that these reforms are relevant to all Pacific Island countries. A national-level Speed Management Strategy is an essential speed management tool. Preparation of the strategy should bring together key stakeholders and facilitate agreement about key actions to be taken by each in a coordinated manner. These actions should include an assessment of current policies, regulations and interventions at the country and city level. Decision-making needs to be made based on evidence and dispel some of the myths around speed setting highlighted above. If such a strategy is not feasible due to resource constraints, individual high priority actions consistent with such a strategy Assess whether current policies, should be undertaken. This includes setting a framework for regulations and infrastructure safe speed limits (see below), and defining a dedicated, funded program to identify priority locations for change and implement interventions are keeping the the necessary changes. public safe Speed limits need to be adjusted. As noted above, urban speed limits are generally too high in Pacific Island countries, and in some countries, rural speed limits are also too high. 30 km/h speed limits are needed where there is vulnerable road user activity (including school roads, city center roads, mobility hubs/interchanges, residential, commercial, and service roads). Speed limits need to be reviewed in all Pacific Island countries to ensure that they are set at safe speed levels that account for all road users, especially the most vulnerable. Measures for speed compliance are needed. This includes speed enforcement by police through use of speed measurement devices (radar or laser) and cameras (either manual or automated), and other interventions including infrastructure (for example, use of raised pedestrian crossings may not be currently permitted in some PICs). Capacity building is likely to be required, including providing information on the benefits of speed management, and the Speed limits need to be reviewed mechanisms for making improvements. in all Pacific Island countries to Lastly, data collection and establishing a monitoring framework are needed to set targets and monitor performance ensure that they are set at safe towards those. speed levels that account for all A national-level Speed Management Strategy, encompassing all of these issues is most desirable. Where a dedicated speed road users, especially the most strategy is not possible, individual but coordinated actions can vulnerable. be taken to meet these objectives. 27 Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds 1.4.2 Infrastructure / equipment investments A number of infrastructure and equipment investments are required to support safer speeds. Some of these are very low cost, while others require a more substantial investment. The lowest cost intervention is the installation of speed limit signs, indicating to road users the maximum speeds that apply, and facilitating enforcement by police where required. In some cases, speed limit signs alone can have a significant safety benefit. However, in other cases, the speed limit will need to be supported by other measures. Gateway treatments, especially at rural villages, and locations where there is increased vulnerable road user activity, are highly effective and can be low cost. These require some additional signs, as well as road markings to give the Cycle lane impression of narrowed lanes. More substantive gateways can include constructed islands to reinforce this narrowing. This intervention has been shown to be very cost-effective, with significant reductions in speed and improvements in safety. Other interventions require more substantial investments. These are still highly cost-effective and greater use of these interventions is needed to ensure road environments better Footpaths match the safe speed, thereby ensuring road user compliance. Measures identified above include: • Footpaths and cycle lanes • Roundabouts and raised intersections • Raised pedestrian crossings hump • Narrowing of intersections • More extensive use of other traffic calming measures, such as humps. Given the higher cost for some of these interventions, there is a requirement to take a risk-based approach for locations where they should be used. This typically includes locations where there is higher crash risk due to speed, such as near schools, markets, health facilities and places of worship. As well as these infrastructure interventions, additional enforcement equipment is also likely to bring substantive benefits. This includes speed detection devices (radar or laser) and speed cameras. Similarly, provision of in-vehicle speed monitoring systems is likely to bring benefits. The cost for such equipment is often carried by the private sector, and so little investment is required by government. Given some of these interventions are likely to be new, a phased approach may be required for introduction, both in order to gain the appropriate experience in installation, but also to reassure the public (and decision makers) about their use. This can include application of new interventions through pilot or trial projects, as is explained in more detail in the Tactical Urbanism chapter. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 28 1.4.3 Institutional / industry strengthening Training and capacity building will be required to improve speed management. This includes raising awareness about the importance of the Safe System approach, and on speed management, including the most effective interventions to use. This capacity building is required to counter some of the myths (identified above), which often act as barriers to change. The following strengthening is required: • Information for decision makers and practitioners on the Safe System approach, and the importance of speed management and its likely benefits, as well as the most effective interventions • Training for police in effective enforcement tactics • Information for engineers and other practitioners on setting speed limits and effective infrastructure solutions that can be used to manage speeds. In addition, information is required for the public to highlight the importance of this speed issue, as well as the reasons different interventions are used. 1.4.4 Behavior changes interventions As discussed above, behavior change through engagement is required for decision makers, practitioners, but also members of the public. This includes greater knowledge about the risks of speed, and the benefits that come from effective speed management. However, to change behavior, broader activities are required. Campaigns and education are often used to facilitate a movement to safer speeds, but as identified above, some interventions are more effective than others. The following approaches are known to be effective (GRSF, 2020c): • Providing information to decision makers and members of the public regarding the risks from high speeds • Driver training regimes as part of obtaining a license, especially if this involves a Graduated License System21 • Use of infrastructure to support the speed limit that has been set (e.g., through traffic calming) • Use of enforcement and penalty regimes to reach high levels of compliance with speed limits, especially when enforcement is well-publicized through a campaign. Campaigns on their own have little impact on behavior change. It is unrealistic to expect an advert or sign to result in a change in behavior when it comes to speed. The research is very clear on this issue (GRSF, 2020c). Post-license training has also been found not to be effective when it comes to changing driver behavior regarding speed. School based training is also unlikely to result in long term change in driver behavior around speed. Although it might raise awareness of risk, research has found that this does not translate into safer driving behavior, and there are even cases where such training increases risk due to driver over-confidence in their own driving abilities (GRSF, 2020c). Based on this knowledge, it is recommended to inform decision makers, practitioners, and the public about the risks of speed, but that infrastructure and enforcement be used to change the behavior of road users. 21. A graduated licensing system (GLS) provides a staged approach for new drivers or riders. It typically involves greater restrictions for new drivers, such as limitations on passengers and types of vehicles used, and zero tolerance for alcohol use. It often also involves an extended period of fully supervised driving. 29 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Strategy 2 Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Author: Bram Van Ooijen and John Lieswyn Bram van Ooijen is an urban transport specialist with 18 years of experience in designing streets for active mobility and parking management, predominantly in Asia. His key expertise lies in street design, bicycle networks, greenways, bus-rapid transit corridor design, low-emission zones, parking policy and management, and transit-oriented development. Bram is the former lead for the Non- motorized Transport and Transportation Demand Management divisions at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy China. John Lieswyn is the Director and Principal Transportation Planner at ViaStrada and Chair of the Transportation Group New Zealand. John develops bicycle and pedestrian master plans, plans and designs cycling infrastructure, and undertakes all types of transportation research and traffic studies. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 30 2.1 Abstract Facilities for people on foot, bicycles, or micromobility are given limited emphasis or priority in Pacific Island Cities. Roads and streets in the Pacific favor motor vehicle occupants over other road users. Rather than giving exclusive priority to mixed traffic, streets must be designed for all road users, and give priority to pedestrians, cyclists, micromobility users and bus passengers. This is especially important in town centers, near and along routes to schools and markets, and other routes with large pedestrian numbers. This frequently includes the main road linking villages to towns, markets, or transport depots. Cars will remain an important part of the street mix, but more space and better infrastructure must be dedicated to footpaths, bicycle lanes and bus priority. Moreover, basic facilities such as signs and pavement markings have outsized importance to safety and must be maintained and/or replaced regularly. To cater to pedestrians, improvements are needed to footpaths, intersections, crossings, landscaping, and amenities. Bicycle lane networks can provide safe and convenient corridors for people on bicycles. Streets should be judged by their capacity to move people safely and comfortably via multiple modes of transport. Such streets will meet a wider range of mobility needs and contribute to public health and safety, quality of life, environmental and economic sustainability, and social equity. 2.2 Issues and opportunities 2.2.1 Overview and the need for change Past and current road development in the Pacific region focuses on providing increased capacity for private, motorized vehicles, trucks, and buses with pedestrians and cyclists often forced to use the same road space (defined as mixed traffic herewith). Facilities for pedestrians, people on foot, biking or using micromobility22 are given limited emphasis or priority. As a result, streets on Pacific islands favor motor vehicle drivers. Examples of this are wide mixed traffic lanes that make motor vehicle drivers comfortable traveling at dangerously high speeds (refer to Roads-For-Life Framework discussion, Strategy 1); large radii at intersections allowing high-speed turning; and allocation or road space to on-street parking spaces instead of facilities for vulnerable road users. In contrast, footpaths are narrow, lacking, and/or frequently obstructed forcing pedestrians into mixed traffic, road crossings are missing or unsafe, and cycling facilities are non-existent in the region except for modest, recent installations (i.e., short corridors on Suva, Fiji). Figures 17 and 18 show typical urban roads in the Pacific. Figure 17: Airport Road in Tongatapu. Figure 18: Hibiscus Avenue in Honiara. It is designed for mixed traffic, leaving little space Despite available space, footpaths were not built on for walking. Power lines are located on the footpath, Honiara’s Hibiscus Avenue, leaving pedestrians walking minimizing the footpath width. on the unpaved road shoulder 22. NZTA Research Report 674 amalgamates SAE and NZTA legislative definitions to define micromobility as small, electrically powered devices. 31 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Partly due to streets being primarily designed for cars, car use has seen a sharp increase in recent years. This leads to higher direct and indirect costs of mobility to household incomes, rising traffic congestion, CO2 emissions, noise and air pollution and road safety consequences, as described in earlier chapters. These impacts propel a self-reinforcing cycle of automobility shown in Figure 19. An alternative approach, shown in Figure 20, builds new transportation infrastructure only after addressing land use, encouraging sustainable modes, and managing demand. Figure 19: Cycle of automobile dependency. Figure 20: Hierarchy of interventions. Intergrate transport and land use Car-oriented Start street design here Encourage more sustainable modes Poor conditions for Congestion pollution walking, cycling Better manage existing roads and crashes and buses Traveler information More people Build new Only use this if driving cars infrastructure prior options do not work Source: IHT and Luca Ware, 2024 As congestion increases, the usual intervention is to build more or wider roads. However, land use policy and encouraging and providing for sustainable (active and public) modes of transport are far more effective at addressing congestion reduction, environmental, health and social goals – and cost less too (Litman, n.d.). This is because building roads induces more traffic and ultimately does not improve accessibility (ibid). Rather than prioritizing mixed traffic, streets (especially in town centers) must be designed for all road users, including pedestrians, bicyclists, and bus passengers. Figure 21 shows a hierarchy of road users based on the lowest environmental and social cost forms of mobility, while Figure 22 shows the risk to safety posed by various modes of transport. The figures illustrate the challenge of providing a safe and comfortable environment for vulnerable road users. Streets should not only be judged by their traffic capacity, but also on criteria such as public health and safety, quality of life, environmental and economic sustainability, and social equity (NZ Transport Agency 2023). Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 32 Figure 21: Hierarchy of road users based on the lowest Figure 22: Road user hierarchy based on environmental and social cost forms of mobility. safety impact. 1. Pedestrians Road users who can do the greatest harm have the greatest responsibilities to reduce the danger or the threat they may have pose to other road users. 2. Cyclists and Transit Riders 3. People Doing Business and Providing City Services 4. People in Personal Motorized Vehicles Source: Department for Transport UK Source: GDCI There are numerous reasons why streets should cater better to pedestrians, cyclists, and other micromobility users: • Walking is the most inclusive mode of transport: nearly everyone can walk (or roll), requires no investment and is free to use. • Most trips to school, markets, shops, and restaurants are short-distance and are already done on foot. • Walking benefits health, mood, happiness and reduces anxiety. For example, physical inactivity accounts for almost 10% of New Zealand’s annual deaths (Waka Kotahi, 2023). With PICs topping the global obesity rates per capita, inactivity is likewise expected to be a major contributing factor to PIC annual deaths. • Every bus passenger walks to and from bus stops, so improved walking infrastructure supports increased public transit ridership. • Improved appeal to (international) visitors, who depend more on public transport and active mobility, and will spend more time and money when infrastructure is suitable for exploring (Clave, 2019; UN World Tourism Organization, 2019; Hall & Ram, 2019). Many Pacific states rely heavily on tourism, which is critically dependent on transport (Baker & Campbell, 2021). • Walking and cycling infrastructure is relatively quick and cheap to build, operate and maintain. • Multimodal streets23 serve more people. Walking is the most space-efficient mode of transport, three times higher than buses and six times higher than cars24 (Bell, 2007; GDCI 2022). One car takes up the same space as five people cycling, and 12 bicycles can fit in the same space as one parked car (Transport for London, n.d.) • Active mode infrastructure projects have high economic benefit to cost ratios of up to 10:1 and an average across the UK case studies of 5:1 (Department for Transport, 2015) greater than many highway projects that achieve less than 3:1 (Sustrans, 2006). 23. Multimodal streets (aka “Complete Streets”) are designed for all road users, not just people in motor vehicles 24. There are many metrics for space efficiency; the Urban Street Design Guide lists a 3.0 m wide mixed traffic lane for private cars as providing for up to 1,600 people per hour, with frequent buses as providing for up to 2,800 people per hour while a 3.0 m wide sidewalk can carry up to 9,000 people per hour. 33 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility • Most businesses benefit more from people who walk and cycle than those who drive (NZTA, 2020) • When services and amenities are available locally, walking trips often replace a longer (and more costly) motorized trip to a shopping center further away (Litman, 2018) • Streets with better facilities for walking and cycling lead to road safety improvements with fewer fatalities. • Walking and cycling does not cause air pollution, noise pollution and CO2 emissions. • Quality of life rankings consistently show bike-friendly cities at the top (NZTA, 2016). 2.2.2 Current conditions With a few exceptions in the region, most streets in the Pacific share the same issues illustrated in Figures 23-28: • lack of footpaths, forcing pedestrians to use the (commonly narrow and unpaved) road shoulder. After rain, conditions are muddy, slippery and dangerous • narrow footpaths, in design and/or due to obstacles such as power lines and streetlights • encroachment onto footpaths by shops, restaurants, vendors and/or illegal car parking • poor intersection design, with long crossings and high-speed traffic • lack of safe mid-block road crossings or accessibility ramps • lack of cycling facilities: bicycle lanes, bicycle parking and bicycle sharing systems • poorly lit streets, causing unsafe conditions in the evening, especially for women and children • lack of protection against sun and rain • lack of street furniture and amenities Figure 23: Footpaths are unpaved and discontinuous Figure 24: In South Tarawa, with no footpaths available, through building entrances in South Tarawa, Kiribati. students walk on the road. Figure 25: Footpath in Suva, Fiji is mostly blocked by Figure 26: Without a footpath network, pedestrians in a food vendor. The footpath pavement causes a tripping Honiara are left walking on the streets. hazard. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 34 Figure 27: Intersections lack pedestrian crossing Figure 28: Teachers run across to reach the school facilities in Tongatapu, Tonga. entrance in Tongatapu, Tonga. Far more pedestrians than cars: an example from Honiara’s Central Market Honiara’s Central Market is a 977 pedestrians passed in popular destination, as well as a western (641) and eastern (336) hub for bus travel directions Only 19% of road space is dedicated A 10-minute survey was conducted to footpaths, with 67% dedicated at 4pm on 27 February 2024 to traffic (remainder to median & landscaping) 375 pedestrians crossed the road in 451 vehicles passed in western (216) 10 minutes, which is almost as many and eastern (235) directions as the number of vehicles travelling along the road in the same time period 35 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility 2.2.3 Progress on street design for active mobility in the Pacific region Despite most streets in the Pacific region having inadequate pedestrian and bicyclist facilities, some cities have made, or are planning improvements in some areas. (a) Nadi, Fiji In 2019, large improvements were made on Queens Road, the commercial street in the heart of downtown Nadi, Fiji as shown in Figure 29. The street was changed to a single, southern direction, and more space dedicated to improving walkability. Signalized pedestrian crossings were installed at multiple locations and footpath extensions created to facilitate shorter and safer pedestrian crossings, while leaving the existing drainage facilities operational. Public seating with shade, through trees and suspended nets were installed. A paid on-street parking system with parking meters was opened to increase turnover and availability of parking spaces. Figure 29: Queens Road in Nadi. Parking is removed at a pedestrian crossing on Nadi’s Existing drainage measures are untouched with Queens Road and replaced with public seating and a a gap left between the footpath and footpath tree. This measure shortens the crossing, improving extension. The covered arcade protects pedestrians pedestrian safety. against rain and sun. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 36 (b) Nouméa, New Caledonia Nouméa, the capitol of New Caledonia, recently invested in a large network of bicycle lanes throughout the city. 28 kilometers are operational, with another 9 kilometers planned to open in 2024. A network of 80 kilometers is planned by 2040. Bicycle lanes in the historic downtown feature segregated bicycle tracks, on-street bicycle lanes and shared streets with traffic or footpaths. Greenway promenades along the seafront were implemented, paired with trees, fitness equipment and other amenities to serve locals and tourists. Car-free days are held every first Sunday of the month from 8am to 6pm to allow citizens to walk, ride and play on the four streets around the main city square. A cycle information guide is developed for citizens and bicycles may be brought onto the buses. Nouméa’s bus rapid transit system, completed in 2019, is the only in the Pacific region and includes a transit mall through the city center on Rue d’Austerlitz. The push for the promotion of sustainable transport is a citywide effort to decrease private car use from their 80.6% modal share in 2013. Figure 30: Street and intersection designs in Figure 31: Nouméa’s cycle network includes Downtown Nouméa. scenic, seaside greenways. Source: Google Streetview Source: Facebook Nouméa ma ville It features compact, raised intersections with short pedestrian crossings, bollards, and curb bulb-outs. A transit mall provides easy bus access to the city. Upgrades to the main road through South Tarawa, Kiribati from the international airport to Betio opened in 2018. The US$73 million Kiribati Road Rehabilitation Project, jointly financed by the Government of Kiribati, Asian Development Bank, World Bank, Pacific Regional Infrastructure Facility and the Australia–Pacific Islands Partnership Trust Fund included improvements to the corridor traversing the atoll. The road provides mixed traffic with one lane in each direction, as well as walkways on both sides of the road. Along the more populated sections of the road, mixed traffic and pedestrians are separated with intermittent concrete curbs that allow run-off water to pass uninterrupted. This is a quick and cost-effective construction method to construct pedestrian facilities, in contrast to conventional raised footpaths with underlying drainage facilities. In places where pedestrian volumes are lower, the footpath is painted but not physically separated. Speed tables, some with pedestrian zebra crossings, are placed along the entire corridor, to encourage compliance with the 40 km/h speed limit in built-up areas. Bus shelters are provided at some of the bus stops. 37 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility While the Kiribati Road Rehabilitation Project greatly improved the street design for all road users between Bairiki and the international airport, the same cannot be said for the Betio area sections. The rehabilitation of paved roads in Betio, the westernmost area of Tarawa, was added to the scope near the end of the project. Due to time pressure, the Betio road sections were simply resurfaced and did not include any walkability improvements. Unlike the rest of the South Tarawa main road, which has a 7-meter-wide road cross-section, the Betio area has a 9-meter road cross-section, leading to speeding and (illegal) parking issues. The footpaths in Betio are narrow, or non-existent, and the road mostly lacks traffic calming measures. This was a design error given that the Betio area is the most densely populated area on the island, with more than 26 percent and 32 percent of South Tarawa’s population live within 1km and 3km of the geographic center, respectively, as shown in in Figure 32. With such high density, the street design in Betio should prioritize the safety of pedestrians. Figure 32: Population Distribution in Betio. Map data © OpenStreetMap contributors, Microsoft, Facebook, Inc. and its a liates, Esri Community Maps contributors, Map layer by Esri 3 32% km 1 26% km Betio Main Road IBRD 47895 | Bairiki MARCH 2024 This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Source: 2022 WorldPop data Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 38 Figure 33: Intermittent curbs in South Tarawa. Figure 34: 40 km/h zone in South Tarawa. Intermittent curbs on the main road keep traffic off Walkways are painted along mixed traffic lanes. The 40 pedestrian walkway. km/h zone is enforced with speed tables. Figure 35: Numerous speed tables keep traffic Figure 36: Students walk from school to the bus stop speeds low. in Bairiki. 39 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility 2.2 How to create livable streets Not all streets are the same, so different design principles should be used for different kinds of streets. This report follows the principle that streets are public spaces for people as well as corridors for movement (GDCI, 2023). The old-fashioned functional classification of streets categorized only according to their ability to move traffic and provide vehicular access is not fit for purpose in the Pacific. Following the Roads-for-Life framework for urban streets, the most common streets in Pacific cities can be classified into the three road classes below. • Urban main roads. These roads provide mobility and connect with the wider transport network, while accommodating for a high presence of vulnerable road users, on-road activity and public life. In the Pacific context, these are the main roads through cities that connect neighborhoods and provide connectivity to other cities. Key destinations such as markets, (government) offices, schools and transport hubs are often found along these roads. These roads are dense and vibrant places with a high demand for people movement. Priorities for these roads include separated facilities for pedestrians and cyclists, public transport priority, safe intersections and crossings, traffic calming measures in busy areas and schools, and strict enforcement of (illegal) parking. Figure 37 shows how such a street design would be applied on Airport Road in Tongatapu.. • Main Streets are road spaces where people gather, live, play and/or work on or next to the road and where people are likely to cross. These streets feature shops, restaurants, schools, residences and offices. They have less traffic and lower traffic speeds. Priorities for these roads include lower speed limits, traffic calming measures, wide footpaths, public spaces and amenities and some parking spaces. Figure 38 and Figure 39 show examples of how such a Main Street could look in Honiara. • Local Streets, on the other hand, provide quiet and safe residential access for all ages and abilities and foster community spirit and pride. Traffic calming, road sharing and play spaces are important features of these streets. Figure 40 shows how local street in Honiara could be designed following these principles. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 40 Figure 37: Rendering of Tongatapu’s Airport Road (an Urban Main Road), connecting the airport and southern suburbs to the city center. Bicycle lanes can be added on both sides of the street, without impacting traffic flows, by using the road shoulder currently only used for occasional, illegal parking. The road can continue to function as a single lane in both directions, and the narrowing of lanes will naturally indicate safer traffic speeds. The bicycle lane is protected from motorized traffic through intermittent, concrete blocks that allow run-off water to flow into existing drainage facilities. The design shows another possibility of implementing a bioswale strip that absorbs the run-off water and feeds a row of trees and plants, which enhance the streetscape and provide shade to both cyclists and pedestrians. Seating and a waste bin are added to the side of the footpath. Figure 38: Rendering of Honiara’s Hibiscus Avenue (a Main Street). Honiara’s Hibiscus Avenue is a two-lane, bidirectional road, lined with informal, perpendicular parking. While a commercial street, it has lost its shopping and commercial appeal, partly due to poor road conditions, haphazard parking and lack of walking facilities and visual appeal. A possible solution is the creation of a street for all modes of transport. Wide footpaths and a bicycle lane can be implemented on both sides of the street, while two lanes and (parallel) parking can remain. Bicycle parking, trees, public seating, a raised pedestrian crossing and bollards add to the safe and comfortable streetscape. 41 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Figure 39: Rendering of Honiara’s China Town (a Main Street). Honiara’s China Town is planned for redevelopment. Chung Wah Road, one of the main streets in the neighborhood, is potholed, sees little traffic, and could be turned into an attractive public space, while retaining its traffic function. Natural stone paving and road markings indicate a ‘shared road’ concept on a narrowed down road. Footpaths are widened on both sides, physically segregated from traffic with trees, benches, waste bins and bicycle parking. A kid’s playground is suggested on the unused space at the intersection with China Town Road, shown at the left. Figure 40: Rendering of Honiara’s Kukute Street (a Local Street). Honiara’s China Town is planned for redevelopment. Chung Wah Road, one of the main streets in the neighborhood, is potholed, sees little traffic, and could be turned into an attractive public space, while retaining its traffic function. Natural stone paving and road markings indicate a ‘shared road’ concept on a narrowed down road. Footpaths are widened on both sides, physically segregated from traffic with trees, benches, waste bins and bicycle parking. A kid’s playground is suggested on the unused space at the intersection with China Town Road, shown at the left. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 42 2.3.1 Infrastructure design elements Streets in Pacific towns have often been designed with redundancy, leaving vacant space along road shoulders, using excessively wide mixed traffic lanes, or allowing unnecessary, informal on-street parking. This road space can be used to improve walking and cycling facilities. Recommended design improvements are outlined below for each of these infrastructure categories: • Footpaths • Bicycle networks • Intersections and crossings • Street furniture and amenities • Active Mobility (recreation) corridors Recommended street design manuals and guides that provide detailed design recommendations are shown below. In particular, the Global Street Design Guide (2016) is an indispensable reference guide that should be on the desk of every Pacific urban space designer. Global Street Design Guide, by the Global Designing Cities Initiative (2016) – practical guide on the planning and design of streets, infrastructure elements and best practice examples. https://globaldesigningcities.org/publication/global-street-design-guide/ Improving Accessibility in Transport by PRIF (2020) – Design guidelines and checklists to enhance accessibility in the transport sector and built environment in Pacific countries. https://www.theprif.org/document/regional/transport/improving-accessibility- transport-infrastructure-projects-pacific Pedestrian Network Guidance, website by Waka Kotahi, New Zealand’s Transport Agency – detailed guidance on pedestrian facility planning, design, implementation, case studies and more. https://www.nzta.govt.nz/walking-cycling-and-public-transport/walking/ walking-standards-and-guidelines/pedestrian-network-guidance/ Cycling Network Guidance, website by Waka Kotahi, New Zealand’s Transport Agency – detailed guidance on cycle network planning, facility design and planning and design support https://www.nzta.govt.nz/walking-cycling-and-public-transport/cycling/ cycling-standards-and-guidance/cycling-network-guidance/ 43 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility (a) Footpaths Footpaths provide safe pedestrian movement and access and serve as public space. Safe, accessible, unobstructed, well-maintained, and sufficiently wide footpaths are needed along all streets. In the Pacific region, extra attention is required to the design and management of obstructions to footpaths (such as power lines, parking, encroachments, etc.), continuity of footpaths through building entrances (i.e., driveways) and the provision of ramps and tactile footpath surfaces to communicate the edge of the footpath to those with impaired vision. In particular, the Global Street Design Guide gives excellent guidance on footpath geometry. Guidance on the installation of Tactile Ground Surface Indicators (TGSI) for the vision impaired pedestrian may be found in New Zealand Road and Traffic Standards 14 (i.e., RTS 14) Guidelines for facilities for blind and vision impaired pedestrians (NZTA, 2015).25 Figure 41: Wide footpaths in Nouméa (New Caledonia). Figure 42: Wide footpaths in Nadi (Fiji). Source: Friedl (2015) All utilities are located along the curb to provide Footpath extensions are applied at the pedestrian crossing. pedestrians with a consistent right-of-way. 25. https://www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/resources/road-traffic-standards/docs/rts-14.pdf. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 44 (b) Bicycle networks Other than Nouméa (New Caledonia) and a small section in Suva (Fiji), bicycle infrastructure is missing in the Pacific region. In order to promote cycling as a viable transportation option, a comprehensive network of safe and convenient cycling facilities must be designed. A network would likely consist of a combination of segregated bicycle tracks, on-street bicycle lanes, mixed pedestrian-bicycle paths and intersection provisions. Amenities such as bicycle parking stands, maps, and bicycle sharing systems further improve convenience of cycling. More information on planning and design of cycling facilities is found in the suggested street design manuals. In particular, the Global Street Design Guide has excellent guidance on minimum widths to adopt for different types of cycling facilities. Figure 43: Suva’s new bicycle lane along Queen Figure 44: Separated bicycle path along the Elizabeth Drive . waterfront in Nouméa (New Caledonia). Nouméa (New Caledonia) bicycle lane is located adjacent Source: Friedl (2015) to the footpath and separated from general traffic with a green belt. Figure 45: In Nuku’alofa (Tonga, Left) and Apia (Samoa, Right). Map data © OpenStreetMap contributors, Microsoft, Facebook, Inc. and its a liates, Esri Community Maps contributors, Map layer by Esri IBRD 47893 MARCH 202 This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Group. The boundaries, colors, Map data © OpenStreetMap contributors, Microsoft, Facebook, Inc. and its a liates, Esri Community Maps denominations and any other contributors, Map layer by Esri information shown on this map imply, on the part of the World Group, any judgment on the leg 3 3 76% status of any territory, or any km 83% km endorsement or acceptance of boundaries. Puipa'a Makaha'a Hakau Mounu Saina Mulinu'u Pangaimotu 1 1 18% km 19% Manima km Vaigaga Puke Sogi Hōfoa Kolomotu'a Nukuʻalofa Hala Hihifo Kolofo'ou Hal a Vun Vaiusu a Fugalei Vailoa Lepea Apia Ma'ufanga Tukutonga Holohiufi Vaimoso Vini Malifa Talimatau Ifiifi Street Tulaele M Haveluloto Fagali'i ai Popua Lotopa n Tuanaimato Ea d Vaivase-Tai st Roa Motootua C a e'e oa as st Ro p Pa Tofoa ad Sinamoga Mata ki 'Eua Ululoloa au ah Papauta Vailele Let ' fa u Magiagi Ta Nafanua la Alafua Ha Nukuhetulu Tanumaleko Folaha Tuaefu IBRDflat Pea83 percent and 76 percent of the urban population is within a 15 minute (3km), bicycle ride of the city centers of Se'ese'e 47891 | Moamoa MARCH 2024 Vailima Tongatapu and Apia. If a safe and convenient built environment for cycling were established, over time it is feasible that This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, Tokomololo many more people may cycle. This would help reduce the crippling peak hour congestion that plagues both cities, among denominations and any other Avele information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal Ha'ateihopositive benefits. other status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Longoteme 45 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility (c) Intersections and crossings When pedestrians and cyclists meet traffic at intersections and mid-block crossings, safe and convenient crossing facilities are mandatory. Low traffic speeds (less than 30km/h), minimal crossings distances, sufficient lighting and road markings are required. Pedestrian signals, refuge islands, raised intersections, roundabouts, footpath extensions, reduced turning radii, reduced traffic lane widths and shade provision should all be considered. The Global Street Design Guide intersection design strategies should be followed. Additional information on planning and design of intersections and crossings can also be found in NZTA’s Urban Street Design Guide;26 Pedestrian Network Guidance and Cycling Network Guidance under section 2.3.1 of this Guide; and in Part 4 of the New Zealand Traffic Control Devices Manual, which can be accessed free online.27 Figure 46: Intersection in Honiara. The intersection has no provision for pedestrians despite traffic volume being relatively high. 26. https://at.govt.nz/media/1987453/urban-street-and-road-design-guide.pdf. 26. https://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/traffic-control-devices-manual/. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 46 Figure 47: Example of an intersection design. Source: Global Designing Cities Initiative (2016) Example of an intersection design with bicycle lanes (with buffers from parking at 3), pedestrian crossings, curb ramps, and raised footpaths at the side streets (at 1). An advanced stop box for bicycles prioritizes people on bicycles on the side street (at 2). Figure 48: Example of a raised intersection design. Source: Global Designing Cities Initiative (2016) Example of a raised intersection design (at 1), where traffic slows down before entering the intersection, the turns are tight and slow (at 2 and 3), bollards protect the footpath against vehicles entering (at 4), and landscaping and trees are added. 47 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Sufficient pedestrian crossings are needed at mid-block locations near high-demand pedestrian destinations such as schools, markets and commercial areas. Traffic speeds must be lowered (in most cases to less than 30km/h) through raised pedestrian crossings, speed bumps, signalized crossings, traffic lane narrowing, pinch points, diverters and/or other traffic calming measures. Examples are shown in Figures below, and in Strategy 1 on Safe Speeds. Figure 49: Tau Maru Road in Suva. Figure 50: Mendana Avenue in Honiara. The grass worn away clearly demonstrates the need for a Pedestrians run for their lives crossing Mendana Avenue mid-block crossing on Tau Maru Road in Suva. in Honiara. Figure 51: Sketch of a crossing in Honiara (option 1). Figure 52: Sketch of a crossing in Honiara (option 2). The 9-meter-wide road is narrowed to 6 meters through A 2.5-meter pedestrian refuge island is installed to the building out of the footpaths, and the installation of a ensure safer crossing. raised crosswalk that slows passing traffic. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 48 Besides intersection and crossing design issues, there are operational issues as well. Traffic signals heavily favor mixed traffic, leaving pedestrians to wait in sun and rain for long durations. Longer and more frequent pedestrian signal phases are needed to reduce pedestrian delays at intersections. Figure 53: : Pedestrian (yellow) and traffic (red) Figure 54: : Traffic signals prioritize traffic, volumes outside the Suva Morning Market awarding 84% of time, to only 30% of people passing by this location. Phase A: 81 seconds 17.3 of people Green 61% of the time Traffic signal priority: an example from Suva, Fiji Suva’s Morning Market is a popular destination, as well as a hub for bus travel Phase B: 30 seconds 2.2% of people Green 23% of A 5-minute survey was conducted at the time. 4:40pm on 20 May 2024 77 vehicles passed on this one-way street 316 pedestrians crossed the street at three locations Only 16% of the traffic signal phase Phase C: 21 seconds allowed for pedestrians crossing (80.4% of 80.4% of people Green people), while traffic (19.6% of people) had 16% of the time. priority 84% of the time Pedestrians are expected to wait for nearly 2 minutes, which is very long, especially considering the hot and rainy conditions 49 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility (d) Street furniture and amenities Street furniture and amenities enhance the walking and cycling environment and improve the public space outside buildings. Streetlights are required to provide safe walking conditions at night, especially for vulnerable groups. Trees and landscaping enhance the streetscape and provide much-needed protection from sun and rain. Public seating provides pedestrians with resting opportunities and places to enjoy the streets. For many elderly, seating can offer the confidence to leave their homes knowing they will have a place to sit and rest. For new mothers, public seating provides a place to sit and feed a baby. Wayfinding and signs help residents find bus stops and popular destinations, while providing visitors with guidance in navigating the city. Waste bins assist in reducing solid waste pollution. Public toilets are crucial especially for children and older citizens and visitors. Water fountains should be considered whenever possible and should be designed to enable the filling of bottles. Bioswales, rain gardens and permeable pavements can be used to separate footpaths from traffic, absorb run-off water and reduce flooding risks, reduce urban heat, and improve air, water and soil quality. Figure 55: Honiara’s Mendana Avenue Figure 56: Honiara’s Vara Road Honiara’s Mendana Avenue includes a small section with Honiara’s Vara Road recently saw the implementation of landscaping separating the footpath from mixed traffic. planting along an open drain. Adjacent property owners Inlets feed the landscaping with run-off water. are now responsible for upkeep of the planting. Figure 57: Public seating in Nadi Figure 58: Public seating in Solomon Islands Plants provide shade above public seating in Nadi (Fiji). Public seating with trees and landscaping are popular The building facade provides shelter from sun and rain. in Honiara (Solomon Islands). Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 50 More information on planning and design of street furniture is found on the NZTA’s Pedestrian Network Guidance web page on supporting infrastructure, the end of trip facilities for cycling and micromobility in the Cycling Network Guidance, the NZTA Urban Street Design Guide, Global Street Design Guide and Designing Streets for Kids. (e) Active Mobility Corridors Beside the improvement of existing streets, other corridors for walking and cycling can be developed. With almost all Pacific Island cities located along the ocean, seafront promenades are recommended. Besides walking and cycling paths and amenities, promenades can provide places for sports, picnics, meetings, markets, and events. These spaces become major attractions for both local citizens and tourists and can spur commercial development. Figure 59: Honiara’s seafront. Figure 60: Seafront in Nuku’alofa. Honiara’s seafront has large potential for a recreational Seafront boulevard with footpath, grass and public boulevard with commercial developments, where people seating in Nuku’alofa (Tonga). Bicycle lanes, more trees, can walk, cycle, meet, play, and relax. Most of the seaside and restaurants and shops would further enhance the is currently inaccessible to the public. experience for visitors. Pedestrian streets can be considered in the heart of commercial areas to provide safe and comfortable streets for leisure. Restaurants, shops and vendors will likely receive more local and international customers. Pedestrian streets could be implemented permanently or trialed as evening street closures or Saturday morning markets. Recently, (online) media are pleading to pedestrianize Cumming Street in Suva, Fiji, with a motion at the City Council under review. A large number of shoppers and shopkeepers believe that a pedestrian street could help make this well-known street a better shopping hub (Vunileba, 2024). Figure 61: Hardware Lane in Melbourne. Figure 62: Nouméa’s streets. Source: iStock Photos / Getty Images (2022) Source: Nouméa ma ville (n.d.) Hardware Lane in Melbourne turned into a popular dining One Sunday a month, Nouméa’s streets around Place des street when changed to a pedestrian mall. Cocotiers turn into open streets where cars are banned. 51 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Squares, plazas and small parks can be created and enhanced to provide spaces for residents and visitors to meet, play and exercise. Figure 63: Children playground in Betio. Figure 64: Public square in Tongatapu. New children playground in Betio, Tarawa opened in 2024. A multipurpose public square in Tongatapu provides space for people to gather, relax and engage in sports and cultural activities. A cross-fit session is ongoing. (f) Bicycle parking At present there are no requirements, standards, or guidelines for bicycle and micromobility parking in the PICs. Fortunately, there is good guidance available on bicycle and micromobility parking internationally. New Zealand has a recent planning and design guide that was informed by an international literature review and direct experience with a large national rollout of additional parking to support the decade of infrastructure building associated with the New Zealand Urban Cycleways Programme (NZTA, 2022). Bicycle and micromobility parking should be treated with at least as much importance and respect as car parking. The reasons for this include: • If a shift from car dependency is to succeed, people will need safe places to store their bicycles and kick scooters to use new cycleway infrastructure. • Cycle parking is much more space efficient and affordable than car parking. Ten or more cycles can fit in the same space as one car. Cycle parking should be appropriate for different trips and types of users be plentiful; and well-located and maintained. Figure 65: Sheffield bicycle stands with tapping rails. Figure 66: A hoop welded to existing street signs is a low-cost way to provide more cycle parking. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 52 2.4 Recommendations There are many policy reforms, infrastructure investments and institutional capacity building measures that can be taken to improve street designs to incentivize walking, cycling and micromobility. Some of the key actions are shown below. 2.4.1 Policy reforms Transportation planning. Currently, transport planning documents for Pacific cities typically heavily emphasize development of new roads and resurfacing of existing roads. Transportation and infrastructure plans give little to no emphasis to the improvement of facilities for active mobility modes. Projects for the improvement of walking and cycling need to be prioritized in project pipelines, whether as standalone projects, or as part of every road development project. Pedestrian and cycling chapters need to be included in transportation plans and considered in infrastructure investment plans. Cities should have a network development plan for walking and cycling, ensuring future projects are aligned in support of this longer term, bigger picture vision. Street design standards. Currently, design standards used for Pacific streets often give poor guidance on proper design for active mobility modes. Pacific design standards are commonly based off old-fashioned and outdated British, United States, Australian and New Zealand design standards which are no longer used in those countries or are in the process of being reformed to be more people-centric and less car-centric. Local design guides as well as design guidance used in international development agencies projects typically strongly emphasize traffic priority over walking, cycling and public transport. For example, the Honiara Local Planning Scheme (2015) advises footpath widths of 2.0 meters, while vehicle lanes are 4.0 meters. In contrast, the street design manuals mentioned in this chapter (i.e., the Global Street Design Guide and others) suggest vehicle lanes in urban areas should not exceed 3.0-3.3 meters, and footpaths of 2.0 meters are a bare minimum, sufficient to only small pedestrian volumes. All future infrastructure development projects must adhere to international best practice on street design. Numerous international design guides are available for free and offer practical tools and lessons for modern street design. The following modern standards and guidelines are relevant: • 2016 Global Street Design Guide • 2020 Designing Streets for Kids • 2021 Austroads Guide to Road Design Part 6A: Paths for Walking and Cycling (link) • 2008 NZ Transport Agency Traffic Control Devices Manual (link) • 2024 NZ Transport Agency Pedestrian Network Guidance (link) • 2024 NZ Transport Agency Cycling Network Guidance (link) • 2024 NZ Transport Agency Public Transport Design Guide (link) • 2022 NZ Transport Agency Urban Street Design Guide (link) A full list of international bicycle design guidance documents is available at Bicycle Infrastructure Manuals online (link). 2.4.2 Infrastructure Investments Prioritize walking and cycling infrastructure in ongoing and future projects. All cities in the Pacific region are planning the development of new roads or resurfacing of existing roads. The inclusion of high-quality walking and cycling infrastructure in these projects is essential. Development partners, whether international development banks, international development agencies or bilateral government partners, have all signed international agreements on climate, road safety, and sustainable development. It is also their responsibility to use these principles in the shaping of the projects they finance, and they must ensure that all future road projects have better street design incorporated, and further enhancements are made to existing infrastructure. Pacific cities and development partners should review their current portfolio of infrastructure projects and ensure the proper inclusion of pedestrian and cycling facilities. Several key projects can be identified for improving walking and bicycling conditions: • Pedestrian improvements are required around schools, markets and city centers where pedestrian volumes are often highest, including upgrades to footpaths (creation, resurfacing, widening, removal of 53 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility obstructions), intersection and pedestrian crossings, landscaping, and amenities, possibly including bicycle networks and pedestrian streets. When urban design projects occur in city centers – i.e., to climate-proof infrastructure with drainage and water-sensitive urban design, or revitalize the retail shopping areas, improvements to pedestrian and cycling facilities should always be included in the project scope. • Safe, connected, and comfortable bicycling networks are recommended in most cities, including Tongatapu, Apia, Honiara and Suva. For example, in Tongatapu, a bicycle network can serve both locals who have a recent history and culture (albeit weakened) of cycling and visitors who arrive via cruise ships and air travel. Tongatapu is relatively compact and almost all destinations are within a few kilometers bicycle ride. Bicycle rental facilities are operational already. A bicycle sharing system could accelerate the uptake of cycling. Cycling facilities should be accompanied by bicycle parking stands, signage, and maintenance and repair facilities. Facilities should cater to electric (-assist) bicycles. Figure 67: A possible cycling network for Tongatapu, over a length of 59.5km. The bicycle corridor along Airport Road extends to the Airport. Map data © OpenStreetMap contributors, Microsoft, Facebook, Inc. and its a liates, Esri Community Maps contributors, Map layer by Esri SEGREGATED BI-DIRECTIONAL CYCLE TRACKS (34.58 km) GREENWAY LINE (5.28 km) CYCLEWAYS ADJACENT TO NEW FOOTPATHS (9.8 km) ROAD SHARING- SHARROWS (9.82 km) Makaha'a FUTURE ADB-FUNDED BRIDGE KEY INTERSECTION TREATMENTS Pangaimotu Manima Puke Kolomotu'a Hōfoa Nukuʻalofa Hal Hala Hihifo a Vun a Kolofo'ou Tukutonga Ma'ufanga Holohiufi Haveluloto Popua Tofoa Mata ki 'Eua au ah ' fa u Ta a al H Nukuhetulu Folaha Pea IBRD 48018 | APRIL 2024 This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, Tokomololo denominations and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal Ha'ateiho status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Longoteme Main corridors with segregated bicycle lanes are shown in black. Bicycle facilities on the blue and white dashed corridors are proposed to be alongside newly created footpaths. Pink corridors are proposed to be shared streets, where people on bicycles share the road with general traffic, where sharrows (road markings) and traffic calming measures suffice. Highlighted are the 26 most important intersections where improvements are needed for cyclists and pedestrians. A 30km/h speed zone is proposed to apply to all roads except for the main corridors, where segregated bicycles lanes would apply. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 54 Figure 68: Segregated, on-street Figure 69: Bicycle Lane at Figure 70: Shared streets. bicycle track. footpath level. Source: City of Sydney/Chris Southwood Blue and white dashed corridors in Source: Alison Hetherington (2019) (2023) Figure above. Pink corridors in Figure above. Black corridors in Figure above. • Improving public transport access on foot can enhance the door-to-door trip for bus passengers and lure more people onto buses. Cities must identify high-priority corridors for improvements, based on (existing and latent) pedestrian demand. Improvements may include footpath construction or improvement, shade structures, improved bus stops facilities, streetlights, public seating, landscaping, and signage. All cities engaged in public transportation improvements, currently and in future, must include bus stop access and egress into the scope of work. • Seaside promenades are currently lacking, discontinuous or of poor quality. When properly designed and maintained, promenades serve a multitude of purposes: they provide safe, convenient, and scenic corridors for walking and cycling, recreational possibilities for locals, tourist appeal for visitors, and opportunities for commercial developments such as restaurants, shops and vendors. Figure 71: Rendering of Fiji’s Bau Street near Flagstaff Plaza. Many streets in Suva are unnecessarily wide, leading to dangerously high traffic speeds and frequent illegal parking. There is space for the inclusion of a bi-directional bicycle lane, when narrowing the mixed traffic lanes, shown here outside Flagstaff Plaza on Bau Street. Trees provide shade, and continuous inlets allow run-off water to feed the trees and planting. A raised speed table improves crossing safety for pedestrians and cyclists. 55 Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility 2.4.3 Institutional Strengthening Local governments, with limited budgets, staff capacity and experience, can benefit from capacity building programs by international development partners who have more experience in the implementation of inclusive streets. In-house consultants with proper training on global best practices, who work with local staff on local projects on a daily basis can provide most value. On-site or remote workshops with international experts can further enhance this capacity building. International study tours to best practice projects in islands or small cities within the region (e.g., in New Caledonia, New Zealand, Australia, Japan, and Singapore) are another option. International conferences of interest include the New Zealand 2 Walk and Cycle Conference, the Australian Walking and Cycling Conference (Adelaide-based) the Asia Pacific Cycling Conference (Brisbane-based), Velo-city (global cycling conference) and the Walk21 conference (global walking conference). It is important to engage local stakeholders and communities in the planning and design process, through meetings, workshops, and consultations to gather feedback. The expertise and resources of possible partners (e.g., chamber of commerce, schools, hospitals, NGOs, bus and taxi companies, etc.) can also be leveraged to design better streets. Table 3 lists many free online resources that street designers and partners can use to empower themselves with global best practices. Table 3: Professional development resources on street design and related urban mobility concepts. Course Delivered by Cost Why attend / duration EIT Urban Mobility Academy Youtube Channel (300+ videos) European Institute of Innovation and European best practice Short and easy-to-follow videos that showcase Technology & Free 5-10 mins each online cutting-edge practices in urban mobility. Subscribe partners for regular updates. EIT Urban Mobility Online Short Courses 1. City Livability: The Intersections of Place, Mobility and Health 2. Creating Ethical and Sustainable Cities at the Local Level 3. Designing a Livable Neighbourhood: The Woonerf Concept 4. Electrification of Urban Mobility: How to Get it Right 5. Flexible Curbside Management 6. Insights into Gender Differences in Urban Transport 7. Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) explained 8. Sustainable Urban Logistics 9. The Effects of Covid-19 on Urban Mobility European Institute of Innovation and European best practice 10. Urban Mobility: Accessibility for All Free Technology & 1 to 4 hours each online 11. User Experience for Mobility and Public Space partners 12. Bringing Urban Nature into the Cities of Tomorrow 13. Active Mobility at the Heart of Transport Modelling 14. Demystifying Shared Mobility 15. Fostering Innovation in the Mobility Sector 16. Free Visualization Tools for Urban Mobility Planning 17. Superblocks: rethinking cities and urban space for citizens 18. Sustainable and Effective Parking Management in Cities 19. Understanding Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 56 Course Delivered by Cost Why attend / duration EIT Urban Mobility Online Long Courses 1. Communicative Planning for Urban Mobility 2. Planning the Streets of the Future 3. Street Experiments for Sustainable and Resilient Cities European Institute 4. Urban Mobility for Livability of Innovation and European best practice Free 5. Alternative Mobility Narratives Technology & 10 to 20 hours each online partners 6. Governing the Transportation to Sustainable Systems 7. Understanding Cycling in Europe 8. Reclaiming the Street for Livable Urban Spaces 9. User Experience for Inclusive Cycling in Cities Designing the Cycling City Urban Mobility Free 4 hours / week, 5 weeks including Academy 6 hours of video content, online Unraveling the Cycling City University of Free Policymaking Amsterdam 23 hours online Principles of a Strong Town Strong Towns Free Policymaking and financing Academy 6 hours online How Active Mobility creates socially and Strong Towns Free Policymaking economically Strong Towns Academy 2 hours online Mobility and Access for Babies, Toddlers, and their Institute for Free Street design Caregivers Transportation and 3 hours online Development Policy Mastering the Cycling City Institute for Free Street design Transportation and 8 hours online Development Policy CIVITAS Sustainable and Smart Mobility for All CIVITAS Free European best practice Learning Centre 5 to 10 hours each online 1. Cargo Bikes 2. Planning Charging Infrastructure 3. Micromobility and SUMPs 4. City Center Vehicle Access Regulations 5. Car Sharing 6. Marketing Urban Cycling Transformative Urban Mobility Initiative Online Transformative Free Urban mobility best practice Courses Urban Mobility 5 to 10 hours each online 1. Components of Transport Planning for Sustain- Initiative able Cities 2. An Introduction to Gender and Mobility in Emerg- ing Economies 3. Exploring the World of Electric Buses: Advancing Zero-Emission Public Transport 4. Exploring the World of Electric 2-3 Wheelers: Unleashing the Mobility Revolution 5. Achieving Transitions to Zero Carbon Emissions and Sustainable Urban Mobility 6. Measurement, Reporting and Verification (MRV) of greenhouse gas emissions in transport sector 57 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Strategy 3 Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Authors: Bram van Ooijen and John Lieswyn Bram van Ooijen is an urban transport specialist with 18 years of experience in designing streets for active mobility and parking management, predominantly in Asia. His key expertise lies in street design, bicycle networks, greenways, bus-rapid transit corridor design, low-emission zones, parking policy and management, and transit-oriented development. Bram is the former lead for the Non-motorized Transport and Transportation Demand Management divisions at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy China. John Lieswyn is the Director and Principal Transportation Planner at ViaStrada and Chair of the Transportation Group New Zealand. John develops bicycle and pedestrian master plans, plans and designs cycling infrastructure, and undertakes all types of transportation research and traffic studies. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 58 3.1 Abstract Tactical urbanism is a design methodology and engagement strategy to speed up the improvement of streets. Whereas traditional infrastructure development in the Pacific requires large capital investments and multiple years for planning, design and implementation, infrastructure improvements through tactical urbanism can be achieved in a matter of weeks and at minimal costs, using materials available at local hardware stores. Proposed measures include traffic calming, intersection and pedestrian crossings, plazas and parklets, and pedestrian and bicycle facilities among others. Street transformations should always be supplemented by continuous community communication, programming fun activities to happen alongside the transformation, maintenance, and monitoring and evaluation that is appropriate to the specific project type, scale, and duration. Government agencies, local communities and development partners can all use tactical urbanism measures to implement rapid, cost-effective, and inclusive measures to improve streets to enhance road safety and improve the walking and cycling environment. The pop-up and interim interventions are not an endpoint in themselves, but a tool in the toolbox to reinventing streets in Pacific cities. Trials can be formalized and turn into permanent solutions, and new projects with capital construction can follow the designs tested with tactical urbanism. 3.2 What is Tactical Urbanism? Tactical Urbanism is a method of improving streets and public spaces that gained large, worldwide popularity in the past decade. It addresses the street design issues discussed in Strategy 2in a much quicker and more affordable way than typical street upgrading in the Pacific. Tactical urbanism is defined by Waka Kotahi, the New Zealand Transport Agency (2020) as: “A design methodology and engagement strategy, implementing temporary ‘tactical demonstrations’ and ‘trial interventions’ to test living versions of designs with communities in real time, focused on delivering streets that put people first, making them safer & more livable.” Tactical urbanism is a response to the need for immediate, low-cost interventions to improve streets and urban spaces. Citizens are seeking ways to have a more direct impact on their surroundings, beyond the traditional avenues of government planning processes. Tactical urbanism provides an accessible platform for individuals and community groups to initiate small-scale interventions, allowing them to see tangible results fast and feel a sense of ownership over their neighborhoods. Furthermore, tactical urbanism has gained traction due to the recognition of the limitations of traditional top-down planning approaches. Changes to transport infrastructure, whether large or small, often involve lengthy bureaucratic processes and significant financial resources. Opportunities to innovate are often constrained. In contrast, tactical urbanism offers a bottom-up approach that is nimble, adaptable, and cost-effective. By empowering residents to work with authorities to take action, it bypasses the barriers imposed by conventional planning methods and fosters a culture of experimentation and innovation. The differences between tactical urbanism and traditional transport project delivery are outlined in Table 4. 59 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Table 4: Differences between Tactical Urbanism and traditional transport projects. Tactical Urbanism Traditional transport project Community design input Local initiatives and concerns are fed into Community consulted on designs the design process developed by technical specialists Degree of certainty Acceptance and recognition of uncertainty Perception that outcomes are fully – that not all the answers are necessary or understood and an expectation that the possible before starting project will achieve them Degree of safety risk Low-risk trials, with potentially a high Suitable where safety or project risk are reward high (e.g., high-speed areas) Knowledge development Building of organizational capacity Focus on learning and building capacity between community groups, public/private between client and consultant teams institutions, non-profits/NGOs and their constituents Community role in delivery Possibility for social procurement, Traditional procurement, with little engagement of local creative sector, emphasis put on community growth or involvement of community in project local suppliers development and volunteers in delivery Skillsets required Community development, place-making, Transport planning, engineering, public design-thinking, facilitation, marketing consultation, road safety auditing, (note this is in addition to skill sets required business case writing on traditional projects) Priority People-first Vehicles-first Communication Public dialog focused on testing and Seeking acceptance of permanent adapting, permission to try, innovation solution Monitoring and data Imperative to inform short-term Undertaken for reporting purposes collection adaptations to design and support the trial outcomes reporting / decision-making Materials used Lighter, cheaper, easier to move and less Heavier, more expensive, fixed and more durable durable Maintenance practices Little and often, maintenance contributes More time consuming, less frequent to the ongoing refinement of the project maintenance Capital costs Minimal Tens to hundreds of times the cost of equivalent tactical urbanism works Construction time Days to weeks Months to years Source: NZTA (2020) with author’s modification Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 60 Figure 72: Tactical urbanism in Fortaleza, Brazil. Source: City of Fortaleza (2023) Brazil’s Cidade Da Gente project. Footpaths are widened, seating and meeting places created, pedestrian crossings at the intersection shortened, a street closed for traffic, murals implemented, and street beautification created. The project was initiated by the city of Fortaleza in partnership with GDCI and Bloomberg Philanthropies Initiative for Global Road Safety. Tactical urbanism interventions commonly start as a Pop-up (or demonstration) measure (lasting a few hours or days) and are followed up by an Interim measure (lasting a few weeks or months) and eventually be developed to be permanent with Capital construction. Interim measures can be further separated into pilot projects (using low-cost materials like paint and posts) or full interim design using slightly higher cost but still “stick-on the road” treatments like precast concrete curbs. Figure 73: Examples of tactical urbanism to install pedestrian crossings. Source: Global Designing Cities Initiative (2022) Using Tactical urbanism measures to install pedestrian crossings before the capital investment in a permanent crossing. 61 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Figure 74: Building cycling infrastructure with various tactical urbanism (quick-build) measures prior to permanent infrastructure. Source: ViaStrada 2023 Four stages of cycling infrastructure with “quick build” defined as the low-cost measures that can last months through to a few years. Pop-up (demonstration) transformations can be implemented in hours and achieved at low cost, and are meant to test a design, build capacity with officials and technicians, and involve the community. Interim transformations require some more time and investment in better and more durable materials and amenities and may stay until capital investments can be implemented. 3.3 Choosing what to implement Pacific cities face many challenges in improving infrastructure, making street improvements a lengthy and costly process. Even small street improvements take multiple years to be completed. These challenges include: • a dependence on bilateral and multilateral development partners for the funding of capital projects • stretched government capacity, in terms of staff and experience, to address the urgent improvements needed • unavailability of many construction materials locally and associated expensive and time-consuming import processes. Tactical urbanism approaches to infrastructure improvements in the Pacific can be used both by governments and communities. Governments can address urgent needs and achieve quick improvements, without the need for larger funds and timelines that are typical for infrastructure projects with funding from development partners. Community-led efforts are promising, as government staff and budgets are limited, and Pacific societies have strong community ties. During the Pacific Leaders in Urban Transport Planning workshops in South Tarawa and Tongatapu (2023) and Honiara and Suva (2024), local stakeholders expressed excitement about the opportunities to use tactical urbanism. Participants identified locations where tactical urbanism can be applied, with measures identified varying from the creation or widening of footpaths and bicycle lanes, intersection and pedestrian crossing treatments, traffic calming, use of plants and flowers, one-way streets, pocket parks and public spaces. Under the ‘Reducing Car Dependency for Greener and Healthier Cities’ program, tactical urbanism was successfully trialed in South Tarawa, Kiribati in March 2024. More information on this project can be found at the end of this chapter. Impacts were very positive, demonstrating the large potential for scale-up of efforts within the region. Tactical urbanism can help speed up the improvement of streets, intersections, and public spaces in the Pacific region. Governments should aim to implement trial (Pop-up and Interim) demonstrations, in cooperation with local stakeholders and residents immediately. Learning, improving, and documenting approaches assist in a further scale-up of tactical urbanism interventions. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 62 Internationally proven tactical urbanism measures that address the street design issues described in Strategy 7 are outlined below. The most needed and suitable measures for Pacific cities are: 1. Traffic calming 2. Intersection and crossing design treatments 3. Plazas and parklets 4. Pedestrian facilities 5. Bicycle facilities The prioritized locations where these measures are most beneficial are areas and streets where: • Pedestrian volumes are above average • Current walking conditions are poor • Traffic speeds exceed 30 km/h • Popular destinations are located, such as schools, markets, shopping areas, hospitals, and large employment centers. 3.3.1 Traffic calming The goal of traffic calming is to lower mixed traffic speeds to improve safety and comfort for all road users. Tactical urbanism can be used to lower traffic speeds by urbanism by narrowing and/or reducing the number of mixed traffic lanes, widening footpaths, creating bicycle lanes, and introducing lane diversions (chicanes and diverters), deflectors, medians, speed bumps, and intersection and crossing treatments. Figure 75: Interim Lane in Belo Horizonte, Brazil. Figure 76: In the Byculla neighborhood in Mumbai (India). Source: Rafael Tavares-Octopus Filmes/WRI Brazil Source: WRI India (2022) (2019) This interim pedestrian crossing reduces traffic speeds The diversions through paint and planters on at the entrance to a school. Reduced travel lanes, road small streets in Belo Horizonte (Brazil) slow down markings, traffic cones and walkway extensions warn traffic speeds. drivers of crossing pedestrians. 3.3.2 Intersection and pedestrian crossing design treatments The goal of intersection redesign is to improve safety for all street users, in particular pedestrians and bicyclists. Currently, many intersections are over-dimensioned to facilitate high vehicle speeds. Road diets are an effective intersection redesign method. The goal of road dieting is to make the road space for vehicles more compact by expanding space for vulnerable road users at crossings location so that vehicle traffic must make tighter and slower turns. This shortens pedestrian crossing distances, slows down approaching traffic, and eliminates illegal parking and stopping at the intersection. Roundabouts and diverters are other measures to improve intersection safety, and implementing these through simple road markings and physical objects such as bollards and planters often suffices. To improve pedestrian crossings and align with pedestrian desire paths, similar measures apply. The use of zebra crossings, road markings and physical objects such as bollards and planters can reduce traffic speeds and shorten the crossing distance. 63 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Figure 77: Rendering of a possible interim intersection transformation on Tongatapu’s Taufa’ahau Road. When streets are over-dimensioned, intersections become treacherous places to both pedestrians and traffic. By tightening turns and narrowing travel lanes with extended footpaths, traffic speeds drop and safety for pedestrians and traffic is greatly improved. Footpaths are built out with paint, bollards, and planters to reduce the size of the intersection. Pedestrian crossings are painted and much shorter. Walkways are created on the top-right section. By converting the parking from perpendicular to parallel, a small public plaza is created outside the shops on the left for a pop-up market, meeting and play spaces. Figure 78: An interim transformation at an Figure 79: Interim creation of a roundabout in South intersection in Salt Lake City, Utah, US . Tucson, Arizona, US. Source: Bike Utah (n.d.) Source: Griessel (2019) This street transformation uses paint and traffic cones Families come together to implement a roundabout to to provide for more pedestrian space and reduce the lower traffic speeds and improve road safety for children. pedestrian crossing distance by half. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 64 Figure 80: Sketch of a crossing and intersection Figure 81: Sketch of a crossing outside Honiara’s St. treatment in Honiara. Nicholas Anglican College. After Before An additional shade structure is shown to protect To combat speeding and illegal parking at school gates, pedestrians against rain and sun. no more than some road paint and bollards are needed. 3.3.3 Plazas and parklets The goal of plazas and parklets is to reclaim underutilized spaces (such as vacant spaces or parking) and repurpose these for public use. No matter how small the area, through tactical urbanism, these spaces can be turned into public or restaurant seating, playgrounds for children, small markets and vendors, landscaping, retail, or combinations thereof. Figure 82: Outdoor seating venue in Hobart, Figure 83: Public space on Piazza Dergano in Italy. Australia. Source: City of Hobart (2020) Source: City of Hobart (2020) Businesses in Hobart (Australia) convert parking spaces Families come together to implement a roundabout to into outdoor seating venues during the annual, global lower traffic speeds and improve road safety for children. Park(ing) Day. It aims to raise awareness about the importance of public space in urban environments and encourages conversations about how public space is used. 65 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 3.3.4 Pedestrian facilities The goal for pedestrian facilities is to create clear, wide, and continuous walking paths. Footpaths in Pacific cities are often too narrow and filled with obstructions. Pedestrian improvements should be implemented through tactical urbanism on road stretches where pedestrian volumes are above average and current footpath facilities insufficiently wide or convenient. Widened walkways can be implemented through the narrowing or cancellation of traffic lanes, removal of on-street parking spaces, and/or changes to one-way streets. Improvements are often combined with other measures such as intersection redesigns, pedestrian crossings, and traffic calming. Temporary pedestrianization of streets is another measure for improving pedestrian facilities. Figure 84: Interim footpath widening at a school Figure 85: Footpath widening in Fortaleza (Brazil) entrance in Istanbul. through paint, planters and public seating. Source: Marmara Municipalities Union (2024) Source: Global Designing Cities (2022) 3.3.5 Bicycle facilities Space for bicycle lanes could be achieved through the narrowing or removal of traffic lanes, removal of on-street parking spaces, and changes to one-way streets. Improvements are often combined with improvements to intersections, road crossings, traffic calming and bicycle parking stands. In Pacific islands where cycling numbers are low and the culture of cycling for recreation or transportation is currently weak, bicycle lanes could be trialed on certain stretches between schools and residential areas. Other areas are along scenic waterfronts, combined with public space and landscaping measures, where children and adults can try riding for leisure. The newly opened bicycle lane on Queen Elizabeth Drive in Suva is such an example, while South Tarawa has ample opportunity for these bicycle lanes, as identified by the LUTP workshop participants. Bicycle lanes could also be trialed on weekends on certain streets when traffic and parking demand is lower. Figure 86: Pop-up bicycle lane is created by Figure 87: Interim bicycle lane created by traffic lane narrowing mixed traffic lanes, graffiti paint and traffic narrowing, paint and the use of planters. cones. Source: Tactical Urbanism Guide Source: Zaichkowski (2019) Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 66 Figure 88: Two Renderings of what an interim street transformation in Tongatapu (Tonga). The street is converted to one-way traffic with on-street parking. A bi-directional bicycle lane is created through planter boxes and paint on one side of the street, where the other side has outdoor restaurant seating added. Road markings warn drivers to go slow. More information on planning and design of quick-build bicycle infrastructure is found in NZTA (2023) https://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/notes/006/ 67 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 3.4 How to implement While the implementation of tactical urbanism measures may only take a few hours to a few days, the preparation requires a longer time. The Street Transformation Guide by Global Designing Cities Initiative (2022) describes the steps through the planning, preparation, implementation, and follow-up stages of a tactical urbanism project. In the Pacific Islands, the availability and prices of materials are key factors in the preparation of the design and budget, which may need to be studied before the start of design. Documentation of the process and impacts of the trials is of vital importance to the success and scale-up of future projects. Figure 89: Tactical urbanism process. Source: Global Designing Cities Initiative (2022) 3.5 Case Study: the first Tactical Urbanism project in the Pacific In past years, an alarming number of second-hand cars and motorcycles has been imported into the Pacific atoll of South Tarawa in Kiribati. The increased number of vehicles and high traffic speeds have led to road safety issues. Broken-down cars are left on footpaths, damaging the environment, and leaving pedestrians walking on the road. At the Pacific Leaders in Urban Transport Planning (LUTP) workshop in Kiribati in October 2023, government participants showed a keen interest in the use of tactical urbanism measures for the improvement of road safety in South Tarawa. Subsequently, the World Bank team worked closely with the Kiribati Land Transport Authority (KLTA), Betio Town Council (BTC), the Saint John Bosco School and others to implement a Street Transformation project outside a school in the city of Betio. This project was implemented in March 2024. The Saint John Bosco primary school is home to 650 students, of which 67 percent walk to school. About 99% of those students perceived the street to be unsafe. Traffic at the school entrance travelled at an average speed of 34.7 km/h, far too high to allow for safe walking and crossing conditions. Footpaths were blocked by illegal parking and car wrecks, and full of rubbish. The road does not serve a critical traffic function, and traffic volumes were averaging between 200 and 300 vehicles per hour in both directions at school opening and closing hours. While tactical urbanism is a popular street transformation approach in Australia, New Zealand, Europe, and the United States, this project was the first of its kind in the Pacific region. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 68 Figure 90: New pedestrian crossing outside the St. John Bosco School. Key Project Figures 4 hours 2 weeks Planning and Preparation Implementation US$ 2,200 34.7 19.7km/h Average traffic speeds Material Costs 9% - 81% Cars yielding to students 1.2 - 100% Students’ perceived safety improved improved (based on 60 students surveyed) 69 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 3.5.1 Process The following activities were conducted in the project’s preparation, implementation, and follow-up. Templates of the documents and tools utilized are available in this folder for reuse by other Pacific cities who want to do their own tactical urbanism projects. Table 5: Process of Tactical Urbanism in South Tarawa Step Activities 1. Preparation • Obtaining approval from BTC and preparation of stakeholder consultation (started 6 • Obtaining approval from KLTA to close the street to traffic during implementation weeks before • Obtaining approval from the Ministry of Education to allow students to participate Implementation) during school hours • Stakeholder consultation with affected car owners and businesses, in cooperation with BTC • Purchasing, fabrication, rental and transport of materials and tools for implementation • Preparation of a work plan with designated tasks for each team and team member • Preparation of school team: principal, teachers, school committee, students • In-class street design session with students • Road safety assessment • Pre-implementation traffic surveys on traffic and pedestrian volumes, crossings and yielding • Photo and video documentation at pre-implementation stage • Preparation of an environmental and social impact mitigation plan • Preparation of school survey on project appreciation and students’ travel behavior. 2. Implementation • Street closure by KLTA (1 day) • Implementation of the measures by school students, volunteers, and World Bank team • Photo and video documentation of the implementation • Re-opening of the street by KLTA. 3. post- • Photo and video documentation of the implemented project implementation • Post-implementation traffic surveys (ended 2 • School celebration with musicians/performers weeks after • School survey on project appreciation and students’ travel behavior. Implementation) Figure 91: Students design road markings in the days Figure 92: A zebra crossing in the making. before implementation. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 70 Figure 93: Through doing the implementation Figure 94: A team of twenty-five students and eight themselves, the students learnt about teamwork, adults got the tactical urbanism work done. communication, and the value of putting in hard work. 3.5.2 Works completed • Zebra crossing, connecting the school gate to an alleyway on the other side of the main road on the other side of the main road that is used by many students to reach school • Road markings to slow down traffic speeds and increase road safety • Road narrowing at the pedestrian crossing through the use of planter boxes • Improved footpath, with car and truck parking (including three wrecks) removed, rubbish collected, overgrown grass cut, coconut trees planted • New footpath on the other side of the road through planter boxes and other physical measures • Seating and play equipment made of unused pallets • New sign boards along the school gate requesting drivers not to park on the footpath and drive slowly. Figure 95: Completion of tactical urbanism in Betio, South Tarawa. 71 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 3.5.3 Results The project was very well received among students, nearby shopkeepers and governments. Average traffic speeds dropped from 34.7 to 19.7km/h. The rate at which vehicles yielded to students crossing the street jumped from 9% to 81%. Both of these numbers show a drastic improvement in walking conditions and enhanced road safety for all users. Students’ perceived safety went up spectacularly from 1.2% to 100%. What was intended as a two-day trial, has now become permanent. The school will further enhance the design and make improvements to the footpath.  The Betio Town Council and Kiribati Land Transport Authority described the project as successful and a more permanent solution as well as wider application of measures is being discussed. “When passing by schools, please drive slowly so the children’s safety is guaranteed, and accidents are avoided. This project is not about us, not the teachers, not the parents, but about the children’s safety. So, they can continue to pursue their education journey and be able to become people who will support Kiribati one day.” St. John Bosco School Principal Temoanre Korere “The kids loved the work they did and were really content. The kids were happy with how the road was implemented and do not want to see it changed. The kids are thrilled. It was a special day for them and provided a great learning experience. They really enjoyed it”. St. John Bosco School Class 6 B Teacher Bureia Kanitio Figure 96: Artists perform for students at a street Figure 97: Local designs, inspired by the students’ carnival to celebrate the achievement . work, enhance the road markings’ visual appeal. 3.6 Recommendations As an addition to conventional infrastructure development, tactical urbanism can offer nimble, do-it-yourself approaches, harnessed by the creativity and energy of residents, to offer quick, cost-effective and inclusive solutions to much needed street and urban space improvements. The Pacific culture of strong, tight-knit communities supports the tactical urbanism approach where communities and volunteers play an important role. There are many ways to start the trial of tactical urbanism measures in the Pacific region. Some key recommendations are shown below. 3.6.1 Start tactical urbanism at priority locations Start tactical urbanism projects at locations with high pedestrian volumes, road safety concerns and community support for change. Areas could include: • Schools – road safety around schools is of utmost importance, given the vulnerability of school children. School boards, teachers and students can be allies and volunteers in the planning, design, and implementation of measures. The successful trial outside the St. John Bosco School in Tarawa is a powerful example that can be used to convince local stakeholders. A ‘Streets for Kids’ program could be rolled out across the Pacific. The goal is to implement tactical urbanism measures at two or three locations in each city, demonstrate the benefits, and build local capacity and ‘champions’ to kickstart a grassroots movement for independent expansion. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 72 • City center areas – tactical urbanism can improve road safety and traffic flows in central areas of the city, where most destinations are located. Shopping areas are often appropriate locations, as shop owners and the Chambers of Commerce would directly benefit from improvements and can be allies during the planning, implementation, and operation. Car-free days, as demonstrated in Nouméa, can entice more residents to walk and cycle. One or two streets could be blocked off from traffic entirely, or on certain days (weekend) or hours (6-9pm) only. Pacific cities with large numbers of (cruise) visitors, such as Port Vila, Tongatapu, and Suva, could use tactical urbanism measures ahead of cruise seasons to boost their local economies. Small plazas can be developed for tourist markets with local crafts. On streets with illegal parking, outdoor seating can be developed for cafes and restaurants. A small bicycle lane network can be built to connect tourist highlights. • Residential neighborhoods – streets inside neighborhoods only serve local residents and therefore should not be designed to maximize traffic flow and speed. Local residents can be allies and volunteers, as they would directly benefit from improvements. Moreover, residents often have strong bonds with their neighbors and volunteers can be found more easily. Figure 98: Potential locations for tactical urbanism as identified in 2023 and 2024 LUTP workshops. 73 Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations 3.6.2 Partner with locals and local organizations While government agencies in the Pacific region are often understaffed and underfunded, the advantage of a tactical urbanism approach is that development of improvements is a joint effort with local residents, with modest time and budget requirements. Adjoining property and business owners stand to benefit from street improvements, so they have a reason and incentive to be involved in the planning, design, and implementation of measures. There may be NGOs or local ‘champions’ who can be enticed to actively participate in the roll-out of tactical urbanism projects, as it may fit their missions. Friendly rivalry between villages and neighborhoods can also be a successful way to implement improvements. A successful neighborhood approach to city improvements was seen in Samoa until last year. The annual Samoan village beautification competition under the National Beautification Activities and Awards saw villages challenge each other for the most beautifully decorated and cleanest streets. The 2022 winner of Ti’avea village received a cash prize of US$1,80928 (Samoa Observer, 2022). 3.6.3 Work with development partners in the trial of tactical urbanism International development banks and development agencies can adopt the use of tactical urbanism in their Pacific projects. Local government agencies and communities can benefit from international specialists who bring in experience, expertise and (financial) resources. Development partners can also initiate a Pacific-wide tactical urbanism competition with prizes for the best projects. These prizes could include regional and international recognition at forums, cash prizes, funding for next projects, and study tours to other cities. 28. 5,000 WST Guide Guide to Mobility to Mobility for Livable Pacific forCities | Part Livable II: Practitioners’ Pacific Cities | Part IIHandbook Handbook : Practitioners’ to Implement the to Priority Implement the Priority Actions Actions 74 Strategy 4 Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Authors: Bram van Ooijen and John Lieswyn Bram van Ooijen is an urban transport specialist with 18 years of experience in designing streets for active mobility and parking management, predominantly in Asia. His key expertise lies in street design, bicycle networks, greenways, bus-rapid transit corridor design, low-emission zones, parking policy and management, and transit- oriented development. Bram is the former lead for the Non-motorized Transport and Transportation Demand Management divisions at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy China. John Lieswyn is the Director and Principal Transportation Planner at ViaStrada and Chair of the Transportation Group New Zealand. John develops bicycle and pedestrian master plans, plans and designs cycling infrastructure, and undertakes all types of transportation research and traffic studies. 75 Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility 4.1 Abstract The five E’s of active mobility planning and design are Engineering, Education, Encouragement, Enforcement and Evaluation. This chapter covers all the non-infrastructure aspects of supporting active mobility except enforcement as this is quite specific to local law, resources, and social license. Education includes providing information, tools, and skills for school students, as well as adults and employer-led initiatives. Encouragement includes improving access to bicycles and micro mobility devices, community events, active communication with the public, and addressing the issue of (stray) dogs. Evaluation includes monitoring programs to make improvements and demonstrate, communicate, and celebrate success. Table 6: The 5 E’s of active transport planning and design. Engineering Education Encouragement Enforcement Evaluation Discussed in • Walking and cycling • E-bicycles Not discussed • Monitoring and Strategy 2 skills education at • Bicycle loan, financing – city-specific publishing results schools and distribution • Applying lessons • Workplace Travel • Bicycle and scooter learned Plans and incentives sharing • Celebrating • Civil society, NGOs • Bicycle parking and successes and faith-based maintenance hubs organizations • (Stray) dog • Private vehicle driver management training • Community events • Heavy vehicle driver • Communication with training the public including • Cycling skills training advertising for adults 4.2 Issues and opportunities At present, PICs have few programs outside of infrastructure building to encourage the uptake of non-car modes. There are many barriers to the uptake of walking, cycling, and scooting. When asked about the potential for these active mobility modes, many government and foreign development partner staff alike respond saying that Pacific Cities are too hot, too wet, too hilly, too unsafe, etc. At the same time, the feedback of participants at the Pacific Leaders in Urban Transport workshops do highlight a strong desire for more cycling facilities, particularly in Honiara, Tongatapu and Suva. There is good reason to believe that walking, cycling and micromobility could become popular in the Pacific because: • In peak hours and congested areas, cycling and scooting is much quicker than driving • Cycling is easy, offering door-to-door mobility • Cycling is cheap (compared to driving), fun, and healthy • Bicycle parking is easy, quick and free, if cycle stands are provided • Not everyone needs to shift to riding bicycles. A 5% shift from cars to bicycles will have large positive impacts on traffic flow • Providing safe facilities for cycling is accessible as only the roads with many cars moving at higher speeds need dedicated bicycle lanes, while smaller streets mainly need traffic calming. For many Pacific streets, the space is already there to do so • Many urban goods deliveries could be made by e-cargo bicycle. With a growing market for e-commerce, many new vehicles will enter the streets. For many (smaller parcel) delivery needs, e-cargo bicycles are the easier, quicker and cheaper alternative to (ICE) vehicles. A reduction of delivery vehicles would free up road and parking space, reducing the noise and emissions impact of trucks that often are not near capacity, reduce serious injury and fatality risks with trucks, and reduce deterioration of infrastructure. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 76 4.3 Recommendations Building better infrastructure is crucial to increase the number of people walking and cycling, but more measures are needed on education, encouragement and evaluation. 4.3.1 Education: Target the Youth Through Figure 99: A “virtuous cycle” leads to more Active Travel to School Plans active travel to school Pacific cities can help train and encourage the next generation of citizens to travel independently and sustainably. City- scale efforts involving many schools can greatly improve the More students safety and freedom of children and significantly reduce traffic walking and cycling congestion. Much of the morning and evening peak in Pacific cities consists of school drop-offs and pick-ups. Getting as many children as possible walking and cycling to school is likely one of the critical factors to reducing car dependency Walking and Active travel in Pacific Cities. cycling seem seems ‘normal’ safer One method commonly used by cities to kickstart a virtuous cycle of more children walking and cycling to school is called an “Active Travel to School” Plan. Active Travel to School programs work best when they are implemented area-wide Fewer parents – i.e., implemented by all schools within the city or district as drive children to a Program. school The benefits of implementing an Active Travel to School Plan for students, the school and the community are as follows: STUDENTS Health: Active travel to school is strongly associated with better physical fitness and cardiovascular health (Larouche et al., 2014) Safety: Walking and cycling are statistically safe ways to travel. Learning traffic skills and encouraging group travel helps reinforce the ‘safety in numbers’ effect (Jacobsen, 2015). Children who engage in active travel to school instead of being chauffeured up to driving age, develop lifelong road safety skills. Learning: Physical activity such as active travel to school is positively related to academic performance (Singh, 2012). Those who transport themselves to school score better in concentration tests than those who are driven (Vinther, 2012). Confidence: Active travel to school builds an enhanced sense of independence and confidence about transportation choices and the neighborhood (Sauter, 2011). COMMUNITY Improved road safety: pedestrian crashes can be reduced by as much as half near schools with active travel plans (Auckland Transport, n.d.) More community involvement as parents, teachers and neighbors get involved and put ‘eyes on the street’. SCHOOL Fewer discipline problems because students arrive alert and ‘ready to learn’. Less congestion at the school gate frees up space for students who cannot use active transport. 77 Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Other complementary measures to increase the number of students walking, cycling and not being driven to school include: • Safe Routes to School programs involve students in the identification of street design problems and solutions. Students define goals, identify problems, conduct site visits and produce solutions and designs for the improvement of walking and cycling infrastructure near their school. They may even present this to government representatives to raise awareness and aim for infrastructure improvements. • Walking School Buses involve primary school aged students and adult supervisors walking in a group to school. Each ‘bus’ walks along a set route with at least one adult ‘driver’ picking up children at designated ‘bus stops’ and walking them to and from school. Resources for starting a walking school bus are available at: https://education.nzta.govt.nz/ teacher-resources/school-community-partnerships/walking-school-bus/. • Cycle School Buses, where students ride bicycles to school together, under supervision of parents or volunteers are another option that improves safety through numbers. • School buses, and city bus service improvements as outlined in Strategy 5 can improve services, safety and comfort of bus rides and reduce dependency on parents driving their children to and from school. Figure 100: Students identify problems outside a Figure 101: A ‘school bus’ of Auckland students jointly school in Christchurch, New Zealand, as part of a Safe walking to school. Routes to School program. Source: Torbay School (2024) 4.3.2 Education: Adult and Workplace Travel Plans and Incentives While the main opportunity is in training the next generation of citizens from school age, many adults are willing to consider a mode shift to sustainable, healthy, and lower cost means of travel. Some examples of successful encouragement programs follow: • The Aotearoa Bike Challenge (aka “Love to Ride”). The campaign with over half a million participants and 29 million recorded trips, encourages more people to ride bicycles, and people to ride to work more. It uses an online encouragement platform and app with nearly 30,000 companies in 12 countries registered. The campaign led 40% of non-cyclists to start cycling weekly, and others started riding more, and riding to work more than they used to. • New Plymouth, a coastal city of 90,000 on the west coast of the North Island of New Zealand has a city-wide program called “Let’s Go” which focuses on getting people out of their cars and choosing active travel options. The programme achieved a Benefit-Cost Ratio of 7.5:1 and saw a reduction of 44% in car travel with a 78% increase in physical activity (Abley Transportation Consultants 2014). • Christchurch, a coastal city of 396,000 on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand, established a dedicated workplace travel planning team focused on the 11,000 employees returning to the central city after the earthquake rebuild. After establishing an agreement with a major employer, the team engaged all staff with an on-site presentation and then one-on-one travel planning assistance. An average reduction in car use of 31% was attributed to the programme. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 78 4.3.3 Encouragement: Make bicycles and micromobility devices more accessible (a) Bicycle loan and financing schemes Cost can be a barrier to adoption of cycling. There are examples of programs that work within tax law to provide businesses supported financing such as WorkRide NZ (https://www.workride.co.nz/). Employees temporarily opt into a salary sacrifice in exchange for the use of a Workride bike, e-bike or scooter benefit of their choice for their commute. Through Workride, employees save 32-63% of the purchase price, facilitated by tax benefits. When the lease ends, Workride gives the employee the option to purchase the vehicle (bike, e-bike or scooter) or return it to Workride. In China, delivery drivers can choose to rent an e-bicycle from the sales platform they work for. (b) Bulk bicycle distribution The bulk purchase of a set of bicycles can grant underprivileged groups access to transportation, education, healthcare, and economic opportunities. Such groups could consist of students, rural women, healthcare workers and low-income residents. Even large employers, which in the Pacific are often government departments, could consider purchasing bicycles for their employees. The Police force in Apia (Samoa) and Nouméa (New Caledonia) use (e-)bicycles to make street patrols easier and reduce emissions. The Pacific Islands Association of Non-Governmental Organizations (PIANGO) could be a partner in selecting appropriate recipients. One example of a bicycle used in distribution schemes is Buffalo Bikes, who mainly operate in Africa. Their bicycle is designed for riding long distances over rugged terrain with heavy cargo and/or children. Bicycles are simple to maintain and easy to repair. Bikes come with spare parts and a training program for mechanics. A bicycle, lock, bell, mini-pump, multi-tool and tyre lever could be provided and imported to Suva, Fiji for US$165 (2022 quotation assuming 250 bicycles imported, not inclusive of shipping and landing charges). Figure 102: The Buffalo bike is carefully put together Figure 103: Buffalo bicycles are made for carrying to meet the need for sturdiness and low maintenance. heavy loads. Source: Buffalo Bikes (2023) Source: Mobility for Africa (2024) AfricroozE, a German KfW initiative in Africa since 2020, is an interesting case study of how to promote electric bicycle use. AfricroozE bicycles are targeted at providing a convenient cargo bicycle, and is mostly used as a taxi, ambulance or transport bikes, supporting economic life in Uganda with 100 bicycles. Further expansion of 600 e-bicycles is planned for distribution around Africa. The AfricroozE can carry up to 100 kilograms and it is made to look like a motorcycle for status reasons. The low crossbar allows women to ride while wearing skirts. This type of bicycle is an interesting substitute for vans and small trucks for the transport of goods, food and e-commerce deliveries. It can also be used as taxi (near markets where people purchase heavy goods) or for healthcare services. More information at https://africrooze.com/en/. 79 Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Figure 104: AfricroozE e-bicycle used for delivery of Figure 105: Service center for AfricroozE bicycles in heavy goods. Uganda. Source: AfricroozE (2024) Source: KfW (2022) (c) Bicycle and e-scooter sharing programs (e-) Bicycle and scooter share schemes have rapidly expanded around the world. Vehicles can be hired at stations (with docks) or streets (in a dockless system), offering low-cost access to mobility without the up-front cost of device purchase, no fear of personal property theft, the ease of door-to-door (electrically assisted) travel, in a space-efficient manner (ViaStrada, 2018). Shared bicycle and scooter programs can serve both locals and visitors. They can offer local residents quick transport for short trips and convenient access to and from bus stops. For visitors, bicycle sharing schemes can be a valuable mode of transport when visiting the city and its highlights. A bicycle sharing system is particularly attractive for cities with large numbers of cruise ship visitors, such as Tonga, Vanuatu, and Suva. Low annual costs for locals can be subsidised through higher fees for casual visitors who have a higher willingness to pay. The Biki bicycle sharing scheme in Oahu, Hawaii uses a low, annual fee of US$15-25 for residents, while tourists pay US$4.50 for 30 minutes or US$12 for up to 24 hours. The bicycles offered could be a mix of conventional pedal-powered and pedal-assist electric bicycles, to appeal to a wider range of the population. Figure 106: Oahu’s bicycle sharing system. Figure 107: Proposed bicycle sharing stations. Source: Flashpacking America Source: 2017 ITDP study for ADB in Suva Oahu’s bicycle sharing system has 130 stations that Proposed bicycle sharing stations are shown for phase connect bus and rail stations, shopping areas, universities, I (green), phase II (yellow) and phase III (red). Similarly, recreational and tourist destinations and centers of proposed bicycles lanes for three phases are shown. employment. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 80 Tonga’s Energy Road Map (2021) and the Sustainable Urban and Environmental Management (SUEM) Project (2012) both make mention of plans for a bicycle sharing scheme in Tongatapu. For more details on bicycle sharing, refer to the Bike Sharing Planning Guide by the Institute for Transportation & Development Policy: https://itdp.org/publication/the-bike-share-planning-guide/ (d) Bicycle hubs for maintenance and repair Similar to issues for motorized vehicles, as discussed in Strategy 1, there is a lack of basic spare parts (tubes, tires, chains, etc.) and mechanics for bicycle maintenance and repair. With cycling being a small market at this stage, no specialized cycling retailers are known to be established in the Pacific, other than in Nouméa. Current bicycles used in the Pacific are either brought or shipped in from abroad by individuals for personal use or purchased locally at larger (often hardware or stationery) stores. The bicycles sold are mostly cheap and low-quality Chinese bicycles, and stores do not sell spare parts nor provide any servicing. Without these basic facilities available, purchasing a bicycle is a risky investment, hampering the uptake of cycling. Bicycle cooperatives or hubs can provide a popular alternative to stores in cities with low but growing cycling numbers and other locations where bicycle services are not yet very profitable. A small subsidy may be needed to get started and pay for start-up costs. Trained mechanics are on site for servicing and maintenance of bicycles and common spare parts are available. Some may provide the free use of basic tools for self-repair. These hubs may also sell (new and second-hand) bicycles, accessories and provide consumer advice on the most appropriate model. Pre-purchase test-rides and bicycle rental could be offered. The local police may donate abandoned bikes for repurposing or spare parts. An excellent example of a bicycle hub in the region is. the Mangere BikeFIT Community Hub in Auckland, New Zealand: https://www. facebook.com/tripleteez. Figure 108: Triple teez’s Mangere BikeFIT. Community Hub offers many cycling-related events, training and workshops. 81 Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility (e) (Stray) dog management The Pacific Leaders in Urban Transport Planning workshops confirmed the issue of (stray) dogs in some Pacific cities. Dogs can make walking and cycling an unpleasant, even dangerous experience, as dogs can chase and even attack people on the street. Without handling this issue, a substantial part of the population is expected to forego on walking and cycling no matter how good new infrastructure may be. For household pets, a national pet registration policy is needed, which includes birth control measures, breeding licenses, collaring and tagging. For stray and feral dogs, options include kenneling and neutralization through neutering and sterilization programs. Mobile veterinarian services could circulate on a regular rotation, as embedded animal medicine practices are absent from much of the region. Programmes such as Australia’s Vets Beyond Borders29 may be enlisted in conjunction with international aid efforts to provide improved veterinary coverage across the region under a separately designed program which would realize significant co-benefits in environmental and human health, including improved opportunity for active transport alongside alleviation of waste management issues associated with stray animals. 4.3.4 Encouragement: Open Streets events The “Open Streets” concept has taken off around the world. Nouméa in New Caledonia hosts such car-free days monthly on Sundays from 8am until 6pm on the streets around the Place des Cocotiers. Rarotonga (Cook Islands) has experimented with car-free days as well. A toolkit for creating an Open Streets event is available at: https://openstreetsproject.org/. Figure 109: Car-free Sunday in Nouméa. Figure 110: Children in Nouméa maintaining their bicycles. Source: Nouméa Ma Ville (n.d.) Source: Droit au veló (2024) Oahu’s bicycle sharing system has 130 stations that They have their bicycles repaired and learn about connect bus and rail stations, shopping areas, universities, maintenance in Nouméa. recreational and tourist destinations and centers of employment. 4.3.5 Encouragement: Social marketing campaigns Marketing campaigns typically consist of TV, social media, billboard, and bus stop poster advertising to address deep-seated preconceptions about active modes, especially cycling. To realize a significant change in the way urban environments are designed, campaigns are needed that develop a coordinated and wholesale shift to how cycling is perceived by the general public. The campaign included the extensive use of humour in TV advertisements and a coordinated effort with the bicycle industry to overcome the culture of automobility. 29. https://vetsbeyondborders.org/. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 82 Figure 111: The #BikeIsBest campaign included advertisements around the city of London. Source: Bike is Best 4.3.6 Encouragement: Communicate with the public Overall, communications through public media and language are key to changing the culture of car-dominant messaging. The enormity of the socio-economic and environmental benefits of adopting active transport modes should be conveyed in the broadest terms, making it clear what may be gained through better transport behaviour. (a) Use engagement tools tailored to the community and the project Successful initiatives rarely use a single channel. The table below lists recommended communication tools based on the literature review and the authors’ experience, as well as strategies to avoid. Table 7: Methods to communicate with the public about active mobility When to use Engagement tools that work… …and don’t work as well Billboards and banners in the project area Letter drops (low “read” rate; people move on Project In-person business surveys (1:1) or tune out) • Drop-in sessions (informal) at Public “town halls” convened expressly for libraries and community centers the project or strategy (can be dominated by • Pop-up marquees at existing events antagonists) Project and Interactive web-based social/map tools Facebook (dominated by antagonists) broader debate (must be well-advertised) Proactive media briefings and media Reactive media comments releases Hold or participate in major events such Publishing detailed strategies and asking for Broader debate as Open Streets, and invite the media feedback (people are not aware, or tune out) along 83 Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Figure 112: Example of the Wellington City Council actively communications. Source: Wellington City Council The Wellington city council actively communicates to citizens the ongoing projects using a website that includes interactive project maps, design renderings with a slide bar to see before/after, count data in prominent graphics, and public comments with sorting for newest, oldest, most and least positive. (b) Activate a wide range of qualified and inspirational messages Trust is an important factor in communication, although research on messengers and trust is complex (Berentson-Shaw 2020). The New Zealand guide How to talk Urban Mobility and Transport shift does provide some suggestions regarding storytellers. It advises using a wide range of messengers who may align with people’s values and intergenerational messengers. It also emphasizes that these messengers need to be qualified to comment on the context of the message. To motivate and inspire it can also be helpful when well-known personalities or relatable ‘normal’ people act as spokespeople or advocate. Examples from New Zealand include: • Olympic cyclist Sarah Ulmer has been a driving force in the Waikato, normalizing cycling with children on board and leading major projects. • The Frocks on Bikes movement seeks to normalize everyday cycling, especially for women. • USO Bike Ride is a cycling whanau that aims to improve the health and wellbeing of communities, particularly Pasifika peoples, through cycling. (c) Media has an important and positive role to play The media is an important channel for communication and actively engaging with the media is stated to be crucial in road space allocation projects (Field, Wild et al. 2018). Media training and appointing people that feel comfortable to address the press helps to incorporate important narratives in the media domain. Positive news stories and supportive messages to elected members from advocates can be the difference between success and failure. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 84 4.3.7 Evaluation: monitoring results and celebrating success One of the first measures to be collected post-intervention is usually the number (or change in number) of users. However, the change can only be reported if the “before” counts are robust and ideally accompanied by “control” sites. Infographics are the best way to present uptake figures. When infrastructure projects with provisions for walking and cycling are planned and implemented, before and after surveys are to be conducted. The tactical urbanism street transformation in South Tarawa, discussed in Strategy 3, provided powerful data on the impacts on traffic speed, and vehicle yielding. A good example of monitoring and reporting is Auckland’s Active Mode Quarterly Snapshots series. Selecting the most appropriate measures should follow the definition of project objectives and be based upon data availability. Consider how the data will be used in project evaluation and communications. Measures can be categorised into four types: user variables, quantity and quality of change in the built environment, shifts in cultural perceptions, and changes in governance. Table 8: Four categories of success measures that indicate reduced car dependency. Users Built environment Cultural shift Governance • Amount of time spent in • Number of destinations • Change in walking, • Formulation of SMART public space within 3 km; land use cycling and PT policy goals • Diversity of activities density perceptions • Project completion and • Diversity of users • Quantity, quality and • Education programs, lifecycle durations (gender, ethnicity, age, safety of network, public especially for children • Strong leadership across etc.) spaces and PT services • Diversity of active and the political spectrum • Mode share • Quantity of facilities PT users • Enabling (cycle parking, toilets) • Promotional events experimentation • Casualties per unit of exposure • Level of PT integration • Language and attitudes • Policy consistency and • Reducing VKT • Travel times speeds by in all forms of media adaptability sustainable modes • Inter-ministry • PT headway <10 min collaboration • Parking quantity, price • Funding levels Source: Adapted from Harms et al 2016; Bertolini and le Clercq 2003 85 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Strategy 5 Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Authors: Walter Hook and Yoichiro Kono Walter Hook is an urban planner and expert in the field of sustainable transportation policy and practice. He has been a Principal at BRT Planning International since 2015. From 1993 until 2014, he worked as the Chief Executive Officer for the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. Walter has worked on the design and implementation of numerous bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and is considered a leading expert on BRT design and policy. Yoichiro Kono is an urban transport specialist with the World Bank. He has worked in urban and transport planning, infrastructure development and Transit-oriented development (TOD) for United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the World Bank and private entities over the last 15 years. Yoichiro is also a registered professional architect (1st class) and professional engineer in urban and regional planning of Japan, and holds a Master’s degree in urban engineering from the University of Tokyo. