SAFE & LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE A WORLD BANK GROUP APPROACH PAPER TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements 2 List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 3 Executive Summary 5 INTRODUCTION 10 Future Success Will Increasingly be Determined by Operating Effectively in FCV situations 10 Translating the Bank Group’s FCV Strategy into Better Education Outcomes 10 Theoretical Underpinnings: The Complex Relationship Between Education and Conflict 11 SECTION 1: FCV CONTEXTS AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATION 13 1.1 Defining FCV, and How It Affects Education 13 1.2 Intensifiers of Fragility, Conflict, and Violence 15 1.3 Human Capital in FCV Contexts 16 1.4 Learning Crises in FCV Contexts 17 1.5 The Key Role of Education 19 SECTION 2: THE WORLD BANK GROUP’S EVOLVING ROLE IN FCV CONTEXTS 22 2.1 Education Priorities in FCV Across Time 22 2.2 Future Directions of Education Priorities in FCV 2030 24 2.3 Portfolio Trends Since 2005 27 SECTION 3: ALIGNING WITH THE FCV STRATEGY 34 3.1 The Bank Group’s Framework for Engagement in FCV 34 3.2 Operationalizing the Pillars of Engagement 324 Operating Principles 34 Pillar 1: Preventing Violent Conflict and Interpersonal Violence 38 Pillar 2. Remaining Engaged During Conflicts and Crises 42 Pillar 3. Helping Countries Transition out of Fragility 48 Pillar 4. Mitigating the spillovers of FCV 50 CONCLUSION 56 Annex 1. Menu of Options 58 Annex 2. Examples of Risks & Mitigation Measures 69 Annex 3. Education Portfolio on Situations of FCV 71 Endnotes 74 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper was produced by a team led by Peter A. Holland and Joanna Sundharam, under the guidance of Keiko Miwa and Jaime Saavedra, and including Dina Abu-Ghaida and Peter Darvas, the Education Global Thematic Leads for Fragility, Conflict, and Violence. Special thanks to the Council of Advisors that guided each step of the process: Adama Ouedraogo, Aisha Garba Mohammed, Ayesha Y. Vawda, Elena Maria Roseo, Husein Abdul-Hamid, Joel E. Reyes, Juan Baron, Manal Bakur N Quota, Marie-Helene Cloutier, Martin Elias De Simone, Matiullah Noori, Melissa Ann Adelman, Mohamed Yassine, Nathalie Lahire, Omer Nasir Elseed, Scherezad Joya Monami Latif, Stanislas Honkuy, and Vincent Perrot. The team benefited from interviews with and comments from: Amit Dar, Amanda Devercelli, Asbjorn Wee, Bella Bird, Coralie Gevers, Dena Ringold, Cristobal Cabo, Daniel Balke, Ella Victoria Humphry, Halil Dundar, Halsey Rogers, Hugh Riddell, Illango Patchamuthu, Jean-Christophe Carret, Juan Manuel Moreno, Karen Mundy, Kathy Bickmore, Laura McDonald, Lily Mulatu, Mari Shojo, Mike Trucano, Muna Meky, Noah Yarrow, Olatunde Adekola, Olivier Lavinal, Raja Bentaouet Kattan, Roberta Bassett, Safaa El-Kogali, Sarah Michael, Thanh Thi Mai, Victoria Levin, Xavier Devictor, Yasuhiko Matsuda, and Yevgeniya Savchenko, as well as members of the Education Global Practice who participated in discussions on the paper. The paper was edited by Paul McClure and designed by Gimga Group. The team is especially grateful to the partner organizations that offered thoughtful feedback on the state of education in fragile settings, and the role of the World Bank therein. These include Antoine-Marie Bieteke (Plan International), David Skinner (Save the Children), Dean Brooks (INEE), Emma Wagner (Save the Children), Hannah Snowden (Save the Children), Linda Jones (UNICEF), Maarten Barends (ECW), Margarita Focas Licht (GPE), and Rebecca Telford (UNHCR). PHOTO CREDITS Cover: Young children waiting near the Uganda/South Sudan border before their final destination of the Impvepi Refugee Camp in Busia, Uganda, 2017. UNMISS Page 7: Girls sitting on a dead coconut tree, which fell on the ground because of the coastal erosion. Their home village of Jenrok in Majuro, Marshall Islands, is slowly being destroyed by the rising seas. Vlad Sokhin/World Bank Page 10: A Sudanese woman and children are pictured in Fanga Suk in East Jebel Marra, South Darfur. Olivier Chassot/UN Photo Page 14: Three school children in Tongogara Refugee Camp in Chipinge district located South-east of Zimbabwe. The photograph was taken in May 2019 shortly after Cyclone Idai made havoc throughout the area, including in the refugee camp. The already vulnerable refugees experienced their adobe homes and community latrines collapsing, belongings being washed away, and livelihoods and crops as being lost as water canals were damaged. ©Dorte Verner Page 31: The evening water collection in the village of Halayat, Kassala State. The water point was constructed through the support of the Community Development Fund (CDF). Sarah Farhat/World Bank Page 52: A young boy at the Zaatari Refugee Camp in Jordan, where nearly 80,000 Syrian refugees are living. 2017. Sahem Rababah/UN Photo Page 55: Children fly their kites at sunset. Haiti. Pasqual Gorriz/UN Photo 2 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 4Rs Redistribution, Recognition, Representation, and Reconciliation AFR Sub Saharan Africa CBT Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CERC Contingent Emergency Response Component COVID-19 Corona Virus Disease 2019 CPF Country Partnership Framework ECD Early Childhood Development ECW Education Cannot Wait EGRA Early Grant Reading Assessment EMIS Education Management Information System ERA Education Resilience Assessment ESF Environmental and Social Framework EU European Union FCS Fragility and Conflict-Affected Situations FCDO Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office FCV Fragility, Conflict, and Violence FY Fiscal Year FM Financial Management FRIT Facility for Integration of Refugees in Turkey GBV Gender-Based Violence GDP Gross Domestic Product GEMS Geo-Enabling initiative for Monitoring and Supervision GIS Geospatial Information System GM Grievance Mechanism GPE Global Partnership for Education HCI Human Capital Index IBRD International Bank for Reconstruction and Development IDA International Development Association IDPs Internally Displaced People IFC International Finance Corporation IFR Interim Financial Report IIEP Institute for International Education Policy IMF International Monetary Fund INEE Inter-Agency Network on Education in Emergencies IPF Investment Project Financing INTRODUCTION 3 IPP Indigenous Peoples Plan LGBTQI Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Intersex M&E Monitoring and Evaluation MHM Menstrual Hygiene Management MoNE Ministry of National Education (Turkey) NGO Nongovernmental Organization NPV Net Present Value OHS Occupational Health and Safety PBC Performance-Based Condition PBF Performance-Based Finance PBG Performance-Based Grant PDO Project Development Objective PFM Public Financial Management PIU Project Implementation Unit PLR Performance and Learning Review PPA Project Preparation Advance RAS Reimbursable Advisory Services SAR South Asia Region SDI Service Delivery Indicator SEL Socio-emotional Learning SEA Sexual Exploitation and Abuse SRH Sexual and Reproductive Health TOR Terms of Reference UIS UNESCO Institute for Statistics UN United Nations UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees USAID United States Agency for International Development WASH Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene WBG World Bank Group WHO World Health Organization 4 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Education is one of the most powerful forces we have for creating a more peaceful and prosperous future. Yet the children most in need of a good education are also at greatest risk of having their learning disrupted, whether by conflict, violence, pandemics, climate, or other crises. For children living in situations of fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV), learning poverty,a as defined by the World Bank Group, almost always exceeds 90 percent; it ranges as high as 96 percent, for example, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Half of the world’s poor, and two-thirds of its extreme poor, will live in FCV situations by 2030. For the World Bank to fulfill its mission, we must succeed in these places. This success, in turn, is predicated on establishing quality education systems that develop the skills and citizenry that are needed for peace and prosperity. Education & FCV Girls face even greater by the Numbers risks than boys. Half of today’s refugees have lived in exile • They are more likely to be out of school and • for more than five years. attend for fewer years than boys. Afghan refugees have spent over • • Girls suffer more violence, including sexual 20 years in exile. exploitation and child marriage. • Of those who are forcibly displaced from their Girls are two and a half times more likely • homes, 75 percent are women and children. to be out of school if they live in conflict- affected countries, with young women nearly Of the 26 million refugees worldwide, •  90 percent more likely to be out of secondary about half are children under 18. school than their non-FCV counterparts. Refugee children – and COVID-19 further especially adolescents – have exacerbates fragility. few opportunities to learn. Worldwide, 1.6 billion children have had • • Only 77 percent have access to primary their education disrupted by the pandemic. education (compared to 91 percent of Learning poverty is expected to jump from children globally). 