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 86 5.1 Abstract A high-quality public transit system is essential to overcoming a costly and damaging dependence on private automobiles. With only a few exceptions, Pacific Island Country cities have only rudimentary transit systems which fail to meet the transit needs of the public, who are turning instead to low-cost imported used cars, which are increasingly clogging the limited road network. Improving and modernizing the transit system has a lot of facets which work best if they are worked on together by a dedicated team of professionals supported by experts as needed. This chapter provides a list of critical interventions that can be made now and over time to significantly improve the transit options available to the citizens and visitors of Pacific Island cities. The interventions need to be selected based on the local context of public transit. This chapter includes tips and global and regional experiences to promote public transit and tackle challenges. 5.2 Issues and opportunities The major cities of the PICs are facing traffic congestion caused by the increasing number of private vehicles and frequency of their use. Modal-shift from private vehicle to public transit is a critical action to make the cities more sustainable. This famous image shows the amount of space consumed by a number of people in cars versus the space required by the same number of people in a bus, and on bicycles. Figure 113: Comparison of space requirements of different urban transport modes. Source: Cycling Promotion Fund 87 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city The main issues within the existing public transit services are as follows: 5.2.1 Unpredictable Service There is a range of transit service quality in Pacific cities. In the higher population cities, like Port Moresby, there are a lot of public transit services operating roughly on known routes and operating with high frequency throughout the day. However, in smaller cities, there may be no public transit services at all in the off-peak periods. Transit services may not follow specific routes or any schedule. 5.2.2 Unsafe driving behaviors, vehicles, and station stops For passengers to be willing to take public transit, they first and foremost need to feel safe. Nevertheless, the vehicles may be old, polluting, and not fully road worthy, and bus stops may not be maintained or crowded. Also, passengers board and alight anywhere causing pedestrian injuries. Figure 114: Alighting and Boarding Space (Left: Nuku’alofa, Right: South Tarawa). Source: WB Project Team 5.2.3 Old and uncomfortable vehicles Where there is enough transit passenger demand and a controlled amount of competition, private bus companies are buying new buses to attract passengers to their vehicles. In other cities, however, informal transit businesses operating in weakly regulated environments may not be sufficiently profitable for bus owners to modernize their buses, or they may face insufficient regulatory pressure to do so. As a result of that, vehicles are often old, polluting, and not fully road worthy. While low-income passengers may not have a choice and need to put up with poor-quality transit vehicles, wealthier passengers may opt for private cars or taxis. Figure 115: Buses in Nuku’alofa (Left) and in Port Moresby (Right). Source: WB Project Team Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 88 5.2.4 Routes that force passengers to transfer needlessly and uncomfortably Passengers will not take public transit if they must make two or three uncomfortable, expensive, and/or time-consuming transfers. This is particularly true for passengers with children, elderly and disabled passengers, and passengers with parcels. One problem common in the Pacific Islands is that bus fares are regulated at a single flat fare no matter how long the trip may be. In this situation, bus operators may intentionally cut their trips short, forcing passengers to transfer to another bus so that they will have to pay another fare to reach their destination. Another common problem is that the bus routes may all go from a suburban area to the downtown and then stop. If passengers are going anywhere besides downtown, they may need to go downtown and transfer to a second bus to reach their destination. Many of these forced transfers can be addressed by changing route and fare structures. 5.2.5 Slow bus operation due to needless and unexpected bus delays To really persuade people to take the bus rather than their private car, the bus needs to be as fast or faster than the car. In many cases, bus passengers tend to be stuck in the same traffic congestion that private car operators face but lack door to door service provided by cars. In other cases, the congestion is caused by popular bus stops where buses are stopping two or three abreast to jockey for passengers, or where buses waiting for passengers are consuming the entirety of the bus stop, so the buses back up, spilling into the roadway. Bus drivers tend to wait for passengers at high demand and congested areas until seats are filled up, because their revenue is based on fares – in other words, based on the number of passengers they carry. This is typical of unregulated bus systems without time-schedules. Figure 116: Bus stops near Honiara Central Market. Source: WB Project Team 89 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Figure 117: Alighting and Boarding along Main Road in South Tarawa (Left) and Honiara (Right). Source: WB Project Team 5.2.6 Limited passenger information A bus system is hard to use if the passengers don’t have information on bus routes, bus stops and destinations. In a growing number of cities, passengers can simply use Google Maps to determine the best bus route, the nearest stop, and to get a rough idea of the bus schedule. Transit operators can put their bus maps and schedules into General Transit Feed Specification (GTFS) files so that they can be used by Google Maps. Other systems have special apps available that will provide passengers real-time information about when the next bus is likely to arrive. System maps in bus stops and handed 4 min. 1km out to the public can also give the public better information about bus routes and stops. Without this information the bus system is very difficult to use except for the most familiar trips. In most of the Pacific Islands, passengers cannot easily find even a basic bus map or a basic schedule. The public transit services may not follow a specific route, stop at specific stops, or follow a schedule, as such this information is rarely shown on Google Maps or other commonly used apps. These problems are relatively easy and inexpensive to solve. 5.2.7 User-hostile ticketing system One of the common complaints about using transit in Pacific Island cities is that passengers need to have the right amount of cash with the right sort of change to use the system. As noted above, rigid fare structures common in the region (i.e., flat fares) often cause bus operators to make short trips, forcing passengers to transfer and pay again. Most of the world is quickly moving to open-loop cellphone-based ticketing systems where anyone with a cell phone and an e-wallet can pay the fare simply by using their mobile phone. In the Pacific Island cities, smartphone penetration is lagging a bit behind, with penetration rates around 47%30. As such, offering a Smartcard fare media distributed through local shops and kiosks can provide another option to those without a Smartphone. Increasingly Smartcard systems can also add value to the card using a computer or a telephone. Smarter electronic ticketing systems can also streamline fare discounts for students and others with categorical discounts. Improving ticketing systems can improve safety and convenience for passengers. 30. Mobile Operators and Networks, The Mobile Economy Pacific Islands, 2023. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 90 5.2.8 Lack of transit regulation and institutional capacity In most of the PICs, government administrative capacity to regulate public transit is quite weak. In Honiara and South Tarawa bus services are regulated by town or city councils. In Port Moresby and in Nuku’alofa it is regulated by a national government body. In Nuku’alofa it is regulated by the Ministry of Infrastructure Land Transport Division. In Port Moresby it is regulated by the Regional Transport Authority, a body that reports to the national Ministry of Transport but has an advisory board with representation of the City Manager and other stakeholders. Enforcement of the regulations is usually a responsibility of the police. The effectiveness of this regulation is generally varies, however. Currently, in many Pacific Island cities transit operators require only a commercial operating license. In some cities, like Port Moresby, there are route licenses, but the higher demand routes are over-subscribed. Operators tend to only operate on the most lucrative section of a defined route, leaving large sections of the official routes without any service. With weak regulation of competition at the route level, over-subscribing on the higher demand routes undermines the profitability of even those routes. In addition, individual operators will sometimes compete for passengers at curb side, creating dangerous conditions. Operators will sometimes wait at a bus stop until they are completely full, causing delay and making travel times unpredictable. 5.2.9 Underdeveloped transit industry Transit services are only as good as the companies that provide the service. In some cases, governments try to operate their own bus services through public sector bus enterprises. In the Pacific region such efforts have proven to be largely unsuccessful, as the civil service has limited experience and capacity in operating transit services. If the transit industry is weakly regulated, the business environment is likely to be risky. A risky business environment is unlikely to attract significant private sector investment. For the most part, transit operators in the Pacific Islands are small, independently owned and informally operated businesses. As such, they have relatively limited capital to invest in modernizing their fleet. They are also probably using their drivers and their vehicles inefficiently, who in turn face highly irregular incomes and enjoy very few employee benefits such as health care or social security. The companies are also likely to have weak corporate governance, so if something goes wrong it is hard to hold the company accountable. The informal nature of these businesses virtually ensures that the owners and operators are trapped in a low profit, high risk business environment unlikely to result in good quality of service, good stable jobs for employees, and stable profits for investors. 5.2.10 Poor transit infrastructure and equipment Currently, infrastructure supporting transit services is quite limited in the Pacific region, with a few exceptions. For the most part, it is limited to one or two bus terminals and a few formal bus stops, usually in a downtown area. In one or two cities, such as Port Moresby, large bus terminals have been built roadside to try and accommodate large numbers of idling buses during the mid-day off-peak. For the most part, buses or minibuses are not kept in a secure depot at night where the vehicle can be kept safe from vandalism and weather. Most buses do not have modern fare collection equipment, and most bus operators or regulators do not have an operational control system or computer assisted dispatch which regulates bus spacing and scheduling. For the most part, bus stops lack secure shelters where passengers can wait comfortably out of the sun and rain and free from concern about personal security. For the most part there are no dedicated bus lanes or traffic signal priority that give buses priority over general traffic to make them more time competitive. 91 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Figure 118: Bus stops (Left) and bus parked on the road (Right) in Port Moresby. Source: WB Project Team 5.3 Best practices in the Pacific and globally There are three main focus areas for PICs to properly develop high-quality public transit systems: • Public transit route and network design • Regulating the transit industry • Infrastructure development and maintenance 5.3.1 Public transit route and network design Public transit networks have extended and grown organically in the major cities of PICs without much thought about system-level efficiency. Small individual bus operators may propose a route to a government official and then that official grants them a license with an exclusive right to the route. Operators tend to shorten the route if the fare is regulated at a level that is too low for them to cover their costs for the longer, less efficient routes. Efforts to optimize the bus routes in the region and internationally tend to occur either as part of a new Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system or as a stand-alone project. Where bus networks have been successfully optimized, they have yielded either significant increases in service frequency and ridership with minimal increases in operating costs, or they have kept ridership and services constant while reducing operating costs. The general principles of network design based on global experience are introduced in the Figure below and broken down in the following sub-sections. Figure 119: Some general principles of bus network redesign. Direct services rather A route map, a than trunk feeder schedule and formal bus stops General Principles of Network Design Routes passing A backbone grid through city center network of frequent routes Optimal stopping patterns Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 92 (a) The Basics: A route map, a schedule, and formal bus stops In the Pacific Islands, some basic issues need to be resolved first, such establishing and publicizing defined bus routes, schedules, and stops. These elements should be coded into GTFS, so that then Google Maps or other mapping apps can offer transit directions to users. Without a map of bus routes, a schedule, and formal stops, it is difficult for passengers to be confident of how to take the bus or how long it will take. Case 1 Nouméa, New Caledonia The Nouméa Greater Urban Area has a population of 182,341. In 2016, the city began a series of ambitious reforms that are in the process of implementation. The routes and stops were first mapped, and the schedules published.31 In the coming years they will be going through a network redesign effort to reduce redundancy and inefficiency in the route network. (b) A Grid of Frequent Routes The key to success for most network redesign efforts has been to establish a core network of ‘frequent’ routes, where passengers can be confident that a bus will come within about 10 minutes at any given stop on a frequent network. Furthermore, these frequent routes should cover the densest parts of the city. Within the built-up parts of the city, the routes should form a grid where possible. A grid is an ideal network structure in a consistently dense area because a person can get from any point to any other point with just one transfer. A grid is less critical when trip origins and destinations are heavily concentrated in a single or multiple urban cores. A city might therefore end up with radial services leading from villages into the denser urban core and then forming a grid of services through the urban core. For example, this would be an ideal service pattern for cities like Nuku’alofa, Tonga and Apia, Samoa. (c) Routes should pass through, rather than terminate, in the urban core and major sub-centers Traditional bus routes in PIC cities typically originate in villages or settlements around the city periphery (with the atoll cities such as South Tarawa in Kiribati and Majuro in Marshall Islands being an exception to this), and then go directly to popular stops downtown, where the drivers will stay, sometimes for several hours, until the bus fills with passengers to make a return trip. They are generally trying to save fuel. When all bus routes terminate in the city center, as noted earlier this often leads to crowds of buses making U-turns and idling during the off- peak periods. 31. https://www.karuiabus.nc/plans. 93 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Figure 120: Hierarchy of bus route relationships to the urban core. Downtown Downtown Downtown Downtown Worst case: Problematic: Good: Most services Best Case for High Services All services pass through Demand: terminate terminate at central downtown, routes Most services pass at edge of downtown terminal terminate outside through downtown. downtown downtown Long routes overlap downtown to provide higher frequency in the core Two services with similar loads approaching downtown can be joined together, reducing fleet requirements by as much as 20%, and also removing idling buses from the city center. As demand increases, routes might terminate on the far edge of the downtown, so that there are overlapping services in the urban core where demand is the highest. Simply changing the route structure is not enough, however: the buses will still idle in the center waiting for passengers unless they are not allowed to by police enforcement, or unless their business model is changed so that they are paid based on the kilometers they operate and/or face fines or penalties for not adhering to a schedule. (d) Direct Services Have Advantages over Trunk and Feeder A related issue is whether to run a trunk-feeder service pattern or more direct services. For a long time, it was fashionable to convert a group of direct routes that shared a common corridor into a single trunk route and several feeder routes, known as a ‘trunk and feeder’ route configuration. Figure 121: Conditions where trunk and feeder services perform better and conditions where direct services perform better. e s n ut inu ow Ro rm nt Te w Trunk-Feeder Services work well when: Do Demand from one main route on a corridor dispense across a large number of smaller routes Higher Potential Benefit from Trunk-Feeder Services n e s tow ut inu o wn R rm Connecting two services works well when: Do Te Most passengers on a main route are transferring to only one or two other routes Less Potential Benefit Trunk-Feeder Services Source: Port Moresby Electric Bus Program and BRT Concept, ADB/Gutter Consulting Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 94 If a long major bus route reaches a point where the demand suddenly splits between a large number of much smaller and shorter routes, it may make sense to have the smaller shorter routes transfer to a single larger higher frequency route. If, on the other hand, at a major bus route most of the passengers are transferring from one major route onto another major route or perhaps two major routes, it makes more sense to combine these two routes and run a single direct service. To consider these principles, we consider the case of the Honiara public transit system. Figure 122: Central market and Honiara City Council (HCC), Honiara (Left) and routes the two terminal serves (Right). Source: Author created on Google Earth (Left) and Greater Honiara Transport Master Plan Study, 2022 (Right) The figure above (Left) shows the concentration of idling buses blocking the road at the Central Market and another concentration of idling buses at the Honiara City Council (HCC). The figure (Right) shows the routes that these two terminals serve. The routes terminating at Central Market tend to run along the main highway and are blocking the road. As there is only one major route headed west and one major and one minor route headed east, it would be best to combine the major eastbound and westbound route into a single route to decongest the area around the Central Market. At the HCC, on the other hand, the off-peak idling vehicles are fewer and not causing any particular traffic problem. The routes individually have low demand and operate on narrow, often unpaved roads. The vehicles currently operating these routes are almost all minibuses, and likewise the optimal vehicle size for these smaller routes will be quite small. On the trunk road, the optimal vehicle size is much larger, and the loads are much higher. As such, there isn’t one feeder route and one trunk route carrying a similar load that might easily be combined to provide a single direct service. Extending all the small, lower demand bus routes onto the trunk will add a lot of route kilometers at less than full occupancy, and the volume of small buses added to the trunk will add to bus congestion problems along the trunk. Thus, it makes more sense to have a small transfer terminal here at HCC. (e) Optimal Stopping Patterns Currently, some bus services in PIC cities tend to pick up most of their passengers in a village and then pretty much go straight downtown without stopping unless they have space, and someone happens to be flagging them down along the road. Meanwhile, other bus routes often just stop at all the stops along the way. Both are sub-optimal. The optimal stopping pattern depends on how many passengers are riding along a corridor. If a corridor has very low ridership, but we want the route to be reasonably frequent, say, every 10 minutes, then we may be only able to sustain one route that makes all the stops. However, if there is more demand on the corridor, enough to support two routes with a headway of ten minutes or less, then the routes can be split in the manner below in the figure. In this case, one bus route serves the farther out villages, then it skips a bunch of stops before reaching the downtown area. The second bus route then services the closer in villages and the lower density parts of the city. In this way, the passengers traveling from farther out benefit from the faster travel speeds of skipping some of the intermediate stops, and if they need that stop, they can always transfer to the other service. If there is even more demand on the corridor, enough to sustain three bus routes with a 10-minute headway, then it should be possible to introduce yet another route. In this case, one route would make all local stops in the denser urban area. One route might primarily service the farther out eastern villages, then travel express until it reaches the downtown, but continuing through the downtown until it reaches the far side of downtown, so all the major downtown destinations can be reached without a transfer. The other route might primarily service the western villages, but also pass through the downtown. In this way there is a lot higher frequency in the urban core, where there is much higher demand. In this way, higher loads can be maintained on all the routes. 95 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Figure 123: Examples of improved bus stopping pattern. City Center Improved stopping pattern along a transit corridor. City Center Improved stopping pattern on a very high demand corridor. Figure 124: Proposal of bus stopping pattern in Nuku’alofa. Note: This example is for illustration purposes only. In order to plan routes and bus stops specifically, further comprehensive traffic survey is required. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 96 5.3.2 Regulating the Transit Industry A well-regulated transit industry is critical to ensuring that public transit operations serve the public’s needs. Proper regulation also significantly reduces the risks to private operators, making transit a much safer investment than in a poorly regulated system. There are several key considerations in transit regulation: • Are bus operations public or private (or both)? • Who should regulate transit? • What type(s) of contract should be utilized? • Is competitive bidding or negotiated contracts more suitable? • How to minimize and avoid subsidies (a) Public or Private Bus Operations A reasonable issue to address first is whether private bus operations or public bus enterprises are more likely to provide a good quality of service. Both can be made to work, but there is enough experience now with both that the conditions under which public or private operations are more likely to be successful are reasonably well known. Table 9: Bus operations, public or private ownership, variety of island cities. Bus Operations Cities, Towns/Countries Income Level Population (data source) Private Private Small Island Developing States Nouméa New Caledonia   Formal   High 94,285 2019 Census Suva Fiji   Formal Upper-middle 93,970 2017 Census Port Moresby PNG   Semi-formal Lower-middle 364,125 2011 Census South Tarawa Kiribati   Semi-formal Lower-middle 63,439 2020 Census Honiara Solomon   Informal Lower-middle 129,569 2019 Census Islands Nuku’alofa Tonga   Informal Upper-middle 21,285 2021 Census Kingston Jamaica Public Informal Upper-middle 662,435 2011 Census Port of Spain Trinidad and Public Informal High 37,074 2011 Census Tobago Island Cities with BRT / Bus System Reykjavik Iceland Public Formal High 139,875 2023 Statistics Iceland Virgin Islands US Virgin Public   High 87,146 2020 Census Islands San Juan Puerto Rico Public   High 342,259 2020 Census Honolulu, United States Public   High 345,064 2020 Census Hawaii Guam United States Public   High 153,836 2020 Census Note: Informal: commercial operating license only Semi-formal: Route license and commercial operating license Formal: Service contract 97 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city In the Pacific Islands, the most sophisticated operation is that of Nouméa, which formalized the existing private bus operators and put them under modern operating contracts. Suva in Fiji is probably the next most formalized private bus operation in the Pacific Islands. Meanwhile, some of Port Moresby’s PMV owners are incorporated, have route licenses, and small fleets of 10 – 12 vehicles, but others are unincorporated individual owner-operators. Otherwise, for the most part operators are small, informal, individual owner-operated buses, and in the case of Tonga some appear to be community-owned. A few island countries have publicly operated transit operations. Port Moresby, as noted earlier, tried to start a public operator in 2022 but only three of an original fleet of eight vehicles were operating after two years of operation. Port of Spain in Trinidad brought in a big public operator that seems to be functioning. High-income islands with public operators (i.e., Guam and San Juan) have highly functional public administrations with many well-paid bureaucrats, and even so their public bus operations tend to be inefficient and heavily subsidized. Figure 125: Transit Service Regulation. Commercial Operating Route License Only Service Contract License Only • Individuals, association, • The bus company has • Individuals, collectives or companies have a contract with the or companies can license to operate governement to provide operate anywhere. specific routes. services • The market is • The company or drive • The contract lays out regulated by informal collects all revenues. operational standards assocations. • Services may be route- or area-based Honiara, Solomon Islands, Port Moresby, PNG Noumea, New Calendonia Nuku’alofa, Tonga Suva, Fiji San Juan, PR, USA Who Should Regulate Transit Regardless of whether the system is operated predominantly by the private or public sector, government administration needs to have human capital to provide the best service to the public. If the contracts are well negotiated and well administered, this can result in good service at a reasonable price. Poorly written and poorly enforced contracts and/or weakly regulated informal operations lead to poor quality transit service. This is true even if there are plenty of experienced private bus operators. A reasonably small office with a few competent staff and some outside consultants is probably enough to regulate a small private bus system sufficient for most PIC cities. A lot can be done by coordinating existing entities rather than establishing a large bureaucracy. A general rule of thumb is that the level of government closest to the transit operation’s geographical extent that also has regulatory powers over land use is the best level to regulate transit. In many cases this is at the municipality or district council level. In very small PICs with weaker municipal governments, it may need to be a branch of the national government with a specific mandate to focus on urban transport. (b) Route Concessions, Net Cost Contracts or Gross Cost Contracts, and Profit-Sharing Contracts with Quality-of-Service Rewards and Penalties In most of the Pacific Islands, buses operate with a simple operating license. The qualification criteria for receiving the license appears to be minimal, and there is minimal supervision. In a few cities like in Suva and in Port Moresby, bus operating companies hold route license concessions, and the companies are more formalized. The company gets to operate these routes and collect all the fare revenue so long as they meet certain minimum standards, such as passing an annual road worthiness test and having insurance. This is known as a ‘net cost contract’. Net cost contracts reduce the risk that the government will have to pay a subsidy, but because the government does not control the fare revenue, it is harder to force the companies to pay penalties for poor performance. This can be mitigated somewhat by requiring the operator to pay for a performance bond, and deducting penalties from it, but this does not appear to be common practice in the Pacific Island cities. In Nouméa, New Caledonia (a high-income economy), they have leapfrogged to a more advanced form of contracting bus services known as ‘gross cost contracts.’ To be most precise, it is a ‘cost-plus contract’ with quality-of-service incentives, which is a specific type of gross cost contract. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 98 Figure 126: Type of Contracts (Net or Gross). Net Cost Contract Gross Cost Contract Public Transport Customer Fares Customer Fares Authority Subsidy Bus Operators Trust Fund Payment with service level adjustment Public Transport Bus Bus Fare Authority Operator Operator Collection/ Trust Fund ITS Manager A B Operator In Nouméa’s case, the bus authority Syndicat Mixte des Transports Urbains du Grand Nouméa (SMTU) introduced a smart card ticketing system and began to directly collect all the fare revenue. It then signed contracts with the former operators and is now paying them based on the estimated cost of the services they provide plus a fixed fee. This structure doesn’t give the operator much financial incentive to reduce their operating costs. It also does not expose the operator to demand risk, so they may not stop at all bus stops. These problems are partially mitigated by quality-of-service penalties and bonuses in the contract. If the bus operator does not meet certain frequency and on-time performance, it can receive a penalty. Once the government takes control of the fare revenue and requires a contract with the bus operator for them to get paid, the government can more easily add penalties and rewards to the contract for good or bad performance. Some typical penalties include penalties if the buses are not clean or well-maintained when they exit the depot, if the service does not stick with the schedule (the operator may need to procure an operational control system to avoid such penalties), if the drivers are found to be drunk or with poor hygiene or out of uniform, or if general customer satisfaction rating drops below a pre-agreed level, the bus operator can be penalized, the penalties being withheld from their monthly or weekly payments. In systems with multiple operators these penalties can be put into an escrow account and then awarded to the operator with the best performance at the end of the month or year, so that the government regulator doesn’t have a financial incentive to unfairly impose penalties. Figure 127: Examples of Control Fare Revenue in Nouméa (Left) and Rewards and Penalties for Quality Performance (Right). Fare Revenue Government (Smart card and Cash) Subsidy Public Transport Organization (SMTU) Gross Cost Operating Contrast with Penalties and Bonuses based on Performance Bus Operator Bus Operator A B 99 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city The most advanced form of contract might be called a ‘profit sharing contract’ with ‘quality of service incentives’. It is similar to a gross-cost contract, but it partially exposes the operator to demand risk. In this case, the operators are paid primarily based on the kilometers of service they provide, though they also receive a small part of their payment based on the number of customers they carry. The decision about how many kilometers to operate, however, rests with the transportation authority. If the operator performs poorly, their daily kilometers can be assigned to a different competing operator. If demand grows, on the other hand, and the system profitability increases, they get assigned more kilometers and make more profits. They also face a series of rewards and penalties for good or bad performance. This type of contract has not yet been used in the Pacific Islands. (c) Competitive Bidding or Negotiated Contracts In most of the Pacific Islands bus operators apply for an operating license and the responsible government agency will either grant or deny the application. There is no competitive tendering to win the right to provide bus services the way there is for public sector procurement. The lack of a competitive bidding process undermines the power of the government to regulate the transit services. If there is no competitive tendering for route licenses or operating contracts, and if the government does not directly control the fare revenue, it is quite difficult to persuade bus operators to pay penalties for poor performance. Tendering can happen for any type of operating contract or route license. Minimum qualification criteria can be used to ensure that all the bidders reach certain minimum baseline requirements, such as having enough capital, having a new enough vehicle that has passed a road worthiness test, having insurance, having a depot, having a minimum size fleet. These minimum qualification criteria can be used to drive industry consolidation and formalization. If the government takes a decision to move towards either net cost or gross cost operating contracts, if these contracts are awarded through a competitive bidding process, the government will have a lot more leverage during the negotiation of the final contract. Sometimes incumbent operators are politically very powerful, perhaps the vehicles are even owned by important public officials, and it becomes politically impossible to competitively tender the bus services. In this case, the government is forced into a negotiation with the incumbent bus operators. The government can still find leverage during the negotiations, but it is likely that the timeline for the completion of negotiations will be more protracted and the position of the government weaker. In the case of Nouméa, there was a competitive tender to comply with public service procurement rules, but the incumbent operators won the tender, which is not uncommon. In the Pacific Islands there may not be so many investors willing to enter the market as the markets are small and remote. (d) Minimizing and Avoiding Subsidies In general, there is a greater risk that the government will need to find the resources to subsidize transit services if they move from route concessions or net cost contracts into gross cost contracting. This is a particular risk with ‘cost-plus’ contracts where the operator makes more money if they inflate their costs. Sometimes the improved quality of transit services, the increased use of the public transit system, and the positive effects this has on congestion and air pollution, justify some form of government subsidy. Subsidies can be a trap, however, and takes away scarce public resources from other needed public services. Subsidies should therefore be approached with great care. Minimizing subsidies needs to start at the earliest stage of the public transit system development and should be a goal of system design. This begins at the service planning stage. Transit planners need to design the services that will attract the most passengers for the fewest operating kilometers. Strategic capital investments can also reduce subsidies. Capital investments into such things as electric buses, photovoltaic panels at bus depots, and dedicated lanes and nice bus stations can all play a key role in reducing operating costs. Also, competitive tendering of the service can also keep operating costs down. (e) Developing and Involving Private Bus Operators Why formalize the bus industry? Most of the larger cities in the Pacific Island States already have some sort of private bus operators providing some type of service. They already have experience maintaining their vehicles, hiring the best drivers that they can trust, and managing their business. However, they are probably not formal companies, and probably do not know how to manage a larger, more formal business. Managing a modern bus business involves something called ‘integrated fleet management’. This means that the company maintains the fleet in a depot and deploys the fleet wherever it is most needed when it is most needed. They can then internalize the maintenance costs instead of always going to repair shops, they can buy spare parts and fuel in bulk from suppliers, and in other ways realize economies of scale that are lost to smaller individual operators. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 100 A formal company also needs to have good corporate governance, maintain proper accounting records, keep their vehicles and their documents safe, and otherwise comply with good business practices, such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 9000 regulations. Without formal corporate governance, governments are reluctant to sign contracts with the company as they may not be easily enforced through the legal system. Good corporate governance also makes it easy for the company to secure lower interest financing from the formal banking system rather than relying on informal, high interest forms of credit. Formalization also benefits the workers. Instead of working long hours with very irregular pay, a salaried employee might enjoy regular hours, health, and social security benefits, and may have access to facilities for washing, eating, and resting at a nice depot. In the case of bus operators of Bogota, workers were forced to work for 16 hours per day with uncertain salary before formalization, but 8-hour shifts with regular paychecks and benefits were adopted after formalization. How to formalize the bus industry There are a few ways to formalize the bus industry. In some cases, as appears to be the case in Suva and in Nouméa even before the recent reforms, the bus industry reached a reasonable level of scale and formality almost organically. If the main bus owners are wealthy enough, they may begin to buy up more and more vehicles and route licenses until they are making enough money to buy new vehicles, invest in a depot, in which case they may increase their level of formalization to access bank credit. In other Pacific Island cities, however, this process has not happened, because the bus business is less profitable, the owners have less business management experience, or less investment capital. If the process is not happening on its own, the government is going to need to use its regulatory powers to drive the formalization process. Theoretically, a government might decide that it does not want to deal with the complicated process of formalizing its bus industry. It might decide to create a public bus enterprise, or it might decide to try and find an outside entrepreneur, either foreign or from another industry inside the country, to get into the municipal bus business. Figure 128: The bus industry formalization process. Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Define the Issue a Stop renewing Identify and Issue tender with service to be prospectus of licenses on register affected incentives to include tendered the business affected routes operators affected operators As noted earlier, public enterprises often fail because the government has limited in-house expertise in running a bus business, and recruitment rules tend to be cumbersome, making it difficult to hire the staff they need to run a successful company. Too often, political interests end up over-riding the commercial interests of the company. It is cleaner from a governance perspective for the government to be the regulator of private operators rather than try to be both regulator and operator. Some cities have recruited private investors into their municipal bus business. When Pakistan introduced its new BRT bus services in Peshawar, it brought in a Turkish company to invest in the business and run the bus service. This was advantageous as it brough foreign capital into the system, and it can also bring in foreign management experience. On the downside, however, this does little to empower local businesses. It can also lead to political tension as local businesspeople resist the encroachment of foreign operators on their market and try to stop the reform. In the case of PIC cities, it is very unlikely that a foreign business would invest in the bus business. Apart from Port Moresby, the transit markets in Pacific Cities are simply too small to justify the time and investment required for a foreign operator to get involved. The expense and risk of setting up a bus operation in a remote island city are likely to be too great for most of the successful private bus operators. As such, cities in PICs are going to need to rely as much as possible on domestic capital and domestic management and expertise. Best practice internationally is to formalize existing private operators who possess the necessary labor force to run the bus service and encourage them to form formal joint ventures with a firm that has the management and logistics skills a larger bus company would need. This most likely will come from a tour operator, a trucking or shipping operator, or delivery service, where the skills are similar. The process tends to be most successful when driven by a formal tender for municipal bus operations, with incentives in the tender for the bidders to involve as owners and employees existing bus owners and operators. This was how the process was done in Bogota for TransMilenio. The companies that emerged to operate TransMilenio were highly successful and have since expanded their operations to Chile, Peru, and other countries in the region. 101 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city 5.3.3 Infrastructure Best Practice In the best cases, infrastructure investments have been used to make public transit more desirable, faster, and safer than traveling by private car. Many of these investments can consider together as a group of integrated investments, but the investments can be done individually and on an as needed basis. As low-cost options, bus stops with route numbers and time schedule defined by route rationalization and bollards would be a great entry point together with enforcement and dissemination. Figure 129: Low-cost options to improve public transit in Palau (Bus stops with time schedule and public transit board game).32 Source: Project for Establishing an Eco-friendly Transportation System in Palau, JICA In addition to the lower-cost options, further improvements of public are required through strategic infrastructure investments. Key infrastructure investments include: • Bus Station Stops • Modern Fare Collection Systems • Depots • Dedicated Bus Lanes and Busways (a) Bus Station Stops Minimum features for all bus stops Taking the bus requires sitting on the side of a road waiting or a bus. Nice shelters protecting passengers from sun and rain, making tickets or smart cards available for sale, giving passengers a place sit or lean, and providing information about what bus routes are available and when the bus may arrive, all contribute to making the bus trip a much more comfortable experience. The good bus stops can offer convenience for all passengers including children, disabled, pregnant, injured and others. Nouméa, as part of their BRT corridor, has introduced attractive bus shelters that serve these functions. Cities across the world have introduced stations that provide a fully enclosed environment. The one shown below, from Ahmedabad, India, is a passive solar design, offering passengers a wonderful escape from brutal heat or monsoon rains, without the need for air conditioning. The bus stop is level with the bus floor, so the passengers do not have to climb up and down steps to enter the vehicle. This is particularly important to reducing bus delay at the station, and to making boarding easier for elderly and disabled passengers and those with small children or packages. For high passenger demand bus stops In many BRT Stations, passenger pay when they enter the station. In this way, there is no delay caused by the driver needing to accept cash or validate tickets. Paying on board a bus tends to limit access to the bus to a single door, which further delays the boarding process. Payment at the entrance of the station allows passengers to board through all doors at once. Such stations can also have a security guard and/or security cameras, which is particularly important in cities with higher crime rates. However, even without off-board fare collection, modern systems can significantly improve the time taken for boarding passengers to pay for trips and would be appropriate for low and medium demand bus stops in some Pacific cities (see next section). 32. Public Transit Board Game is used for educational purpose to understand convenience, travel speed, CO2 emissions and other benefits of public transit. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 102 Figure 130: Bus Stops (Left, Nouméa, New Caledonia, Right, Ahmedabad, India). Source: ITDP the Bus Rapid Transit Standard (b) Modern Fare Collection Systems Most transit systems are moving away from cash payment. Cash payment has many limitations. Passengers may not have the right change on hand. Fumbling for the right amount can delay bus departure. Cash payment also complicates practices such as varying fares based on distance traveled and providing free transfers between routes. Most cities are moving towards what is called ‘open-loop’ payment systems. This means that the passenger can pay using any credit card or smartphone with an e-wallet. This kind of payment is the most convenient because unlike Smartcard systems where there needs to be a special network of vending machines or ‘add-value’ machines, with Smart Phone-based systems the passenger can either just pay the fee through their standard credit card bill or phone bill, or they can add value to the account on-line. These systems do not require a network of payment kiosks or fare machines, which are costly to acquire and maintain. Figure 131: State of the art fare collection can use a regular smart phone. Source: Brendan McDermid/Reuters Source: NACTO New York’s OMNY system. Austin MetroRapid Bus. (c) Depots The depot is the control center of any bus operation, the facility that keeps the investment in the buses secure, and the place for storage of critical spare parts, waiting space to avoid any delay of drivers and employees, bus maintenance, and administrative works. If the buses are electric, it is where buses are recharged. If the depot has photovoltaics on the roof, the depot can also generate much of the power the buses need to operate. It is also where staff can relax, shower, change, use the bathroom, and eat lunch. 103 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city The depot also houses the operational control system for the bus operator if there is not one controlled by the public authority. The operational control center is critical to keeping buses on time, and for dealing with any problem that may emerge along the route. Figure 132: Key elements to a successful bus depot (Left) and operational control center in the Philippines (Right). Source: Lloyd Wright, BRT Standard Guide, 2024 (Left) and WB Project Team (Right) (d) Dedicated Bus Lanes and Busways If buses are trapped in the same congestion as private cars, bus trips will be even slower than traveling by private car because passengers need to also reach the bus route and bus stop, wait for the bus, and then reach their destination on the other end. One popular way to make bus trips time competitive with car travel is to give the buses dedicated bus lanes on parts of the road where there is frequently congestion. Dedicated busways are a good option for routes requiring high- frequency and high-ridership to meet high traffic demand. Such measures are relatively unknown in the Pacific Islands, but once again Nouméa is ahead of the rest of the region. Nouméa has implemented a 13.3 km long dedicated bus way in 2019. The dedicated bus lanes are physically separated from the rest of the traffic by medians. Following best practice, the busway is in the central verge of the roadway so that the bus way is less likely to be obstructed by stopping delivery vehicles, taxis, and other roadside obstacles such as construction on adjacent properties. The rendering of a BRT station in Honiara presented in Figure 133 provides an example of a dedicated bus lane. According to the Greater Honiara Transport Master Plan Study (JICA, 2022) traffic demand forecast, around 725,000 trips will be generated in the center of city at peak time in 2036, and 80 large buses will be needed to meet this demand. The main corridor has ample space for a dedicated bus lane. Also, many parking lots are located along the main corridors right now. If unused space, such as parking lots and median strip is converted to dedicated bus lanes and walkable sidewalks, spaces for public transit with a dedicated bus lane can be secured, although further site inspection and feasibility study are required. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 104 Figure 133: Rendering of a Dedicated Bus Lane and Bus Station in Honiara. After Before Source: WB Project Team Figure 134: Rendering of a transit mall on Airport Road in Tongatapu. Source: WB Project Team On a transit mall, buses share the street with pedestrians and cyclists, whereas other motorized traffic is banned. Buses drive at moderate speeds of 20 km/h. A transit mall is an option in commercial and congested city center areas with limited right-of-way for dedicated bus lanes. A transit mall further enhances livability and economic vitality for the retail and restaurant environment. 105 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Figure 135: Proposed Transit Priority Corridor in Suva, Fiji Bus priority measures like dedicated bus lanes and pre-paid boarding stations might be considered in downtown Suva and north of Laucala Bay. Also, a couple of routes could be connected so that passengers can move from north to south or south to north without having to transfer at the Central Bus Stand. Note that this example is for illustration purposes only. In order to plan routes and bus stops specifically, comprehensive traffic survey is required. 5.4 Recommendations Bringing high quality public transit to major cities is critical for these cities to reduce their dependence on expensive imported oil and motor vehicles. It is also critical to reducing roadway congestion, which is rapidly worsening, improving air quality which is also deteriorating, and making their urban cores a livable, culturally vibrant, and fun places to be. Making it possible for people to get to most places on the island quickly and conveniently and cheaply is vital to begin the process of re-orienting these cities around livability and away from serving the needs of private motor vehicle travel. There are critical actions that need to take place before great quality public transit can be brought to the larger Pacific Cities. Although appropriate actions vary depending on the local context, the critical actions based on regional and global experience in Public Transit are on the next page. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 106 Figure 136: Next steps for public transit improvement Source: WB Project Team 5.4.1 Collect Data and Analyze Existing System Functioning Data Collection Data collection with appropriate data management is a first and extremely important step. Fundamental data, such as number of registered vehicles, social and economic situation, regulatory and institutional framework, operation of public transit, fare structure, roadworthiness of existing bus fleet, and current and forecast future traffic volume is needed to consider appropriate steps for public transit development. Development Plan Based on the diagnostic, prepare the public transit development plan separated into short-term, mid-term and long-term timescales. The development plan should include, but not be limited to, a) institutional development and capacity building, b) business model for bus operations, c) data management and technology, such as smart ticketing, passenger information system, data collection methodology for monitoring and evaluating public transit operations, d) bus route optimization, e) transit infrastructure and equipment development, f) traffic bottleneck removal, and g) financial modelling. 107 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city 5.4.2 Plan Bus Routes Establishing the network of bus routes, bus stops, and the schedule is a basic first step that any city can implement at a limited cost. A good network design with optimal stopping patterns can reduce operating costs and save customers a lot of inconvenience. A basic bus network, bus stops and a bus schedule need to be established and be publicized. As informal bus operators often divide the market to suit their interests rather than the interests of bus passengers, using regulator powers to influence routes, stops, and scheduling is an important tool. Planning authorities, such as local governments, can begin to assert their powers in the interest of transit passengers to design regulatory schemes, with help of consultants or experts if needed. 5.4.3 Create Data Management and Information Systems In most PICs, foreign visitors and even locals not familiar public transport would have a hard time determining if there is any transit at all, where to access it, and how to use it. In the absence of maps, signage, or access to information online, they will simply take a taxi or drive, resulting in loss of revenue to bus operators. Learning about the transit services that exist, creating a map, and putting them online is a rather simple exercise that can be done for very little cost. There are a growing number of firms that will provide this service for a modest price, but anyone with a GPS can do it. The next step is to code the network, the stops and the schedules into GTFS so that Google can add the transit network to Google Maps. This also costs little and isn’t complicated. 5.4.4 Regulate Transit Regulate Transit Once the bus routes and stops, and the schedule are planned and made available to the public, the next step is for the government to establish a mechanism for encouraging the bus operators to follow this plan reliably. This generally starts with designating a clear public agency or entity with the responsibility for regulating urban public transit, and giving this office the personnel and resources, it needs to do its job. Ideally this is done by building on whichever government entity is already doing it to some degree. At the most basic level, this involves issuing or tendering a route license or licenses for each route. Operators are required to meet some minimum standards, such as a maximum vehicle age, and passing a road worthiness test, driver’s license, and insurance, to receive the route license. The operator needs to prominently display the route number, the route origin and destination, in a standardized format and location, and to follow that designated route. In the simplest form, the police or transport agency’s own personnel need to be able to penalize drivers operating off their designated route. This can be also monitored by installing a GPS tracker on each bus and then tracking their location at a control center. Business Model Bringing the transit operator into a state of better regulation is a complex process that requires careful negotiation with the affected bus operators. The bus operators need to be brought on board to understand that improving regulation of the bus industry is in their own interest and will, amongst other benefits, provide them with a more sustainable and secure business model. It is important to fully understand how the existing system works, and who will benefit and who may lose out if the new regulations are put into place. As this sometimes causes challenges to developing a strong public transit system, countries have relied on business consultants and/or by labor negotiators to lead this process. Sharing explicit information on benefits and disadvantages with potential operators is indispensable to mitigate risks such as operator strikes. Operating Contract Since route licenses are a relatively weak form of government regulation, PICs need to consider moving directly to operating contracts. If the government does not have the resources to provide any sort of subsidy to transit operations, it is perhaps safer to move to “net-cost contracts”. In this case, to win a contract, the individual owner operators would need to consolidate into formal companies. These companies are required to have a depot, a fleet, and a minimum amount of capital, transparent ownership, a clear board of directors, and other basic corporate governance. Ideally, they would be selected through a competitive tender. The operator would then be responsible for collecting all the fare revenue and providing the services stipulated in the contract and modifying them through a procedure spelled out in the contract. If the government wants to emulate best practice, they should move directly into “gross cost contracts”. Gross cost contracts are contracts where the government, often through a third-party contractor, takes control of the fare revenue, and then pays the company based on a formula such as per kilometer of service provided. In preparing gross cost contracts, governments should either seek help devising contracts that insulate the government from demand risk, or establish a secure source of public revenue to cover subsidies which may arise. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 108 5.4.5 Modernize the Bus Industry The bus services are as good as the companies that operate them. In general, governments of PICs should avoid trying to create a public bus enterprise, as the track record has been poor. Strengthening the existing bus companies is much more likely to be successful and realistic. The government needs to use its regulatory powers to drive the informal industry to consolidate and formalize through its licensing or contracting powers, and through the tendering process. In many countries it is good to try and encourage, through the tender, the formation of joint ventures between modern bus operating companies and local informal operators. The international bus operating companies have developed a lot of business skills that can make these companies profitable and competitive, and they may have investment capital. They may have contracts with spare parts suppliers that are much cheaper than buying them through dealerships; they may have optimized maintenance routines to minimize maintenance costs, and may know how to use scheduling software to optimize the deployment of staff and vehicles. Unfortunately, the markets of the PICs are for the most part too small and too remote to attract much interest from international investors. It is possible that a country with friendly relations or that manufactures buses, such as Japan, China, Korea, or Australia, might encourage their firms to form joint ventures in the PICs either out of a good neighbor policy or because they want to sell their buses and their spare parts. 5.4.6 Construct and Maintain Transit-prioritizing Infrastructure Dedicated Bus Lanes/Bus-only Street/Transit Mall Dedicated bus lanes are most needed where there are frequent traffic back-ups. For them to be viable, however, they need to be on roads that are wide enough to still accommodate the remainder of the mixed traffic, or they need to be on roads that are nearly parallel to roads that mixed traffic can easily be diverted to. In some PICs, there are only narrow roads where bus priority lanes are not easily implemented, and there is not much traffic congestion, so dedicated bus lanes are difficult to implement. In these cities, traffic management measures can be implemented to minimize delay for all vehicles. In still other cities, such as Suva in Fiji, Honiara in the Solomon Islands and Port Moresby in Papua New Guinea, there are a few critical wide roads where the transit vehicles are a major source of the traffic congestion. Chaotic buses double and triple parking at major bus stops and terminals in these cities are a major cause of delay for buses and generalized traffic alike. These cities are prime candidates for dedicated bus lanes and full BRT infrastructure. Dedicated Bus Rapid Transit Stations Most of PICs have a few high-volume bus stops where significant numbers of people boarding buses is a major cause of bus delay. For these few high-volume stations, having an enclosed station which is safe from bad weather, crime and harassment, can be an important part of getting people out of their cars and onto the transit system. It is also an important way to reduce boarding delay at high volume stations. High quality bus stop facilities can also become valuable urban amenities which can help revitalize a downtown with nice public architecture. 5.4.7 Modernize the Bus Fleet and Equipment Modern Ticketing Systems Government investment in modern ticketing systems can help improve regulation and performance of transit systems. This is true even if government pay their operators through a net cost contract. Purchasing the ticketing system allows government to set that system up according to their desired specifications and access precise data about system revenues. Modern ticketing systems where passengers can just use their cell phones make it much easier to pay if they don’t have the right change. It makes it much easier to introduce distanced based fares, to offer discounts to students and elderly people, to offer free or discounted transfers between routes, and it reduces the risks to operator that their fare revenue cash might be stolen or misappropriated. Ticketing systems have become increasingly affordable and are no longer very expensive. Operational Control and Passenger Information Systems Operational control and passenger information systems are another relatively low-cost investment in modernization. Operational control systems are used to help maintain constant headways between buses, keep buses on schedule, and respond to problems in an emergency. They also generate the critical information used by passenger information systems. If passengers can know in real time when their bus is going to arrive at their stop, it gives them the option of waiting for their bus or deciding to take a taxi instead. Depots Pacific Cities should consider investing in depots equipped with photovoltaics to recharge electric buses. The depot is critical to ensuring that the buses are protected from the elements and vandals, that they go into service in a state of good repair, and that the drivers have a place to rest, wash up and use the facilities. 109 Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Depots are usually located on public land located as close as possible to the most popular bus routes, to minimize ‘dead kilometers’ and mitigate risks related to land acquisition, but it does not need to be in a downtown area where land is expensive. It can be on the outskirts of town. There is some advantage to having the depot owned by the government and leased to the operator: If the operator is doing a poor job, they can be replaced at the end of their contract without having to relocate the depot. The operator’s lease just expires at the end of the contract, and they need to vacate the depot. Consideration of New Electric Buses In most PICs, the transit demand is not high, and large buses may not necessary. Buses in the 8-to-10-meter range, which hold 50 passengers or so and are larger than minibuses, are probably close to optimal for most cities in the region. Moving directly to electric buses would make a lot of sense for many of PICs. While the up-front capital investment is higher, these investment costs can generally be covered by very low interest loans or grants from international development institutions. Meanwhile, their operating costs are much lower. Imported fuel is generally very expensive to get to PICs, and fuel prices are increasingly volatile. This depends on the source of electricity. Ideally, the government could also invest in a depot with a roof made of photovoltaic cells so that most of the electricity can be generated off the grid at the depot. Most PICs have plenty of sunlight to power photovoltaic cells. 5.4.8 Build Industry and Institutional Capacity and Engage Stakeholders Capacity Development Developing the capacity of government officials, bus operators and drivers is critical to smoothly implement and continuously improve public transit using the processes discussed above. Stakeholder Engagement Owing to the diverse stakeholders involved, consensus building is essential to public transit modernization and development. Some cities around the world have been facing challenges to implementing formalization and regulation because operators and owners go on strikes and join opposition movements. Where these challenges have arisen, insufficient stakeholder involvement and failure to explain changes and provide sufficient evidence has often been contributing factor. Guide to Mobility Guideforto Mobility Livable Pacific for Livable Part II: Cities |Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement Handbook to theImplement the Priority Actions Priority Actions 110 Strategy 6 Use land use planning to guide compact city development Authors: Walter Hook, Yoichiro Kono and Bram van Ooijen Walter Hook is an urban planner and expert in the field of sustainable transportation policy and practice. He has been a Principal at BRT Planning International since 2015. From 1993 until 2014, he worked as the Chief Executive Officer for the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy. Walter has worked on the design and implementation of numerous bus rapid transit (BRT) systems in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and is considered a leading expert on BRT design and policy. Yoichiro Kono is an urban transport specialist with the World Bank. He has worked in urban and transport planning, infrastructure development and Transit-oriented development (TOD) for United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), the World Bank and private entities over the last 15 years. Yoichiro is also a registered professional architect (1st class) and professional engineer in urban and regional planning of Japan, and holds a Master’s degree in urban engineering from the University of Tokyo. Bram van Ooijen is an urban transport specialist with 18 years of experience in designing streets for active mobility and parking management, predominantly in Asia. His key expertise lies in street design, bicycle networks, greenways, bus-rapid transit corridor design, low-emission zones, parking policy and management, and transit- oriented development. Bram is the former lead for the Non-motorized Transport and Transportation Demand Management divisions at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy China. 111 Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development 6.1 Abstract Land use planning, when done well, is key to reducing car dependency. Sound land use planning promotes compact and energy-efficient urban development and accessibility to services and activities. An integrated approach to transportation and land use planning makes sound land use planning much more effective at promoting accessibility and transportation choices needed to reduce dependence on cars. Pacific Cities have considerable work to do to first turn their urban development plans into concrete, more detailed local plans, focusing particularly on those nodes where urban development is being encouraged. Secondly, these local plans need to be translated into state-of-the-art zoning codes to avoid pitfalls associated with outdated practices in western countries. This Chapter discussed issues with land use planning and identifies next steps for Pacific Cities. 6.2 Issues and opportunities Most cities in Pacific Island Countries have adopted a land use plan, and cities with populations exceeding 100,000 tend to have spatial development plans as well as land use plans. A land use plan and a spatial development plan are both tools used in urban and regional planning, but they have different focuses and scopes. A land use plan is typically more specific and focuses on the allocation of land for various uses within a defined area. It outlines what types of development are permissible in different parts of a community, such as residential, commercial, industrial, agricultural, or recreational areas. The plan is often used to guide zoning decisions and can be a way to implement a spatial development plan. A spatial development plan, on the other hand, is broader in scope and considers a wider range of factors. It includes the arrangement and organization of different land uses, but also takes into account infrastructure, transportation networks, housing, social services, and environmental concerns. It is more strategic in nature and aims to guide the long-term development of a region, including how space is used and how different areas are connected. Some Pacific land use plans have also been adopted into zoning regulations, while others do not appear to have been. Where zoning plans have been produced, they have tended to be at a level of generality that is too high for effective enforcement. In some cities the law requires the development of more detailed local development plans, but these are infrequently completed, with some exceptions. Sometimes the critical provisions are not in the zoning regulations but in building codes. Building codes were generally developed to ensure that buildings are constructed to certain quality standards that enable them to withstand events such as fires, earthquakes, or storms. Some building codes require that building adopt setbacks necessary to allow access to below-ground utilities, et cetera. 6.2.1 Lack of institutional capacity In the Pacific Islands, local authorities lack the legal authority, financial capacity, and staff to effectively enforce the spatial development and land use plans, zoning codes, and building codes. The plans and codes often follow outdated, modernist-inspired paradigms. Where codes and plans exist, their application to building permits and lease approvals can be cumbersome and arbitrary. Many developments occur outside the official procedures. The production of these plans and codes is generally too slow to keep up with rapid changes in the urban fabric. Such plans are generally renewed only every 10 to 15 years, which is too infrequent for cities experiencing rapid urban migration and population growth; consequently, plans are rapidly outdated and lose relevance. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 112 6.2.2 Customary and even public land ownership can pose challenges to land use planning and regulation Land use planning and zoning in the Pacific Islands must contend with the fact that much of the land is held under customary forms of land tenure or owned by the state or monarchy, as shown in Table 10. Table 10: Land System Distribution of Tenure Systems in the Pacific Island Countries. Public Freehold Customary Cook Islands Some Little 95% Fiji 4% 8% 88% Kiribati 50% <5% >45% Marshall Island <1% 0% >99% Federated States of Micronesia 35% <1% 65% Nauru <10% 0% >90% Niue 1.50% 0% 98.50% Palau Most Some Some Papua New Guinea 2.50% 0.50% 97% Samoa 15% 4% 81% Solomon Islands 8% 5% 87% Timor-Leste Some Some Most Tokelau 1% 1% 98% Tonga 100% 0% 0% Tuvalu 5% <0.1% 95% Vanuatu 2% 0% 98% Source: ADB The Dynamics of Urbanization, Housing, and Land Provision in the Pacific Island Countries (2019) Note: Public includes crown land and land owned by provincial and local governments Freehold includes land that is not strictly freehold, but similar in characteristics, such as the “perpetual estates” found in Solomon Islands. Customary: Timor-Leste does not yet have a separate legal category of “customary land,” even though most of its rural land remains under customary forms of authority. Urban development plans and zoning codes may not apply to customary land holdings. In Fiji, indigenous Fijians can lease out land, and municipal councils do not have jurisdiction over land held in customary arrangements. For instance, many Fijians live as squatters on customary land with the consent of the landowner under informal arrangements called vakavanua, whereby the informal dwellers also pay a small rent. The condition of the housing and allied services in these arrangements are as dilapidated as other informal settlements. Pacific Cities are primarily using two approaches to address the challenges associated with limited legal rights to apply land use plans and zoning regulations to customary lands. Most commonly, this involves conversion of customary land to freehold land (land where the owner has a formal title deed). These transactions must be mediated by state authorities in accordance with appropriate safeguards to secure land tenure and mitigate threats to private property. Secondly, there has been some successful experimentation with development processes on customary land. In these cases, the formal governance structures that control the customary landholdings, municipal authorities, and potential investors can be engaged to promote the general goals of development plans. 6.2.3 Single purpose land use leads to longer trips and higher motorization Zoning codes in PICs generally only allow single-use development, i.e., allowing only residential, commercial, public service, industrial, etc. land uses within specific areas of the city. Separating complementary land uses such as housing, retail, and services results in longer trips, reduces the potential to walk and cycle to different locations, and encourages reliance on cars for transportation. Separating land uses such as industry or major ports from residential land uses can sometimes reduce negative impacts of the former on housing. Other land uses are complimentary and benefit from proximity to each other, including residential, small-scale retail, office, public service, and service. Contemporary city planners therefore tend to encourage the mixing of these ‘compatible’ or complementary land uses in a manner that is conducive to active mobility as a strategy to reduce trip distances and encourage walking and cycling. 113 Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development 6.2.4 New development is mostly planned in greenfield locations, causing urban sprawl Some of the PICs are growing at fast rates, most notably Port Vila (Vanuatu), Honiara (Solomon Islands), Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea), and Suva (Fiji). With a rapidly expanding population, most cities are focusing their main growth areas for housing on the periphery of the city, in greenfield locations. Expanding the city in this manner will contribute to longer trips for commuting, shopping, education, and services. As trip distances longer than three kilometers are less conducive to active mobility and serving peripheral areas with transit is challenging, developing housing on the urban periphery results in in a land use pattern that encourages reliance on cars for decades to come. It is critical that Pacific Cities avoid this challenge by prioritizing developing housing, jobs, and services though infill development (i.e., development of vacant or unutilized urban land). Infill development is a powerful tool as it reduces sprawl and can contribute to a complementary mix of land uses. 6.2.5 Low density urban development and lack of coordination with transport plans Zoning ordinances or codes generally restrict the density of development and/or building height. Density is usually regulated through prescribing a maximum floor area ratio (the amount of ‘usable’ building space in relation to the size of the parcel of land), a maximum lot coverage ratio, and a maximum building height. Zoning codes must be examined carefully to determine whether restrictions on density are too stringent. Higher density development should be encouraged in locations with access to the best transit services and a mix of land uses that includes key public services such as schools. Transport capacity can handle the additional trips generated by such development, and more trips can be undertaken conveniently by active mobility. In the Pacific Islands, land use plans are often developed separately from transportation plans, and often with little regard for available transportation infrastructure or transportation and transit development plans. Few if any zoning plans have increased allowable density around transit stops. Transit stops are weakly defined and rapid transit is largely absent. As transit services become more formalized and bus stops designated, and as rapid transit investments are planned in a few of the larger cities, there will be increased opportunity benefit from to update zoning codes and re-zone nearby land to encourage higher density development around transit stops. 6.2.6 Absence of Neighborhood Planning and Building Codes to provide adequate space for an efficient street network Appropriate neighborhood planning and building codes are critical to developing an efficient street network. The scale of existing land use plans in the Pacific provides too little granularity for application on street networks and individual streets. Most major cities have land use plans but not the detailed neighborhood-level plans, zoning and/or subdivision regulations for defining the street grid. Subdivision regulations complement by zoning by mandating an orderly and controlled process be followed for dividing larger parcels of land parcels that will be developed with buildings and parcels that will form the public rights of way for streets and utilities. 6.3 Recommendations Appropriate land use planning is vital to creating conditions in which residents of a city will want to walk, bicycle, or take public transit. Key recommendations for Pacific Cities, based on regional and global experience, are discussed below. 6.3.1 Densify Near Transit In Pacific Island Cities, transit for the time being means buses and minibuses. There may not be formal bus stops except for in downtown areas, or there may be a good network of formal bus routes and bus stops. In all cases, whatever transit services exist will tend to stop at popular locations. It is increasingly considered best practice to have zoning codes allow for higher density development within walking distance of a major bus stop to increase ridership of public transit and make city centers more vibrant. This is usually considered between 0.25 and 0.8 kilometers of the transit station in any direction. When developing a new zoning code, it is appropriate to consider the existing and planned public transit system as the urban axis around which densification can occur with the least environmental impact. In addition, the best practice to densify near transit is to designate the area around stations as special zoning areas using overlays. Special zoning overlays will often allow not only for higher density, but also for other elements critical to Transit Oriented Development, such as mixed-use zoning, additional floor space ratio and property tax benefits. Successful overlay zones will have or align with a detailed plan and future vision of the area, plans for development of the active transport network, urban amenities, public space, and even additional support to accelerate land use and building code approvals. Such measures can promote integration of public transit, active mobility, and urban development projects. A combination of all of the above measures can be particularly important for to developers seeking to access financing for building larger investments such as apartments. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 114 Figure 137: Public Transit as an Urban Core and Axis. Figure 138: Urban Form with Public Transit and Bus-oriented Development Area. 6.3.2 Mixed Land Use One key goal of contemporary urban planning is to allow the residents of at least some parts of the city to live car-free. One of the most important element of making this happen is to allow people’s homes and apartments to be as near as possible to a bus transit stop, shopping, services, education and child care and even to jobs. Mixed land use is a land use that combines different functions, such as residential, commercial, office, and recreational within walking distance or within a single piece of land. It has many benefits for community cohesion, the environment, and the economy. Locating diverse destinations within walking distance of each other and public transit reduces reliance on private vehicles and promotes walking, bicycling, micromobility, and public transit. It can also contribute to (a) reducing traffic congestion by reducing car dependency, (b) promoting efficient use of urban land, which is valuable, and preservation of historic and natural resources by avoiding urban sprawl, and (c) enhancing community interaction and revitalization. Mixed land-use or mixed-use development is becoming more popular and common in many cities around the world as a way of creating sustainable and inclusive communities. 115 Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development Figure 139: Densify and mixed-use development with active streets within walking distance. Car-centric People-centric In urban cores especially, land use should be targeted at high-density, mixed-use, public-access developments. This type of land use encourages economic development and livability, and supports the use of public transport and active mobility, as opposed to single-use, private developments catering to motor vehicles. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 116 As the previous FIgure shows, zoning that allows for the mixing of residential, office, and commercial land uses is the most conducive to travel by public transit, walking, and biking. Commercial uses and public services (restaurants, cafes, shops, libraries, clinics) tend to create interactive and vibrant activity on the street front. Offices and residences should be encouraged in the upper levels of the buildings. Without a complex planning bureaucracy, the best way to accomplish this in the zoning code is to designate a transit-area district zoning which allows for this mix of land uses. Some uses have some adverse impacts on neighborhoods, such as bars and nightclubs and music venues that stay open until late, so usually only certain districts with a ‘cabaret’ designation allow for mixed uses that include such functions. Figure 140: Image of urban center with commercial, office and residential land around central transit nodes in Pacific Island Cities. Residental Hotel Offices Public Transit and Active Streets Commerical • Restaurant • Stores • Supermarket • Boutiques 6.3.3 Transit-Orientation and Active Streets A real estate development might have a mix of uses, and might be high density, and it might be right next to a major bus stop, but it could still be a big pain to walk to the bus stop. There are plenty of examples where shopping malls or mixed-use complexes have been built right next to a major bus stop, but the mall has only one door, and it is at the point the farthest away from the bus stop and facing a large parking lot. This may be ‘transit-adjacent’ development, but it is not transit- oriented. For people to want to walk to a transit station, the walking environment also needs to be not only safe, but also interesting. One of the most common unpleasant land uses to walk beside is a surface parking lot or a parking garage, as they are uninteresting and there are many cars crossing the sidewalk. The best solution to this problem is often to encourage development of this land by adopting zoning regulations and local area plans that allow denser development. This gives owners of urban parking lots a financial motivation to redevelop parking lots as other uses or sell them to someone who will do so. 117 Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development Figure 141: Concept and Synergy Effects of (Bus) Transit Oriented Development. Other measures critical to creating a nice walking environment are transparent ground floors (that is, incorporating windows providing a view of businesses such as stores), eliminating side setbacks and limiting front setbacks, and concentrating shop and restaurant entrances on the sidewalk. Shade and water elements are critical to making the walking environment cool in PICS with warmer climates. The intelligent use of shade, with lots of trees and canopies, can create a cool and comfortable natural micro-climate. 6.3.4 In-Fill Development before greenfield development For a city to grow in a compact manner, it is critical that developers find it easier to develop plots in the built-up parts of the city rather than on the city’s outskirts. Unfortunately, in most cases in the cities of Pacific Islands, the opposite is true. Zoning codes can be kept very low density, or development can be forbidden entirely, in the parts of the city farthest from urban amenities, in order to stimulate more investment onto vacant land available in the built-up parts of the city in strategic development zones. 6.3.5 Connect the Blocks In some PICs, when a major development is built, it is often developed as a gated community in a giant superblock. While these large, gated compounds are desirable for people fearing for their security, they also have their downside. Pedestrians walking to destinations on the far side of a gated community will face a long and uncomfortable walk. For the same reason, superblocks that are not fenced should include pedestrian access for outside pedestrians to pass through. 6.3.6 Provide Affordable Housing in Transit Accessible locations One of the biggest challenges is encouraging the development of sufficient affordable housing in locations well served by transit. Often, the better the transit and road services, the more expensive land becomes. In contrast, the low cost of developing housing in peripheral locations encourages more rapid greenfield development for housing. These push and pull factors cause many low-income residents to relocate to the distant periphery where they have less access to jobs and services and face higher transportation costs. Setting aside land in more transit-accessible, central sites for affordable housing has been shown to create a far more efficient and equitable urban system, where lower income residents can more easily reach their jobs in industrial centers, ports, or residential complexes. In many Pacific cities, the government can reduce housing costs by providing land at below market rates to developers who agree to build housing at below-market rates. Programs like the Settlements to Suburbs Program in Port Moresby could take this approach, and include slow speed zones, bike boulevards, and bike-and pedestrian only streets which are covered in more detail in Strategies 1 and 2. Guide to Mobility Guideto forLivable Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities || Part PartII Pacific Cities II:: Practitioners’ Practitioners’ Handbook Handbookto Implementthe to Implement the Priority Actions PriorityActions 118 Strategy 7 Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Author: Andrew Campbell Andrew Campbell has 30 years’ experience in the specification, production and quality systems associated with fuels and engines and other systems associated with traditional and alternative engines. Andrew was the author of the 2024 Pacific Region Infrastructure Facility Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific report. 119 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life 7.1 Abstract While motorization improves access to essential conveniences and services, it also introduces significant environmental and public health challenges that call for comprehensive management strategies. To manage these negative impacts, PICs will need to make substantial changes in how vehicles are managed by adopting ‘motorization management’ strategies that shape the type, condition, and number of vehicles that are imported and used on public roads. Effective motorization management covers all aspects from vehicle design to manufacture, operation, maintenance, and the eventual retirement and recycling at the end of the vehicle’s lifecycle. Driven by affordability, the majority of vehicles in PICs are imported in used condition and are often relatively old. PICs also face many logistical challenges due to distance from main vehicle markets, a widespread lack of maintenance knowledge among vehicle owners, suboptimal vehicle operation, and high costs for maintenance, repairs, and end-of-life vehicle management. The ongoing modernization of vehicle technology further complicates many of these aspects and resource constraints, especially in terms of manpower, severely restricting PICs’ ability to implement comprehensive motorization management initiatives. This section covers global good motorization management practices that could be integrated within the unique contexts of PICs and identifies context-appropriate recommendations for management of each stage in the vehicle’s lifecycle. 7.2 Motorization Management While alternatives to motorized road vehicles are preferable due to their smaller environmental and financial footprints, motorized transport is a necessity in certain PIC contexts. The following chapter aims to reduce the burden and increase the value that motorized transport provides through better specification and management of vehicles and of their wide array of supporting systems, that is, by addressing “motorization management” (MM). Vehicles should be safe, have a low environment footprint, and be tailored to local conditions, focusing on reducing emissions, enhancing operational efficiency, and ensuring responsible end-of-life management. MM plays a pivotal role in this context, influencing various aspects including vehicle imports, purchasing decisions (which may also involve opting not to purchase at all if better transportation alternatives can be provided), ongoing vehicle management, and end-of-life strategies for vehicles. Effective MM requires comprehensive oversight also supported by regulations for vehicle importation, safety standards and inspections, vehicle maintenance and repair, on-road enforcement, fuel quality checks, a robust enforcement regime, and many others. Some aspects of driver licensing and regulation can also support MM. There is also an urgent need to develop both motorist and industry skills and capabilities through awareness and education spanning the entire vehicle life-cycle in PICs, from before a vehicle first touches down on the islands through appropriate end-of-life management. 7.3 Motorization Trends in Pacific Island Countries Vehicle ownership and use is increasing in PICs, driven by a number of factors including increased vehicle affordability, easier access to motorized vehicles, and people’s desire to keep up with local trends and status within the local community. In Tonga for example, the number of households owning light duty passenger vehicles (LDV) increased from 65% in 2016 to 80% in 2021, and those households owning more than one vehicle saw a similar rise.33 Alongside this, there has been an observable link between improvements in local road infrastructure and an increase in the proportion of smaller light duty passenger cars, as is very visibly the case in South Tarawa (Kiribati) after upgrading of the main road was completed in 2018. 33. Household Income and Expenditure Survey Reports 2016 and 2021, downloaded from Tonga Statistics Department, available at the time of writing at https://tongastats.gov.to/survey/hies-survey/. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 120 The composition of vehicle fleets in PICs is significantly shaped by the combined cost of the vehicle in its country of origin and the associated shipping expenses, i.e., the Cost, Insurance, Freight (CIF) price. The Japanese domestic market provides the largest source of affordable used vehicles and cost-effective shipping arrangements, making these vehicles a prominent choice in PICs that share Japan’s right hand drive side. For instance, in Tonga, used vehicles account for 95% of light-duty vehicle imports.34 Despite the drive side discrepancy, the Federal States of Micronesia (FSM) also permit the importation and use of used Japanese vehicles (on the grounds of affordability), also leading to their dominance in the vehicle fleet, with over 90% in some states.35 For PICs requiring left-hand drive (LHD) vehicles36, used vehicle supply options include Korea, Taiwan, and China, and to a lesser extent, the United States (specifically Guam and Honolulu). Used vehicles from China are expected to feature more for these countries in the future. Export of secondhand cars from China was first allowed in 2019, and supply is now significantly ramping up and export market corridors are establishing themselves.37 Global experience suggests that vehicle ownership and use in PICSs is still in an early stage of development and could grow substantially unless policy measures are taken to slow the rate of growth. Figure 142 depicts that the rate of registered vehicles38 in Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati, and the Solomon Islands vehicles per 1000 people is still relatively low. If vehicle ownership was to grow to the saturation points observed in Australia and New Zealand, this could create tremendous congestion and significant social, economic, and environmental issues for PICs. Figure 142: Vehicle Ownership Rates for Various Countries. New Zealand United States Australia France Japan Germany South Korea Fiji Tonga Kiribati Solomon Islands 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Registered Vehicles per 1000 People Source: 2022 or 2023 government-sourced data for registered vehicles and population for developed countries, estimates of operable vehicles (to also include the expected number of non-registered vehicles in use) and population based on government data and information for PICs 34. Data provided directly by Customs Services, Tonga Ministry of Revenue and Customs. 35. Data provided directly by the Pohnpei Police Department, Pohnpei State Department of Public Safety, and data provided directly by the Division of Statistics, Chuuk Branch, Department of Resources & Development, Chuuk, FSM. 36. Namely: FSM, Palau, Marshall Islands, French Polynesia (including Tahiti) and New Caledonia. 37. https://govt.chinadaily.com.cn/s/202307/12/WS64ae439c498ea274927c4caf/exports-of-used-cars-rise-on-policy-steps_1.html. 38. Rate is calculated based on operable vehicles in PICs so as to also include the expected number of non-registered vehicles in use, whereas the data used for the developed countries is based on 2022 or 2023 government-sourced vehicle and population statistics. 121 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life 7.4 Recommendations for each Stage of the Lifecycle of a Vehicle Motorization management is the process of shaping the profile, quality, and usage of motor vehicle stocks in a country, ensuring the development of supporting infrastructure and services, and strengthening institutional and governance capabilities. The following sections discusses what happens at each stage of the life of a vehicle that PIC governments can influence and provides recommendations for interventions. • Vehicle Life Stage 1: Vehicle import and entry • Vehicle Life Stage 2: Vehicle purchase • Vehicle Life Stage 3: In-service use • Vehicle Life Stage 4: Retirement • Vehicle Life Stage 5: End-of-life (scrappage, recycling, etc.) 7.4.1 Vehicle Life Stage 1: Vehicle Import and Entry This section considers the motorization management options at the time of import and before a vehicle enters the fleet. This first stage of the vehicle life can be potentially influenced through: • Minimum build standards » Safety standards » Emission standards • Maximum age at time of importation • Pre-entry vehicle inspection • Import Taxes and Levies • First and Annual Registration Fees • Motorization data collection and monitoring • Fuel Specification • Fuel Alternatives (a) Minimum Build Standards It is important to set appropriate build standards for vehicles because these largely dictate the safety and emissions performance of the vehicle over its entire life. As most PICs receive vehicles that are used at the time of import, it is also important that the as-received condition of vehicles is appropriate. However, there are currently few build standards required by any PIC and, apart from Fiji (this exception is detailed below), PICs do not provide detail on the required condition of imported vehicles either. Case 1 Fiji vehicle entry inspection requirements Fiji vehicle import requirement stipulates that no used vehicle will be allowed into Fiji unless it has been inspected and passed a “Pre Export Vehicle Appraisal” prior to shipping. These inspections are carried out in strict accordance with a specification developed between Fiji’s Land Transport Authority (LTA) and the Japan Export Vehicle Inspection Centre (JEVIC) and assesses the physical and safety condition of the vehicle, as well as odometer and ownership integrity, and biosecurity concerns. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 122 Two types of vehicle build standards are relevant to PICs: • safety-related (which can consider the safety of passengers, and other motorized and non-motorized road users), and • emissions-related (the latter including fuel efficiency standards due to the more-or-less direct relationship between fuel consumption and CO2e emissions). At a more detailed level, there can also be specific operational-related or specific local vehicle-type standards such as weight and dimensions, and others. This section focuses on safety and emissions build standards. (b) Minimum Safety Standards The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends seven priority vehicle safety standard sets, which are also supported by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations. These standards cover: 1. Seat belts 2. Seat belt anchorages 3. Frontal impact 4. Electronic stability control (ESC) 5. Side impact 6. Child restraints 7. Pedestrian protection An eighth sometimes mentioned is the requirement for either an anti-skid braking system (ABS) or a combined braking system (CBS) for motorbikes. Though, of these, only the seatbelts requirement is mentioned in any PIC’s vehicle regulations, the used vehicles that PICs receive are normally built for the highly regulated markets in which the vehicle was first used, and these markets typically demand the ‘WHO seven’. Where compliance may not occur is for the import of new vehicles where importers can access what the original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) refer to as either “international” or “Pacific” specification vehicles which are often lower specification (and lower price, providing local agents with a more price competitive model). Some of these models do not have some of the recommended safety features, as was found to be the case for vehicles inspected in Vanuatu by the author – one vehicle imported new during 2023 and used as a taxi did not have airbags, nor ABS. This compares with use of electronic stability control (ESC, which detects and reduces loss of traction helping to prevent skidding or sliding during cornering whilst braking) which is a better braking system again and is considered by many in the global automotive industry as a minimum safety requirement for LDVs entering the fleet anywhere in the world. ESC features in the recommendations at the end of this section for this reason. As road speeds increase, the need for additional safety features like airbags and frontal impact standards becomes more critical and seem appropriate for countries with a network of higher-speed roads (for example Fiji). However, the need to adopt such specifications may vary based on vehicle type and usage context in PICs. For example, small and low speed vehicles are unlikely to have these advanced safety features as options, yet these vehicles hold a significant place in the local transport ecosystem of the likes of Tuvalu, remote islands of many PICs, and in many urban environments on larger islands. There are more advanced safety technologies, again, for example sophisticated safety systems such as lane departure and crash avoidance systems. However, the presence of these in a PIC setting poses a challenge due to the near absence of required technical expertise available in PICs should they require servicing. Even replacing a windscreen can require services not readily available in PICs.39 39. Author interviews with windscreen repair technicians in New Zealand in 2023. 123 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life (c) Minimum Emission Standards The combustion of fuel in engines emits local air pollutant emissions such as particulates (PM), nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC) and oxides of sulfur (SOx) as well as carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) that contribute to global warming. The concentration of these air-quality-related emissions can have significant public health impacts, especially in areas with high traffic density and in urban environments where exposure to these pollutants is expected to be higher. A vehicle’s emissions performance depends on its engine and exhaust system design, the condition of the engine and exhaust system, fuel quality, and operational factors, with low emissions expected from careful use of more stringently specified engine systems that are maintained in good working condition and using good quality fuels. Regarding emissions build standards, Europe introduced “Euro” vehicle emission and fuel quality standards in the early 1990s, progressively tightening them with Euro 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 standards introduced from 1997 to 2015. (Noting “Euro n” has been used here for simplification to refer to both light duty and heavy-duty vehicles. Normally Euro 4 applies for light duty vehicles and Euro IV for heavy duty vehicles). Euro 7 standards are in development and are expected to be introduced around 2025-2026. These standards, aligned with increasingly stringent fuel specifications, are paralleled by similar regulations in the US, Japan, Korea, and China. It is important to note that while Euro standards are commonly used to define minimum emission standards in regulations outside of Europe, PICs should also allow “near-equivalent” standards or to provide specific reference to other emission build standards so that vehicles can be received from different jurisdictions. For example, many used vehicles in PICs come from Japan and are likely built to at least the Japanese “Japan 05” emission regulations, not European ones. It is recognized in the industry that the “Japan 05” standard is often regarded as a near equivalent to Euro 4 standard. To avoid ambiguity, it would be more effective to explicitly include reference to Japanese emission standards in PIC vehicle emissions regulations. This is the approach adopted by New Zealand’s emission regulations to accommodate the receipt of vehicles from different jurisdictions. Currently, Fiji has a minimum emissions build specification of Euro 4 at the time of vehicle entry. Other PICs that are independent sovereign states (i.e., Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, Marshall Islands, Nauru, and Tuvalu) do not currently have a minimum emissions build specification. This allows agents supplying new vehicles to order” Euro 0” emission specification vehicles– that is, engine systems not specified to meet any emission specification – if such specification vehicles are available to them (with the advantage that such vehicle models tend to be cheaper allowing the agent to provide more competitive pricing). Even with this lack of regulation, some manufacturer agents cannot take advantage of it. For example, some agents supply on the back of orders placed by their New Zealand, Australia or US suppliers, and these vehicles would not meet the emissions standard requirements of the respective target country. From a decarbonization and air quality standpoint, there is a strong case to not permit the import of “Euro 0” vehicles. Their simpler engine management systems tend to result in higher fuel consumption and higher emissions of pollutants of concern. Figure 113 illustrates this for NOx and PM emissions – arguably the more important tailpipe pollutants of concern due to their concerning health effects – using emissions factors derived from “real world” vehicle emissions testing.40 For these, the Euro 4 emissions results lie between a 25% and a 90% reduction in emissions over Euro 0 and Euro 1 specification vehicles. Similar real-world testing and analysis carried out by the Tsinghua University41 found more than a six-fold decrease in CO, HC and NOx emission when comparing vehicles of Euro 4 to Euro 0 emissions specification. 40. Reference is deliberately made to actual (real world) vehicle performance on real-world vehicle performance rather than relying on the maximum allowed pollutant levels specified by emissions standards, which often do not accurately reflect actual operational performance. 41. K HE, Z Yao and Y Zhang, Tsinghua University (n.d), Characteristics of Vehicle Emissions in China Based on Portable Emission Measurement System https://www3.epa.gov/ttnchie1/conference/ei19/session6/he_pres.pdf. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 124 Figure 143: Comparison of Emissions Factors of Different Vehicle Types and Emission Specifications. Source: Real World Testing of Vehicles in Normal Urban Driving Settings by TNO. 26 Most automotive fuels imported into the PIC region meet the quality standards required for modern engine technologies, 42 and the use of standard fuel housekeeping practices are expected to maintain this quality. Consequently, there is no technical barrier for PICs to demand and utilize modern engine technologies. At minimum, all PICs should adopt a Euro 4 vehicle emissions standard (i.e., Euro 4/Japan 05 or near equivalent).43 This move would elevate other PICs to the standard already enforced by Fiji. Such a requirement could be introduced almost immediately for used vehicles but may require a 12-month phase in period for new vehicles to accommodate the completion of existing vehicle orders (i.e., where agents of new vehicles do have access to, and are supplying vehicles with lesser stringent emission specifications). Additionally, it should be mandatory for used imports to undergo pre-entry vehicle inspection to verify that they (i) have the appropriate engine and emissions system for their model, (ii) that all emissions control equipment is present, and (iii) the equipment is functional. This is further discussed in the Pre-entry vehicle inspection section. 42. Personal communication, Shakil Kumar, Energy Advisor, Envisory Sept 2023. Envisory monitor fuel quality in the PIC Region. 43. This recommendation is grounded on various considerations, including the global market availability of new Euro 4 vehicles, affordability, minimal impact on the importation of used vehicles, the foundation it sets for advancing other emissions policies with a baseline emissions standard in place, the significant step decrease in pollutant levels expected for Euro 4 and more stringently specified vehicles over earlier emission specifications, and others. 125 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Figure 144: The underside of an internal combustion engine vehicle. The underside of an ICE vehicle – to a trained inspector, it will be obvious if the original emissions system is still in place. PICs should not leapfrog to higher emission standards too quickly as this can have unintended, counterintuitive consequences. For example, the Solomon Islands’ 2022 “Policy Roadmap for E-Mobility in Solomon Islands”44 advocates for a significant technological advancement to Euro 6 standards for new vehicle imports. While commendable in intent, such a leap for any PIC can be premature without a thorough and comprehensive evaluation of the implications of this shift. Key factors to consider include: • The quality of fuels and additives that are available in the marketplace (noting also that some Euro 6 engine technologies require the use of additives) • The presence of adequate service and maintenance infrastructure • The financial impact of this transition • Whether the change might lead to increases in older, used vehicle imports, especially within heavy-duty vehicle categories. Adopting a minimum Euro 5 or 6 (or equivalent) emissions standard sometime within the next 10 years is sensible for many PICs, considering the health benefits, the inevitable import of this technology brought by imported used vehicles, and the expectation that the service industries will adapt over time. The timing for this transition varies; for some the shift is less urgent (i.e., for the low motorized traffic and population density found in Tuvalu), while the need is more urgent for some applications and settings such as for public transit buses used in heavily populated urban settings found in Suva, Fiji. Moreover, parts of Fiji’s service industry are already familiar with the technologies involved and supporting infrastructure is largely already in place. In Fiji’s position to lead PICs, it is proposed that the Fiji Government undertake a ‘Regulatory Impact Assessment’ of a shift to Euro 6 to determine appropriate readiness mechanisms and introduction timeframes and puts these in place. 44. UNEP CCC (2022), Policy Roadmap for E - Mobility in Solomon Islands. www.ctc-n.org/system/files/dossier/3b/3.2%20Roadmap%20for%20E%20Mobility-Solomon%20Island%20Final%20Draft%2001%20 September%202022.pdf. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 126 (d) Minimum Electric Vehicle Build Standards Electric vehicle technology has arrived in the Pacific, bringing a mix of opportunities and challenges. This technological shift introduces significant risks that demand careful management, particularly regarding battery safety. The 2024 Pacific Region Infrastructure Facility (PRIF) study “Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific Island Region”45 proposes that for light duty and heavy-duty EVs, their powertrain must meet the technical principles of a globally recognized standard such as UNECE R10046, and a minimum of 80% State of Health (SOH47) of the battery at time of entry into the country (recommendations for HEVs, PHEVs and BEVs). The arrival of electric vehicles in the Pacific Region also requires management of end-of-life batteries, a topic explored in the Management of End-of-Life Vehicles section of this report and the PRIF study. (e) Maximum Age at Importation The condition in which vehicles are received, alongside their operation and maintenance, plays a crucial role in determining their lifespan. Older vehicles often have higher mileage and have had more exposure to environmental factors, and typically require more maintenance because of these. Compounding this for a PIC setting, access to quality maintenance is limited for the broader fleet and therefore older imported vehicles are likely to have shorter lifespans once on island. PICs without at-border vehicle age restrictions should adopt a maximum age of eight years for light-duty vehicles and ten years for heavy-duty vehicles upon entry, coupled with a transition period with measures in place to avoid pre-stocking48 of vehicles. Should a PIC consider further tightening its age restrictions beyond this, this decision should be informed by a comprehensive Regulatory Impact Assessment. This analysis should consider unintended consequences of age restrictions (e.g., such as leading to the import of high-mileage vehicles to maintain low purchase prices for newer models) and what complementary measures might be required to prepare the sector for change, including capacity development in the vehicle service sector. Fiscal measure alternatives should also be explored, such as higher import duties and taxes on older vehicles, which also stands to provide a shift to the import of newer vehicles. Note that Fiji already has an at-border age restriction in place: at the time of writing this was a maximum of five years for light duty hybrid and electric vehicles, and 8 years for gasoline and diesel fueled light duty vehicles. No age restriction is in place for heavy duty vehicles, although the minimum Euro IV emissions requirement provides an at-border proxy age restriction of 15 to 20 years. (f) Pre-entry Vehicle Inspection Pre-shipping vehicle inspection should mandate adherence to minimum safety and emissions standards, verified through inspections to ensure the applicable equipment and systems are intact and likely functioning as they should. These inspections should be robust, with effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms to prevent fraud. Of the 13 PICs checked by the author,49 all had some form of visual inspection requirement of vehicles before allowing registration. However, the depth and rigor of these inspections vary significantly across PICs, ranging from a very basic stationary vehicle check of lights, windscreen and horn50 to comprehensive vehicle inspections covering suspension component integrity and brake function.51 Waka Kotahi, the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA), showcases an even more advanced level of vehicle inspection standard for the first inspection of used imported vehicles as detailed in their Vehicle Inspection Requirements Manuals (VIRMs)52 In addition to the requirements for in-service inspections, the first in-country inspection includes removal of interior linings and disassembly and inspection of brake components. In addition, the NZTA website outlines all aspects of the inspection process including the specification of data systems to access NZTA’s data system, and qualifications of 45. Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific Island Region, PRIF, 2024, available at the time of writing at https://www.theprif.org/ document/regional/transport/electric-vehicle-standards-for-pacific-region. 46. UNECE R100, Concerning the Adoption of Harmonized Technical United Nations Regulations for Wheeled Vehicles, Equipment and Parts which can be Fitted and/or be Used on Wheeled Vehicles and the Conditions for Reciprocal Recognition of Approvals Granted on the Basis of these United Nations Regulations, available at the time of writing at https://unece.org/transport/documents/2023/11/ standards/agreement-concerning-adoption-harmonized-technical-united. 47. A measure of a battery’s current capacity and performance compared to its original condition, typically expressed as a percentage. 48. Where higher numbers than normal are purchased before a major change in regulations. An example of a management method used for vehicles is a requirement that vehicles must be owned for more than 12 months before a vehicle can be resold. 49. Checks included desktop checks of rules and regulations, viewing of actual vehicle inspections, and interviews with mechanics. 50. As witnessed in RMI, and as reported by mechanics in Tonga. 51. Razik Khan, Senior Technical Officer, Fiji LTA, personal communication. 52. New Zealand Transport Agency Waka Kotahi Vehicle Inspection Portal, at the time or writing available at https://vehicleinspection. nzta.govt.nz/virms/in-service-wof-and-cof/general 7,500 FJD and 20,000 FJD at a conversion rate of 1 FJD 1 = 0.443 US$ (rate at 31 March 2024). 127 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life inspectors and specifications of inspection sites. However, an inspection regime of this quality level is out of context for even the larger PICs due to the enormous resource and capacity development requirements of such a regime – it would arguably be better to set and maintain a lesser and more attainable standard. The goal of entry requirements is to ensure only quality vehicles are admitted. Practical constraints mean that actual performance testing for many parameters, such as fuel economy or airbag functionality, is not feasible due to high costs and/or technical and operational challenges. Using simple visual and vehicle data checks and proxies for key parameters is a practical approach. For instance, a visual inspection of dashboard lights and the areas where airbags are located is the most practical approach to assess the likelihood that airbags are functional. Similar simple inspections are also recommended to indicate the presence and likely proper functioning of ABS and emissions systems. Creating an affordable yet effective fleet entry inspection and certification process is key. Applying estimated costs for equipment alone suggested by Gorham et al (2022) for an at-scale high-quality certification process to a PIC setting suggests a cost for inspection equipment of around US$100 per vehicle. When considering a smaller PIC-scale, additional expenses like staffing, training, buildings, and administration, the total cost per vehicle could reach over US$200, not to mention absorb significant labor person-days. This makes the around US$230-260 fee charged for a reasonably extensive, third-party pre-shipping inspection, as required by Fiji, an attractive option. Pre-shipping inspections in the country of origin offer other advantages, including filtering out low-quality, scrap-grade and damaged used vehicles prior to shipping, leading to more reliable vehicle transactions, and reducing the likelihood of corruption compared to inspections at the point of import in PICs. Countries like Kenya and Fiji mandate pre-entry vehicle inspections, and New Zealand also encourages inspections in the country of origin. These inspections should be complemented by (at least minimal) checks upon arrival to ensure the imported vehicle was inspected, safeguard against fraud, and assess for in-transit damage or tampering. Fiji and New Zealand also have mandatory local inspection requirements before a vehicle can be registered and used on the road. (g) Taxes and Levies Across PICs, there is a diverse array of taxes and levies applied to imported vehicles. These include import duties, Value- Added Tax (VAT) or Goods and Services Tax (GST), engine and/or vehicle size-based levies, Luxury Vehicle Levies, vehicle age-related taxes and technology-based breaks from these duties. These can influence the types and specifications of vehicles that a country imports. For example, Fiji charges additional Luxury Vehicle Levies of US$3,320 for vehicles with engine capacity between 2,500cc and 3,000cc, and US$8,86053 for vehicles with engines exceeding 3,000cc;54 lower duties and levies on hybrid and electric vehicles; and, at the time of writing, a UD$4,43055 cash rebate for every electric vehicle up to five purchased by local businesses and individuals.56 While these policies are expected to have in part led to a shift away from vehicles with large engines and a shift towards hybrid vehicles in Fiji,57 interviews with vehicle owners in Tonga, Kiribati and Solomon Islands found that the most compelling driver for opting for vehicles with smaller engines was the cost of fuel, which they were provided reminders of at every fuel tank fill. Due to fuel economy’s significance, a vehicle importer in Kiribati specifically selected vehicle models based on their fuel economy ratings and provided this data to customers as a selling point.58 The combined income received by PIC governments through various taxes, levies, registration and other fees applied to vehicles and their fuels fall significantly short of covering the actual costs associated with motorization. For example, the modest income generated from the 5% vehicle import tax and the minimal fuel tax in the FSM would only be sufficient to maintain a small fraction of the nation’s roads.59 This revenue does not account for the broader costs of motorization that include network-wide road maintenance, upgrades, health-related costs of motoring (including those from vehicle-induced air and water pollution, noise, and accidents—costs which are universally overlooked issues), and the broader financial burden of road and infrastructure provision, congestion, climate change, land use for roads, and the management of vehicle waste, among others. Estimating the comprehensive costs of motorization in PICs is challenging, as existing analyses are 53. 