53 percent to 70 percent worldwide, further eroding learning gains in FCV countries. • Only 31 percent have access to secondary education (compared to 84 percent globally). Globally, school-age students stand to lose $17 •  trillion in labor earnings over their working • A mere 3 percent have access to tertiary lives because of these learning losses. education (compared to 37 percent globally). a  earning poverty is the proportion of children aged ten that are unable to read and understand a simple text. High Learning Poverty scores, in turn, L drive the low average Human Capital Index (HCI) for FCV countries of 0.41, compared to a global average of 0.56, where the HCI represents a level of productivity given a country’s investments in education and health. INTRODUCTION 5 Delivering on the World Bank Group’s renewed commitment to serving populations living in FCV requires greater scale, scope, and financing. Our education portfolio in FCV, which stands at $6.2 billion, has grown rapidly in recent years, reflecting the ever-increasing importance of the FCV agenda in education. Investments in FCV situations now account for more than 25 percent of the World Bank’s education portfolio. This share will continue to grow as we implement our Strategy for Fragility, Conflict, and Violence 2020-2025, which features four pillars: (i) Preventing violent conflict and interpersonal violence, (ii) Remaining engaged during crises and active conflicts, (iii) Helping countries transition out of fragility, and (iv) Mitigating the spillovers of FCV. To date, the education portfolio is concentrated in the latter two pillars. In the coming years, our work will extend substantially to the first two pillars, with important implications for our analytics, dialogue, design, and implementation arrangements. Recommendations for each of the pillars are as follows: PILLAR 1 This transition to remaining engaged will require • a corresponding risk appetite for the enabling Education has a key role to play environment in which teams operate. It means in violence prevention. advancing with operations despite a relatively • Education has two mechanisms through which it can weaker evidence base and trusting untested prevent conflict and promote peace. First, services partnerships to help us deliver results. can be distributed in ways that respond to historical grievances and address persistent exclusions, PILLAR 3 helping correct inequalities across ethnic, religious, racial, caste, language or other lines. Careful analysis The transition out of fragility of the drivers to conflict will avoid unintentional requires consensus on the exacerbations of tensions. sequence of reforms and investing in state capabilities. Second, education is unique in that it holds the • promise of promoting peace at the individual Governments need to be supported in • level and at the societal level. As such, curricular sequencing reforms to move crisis-affected content and pedagogic approaches are advantages populations from humanitarian beneficiaries to unique to the education system for fostering peace. development participants. Students, teachers, and school leaders should be Building up state functions for identifying and • supported to make the most of this advantage. managing future crises through early warning systems and crisis response is crucial for countries PILLAR 2 to avoid and emerge from fragility. This includes developing standing protocols for incorporating Remaining engaged during IDPs and refugees into schools / education systems, crises and active conflict requires building climate-resilient infrastructure and new delivery modalities, mission- schools that can serve as emergency shelters driven partnerships, and a in times of crisis. greater tolerance for risk. During project implementation, special consideration • • The coming years will see a substantial extension of will be needed at the level closest to beneficiaries, as our activity in crisis situations and active conflicts, communities and municipalities are solid sources of with important implications for the analytics, resilience, providing a foundation on which to build. dialogue, design, and implementation arrangements that surround our work. Partnership with humanitarian and peace-building • actors will likely expand, and local alternatives to traditional global partners should be explored when appropriate. 6 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE PILLAR 4 grievances and address persistent exclusions, helping correct inequalities across ethnic, religious, racial, caste, Programs should not distinguish language, or other lines. Instruction in students’ mother between IDPs, refugees, and tongue is one key example of ways to boost learning. host communities, but serve Second, the content of education can promote peace at all of these groups. the individual level (e.g., through a student’s acquisition • Support to refugees and internally displaced persons of skills, including socio-emotional skills) and at a (IDPs) should not exclude host communities that, in societal level (e.g., through promoting social cohesion many situations, face the same factors that drove and reconciliation). There is ever greater demand from the forced displacement, and that are often in just as opinion leaders and decision makers in FCV for the much need as the populations they are hosting. Bank Group to play a central role in education systems. They consider education the top development priority • True integration into public education systems is in their countries, and they view it as the area where often the only financially viable long-term solution World Bank support can achieve the greatest impact.1 to the protracted situations that refugees and IDPs face. It requires careful work to build the The unique characteristics of each FCV situation are dialogue between host communities and displaced paramount considerations when designing education populations. Investing in public structures helps responses. Contexts always differ, and the broadened avoid the pitfalls of creating parallel systems that scope of our work will be firmly rooted in the dynamics have dimmer prospects for long-term sustainability. of each FCV situation. This paper therefore doesn’t attempt to provide guidance on what to do specifically, • Given the World Bank’s preferential role in but how to approach the problem. supporting client governments, we are uniquely placed to support the integration of refugee Hence, some guiding principles to our project design education into host country systems. and implementation are as follows: Address the inequalities that underpin gender • The pivot to prevention of FCV requires the disparities, which in turn will have a multiplying effect education sector to play a vital role, a view shared on efforts to foster inclusion, social cohesion, and, by our clients and partners. There are two broad ultimately, lasting peace. mechanisms through which education can help prevent conflict and promote peace. First, service delivery can be distributed in ways that respond to historical INTRODUCTION 7 • Embrace simplicity and flexibility, keeping to a Incorporating these recommendations into our support narrow set of objectives, few interventions, and early to countries will require partnerships that are strategic, reviews that allow course correction when needed. selective, and mission-driven. Internally, this means more systematic collaboration between the Education Use EdTech thinking for interventions and build in • Global Practice and other practice groups to leverage modern management tools for projects. the World Bank’s technical and financial assets for analytical and operational work. Externally, strong Craft multi-sectoral packages where possible, • partnerships will remain crucial with global partners to piggyback on service delivery points, benefit such as UN agencies (especially UNESCO, UNICEF, from captive audiences, and derive synergies from and UNHCR), development partners, and international existing targeting mechanisms. NGOs, building on shared goals and comparative • Leverage expertise, capacity, and knowledge advantages. At the same time, we will give greater through strategic partnerships, to extend the Bank consideration to local partners such as municipalities, Group’s impact and ease the transition to new areas community-based organizations, and other civil of engagement. This requires a corresponding risk society actors that are closest to the populations we appetite for the enabling environment within which seek to support. teams operate. These partnerships – and partners – must be adequately The core recommendations for our programming funded by the global community. To date, only 2-3 make use of the following entry points: i) analytics percent of all humanitarian aid is allocated to education and dialogue, ii) service delivery, iii) curricula and efforts. In 2020, this represented a little over $700 M. pedagogy, and iv) building state capacity. First, This is a long way from the $4.85 billion required to analytical underpinnings to operations should identify provide all refugee children K-12 education annually, drivers of fragility more systematically, to demonstrate leaving humanitarian actors with little choice but to limit understanding of the conflict dynamics at work. the scale of interventions, and threatening the feasibility Tensions and grievances should be addressed explicitly and sustainability of longer-term engagements. through operations, including by targeting traditionally Case studies presented in this White Paper illustrate excluded groups. For example, policies around how these recommendations are already being language of instruction have often meant systematic implemented, for example in Cameroon, Central exclusion of the most vulnerable. Service delivery should America, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Tajikistan, shift toward strengthening decentralized approaches, and Turkey. The cases cover the full range of education tapping into local solutions and community responses. services financed by the World Bank, from early child This includes becoming well-versed in alternative development to tertiary education, and feature actions service delivery mechanisms and helping clients deploy across the four Pillars of Engagement. They show them as needed. EdTech will be particularly crucial, what is possible in situations of FCV, as well as pitfalls including to reach teachers remotely. For curricular and to be avoided. pedagogical actions, more attention should be placed on approaches to reconciliation and peace building. This paper seeks to articulate how the World Bank For example, the teaching of socio-emotional skills will deliver for the children and families most in need should be mainstreamed into our efforts, from ECD to of support. We present guiding principles, policy tertiary, so that children can develop the self-regulation, options, and operational recommendations for how empathy, relationships, and decision-making abilities to the education sector can help deliver on the Bank serve their own needs and their communities. Operating Group’s FCV Strategy. The paper does not prescribe in FCV settings also requires strong policy formulation actions for countries, nor predict which solutions will abilities, and access to better information, in real be most effective across contexts. Rather, it reaffirms time, on how activities are progressing. This means our commitment to doing the difficult, painstaking modernizing government M&E processes through call work of understanding the drivers of fragility in any centers, GEMS, and other remote methods. given context, and to creating tailored responses, in close partnership with the communities, teachers, and governments we seek to serve. 8 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE INTRODUCTION 9 INTRODUCTION This approach paper lays out the World Bank’s policy For the World Bank to achieve its goals of ending approach for how to deliver education services so extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity, that children are safe and learning. The first section it will need to succeed in FCV situations. Launched defines the context, dynamics, and key terms and in February 2020, our Strategy for Fragility, Conflict, concepts of education in FCV. The second section and Violence 2020-2025 is an important milestone in traces the evolution of the World Bank’s strategy for how the World Bank serves populations living in FCV delivering education services in fragile settings. It situations. It rests on four pillars: (i) Preventing violent draws on interviews with organizations working on conflict and interpersonal violence, (ii) Remaining education in emergency situations and presents the engaged during crises and active conflicts, (iii) Helping World Bank portfolio trends for FCV in education, countries transition out of fragility, and (iv) Mitigating dating back to 2005. The third section presents the spillovers of FCV. The implementation of activities operational recommendations, drawing on interviews across these pillars represents a new vision for our work, with World Bank task team leaders, managers, and with operational implications across sectors. country directors, as well as key partners.b As such, this paper is not a systematic review of what works in FCV In large part, the success of our FCV Strategy is situations. Rather, it presents guiding principles, policy predicated on education. There are few spheres of options, and operational recommendations for how the development with so much potential to contribute education sector can help deliver on the Bank Group’s to violence prevention and peace building. In the FCV Strategy. short term, it can address long-standing grievances (e.g., through the distribution of education services to previously excluded groups). In the longer term, FUTURE SUCCESS WILL education content can shape reconciliation, tolerance, INCREASINGLY BE DETERMINED and pro-peace attitudes and beliefs; it can also BY OPERATING EFFECTIVELY IN equip individuals with better socio-emotional skills FCV SITUATIONS and communities with a more civic-minded citizenry. Education systems are key to helping countries The current global situation, characterized by transition out of fragility, and to supporting children and a changing climate, shifting geopolitics, and families who live in situations of forced displacement. a pandemic, is most likely a preview of the Schooling therefore has a critical role in developing uncertainties that countries will face in the future. the social cohesion for stability, as well as the skill base By 2030, more than half of the poor, and two-thirds needed for our client countries to advance in their of the extreme poor, will live in situations of fragility, development and achieve economic prosperity. conflict, and violence (FCV). Further exacerbating these fragility contexts will be the impacts of climate change, demographics, and pandemics, three macro trends TRANSLATING THE BANK GROUP’S that will intensify the strains on countries and broaden FCV STRATEGY INTO BETTER the scope of populations affected. Our definition of EDUCATION OUTCOMES FCV is no longer limited to countries (which typically This paper lays out how the World Bank’s Education have weak governance and nascent institutions), Global Practice will deliver on education under but extends to situations wherever fragility, conflict, the FCV Strategy, increasing the scope of work or violence may emerge, for a variety of reasons. As and portfolio serving children in FCV situations. forced displacement shows, these situations are also Complementing the strategy, we lay out the breadth increasingly protracted, with the response needed and depth of the challenges ahead, proposing an shifting from short-term, humanitarian needs to longer- ambitious response to serve children and families term issues of development. b I n parallel, UNHCR, the United Kingdom’s FCDO, and the World Bank are preparing a systematic review of the evidence for Education & Forced Displacement. See summary in Box 4 under Section 3. 10 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE who are affected by situations of fragility, conflict, and critical for FCV countries. The benefits for individuals violence. Of the four pillars in the FCV Strategy, two are also vast, including higher earnings, better health, have long been at the heart of our education work in and a better chance to escape poverty.3 However, as fragile states: helping restore service delivery in post- the report warned, schooling without learning is not conflict settings, and strengthening institutions that just a wasted opportunity: it is a “great injustice…. manage education systems. The two other pillars, The children whom society is failing most are the ones however, have not been an explicit focus of most of our who most need a good education to succeed in life.” education engagements. Increasingly, the children missing out are those who live in situations of FCV. Responding across all four pillars of engagement has implications for our work in education. The World But education’s role can be either constructive and Bank offers client countries financing for education, destructive.4 Schools can serve as equalizers, where the as well as advisory services such as analytical work to distribution of services helps reduce societal inequalities better understand the challenges and opportunities and promote social cohesion/reconciliation, with a education systems face. Responding across all pillars positive impact on peace building. In this scenario, will impact the types of technical and technological the curriculum is designed to “deconstruct structures solutions to be developed (the “what”), including of violence” and “construct structures of peace,”5 for service delivery and for systems strengthening with teachers equipped to carry this out, along with across the different levels of education. There are other enabling support structures. However, a review also implications for the operational modalities to be of experiences in conflict-prone countries reveals that used by teams (the “how”), such as embracing more too often, education systems play a destructive role, decentralized approaches, and adopting new methods exacerbating intergroup hostility and other underlying for program monitoring and evaluations (e.g., geo- tensions. This can include unevenly distributing referencing and other technology-enabled solutions). education services (e.g., segregating schools, offering We will also need to update the types of partnerships lower quality to specific groups), manipulating history we pursue (the “with whom”). (through the curriculum, especially textbooks), and otherwise promoting the worth of one group while This is especially true for the first two pillars of constructing hate towards others.6 engagement. As the Bank Group’s FCV operations shift to prevention and remaining engaged in situations As conflicts globally have shifted from interstate of conflict, teams are undertaking new activities, such to intranational dynamics, so too has the focus on as providing psychosocial support and monitoring education’s outcomes. Whereas concepts of “peace education service delivery in conflict zones. This shift education” and “international understanding” were is an opportunity to partner with and learn from others frequent in the post-war education literature of the 20th who have a long-standing presence in this space, century, the 21st century has seen shift to discussions of including both our traditional partners (e.g., UNICEF “conflict prevention” and “education in emergencies.” and UNHCR, international NGOs, bilateral agencies), This has been accompanied by more focus on the and newer partners (e.g., municipalities or community- drivers of conflict, such as a lack of opportunities for based organizations). youth, and more emphasis on individual rights, with a focus on skills acquisition and human capital.7 The shift brings more attention to the economic benefits of a THEORETICAL UNDERPINNINGS: THE more skilled labor force, though we should not neglect COMPLEX RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN the sociocultural, political, and reconciliatory aspects EDUCATION AND CONFLICT of peacebuilding.8 The Bank Group’s FCV Strategy, specifically Pillar 1, requires the Education Global Education is among the most powerful forces Practice to pursue curricular questions and pedagogic for promoting peace and helping countries build approaches in FCV. wealth. As stated in the World Development Report 2018, when countries move from “schooling” to “learning,” the benefit for society is tremendous: it fosters social cohesion and strengthens a country’s institutions,2 two development outcomes that are INTRODUCTION 11 Education systems have a complex relationship cultural transformations in FCV situations. This requires to economic growth and inequality; schools suffer education policies, individual and institutional agency, from conflict and violence but can also contribute and development programs that promote “the 4 Rs.”11 to these situations. The drivers of fragility often pose a threat to education, but they can also stem, But the most important guide to the World Bank’s in part, from poorly delivered education systems.9 work in education will be our clients’ contexts and Similarly, economic development was long viewed as specific needs. As our education team undertakes this an invariably driving peace and stability; but, when expanded scope of work, the starting point will always paired with rising inequality, it can also motivate or be needs of the children and families we seek to serve. worsen conflict and violence.10 Hence achieving shared While a general typology of FCV situations helps us prosperity, including equally distributed education consider a range of actions, the complexity of drivers services, is central to preventing conflict and violence. of fragility and conflict in any given place, as well as the interplay with each education system, require highly The “4Rs” conceptual model –redistribution, customized, flexible responses.12 In the words of Bush recognition, representation, and reconciliation – & Saltarelli (2000): “When it comes to educational provides a framework for how education systems initiatives that are intended to have beneficial impact can be set up to advance conflict prevention on inter-group relations…. one size never fits all. In and peacebuilding. Initially developed through the some situations, one size fits no one. Consequently, the Consortium on Education and Peacebuilding supported effectiveness of an educational initiative increases to by UNICEF between 2014 and 2016, the framework the extent that it is flexible and responsive.”13 posits that, in addition to improving security, education can bring about political, economic, social, and 12 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE SECTION 1 FCV CONTEXTS AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATION Addressing the challenges facing children in FCV of fragility and/or violence the country faces. Second, situations will be increasingly central to the Bank the Bank Group is moving beyond the country level, to Group’s work in the education sector. In 2018, an focus also FCV situations that may occur in countries estimated 420 million children – nearly a fifth of all not on the FCS list. children worldwide – were living in conflict zones,14 an increase of 74 percent over the last decade.15 Of For fiscal year 2021, the FCS list has the 26 million refugees worldwide, about half are children following categories: below age 18.16 These children face situations of forced Countries affected by violent conflict, based on a 1.  displacement that are increasingly protracted, with half threshold number of conflict-related deaths relative of refugees having spent five years or more in exile.17 to the population. This category is distinguished This shift toward a longer-term challenge requires a into two sub-categories based on the intensity response that emphasizes long-term development of violence: solutions, including work to integrate refugees and a. Countries in high-intensity conflict IDPs into host government education systems. b. Countries in medium-intensity conflict Countries with high levels of institutional and 2.  1.1 DEFINING FCV, AND HOW IT social fragility, based on indicators that measure AFFECTS EDUCATION the quality of policy and institutions and specific Examples of FCV challenges include delivering manifestations of fragility. Based on the size of education to children in Yemen, helping Syrian the country, this category is distinguished into two refugees integrate into neighboring countries’ sub-categories: schools, and getting schools up and running post- a. Small states earthquake in Haiti. The World Bank Group categorizes b. Non-small states situations like these under the umbrella term “FCV,” Along with the categories described above, the FCV but each present challenges unique to its micro and strategy identifies country categories that are affected macro environment. The differing contexts require that by FCV-related challenges: education responses be tailor-made to the problems they seek to solve. Opening schools during the conflict Countries with increased risks of fragility and 1.  in some parts of a country might be viewed as “military conflict escalation, which require early action to action’ by militant groups, whereas in another area prevent a full-blown crisis. The Global Crisis Risk it may be seen as an essential action to restore the Platform is a forum to identify such countries, based social contract between the government and citizens. on a mix of qualitative and quantitative criteria. Despite the distinct contextual factors of each situation, Countries hosting refugees, identified based on 2.  some categorization is needed to aggregate evidence a threshold number of refugees, set at 25,000, or of what works (and doesn’t) and distill lessons. This a threshold share of the national population, set section describes how the World Bank classifies and at 0.1 percent. While some of these countries may defines these situations, and how this relates to the not be categorized as FCV themselves, they are education sector. severely affected by FCV spillovers. The differentiated nature of fragility and conflict is The World Bank Group’s engagement is moving captured in the Bank Group’s list of Fragility and beyond FCV countries to fragile situations, even Conflict-Affected Situations (FCS). With the new FCV within non-FCV countries. For countries with localized Strategy 2020-2025, key changes have been introduced insecurity, which are often middle-income countries in how the situations are defined. First, the list now (MICs), the strategy calls for a more nuanced approach, features categories, to give more nuance to the types SECTION 1 13 to ensure that interventions to serve these populations highest levels, is often too high to sustain meaningful take into consideration the context. For example, in the policy dialogue on key reforms. Within governments, Philippines, the reality for school children in Mindanao there can also be inability or unwillingness to manage is very different from elsewhere in the country. risks posed by social, political, security, environmental, and economic factors. Countries Experiencing Fragility For the education sector, fragility has important Countries experiencing fragility are characterized implications. First, it can limit the provision of by deep governance issues, high levels of exclusion, education services, due to low capacity for creating and and weak public and private institutions, (see Box 1). managing schools, let alone ensuring their financing Typically, their governments struggle with the delivery and monitoring over time. This can cause a dearth of basic services like health and education to all their of schools outside the main cities. Often non-state citizens. The governance-related problems of poor actors like private schools, faith-based organizations, oversight and lack of accountability often translate into and NGOs help fill this gap. Second, given the high opportunities for corruption. Weak institutions typically likelihood of exclusion of some groups from receiving lack robust systems (such as fiduciary, or monitoring and good quality—or any—education, there is an erosion of evaluation), with low capabilities among the government the state-citizen social contract. officials running them. Staff turnover, especially at the Box 1. How Fragility and Education Intertwine in Haiti Haiti is fragile state with a long history of political instability, repeated fiscal crises, and extreme vulnerability to natural disasters such as earthquakes (2010, 2021) and hurricanes (2016). Weak institutions are unable to provide basic services like health and education, particularly in rural areas. In the education sector, non- public providers have helped fill the gap and operate over 80 percent of primary schools. But due to limited government capacity to monitor schools, providers operate with little oversight and have little accountability for providing a quality education. At the same time, most families struggle to finance education costs, which account for as much as 10 percent of their monthly expenses. Countries Experiencing Conflict Violent political conflict has devastating impacts on education systems. In most cases, it causes extensive Countries experiencing conflict have security issues school closures, due to security concerns, as well as that severely affect students, teachers, parents, and limits on mobility. Worse, schools may be at the heart society at large. This happens when organized groups of the conflict. According to the Global Coalition to or institutions (sometimes including the state) use Protect Education from Attack, from 2015-19 there violence to settle grievances or assert power. In addition were more than 11,000 attacks on education, harming to the heavy human toll that conflict has on combatants more than 22,000 students, teachers, and education and civilians alike, the psychological effects, particularly personnel.18 Physical school infrastructure is also on children, are substantial and lasting. In addition, affected: in Syria, for example, two out of every five education systems deal with policies on contentious schools have been damaged or destroyed.19 And as issues like the language of instruction and curricular symbols of an unpopular government, public schools, content, which can also contribute to conflict. can become targets for militant groups, owing to their 14 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE perceived role in supporting the government. The 1.2 INTENSIFIERS OF FRAGILITY, same goes for teachers. Even when not direct victims of CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE conflict, children and teachers living through situations of conflict are subject to its traumatic psychological Macro trends such as pandemics, demographics, effects, leading to low learning levels and high and climate change can intensify FCV situations. dropout rates.20 They can also nudge countries already at risk into crisis. As the Bank Group scales up its support in FCV, key considerations include the dynamics that will intensify Countries Affected by Interpersonal fragile situations. Two such drivers are considered Violence below—pandemics and climate change. While these are Countries affected by interpersonal violence face affecting all countries, they are expected to contribute high levels of crime such as drug-related violence, to a growing number of FCV situations in the future. homicides, gang and gender-based violence, and other forms of internal insecurity. Interpersonal Pandemics violence can cause significant loss of life, in some cases exceeding the scale of armed political conflict. In 2016, Fragile states often have weak health care systems, of five countries with the highest death rates from fewer doctors and health workers, and a shortage of conflict—Syria, El Salvador, Venezuela, Honduras, and critical infrastructure, leaving them poorly equipped Afghanistan, only two had active armed conflicts.21 Too to deal with disease outbreaks. Studies suggest that violent conflict also exacerbates the spread of infectious often, the most vulnerable populations are the most diseases (e.g., polio in Syria, cholera in Yemen, Ebola highly affected by interpersonal violence, with poorer in the Democratic Republic of Congo). The impact of neighborhoods that suffer from