7,500 FJD and 20,000 FJD at a conversion rate of 1 FJD 1 = 0.443 US$ (rate at 31 March 2024). 54. Talk Tax & Custom, Fiji Customs Publication 2015, available at https://www.frcs.org.fj/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/31.Talk-Tax- Customs-vehicles-2015.pdf. 55. 10,000 FJD at a conversion rate of 1 FJD 1 = 0.443 US$ (rate at 31 March 2024). 56. Electric Vehicle Subsidy Implementation Guidelines, Fiji Ministry of Economy, 1 Dec 2022, provided directly to author. 57. As shown by changes in Land Transport Data. 58. Author interviews of vehicle importers in Kiribati, October 2023. 59. Personal communication with Customs Officers in Pohnpei, Yap and Chuuk. Import duties of 5% of a vehicle’s CIF value were charged for import into Pohnpei, Chuuk and Kosrae, a vehicle import duty of 15% was charged for import into Yap, and an import duty of US 5 cents per gallon was charged by all states. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 128 normally based on vastly different contexts in respect to significant variables such as traffic density, vehicle emissions profiles, and population density. Moreover, the expense of managing vehicle waste in PICs contrasts sharply with other regions. Whereas end-of-life vehicles can have scrap value in many countries, in PICs, scrapping a vehicle can cost between US$200 to $600 per vehicle by the time it reaches the overseas destination scrapyard. Fiji is the exception to this rule due to the use of scrap vehicles in in-country steel making, when this resource can be utilized. Despite data limitations in PICs, several crucial motorization cost insights can be generalized: • The economic income generated by motorization is significantly exceed by costs. • Policymakers are under pressure to make motoring affordable for the public, which is especially challenging in PICs given the high cost of fuel, parts and shipping among other costs. • Globally, there is a noticeable preference for introducing fees when the costs can be directly linked to users, providing the opportunity for several steps to be taken in addressing the imbalance. For instance, per-kilometer travelled road-user charges or taxes on fuel (which provide a per-kilometer travelled proxy fee) to contribute towards roading- associated costs. • Studies indicate that there is a net benefit to the economy when users transition from a motorized to a non-motorized or electric-assist transport mode (such as e-bikes).60 Given this imbalance, PICs should reevaluate their import and other taxation policies. A regional study of these policies which incorporates lessons from other island countries may be a helpful first step. Detailing available options and their respective opportunities and challenges will enable the relevant government agencies to become more informed. Country- specific policies would be required to tailor proposals to the individual needs of PICs. As a point of interest, a basic desktop analysis of Japanese auction house prices conducted in January of 2024 found that shipping expenses for a 10-year- old small passenger car could constitute 30% to 70% of the vehicle’s total landed cost in PICs, depending on the vehicle’s base value and size. The higher cost of shipping larger vehicles appears to be effective at encouraging import of smaller vehicles. Motorization Management policies that impose import duties differ, however, in that the PIC government can receive revenue from import duties and allocate this to national priorities. (h) First and Annual Registration Fees Because registration fees are generally lower than the costs associated with import duties, taxes, and levies, their impact on influencing initial vehicle purchase decisions is expected to be comparatively modest. These fees still play a role by continuing to provide signals to the market after importation. The one-time, annual nature of registration fees also presents The taxes, duties and fees that an opportunity to influence vehicle purchasing decisions, in contrast to fuel taxes or distance-based fees, which are motorists pay do not provide arguably better placed to cover the costs associated with government with the revenue it ongoing vehicle use, including infrastructure costs. Japan’s needs to pay for the broader costs of registration fee system exemplifies this approach by imposing higher fees on vehicles with larger engines and motorization that include network- vehicles that are older. For example, the registration fee for a wide road maintenance, health-related newer passenger vehicle with an engine size of 660cc or less costs of motorizations, congestion, is approximately US$71, while a newer vehicle with a 1500cc engine is charged around US$228, and this fee rises to opportunity-cost of land use for roads, US$260 for an older model with a 1500cc engine. These fees and the management of vehicle waste, are relatively low when compared to import taxes, highlighting among others their role in influencing which vehicle people choose to purchase rather than as a primary revenue source. 60. Stefan Gössling et al (2019), The Social Cost of Automobility, Cycling and Walking in the European Union https://www.sciencedirect. com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800918308097. 129 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life In the State of Pohnpei, within FSM, the annual registration fee for passenger cars is set at a mere US$8.50 and is unlikely to influence the composition of the vehicle fleet. The low value for this fee likely stems from its original setting in 1982, without any subsequent adjustments. The fee is so low it would unlikely cover the costs of administration of the registration process. Other states and other PICs were also found to have relatively low annual registration fees. Review of these fees is recommended (which could perhaps be a component of the earlier proposed regional vehicle tax reevaluation work), particularly if the annual registration fee is below US$50 per year. (i) Data for Motorization Management High-quality data monitoring and analysis are critical to establishing effective motorization management policies. This poses a significant challenge as advanced vehicle data systems commonly adopted in wealthier nations demands substantial financial and technological investments. These systems are designed to manage extensive user-bases, a variety of information sources, and maintain strict data security measures. Such complexity and cost could be seen as a substantial burden for PICs, many of which currently rely on very basic and inefficient vehicle record management systems. These systems are also often plagued by issues related to data usability and quality. The State of Pohnpei, FSM, offers a noteworthy example of the challenges associated with modernizing vehicle record- keeping systems. Before September 2021, all vehicle registrations, along with other vehicle and driver records, were managed in a paper-based system by a single office by the State Police, within the Department of Public Safety. The transition to digital record-keeping was initiated with the adoption of a Microsoft Access spreadsheet for vehicle first registrations and annual renewals, while still maintaining a parallel paper-based record. A review of the Access spreadsheet in March of 2024 found that data quality was maintained at a reasonably level of quality for only about nine months after adoption.61 An officer interviewed at the time reported that no notable benefits were realized from transitioning to the Microsoft Access system and this lack of improvement was attributed to a limited number of officers being sufficiently in the software. The use of the Access database was discontinued in November 2022, only 14 months after its introduction, and the vehicle database returned to the original paper-based system. Like the State of Pohnpei, other states within the FSM, as well as other PICs such as Tonga, Kiribati, and the RMI, were found to utilize relatively basic vehicle database systems for recording data on in-service vehicles. A check of insurance company records within the FSM revealed that only a minor proportion of vehicles were insured, indicating that (anonymized) insurance data could not offer a comprehensive overview of the vehicle fleet. Fiji has one of the more comprehensive in-service vehicle data systems in the region. Even so, it can be challenging to use the data system to interrogate and monitor changes in the fleet. Fiji’s Land Transport Authority (LTA), who administers this data system, reports that they are in the process of upgrading. 62 For most PICs, the most reliable vehicle data source identified was the information collected and maintained by various government customs agencies, which captures a snapshot of vehicles as they enter the fleet. This data, however, does not provide insights into subsequent vehicle usage or retirement. Nevertheless, customs data is highly valuable for analyzing trends in vehicle purchases, enabling the impact of policy changes to be assessed (for example, to judge the response to initiatives to encourage the uptake of electric vehicles, or the introduction of an age ban at the time of vehicle import). It can also help identify shifts in the fleet composition that may call for intervention; for example, an increase in the import of newer vehicles models would ideally be met with upskilling of the local service industry. It does not appear that any PIC is currently analyzing vehicle import data, however.Introduction and use of a motorization management data system that also collects and allows analysis of data on in-service vehicles is highly desirable. The current lack of such a comprehensive database system for most PICs, and their common needs, calls for a collective approach: a joint assessment conducted across all PICs to find a suitable solution. This collaborative effort might extend to PICs accessing a common vehicle data platform infrastructure to reduce costs (but with the data from different PICs held and managed quite separately). The scope of necessary data for good motorization management is vast, covering all aspects from vehicle entry and resale to in-service inspections and eventual retirement. Ensuring the integrity and reliability of this data is critical and requires automated data entry quality checks and robust system access to prevent issues like data loss or avoidance of data entry by the many agents and field practitioners involved. This places reasonable responsibility on agencies in charge of data collection and management, who must also be equipped with the required technical and administrative capacity to uphold high-quality standards. 61. Observed by the author while in FSM in March 2024. Note that during the nine-month period when data quality was considered reasonable, there was an entry error rate of around 5%. While this level of inaccuracy would not greatly affect the identification of trends, it would complicate identifying specific vehicle owners. 62. Razik Kahn LTA, Fiji, personal communication. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 130 Considering that most vehicle imports in PICs are used vehicles, it may be possible for PICs to use this platform to collect data from third-party pre-shipping inspection services. At a more detailed level, the proposed data system should encompass essential data points such as: • Vehicle identification number (VIN) • Make • Model • Year • Vehicle type/classification • New vs new import • Age, odometer, and battery State of Health (SOH), where applicable, at time of border/fleet entry • The type of fuel or energy used • Emissions control equipment and its certification level • Electric drivetrain configurations • Safety provisions • Any significant structural or component modifications • Results and frequency of periodic technical inspections (PTIs) including SOH, where applicable • Odometer readings at each PTI • Ownership details and ownership type As recommended by Gorham et al. 2022, such a motorization management data system would focus on key areas like vehicle entry, in-service inspection, and retirement, and be capable of providing anonymized data (for example, for use by external analysts and researchers). As mentioned earlier, such a system would be then expected to enable detailed, multi- level analysis essential for the monitoring and recalibration of motorization management policies and strategies. (j) Fuel Specification Managing fuel quality is crucial for aligning with vehicle emissions technology. Most PICs now receive ultra-low sulfur containing diesel and gasoline, which is compatible with the most modern engine technologies. For instance, diesel supplied to most PICs contains a maximum of 10ppm sulfur, which is similar to standards in Guam and American Samoa, which adhere to the U.S. specifications of a maximum of 15ppm sulfur. This sulfur specification is also compatible with Euro 6 engines. As has been mentioned, only a few countries still use diesel with 500ppm sulfur for road vehicles.63 This shift has largely resulted from the fuel standards in place in the countries that host the major fuel hubs supplying the Pacific. Fiji, Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa, and Guam all demand the use of ultra-low sulfur content fuels. PICs without specifications of their own gain from this situation as they have few other practical supply options for their automotive fuels. Figure 145: Fuel drums being unloaded, Honiara. 63. Shakil Kumar, Energy Advisor, Envisory, personal communication based on analysis by Envisory, a firm specializing in fuel testing and analysis in the Pacific. 131 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life One exception is the Solomon Islands, who independently import bulk fuel shipments directly from refineries in Singapore and Korea. An absence of regulated fuel specifications does pose a risk of importing fuels of lower quality that may not be compatible with the modern engine technologies used within its market. Nonetheless, it seems that the two main fuel suppliers in the Solomon Islands adhere to ultra-low sulfur fuel standards. Formalizing this practice into policy and encouraging any PIC that does not have regulated fuel specifications to do the same, would close this gap. Receiving fuel that meets stringent specifications is only the first step. Maintaining this quality from receipt through distribution is then required, as mishandling and poor housekeeping can degrade the fuel, affecting engine performance and compatibility, and potentially leading to engine damage. This is particularly crucial in PICs – fuel generally arrives to fuel hubs in medium range tankers and is then redistributed in many ways including the use of drums and small vessels in the case of distribution to the more remote islands. Such extended logistics introduce additional risks, like water ingress and contamination, which can compromise fuel quality, and lead to engine damage. Ongoing education on proper fuel handling practices and complementary monitoring and enforcement are vital to preserve fuel quality throughout the distribution chain. Many PICs have some form of fuel sampling and testing regime to support this effort. The use of ready-mix, two stroke petrol in road vehicles in Fiji, on account of its lower price, also suggests that education and awareness programs should be extended to vehicle operators as well. While two-stroke fuels are less costly to acquire, their use in modern petrol engines can compromise engine operation, cause failure of exhaust catalyst systems, and potentially cause other engine damage. For similar reasons, used lubrication oils should never be added to diesel fuel for use in vehicles. Although the Cleaner Pacific 2025 Pacific Regional Waste and Pollution Management Strategy 2016–2025 recommended this practice, it would irreparably damage diesel engines fitted with an exhaust particulate filter (and render its emission reduction system useless). It also risks damaging the engine diesel injection pumps. For these reasons, fuels with added lubrication oil would not meet stringent fuel specifications common to larger vehicle markets. (k) Fuel Alternatives The manufacture, supply, and use of fuel alternatives, such as first-generation biofuels64 like biodiesel, is less suitable for PIC settings than larger markets. These fuels are associated with many challenges related to production, byproduct waste management, quality maintenance, and cost. The feasibility of these fuels may need to be reassessed after more cost- effective technologies become available, preferably by a regional body such as the Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency. 64. “First generation” refers to fuels that have been produced through relatively simple conversion methods, for instance the production of alcohol from fermenting sugar crops, and the production of biodiesel from the transesterification of fats and oils. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 132 Recommendation Actions to take for Vehicle Life Stage 1: Vehicle import and entry The recommended interventions and next steps identified by this section on management of vehicle imports are: 1. The immediate introduction of minimum vehicle requirements for a range of safety and emis- sions related parameters, age and distance travelled minimums at the time of import as well as minimum standards for electric vehicles. Table 11: Recommended vehicle import requirements to introduce immediately. Vehicle class Requirement All vehicles • Proof of ownership Light duty vehicles • Distance travelled – a maximum of 100,000 km travelled at the time of import • Electronic Stability Control Light-, medium- • Safety glass for glazing and heavy-duty • Seatbelts and anchorages vehicles • Lamps, indicators, and reflectors • Rear-view vision • Tires and wheels • Age – unless already established, a maximum age of 8 years for light- duty vehicles and 10 years for heavy-duty vehicles at the time of import • For ICE vehicles – minimum Euro 4/Japan 05 emissions build standards or near equivalent. • For EVs – compliance with UNECE R100 technical principles (or a close proxy) and a minimum of 80% battery SOC at time of import 2. The introduction of compulsory pre-shipping inspections to screen vehicles before shipping and to reduce some of the burden of PIC-based entry inspections. 3. Evaluating the implementation of a maximum five-year age limit for vehicles at import and using the findings to fine-tune and establish timelines for age-specific policy measures. 4. Evaluating the implementation of a minimum Euro 6 emissions build standard for vehicles at the time of import and using the findings to establish timelines for emissions build policy measures. 5. Assessing the options and developing a strategy for establishing motorization management data systems across PICs that starts with a collective evaluation across all PICs and considers the use of a coordinated, regional approach. 6. Introducing common fuel specifications to ensure uniformity across PICs and to close the gap for those that do not currently have fuel specifications. 7. Ongoing education and awareness on good practice fuel handling practices, supported by fuel quality monitoring and enforcement. 8. Assessing vehicle-related taxation and registration policies, providing a comprehensive overview of the various options followed by tailored adjustments for each PIC to cater for any unique requirements. 133 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life 7.4.2 Vehicle Life Stage 2: Vehicle Purchasing Many vehicles buyers in the PICs are new to vehicle ownership and have limited knowledge about responsibilities as an owner, the total cost of ownership (TCO), and the nuances of vehicle operation and maintenance. This gap in knowledge can lead to poor purchasing decisions and high downstream costs. Light duty vehicles with lower upfront purchase prices often mask much higher long-term – and possibly unaffordable – operating and maintenance costs. Limited access to vehicle financing adds to the allure of lower-priced vehicles in PICs. Loans commonly require a substantial upfront payment, often at least 50% of the total cost, and include short loan repayment periods of 6-12 months. These shorter loan terms are in part due to the increased risk associated with longer loans, considering the expected shorter lifespan of vehicles in PICs. Consequently, buyers are inclined to choose less expensive vehicles, which ironically often result in higher long-term expenses due to increased maintenance and running costs, ultimately leading to a higher TCO as shown in the following figure. The high repayments can also result in deferring maintenance during the loan period. In contrast, Figure 146 shoes that the vehicles with the lowest TCO are often the ones with lower energy and space requirements. Figure 146: Total Cost of Ownership for Various Vehicles Types. TCOs (US$/km) for Various Vehicle Types $0.70 $0.60 $0.50 TCO US$/km $0.40 $0.30 $0.20 $0.10 $- W CO CO CO fe r5 e O O CO O O CO CO ca -lif TC TC TC TC -li T YT YT T YT YT 5Y Y 3Y Y 5Y 5Y Y Y 4 3 12 12 ,5 BE xi 5 ,5 ar ar , , ar ar W s, s, ke i rc x rc Ta Bu Bu e2 rc rc e4 Ta bi pa nge ge er E e- ge ge V m m g IC n en en en e e 10 10 BE ass ss w ss ss ss w EV Ne E Us E pa Ne IC pa pa ed E p HD V V E C IC IC BE I ed d w e w Us Ne Ne Us Figure 146 provides a comparison of TCOs in terms of US$ per kilometre for various vehicle types and uses. The comparison is based on an author-developed TCO model that considers multiple factors as detailed in the footnotes. The trends shown in the passenger car TCO results were consistent with the trends shown in passenger car TCOs calculated by Castalia for Tonga,65 (however, it is important to note that care is required when carrying out a direct comparison due to differences in energy costs, vehicle annual distances travelled, and other country-specific factors. The TCO results for e-buses verses ICE buses are also generally consistent a TCO analysis carried out by Castalia for the ownership and operation of public transit buses in Auckland, New Zealand66 when compared on a like-for-like basis. 65. Analysis of Electric Vehicle Costs in Tonga, Final Summary Report, November 2023, Castalia, provided by Castalia, Wellington, New Zealand Office. Note that the Castalia modelling also included emissions-related costs which were backed out of the comparison of the results to compare on a like-for-like basis. 66. Zero-emission bus economics study, April 2024, A Heuse et al. Castalia, NZ Transport Agency Waka Kotahi research report 718, available at the time of writing at https://www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/resources/718/RR-718-Zero-emission-bus-economics-study- FINAL-TAR-22-12.pdf. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 134 Based on the results of this TCO analysis: • Of the motorized vehicle types considered, e-bikes have the lowest TCO, at a cost of US$0.07 per kilometre. The TCO for electric two-wheelers (e2Ws) closely follows at around US$0.09 per kilometre. • Lightweight electric four-wheelers (e4Ws) have a calculated TCO of around double that of an e-bike, at US$0.13 per kilometre. • The 5-year TCO for used ICE passenger cars (“used ICE passenger car 5-year life”, Figure 146) came in at around double this again, at US$0.26 per kilometre. • In comparison, the TCO for an older and cheaper, but otherwise similar vehicle, and only lasting 4 years (as was reported to often be the case), was marginally higher, at around US$0.28 per kilometre. This provides an alert that it can be cheaper in the long run to purchase a newer and more expensive vehicle within this band of used vehicles. Sensitivity analysis also found that this advantage for the newer vehicle remained for different loan rates on the original purchase. • The TCO of a used BEV was around 15% lower than for an equivalent used ICE vehicle. • Using today’s market figures, new passenger cars had much higher TCOs. The TCO over a five-year term for a new BEV was around 15% higher than for the ICE variant when distances travelled were more akin to private ownership and use. This reversed for the high utilization rates of taxis, with the TCO of the BEV taxi coming in at around 15% lower than the ICE variant. This is because the lower relative energy costs gained with higher utilization more than offset the higher purchase price premiums for the BEV taxi. • The calculated TCO for the e-bus was 15% lower than for the ICE bus, indicating that the economics of e-bus operation are favourable now in some PIC settings (i.e., where the e-buses have high, useful utilization rates). This is a marked change from the situation only three years ago when a similar analysis was carried out for the “Navigating Island Futures in Transport (NIFTY)” guide and toolkit67 work. To address these challenges, each PIC should implement educational programs to promote responsible vehicle purchase and ownership. These programs would cover essential aspects including: • Vehicle safety ratings and features. • Routine maintenance, self-inspections, and best practices for vehicle care and operation (encouraged by the expected improved vehicle value, reliability and expected life – further discussed in the next section: Vehicle Life Stage 3: In- service vehicle use). • The true costs of motorization, provided in annual and weekly costs of ownership for different vehicle types, fuel economy, and use (and noting that private vehicle ownership is typically the most expensive on-land transport option). • The case for not purchasing a vehicle at all and providing information on the alternatives. • Guidance on the purchase of vehicle models that are fit for the local settings, including encouraging the selection of durable and locally supported, common models. • An explanation on the taxes, duties and levies charged. 67. The NIFTY was funded by the New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (MFAT) and led by Nicole Baker, who is also the principal author. The NIFTY is a guide and a toolkit for SIDS to develop national transport strategies that foster sustainable and resilient transport systems. It examines ways that island transport can be provided in far more sustainable ways than the current status quo. 135 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Figure 147: Car sales “yard”, Yap, FSM The methods of vehicle purchase and diverse motivations behind these purchases are important to designing an effective education program. This includes understanding the dynamics affecting how vehicle purchases are made in PICs, which includes direct buying from vehicle country of origin auction houses or vehicle seller websites, using local agents, buying from local sales yards, and private purchases initiated by social media or other informal advertising. The motivation for purchasing vehicles can include perceived affordability, inadequate public transport, social status, and responses to COVID 19 (which at the time of writing was observed to still have significant effect on the buying patterns). The program should tailor its messaging to effectively reach and educate potential buyers, providing them with comprehensive information so that they can make informed decisions. The following types of messages could be provided through a vehicle purchase awareness program and could be distributed as a one-page infographic pamphlet or poster. Cruise Confidently: Your Guide to Buying Cars in the Pacific • What can you afford? Look past the purchase price because this is only the start of motoring costs. While cars are comfortable, convenient, and prestigious to own and use, remember they are also the most expensive land transport option. The cost of fuel, registration, insurance, and maintenance can be a constant drain on money after purchase. • How much do you need a car? Can you bike or walk instead? Can you hire or loan a car when you need one? Can taxis provide you with the service you need? Remember, private cars are expensive and also take a lot of time to maintain them correctly. • Consider all the hidden costs carefully before you buy. While older models are often cheaper to buy, they can cost you more over the time you own them as they tend to require more maintenance. • Know the condition of the car. Check the condition of the vehicle carefully by getting a pre-purchase inspection report before you buy. If purchasing from overseas, these can check for accident history, odometer integrity, ownership history as well as the current condition of the car. If purchasing locally, get your mechanic to check over the car, and get them to take it for a test drive. Remember that maintenance is very costly in the islands. • Know the safety of the car: Check the safety ratings of the models that you are looking for on https:// rightcar.govt.nz/ It is recommended that you choose a car with at least a 4-star rating. • Safe online purchases: If it seems too good to be true, then it probably is. If purchasing online, only use verified sites that you know that you can trust – sites that you know the provenance of. If you can’t do this, pass the purchase administration to someone that will take full responsibility of the transaction. • Be prepared for the costs of fueling your car. Travelling every day in a large 4WD vehicle could cost US$3,000 per year in fuel alone, whereas a small passenger car might cost US$1,000 in fuel for the same distance travelled. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 136 Education campaigns can be targeted through online advertising, posting ads at locations such as vehicle parts stores, bus stops, fuel stations, and churches. Recommendation Actions to take for Vehicle Life Stage 2: Vehicle purchasing It is recommended that an education program providing guidance on vehicle purchasing (covering the topics as listed above) is developed and deployed across all PICs. A regional initiative is pro- posed due to the common themes involved, but it is recommended that the developed information is then customized for each PIC, including by providing the use of local languages, art, and culturally relevant themes or branding of outreach materials and methods to ensure its relevance and effec- tiveness. As an example of the nuances of this local calibration, radio was found to be effective as an outreach media in Tonga68 and Kiribati69 whereas social media and the internet may be a more relevant outreach media for Fiji.70 7.4.3 Vehicle Life Stage 3: In-service vehicle use Interviews with a broad spectrum of vehicle owners and mechanics identified inadequate maintenance practices as a primary factor shortened the lifespan of vehicles. Regular and appropriate vehicle upkeep emerges is a critical aspect of vehicle management during its operational life. For example, vehicles managed by rental car companies across the FSM, the RMI, Tonga, Kiribati, and the Solomon Islands demonstrated notably longer lifespans and higher mileage than privately- owned vehicles, despite the varied skills of the drivers involved. The rental company owners interviewed universally attributed this longevity to meticulous vehicle care and routine servicing. Similarly, owner-operated taxis achieved extended use and substantial mileage, with owners crediting their success to diligent maintenance, frequent servicing, and good vehicle operation. The motoring general public can realize similar benefits by following rigorous maintenance regimes. It is important to disseminate information on best practices for vehicle operation to promote these practices. For example, mechanics in various states of the FSM have observed automatic transmission failures resulting from drivers coasting downhill in neutral, a tactic mistakenly believed to save money through reducing fuel consumption. This practice can lead to transmission overheating and subsequent major failure. Repairing such damage in the PICs often hinges on the small chance of sourcing a working replacement transmission from an accident-damaged vehicle. Raising the average level of vehicle care and maintenance to that of the ‘model’ rental car companies and taxi drivers requires: • A careful blend of awareness and education to inform owners on best practices in maintenance and servicing • Access to affordable, quality maintenance services that are supporting by suitable parts supply arrangements, and • Appropriate levels of encouragement and policing to ensure that this awareness and education regime performs as it should. Care is also required to strike the right balance to ensure vehicles are safe and affordable. Overly stringent technical safety standards, coupled with strict enforcement, could lead to the unnecessary removal of vehicles from the fleet in settings where risks are lower, for example due to factors like slow traffic speeds and where there are few vehicles and few people on the road. Conversely, a too lax approach is likely to lead to an increase in serious injuries and deaths. The following sections provide discussion on these subjects, outlining and identifying interventions aimed at bringing about improvements in how vehicles are maintained and operated during their in-service life. Subjects covered include: • Owner-Operator Awareness • Periodic Technical Inspection • Vehicle Repair and Maintenance • Parts Supply 68. Saimone Vuki, Director SAP Pacific Co Ltd, personal communication. 69. Karea Baireti, Secretary, Kiribati Chamber of Commerce and Industry, personal communication. 70. Alex Reddaway, Leaf Capital Pte Ltd, Fiji, personal communication. 137 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life • Workshop Services • Insurance • In-Service Use of Electric Vehicles (a) Owner-Operator Awareness A common comment made by mechanics interviewed in numerous PICs was the lack of understanding many vehicle owners had of their responsibilities as an owner, including a lack of understanding on how to care for and operate their vehicle. In the words of one mechanic “they only put fuel into the tank because the vehicle stops if they don’t”. This issue is not only limited to the PICs – globally the reliability of modern vehicles has led to the false impression that they do not require attention, but a false impression also that often ends badly. In response, a comprehensive multi-media campaign is proposed to significantly improve vehicle care and driving practices across PICs. This initiative would utilize a variety of channels including radio broadcasts, printed and social media, and infographics provided in poster and leaflet formats at strategic locations such as fuel stations, vehicle workshops, vehicle inspection stations, and churches. These could be supported by free oil and coolant level checks at fuel stations, and standardized vehicle checks for mechanics and home-mechanics alike to follow. While the content would have the same themes across the region—highlighting vehicle safety, extending vehicle life, environmental responsibility, and potential cost savings – it is proposed that variants present the information in local languages and in line with local cultural themes, context, and branding. A series of concise, high-impact messages is proposed, as these are likely to be more effective compared to longer, detailed explanations. The suggested themes and sub-themes for these messages, which have been chosen to address known issues, comprise the following: Cruise Confidently: Your Guide to Car Ownership in the Pacific • Avoid unnecessary driving. Most car trips are short. Consider other options including walking and cycling and carpooling with neighbors and relatives. Plan ahead to reduce the number of trips and how far you need to travel. These can also reduce the amount of operation when the engine is cold, significantly improving fuel economy and extending the life of the engine and transmission. • Drive with a smile. Less aggressive driving practices can improve fuel economy, lessen the risk of accident, and lessen the stress your car. Look ahead and avoid heavy braking and fast acceleration. Also think about when you travel – avoiding times of congestion can be easier on you and your car. • Get to know your car. Your car talks to you through its dashboard indicators, warning lamps, and even its sounds. Familiarize yourself with these messages to catch issues early, potentially saving you money and extending your car’s life. Prompt responses to warning signals can prevent costly repairs down the line. • Maintain your vehicle. Regular checks are crucial: check your radiator water and engine oil levels every two weeks, maintain tire pressure at manufacturer-recommended levels, and routinely inspect them for under-inflation, wear and tear. Partially inflated tire risks damaging the tire and vehicle’s suspension, not to mention consumes far more fuel. Regularly cleaning your vehicle inside and out not only keeps it looking good but also helps identify any external or internal issues early. Get onto them and your car will stay a member of the family for much longer. • Operate your car well. Go easy on the pedal until the engine is warm. Avoid excessive idling; turn off the engine if you anticipate being stationary for more than 30 seconds. Always keep the vehicle in gear when moving; cruising in neutral can harm automatic transmissions and compromise braking effectiveness. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 138 • Be safe. Wearing seatbelts saves serious injuries and saves lives in an accident. Keep vehicle loads to a minimum and well secured. But remember, it’s good to fill up the car with people going to a common destination. • Be seen. Driving behind tinted windscreens is dangerous for other drivers and people on the road. • For your next vehicle, consider a smaller car. Smaller cars typically use less fuel and are cheaper to maintain, especially if they are well-suited to your local roads. Consult with a mechanic to determine the best models that provide longevity and are easier to maintain within your locale. Review purchasing guidelines to choose a vehicle that matches your needs and budget. • Be rewarded: Taking good care of your car not only benefits your wallet through reduced repair costs and better fuel efficiency but also ensures it remains a reliable part of your family for a much longer time. It is proposed that these messages are supported by more detailed online information that includes vehicle maintenance tips and checklists for vehicle owners.71 (b) Periodic Technical Inspection Having a robust Periodic Technical Inspection (PTI) regime is crucial. The view of many mechanics interviewed during visits to several PICs in 2023 and 2024 was it is unlikely that many vehicles will be maintained to minimum safety and emissions requirements unless there is some form of compulsory, periodic, quality inspection in place. Alongside PTIs, on-road inspections are also necessary to encourage and enforce compliance between these periodic checks, and data gathered from on-road inspections can also be instrumental in evaluating the overall effectiveness of the vehicle safety and inspection systems in place. These mechanisms are at risk of becoming weak if not supported by adequate enforcement and risk of incurring substantial penalties. Periodic and roadside inspections also offer another opportunity to educate vehicle owners on proper maintenance and care, allowing for tailored advice based on each vehicle’s observed condition. Many countries require twelve-monthly inspections for private vehicles and six-monthly inspections for commercial vehicles, the shorter inspection periods of the latter reflecting the higher distances normally travelled and the shorter period over which a vehicle might fall out of specification. New Zealand also calls for six-monthly inspections for vehicle first registered before 2000, reflecting the increased chance of these older vehicles falling out of specification within a 12-month inspection period.72 Vehicle inspections across PICs vary significantly, ranging from cursory glances, described by several mechanics interviewed on a PIC as a “look out the window,” to adherence to detailed visual and functional inspection standards in the case of Fiji. While New Zealand represents one of the region’s most rigorous inspection frameworks, as outlined in the NZTA’s VIRMs, such a stringent and comprehensive regime may not be feasible for PIC settings due to the considerable resources required for its implementation, operation, and maintenance. Consequently, an assessment was conducted to determine an appropriate level of inspection for PICs. This led to the following recommended list of inspection parameters suitable for periodic vehicle checks in these countries. For completeness, this list would need to be supported by a manual detailing specific acceptance and failure criteria (which could lean on many of the details provided in NZTA’s VIRMs), suitably calibrated for each PIC. For instance, it would be better to avoid reliance on brake testers in many smaller PICs due to their maintenance requirements and potential unreliability in certain contexts. In such cases specifying a road-based brake test would be better than specifying a test using equipment that might not be functioning. The parameters recommended to be inspected at the time of the PTI are: • Tire condition and minimum permissible tread depth • Brake condition, operation, and effectiveness • Condition of the vehicle structure (including corrosion and rust) • Certificate of loading and load restraints (load anchorages, towing connections) • Lighting (headlamps, brake lights, turning indicators, reflectors as applicable) 71. For example, through reference to multimedia tools and instructions, for example, car maintenance tips as explained by the online webpage available at the time of writing at https://www.ifixit.com/Guide/Car+Maintenance+Tips/7679. 72. New Zealand Government web portal, webpage available at the time of writing at https://www.govt.nz/browse/transport/keeping- a-vehicle-on-the-road/get-a-warrant-of-fitness-or-certificate-of-fitness/#:~:text=Older%20vehicles,world%20before%201%20 January%202000. 139 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life • Glazing (windscreen and wiper condition) • Door operations and locking mechanisms • Safety belts and buckle/anchorage system • Airbag integrity, if fitted • Speedometer and odometer check • Steering and suspension • Fuel system integrity • Engine faults, including oil leaks • Exhaust system faults • For electric vehicles: a visual check that high voltage components are secure and appropriately shielded It is proposed that the above reference to exhaust system faults is limited to checking for excessive noise, exhaust leaks, exhaust system mounting, direction of the exhaust (for example, in accordance with the exhaust system requirements of NZTA’s VIRMs73 ) and for visual smoke emissions (for example, in accordance with the smoke exhaust emissions requirements of NZTA’s VIRM for exhaust smoke emission74). On the latter, there is an ongoing debate about the appropriate level of emissions testing for PTIs. The subject is complex and multifaceted, especially when considering application in a PIC setting. In these settings, the feasibility of complex testing is limited, while the reliability of simpler ‘performance indicator’ methods is questionable.75 Both tests are open to fraud and misuse. Even implementing simple emissions testing requires significant capital and capacity development. The situation is further complicated by the fact that modern vehicles generally exhibit robust emissions performance if their emissions equipment remains unaltered and correct fuels have been used. Consequently, use of simple testing equipment might identify only a few gross emitters at a disproportionate cost per gross emitting vehicle identified. Advancements in vehicle technology further influence this debate. Many vehicles in PICs now come equipped with On-Board Diagnostics II (OBD2), which can indicate many of the types of engine faults that result in poor emissions performance. Simply identifying these faults, for example, by illuminated dashboard engine warning lights, without the extensive capital and capacity needs associated with PTI emissions testing, might provide a more appropriate alternative, and raises questions about the practicality and long-term value of investing in PTI emissions testing infrastructure. This simple approach, at least as a first step, is supported by observations made during the author’s travels to various PICs in 2023 and 2024. Many vehicles inspected had their engine warning lights on, indicating some fault, yet it was consistently found that the drivers had no plans to seek a diagnostic check. This scenario highlights several concerns: a lack of awareness among some drivers about the significance of these warning lights, a willingness to continue driving despite potential issues, and in some cases, an acknowledgment of a problem but a decision to ignore it. Focusing efforts on addressing these direct issues, particularly for vehicles showing clear signs of faults that could indicate poor emissions control or could lead to engine failure, seems more pragmatic than expanding efforts to identify (including the risk of misidentifying, given the limits of simple emissions testing76) an additional group of vehicles in need of servicing. The implications of sidelining vehicles due to illuminated engine warning lights warrant careful consideration. During the author’s travels in Pohnpei (FSM) in March 2024, for example, illuminated engine warning lamps were observed in four out of twelve taxis, suggesting a widespread issue if this ratio extends across the vehicle population. A similar prevalence of warning lights was noted in taxis within Yap and Chuuk, FSM. In Tonga and Kiribati, a lower incidence of such warning signals was observed, yet their presence still highlights that the challenge is regional. Given the potential impact, outright removal of these vehicles from operation until repairs are made is not feasible on multiple fronts. A softer strategy at first is needed, such as informing drivers about the importance of addressing these warnings and distributing awareness materials on the subject. A stricter approach would be to offer a 12-month grace period for repairs. Further analysis, including an assessment of what the faults are, their repair costs and the ability of local workshops to carry them out, and the beneficial outcomes, will be required before considering stricter enforcement measures again. Additionally, the necessity for change and the speed at which it should be implemented also demand consideration. For instance, the higher traffic and population density of main cities in Fiji would suggest earlier attention to this intervention than for relatively sparsely populated PICs such as Tuvalu. 73. Available at the time of writing at https://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/in-service-wof-and-cof/general/exhaust/exhaust- system. 74. Available at the time of writing at https://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/in-service-wof-and-cof/general/exhaust/exhaust- emissions. 75. Vehicle Emissions Pilot Project, A. Campbell et al (2006), Vehicle Emissions Pilot Project, https://www.transport.govt.nz/assets/ Uploads/Report/vehEmissionsPilotProject.pdf. 76. Ibid. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 140 The emission performance of vehicles is expected to improve over time. Vehicles joining PICs’ national fleets will have more advanced engine technologies with more stringent emission standards and durability requirements due to the standards in place in overseas markets. Simply waiting 10 years for the fleet to turnover and achieve this improvement is not an optimal solution. PICs can benefit from a blended approach described below. 1. As discussed above, an inspection for illuminated engine warning lights and providing an awareness program around them, to be provided at the time of PTI. 2. A more stringent application of the engine warning lights checks, calibrated in respect to stringency and phase in period according to local need and implications, enforced at the time of PTI. 3. Also as discussed above, a smoke rule that rejects a vehicle that emits clearly visible smoke from the tailpipe (e.g., in accordance with the smoke exhaust emissions requirements of NZTA’s VIRMs77), enforced through PTI and on-road inspections. 4. An exhaust system rule that considers tampering of the exhaust system, leaks, and noise (e.g., in accordance with the exhaust system requirements of NZTA’s VIRMs78) for application at the time of PTIs. Vehicles that fail to comply with the inspection protocols that are established should be prohibited from operating on public roads. Alternatively, vehicles that only fall short of meeting the exhaust system standards could be limited to operating outside urban and semi-urban areas. This approach allows for the continued use of otherwise functional vehicles in environments where they are less likely to cause harm, and so avoid early retirement. This approach is designed to offer a practical and cost-effective method for managing vehicle emissions in PICs. Additionally, it is suggested that regulatory bodies continually assess the efficacy of this strategy, escalating to more rigorous measures only if deemed necessary. The enforcement intensity of these regulations may also vary based on the operational location of the vehicles. For instance, it would be logical to implement more rigorous on-road inspections in densely populated urban areas. (c) Vehicle Repair and Maintenance Navigating the intricacies of the vehicle service and associated parts market in the PICs presents a complex balance of affordability, parts availability, safety, and quality. Four critical elements must align for a successful vehicle repair process: • recognizing the need for repair • submitting the vehicle for repair • securing the required parts • repair to a satisfactory quality standard Given the noticeable number of vehicles in various PICs that are visibly deteriorated, unsafe, and in dire need of repair, a significant barrier exists for some owners in recognizing the need for repairs and in deciding to take their vehicles in for maintenance. This situation must be addressed to prevent faults from escalating to a point where repairs become economically unfeasible. It is recommended that this gap in awareness and willingness to act be targeted through an awareness campaign aimed at promoting vehicle care and proper operation, as a component of a broader initiative on responsible vehicle ownership. 77. Available at the time of writing at https://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/in-service-wof-and-cof/general/exhaust/exhaust- emissions. 78. Available at the time of writing at https://vehicleinspection.nzta.govt.nz/virms/in-service-wof-and-cof/general/exhaust/exhaust- system. 141 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life (d) Parts supply Parts supply is a critical factor in vehicle maintenance. Interviews with workshop owners across RMI, Tonga, Kiribati, the Solomon Islands and for Pohnpei, FSM, established that approximately 80% of necessary parts can be sourced locally for each, particularly for common vehicle models. Workshop owners in Fiji reported near-complete availability of parts for common models, with ease of gaining any remaining parts within days through order from New Zealand or Australian suppliers.79 The higher availability in Fiji is attributed to the larger scale of its automotive industry and its role as a regional hub for vehicle parts, serving neighboring PICs, plus well established supply routes. Interestingly, workshop owners in Tonga and Fiji noted that even when parts are available locally, they sometimes opt to import them from Australia or New Zealand due to significant cost savings. While most PICs have dedicated automotive parts suppliers,80 the FSM states of Yap and Chuuk are notable exceptions. Here, only the workshops maintain a stock of repair-related parts, albeit a limited selection.81 This scarcity of readily available parts was reflected in a large number of vehicles stored at vehicle workshops awaiting the arrival of necessary parts for repair – illustrating the importance of timely parts supply. Original parts are very expensive across PICs and, because of this, motorists are reliant on lower cost “after-market” (sometimes referred to as “grey market”) parts. The challenge of sourcing parts not available locally ranges from delays of several days to months, with costs ballooning as parts pass through multiple intermediaries, accumulating markups, freight and handling fees. For instance, an alternator costing $150 in New Zealand could end up priced at $600 by the time it reaches a workshop in Tonga82. This is a reason why workshops constantly consider different supply options.83 To mitigate these challenges, larger vehicle workshops across the PICs have cultivated their own networks for sourcing parts, often securing them at a fraction of the cost charged by the dedicated parts supply shops. In Pohnpei (FSM), for example, mechanics reported acquiring parts for one-third to one-quarter the price offered by the primary parts supplier. Despite the potential savings, many customers prioritize immediate parts availability and expedited repair of their vehicle over lower costs. This decision is also influenced by the risk that vehicles left stationary for extended periods may develop additional issues due to their inactivity. End-of-life vehicles also often serve as valuable sources of parts, resulting in the common sight of numerous end-of- life vehicles stored within and around the premises of smaller-sized vehicle workshops. A vehicle workshop proprietor in Chuuk (FSM), humerously remarked that mechanics are often the first on the scene of a vehicle accident offering to buy accident-damaged vehicles, such is the value of good condition parts for common vehicle models.84 In Tonga and in Fiji, some businesses were observed to take this to the level of dismantling end-of-life vehicles to salvage and stock components deemed valuable, such as body panels, glass, and engine parts. One parts supplier in Fiji carried out the vehicle dismantling overseas (mainly in Japan) and shipped containers of used, original parts to Fiji to supply the local market. Sourcing parts from ELVs and wrecks could be more effective requires knowledge of wreck availability. Without a formalized system for recording these wrecks, coupled with the high costs of inter-island freight, such practices are largely confined to vehicle repairs within the same island. Another alternative approach to parts procurement observed in FSM, Kiribati and the RMI involves vehicle owners directly manging the supply of necessary parts. This method comes with its challenges – most notably the difficulty in ensuring the correct part is identified, given the variations among vehicle models. Despite these challenges, a number of rental car operators and taxi drivers in FSM, along with a private vehicle owner in RMI, reported frequently purchasing parts from international online marketplaces like Amazon. For some, this strategy takes advantage of relatively quick and cost- effective shipping options from the mainland US.85 The challenges associated with obtaining parts and their high costs have led to some inventive solutions. For example, workshops have resorted to electrical repairs on starters and alternators when such parts would normally be replaced in markets supported with good parts supply, adapting alternators with modified brackets to fit different models, and replacing fuel-injection systems with carburetors.86 The very wide range of used vehicle models across PICs complicates parts identification due to varying part numbering systems for different models and jurisdictions the model was made for, and language barriers. It can also be difficult to secure parts for models not supported by the local agents due to the rigid regional boundaries set by OEMs that agents 79. Telephone interviews by the author carried out on 10 April 2024, in person interviews carried out on 19 May 2024. 80. Findings during missions to Tonga, Kiribati, Vanuatu, Solomon Islands, Fiji, Samoa and the RMI during 2022 to 2024. 81. Findings during a visit to FSM in March 2024. 82. Specific example provided during an interview with workshop proprietor. 83. Ibid. 84. Dudley Jordon, Jorden Partners Auto Parts and Services, Yap, personal communication. 85. For example, for Pohnpei (FSM), one week delivery for small parts from the US using a US$18 postal bag – Interview with Henry’s Car Rental in March 2024. 86. As observed during vehicle workshop visits and a vehicle inspection, FSM, during a visit in March 2024. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 142 must abide by. This can lead to delays and additional costs in procuring the right part. The situation is further complicated by the difficulty shipping certain parts, such as airbags and modern seatbelt assemblies with pyrotechnic components, which are classified as dangerous goods. If these cannot be supplied, the choices remaining are to use the vehicle anyway in a known unsafe condition (in defiance of even the most relaxed of safety requirements in place in developed countries), or for the vehicle to be retired. It is interesting to note that these concerns were understood back in the 1980s – Article 71, Transport & Motor Vehicles Law, Pohnpei, FSM, stated “any person who imports motor vehicles into the state of Pohnpei for the purpose of resale shall stock and make available to customers all spare parts listed on the “Mandatory spare parts list” for each make and model of motor vehicle so imported.”87 The establishment of parts suppliers may have substantially got around this requirement. Interviewed workshop proprietors reported that the grey market could supply parts of appropriate quality, but that low quality parts and consumables were also on offer. For instance, one rental car owner reported that some grey market parts such as engine mounts were found to regularly fail,88 and interviews with home-mechanic vehicle owners found that the threads on some grey market parts were easily stripped.89 Also, low-grade oils, a common consumable provided by the grey market, may not meet the performance standards of their higher-quality counterparts, risking detrimental build-ups in engines and potentially early engine or drivetrain failure. Faced with the wide choices of supply of these consumables from fuel stations and larger supermarkets, the less-informed do-it-yourself consumer is likely to opt for the least cost option or to make poorly informed choices. An example of the latter is the common belief among taxi owners in Fiji that an oil they use was low quality because it turned black quickly when used, when this is a sign, it is working to remove unwanted material as it should. The preference was to use an oil that stayed clear, which unfortunately suggests that the oil is not working as it should. Again, this underscores a need for good education and awareness. Providing an example of what can be done to improve this situation, a vehicle workshop in Pohnpei, FSM, reported that they conduct tests on grey market parts prior to stocking them.90 This option would be limited to consumables like brake pads, where testing for quality and compatibility is more feasible. Figure 148: Automotive parts store, Honiara, Solomon Islands. 87. Article 71, Transport & Motor Vehicles Law, Section 3-115, Source : S.L. No. 2L-132-82 §515, 7/9/82, available at the time of writing at https://fsmlaw.org/pohnpei/code/pdf/pohnpei%20state%202012%20code.pdf. 88. Henry’s Car Rental, Pohnpei, FSM, personal communication. 89. Vehicle owner interviews, Honiara, Solomon Islands. 90. Mr Wong, High Speed Auto, Pohnpei (FSM). 