under-investment pandemics like COVID-19 and Ebola on education in in infrastructure or public safety bearing the brunt of FCV situations has been well documented: common organized crime and gang violence. Where violence repercussions include school closures, lost learning is pervasive, it can become somewhat normalized, time, higher dropout rates, and reduced funding for resulting in even higher levels of gender-based education. During COVID-19, 1.6 billion students violence (GBV), including in schools, as well as violence have been affected by school closures. In many FCV against children.22 situations, governments and their development For schools, interpersonal violence creates extremely partners are more cash-strapped than usual amid the difficult conditions for providing education services, pandemic, meaning even fewer resources for education. with grave implications for equity in service delivery. Some FCV countries shifted at least some instruction The schools where students are most in need of to broadcast media, but few had digital alternatives support to boost learning are often the most impacted in place for reaching students, given underdeveloped by interpersonal violence. The challenges of addressing IT infrastructure. And in many places, the logistics to the learning crisis become exacerbated by concerns for safely reopen schools are also out of reach, putting student and teacher safety, greater limits on mobility, teachers and students at greater risk than their and a more difficult school environment to manage. non-FCV counterparts. Gangs can use schools to recruit members, although To make matters worse, donors will struggle to overall, being in school tends to protect against crime maintain aid levels given the fiscal pressures that and violence for young people.23 School-related domestic pandemic response will require.26 FCV gender-based violence (SRGBV) is a serious issue from an educational standpoint: it affects a child’s well-being, countries will be particularly affected, as an important physical and emotional health, and limits their cognitive part of their education funding comes from foreign and emotional development.24 But with gender sensitive aid. Scarce financing will compound the logistical challenges of rolling out safety protocols that follow policies and programs, schools can provide safe spaces the Framework for Reopening of Schools. Fiscal for girls and young women. Estimates suggest that pressures will also complicate the distance learning each additional year a girl completes in secondary agenda, though a greater focus on contingencies for school reduces her likelihood of marrying as a child by disruptions to service delivery could improve pandemic 6 percentage points on average, with a similar impact preparedness for some countries. on her likelihood of having a first child before age 18.25 SECTION 1 15 Demographics On the positive side, with inclusive, climate-informed development, many of these risks can be mitigated. FCV countries tend to have young populations. Climate-resilient programming is an opportunity for MMany countries with the highest fertility rates also humanitarian and development actors to deescalate face FCV conditions. There is some evidence that tensions and encourage community resilience youth bulges can make countries more susceptible to building, which would serve as a protective factor in political violence.27 More recent work has narrowed times of crisis. the demographic intensifier as the pressure that youth cohorts place on the labor force specifically.28 Countries where the population pyramid has a very wide base will 1.3 HUMAN CAPITAL IN face the added strain of not only seeking to improve FCV CONTEXTS service delivery to the current cohort, but extending Fragility, conflict, and violence not only delay the services to the ever-growing numbers of children who accumulation of human capital but also wipe out are entering the education system. countries’ gains. Unsurprisingly, the average Human Capital Index (HCI) for FCV countries is 0.41, compared Climate Change to a global average of 0.56.31 Hence a child born in Climate change is a threat multiplier, compounding FCV country will be only 41 percent as productive when existing stresses such as poverty, lack of employment she grows up as she could be if she enjoyed complete opportunities, and local tensions over land and water education and full health. Poor service delivery in states resources.29 While climate change might not directly with low capacity and interruption of services in conflict cause conflicts, there is growing consensus that it could situations makes it difficult for students to receive the drive and intensify underlying conditions that lead to instructional time needed for learning. Conflicts like FCV situations. For example, local conflicts over scarce civil wars can undo decades of progress in countries natural resources (especially water) will become more like Yemen and Syria, where enrollment rates have frequent as climate change affects rainfall patterns. plummeted over the last decade. In 2000, Syria had Communities that depend on natural resources for achieved universal primary enrollment, but by 2019 their livelihoods (as is often the case in poorer FCV over 2 million children, one-third of its child population, countries) will be particularly vulnerable to climate- was out-of-school. Within the HCI, education indicators, related disasters. Climate shocks could push more 100 particularly harmonized test scores, offer countries the million people into extreme poverty by 2030.30 greatest chance of boosting their rankings. 16 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Figure 1. FCV countries are lagging in all aspects of Human Capital Development Source: Human Capital Project 1.4 LEARNING CRISES IN FCV primary and secondary level together) mostly reflect CONTEXTS high levels of primary school enrollment. Secondary enrollment rates are much lower, in the 40-50 percent Poor Enrollment at all Levels of range, reflecting low completion rates in primary. And at the tertiary education level, enrollment numbers are Education dismally low. Not having access to tertiary education Tackling learning poverty begins with ensuring seriously reduces social and economic mobility access to schooling for children. This is severely prospects for youth who, despite challenges, manage compromised in FCV contexts, with enrollment to graduate from school. And for a variety of reasons, dramatically lower than global rates. The situation students in FCV countries are less likely to complete is particularly alarming at the early childhood level, their schooling: 30 percent less likely for primary, 50 where less than 10 percent of eligible children receive percent less likely for lower secondary as compared to any early childhood education. The seemingly higher counterparts in non-FCV countries. enrollment rates at the basic education level (i.e., SECTION 1 17 Figure 2. Gross Enrollment Ratios (GERs) in FCV countries are much below global levels Note: Basic education refers to primary and secondary education together. The most recent GERs (b/w 2013 to 2019) available for countries were used to create this graph. Data for several FCV countries are unavailable. Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics Severe Learning Poverty in FCV countries Children living in FCV countries complete far fewer years of education than their non-FCV counterparts. Learning poverty for children living in FCV countries Adjusted for learning, the discrepancy is even starker. is almost always more than 90 percent, and ranges as On average, children in FCV countries attend about 8.7 high as 99 percent, for example in Niger.32 Learning years of school, versus a global average of more than 11 poverty is the proportion of children unable to read years. However, when adjusted for learning, this drops and understand a simple text by age 10. This indicator to about 5.1 years of actual learning, versus a global brings together schooling and learning indicators: it average of 7.8 years. With such high rates of learning starts with the share of children who have not achieved poverty and few years of actual learning, students will minimum reading proficiency (as measured in schools) not have the foundational skills required to become and adjusts it by the proportion of children who are out lifelong learners and productive citizens. of school (and are assumed not to read proficiently). Data from FCV countries (albeit limited) show that FCV contexts have severe learning poverty (see Figure 3). 18 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Figure 3. Learning Poverty indicators in FCV countries Source: Learning Poverty Country Briefs Terrifying Trends of Students and percent of refugee children have access to secondary education, compared to 84 percent globally; for tertiary Teachers at Risk of Attack education, a mere 3 percent have access, compared to The number of children and teachers at risk in FCV is 37 percent globally.37 alarming—but the rate at which this number is rising is terrifying. In 2019, an estimated 426 million children Girls are more likely to be out of school and – nearly one-fifth of all children worldwide – were living attend for fewer years than boys; they also suffer in conflict zones.33 And this number has risen by 34 heightened risk of gender-based violence (GBV), percent over the last decade, driven by the war in Syria including sexual exploitation and child marriage. and intensified drug-related conflicts in Mexico.34 These Girls are two and a half times more likely to be out of victims are likely to suffer the consequences far longer school if they live in conflict-affected countries, with than those of previous conflicts, as situations of FCV are young women nearly 90 percent more likely to be out increasingly protracted. of secondary school than their non-FCV counterparts.38 FCV Exacerbates Inequalities and 1.5 THE KEY ROLE OF EDUCATION Increases Vulnerability Education brings tremendous benefits to individuals As bad as these numbers are for children in FCV, the and societies that are especially needed in FCV situation is even worse for refugees. Half of today’s situations. For individuals, educational attainment is refugees have lived in exile for more than five years, associated with higher productivity and earnings, lower with some (like Afghan refugees) having spent over poverty rates, better health outcomes, and higher civic 20 years in exile.35 