143 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Note that the level of vehicle repair work carried out is limited. Most PICs do not appear to have the tooling or skills available to carry out complex engine or transmission repairs. Instead of repairing, workshops often opt to swap engines and transmissions when a suitable unit becomes available. For example, in the FSM, replacing a four-cylinder engine—typically found in smaller cars—costs between US$600 and US$850, depending on the condition of the replacement engine. For FSM, these replacement engines are usually sourced from vehicles that have been involved in accidents, and importing a complete engine, even a used one, is considered prohibitively expensive for all but high-end vehicle models. Meanwhile in Fiji the economies of scale are such that used engines for common vehicles are an imported, stock item. Figure 149: Stock of Toyota Engines Imported Used for Figure 150: Door and other panels recovered from Distribution from a Parts Supplier in Suva, Fiji. ELVs, Tongatapu. In summary, parts supply becomes more problematic as the size of the local market gets smaller resulting in situations where a lack of parts supply competition can lead to monopolistic pricing. This issue is exacerbated by the consumer’s preference for a diverse range of vehicle models, making it economically unfeasible for suppliers to stock parts for all models in smaller markets. Looking ahead, the situation may worsen due to the increasing variety of vehicle models available in the global market, and as PICs increase the importation of vehicles from newer supply markets such as China, following trends seen in other countries, particularly if these imports are not supported by a suitable parts supply system. Possible strategies to mitigate these challenges include promoting the purchase of common vehicle models to streamline local parts availability and providing guidance to enable reliable, quality parts supply from a wider range of suppliers in other markets and cost- effective freight options. (e) Workshop Services The spectrum of workshop services in PICs varies widely, ranging from high-quality, OEM-supported workshops to informal, artisanal mechanics operating roadside shops. This disparity affects the overall quality of vehicle maintenance and repair. There were concerns raised by interviewed vehicle owners of the cost to have work done at reputable workshops, and the questionable capability of services provided at lower-cost workshops. A high number of interviewed vehicle owners said that they often preferred to defer maintenance for fear of exacerbating existing issues by taking their vehicle to their normal workshop. This situation presents a challenging conundrum: vehicle owners demand high-quality workshop services but are often reluctant to pay the higher fees associated with these higher quality services. As a result, some owners delay routine maintenance, which, while seemingly cost saving in the short term, can lead to more significant, costlier problems down the line as minor issues evolve into major complications. Many elements contributed to the current circumstances, including the availability and capability of locally trained mechanics, the dependence on mechanics from overseas, and change in vehicle technology and maintaining capability to service these newer model vehicles. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 144 Figure 151: “Field mechanic”, Figure 152: Inside an automotive Figure 153: A roadside garage, Honiara, Solomon Islands. workshop, Pohnpei, FSM. Pohnpei, FSM. (i) Mechanic training Some PICs such as Fiji, Solomon Islands, Samoa, and Tonga have automotive courses available through their respective technical institutes. At least some of these institutes have partnerships with technical institutes outside of the region with courses regularly updated. For example, the Australia Pacific Training Coalition (APTC), sponsored by Australian Aid and implemented by TAFE (Technical and Further Education) Queensland, supports automotive courses for several PIC technical institutes.91 Meanwhile, WelTec, a New Zealand’s technical institute, is supporting electric vehicle courses in the Cook Islands and SPC aims to roll this course out to other PICs.92 The ability of larger PICs to provide the necessary skills development is exemplified when comparing the well utilized93 “Hybrid Electric Vehicle System” course at the Fiji National University (FNU, Suva, Fiji) to the College of Micronesia, in Pohnpei (FSM). In contrast to FNU, during a visit in March of 2024 the College of Micronesia was having difficulty recruiting a tutor to re-establish its one-year general automotive course after a two-year hiatus. Interviewed workshop proprietors reported several other challenges to developing adequate locally trained vehicle mechanics: attracting students to educational courses was difficult due to the allure of higher earnings from seasonal work in New Zealand and Australia (Kiribati and Tonga) and other better job opportunities in mainland US (RMI and FSM); attendance to courses was poor (Solomon Islands); it was difficult to retain automotive technicians once they have been trained due to better job opportunities outside of the region (most PICs); and the quality and outdated nature of some of the courses offered was criticized (most PICs apart from Fiji). Furthermore, many workshop proprietors stated that they preferred to recruit mechanics from overseas because of their superior work ethic, quite apart from their better skills. In fact, most high-end vehicle workshops in the FSM, RMI, Kiribati, and Tonga were owned and managed by foreign mechanics, and they employed mainly foreign mechanics who had been trained in their respective home countries.94 The current skill base will not be sufficient going forward as newer and more electronically complex vehicles enter PICs and the number of vehicles increases. Without change there is a real risk that some modern vehicles may become inoperable due to electronics-related failures, or improper repairs or modifications that leave vehicles in an unsafe condition, potentially leading to serious issues such as the fires.95 This is already recognized as an issue in other countries.96 Only Fiji appears to be in a reasonable position for its automotive service industry to maintain currency with modern vehicle and engine technologies, greatly supported by the high number of manufacturer representatives in the country. The methods already in place by some progressive workshops to address this capability shortfall include sending mechanics overseas for advanced training, as seen in Tonga, Solomon Islands, and RMI; missions to PICs by trainers (as is the case for some manufacturer representatives and distributors in Fiji); utilizing YouTube to learn specific repair procedures, a method employed by mechanics in Cambodia, Bhutan, Tonga, and the FSM; attending high-level courses in country, when available (again, noting FNU’s Hybrid Electric Vehicle System course); and engaging in online courses supported by multimedia instruction modules, as was one case in the FSM. 91. https://aptc.edu.au/. 92. Solomone Fifita, Deputy Director, Energy, SPC, personal communication. 93. Many mechanics that repaired hybrid vehicles said that they had completed FNU’s Hybrid Electric Vehicle System course. 94. Interviews in Solomon Islands, FSM and RMI during February and March 2024. 95. For example, as experienced with several fires of hybrid vehicles in Fiji, https://fijivillage.com/news-feature/Authorities-concerned- over-number-of-vehicles-catching-fire-on-our-roads-r92sk5. 96. Interviews with mechanics in Cambodia and Bhutan. 145 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life The last training program merits further discussion due to its potential to be well-suited for upskilling mechanics across PICs outside of Fiji, also catering to a broad range of skill levels. For the specific course mentioned, the program started with a part-year course at a technical institute, which then transitioned to online learning. Participants gained lifetime access to an extensive, continuously updated library of training modules.96 Such catering for novice to experienced mechanics has particular significance in the PICs – providing a training program that provides for training new recruits plus enhancing the skills of the predominant expatriate mechanic workforce, who currently provide most of the vehicle servicing in some PICs. As vehicles become more technologically advanced, the dependency on these skilled mechanics is expected to increase, highlighting the importance of training at this level – a level that is currently not well catered for in the PIC region outside of Fiji and workshops provided by new vehicle agents. Given the emergence of these new training methods and their potential suitability for many PIC settings; the urgent need to upskill the vehicle service sector across the PICs to meet both present and future demands; and the expectation that the current automotive training programs will not deliver the change required for many PICs; it is proposed that a roadmap be developed and implemented aimed at significant improvements and modernization in automotive training across the region, and designed for both large and small PICs. It would also be prudent to maintain some form of the current certification process used in PICs to link the existing and new systems. Considering that the necessity of a revamp of automotive training extends beyond just the PICs, the development of such a program could be integrated into a broader initiative targeting developing countries. The advantages of getting it right are shown in the example “Regenerating Hybrid Vehicles”. Regenerating Hybrid Vehicles: A significant increase in hybrid vehicle imports to Fiji illustrates the need for upskilling commensurate with evolution of the vehicle fleet. The good fuel economy of these vehicles depends on a well-functioning propulsion battery. However, after 300,000 – 400,000 km, some of these batteries have failed. A solution has emerged that involves combining used and new replacement batteries, with exchanges often carried out by mechanics who have attended FNU’s Hybrid Electric Vehicle System course. For a taxi operator, the payback period through improved fuel economy is around 8 months. This service is also helping reduce premature retirement of hybrid vehicles. (ii) Mechanic tools and equipment Many workshops in Fiji are well appointed, mostly supported by ready access to necessary tools and equipment and directed by minimum health and safety requirements. Access to essential tools and equipment is a challenge for many vehicle workshops in smaller PICs, however, particularly for smaller workshops. Comparing availability of scan tools across workshops can be used a s proxy measure to assess garage’s capacity to repair modern vehicles efficiently and their readiness to service newer vehicles entering the market. Scan tools are essential for modern vehicle maintenance, enabling mechanics to efficiently diagnose issues. The more complex scan tools also allow post-service and repair calibration, programming, and software updates. Their use is considered crucial, often indispensable, for effectively repairing modern vehicles' complex electronic systems. Dependence on scan tools is expected to increase as the vehicle fleet continues to modernize and incorporate more advanced technologies. They typically range in cost from around US$2,000 to US$5,000, require update or replacement every few years, and multiple scan tools are required if a workshop were to provide a full range of services for a broad range of vehicle makes and models. The financial investment involved will increasingly make it difficult for smaller vehicle workshops to provide services beyond basic maintenance as the vehicle fleet modernizes. During visits to numerous larger and roadside garages, it was observed that while most of the larger vehicle workshops in Tonga, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, RMI, and FSM were equipped with at least basic scan tools, all the smaller roadside workshops in Tonga, Kiribati, and Solomon Islands lacked these devices. In Tonga and Kiribati, a high proportion of vehicle servicing appears to be performed by small roadside workshops, a stark contrast to the practices observed in the RMI, and this will need to change as the fleet modernizes. Several small workshops in FSM had devised a workaround of temporarily taking vehicles needing diagnostics to a better-equipped workshop to identify the problem, and then return the vehicles to their own premises to perform the repairs. Here again, Fiji was an outlier in that even smaller garages visited had scan tools.97 Selecting which scan tools to purchase and identifying reliable suppliers can be quite complex. While vehicle dealership agents are likely to receive guidance and support from their suppliers in selecting appropriate equipment, independent workshops must navigate this on their own. Notably, the mechanic enrolled in the aforementioned Chinese automotive training course received this information as part of the program’s curriculum. It is suggested that the proposed PIC regional automotive training program should also incorporate guidance on selecting and sourcing scan tools. 96. Mr Wong, High Speed Auto, Pohnpei (FSM), personal communication. 97. Visits to garages in Suva in May 2024. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 146 Figure 154: A variety of Essential Scan Tools, Workshop in Pohnpei, FSM. Many of these factors again raise questions about the appropriate level of compliance that should be expected in periodic inspections. While some small islands with few vehicles and low road speeds might not need to be highly regulated, vehicles using the main roads and relatively densely populated cities in places like Fiji should have higher safety and emission standards. There is also concern regarding the availability of specialist refrigerant recovery equipment – no workshop in Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, RMI or FSM was equipped with such equipment, which are essential for servicing vehicle air conditioning systems. Additionally, there is no established system for managing recovered refrigerants in these nations, a deficiency that is widespread throughout the PIC region. Meanwhile, practices for the recovery of used oil vary across PICs. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in FSM, promotes the collection and storage of used oil at municipal waste facilities, although management beyond this has yet to be developed. Similarly, there are used lubricating oil storage options available in Tonga and Kiribati. However, there are no established practices for the disposal of used oil filters in at least Tonga, Kiribati, Solomon Islands, RMI and FSM, and mechanics interviewed there suggested that most end up in landfills. Additionally, used lubricating oil is sometimes repurposed for dust suppression on roads and for various uses on farms among other uses. Adding to the issue, mechanics across all PICs visited almost universally recommend a 6-month or 5,000 km oil and oil filter replacement schedule, even though the service period stated in the manuals of modern vehicles is typically around twice this interval. Adhering to the longer intervals could halve the amount of waste oil requiring management. The 6-month/5,000 km schedule may simply be a continuation of practices used for pre-1990- 2000 engines, which did not run as cleanly and placed more stress on the lubricating oil. When questioned, some mechanics cited the lower quality of oils available and harsh local environments as reasons for their recommendations. However, most reputable garages were found to use high-quality oils, and the environmental conditions are not significantly harsher, making such a deviation from the manufacturers’ recommendations unwarranted. 147 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Figure 155: Waste Oil Collection Drums, Workshop in Figure 156: Battery drop area, Yap, FSM. Yap, FSM. The management of end-of-life batteries appears more advanced. This is discussed in a later section. (f) Insurance Third-party insurance, sometimes also referred to as liability insurance, pays out to third parties in the event the insured driver is found at fault for a collision. Globally, most countries have national legislation mandating third-party insurance.98 Vehicle regulations in at least Fiji, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Samoa and RMI mandate that vehicles must have third-party liability insurance. Specifically, in Tonga, the Solomon Islands, Fiji and RMI, proof of this insurance is required for the annual renewal of vehicle registration.99 Despite these regulations, a significant number of vehicles in Tonga and the Solomon Islands reportedly drive uninsured.100 In the FSM, third-party insurance is compulsory only for vehicles used commercially, and few vehicles outside of taxis and company vehicles are insured.101 Vehicle owners in FSM can also nominate a minimum amount of third-party insurance. Nevertheless, there have been very few instances reported where this minimum coverage was insufficient to cover the costs of collisions involving insured vehicles.102 Drivers provided questioned about what occurs following a collision where the at-fault driver is uninsured, drivers provided a variety of responses. Some mentioned that the parties involved often reach mutual agreements on compensation; some noted that they look out for each other’s well-being; sometimes the financially capable party (often a company, if a company vehicle is involved) covers the costs, irrespective of who was at fault.103 Additionally, there were instances of only partial or minimal repairs being made, depending on what the parties could afford.104 Compulsory third-party insurance provides financial protection for victims of road collisions by ensuring that damages and medical expenses are covered without the need for legal disputes, which can be costly and drawn out. It is difficult to attribute any specific improvement in fleet condition to the presence of third-party insurance as many other factors are involved. Additionally, third-party insurance primarily benefits one party to a collision. 98. 131 countries have mandatory third party insurance: WHO Global Status Report on Road Safety 2023, available at the time of writing at https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/375016/9789240086517-eng.pdf?sequence=1. 99. Interviews with PIC police officers and reference to transport regulations and codes. 100. Vehicle workshop proprietors in Tongatapu and Honiara. 101. Insurance agencies in each of Pohnpei, Yap and Chuuk, FSM, personal communication. 102. Ibid. 103. Interviews with numerous taxi drivers in Solomon Islands and FSM, during missions in 2024. 104. Ibid. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 148 Compulsory insurance increases the base cost of owning a vehicle. In PICs, many vehicle owners consider only the essential costs of motorization, such as the cost of fuel, and view any other additional expenses as burdens rather than as responsibilities associated with vehicle ownership. This perspective can be political, with ongoing debates between making motorization more affordable and accessible—which may shift the broader costs of motoring onto the state and collision victims—and advocating for motorists to bear their own costs, which promotes fairness and is expected to bring about better outcomes post-accident, including more reliable patient care and safer vehicles. Strong and compelling arguments for change are a necessary step towards adopting policies that attribute the full cost of motoring to motorists . At the time of writing the insurance industry in Pohnpei (FSM) was calling for expansion of compulsory third-party insurance to that state.105 The availability of free healthcare also impacts this debate. A desktop assessment revealed that all considered PICs offer some level of free public health services, including for injuries related to vehicle accidents.106 This provision reduces the financial impact of accidents on individuals, effectively making third-party insurance more affordable since the government is already subsidizing a portion of what third-party insurance would typically cover. This suggests that motorists are receiving an indirect subsidy, which supports the argument for the affordability and feasibility of mandatory third-party insurance in these regions. Overall, there is basis to consider the adoption of compulsory third-party vehicle insurance in those PICs where it is not currently mandated, and it is recommended that a thorough and robust assessment be conducted to evaluate the potential impacts of implementing such insurance. Future developments should then be based on the insights gained from this analysis. (g) In-Service Use of Electric Vehicles Introduction of electric vehicle technology presents a mix of opportunities and challenges. Large batteries and their charging needs are primary factors contributing to differences in the risk profile of internal combustion engine vehicles and battery electric vehicles. Globally, industry has addressed these new risks by introducing stringent standards for light-duty and heavy-duty electric vehicles and the chargers that they use. Meanwhile, standards are generally less stringent or only emerging for smaller, motor-assisted vehicles such as e-scooters and e-bikes (micromobility vehicles). This is becoming a serious gap, such are the number of incidences of fires with these smaller vehicles. The issue for smaller EVs is compounded by the ease of purchasing low-quality e-micromobility vehicles online from overseas suppliers without robust assessment. A common habit of charging these devices indoors adds to the risk, particularly if charging is not conducted safely. This includes the potential mismatch of chargers and batteries due to the common plugs often used, coupled with the possibility that the battery and charging systems may be of inferior quality and lack adequate safety features. These factors collectively increase the likelihood of incidents such as battery fires, underscoring the need for management of these risks. PRIF’s study “Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific Island Region”107 proposed managing these risks with a dedicated education and awareness program designed to guide consumers towards making informed purchasing decisions and adopting best practice charging practices. 105. Moses Insurance Brokers, Pohnpei, FSM, and as reported in the Pohnpei State Public Information, available at the time of writing at https://pohnpeistate.gov.fm/2024/04/03/leaders-of-local-insurance-industry-advocate-for-mandatory-auto-insurance-in- courtesy-call-on-governor-stevenson-a-joseph/. 106. Desktop assessment carried out by the author during April 2024, but noting that not all injuries are covered. For example, an insurance agent in Chuuk, FSM, noted a payout to allow a person to have crash-related surgery in Honolulu. 107. Available at the time of writing at https://www.theprif.org/document/regional/transport/electric-vehicle-standards-for-pacific- region. 149 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life Recommendations for Vehicle Life Stage 3: In Service Vehicle Use The proposed recommendations concerning in-service vehicle use are: 1. Improving the specification and thoroughness of periodic technical inspections and their enforcement, alongside increasing roadside checks. This includes the inclusion of a visual smoke emissions test, dashboard warning light check, and others. 2. Developing and deploying an extensive multimedia education and awareness program focused on promoting best practices for owners for both internal combustion engine vehicles and electric vehicles. 3. Promoting the purchase of common vehicle models to streamline local parts availability and providing guidance to enable reliable, quality parts supply from a wider range of suppliers in other markets plus the use of cost-effective freight options. 4. Overhauling the training of mechanics through the development and delivery of a modern, multimedia automotive training program. 5. Supporting workshops with the selection and purchase of scan tools and other workshop equipment. 6. Conducting a regulatory impact assessment of the introduction of compulsory third-party vehicle insurance in PICs, where it is currently not or only partially required, to evaluate the benefits and challenges of such a policy. 7.4.4 Vehicle Life Stage 4: Retirement The retirement of a vehicle can be triggered by various factors including: • involvement in a crash • breakdowns where repairs are not feasible • failure to meet specific safety or emissions standards and repair is not feasible • no longer meeting the owner’s needs • becoming economically inefficient to operate • changes in regulatory specifications like age or emissions requirements Addressing vehicle retirement requires a thoughtful strategy. Financial constraints often lead a desire for vehicle owners to continue using vehicles that pose significant safety and emissions risks. Forced retirement of vehicles reduces access to personal transportation and can have many social implications (Gorham et al., 2022). A balanced and more holistic approach might entail implementing stricter enforcement of standards in areas where the potential for harm is greater, as well as providing alternative transportation options to mitigate the impact on those reliant on their vehicles. Minimum safety and emissions standard must be enforced for vehicles that operate in proximity to people and other vehicles, and vehicles that no longer meet these standards should be retired. Field observations in Kiribati and Tonga in 2023 revealed the reality of a high degree of leniency towards vehicle standards in remote areas, with instances of visibly unsafe and high-emission vehicles, some unregistered, and one vehicle fully loaded with passengers lacking a windscreen. While some degree of leniency can be provided, for example, allowing a vehicle that fails an emission requirement to continue to be registered as long as it doesn’t operate in urban and semi-urban areas, there should be no tolerance for vehicles in such unsafe condition that they pose a risk to the operator, nearby individuals, or surrounding property. While this report recommends that more stringent vehicle age and mileage maximums should apply to newly imported vehicles, it generally does not recommend that there should be maximums applied to the existing vehicle fleet. In many PICs the vehicle population is rapidly growing, and fleet renewal-incentivizing policies risk inadvertently creating higher demand for imported vehicles and exacerbate existing challenges and costs related to managing end-of-life vehicle scrap. Additionally, the limited scope for vehicle manufacturing in PICs, primarily restricted to coach building and modifications, means there is less opportunity to stimulate the economy through the early retirement of vehicles. A possible exception to this is the encouragement of earlier retirement of public transport vehicles because of the potential gains that could be made through the modernization of this fleet in particular, including attracting greater ridership and reducing human Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 150 exposure to air quality-related emissions. However, such a transition is not without its challenges, including enabling the transition to be affordable to all stakeholders. These factors further underscore the importance of enhancing vehicle maintenance and care to prolong their operational lifespan. The recommendations concerning retirement have been covered in the last section, focusing on creating a framework to ensure that vehicles in use are maintained such that they remain safe, emit low levels of pollution, are appropriate for their intended use, and are maintained properly to maximize their lifespan. Figure 157: End of life vehicles across the Pacific (Left: Suva, Fiji; Middle: Yap, FSM; Right: Chuuk, FSM). 7.4.5 Vehicle Life Stage 5: Management of End-of-Life Vehicles (a) Introduction The challenge of managing the increasing volume of scrap, particularly abandoned vehicles, has reached a critical point for many PICs. Decades of neglect and poor hazardous waste control have led to abandoned vehicles occupying a significant area of valuable land. These vehicles also contribute to significant environmental and public health risks due to the uncontrolled release of hazardous substances, including persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Moreover, they become breeding grounds for mosquitoes and rodents, heightening the risk of vector-borne diseases. Only relatively recently has there been programs to earnestly manage ELVs on some islands. The rapid growth in the vehicle population across PICs forecasts a worsening situation, signaling an urgent need for the development and deployment of effective ELV management strategies. Recycling systems for ELV and other bulky waste in PICs are generally underdeveloped. While larger PICs have some recycling capabilities that allow for the recovery and export of valuable materials, smaller PICs either stockpile these items awaiting export or lack formal recovery operations altogether (SPREP, 2022). This has resulted in the landfilling or stockpiling of ELVs and bulky waste, including white goods, electronic equipment, and heavy machinery, which are often abandoned in public spaces or stored in private locations including in villages. Figure 158: Example of a village with ELVs once stored by a mechanic for parts salvaging and now abandoned (Chuuk, FSM). 151 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life (b) Previous and Current ELV-Related Work PICs must manage ELV waste themselves. Vehicle manufacturers increasingly incorporate circular economy principles into vehicle designs, and in some markets, legislation mandates their responsibility for end-of-life vehicle management. This responsibility often ceases when a vehicle is privately shipped to another market (i.e., and not by an agent of the manufacturer), as is common with almost all vehicles sent to PICs. Therefore, the only benefit derived from these manufacturing practices in the PICs context is the increasing ease of processing these modern vehicles on the islands at the end of their life. In waste management terminology, "bulky waste" refers to waste types that are too big or heavy for regular waste collection and disposal methods, and typically includes ELVs. There have been several notable, more recent projects and work concerning bulky waste-related management in the PIC region. These are: • Waste audits across 14 PICs overseen by PRIF (PRIF publications, https://www.theprif.org/prif-publications-by- sector); such as PRIF (2018), Waste Audit Methodology: A Common Approach, https://www.theprif.org/sites/default/ files/documents/prif_waste_audit_methodology_final_report_03-06-20.pdf. • Secretariat of the Pacific Regional Environment Programme (2016), Pacific Regional Waste and Pollution Management Strategy 2016–2025, https://prdrse4all.spc.int/data/pacifc-regional-waste-and-pollution- management-strategy-2016-2025. The strategy provides direction for general waste management in the PIC region. • PacWaste Plus, a program funded by the EU and executed by SPREP which aims to improve the management of waste and strengthen waste-related policy in the PIC region. The program’s inception report details specific intent to improve the management of ELVs and, in particular, to introduce ELV safe handling, dismantling and storage guidelines (although none yet appear to have been be published) (https://pacwasteplus.org/regional-project/regional- bulky-waste-management/); • Scoping Study for Bulky Waste Recycling, a project also executed by SPREP. The scoping study work included an evaluation of the financial viability of a regional bulky waste recycling program, an assessment of the volumes of material available for recycling across 14 PICs (both legacy and future waste, and utilizing information from the earlier mentioned PRIF studies), and explored the benefits of a regional approach that utilizes existing shipping networks (and, in particular, the use of return-empty containers to reduce scrap export shipping costs). • Kiribati Scrap Metal Project, a project funded by MFAT New Zealand that resulted in the collection and processing (plastics separation, baling and crushing) of ELVs in Kiribati, and export of the processed scrap to overseas markets. • ISLANDS Pacific Project, a 5-year project that began in 2022. The project is funded by the GEF and will be executed by SPREP. It aims to improve upon the sustainable management of hazardous chemicals and harmful waste, including those associated with ELVs, across 14 PICs (https://www.gefislands.org/news/ambitious-islands-pacific- project-turn-tide-hazardous-waste, https://www.sprep.org/news/islands-take-steps-to-free-pacific-countries-from- chemicals-and-hazardous-waste). There appears to be considerable overlap among these projects and initiatives. SPREP is a central figure in these and, in this context, plays a crucial role in coordinating efforts and outcomes across the projects. (c) Analysis The abovementioned SPREP scoping study provides information that is particularly relevant to the management of ELVs. Summarizing the main points raised: • Significant efforts have been made at both PIC and PIC regional levels into the development of recycling and scrap management. • Key challenges faced by PIC bulky waste recyclers include the variable material value of commodities like scrap metal, the complexity of intermediate material markets (New Zealand and Australia) and final markets (Asia), biosecurity risks associated with scrap metal storage and transportation, and adherence to multilateral environmental agreements due to the presence of hazardous components in bulky waste. These factors significantly influence both the economic viability and environmental compliance of recycling efforts in the region. • Current management of bulky waste ranges from collecting and exporting scrap metal through various programs (e.g., the Cook Islands, Fiji, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, Tonga, some provinces of the Federated States of Micronesia, and Vanuatu) to an absence of management in the more remote areas. The processing of bulky waste has been found challenging even in areas where programs have been established, which has led to a number of issues including waste accumulation. • The cost and viability of bulky waste management was assessed for different PICs, considering material value, different options for in-country processing, and shipping costs. It was found that additional funding is required to make recycling of bulky waste economically viable for any of the scenarios considered. For ELVs, vehicle processing and shipping costs estimates ranged from US$200 to $400 per unit and US$75 to $300 per tonne, respectively, against a scrap value of US$75 to $200 per tonne. This results in a deficit of approximately US$400 for a light-duty vehicle, Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 152 with the shortfall varying between US$200 to $600 per vehicle depending on size and logistics, and a deficit of around twice this for the scraping and export of a heavy-duty vehicle. Currently, this deficit is not accounted for in a vehicle’s purchase price or ownership expenses. Instead, these costs often fall on the communities impacted by abandoned vehicle remnants or are covered by governmental or developmental initiatives in managed ELV programs. • Several regional opportunities to improve the viability and effectiveness of bulky waste recycling in Pacific Island Countries were identified and recommended as next steps, including developing country-level Advanced Recovery Fee and Deposit (ARFD) schemes (and it was inferred that some PICs are considering extending ARFD schemes to include ELVs), improving data collection, establishing a Regional Centre of Excellence for training in bulky waste management, coordinating market strategies, and implementing a legacy clearance program. • Managing ELVs was found to require a significant upgrade in processes including collection, depollution, parts recovery, dismantling, sorting, compacting, and exporting. Addressing capacity and knowledge gaps is crucial, particularly in heavy machinery, skill sets for processing ELVs, containment areas, and ensuring robust documentation and environmental compliance. • Increased processing of ELVs incurs added costs, provides higher scrap value, and has potential for more job opportunities when leveraged against the region’s lower wage advantages. However, this must also align with each PIC’s specific capabilities, infrastructure, technical skills, and environmental policies, which differ widely and different processing options, ranging from depollution before export to more comprehensive dismantling. As with other motorization management strategies, there are many similarities in the issues faced by different PICs and the expected solutions. General resource constraints and other considerations suggest a regional approach to bulky waste management is not just recommended, but essential. With regards to the application of an ARFD scheme for vehicles, the intent of such a scheme is to avoid the costs of private motoring, including those of ELV management, falling on the government or community. Just as it is standard practice for the shipping costs to be borne, and inherently accepted, by vehicle owners, arguably so too should the costs of ELV management, and not be a burden on the government or community. To make these end-of-life costs more visible, and start conversations on how they can be managed, it is proposed that PICs introduce a nominal ARFD fee to be applied at the time of vehicle import. Some alternative methods for financing ELV management without imposing upfront costs are also worth considering. Options include taxing fuel to fund ELV management (which would also capture funds from marine vessels that refuel locally, providing a fund for end-of-life marine vessels as well), and imposing an additional fee during annual vehicle registration. These strategies could create a consolidated fund for ELV management. Careful consideration of their implications and effectiveness will be required as there are many challenges, for example, vehicles in remote locations or those that evade regular registration fees are the vehicles most likely to incur higher ELV management costs. An assessment of the different options is recommended. The various waste management issues that have been identified by the SPREP project were observed during missions to Tonga and Kiribati in 2023 and to FSM and Fiji in 2024. Four examples clearly illustrate existing gaps in ELV management: Figure 159: Director SAP Pacific Co Ltd, between two rows of processed ELVs. 153 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life SAP Pacific Co Ltd. actively collects ELVs across Tongatapu, the main island of Tonga, and batteries from across the main island groups of Tonga, processes these, exports the batteries and recovered non-ferrous metals to overseas scrap markets for income, and stockpiles the remaining scrap on private land with the intention of processing this when it becomes financially viable to do so. This focus on specific, higher value scrap has also largely avoided barriers associated with international rules and regulations concerning the movement of hazardous wastes. The company also earns income from collecting vehicle wrecks (between US$17 and US$50 for a light duty vehicle)108 but offers payment for batteries to encourage their surrender. It also offers spare parts to local vehicle repairers, but this is more of a sideline activity. SAP Pacific Co Ltd. has evaluated the acquisition of a crushing machine and additional equipment to improve scrap processing as well as assessing various shipping options. It was reported that there was a significant financial shortfall for any of these options, and a mechanism for removing collected vehicle carcasses is yet to be established. At the time of the site visit in 2023, SAP Pacific Ltd. was operating with a team of 12 employees, possessed two vehicles for recovery efforts, and an array of equipment for disassembly of ELVs and other bulky waste. The company's director emphasized his role in overseeing staff training, the management of scrap and waste, and handling the administrative aspects associated with the sales and export of the recovered materials. Mai Xiong Pacific operates from a compact site in Pohnpei (FSM) and specializes in the collection and processing of ELVs and other bulky waste across Pohnpei. The company employs 10 full-time workers, utilizes several recovery vehicles, and is equipped with heavy lifting gear and a baler (to compress metal scrap into dense bales). Its operations primarily involve processing any bulky waste that fits on their recovery vehicles, which are collected upon request from owners. The main source of income for Mai Xiong Pacific comes from exporting engine blocks and non-ferrous metals, managing to send out five to six twenty-foot containers every four to six months. They also export lead-acid batteries, but it takes around five years to collect sufficient batteries for bulk export. Currently, it is not economically viable for them to process and export vehicle bodies, which are accumulating at and around their site. The company estimates that they could process all 3,000 ELVs on the island (their estimation) at a cost of approximately US$80-100 per unit and are exploring financing options to support this initiative. Note that this estimation is a fraction of the US$200 – 600 shortfall estimated by the SPREP scoping study but is believable considering the use of local manpower and the relatively low cost operation that has evolved. Figure 160: Loaded engine blocks in preparation for export. Mai Xiong Pacific, Pohnpei, FSM. 108. Converted from Tongan Pa’anga to United States Dollars using May 20, 2024 exchange rate. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 154 The “Yap Ferrous Scrap Metal Project” aims to clear ELVs from the central recycling yard at Yap to clean up this primary land area around Tomil Harbor, which is not only the main port but also adjacent to Yap’s business center. This initiative takes advantage of the opportunity to utilize return-empty barges, which are supplying aggregate to infrastructure projects on the island. Scheduled for the second quarter of 2024, the project’s costs are supported by the US Military. Current estimates suggest that the removal of the ELVs will cost well over US$1,000 per unit, despite the opportunistic use of return-empty barges, a function of the project’s relatively small scale, the use of a temporary workforce, and the extensive land restoration efforts planned for the area.109 Dayal Steels, Fiji, has been processing and utilizing ELVs in steelmaking for around 10 years. The company operates its own recovery vehicles and may either pay for ELVs or get paid to remove them, depending on the circumstances.110 With a reported processing rate of approximately 50 ELVs per day,111 their annual processing capacity is comparable to the number of vehicles imported into Fiji. This suggests a potential to avoid ELV accumulation, provided the vehicles are presented in appropriate condition. These examples underscore the challenges faced in vehicle recycling within PICs, resonating with many findings from the SPREP scoping study and other studies on ELVs. For example, they highlighted: • The large, accumulating stockpile of legacy vehicles requiring urgent processing, often compounded by the uncertain number of ELVs involved (a challenge addressed in part by the extensive GIS mapping undertaken for the Kiribati and Yap ELV projects). • For most PICs, the significant financial barriers to adopting best practice ELV management, and the resulting current dependence on financial support from outside of the current vehicle ownership model for it to happen. • There is a large difference in the costs of ELV management carried out by international companies at demonstration scale and what might be achieved with more cost-effective, long-term solutions implemented locally using regional workforces (and the exceptional opportunity in the case of Fiji with ELV use in steel making). • There is a capable workforce within the region to fully manage ELV disposal effectively if given the technical and financial support, as exemplified by Mai Xiong Pacific. • Support is needed for better managing the administration aspects of ELV management, including clear guidance to ensure compliance with the relevant international treaties and conventions (such as the Basel Convention and the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants). The observed degradation of collected ELVs, mirroring the condition of most abandoned vehicles, suggests a decrease in both scrap value and its viability for export (or local steel making), and the potential need for additional processing to meet export-related biosecurity requirements. This degradation underscores the urgency of establishing processing systems for legacy ELVs. An illustrative case from Kiribati reveals the complexities of incentivized waste programs. Interviews with owners of ELVs conducted during the MFAT-funded Kiribati Scrap Metal Project found some were enticed by offers of payment for their vehicles but waited for higher offers that never materialized. This has left them unable to afford the removal fees now required. This contrasts with Tonga where a more modest fee for ELV removal has been established, though it does not fully cover processing and export costs (SAP Pacific Co. Ltd in Tonga report that they collect around 30 ELVs per week as of November 2023). The costs to establish ELV processing and scrap export are reasonably modest – based on information provided by SAP Pacific Ltd, the combined price for a facility supporting the main islands of Tonga, comprising a crusher, two recovery vehicles, a forklift, yard set up and extensive tooling (and utilizing existing inter-island shipping), would be the order of US$350,000-US$500,000. A similar figure was arrived at by Mr. McCarthy112 and scaled up, these figures are in line with the capital costs estimated by Gorham et al113 for a far larger capacity. ELV management requires policy support plus robust enforcement of policies, as shown by the situation in Tonga where it is illegal to abandon vehicles along the roadside and yet many roadsides have still become littered with abandoned vehicles. 109. Mr Onno McCarthy, GIS Specialist to the Yap Ferrous Scrap Project, personal communication. 110. Sales Manager, Dayal Steels, personal communication. 111. Fiji Times article “Steelmaker eyes scrap metal”, December 2023, available at the time of writing at https://www.fijitimes.com.fj/ steelmaker-eyes-scrap-metal/. 112. Ibid. 113. Motorization Management for Development, an Integrated Approach to Improving Vehicles for Sustainable Mobility, Gorham et al, 2022, World Bank Publications, available at the time of writing at https://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/abs/10.1596/37589. 155 Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use and end of life (d) Management of End-of-Life Electric Vehicles The main difference between the end-of-life management of an EV and an internal combustion engine vehicle is due to the presence of the lithium-ion batteries for EVs. These batteries require specialist handling. EVs also benefits from having components, such as motors and power electronics, which are rich in valuable non-ferrous metals, making ELV management of EVs potentially more profitable due to the high scrap value of these materials. Sustainable management of end-of-life electric vehicle batteries includes repurposing and reuse, recycling to recover valuable materials, and temporary storage until a suitable recycling or repurposing option is available. It is important to avoid dumping lithium-ion batteries due to fire hazards, potential environmental contamination from toxic substances, and the loss of recoverable valuable resources. Lithium-ion batteries that are functional and in safe condition hold significant value, particularly for stationary energy storage, commanding a premium in the market. This inherent value is expected to foster the reuse and repurposing of operational batteries and encourage the repair of non-functional ones. However, repairing these batteries poses significant risks due to the high voltages of larger, multicell batteries used in light duty EVs, which can be lethal, and the reliance on precise caretaker “battery management system” (BMS) electronics within the battery that prevent cell stress – overly stressed cells can descend into a state termed thermal runaway which, as the term suggests, results in uncontrollable generation of heat. Such a condition can result in the release and then ignition of the flammable gases that form. This risk of fire with lithium-ion batteries and the consequences – once a fire has begun in a lithium-ion battery, it is difficult to put out – are reasons for why only trained practitioners should work with lithium-ion batteries. Even the repair of e-scooter and e-bike batteries requires expertise as, despite the far lower voltages of the combined battery system, there is still the risk of potential loss in function of the caretaker BMS if not repaired correctly. Compounding this, many e-scooter and e-bike batteries are charged indoors increasing the consequences should a fire occur, the batteries involved, and their caretaker systems can be low quality making for less safe repairs, and mismatch of charger and battery can occur because there are common plugs in use across different voltage systems which places greater reliance on the safety systems, emphasizing the critical importance of precise and correct handling. A battery should be recycled if it cannot be expertly repaired, but the observed reality in Fiji is far from this ideal. When replacing the lithium-ion propulsion battery of a hybrid vehicle, owners often take the old battery home due to its perceived worth. In two interviewed cases, the batteries, which had at least some faulty cells, were still sitting unused. At one workshop, faulty cells were found swept into a corner with little regard for proper disposal. There were also reports of battery cells being found in waterways. The issue is that lithium-ion batteries contain toxic heavy metals that can contaminate soil and groundwater, adversely affecting plants, animals, and humans. Additionally, there are fire and explosion risks and other hazards associated with gases formed under some modes of battery failure. Consequently, the management of end-of-life lithium-ion batteries requires urgent attention. Figure 161: Battery cells from a lithium-ion battery removed from a hybrid electric vehicle, found swept into the corner of a mechanic’s garage in Suva. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 156 However, holders of defunct lithium-ion batteries choosing to correctly dispose of these batteries will find it challenging due to the lack of facilities in PICs. Accessing overseas recycling centers is also problematic as international regulations restrict the transport of damaged batteries by air, and current regulation for sea shipments require special provisions and the mass of the battery that can be carried at a time is very limited (ICC Regulatory Experts, 2020). This creates a significant barrier to managing battery waste sustainably in the PIC region. The remaining sustainable option is for damaged lithium-ion batteries to be stored in an appropriate and safe manner until such time that they can be processed (or shipped, if rules change). This storage also comes with its risks and demands expertise. The PRIF 2023 study on EV standards (PRIF, 2023) advises that appropriate facilities should be developed on an as-needs basis, supported by capacity development and certification of providers. This is not an easy option either, and therefore will likely require the development of supporting policies and rigorous enforcement measures to prevent the alternative of improper disposal of lithium-ion batteries. Without its battery, an end-of-life electric vehicle can be processed similarly to a fossil-fueled vehicle, with the added benefit of a higher quantity and value of non-ferrous metals, as has been mentioned. Recommendations for Vehicle Life Stage 5: Management of End-of-Life Vehicles SPREP’s scoping study provides many recommendations and next steps concerning ELV management, including investigating ARFD schemes for ELVs, enhancing data collection, creating a Regional Centre of Excellence for bulky waste management, training, market strategy coordination, and a legacy clearance program. These are commended and it is recommended that PICs support these projects. In addition, the following is recommended: 1. The introduction of a nominal ELV-ARFD fee at the time of vehicle import, to begin familiarization with and encourage discussion about the costs associated with ELV management. 2. Developing a Regulatory Impact Assessment on options for generating revenue for ELV management. This includes consideration of ELV-ARFD schemes, applying a waste tax at the pump for fossil fuel sales and/or at annual vehicle registration, and use of the findings to establish an ELV management fund scheme. 3. For Fiji, developing a Regulatory Impact Statement for national-scale disposal of ELVs through ELV use in steelmaking, and using the findings to consider formalization and expansion of this opportunity. The same assessment should also consider the viability of managing ELVs from neighboring PICs. 4. For electric vehicles (from PRIF’s ‘Electric Vehicle Standards in the Pacific’ project): a. Providing an education and awareness campaign aimed at encouraging best-practice refurbishment and/or repurposing of retired vehicle batteries, supported with capacity development and certification of permitted service providers. b. Providing capacity development and a certification course to enable best practice recovery, handling, and storage of lithium-ion batteries. 157 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions Strategy 8 Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Author: Bram van Ooijen and John Lieswyn Bram van Ooijen is an urban transport specialist with 18 years of experience in designing streets for active mobility and parking management, predominantly in Asia. His key expertise lies in street design, bicycle networks, greenways, bus-rapid transit corridor design, low-emission zones, parking policy and management, and transit-oriented development. Bram is the former lead for the Non-motorized Transport and Transportation Demand Management divisions at the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy China. John Lieswyn is the Director and Principal Transportation Planner at ViaStrada and Chair of the Transportation Group New Zealand. John develops bicycle and pedestrian master plans, plans and designs cycling infrastructure, and undertakes all types of transportation research and traffic studies. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 158 8.1 Abstract With increasing car imports and limited land availability, parking has become a major issue in Pacific Island cities. Mobility, livability, economy, and health are affected by chaotic parking on roads, footpaths, setbacks, and public spaces. Parking management can be a powerful tool to increase available parking spaces in city centers, organize streets, improve traffic and walking, and generate revenue for transportation improvements. Some cities are currently working on building additional off-street parking buildings even though many existing off-street parking facilities sit empty. Holistic parking planning that balances supply and demand for parking on streets and in parking lot facilities is a much more cost-effective and sustainable strategy. Cities should implement paid on-street parking, functional enforcement of illegal parking, and changes to off-street parking policies. 8.2 Issues and opportunities 8.2.1 A lack of parking policies Pacific countries are experiencing an influx of motorized vehicles. With more vehicles in-country and more people driving, the demand for parking has starkly increased. Cities are unprepared for this rapid rise in parking demand, with no holistic parking policies or parking management planning in place. Some cities have streets in commercial areas with demarcated on-street parking spaces, but most parking in Pacific cities occurs haphazardly on roads, footpaths, setbacks, and public spaces. Enforcement of illegal parking is non-existent or only selectively conducted in a few locations. Parking fees are a rarity, leaving drivers to park on streets for an unlimited time. A fair share of parked vehicles in the Pacific cities are car wrecks that have reached the end of their life, with no mechanism for removal in place. 8.2.2 Footpaths are blocked by parked vehicles and pedestrians are at risk With parked vehicles taking over street space, the traffic flow is impacted, and pedestrians often end up walking on the road. With space for parking hard to find, drivers are left circling the blocks looking for a free spot, adding to traffic. Bus passengers are confronted with longer travel times due to parking-related traffic congestion. As such, the lack of parking management negatively affects all road users. 159 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Figure 162: Examples of footpaths blocked by parked vehicles. Honiara: pedestrians are left walking on the unpaved Tarawa: gaps in the curb allow cars to enter the footpaths, shoulder, as the footpath is occupied by parked cars. blocking pedestrian thoroughfare. Tarawa: car and truck wrecks litter the footpath for years Tongatapu: low curbs allow vehicles to park on footpaths on end. outside roadside shops. Honiara: Mendana Avenue (left), the main corridor through central Honiara, has high parking demand. Footpaths are blocked and traffic is creeping past illegally parked vehicles along the curb. Directly behind the road, the Hyundai Mall offers a large off-street parking lot (right) that is half empty most of the time. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 160 8.2.3 Supply-led parking policies lead to inefficient use of land and subsidize motoring Tongatapu and Honiara are examples of cities in the region that started formulating plans to address chaotic on-street parking and aim to reduce a perceived shortage of parking supply by constructing new parking buildings and lots to add to the existing off-street parking supply. Government-funded parking buildings would come at a high capital and operational cost, while taking up valuable land. Moreover, unless pricing and enforcement practices are applied to on-street parking, drivers are unlikely to use off-street parking facilities. Creating off-street parking does not magically suck cars away from streets since motorists will park in the most convenient spaces in the streets so long as the consequences or costs are minimal (Barter, 2010). Anecdotal experience in Pacific cities indicates that streets clogged with parked vehicles are often near smaller streets or off-street parking lots with high vacancies. Pacific cities have also started requiring developers of new residential and commercial buildings to supply Figure 163: Off-street parking buildings are not the solution to off-street parking spaces within their premises chaotic streets with rampant parking. through minimum parking requirements. These standards mandate developers of shopping malls, housing complexes and office buildings to build and Chaotic operate off-street parking spaces, based on square streets meters or units provided. The concept is that with this additional parking supply, new developments can absorb the additional parking demand they attract Drivers park “We need more on the premises and prevent spillover of parking on-street off-street demand onto the streets. It is correct that new instead parking!” developments will attract new trips, but these are not necessarily by car. Requiring developers to build excessive amounts of off-street parking, as is the case in some of these parking standards, stimulates driving to the development, which accelerates the dependency on driving motorized vehicles. High vacancies in parking Construction Another consequence is that large areas of land are buidings, due to of new parking lost to provide for parking, with negative effects on poor on-streets buildings streetscapes, public safety, and land value. Moreover, enforcement and high costs are incurred on capital and operational higher parking costs to run these parking facilities, which drives price up the price of the development. Property prices, rental fees and prices of goods increase for all users, High including those that do not drive there. Investment & operation costs for government or private investor Figure 164: Woman in South Tarawa, Kiribati walking on the road, dodging past traffic and parked vehicles. 161 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Despite its large impact on transportation, parking is often ignored or misunderstood by governments. As a result, parking management is absent from the written policies of most Pacific cities. One reason that may explain this, is the large number of stakeholders involved in effective parking management. Parking touches on infrastructure development, infrastructure operation and enforcement, city planning, and financial matters. Moreover, it includes public stakeholders as well as private landowners and operators. Finally, implementing parking restrictions and paid parking is a sensitive subject, that affects the more affluent and powerful members of society. 8.2.4 Case Study Nouméa and the effects of excessive parking Nouméa, capitol of New Caledonia, clearly demonstrates the monetary, environmental, and social cost of excessive parking supply. The city has the Pacific region’s highest motorization rate, with 2013 data showing 80.6% of trips were made by private car (Nouméa Province Sud, 2017). As shown in Figure 165, the city center around Rue Jules Ferry provides abundant parking, both off-street and on-street, resulting in little space left for the city’s buildings. For the city’s economy and livability, this land would be better used for other purposes than parking. In the past decade, the city of Nouméa has changed its transport policies with the goal of reducing its dependency on cars. A new bus rapid transit system was introduced, footpath improvements realized, and a large network of greenways and bicycle lanes are under development. However, the legacy of excessive parking supply remains and is visible in the city’s streetscapes. Without a change in the approach to parking policies, other Pacific cities are bound to repeat Nouméa’s mistakes. Figure 165: Nouméa’s city center is filled with parking, both off-street (shown in red) and on-street (shown in yellow). Source: Edited by author from Google Earth (2024) Little space is left for buildings. When cities are built around the car, vast amounts of land are needed for parking facilities. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 162 8.3 Objectives Parking management is a crucial tool for Pacific cities to ensure existing parking spaces are used more efficiently, to improve parking availability and traffic flow, to reduce car dependency and to promote a shift to public transport, walking and cycling. Street space is scarce with many road users in contention. Traffic capacity, public transport priority, and proper footpaths should all be considered higher priority uses than parking. International examples show that good parking policies and management leads to: • A functional on-street parking system with available spaces for short trips • A reduction in car traffic • An increase in the city’s average traffic speed • Increased public transport ridership, and more pedestrians & cyclists • A more livable and economically thriving city • A reduction of local air-pollution and CO2 emissions • Healthier residents Parking supply can be characterized by its location and ownership. In the Pacific cities, four types of parking locations exist. Figure 166: Overview of four kinds of parking in the Pacific. On-street Parking Footpath Parking Setback Parking Off-street Parking Government-owned Government-owned Ownership varies Mostly privately-owned Perpendicular parking in Illegal parking on footpath Setback parking, between Parking lot at Hyundai Mall, Tongatapu. in South Tarawa. footpath and building, in Honiara. Honiara. 8.3.1 On-street parking On-street parking is located on the road, along the curb, on space that is under control of government authorities. Some curbside on-street parking spaces in Pacific cities are demarcated, but most on-street parking occurs on traffic lanes not designed for parking. With some exceptions, such as certain locations in Suva and Nadi (Fiji) and Nouméa (New Caledonia), on-street parking is free of charge. Some objectives of on-street parking are: • Organize streets with safe conditions for mixed traffic, public transport, walking and cycling. • Increased availability of parking spaces, through short-term-only parking and quick turnover of parking spaces. • Balance the supply and demand of parking spaces. Streets and areas with high on-street parking demand must use appropriate parking fees, time restrictions and rigorous enforcement to steer excess parking demand to other available spaces nearby. These available spaces are often found in adjacent streets with lower parking demand, as well as existing off-street parking lots and buildings. • A shift to public transport and other modes instead of driving. In particular, parking in high-demand locations and for longer durations must be avoided. • Reduced search time for available parking, resulting in reduced traffic volumes, lower traffic congestion and increased traffic speeds. • The generation of parking revenue that finances the operation of an effective on-street parking system and can (co-) fund walking and cycling infrastructure, improvements to streetscapes, public transport, and other alternatives to driving. 163 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Although not implemented as such, Tonga’s Planning and Urban Management Agency’s approach to on-street parking, as shown in Figure 167, is correct. A limited number of paid parking spaces and delivery bays are planned for the smaller roads, and parking on primary distributors is banned. Table 12: Tonga’s Planning and Urban Management Agency’s approach to parking. District Primary Pedestrian Streets Access Roads Local Distributors Distributors Distributors Limited ti groups Limited to mid block Severely limited to of parking spaces designated parking Cars Total Ban allow access for Total Ban away from spaces (with goods junctions meters) Essential loading and unloading Limited to specific Total Ban except for Limited time for permitted only Good Vehicles places for loading/ Total Ban special deliveries loading/ unloading where forecourts or unloading rear access is not available Limited to essential Limited to loading Light Vans Minimum control loading and Total Ban Total Ban and unloading unloading Limited to Limited to Taxis Minimum control Total Ban Total Ban designated ranks designated ranks Source: Tonga Planning and Urban Management Agency, 2012 Adapted from IHT, 1997. 8.3.2 Footpath parking Footpaths are for feet. When drivers park on footpaths, they put people at risk when having to walk around them on the road. People with disabilities may not be able to step onto the road at all. Parking on footpaths, common in Pacific cities, must be banned and strictly administered through physical measures (e.g., bollards, trees, high curbs, etc.), manual enforcement and prohibitive fines and fiscal penalties. 8.3.3 Setback parking Most streets in Pacific cities leave space between footpaths and properties’ facades or fences on the property line. This space, referred to as the setback, is often used for parking and (long-term) storage of vehicles, either by the adjacent property owner or visitors. The objective for setback parking is to abolish it where possible, or minimize its impact on pedestrians, people on bicycles, and traffic through minimum setback widths, and limitations to the number of entries and exits. 8.3.4 Off-street parking The key objective for off-street parking is to maximize the use of available off-street parking facilities and minimize the need for new facilities. An uncontrolled growth of off-street parking lots, whether government- or privately-owned, leads to more driving and high opportunity costs of precious land for parking. Moreover, it will be underutilized if on-street parking is not priced and enforced. Off-street parking in central areas can be useful in limited numbers for those that require a vehicle for their travel. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 164 Case Study Suva and Nadi, Fiji Both Suva and Nadi in Fiji implemented paid on-street parking in their commercial centers. Suva’s paid parking zone is spread throughout the commercial center of the city, along 32 streets in ‘high-density’ areas and 14 street in ‘low-density’ areas (The Government of Fiji, 2024). Nadi implemented paid on-street parking only on and around Queens Road. Parking Meter Orders were instituted in 1977 and 1987, respectively, allowing the use of paid parking and parking meters. The latest improvements to Nadi’s on-street parking system were installed in 2023, when 95 solar-energy powered parking meters, valued at approximately US$530,000114 were put into operation (Naikaso, 2023). Both in Suva and Nadi drivers pay at parking meters in cash coins for the desired parking duration, after which a ticket is printed to be displayed behind the car’s windscreen (pay-and-display). Paid parking applies from Monday to Friday from 8:00am to 4:30pm (Suva) and 5:00pm (Nadi) and on Saturday from 8:00am to 12:30pm (Suva) and 1:00pm (Nadi). Parking on evenings, Saturday afternoons and Sundays is free of charge. Fees are a flat US$9 cents115 for every 15 minutes in Suva, while Nadi charges US$22 cents116 for every 40 minutes in the busier areas. In Nadi’s lower-density areas, parking fees are US$9117 cents for every 30 minutes. On the City Marshalls website, Suva promotes the use of a monthly fee of US$18 (FJD40). In Nadi, a fine of US$89 cents118applies to drivers who overstay, if the fine is paid within 7 days, whereas a fine of US$4.43119 is charged if payment is completed late. Suva’s fine is a standard US$4.43 (FJD10). In discussions with Suva’s City Council, it was found that the parking system does not yield the desired effects. Parking fees are too low to deter drivers from parking on–street all day. In fact, on-street parking is several times cheaper than off-street parking facilities. On-street parking spaces are fully occupied during office hours, and only drivers coming to the city very early can secure a spot. Finding an on-street parking space during office hours often means circling the blocks for up to 20 minutes. Enforcement of parking is near non-existent, since fines are too low to cover the costs of enforcement. Significant parking revenue is lost on drivers failing to pay parking fees. Parking meters are expensive to acquire and operate, and no funds are available for repairs. While the system is set up appropriately, the parameters need tweaking: increased parking fees and fines, time limits, and cost-covering enforcement are the main changes required to overcome Suva’s parking challenges. In 2019, the Nadi city government made large improvements to the shopping environment along Queens Road. The street was converted to a single, southbound direction. Footpaths and intersections were improved, (signalized) pedestrian crossings installed and public seating and shading incorporated. While drivers pay for on-street parking, they benefit from improvements to traffic and streetscapes. Figure 168: Car parking in Suva and Nadi, Fiji. Parking meters line the curb on Queens Road in central Nadi. Organized on-street parking on Suva’s Victoria Parade. Substantially lower on-street parking fees in Suva lead to Drivers leave the parking ticket behind the windscreen as full on-street parking while off-street parking lots see low proof of payment for parking. occupancies. 114. FJD1,176,000 in 2023. 115. FJD0.20. 116. FJD0.50. 117. FJD0.20. 118. FJD2.00. 119. FJD10.00. 165 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic 8.5 Recommendations Each Pacific city has its own parking challenges and tailor-made solutions are required. The key parking recommendations are outlined below. 8.5.1 Parking Policies and Legislation Most Pacific cities lack any mention of parking in transportation planning and the required legislation may be absent. To implement parking reform, cities and countries will likely need to adopt or update: • Parking policies and strategies, embedded into the city’s transportation and development plans, while integrated into the larger urban transportation strategies. • Parking decrees, to describe matters such as parking rules and regulations, enforcement and penalties and rights and duties of competent entities. • Parking schedules, which detail the more practical aspects of the on-street parking system, such as the streets where paid parking is applied and the parking fees. These schedules are issued separately from the parking decree, in order to prevent political scrutiny when making small, operational changes. 8.5.2 Institutional reform To implement an integrated parking policy and system, coordination among many government departments is required, led by a government implementing agency. This to-be-designated agency organizes inter-departmental communication and cooperation, preferably with the backing of a mayor or other highly ranked official to ensure departments’ compliance. It is responsible for the adoption of a parking strategy, parking decrees, plans and designs the on-street parking system, decides on the use of parking technology, sets paid parking zones and parking fees and communicates to the public. It integrates parking into other transport policies and projects, and influences off-street parking policies on setbacks, parking mandates and parking sharing. This implementing agency could be a municipal department, such as transport department, or a newly formed, standalone parking authority. Given the low capacity of both government and private sector in the Pacific region, it is advised to begin by establishing a parking department within an existing government agency. With the assistance of parking experts, this department starts with the operation of a small parking zone and develops its capacity over time. As such, the city keeps full control over the system, can monitor all parking activities, parking revenues stay with the government, and customer service and complaints can be managed. Parking wardens for operation and enforcement in assistance to the Traffic Police, can be hired through a management contract with a private party for the ease of hiring. 8.5.3 Implementation of a Paid On-street Parking Zone Paid on-street parking zones rationalize the use of parking spaces, increase their vacancy, and lure drivers for long-term (>3 hours) parking, in particular commuters, to areas away from the paid parking zone. They protect the city’s most important areas, and improve their accessibility, economic activity, livability and attractiveness. Paid on-street parking is needed in city centers and commercial areas with higher parking demand. Best practice suggests implementing paid parking zones when parking occupancies exceed 70% during peak demand hours. Other factors to consider when identifying the paid parking zone are areas with high traffic congestion and areas with high numbers of pedestrians, such as commercial and office areas, shopping streets, schools and tourist areas. Not all streets within the zone would include on-street parking; on some streets or street sections priority should be given to traffic flows or space for other modes of transport. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 166 Figure 169: Possible on-street parking zones in Figure 170: A rare example of paid parking at Tongatapu, for illustration only. Tongatapu’s Tekamah market. Paid parking could start in the red Zone 1, and if successful An hourly fee of US$0.42 is charged, although a parking expand to a red Zone 1 and blue Zone 2, with different warden could not be found, and adjacent streets offered parking fees. Studies into parking demand, occupancies free on-street parking. Parking fees at airports are and turnover are required to identify the exact borders of common, where most other streets in the Pacific offer free the zones. and unlimited on-street parking. 8.5.4 On-street Parking Fees, Time Restrictions and Payment When parking is free of charge, parking spaces are overused. Charging a parking fee with the proper enforcement, improves availability of parking spaces by discouraging use of on-street parking, as many drivers will opt to park for free within private properties, outside the paid parking zone or in off-street facilities. Parking fees therefore help balance supply and demand and making parking available when needed. Parking fees are to be set based on the demand for parking at its location. More expensive parking fees at highest-demand locations draws some parking demand to lower-demand locations at a lower fee or free. International best practice suggests increasing parking fees when parking occupancies at peak hours exceed 90%, and lower parking fees when occupancies drop below 50%. Other considerations when setting parking fees include: • Parking fees should always exceed the price of a bus ticket, to incentive bus use rather than driving. Bicycle parking should be free of charge. • On-street parking fees should be equal to or higher than off-street fees, to incentivize long-term parking in off-street facilities. • Special regulations could be considered for (a limited number of) residents within the paid parking zone, who may pay an annual fee at a discount. People with physical disabilities could park for free in designated parking spaces. • Parking fees could vary based on vehicle type, to stimulate greener vehicles. Electric cars could be charged a lower fee, while SUVs may pay a higher fee. This can have a large impact on vehicle choice and steer car imports to models with fewer externalities on non-users. • Lower parking fees could apply to motorcycle parking, as these take up much less space than a car. • Progressive parking fees could be considered in cities with more experience with paid parking. In such fees, the first 30 minutes are cheaper, and the price per hour increases with the parking duration. (a) Paid parking hours and time restrictions The hours of paid parking are based on the parking demand. Outside office and shop hours, parking demand in city centers drops, so paid parking hours may only apply until 6 or 8pm. No parking fees on Sundays could be considered, as long as streets and parking spaces are in low demand. Time restrictions should be applied to onstreet parking in commercial areas, as these encourage turnover. A maximum of 2 or 3 hours of parking should be considered, to prevent more affluent drivers from parking and paying for an entire working day. 167 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic (b) Parking fee payment Suva and Nadi’s use of parking meters is an increasing rarity in worldwide parking management. Most parking operators nowadays opt for mobile phone payments, as these systems provide most benefits to both drivers and parking operators. To drivers it provides the convenience of quick, easy and precise payment, without the need to bring exact cash or run to a parking meter when a meeting or lunch takes longer than expected. To the parking operator and/or government, the system is comparatively easy and cheap to implement and operate. Mobile payment solutions provide detailed and real-time data on the use of parking spaces, which assist in the evaluation of the parking operation (usage, fee level, etc.). Pay-by- phone solutions can run both through mobile phone applications and SMS messaging. It is estimated that most car and motorcycle drivers in the Pacific have access to Vodafone’s M-PAiSA and Digicel’s mobile money services. Alternatively, mobile payments can be supported through linking drivers’ user IDs in the app or web-based system to their bank accounts. The installation of parking meters is not advised, as these require large capital and operational costs, and offer little convenience to drivers compared to mobile phone payments. Tear-and-display parking coupons are a low-tech, suitable option for smaller cities with small financial resources. In this parking payment method, drivers buy coupons in advance at retailers, and when parking indicate the license plate, date and start time, displaying the coupon behind the windscreen. Manual cash payments to parking wardens are the easiest method to implement, but are strongly advised against, as it opens the door to substantial ‘leakage’ of parking revenues, more illegal parking and a lack of data on the usage of the parking system. Figure 171: Park Mobile app in the Netherlands. Figure 172: Parking coupon in Sorocaba, Brazil. The Park Mobile app in the Netherlands shows on- The green coupon is valid for two hours and costs US$0.14120. street and off-street parking spaces (some with real- When parking, drivers write their license plate, date and time of time occupancies), making navigation to an available arrival in the parking space. The coupon is displayed behind the space easy. Drivers open the app and click start and windscreen for parking wardens to see. stop buttons when parking, and automatically pay for the exact parking duration. 120. Brazilian Real R$0,70. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 168 8.5.5 On-street Parking Enforcement Effective enforcement is a crucial element of successful on-street parking reform. Drivers disobey parking regulations if they can get away without a parking fine, as the Suva case clearly demonstrates. Without proper enforcement, drivers will soon continue parking in illegal locations, and forego on paying parking fees. Enforcement of illegal parking in the Pacific is currently very rare. Traffic Police departments are understaffed, underequipped and have no mandate or incentive to strictly enforce. Figure 173: School students in Kiribati slalom through illegally parked cars to reach school. Most of the success stories in parking enforcement involve shifting the responsibility away from the police to local authorities or to private contractors (Barter, 2010). A private company can be hired to patrol the streets and document parking violations, either for non-compliance to parking payment, or parking outside of demarcated spaces, such as no-parking streets, footpaths, pedestrian crossings or bus stops. The company collects necessary legal photo evidence, collects location and time stamps and issues the fine. Parking clamps are recommended for endured parking violations, and in case fine collection is hampered due to poor vehicle registration systems. Towing away vehicles is recommended when illegally parked vehicles cause road safety or serious traffic flow concerns. Fines with towing and clamping should be set at a level where these at a minimum recover all direct and indirect costs. Depending on the payment options and operational model, enforcement equipment could include handheld Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) with license plate recognition software, handheld printers for fines, electric bicycles or cars with smart license plate scanners, wheel clamps and towing trucks. Figure 174: Wheel clamp and a US$34.20 fine for illegal parking at Bairiki Square in Tarawa, Kiribati. 169 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Illegal parking on footpaths and bicycle lanes can be prevented very effectively through physical measures, such as curbs, bollards, trees, and street amenities. Strategy 2 on street design describes this in more detail. Parking violations can also be reduced through good communication and information. At the start of the new parking system operation, a government parking website as well as local media should clearly inform drivers of the rules and regulations, fees, hours, and fines. To improve compliance, it also helps to explain the project’s rationale and how the (surplus) parking revenue will be used for transport improvements. On the streets, parking spaces need to be clearly delineated, and parking signs highly visible. 8.5.6 Reinvest Parking Profits into Streets and Public Transport Rather than depositing parking profits into a general fund, it is suggested to ringfence parking profits to co-finance alternative sustainable transport projects such as public transport and pedestrian and streetscape improvements. As such, acceptance and buy-in for paid parking from drivers and local stakeholders increases. Footpaths can be maintained, trees planted, benches and rubbish bins installed. Fees can be used to build bicycle lanes or provide improved public transport services. Tactical urbanism measures, as described in Strategy 3 of this report, are a low-cost and quick option. Visible improvements provide assurance that parking fee revenue is being put to good use. Implementing paid parking is often deemed an unpopular measure for politicians, but good communication and putting the profits to good use can prevent citizens from perceiving it as ‘just another tax’. Pacific cities are small, with a limited number of on-street parking spaces and modest parking revenues. Still, profits from paid parking management can be expected, especially when parking zones expand over time. 8.5.7 Setback Parking Management Setbacks are the spaces between property line (building façade) and the public footpath. Due to building codes or property owner’s preferences, buildings in the Pacific can be set back from the road, leaving space for other uses. In the Pacific, these spaces are often used for parking. When this setback space is narrow, and insufficiently wide for parking, vehicles (partly) block the footpath. Without enforcement, passage of pedestrians is blocked, which leaves them walking on the road. Allowing parking on setbacks requires incursion of the footpath for vehicle access, which damages the pavement and affects the pedestrian’s safety and comfort. To preserve urban fabric and promote a pedestrian-friendly streetscape, setback parking is recommended to be prohibited and parking to be eliminated or moved to areas behind buildings, ideally combined with physical barriers such as bollards to assist with enforcement. This way the street fronts can be ‘active’, with shops, cafes and restaurants that add economic value and vibrancy to the streets. Figure 175: Setback parking disrupts the continuity of building fronts. Incursions should be minimized. Source: Lerable, 1995 The Government of Samoa’s Urban Design Standards for Apia Central Business District (CBD) and Waterfront provides regulations on setback parking for the betterment of walking conditions. These include the requirement that setbacks need a minimum width of 11 meters if these were to be used for parking. This width is required to prevent vehicles from (partly) blocking footpaths. Another requirement is a maximum number of vehicle entrances to setback parking spaces to reduce the number of incursions to pedestrian movements on the adjacent footpath. The standards allow for a removal of setback parking, and a requirement to bring the façade up to the building line, if the setback parking does not contribute to a high- quality built form along the street edge. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 170 Figure 176: Samoa’s setback requirements from Figure 177: Samoa’s driveway requirements from Urban Design Standards for Apia CBD and Waterfront. Urban Design Standards for Apia CBD and Waterfront. Length of boundary Max number of driveways facing a street Less than 25m 1 two-way 25m to 50m 1 two-way or one-way Greater than 50m 2 one-way or 2 two-way* Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018. It mandates a maximum number of driveways for access to setback parking, depending on the length of the boundary facing a street. Source: Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, 2018 It mandates a minimum width of 11 meters if used for parking. 8.5.8 Limiting New Off-street Parking Buildings New off-street parking lots or multilevel parking buildings may seem a solution when on-street parking is chaotic, but drivers will continue parking on-street if the street remains the cheaper option or if enforcement is weak. Parking fees in multistory structures are rarely high enough to recoup the cost of construction. Given that on-street parking is free of charge, and off-street parking fees in the Pacific could only be set at minimal levels, large government subsidies would be required for both capital and operational costs. Using taxpayers’ money to fund the driving habits of a wealthy minority is ill-advised. Moreover, the land required is vast, and could be used for much better purposes. A parking space is 15 square meters and when adding the driveways, ramps and structural elements for a parking building, the space required is 35-40 square meters. Many Pacific families live in houses of that size. Figure 178: Honiara’s Master Plan includes the identification of new off-street parking buildings shown in yellow. Rather than building new off-street parking buildings, it is necessary to make better use of existing off-street and on-street supply first. To lure more drivers to park at existing off-street parking facilities, it is vital to enforce illegal on-street parking, and ideally implement an on-street parking management system. Street signs, maps and possibly apps and electronic displays with real-time occupancy can direct drivers to lots with vacancies. 171 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Figure 179: Honiara’s Mendana Avenue Honiara’s Mendana Avenue is lined with on-street parking, illegal footpath and setback parking, while the adjacent off-street parking lot at Hyundai Mall is half empty. A balance of supply and demand for parking can be found with the use of vacant off-street facilities and enforcement of on-street parking. Figure 180: A near-empty off-street parking lot only 100 meters from Honiara’s Mendana Avenue, where on-street parking conditions are chaotic. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 172 Figure 181: Comparison of space consumed for car versus bike parking. Source: Lab of Thought (2023) Car parking takes up large amounts of land. In the space of 70 cars, one can fit 1,000 bicycles. In city centers especially, land should be used for purposes that contribute to the local economy and/or livability instead 8.5.9 Parking Mandates for New Developments Many Pacific cities have started publishing minimum parking standards for new developments, resulting in more car trips, a loss of land, increased development and operation costs, and degraded streetscapes. Cities that manage their parking successfully, use parking ‘maximums’ instead, preventing developers from building too much parking in the unlikely case they would opt to do so. An interim step may be to eliminate the parking minimums and leave the provision of parking to the developer, as New Zealand has done.121 It is important that in removing any parking minimums for general vehicles, parking must be mandated for disability spaces and bicycle parking. Regulations are needed to ensure that when new (privately developed) off-street parking lots and buildings open, public access and use of these facilities is guaranteed. Parking prices may be set by the parking owner and operator at market rates. 121. The New Zealand National Policy Statement – Urban Design (NPS-UD) includes a policy that requires local authorities to remove minimum car parking requirements from developments, other than for accessible car parks. More information at: https://environment. govt.nz/assets/Publications/Files/car-parking-factsheet.pdf. 173 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Table 13: Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of light and heavy duty vehicles against ICE and non-motorized alternatives. Source: Honiara LPS 2015 Parking mandates for developers in Honiara require large numbers of parking spaces, forcing developers to spend substantial resources and land, driving up the price of the development. 8.5.10 Parking Sharing and Park Once Districts Instead of forcing developers to try and solve their own parking demand with minimum parking standards, a more holistic, area-wide approach is needed, especially in high-demand and high-value locations. The government that needs to take the lead in managing existing and future parking supply. Such an area-approach is called a ‘park-and-walk’ or ‘park once’ district. Instead of driving in between one’s daily destinations of office, shopping mall, restaurant, and hairdresser, individuals can park at one central location and walk to all of those from there. As such, all those separate buildings can share parking spaces, resulting in a much lower overall supply needed. This ‘pool of parking’ is much like a food court in a shopping mall or airport, where all restaurants share a large amount of tables, rather than each restaurant having tables for only its own customers. Individual buildings would be better off developing shared parking for several sites within close proximity of each other. Parking demand at each site varies throughout the day: residential areas have higher parking demand at night than during office hours, and vice versa. Shared parking is advantageous for developers, businesses, and governments. It can alleviate traffic congestion, allow for increased density near transit and promote compact development. To share parking spaces, it is required that existing parking lots open (at least a part of their supply) for public use. Moreover, requirements can be set to off-street parking operators to open to the public during non-peak hours, such as office parking opening to residents during evenings, and shoppers on weekends. This is needed for both existing and future off-street parking supply. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 174 Figure 183: Comparison of ‘Parking Sharing’ versus conventional approach. Source: Siegman (2015) Rather than providing for individual parking lots for each building, ‘park once’ districts can provide parking for all nearby buildings, and visitors walk in between these. It saves on land needed, without excessive parking spaces, and reduces traffic. 8.6 Further Reading For more detailed information and recommendations on parking management, find these guides and references, freely available online at the following links. On-Street Parking Pricing, by the Institute for On-Street Parking Management, by Paul Barter, for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP, 2021) – a Gezellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, practical guide on how to implement on-street parking 2017) - a practical guide on how to implement on-street reform. ITDP also published a dozen other reports on parking reform. parking reform, which can be downloaded through their https://sutp.org/publications/on-street-parking- website. managment/ https://www.itdp.org/publication/on-street-parking- pricing/ 175 Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Reinventing Parking – a website run by parking National parking management guidance – provides expert Paul Barter, with a large library of resources consistent, best-practice support in development of and podcasts on everything parking. parking strategies and parking management plans. https://www.reinventingparking.org/ https://www.nzta.govt.nz/roads-and-rail/national- parking-management-guidance/ Guide Guidetoto Mobility for Mobility Livable for Livable Pacific Pacific Cities | Part | Part Cities II:II Practitioners’ : Practitioners’ Handbook Handbook toto Implement Implement the the Priority Priority Actions Actions 176 Strategy 9 Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles Author: Andrew Campbell Andrew Campbell has 30 years’ experience in the specification, production and quality systems associated with fuels and engines and other systems associated with traditional and alternative engines. Andrew was the author of the 2024 Pacific Region Infrastructure Facility Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific and the Regional Electric Mobility Policy for Pacific Island Countries and Territories and supporting reports. 177 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.1 Abstract This chapter provides a comprehensive analysis of various new electric vehicle options for Pacific Island cities. It covers the adoption of island-appropriate electric vehicles, including micromobility, electric two-wheelers (E2Ws) and three-wheelers (E3Ws), ultra-light electric four wheelers, light duty vehicle battery electric vehicles, and large and minibus electric bus varieties. The chapter evaluates the suitability, affordability, availability, carbon footprint, energy security, convenience, infrastructure requirements, and social and environmental impacts of each technology in the context of PIC environments. It also addresses the challenges and future prospects of these new technology vehicles in PIC settings. It emphasizes the viability of small form EVs like e-bikes and E2Ws as a cost-effective and practical alternative for short to medium-distance travel. Finally, the chapter also highlights the importance of developing the local service industry to enhance its capabilities in servicing and repairing electric vehicles. 9.2 Guiding Principles Technological advancements such as more efficient batteries, enhanced satellite communications, smartphones, and advanced power electronics such as motor controllers are transforming traditional service delivery in the transport sector across the globe. As these innovations become more affordable and accessible, they are enabling a range of novel transport solutions from new vehicle types and propulsion methods to innovative access systems, such as micromobility sharing via smartphones. The progression of technology, especially in the context of motorization, typically follows the stages of planning, demonstration, familiarization, normalization, and scale-up. For instance, initially, the introduction of a vehicle employing new technology might start with strategic market development planning, followed by the importation and utilization of a demonstration unit. These stages then pave the way for adoption by enthusiasts and early adopters, gradually extending to a broader audience as the technology gains popularity and acceptance. Concurrently, it is essential to develop any specialized infrastructure and support systems needed for the safe operation and maintenance of this new technology. This ensures the technology operates reliably and avoids substantial downtime. Occasionally, this process might require revisiting and refining vehicle specifications or support systems to mitigate issues discovered in new markets. This evolutionary path aims to optimize the new technology’s integration into the market. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 178 The critical takeaway from this process is that adopting new technology involves more than just importing and using a new vehicle. It requires comprehensive management across various areas to ensure the solutions are safe, reliable, and supported (and that these aspects are well publicized to avoid gap filling with inaccuracies). Failure in addressing these broader aspects can lead to negative experiences, potentially creating barriers to adopting other suitable and fitting new technologies. Therefore, understanding the lessons learned from the introduction of new technologies in their countries of origin is crucial. This enhanced understanding can also lead to a more efficient, cost-effective, and well-informed introduction of new technologies, ideally circumventing past mistakes and fostering smoother technological integration. This section evaluates various technologies from a PIC perspective, aiming to identify those that are suitable for PIC environments either now or in the future. The analysis offered here is an update of the Small Island Developing States (SIDS) “Navigating Island Futures in Transport (NIFTY)” guide and toolkit, reflecting the considerable advancements in technology that have occurred in some areas in the three years since the original NIFTY guide and toolkit were published in 2021. The chapter catalogues current and emerging urban land transport technologies with comprehensive analysis provided on each technology considering: • Suitability • Affordability • Availability • Carbon footprint • Energy security • Convenience, comfort, safety, and accessibility • Infrastructure and refueling/energy requirements • Operation and maintenance requirements • End of life disposal • Environmental impacts • Social impacts • Local value chain economic opportunities The aim of the chapter is to broaden the reader’s awareness and understanding of potential urban transport solutions, and especially to provide information on the newer, less familiar ones. It provides readers with the knowledge necessary to assess the suitability of various transport solutions for their own settings, enabling them to make more informed decisions when developing their transport strategies and programs. The following urban transport technologies are profiled: • Micromobility • Throttle and pedal-assist e-bikes • E-push scooters • Electric mobility scooters (typically used by the aged) • Small Format Vehicles • Electric two wheelers (e2Ws) • Electric 3-wheelers (e3Ws) • Ultra-light electric 4-wheelers (LE4Ws) 179 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles • Light-duty Electric Vehicles • Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) • Plug-in hybrid vehicles • Hybrid vehicles • Electric minibuses • Heavy-duty Electric Vehicles • Electric buses • Hybrid-electric trucks (non-plug-in) • Battery-electric trucks (all electric, plug-in) • Accompanying digital technologies • Ride-hailing apps • Electric vehicle charging infrastructure For readers seeking quick guidance, Table 12 and Table 13 provide a snapshot of the suitability of various electric vehicles relative to each other and to ICE and non-motorized alternatives considering multiple factors. Ranked from most suitable to least suitable, and considering a 15-year time horizon, the resultant Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking is: 1. E-bikes (28/30) 2. Electric two-wheeler motorbikes (28/30) 3. Taxi BEVs (28/30) 4. Electric microcars (26/30) 5. Electric mini-buses (26/30) 6. E-kick scooters (25/30) 7. Electric mobility scooters (25/30) 8. Electric buses (25/30) 9. BEVs (25/30) 10. Electric three-wheelers (24/30) 11. Hybrid truck (22/30) 12. Electric truck (22/30) Table 14: Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of electric micromobility and small format vehicles against ICE and non-motorized alternatives.     Mobility Petroleum e2Ws Electric e3Ws, e-Trikes Vehicle/transport option Walking Wheelchairs Bicycles e-Bikes e-Kick Scooter Scooters Two Wheelers Two Wheelers et al.) Short- to Walking- Short- and Short- and medium- Short Short Short Short Short speed, short medium- medium- distance, Type of journey/ service distance, distance, distance, distance, distance, distance, distance, 1-2 distance, 1-2 multi- single person single person single rider single rider single rider single rider passenger passenger passenger and goods Now 5 5 4 4 3 3 4 3 2 5-10 Overall 5 5 5 5 5 4 2 5 4 years suitability +15 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 5 5 years Early Mature and adoption. Mature and Mature and Global technology outlook Mature Mature Mature Mature Early adoption developing Designs still developing. developing evolving. Affordability/ Future $ $ $ $ $ $$ $$ $ $$ cost (relative) TCO Convenience, Now 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 comfort, safety and +15 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 5 4 accessibility years Infrastructure, Now 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 4 supporting +15 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions services 5 4 5 5 4 4 3 5 4 years Enviro Footprint (In- 5 5 5 4 4 4 3 4 4 service and end-of-life)                       Totals for +15 years 30 28 30 28 25 25 19 28 24 5 = very suitable-dark green, 4=somewhat suitable- light green, 3= it depends- beige, 2= somewhat unsuitable- light red, 1= unsuitable- red. 180 Table 15: Island-Appropriate Electric Vehicle Ranking: comparison of light and heavy duty vehicles against ICE and non-motorized alternatives. 181   e4Ws, Micro ICE Passenger Electric Petroleum Electric Vehicle/transport option BEVs Taxi BEV Hybrid Truck Electric Truck cars, et al. Car Minibuses Fueled Buses Buses Short- to Short- to Short- to Short- to Short- to Short- to Short- to medium- medium- Short- to Short- to medium- long- distance, long- distance, long-distance, long- distance, distance, distance, long-distance medium- Type of journey/ service distance, 1-multiple 1-multiple multi- 1-multiple multi- multi- freight distance freight multi- passengers, passengers, passenger passengers passenger passenger transport transport passenger and goods and goods transport transport transport Now 4 5 3 3 3 5 2 3 1 Overall 5-10 5 3 4 5 5 5 4 4 3 suitability years +15 years 5 1 5 5 5 2 5 3 4 Mature and Mature and Mature and Mature and Mature and Global technology outlook Early adoption Mature Mature Demonstration developing developing developing developing developing Affordability/ Future $ $$ $$ $ $ $$$ $$ $$ $$ Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles cost (relative) TCO Convenience, Now 4 5 5 5 3 3 4 4 4 comfort, safety and +15 years 5 3 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 accessibility Infrastructure, Now 3 4 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 supporting services +15 years 4 3 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 Enviro Footprint (In- 4 3 4 4 4 3 4 3 4 service and end-of-life)                       Totals for +15 years 26 19 25 28 26 18 25 22 22 5 = very suitable-dark green, 4=somewhat suitable- light green, 3= it depends- beige, 2= somewhat unsuitable- light red, 1= unsuitable- red. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 182 9.3 Micromobility 9.3.1 Introduction Micromobility refers to a category of modes of transport that are provided by very light vehicles such as electric push scooters (e-scooters), shared bicycles, electric pedal-assisted bicycles (e-bikes), and electric skateboards. The definition typically encompasses modes of transport that are: lightweight (many can be lifted by their operator); small in size (designed for individual use, typically accommodating one or two passengers); and low speed (generally intended for speeds not exceeding 25 km/h to 35 km/h for e-scooters and e-bikes, although many capable of faster speeds are now entering the market). 9.3.2 Purpose and Usage Some types of micromobility such as e-scooters are primarily used for short-distance travel. Others forms such as e-bikes are used for short- and medium-distances, with their preferred ranges extending as model and infrastructure alike improve. These modes of transportation can more easily navigate congested areas, enable environment-friendly travel, and reduce reliance on automobiles. They are particularly useful for “first and last mile” access to public or shared transport stops, and for goods delivery without relying on large vans or trucks. 9.3.3 Benefits of Micromobility • Environmental Benefits. Provides a much less-polluting alternative to cars for short- and medium-distance trips. • Reduced Traffic Congestion. Can alleviate urban traffic congestion and reduce the need for large parking areas. • Low-Cost Motorized Transport. Offers a cost-effective alternative for short trips compared to cars or public transit. • Flexibility and Convenience. Provides users the flexibility to choose when and where to travel without the constraints of a fixed schedule or route. • Social Wellbeing. Places riders in closer proximity to their environments and communities than does driving. • Health Benefits. Most micromobility requires the rider to be active, the benefits of which include cardiovascular health, increased muscle strength, reduced stress, and decreased risk of chronic diseases. • Ease to Charge. Charging micromobility devices is straightforward, requiring only access to standard household electrical outlets. This process is simplified by the mobility of the device and further facilitated when the battery is easily removable. Additionally, the charging needs are a good match for coupling with solar PV systems. 9.3.4 Challenges Associated with Micromobility • Cost and perceived value. While micromobility offers a cost-effective mode of motorized transport, their initial purchase price and perceived value proposition (i.e. for many people, micromobility is at initially seen as something for recreational use rather than for car/public transit trip replacement) can still be a significant barrier for some that would significantly benefit from their use, highlighting the need for supporting financial mechanisms such as micro-loans. • Safety Concerns. The rise in the use of these devices has led to new safety concerns, particularly in terms of collision risks with pedestrians and vehicles. Their safety, including in shared spaces, is expected to improve as their use, familiarization with them, and associated regulations mature. There have also been increasing incidences of battery fires, some of which have been fatal, and tightening of regulations concerning the safety of batteries, their charging, their repair, and their disposal are required. • Infrastructure is a Step Behind. There is generally a mismatch between the rapid adoption of micromobility, which can occur within months, and the much slower development of corresponding. • infrastructure such as the provision of shared spaces for their use, which can take years to complete. Chicken and egg arguments risk holding off the redevelopment of infrastructure further. • Vandalism and Maintenance. Shared docked and dockless micromobility fleets suffer from issues of vandalism and require constant maintenance to keep them in safe working condition. • Regulatory Challenges. Balancing regulation and innovation is complex, as overly stringent regulations might stifle the growth and benefits of micromobility. 183 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.3.5 Future of Micromobility The future of micromobility looks promising with technological advancements and maturity in how and when micromobility is used improving the efficiency and safety of these devices. Innovations in GPS technology, smartphone networking, and battery technology will continue to enhance the effectiveness and appeal of micromobility solutions. Additionally, as cities continue to expand the walkability and bikeability of city streets, micromobility is expected to become an integral part of urban transport ecosystems. 9.3.6 Assessment of Overall Fit in PIC Settings • Good Fit. Micromobility is well-suited for urban and non-urban PIC settings on many fronts, including compatibility with their lower road speeds and the relatively short distances of most travel. The mild climate of most PICs also supports the use of micromobility, with electric assist available to prevent over-exertion when temperatures are warmer. • Infrastructure Needs. Effective micromobility integration in PICs requires significant upgrades to accommodate safe travel corridors and address risks like interference by animals like dogs and pigs. • Preparation Essential. Risks such as low-quality, poor specification and unreliable devices, poor charging practices, and insufficient maintenance support must be mitigated through thorough readiness and regulatory measures. Solutions to these include education and awareness. 9.3.7 Specific PIC Considerations Utility-style e-bikes are particularly promising. Recent advancements in the design of utility e-bikes have significantly enhanced their load-carrying capacity and riding ease, leading to an expansion of their use for a range of tasks including for local freight transport and carrying children. These improved utilitarian capabilities, and ability to negotiate unpaved tracks, have been demonstrated to be successful by numerous startups in Africa, showcasing similar potential in PICs for their application ranging from urban cities to more remote islands and locations. The momentum in uptake of low-powered e-mopeds in Asia has continued, driven by restrictions and even bans on the use of their fossil-fueled equivalents, with expected follow-on benefits from reduction in cost through their volume production, and steady improvements in design. The specification of bicycles, and e-bikes in particular, requires careful consideration to ensure that they are fit for the intended PIC setting, as does the supply chain, also taking into consideration, for example, the advantages of adopting a one- or two-model approach for ease of parts supply and servicing (see Island Approach to Reliable e-Bikes). Case Island Approach to Reliable e-Bikes Tik e-bikes hires 45 e-bikes to locals and tourists from its shop on Rarotonga. Its one- model policy and choice of e-bike model allow them to easily maintain their fleet from their workshop, also ensuring that parts are readily available, and e-bikes are seldom out of service. Some of the components are common to other e-bike models, setting a stage for wider island support for similar models. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 184 Figure 184: Inside Tik e-bikes’ workshop. Inside Tik e-bikes’ workshop, showing capability for an all-of-island support service if model variants are limited. (Image courtesy of Tik e-bikes). With appropriate specifications, and careful selection of manufacturer and supply chain management, the costs of e-bikes can also be kept relatively low, alongside minimal maintenance requirements and expenses. In this context, high-end Western e-bikes are unlikely to be well-suited for general use across PIC settings due to their higher costs and more complex and costly maintenance needs. Also, the risk of exposure of the electrics and sea water needs to be managed, and this management best starts at the design stage. Figure 185: Different forms of e-bike. 185 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.3.8 Conclusion The use of micromobility is expected to grow and become normalized in many PIC settings over the next decade, necessitating its integration into current urban planning efforts. As this normalization unfolds, proactive management will be crucial to prevent setbacks and losses, which can result from poor device choices, inadequate service support, and poor operation of the devices including the charging of them. 9.4 Electric Two-Wheelers and Three-Wheelers 9.4.1 Introduction e2Ws and e3Ws are categorized as fully battery-powered vehicles equipped with either two or three wheels, setting them apart from lower-powered micromobility options like e-bikes by their higher-powered motors, larger formats and lack of rider assist propulsion. e2Ws include both step-through electric scooters and their generally more powerful electric motorcycle counterparts. Figure 186: Electric Two-Wheelers and Three-Wheelers. e2Ws, on sale in Majuro, RMI. e2W, Majuro, RMI. e3W, Kiribati. e2W, Kiribati. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 186 low power e2W, Chuuk, FSM. Passenger e3Ws, University of Philippines campus, Manila, Philippines. 9.4.2 Purpose and Usage A cheaper alternative to owning a car. e2Ws and e3Ws offer practical solutions for short- to medium-distance travel, capable of transporting passengers and loads. ICE 2Ws are popular in many Asian countries as they provide a cost-effective alternative to cars, can be more easily negotiated through congested traffic, and their parking footprints are relatively small. e2Ws add further advantages, including reduced emissions, and ease of use and comfort, and a steady shift from 2Ws to e2Ws has been observed in many cities in Asia. The rates of shift are expected to increase as many startups as possible and new production by traditional motorcycle manufacturers come online. Similarly, there has been a shift from ICE 3Ws to e3Ws. e3Ws can have load capacities up to 500kg or 5 to 7 passengers. 9.4.3 Benefits of e2Ws and e3Ws • Environmental benefits. e2ws and e3Ws provides zero-tailpipe emission alternatives to ICE 2Ws and 3Ws, and much greater emissions reduction again when their use displaces travel by (and emissions from a) car. They have a lower environmental footprint to ICE variants even when charged by diesel-derived electricity generation. • Ease of use. Their simple and smooth operation is attractive to all types of riders, including beginners, providing a more conducive entry into motor scooter and motorbike use. • Lower total cost of ownership than ICE equivalents. e2Ws can have higher initial purchase prices than their gasoline- fueled counterparts, largely due to the high cost of batteries. However, their TCO is typically lower over several years of moderate to high use, attributable to fewer maintenance requirements and cheaper energy costs. Innovative ‘Battery as a Service’ (BaaS) models can exclude the battery cost from the initial purchase, substantially lowering the upfront price of e2Ws. As battery technology improves and production volumes increase, the purchase prices of e2Ws are expected to continue to drop, improving their cost benefits further. • Goods transport. e3Ws can offer a useful low-cost goods carriage solution. • Use of existing infrastructure. e2Ws and e3Ws can be used on existing road infrastructure – i.e., there is no need to build protected lanes to separate them from mixed traffic as recommended for bicycles and micromobility. • Simple to charge. Charging only requires access to standard household electricity outlets. 9.4.4 Challenges of e2Ws and e3Ws • New technology. There is low initial knowledge and awareness, and there is risk of the supply of low quality, unreliable and unsafe vehicles. • Battery care and safety: The risk of battery fires requires careful attention. More details on how to manage this risk are in PRIF’s report Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific Region (2024). • End-of-life batteries: Repurposing is the preferred outcome for functioning end-of-life batteries. Proper storage of damaged or faulty end-of-life lithium batteries offers a temporary solution, but more sustainable, long-term disposal solutions are needed for these modern batteries. This remains a global challenge, with effective solutions largely limited to only a few countries. 187 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles • Stability concerns: The three-wheeled design of e3Ws offers less stability compared to other vehicle configurations and they are better suited for use on primarily flat, straight roads with lower posted speeds. 9.4.5 Future of e2Ws and e3Ws Some industry experts anticipate that within the next decade, the production of e2Ws will surpass that of ICE equivalents, driven by the lower costs and convenience of electric variants, and the critical need to control emissions in large cities (where managing emissions from numerous small-engine motorcycles is challenging and ICE use will become restricted). As production scales up, costs are expected to decrease further, accelerating the transition, as has already been observed in several Chinese markets. 9.4.6 Fit in PIC Settings • Provides for most trip types. Low road speeds, mild climate, relatively low daily range requirements (typical travel distances between charges for e2Ws and e3Ws range from 40km to 100km) make e2Ws and e3Ws well-suited for many PIC settings. Their low noise, ability to recharge from off-grid solar PV systems and general utilitarian convenience also opens opportunity to use them in many remote island applications, including on trails between villages in remote locations. The use of off-road e2Ws have already carved out a niche market of their own in several countries. • Charging demand is well-suited for solar Generation. The charging requirements for many privately-owned e2Ws align well with daytime solar electricity production, allowing for convenient charging during the day without disrupting vehicle use. • Preparation is essential. As for micromobility, risks such as low-quality, poor specification and unreliable devices, poor charging practices, and insufficient maintenance support must be mitigated through thorough readiness and regulatory measures. Solutions to these include education and awareness campaigns, which are covered in more detail in PRIF’s report Electric Vehicle Standards for the Pacific Region (2024). • Change in behavior. Integrating e2Ws and e3Ws into communities that do not already have a history of significant motorcycle usage could be challenging, in particular due to the significant shift in behavior required for this. Such change is encouraged and should be supported by careful road safety planning, rider and driver education, and infrastructure adjustments. • Challenging road conditions. The appeal of e2Ws and e3Ws diminishes when used on unsealed roads, which are still prevalent on many islands, though most roads in urban centers are sealed or in a fair condition if unsealed. • Electrics and sea water incompatibility. Added protection for electrical components should be provided when potentially exposed to corrosive environments, such as direct contact with seawater, due to the high risks of damaging them. 9.4.7 Specific PIC Considerations e2W Market Entry. Establishing e2Ws may be easier in markets with substantial existing motorcycle use, such as Kiribati and Tuvalu. However, the challenge in Kiribati is that the motorcycles currently in use tend to be of lower quality and cheaper purchase price, making it harder for higher quality e2Ws to compete. 