Of those who are forcibly displaced engagement. For countries, education contributes to from their homes, 75 percent are women and children. innovation and growth, better-functioning institutions, Put another way, of the 26 million refugees worldwide, greater intergenerational social mobility, higher levels about half are children under 18.36 of social trust, and a lower likelihood of conflict.39 Education can also accelerate progress by advancing Refugee children have limited access to education economic development, strengthening humanitarian in host countries. Today, only 77 percent have access action, contributing to security and state building, and to primary education, compared to 91 percent of mitigating impacts of disasters.40 Its role in post-conflict children globally. These differences are even more stark reconstruction has been researched and discussed at the secondary and higher education levels. Only 31 SECTION 1 19 widely.41,42 In most post-conflict settings, education is at The Role of Education in Preventing the heart of the reconstruction efforts, with a focus on Violent Conflicts developing the essential labor force for rebuilding the country (such as doctors, teachers, engineers, and civil The Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms servants), as well as helping channel the agents of the that education is a fundamental human right. In many conflict into productive activities. countries, children have a right to education guaranteed through legislation, and evidence suggests that delivery In FCV situations, schools not only help combat of social services like education can strengthen state learning poverty but can help prevent violence legitimacy.46 As one of the most visible government and build resilience. Increased understanding of services, schools are an important channel for restoring education’s role as a mechanism to mitigate the the state-citizen contract that has often eroded in negative effects of conflict and to protect human fragile states. Further, education can strengthen social capital, especially for vulnerable populations like girls cohesion by building trust, tolerance, and empathy and refugees, has driven a steady increase in education between and among various communities; improving programming as part of the humanitarian response to levels of civic engagement; and increasing civic skills for FCV. In contrast, the impact of education on conflict citizens to support inclusive institutions. prevention and peace building is less researched, but the growing body of evidence shows promise.43,44 Education can build critical skills and mindsets in children and youth that could affect their perception This section considers the role of education in of and participation in conflicts. After families, schools preventing violent conflicts and crises: how it can are the most influential force in a child’s development, help prevent violence by addressing citizen grievances values formation, learning, and skills acquisition.47 related to exclusion, helping to restore the citizen- Children who are meaningfully engaged in school state contract, and boosting economic and social through well-designed and effectively-delivered development. At the individual level, education systems education activities that are relevant to learners’ needs, develop basic competencies for functioning in and interests, and daily lives are less likely to participate in contributing to society. Education can also build crucial violent behaviors. Specifically, developing children’s capacities like socio-emotional skills, critical thinking, socio-emotional learning (SEL) helps them respect conflict management, negotiation, and values such others’ differences, engage in effective conflict as open-mindedness and tolerance that could affect resolution, and build empathy – all of which have links how children and youth perceive and participate in to fostering more peaceful societies and promoting violent conflicts. tolerance and respect.48 Youth with secondary level education and above are better able to adapt their We also discuss the role of education in resilience livelihoods in response to adversity, because they have building: the ability of individuals (including children), more options for paid employment, and thus more households, communities, countries, and systems to viable alternatives to joining armed groups.49 mitigate, adapt to, and recover from shocks and stresses in ways that reduce chronic vulnerability and facilitate inclusive growth.45 Given that fragility and conflicts tend The Role of Education in Building to be chronic, it is crucial to develop resilience for both Resilience individuals and institutions. Education plays a key role Some students succeed despite adverse conditions in developing individual resilience, i.e., ability to cope like poverty, violent conflict, and social exclusion, with adversity and recover from it. This is especially due to their resilience. Resilience has been defined important for vulnerable populations like internally as “the capacity to cope, learn, and thrive in the displaced persons, refugees, young girls, and other face of change, challenge, or adversity.”50 While populations who are most affected by FCV situations. socioeconomic factors are an important predictor of By extension, to deliver education services during and learning outcomes, individual characteristics like self- after a crisis, education institutions themselves need to efficacy, sense of purpose, and problem-solving abilities be resilient. – along with environmental factors like family support, meaningful participation in school, and expectations of teachers – have a positive impact on learning outcomes. Schools can foster resilient students by 20 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 2. Education Resilience Approaches (ERA) Framework The ERA program offers a process for contextualized education resilience studies. It collects and analyzes qualitative and quantitative data on adversities, assets, school-community relations, and education policies and services in each context. The program provides a range of technical support options to collect resilience evidence—either as part of a situational analysis for program design or a more general research endeavor. Three support instruments are available: a Rapid Assessment; Resilience Research Training Program; and a Gender and Resilience Guide. The program uses a systematic framework that includes four components: 1. Manage and minimize adversity in education 2. Use and protect positive engagement and assets in education communities 3. Foster relevant school and community support 4. Align education system services to the resilience assets The program’s focus on protection from risks and promotion of assets in education communities helps bridge education systems’ response to crises within their longer-term development and planning activities. teaching socio-emotional skills, forging strong teacher- disruption could lead to entire generations of children student relationships, and promoting positive learning not being educated, severely limiting their future environments (through classroom management and opportunities and creating a massive loss of human teaching methods), among other strategies. capital for their country. The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated how devastating a massive shock to the Fostering resilience is most important among education system can be, having affected 1.6 billion the groups who are at greatest risk of forced children around the world. The impacts are wide- displacement. Whether as IDPs or refugees, individuals ranging, from immediate (increases in gender-based and families typically relocate with few if any assets. violence,53 adolescent pregnancies)54 to long-term (with In such circumstances, the skills they have acquired learning losses costing as much as $17 trillion).55 through school become one of the most important portable assets they can draw upon to build their future To provide resilience-relevant services, education lives.51 Further, receiving education at both formal and institutions need to be resilient themselves. informal education institutions can go a long way to Reconstruction efforts offer an opportunity to undertake restoring a sense of normalcy for children and youth fundamental education reforms, consistent with human who have been affected by conflict, and provide them rights principles and practices. This opportunity can with critical psychosocial support.52 In the longer term, be leveraged only if institutions have the capacity to education is among the most promising strategies for undertake policy reform and design and implement vulnerable populations in FCV situations to boost their programs. The Education Resilience Approaches (ERA) prospects for success in the local labor market. For girls Framework developed by the World Bank Group is and young women, the protective nature of schools can an example of a roadmap that countries can follow to go a long way in sheltering them from harmful elements develop institutional resilience in education systems present in communities and households that are (see Box 2).56 Other examples include USAID’s Rapid under stress. Education and Risk Analysis Toolkit, UNICEF’s risk- informed programming approach, and UNESCO-IIEP’s During a crisis, ensuring that education systems can set of guidance booklets for education planners on continue to deliver quality education is crucial to why and how to address safety, resilience, and social mitigate risks and prepare for recovery. Prolonged cohesion in education sector policies and plans. SECTION 1 21 SECTION 2 THE WORLD BANK GROUP’S EVOLVING ROLE IN FCV CONTEXTS This section looks at how the Bank Group’s strategy solutions in the absence of institutions that provide for working in FCV has evolved, as well as how our people with security, justice, and jobs.57 Building on approach to education has shifted over the last two this, the 2018 joint UN–World Bank report, Pathways decades. Over time, our FCV work has evolved from for Peace, further shifted our approach to helping a focus on post-conflict reconstruction to addressing prevent and mitigate FCV risks before violent conflict challenges across the full spectrum of fragility. Similarly, takes hold.58 the advent of the Education Sector Strategy 2020 “Learning for All,” launched in 2010, marked the Over this period, the Bank Group’s education beginning of a transition in focus from access