9.4.8 Conclusion In summary, e2Ws and e3Ws offer a potentially mainstream sustainable and efficient alternative for personal mobility that is particularly suited to many PIC settings and early growth is expected in the sector/ in numbers of e2Ws/e3Ws in those PICs already familiar with motorcycle use. The potential for setbacks during the transition and uptake of the technology requires management to deal to the lack of knowledge in the local industry, and to enable the benefits of these vehicle types to be fully realized while addressing safety, regulatory and potential low-knowledge startup challenges. 9.5 Ultra-light Electric Four Whelers 9.5.1 Introduction A lightweight electric four-wheeler (LE4W) refers to a class of small, compact vehicles powered entirely by electric motors and designed primarily for personal mobility or small cargo transport. These vehicles are characterized by having four wheels and a small, lightweight structure, which enhances their energy efficiency and manoeuvrability. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 188 Figure 187: The Wuling Air EV, a model of e4W, Bali, Indonesia. 9.5.2 Purpose and Usage Urban and short-trip vehicle today, longer trips tomorrow. LE4Ws occupy the niche between motorcycles and light- duty vehicles (LDVs), offering a practical solution for urban environments and low speed areas. They are considerably lighter than LDVs, which reduces energy consumption and enables them to achieve adequate range with relatively small onboard battery storage. This not only lowers their operational costs but also makes them a cost-effective option due to the smaller and cheaper batteries. Their lightweight and compact design also make them ideal for navigating tight city spaces. Their design is expected to evolve and their suitability for longer trips with this. 9.5.3 Key Characteristics • Weight. In Europe, LE4Ws fall into two categories: a “L6e” class, which limits the vehicle to a curb weight of 425 kg and a top speed of 45 km/h, and a “L7e” class, which allows for a maximum curb weight of 600 kg and higher speeds. China distinguishes between power-limited Low Speed EVs (LSEVs) with maximum speeds of 40-70 km/h, and Micro EVs with regulatory requirements more akin to those of LDVs. Japan has electric versions of their ICE small urban “Kei Cars”, and the United States has a different classification and regulation system again. As can be gathered from these variations, a common global specification has yet to evolve. • Propulsion. Modern LE4Ws are equipped with electric motors powered by lithium-ion battery packs. Variants using older technology may be powered by lead-acid batteries, which offer limited performance and can have high operation costs from frequent battery replacements. These older technologies have limited application when in competition with modern technology e4Ws. • Size and Capacity. LE4Ws are compact and typically designed to accommodate one or two individuals, though some models can seat more passengers or carry a small amount of cargo. Their reduced size is particularly advantageous for manoeuvring through narrow urban streets and for areas where parking is limited. • Regulatory Compliance. Depending on the PIC jurisdiction, these vehicles may be subject to specific regulations concerning their operation, including speed restrictions, allowable travel areas, and necessary safety features. 9.5.4 Benefits of LE4Ws • Low Cost. In volume production, and with expected reductions in the price of batteries, the cost of a LE4W is expected to be around twice the cost of a medium quality-level e2W, or about the same cost as a e3W, landing at around US$4,500 when delivered to a PIC. This estimate is based on Wuling’s entry-level Hongguang Mini EV (a Micro EV in the Chinese classification system and in 2022 its sales volume in China were almost twice those of Tesla122) which currently costs just over US$5,000. India’s PMV EaS-E, a center-driving position tandem microcar, retails at US$5,800. A righthand drive Wuling variant built for the Indonesian market, the Wuling Air EV, is priced over twice this). 122. Wired article, May 2022, available at the time of writing at https://www.wired.com/story/review-wuling-hongguang-mini-ev/. 189 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles • Environmental Impact. LE4Ws produce zero emissions at the point of use. They provide significantly decreased greenhouse gas emissions compared with ICE passenger car use, even when charged using diesel-generated electricity. • Quiet Operation. Their low noise, small size, agility and low speeds are a good fit with quiet urban environments. Larger LEW4s, such as the earlier-mentioned Wuling, are in essence small cars and have a far wider application. • All-Weather. Many variants provide protection from the sun and weather, providing an all-weather vehicle. 9.5.5 Challenges of LE4Ws • Lead-Acid Legacy. The poor performance and low quality of some older-technology lead-acid battery-based vehicles, along with the environmental burden of the disposal of their batteries, has created legacy barriers to the adoption of modern technological solutions. • New Technology. As with other light and compact electric vehicles, the initial low level of knowledge and awareness about new technologies can lead to risks, such as the market entry of low-quality, unreliable, and unsafe vehicles and charging systems, before these technologies, and their markets, have fully matured. Furthermore, LE4Ws represent a technological threshold where, for some, battery pack voltages increase, and motor controllers along with other equipment become more specialized, necessitating specialist knowledge for maintenance and support. • Battery Care and Disposal. Caution is necessary to ensure proper safety and end-of-life measures are implemented as people have yet to become fully acquainted with these modern battery technologies. To their advantage, the size of the battery requiring end-of-life management is small relative to LDVs providing similar transport services. • Safety Considerations. While LE4Ws are affordable and lightweight, current cheaper and lighter models often compromise on structural integrity and safety features compared to LDVs. This makes them currently less suitable for high-speed roads and their safety rating may also challenge company vehicle policies. However, expect safety improvements over time, beginning with higher-end models. • Limited to Sealed Roads. Their lightweight construction makes LE4Ws best suited for operation on sealed roads unless specifically designed for all terrains. 9.5.6 Future of LE4Ws LE4Ws provide solutions to numerous transport-related issues and, despite a slow uptake in some European markets, they have already achieved significant sales volumes in China, with this trend poised to expand further. For instance, in Japan, electric versions of the popular urban Kei Cars are now being produced by mainstream vehicle manufacturers, and India has already established volume production. This progression sets the stage for similar expansion across many Asian countries, enhancing access to both production lines and used vehicles for PICs. Over time, as the cost of safety technologies decreases and the specifications for LE4Ws are refined, it is expected that their inherent safety will improve. These enhancements will make LE4Ws increasingly competitive with LDVs, thus broadening their appeal and market share even further. 9.5.7 Fit in PIC Settings • Mostly a Good Fit. Low cost of motoring, low road speeds, relatively low daily range requirements, many one- and -two-person trips, and potential independence from fossil fuels (when charged from solar-based electricity generation) make LE4Ws well-suited for many PIC settings. Their low noise and manoeuvrability and reasonably small parking footprint also make them particularly attractive for urban use. However, most volume production LE4Ws are not suited for use on rough, unsealed roads. There is also a risk that these standard variants do not provide the necessary protection to prevent damage to their electrical components when exposed to extreme marine environments. • Low Cost as a Catalyst for Change. There are currently very few LE4Ws in PICs and adopting them would necessitate a significant shift in purchasing behaviours. However, the landed cost of a new LE4W would be comparable to that of a 15-year-old passenger car, while offering years of nearly maintenance-free operation and reduced energy costs, making them a compelling alternative. • Size Limitations. The seating in LE4Ws is typically narrower than that in light-duty vehicles (LDVs), which may pose comfort challenges for larger drivers and passengers. They also can only fit one to two people, which may limit their appeal for PIC customers who have large families and do trips that involve multiple passengers (i.e., to church and school). Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 190 9.5.8 Conclusion Primarily driven by their low purchase and operational costs, LE4Ws are expected to become increasingly prominent in both urban and rural settings within PICs as appropriate models can be accessed from the global market. Additional advantages include their minimal energy requirements, compatibility with solar charging, and low maintenance needs. 9.6 Light Duty Battery Electric Vehicles 9.6.1 Introduction LDV (Light-Duty Vehicle) electric vehicles (EVs) refer to a category of electric vehicles designed primarily for personal mobility and light cargo transport. A Battery Electric Vehicle (BEV) is a subset of EVs that provide all-electric propulsion. BEVs are four-wheeled vehicles defined by their lighter weight compared to heavy-duty battery electric vehicles and, similar to the ICE vehicles they are replacing, are primarily used for passenger transportation, but cargo and utility model BEVs are also available. Globally, BEVs are now a mainstream vehicle technology and are produced by volume production. Figure 188: Early Model Nissan Leaf, a Battery Electric Vehicle imported to many PICs over the last 10 years, Tongatapu, Tonga 9.6.2 Purpose and Usage Replicating ICE Vehicle Services with a Smaller Environment Footprint. BEVs are primarily designed to match the services provided by ICE light-duty vehicles, including short- to long-distance travel, accommodating one to several passengers, and transporting small cargo loads. They achieve these with a significantly lower environmental footprint than ICE equivalents, especially when charged using renewable energy sources. 9.6.3 Key Characteristics Size and Weight. EVs fall into the vehicle weight categories as their ICE counterparts, although their curb weight does tend to be higher due to the added weight of their batteries. Propulsion. There are several different electric powertrain configurations used for electric LDVs: • BEVs are powered entirely by electric motors drawing energy from on-board battery packs. • Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEVs) retain a smaller fueled engine allowing all-electric and/or ICE propulsion and have the ability to be plugged in and use externally sourced electricity for propulsion. • Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs) which do not offer plug-in capability. Their smaller batteries are charged through regenerative braking and by the engine to offer improved fuel economy over standard ICE powertrain configurations. This section focuses on BEVs as they provide a complete shift away from ICE technology. Notably, global sales trends are increasingly favoring BEVs over PHEVs as the range of BEVs increases and as public charging infrastructure expands. 191 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles Range. The advertised range of standard production BEVs is now 300 km to 450 km. Some manufacturers are promising 1000 km ranges within the next 5 years. While these exceed the needs for most PIC circumstances, and lower range EVs have the potential to be cheaper due to reduced battery size, PICs have little say in the build specification of BEVs. However, high range BEVs provide flexibility regarding when they require charging, allowing for a more flexible electricity supply. This is particularly advantageous when the generation has a high renewable content, enabling better alignment with renewable energy availability. Regulatory Compliance. Most volume production BEVs are built to meet the internationally recognized standard requirements in place in the main vehicle markets. A similar level of regulatory compliance concerns the equipment used to charge electric vehicles and its installation and use. 9.6.4 Benefits of BEVs • Lower Environmental Footprint. BEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions and have lower greenhouse gas emissions over their lifetime compared with their ICE counterparts, even when charged primarily with diesel-generated electricity and including accounting for their embedded emissions (the emissions associated with manufacture including materials extraction).123 The reduction in environmental impact decreases significantly as the proportion of renewable energy used for charging increases. Further, unlike ICE vehicles, BEVs do not regularly produce wastes such as used lubricating oil and filters. They also operate with low noise levels. • Reduced Operating Costs. They have few moving parts resulting in minimal maintenance requirements and costs, and their powertrain is highly efficient compared to an ICE vehicle, reducing energy requirements and energy costs in most situations. • Driving Experience with Electric Vehicles. Electric vehicles offer an enjoyable driving experience; they are known for their low noise levels, comfort, and high torque. Additionally, their simplicity and performance appeal to a wide range of drivers. • Many Model Variants. There has been a significant increase in the number of different models of electric light- duty vehicle available in the market, including, more recently, electric vans designed for the transport of passengers (minibuses) and freight. With the right circumstances, these electric minibuses present a viable alternative to fossil- fueled minibuses, in particular where the minibuses are travelling long distances. There are now also a range of utility BEVs in the market designed for commercial use. 9.6.5 Challenges of BEVs • Purchase Price Premium for BEVs. Currently BEVs typically carry a purchase price premium compared to their ICE counterparts. Although battery technology has advanced and costs have decreased significantly, these savings have been largely reinvested into extending the range of BEVs rather than reducing the purchase price. As a result, the anticipated price parity with ICE vehicles has been delayed. Many countries have introduced favorable tax policies that reduce the price premium on BEVs to encourage their uptake. Predictions suggest that the unsubsidized price for BEVs will eventually be less than for ICE vehicles as battery and EV technology improves further, making a compelling case for EVs. • Total Cost of Ownership (TCO): Parity Already for Used, Approaching Parity for New BEVs. Currently the TCO —which includes the purchase price plus operating costs over a given number of years — is lower for used BEVs compared with equivalent ICE vehicles in many PIC applications. and it is approaching parity when comparing new vehicles in some PICs (see Figure 147). The TCO for BEVs can become more favorable with subsidies, high vehicle utilization (e.g., in well-managed taxi services), low electricity costs, or extended TCO periods. However, this benefit can be difficult to argue when many purchasers focus more on the purchase price or only consider purchases over a short period. Additionally, purchasers often seek extra incentives to justify adopting a less-known pathway; just meeting TCO parity may not be sufficient. This highlights the importance of familiarization with the technology, supporting the idea of early demonstrations and encouraging early uptake. • Availability of Public Charging Infrastructure. The availability of public charging infrastructure is frequently cited as a significant barrier to the adoption of BEVs. However, the development of this infrastructure should be seen more as a journey that progresses alongside the increasing uptake of EVs, rather than a goal that needs to be fully accomplished early on (see the subsection of this report “The Evolution of Charging Infrastructure”). • End-of-Life Battery Management: The batteries used in BEVs are relatively large and heavy compared to those in smaller, lighter electric vehicles, which increases the complexity and cost of managing them at the end of their life. 123. Options for Integrated Electric Mobility and Renewable Power Markets in the Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICT), Campbell et al, July 2020, available at the time of writing at https://www.gn-sec.net/sites/default/files/publications/files/200729_pcreee_e- mobility_program_-_technical_paper_-_final_clean.pdf. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 192 9.6.6 Future of BEVs Globally, sales of BEVs have steadily increased over the last decade and this trend is expected to continue. It is anticipated that BEVs sales will eventually surpass those of ICE vehicles, driven by increasing requirements to reduce pollution and mitigate climate change, alongside forecasts that BEVs will become financially more appealing from the initial purchase point onward. 9.6.7 Fit in PIC Settings • Familiarity with Technology. Despite the increasing normalization of EVs in many developed countries, electric vehicle technology remains relatively unfamiliar in many developing regions including PICs. This can create substantial barriers to adoption, as potential users are often hesitant to invest in technologies that they do not fully understand or trust. It will take time to develop to the point where BEVs are routinely considered in vehicle purchase decisions. Early demonstrations have an important role in addressing the gaps in familiarization. • Service Industry Development. The local service industry needs to enhance its capabilities to service and repair BEVs. While the reliability of EV powertrains may offer some respite, there remains a risk for early adopters concerning maintenance and the ongoing availability of their vehicle. A well-trained service industry will be essential as these vehicles become more common and begin to age. • Diesel Still in the Mix. Many PICs currently rely significantly on diesel-generated electricity, which diminishes one of the key environmental benefits of BEVs—reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In the short term, HEVs can immediately offer a 20-30% reduction in fuel consumption over standard ICE vehicles, regardless of the electricity source. However, as PICs transition to more renewable energy sources, BEVs will offer greater reductions in greenhouse gases compared to HEVs. • Charging Infrastructure Development. As mentioned, the absence of widespread public charging infrastructure is commonly cited as a significant barrier to BEV adoption. Nevertheless, numerous solutions exist, and initially, privately owned chargers can adequately support many BEV applications in PICs. A specific challenge for PICs is the limited global experience in integrating charging systems with grids dominated by high solar PV electricity generation, which is expected to be the norm for many PIC settings. Addressing this may comprise the deployment of smart, remotely controlled chargers at locations where vehicles are typically parked during the day coupled with various “Charging as a Service” schemes. • Integration of Charging and Electricity Supply. Future strategies could see BEV charging tightly integrated with the electricity supply with the potential benefits of more efficient use of electricity from renewable sources, improved grid stability, and overall lower costs to supply electricity. • Resilience and Energy Dependence. Transitioning to BEVs does shift dependence from oil to electricity supply (which has previously prompted consideration of PHEVs over BEVs as a more resilient option). Options for post-disaster resilience for BEVs include charging from onsite emergency generators or standalone solar PV systems. • Supply Challenges of Next-Generation EVs. PICs rely heavily on importing used vehicles to meet their motoring needs. For BEVs, this includes used, early generation Nissan Leafs, which have been valuable in introducing BEV technology to many PICs (despite their relatively short ranges and passive battery cooling). Looking ahead, BEVs with longer ranges and advanced battery technologies will be more appropriate, aligning better with long-term objectives, including the efficient integration of vehicle charging with power supplies that have a high proportion of renewable energy. It will take time before these next generation EVs become available as used vehicles in the supply marketplaces that PICs use. Filling this gap with the supply of new vehicles, purchased by companies or government agencies, and through development-funded demonstration projects, becomes crucial in this context. • Battery Disposal Issues. There is currently no appropriate long-term solution for the disposal of end-of-life vehicle traction batteries. Even the short-term solutions of battery of storing end of life traction batteries requires capacity development and facilities to be established. The repurposing of traction batteries, where the batteries are still usable, provides an interim and highly useful method to manage functioning batteries removed from vehicles. • Electrics and Sea Water Don’t Mix. The exposure of BEVs to corrosive marine environments, particularly sea water, must be carefully managed. For example, BEVs should not be subject to wading through sea water. • Retrofit Limitations. Converting ICE vehicles to BEVs, while appealing as a concept, is generally not feasible beyond hobbyist or enthusiast projects due to the high costs involved. These costs often exceed those of purchasing a used imported EV. Additionally, there is a risk that the resale value of a converted vehicle might be less than the cost of the conversion components. Other significant concerns include potential safety compromises, reduced performance and operational reliability post-conversion, and a lack of warranty or service support for a retrofitted vehicle, which might then become an “orphan” in the market. While economies of scale achieved by converting large numbers of the same vehicle model in a production-line manner could make retrofitting more viable, this scenario is unlikely in the PICs due to logistical and economic constraints. The same challenges extend to converting large-format, heavy-duty vehicles in these regions. 193 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.6.8 Conclusion BEVs are not anticipated to become a mainstream component of the vehicle fleet across the PIC region until the distant future. Reaching this milestone requires several interim steps. Affordability remains a critical driver of motorization trends in the PICs, and the adoption timeline for BEVs will largely depend on how swiftly their prices decline. This decline is heavily reliant on advancements in battery technology, particularly for BEVs due to their relatively large battery packs compared to those used for smaller and lighter electric vehicles. Normalization of the technology, along with time for the vehicle fleet to turn over, are essential factors in this transition. Preparatory efforts are needed to familiarize PICs with EV technology and lay the groundwork for such wider adoption. This involves education and awareness programs, policy development, as well as EV demonstration projects, actions that have already begun for some PICs. More detail on what these start up tasks look like are provided in the regional roadmap “Regional Electric Mobility Policy for Pacific Island Countries and Territories (PICTs)”,124 which was developed under oversight by the Pacific Centre for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency (PCREEE). Integrating BEVs into both the transport sector and the supply of electricity also requires strategic planning. This includes the implementation of policies to ensure the establishment of service capabilities and that electricity systems are closely integrated with energy flow to and from EV batteries. Such integration promises enhanced energy security, reductions in emissions, improved performance of the electric grid, and more economic options to push the proportion of renewable electric generation. 9.7 Heavy Duty Electric Vehicles (Truck and Buses) Figure 189: Electric bus in service in Thimphu, Bhutan. 9.7.1 Introduction Heavy-Duty Electric Vehicles (HDEVs) are electric vehicles designed for transporting heavy loads or many passengers in various commercial, industrial, and public transportation applications. Their travel patterns can comprise many co-joined short trips, as is the case for many public transport situations, and urban-based rubbish and delivery trucks, and extend out to long trips. This tends to be challenging for all-battery trucks due to size and weight of the batteries if solely dependent on onboard energy storage. 9.7.2 Purpose and Usage Replacing ICE HDV applications. Most often HDEVs are used to directly replace their ICE vehicle counterparts, targeting those applications where the weight and size of the onboard battery do not compromise operational efficiency. Early HDEV applications have also tended to target applications where the advantages of electric drive systems are most evident. This includes vehicles with frequent stop-start operations such as urban buses and garbage collection trucks, where regenerative braking systems, low noise, and zero-tailpipe emissions if all-electric, offer significant benefits. 124. https://pcreee.org/document/pcreee-regional-program-promote-electric-vehicle-markets-pacific-island-countries-and. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 194 9.7.3 Key Characteristics • Weight and Configuration. HDEVs are classified in accordance with the standard classifications used for heavy vehicles, which are based on gross (rated, fully laden) weight. The smallest weight classification begins at a gross vehicle weight of 12,000 kg – this classification covers the sorts of two-axle125 trucks providing larger goods carrying services and also the buses typically used for urban public transport services. • Propulsion. As for LDV EVs, there are several different electric powertrain configurations used for HDEVs including all-electric which are powered entirely by electric motors drawing energy from on-board battery packs through non- plug-in HEVs which allow all-electric and/or ICE propulsion, the addition of the electric drive system significantly improving fuel economy over standard ICE powertrain configurations, particularly when used in urban settings. This section focuses on all-electric variant as they provide a complete shift away from ICE technology and is considered the destination in the longer term. • Configuration. Because of the wide range of duties performed, HDVs come in a wide range of configurations and their manufacture beyond a small number of standard truck configurations soon becomes customer specific. This becomes more specific again for HDEVs due to the need to balance battery weight and size, vehicle range and duty. • Range. Many early HDEV variants focused on range resulting in the use of large and heavy batteries to provide 250 km range or more. These configurations are inappropriate in many PICs settings due the damage that the high axle weights would inflict on softer roads. Modern approaches include top up fast charging during the day and newer versions of battery-swapping, both reducing the amount of onboard battery storage to a fraction of their early HDEV variants. 9.7.4 Advantages • Lower Environmental Footprint. All-electric HDEVs produce zero tailpipe emissions and operate with significantly lower noise levels compared to their internal combustion engine counterparts. When charged using diesel-generated electricity, they exhibit marginally better greenhouse gas emissions and achieve substantial reductions when powered by renewable energy sources. Additionally, unlike internal combustion vehicles, they do not generate waste products like used lubricating oil and oil filters. • Reduced Operating Costs. They have few moving parts resulting in minimal maintenance requirements and costs, and their powertrain is highly efficient compared to an ICE vehicle, reducing energy requirements and energy costs in most situations. • Dedicated Charging Infrastructure. HDEVs are often charged from dedicated HDEV charging facilities, avoiding the need for public charging service to be made available. 9.7.5 Challenges • Purchase Price Premium for HDEVs. HDEVs typically carry a significant price premium compared to their ICE counterparts. This is quickly changing as some manufacturers are establishing production lines for some smaller heavy truck variants. Some e-bus manufacturers are also relaxing the premiums that were typically applied to small- scale procurements. Advancements in self-diagnostics and remote technician support have also overcome previous obstacles associated with providing suitable local service support. As explained in Figure 147, TCO is more important to consider than purchase price, and the TCO of an e-bus is expected to be similar or better than for an ICE bus where the buses have high utilization. • End-of-Life Battery Management. HDEVs’ traction batteries are large and heavy. Plans for managing them at their end of life should be in place. However, the battery management systems employed in this segment are of very high quality, and the batteries are expected to have long functional lives, well beyond that of their vehicle application, providing time for better disposal options to be developed. 9.7.6 Fit in PIC Settings Familiarity with technology, service industry development, and integration of charging and electricity supply. Advancements in charging technology and strategies have significantly improved over recent years. Battery-supported charging stations now offer high charging rates without placing excessive demand on the power supply. In contrast to this, there has also been a shift towards adopting lower cost, lower charge rate charging and keeping with standard charging connectors and managing routing and scheduling to provide the necessary time for charging. These developments indicate that electric buses are on the verge of – or have become – economically competitive with their fossil-fueled counterparts in the most favorable PIC settings (i.e., where e-buses provide useful, high utilization), marking a significant shift from the situation just 2-3 years ago. Consequently, it is logical to fast-track the demonstration of large electric buses as a demonstration is likely to yield valuable insights for future planning. Just as importantly, it aims to remove the barriers linked to unfamiliarity with the technology which, if left unaddressed, could impede progress. 125. i.e., single back axle. 195 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.8 Developing Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure The development of charging infrastructure is a journey that evolves in parallel with the uptake of electric vehicles (EVs) and is not a barrier to overcome before electrifying transportation. Many EVs can meet their daily requirements with just a home or workplace charger. Additionally, fleets such as taxis or buses can rely on dedicated charging facilities, and e-bikes and other small electric vehicles can be efficiently charged using personal chargers. The true need for widespread public charging infrastructure emerges as EVs move beyond niche and enthusiast markets to broader, general usage. In such scenarios, more extensive charging facilities, and awareness of them, become essential to accommodate the less predictable travel patterns of the general public and their lower tolerance for range anxiety. Public chargers also provide a safety net for unexpected or longer travel needs and offer alternatives when usual charging options are unavailable, including due to faults. After early adoption, the perceived availability of public charging infrastructure significantly influences the decision to purchase an EV. Therefore, establishing public charging infrastructure, and ensuring awareness of its availability, is crucial. The impact of EV charging on electricity supply and distribution will depend upon how it is managed. In PICs, the presence of EVs is currently minimal, and their impact on local electricity supply circuits is generally negligible—except in areas where electricity supply circuits are already under strain (for instance, where there are existing challenges in maintaining power quality). The collective impact of EVs will become significant as the number of EVs grows, particularly if they congregate in specific regions (such as 'EV neighborhoods'). Charging an EV can draw an amount of electricity equivalent to a new household connection or even more, and if multiple EVs charge simultaneously from the same distribution circuit, it could dramatically raise the peak demand, potentially exceeding that circuit’s capacity and challenging the stability and reliability of the power supply for all users connected to that circuit. Electricity distribution systems are usually built to accommodate expected growth over the next 5, 10, or even 15 years. Unmanaged EV charging could cause these systems to reach their design limits much earlier than planned. If there is sufficient peak power generation available, one solution could be to upgrade the local supply circuits; however, this is typically quite costly. Additionally, increasing peak generation, if required, is also expensive, as generation from "peaking plants" generally has a higher cost compared to “baseload” generation. One option to incentivize the use of managed charging is to introduce time-of-use (TOU) electricity rates, which electricity suppliers could set to encourage EV owners to charge during times when demand is historically low, such as overnight, or when generation is historically favorable to the power supplier, such as during peak solar generation hours for those with these assets. TOU pricing has the advantage of allowing EV owners flexibility to charge when they wish while encouraging owners to get into a routine that utilizes lower cost for electricity most of the time. TOU pricing is an indirect method to manage demand (all, and not just the demand from charging), and does not provide a mechanism to account for real-time adjustments that the electricity supplier may prefer. Note that only some electricity suppliers in the PIC region have begun to look at introducing TOU electricity, suggesting that it will be a number of years before such an instrument would be available for use in practice. As inferred, the preference is for real-time managed charging. A step towards real-time management of charging is through 'Real-Time Pricing' (RTP), also known as 'Dynamic Pricing.' RTP adjusts to immediate grid conditions, allowing electricity users to optimize their costs by choosing the most economical times to consume power. With advanced smart charger technology, the charging process can be automatically aligned with times when the RTP is low. However, the broader adoption of RTP, especially beyond large industrial customers, is likely to be many years away in the PIC region. For more precise managed charge control, direct management is necessary, where the charging process is controlled in real- time to align with current electricity supply and demand. On a site-specific basis, this could mean restricting how much power a charger or a group of chargers can draw so as not to overload the circuit to that site. On a larger scale, an area- wide strategy might involve the electricity provider adjusting the power supplied to chargers in response to identifying high peak demands on the network, or to fluctuations in generation, such as changes in solar output due to cloud cover. The latter requires the control of the charger to be handed over to the electricity supplier (possibly through a third-party that aggregates the demand control associated with numerous Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 196 EVs), often with various opt-out options to allow an EV owner to override this control if needed. This coupling of demand and supply has many benefits to the electricity provider, and the EV owners could be rewarded for their participation through lower costs to charge their EV. A next step advancement in coupling EV charging and electricity supply involves the export of stored energy from vehicle batteries. At a basic level, this can include small-scale methods such as vehicle-to-load (V2L), vehicle-to-home (V2H), and vehicle-to-business (V2B) electricity transfers. At a more sophisticated level this could comprise vehicle-to-grid (V2G) systems, where exported energy supports the (reactive) maintenance of voltage and frequency at times when the local supply circuits are stressed due to high demand, to larger-scale capture of excess electricity generated at one time of day and supply at another, effectively balancing supply and demand across different times. This latter service adds complication on several fronts. For example, such (opportunistic) capturing of excess electricity requires EVs to be connected more often through various means such as plugging in or using contactless charging pads. This adds operational steps compared to occasional charging an EV and simply parking and walking away at other times. Similarly, for effective electricity export from vehicle batteries, frequent connection of the EV to the electricity system is necessary. Additionally, exporting electricity is only viable if it does not reduce the lifespan or value of the EV, unless compensation is provided. The batteries should also be sufficiently large to make each connection cost-effective, and the EV’s energy management system must be designed to support export. Over time, as technology progresses and the practice of exporting electricity from EVs becomes more common, these requirements are expected to be increasingly addressed, leading to normalized use of these technologies. However, apart from demonstration, this future is expected to be many years away for PICs. As an example of how rapidly evolving technology could transform the market, a new structure for capacitors, a device that can also store electricity, has been discovered that could lead to vehicle batteries being significantly smaller—nearly one- twentieth the current size126. This advancement could enable larger onboard storage capacities, drastically extending vehicle range and enhancing the ability to buffer supply-demand fluctuations. Other research indicates that similar enhancements in energy density are possible using common materials127, which should lead to far lower cost energy storage solutions. If these or like developments do achieve their goals, they could make long-range EVs widely accessible, and significantly enhance the potential for vehicle-to-grid (V2G) contributions. Looking ahead, the same dramatic reduction in electricity storage costs could also revitalize stationary energy storage solutions, making them more economically, and widely, viable. These systems, permanently connected, would offer more reliable support and balance to electricity grids compared to intermittently connected EVs, potentially diminishing the reliance on V2G systems. Moreover, the adoption of capacitor-type batteries might facilitate rapid, "flash charging" of EVs returning the fast-fill times of fossil fuel vehicles, adding another dynamic to the evolving charging and energy supply landscape. These future possibilities are more distant, but they highlight that there is no rigid plan or agenda in place. Instead, planning should focus on preparing for near-term certainties based on current knowledge while also creating flexible, long-term strategies that can adapt to emerging developments. Nonetheless, certain technologies such as managed charging are expected to be key features of the coupling of charging and electricity supply, regardless, and thus merit focused attention. Some elements of the EV ecosystem may also not align effectively with the integrated management of charging and electricity supply. For instance, EV operators would expect public fast chargers to be readily available on demand, regardless of other grid supply considerations. Additionally, the smaller battery capacities of e2Ws, e3Ws, and lightweight e4Ws limit their utility as sources of electricity for anything beyond minimal energy requirements. Many potential benefits with battery swapping if the right application can be found. For PICs where smaller electric vehicles may become prevalent, battery swapping can provide several advantages. Swap stations usually have batteries continuously connected to the electricity supply, effectively creating a dynamic battery energy storage system (BESS) providing a tool to balance demand and supply. Additionally, swapping batteries is typically quicker than refueling with gasoline for small vehicles; and third-party ownership and management of batteries can offer various benefits, including better in-service battery health monitoring and care, as well as expert end-of-life management. However, the economic viability for battery swapping currently requires high vehicle utilization. Vehicles that are less frequently used are often more cost-effective with in-situ batteries, mainly because these typically have lower initial and overall ownership costs (and lost opportunity costs due to charging standdown do not tend to feature either). As battery swapping technology advances, it is expected to standardize globally, and the efficiencies associated with this would be expected to make more small electric vehicle battery swap applications viable. 126. https://www.livescience.com/technology/electronics/ev-batteries-could-last-much-longer-thanks-to-new-capacitor-with-19- times-power-density-that-scientists-created-by-mistake#:~:text=Electronics-,EV%20batteries%20could%20last%20much%20 longer%20thanks%20to%20new%20capacitor,that%20scientists%20created%20by%20mistake&text=Electric%20cars%20and%20l- aptop%20batteries,better%20capacitors%20in%20the%20future. 127. Research engineer involved, personal communication, details not provided at request of the engineer. 197 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles PICs need to establish a Charging Infrastructure Development Plan. Recognizing that the development of charging infrastructure is a progressive journey, the following proposes such a pathway, organized by the order in which each component should be introduced: • Start with simple AC charging. begin by using the "In Cord-Control and Protection Device" (IC-CPD) charging cable (that connects the EV to an electricity supply socket outlet). The IC-CPD is the charging cable "brick" that normally comes supplied with an EV. Through education, and encouraged through incentives, encourage the IC-CPD charging of EVs to best fit with the grid supply of electricity. • Transition to Hardwired AC Charging. Move towards hardwired AC charging setups where the charger’s control and protection equipment are directly connected to the electrical supply, including the earth protection circuit, and using smart chargers. Ensure that all commercial and public access charging stations are hardwired and encourage this for at-home charging as well. All installation must meet minimum safety standards. This transition should be supported with an education and awareness program so that the smart features of these chargers become commonly understood and used. • Develop Public AC Charging Infrastructure. Establish public AC charging stations and, depending on local needs, introduce fast or semi-fast DC charging stations on an as-required basis (noting that high-rate DC charging may not be suitable for areas with limited electrical infrastructure, and higher-rate AC charging could be a more practical solution, particularly where high travel distances are not required, and as newer model EVs with higher AC charge rates enter the market). • Implement TOU Pricing. Introduce TOU pricing or other mechanisms to incentivize charging during times that best match local electricity supply conditions. • Third-party Managed Charging. Progressively introduce aggregator or electricity supplier third-party managed charging, beginning with a demonstration of the method to gain local understanding of such systems and customer arrangements. • Gain V2H/B/G Experience. As opportunity and access to commercial devices materializes, demonstrate V2H, V2B, then electricity-supplier controlled V2G to gain local experience of such systems and arrangements. • Watching Brief. Maintain a watch of global developments and adapt the local charging and electricity supply integration plan accordingly. • Establish Charging Facilities for Commercial EV Use. In addition, set up any tailored charging infrastructure required for commercial EV applications on a project-by-project basis. This infrastructure may also be dual-purpose, providing both project and public charging. Figure 190: An AC public charging point provided outside the National Energy Office, Majuro, RMI. Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions 198 9.9 Digital Infrastructure for Urban Mobility The use of digital applications is increasingly integrating into transport services due to the efficiencies that they bring. These applications require the support of digital infrastructure, referring to those services and technologies that support the computing, connectivity, and data management needs of the digital applications. They comprise a wide range of components, including telecommunications networks, data centers, cloud computing services, the Internet of Things (IoT), cybersecurity systems, and geospatial information systems (GIS). These components collectively enable the seamless transfer of data, secure storage of information, and make payments to enable the efficient operation of digital applications. The advantage for PICs is that much of this digital infrastructure is provided by international companies operating globally, allowing PICs to access these advanced systems relatively easily. For example, ridesharing programs, which match taxi operators with passengers, can be accessed through standard smartphones using a downloaded application. Ridehailing applications range from those provided by the giants like Uber and Grab (who are unlikely to operate in PICs due to lack of profitability), to other platforms which can be used to manage only a few taxis. The following are some of the most useful digital applications for passenger cars, taxis and public transport-related services: • Ridehailing: provides fare estimation, real-time tracking, in-app payments, and driver ratings, providing a convenient safe and easy-to-use method to hail taxis. • Taxi Management: provides booking, dispatching, and real-time tracking, optimized for small- to medium-sized taxis fleets. • Rental Vehicle Management: provides ease of access, payment services, and vehicle operation management for rental vehicles, supporting everything from per-minute and per-kilometer hire through multi-day rentals. • Public Transport Trip Planning: provides trip planning, real-time bus arrival information, personal arrival information, and step-by-step navigation. May extend into multi-modal trip planning across public transit, walking, cycling, and rideshare travel options when these services are integrated on the same platform. • Maps: provides turn-by-turn navigation, traffic updates, and points of interest, enabling efficient trip routing. • Parking: find and pay for parking and extend parking remotely, providing convenience and ease of use. • Ticketing: contactless tap-on and tap-off systems for separate card and smartphones, including single ticket for multi-modal travel if transport sectors collaborate on the same fare and journey platform. • Ridesharing: similar to ridehailing but with privately operated vehicles where drivers seek others wishing to take the same trip. Platforms like Facebook are used for arranging shared trips in some regions (e.g., Fiji, Kiribati). A stable internet connection is essential for many digital applications to function correctly, making it a fundamental requirement for the effective use of these services. Illustrating the issues here, Nusa Penida, Indonesia, is a very popular tourist island destination but has very poor internet coverage. This creates a barrier to the use of digital services and, for Nusa Penida, compromises the ability to efficiently organize transport and accommodation services and tourist activities. PICs with poor internet services include PNG, Kiribati, Federated States of Micronesia, and Tuvalu. Figure 191: Tap-on ticketing, Thimphu, Bhutan. Figure 192: Ridehailing app. 199 Strategy 9: Adopt island-appropriate electric vehicles 9.10 Alternative Energy Options for Road Vehicles Liquid Fuels Modern internal combustion engines (ICEs) are intolerant of fuel that falls below the strict quality specifications set by modern fuel standards, resulting in limited alternative options for these vehicles. Those alternatives include: • Ethanol: Fuel ethanol is derived primarily from the fermentation of sugars found in crops such as corn, sugarcane, and other biomass materials. Such production is not viable on several fronts, even in Fiji’s sugarcane setting. Alcohol production through “second generation” manufacturing plants is also currently not viable in a PIC setting. • Biodiesel: Biodiesel can be made from a variety of feedstocks, including vegetable oils and animal fats. It can be used as a replacement for diesel, but it must be of the highest quality to be compatible with modern diesel engines. Achieving and maintaining this high level of quality can be challenging in the PIC environment. Additionally, managing waste from biodiesel production can be problematic. As a result, the use of biodiesel is not encouraged, except for specific projects that have developed mechanisms to address these challenges associated with biodiesel production and use. This may include the use of the biodiesel in a dedicated fleet, significantly limiting the scale that could be achieved. Note that some operators in the Pacific Islands have successfully used raw or partially processed coconut oil in older- style diesel engines, for example, in large and older engines used for electricity generation. However, these engines are significantly less advanced than those used in modern vehicles, and using such coconut oils in modern engines will likely result in engine failure. Hydrogen The use of hydrogen has also been proposed by some consultants for PICs, primarily targeting marine vessels due to hydrogen’s superior energy storage capabilities, which are essential for vessels and difficult to achieve even with modern batteries. To align with PICs’ sustainability goals, the hydrogen would also need to be “green hydrogen” – produced by electrolytic splitting of water into hydrogen and oxygen using renewable electricity. While this approach is credible at a demonstration level for marine vessels, hydrogen’s use in road transport is less feasible for PICs. This is due to the shorter- range requirements of road vehicles, which can be mostly met with modern battery technologies. Considering the current development stage of vehicle fuel cell technology and fit with PICs, it would be more beneficial to focus on developing the battery-electric road vehicle sector. 9.10 Conclusion The chapter provides a comprehensive assessment of the viability of different electric vehicle technologies for the Pacific Island Countries. In particular, it emphasizes the potential of e-bikes and e2Ws as a cost-effective and practical alternative for short to medium-distance travel and also for cities to start pilots with electric minibuses and large electric buses to build familiarization with the technology. This chapter emphasizes the importance of adopting new technology in a comprehensive manner, considering factors such as infrastructure, safety, and regulatory compliance. It also highlights the potential benefits of these technologies, including lower environmental footprint, reduced operating costs, and potential for improved resilience in the face of significant events. The document acknowledges the challenges and barriers to the adoption of these technologies in PICs, such as the unfamiliarity with electric vehicle technology, the lack of public charging infrastructure, and the high initial purchase price of some electric vehicles. It also addresses specific considerations for PICs, including the need to manage the risks associated with exposing electric vehicles to potentially corrosive marine environments and the need for a well-trained service industry to support these technologies. In sum, the chapter identifies new vehicle options for PICs to overcome car-centric thinking and provide more transportation choices to city residents and visitors. With more choices, Pacific cities can reduce car dependency, improve air quality, and create more livable and sustainable urban environments. Guide to Mobility Guideforto Mobility Livable Pacific for Livable Part II: Cities |Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement Handbook to theImplement the Priority Actions Priority Actions 200 Conclusions Authors: Sam Johnson and Damon Luciano Pacific Cities are experiencing the benefits of rising access to motorized urban mobility. Urbanization and motorized mobility place opportunity and development within reach; motor vehicles increase access to jobs, housing, family, friends, higher education, goods, services, recreation, and much more. Urban mobility is also critical to economic development by improving the efficiency of markets for labor, goods, and services. Individuals who can access more distant job and housing opportunities may find employment opportunities with higher economic productivity or housing options that better suit their needs. This, in turn, can result in higher incomes, an improved standard of living, and/or a more satisfying lifestyle. It is no coincidence that urbanization is a major driver of both prosperity and motorization. This growing mobility comes at a price, however. Rapid urbanization and motorization in PICs have led to increased traffic congestion, air pollution, and negative impacts on public health and safety. The current transportation systems rely heavily on imported fossil fuels, contributing to foreign exchange deficits, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change. Car use also has financial implications for individuals and households; car ownership and maintenance can be very expensive, especially for those with lower incomes, and these costs are often under-estimated. Car use also has significant negative impacts on those who do not directly benefit, including pollution, reduced mobility, health impacts of air pollution, and road collisions. Critically, as explained in some detail in Part I and summarized in the Part II Executive Summary, PIC cities are currently on a development pathway towards car dependency. When this cycle takes hold, decision-makers often expand road capacity to reduce travel time for people in cars. This encourages more travel in cars, and sooner or later – and usually sooner than predicted – congestion catches up with expanded road capacity. Car-dependency makes alternatives to car use less safe, efficient, and desirable, until car use becomes a default. But car-dependency is far from inevitable or permanent. Meanwhile, there is strong demand in Pacific Cities to meet these rising urban mobility needs with healthier, greener, and safer urban transportation choices. The strategies presented in this guide were identified through in-depth dialogue with leaders in the Pacific region. Although the content was prepared by subject matter experts, the vision for car-lite Pacific Cities comes directly from Pacific Leaders as they sought to chart a path forward for Pacific Cities. Pacific Cities are well-positioned to achieve this healthier, greener, and more livable and self-reliant ‘car-lite’ vision. Many have the advantage of a compact urban form with most residents residing within a 15-minute or less bicycle trip of the city center. Most have desirable climates for active mobility and micromobility, and relatively low rates of car ownership and relatively high reliance on walking and transit by international standards. Much of the urban land use in Pacific Cities is still concentrated along a limited number of arterial routes. A car-lite and livable urban future is well within reach for Pacific Cities and can potentially be achieved at a lower cost and deliver greater benefits than a car dependent future. A car-lite development pathway can reduce the need for costly spending on road capacity, parking, and the purchase and maintenance of private cars. Tactical urbanism can cheaply convert existing streets to be safer, cleaner, and more livable; improving management of public transit services should reduce costs and improve access to jobs and services. Building public reliance upon active mobility infrastructure and public transit can reduce the motivation for car ownership and raise awareness and public support for further car- lite policies and investments. These interventions benefit the majority of Pacific urban residents, whereas road expansion primarily benefits a small number of wealthier households. In summary, car-lite development enables Pacific Cities to gain the most from rising prosperity and mobility and promote social equity. Sam Johnson is a Sustainable Transport Specialist with the World Bank. He has worked on transport infrastructure projects in the Pacific Islands since 2017. He co-leads the World Bank’s Active Mobility Community of Practice. He has a Bachelor of Engineering (Civil) (Hons1) at the University of New South Wales, and a Masters of Global Development Practice at Harvard University. Damon Luciano has been working as a Consultant in World Bank Transport Practice since 2018, and previously held various roles in the World Bank since 2005. He earned his Master of City and Regional Planning with a focus on Urban Transportation Planning from the Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey in 2012. 201 Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities | Part II: Practitioners’ Handbook to Implement the Priority Actions This Guide to Mobility for Livable Pacific Cities profiled three game-changing goals and nine synergetic strategies that Pacific Cities can implement to make this transition happen: Goal A Create Livable Streets for People Strategy 1: Ensure safe urban speeds Strategy 2: Design streets to prioritize walking, cycling and micromobility Strategy 3: Use the power of community for quick and affordable street transformations Strategy 4: Implement education, encouragement and evaluation measures to promote active mobility Goal B Promote Public Transit Strategy 5: Make taking the bus the best choice for getting to the city Strategy 6: Use land use planning to guide compact urban development Goal C Manage Private Vehicle Ownership and Use Strategy 7: Control the car fleet quality and quantity at entry, during use, and end of life Strategy 8: Organize parking to make streets less chaotic Strategy 9: Encourage the import and use of island-appropriate electric vehicles The successful implementation of these strategies will require strong leadership, political will, and collaboration among government agencies, private sector organizations, civil society organizations, and development partners. 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