to quality. approach remained focused on the core mandate This shift culminated in the 2018 World Development of reconstruction. Peter Buckland’s seminal piece Report: Learning to Realize Education’s Promise. In Reshaping the Future: Education and Post Conflict line with these strategic shifts, our engagement in FCV Reconstruction played a pivotal role in developing contexts has increased substantially. the World Bank’s understanding of the dual role of education in the genesis of conflict, on the one hand, We also consider implications for the World Bank’s and the reconstruction of post-conflict societies, on education agenda. Our FCV Strategy for 2020-2025 the other. The study posited that schools are “almost articulates the Bank Group’s role as a development actor always complicit in conflict,” as they represent the committed to sustained and long-term engagement attitudes and values of dominant groups in society, that can support national systems, strengthen core rather than minorities and excluded groups. As such, state functions, and build institutional resilience and Buckland called on the Bank Group not just to support capacity. For the education agenda, this means working reconstruction efforts but also education reform as closely with ministries of education (and increasingly part of post-conflict programming, recognizing the their subnational counterparts) to help them develop opportunity in aligning these processes as well as the institutional capacity to deliver education services extremely difficult challenge of these twin mandates.59 and build institutional resilience to ensure continued Although the report identified violence prevention learning during and after crises. The World Bank aims as an under-explored thematic area, it remains to complement the work of other partners, leveraging underdeveloped 15 years later. their strengths to ensure a comprehensive approach to education service delivery along the humanitarian- The World Bank’s main strategic shift in education development nexus. has been toward learning outcomes. In 2010, with the development of the Learning for All 2020 strategy, the education sector aimed to balance the focus on 2.1 EDUCATION PRIORITIES IN emergency responses with attention to the longer- FCV ACROSS TIME term goal of rebuilding and strengthening education systems. The strategy hints at the World Bank’s role The World Bank’s work has evolved from a focus in helping FCV clients stay focused on longer-term on post-conflict reconstruction to addressing learning outcomes, but stops short of describing what challenges across the full spectrum of fragility. The makes operating in FCV different from other contexts 2011 World Development Report: Conflict, Security, or offering corresponding recommendations. For this, and Development introduced a major shift in how the ERA Program, focusing on institutional resilience the World Bank conceived fragility, highlighting that building, is an important milestone in the evolution of challenges cannot be resolved by short-term or partial 22 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE our approach. Launched in 2016, it calls for contextual the unprecedented learning crises gripping the world, analysis of education systems based on local data on with 53 percent of children in low- and middle-income adversity, assets, school-community relations, and countries unable to read and understand a simple story education policies and services in adverse contexts.60 by the age of 10. The Future of Learning report (2020) The 2018 World Development Report: Learning to presents the critical conditions to achieve learning, Realize Education’s Promise emphasized that schooling including the need to invest in safe and inclusive is not the same as learning and stressed the importance schools. Most recently, the Global Cost of Inclusive of focusing on learning outcomes, especially in FCV Refugee Education report was released, jointly with situations. The Learning Poverty Report 2019 highlights UNHCR, in early 2021. Figure 4. Strategic Shifts in World Bank Group and Education Sector’s Role in FCV SECTION 2 23 Each of these milestones helped shape the Bank The interviews revealed broad agreement that it is Group’s strategic priorities and informs how the urgent to meet the educational needs of children FCV Strategy can be applied in the education and youth affected by FCV, but little consensus sector. Guided by sector priorities from the Human on how the needs can be met. Options range from Capital project generally, and the Learning Poverty standalone/parallel systems by private actors, to report more specifically, the time is ripe to articulate the technology solutions, to delivering services through implications – what it means, what it takes – to achieve national systems. The consultations also found that few learning in FCV. The Bank Group’s FCV Strategy organizations aside from the Bank Group are focused provides the framework for conceptualizing how these on identifying and addressing the drivers of FCV, or on priorities will be delivered under each of the four pillars preventing crises. (see Section 4). Adequately responding to children’s education needs in situations of forced displacement is 2.2 FUTURE DIRECTIONS OF imperative for the global community. Given the EDUCATION PRIORITIES IN FCV 2030 magnitude of the challenge, a recent costing exercise concluded that the resources required to provide K-12 To inform our strategic priorities in FCV, we To years of education to all refugee children is $4.85 billion inform our strategic priorities in FCV, we conducted annually (see Box 3). Given the expectations that this interviews with organizations engaged in the trend will continue to grow and become increasingly education sector in regions affected by FCV. The complex due to the COVID-19 pandemic, this estimate objective was to situate the World Bank in the global is only likely to grow. landscape of actors working in these contexts. We sought to identify our relative strengths and weaknesses, Many humanitarian interventions operate outside comparative advantages, and opportunities for filling of public education systems, and their long-term gaps. This then informs the strategic partnerships sustainability is doubtful. Hence host governments that make the most of complementarities and play a critical role in providing scalable solutions for potential synergies. refugee education, although this is complex and difficult to deliver on. Yet to date, developing the capacity of The most striking finding is that education remains government bodies (both at national and subnational severely underfunded in emergency situations. Only levels) has not been a priority for the organizations 2-3 percent of humanitarian aid goes to education. we reviewed. Limited funding constrains the quality and scale of interventions and threatens the feasibility of longer- term engagements. UNESCO estimates that to meet the needs of all children and youth in humanitarian situations, this number would have to increase tenfold, as school-age children represent half of those receiving humanitarian aid. If refugee education needs were covered exclusively by humanitarian aid, education would account for 20 percent of the humanitarian aid budget, a target that is unlikely to be realized. 24 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 3. Costing the Education Response to Forced Displacement Abu-Ghaida (2021) estimates the cost of providing K-12 years of education for the existing cohort of refugee students in low and middle-income countries. The costing methodology is based on the premise that the refugee education is embedded in the host country education system. It starts with the public per student cost of education in each country and adds a mark-up for refugee-specific education programming. Estimates suggest that the cost of K-12 years of education provision for 7 million refugee children is approximately $4.85 billion annually. The average unit cost for refugee education is estimated at $1,051. There are large variations by country income categorization: the average unit cost for refugee education in low, lower-middle and upper-middle income countries is $171, $663, and $2,085 respectively. There are also large variations by level of education, i.e. the cost of delivery of secondary education is far higher than that of primary education. Further, the impact of absorbing all refugees into national systems would vary substantially by country. For instance, South Sudan and Lebanon would require almost a 60 percent increase in their annual expenditures to finance refugee education, signaling not only the large number of refugees the countries host, but also the current limited public expenditure on education. In comparison, 36 out of the 65 countries studied would require less than a 1 percent increase in their annual primary and secondary education expenditure to finance refugee education. There is a significant shortfall in financing for refugee education; yet it is a necessary but not sufficient condition for universal access and completion of education. Where countries have large investments in education, barriers to access and complete persist, and improvements in quality and leaning outcomes are not directly correlated with greater education expenditure. The cost of education response to force displacement crises therefore goes beyond financing. Implications for the World Bank learning centers under the assumption that refugees will soon return to their home countries. Unfortunately, The landscape review has several implications for how this is seldom the case. Thus, longer-term sustainable the World Bank can build on its comparative advantages solutions are needed for learning to stay in the sites in the education sector. This includes areas where we of policy intent, such as by including refugees in the either need to enhance our effectiveness, or partner national education systems of host governments. Given with others that are better suited for acting in specific our experience in post-conflict reconstruction and contexts. The Bank Group can best fulfill its role in the long-term relationships with country governments, the education-FCV ecosystem by taking on the following World Bank is well-positioned to facilitate this dialogue. fundamental roles. This would bring a much-needed long-term vision and sustainability perspective to humanitarian interventions, 1. Bring a developmental approach to the as called for in the Global Compact on Refugees humanitarian aid model, with children safe and (see Box 4). learning at the heart of the nexus. With crises increasingly protracted, it is urgent to provide a developmental lens to humanitarian aid. Refugee education is often delivered through temporary SECTION 2 25 Box 4. The Global Compact on Refugees61 Launched in 2018, the Global Compact on Refugees provides a basis for predictable and equitable burden sharing among United Nations member states and relevant stakeholders (including the World Bank) for responding to the global refugee crisis. The Compact’s four inter-linked objectives are to: (i) ease pressures on host countries; (ii) enhance refugee self-reliance; (iii) expand access to third country solutions; and (iv) support conditions in countries of origin for return in safety and dignity. The Compact strives to achieve this by mobilizing political will, establishing a broad base of support, and designing implementation arrangements in line with the burden-sharing vision. The Compact outlines the specific areas in need of support (including education), and the proposed arrangements for how the burden-sharing would be operationalized. Coordination mechanisms are specified from national platforms to regional approaches, and tools are identified to facilitate its implementation, such as multi-stakeholder and partnership modalities, funding sources, and data systems. 2. Make strategic use of the breadth of the World risks and assets that can protect students and promote Bank’s dialogue across governments. Leveraging their educational goals, as well as relevant education the World Bank’s comparative advantage through a policies and programs to consider in such adverse “whole-of-government” approach would mobilize contexts. Research programs with academic institutions expertise from across functions to address education- should be expanded carry out impact evaluations and specific challenges. Given that the World Bank has case studies alongside World Bank projects and in a strong dialogue with central ministries (such as specific thematic areas like refugee education. Some finance or planning), we are well-positioned to bring examples are highlighted in Box 5.62 together ministries that generally don’t interact with each other. This further supports institutional capacity 4. Improve the Bank Group’s flexibility for work building at the national level. As the Bank Group works in FCV. Careful fiduciary systems and a focus on simultaneously across different sectors, it has a strategic acting through governments makes for relatively slow advantage in providing a multisectoral view. This is operational responses from the Bank Group, compared especially important in FCV contexts, where there are to humanitarian actors. We do have some mechanisms often fewer entry points, and transaction costs in service for disbursing funds more quickly (see Guidance to delivery are typically higher, because of difficulties in World Bank Group Education Teams), but these are used access, security concerns, and so on. too sparingly. And while our proximity to government clients is a clear strength overall, it can complicate how 3. Boost knowledge production about FCV contexts we navigate complex political dynamics, especially and lessons learned. FCV situations could be driven for including key social actors that operate outside of by various factors, ranging from security risks and government in FCV situations. We need more resources, violence to elite capture of resources, weak institutional such as trust funds, that can be deployed flexibly across capacity, and social exclusion. Knowledge products a range of implementing partners, as opposed to like political economy analyses and Risk and Resilience limiting interventions to government execution. This Assessments are essential for understanding the would strengthen our relationships across the political contextual nuances, a precondition to contemplating spectrum and enable the Bank Group to play more of what will work in response. The Education Resilience a bridging role. Aside from these additional resources, Approaches (ERA) program also contains a Resilience there are some opportunities for making more strategic Rapid Assessment instrument for situational analysis on use of the existing resources that are available to teams. 26 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 5. Collaboration on a Global Knowledge Agenda Several initiatives are underway to increase the evidence base on what works for education in FCV, including how to improve learning, what are the most promising mechanisms (and their costs) for integrating refugees and IDPs into national systems, and how to ensure sustainable financing. The Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) is perhaps the foremost repository of knowledge in this space, with publications from a wide range of institutions spanning 30 years carefully curated into collections, available on the inee.org site. Another initiative is a partnership with the United Kingdom’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and the World Bank whereby a large- scale literature review, featuring country case studies, provides critical policy lessons about working in FCV contexts. These results are disseminated through policy briefs to country teams. On data, the Bank Group and UNHCR launched the Joint Data Center on Forced Displacement in 2019 to help strengthen data systems and build local capacity for timely and evidence-based decision making. The initiative seeks to improve data collection and analysis and promote public dissemination. Also, aligned with the Global Compact on Refugees led by UNHCR, the Bank Group is helping build host countries’ capacity to measure the impact of assisting and protecting refugees. Most recently, the global cost of inclusive refugee education has been estimated, launched in early 2021. Planned work includes mapping and tracking of funding sources for refugee education, including bilateral and multilateral organizations, private foundations, and host countries; and designing a framework for cooperation between host and donor countries in sharing the cost. 2.3 PORTFOLIO TRENDS SINCE 2005 $6.2 billion. Most of these projects are in Sub-Saharan Africa, followed by the Middle East and North Africa. This section analyzes the World Bank’s education The diverse portfolio covers all levels of education, portfolio since inception of the Fragile and Conflict- though with notably fewer project at the early affected Situations (FCS) Harmonized List. The childhood and higher education levels. On average, analysis identifies the characteristics, strengths, and since 2006, 69 percent of the closed FCV portfolio opportunities in the portfolio. The World Bank released in education has been rated Moderately Satisfactory the first FCS list in 2006.c At that time, about 5 percent or above, compared to 74 percent for the sector as a of the portfolio (15 projects totaling $400 million) was whole. This analysis includes projects in countries on in countries on the list. Since then, the portfolio in FCV the FCS list, projects that received funding through the countries has grown steadily, with significant increase IDA Refugee Sub-window, and projects that received over the last five years. From FY2016 to FY 2021, the funding from the Global Concessional Financing Facility relative share of project commitments in FCV countries (GCCF). Together these projects form the World Bank’s has increased from 8.5 percent to 26.5 percent. In FY21, education FCV portfolio.d 18 projects were approved, bringing the portfolio to c  he shift from FCV countries to FCV situations will require different accounting for projects in the future. T d Analysis includes recipient-executed trust funds under World Bank supervision, such as those financed by the Global Partnership for Education.  Excluding these, the portfolio stands at $5.8 billion. SECTION 2 27 Portfolio Analysis (2006-2020) The education portfolio in FCV countries has steadily increased to a record $6.2 billion in FY21. The portfolio growth in FCS countries reflects the Bank Group’s strategic focus on FCV, as well as an increase in the education portfolio more generally (see Figure 5). Active and Pipeline Portfolio The overall World Bank education portfolio stands at more than $23 billion, with the last two fiscal years reaching record highs of $5.2 and $5.3 billion in new commitments respectively. Currently the FCV share of the portfolio includes 64 active projects and nine in the pipeline across 32 countries. For comparison, the non-FCV portfolio comprises 232 active and 39 pipeline projects. Another $676 million is expected to be approved in FY22, which would sustain the FCV share of the portfolio above 25 percent. Figure 5. Relative Share of Portfolio in FCV Countries (FY06-FY21), (US$ Millions) 28 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Distribution of the Portfolio by Type of FCV Projects are distributed across the FCV spectrum, though most are in countries affected by medium- intensity conflict. Very few – only 5 percent – of World Bank education projects are in contexts of high-intensity conflict, reflecting the former view that responding to these situations was outside of the Bank Group’s mandate. Figure 6. Distribution of Projects Across FCV Spectrum SECTION 2 29 Regional Distribution of the Portfolio In FY21, projects in Sub-Saharan Africa (AFR) constituted a little more than three-quarters of the education FCV portfolio. Africa is home to many FCS countries, 19 of which have been on the list since its inception in 2006. The South Asia region (SAR) is home to one of the longest active conflict regions – Afghanistan. Further, Pakistan and Bangladesh have active refugee projects. Though few countries on the FCS list belong to the Middle and North Africa region (MENA), the ongoing Syrian refugee crises and other regional instabilities have led to an increase in projects. Figure 7. Regional Distribution of the Portfolio (US$ Millions) 30 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Portfolio by Education Levels In FY21 the portfolio had projects that covered levels of education from early childhood to tertiary level. Most address basic education (primary and secondary level), followed by early childhood education and skills projects. There were fewer higher education projects in the portfolio. Figure 8. Portfolio by Education Level Targeted in the FCV Portfolio Note: The total count of projects exceeds 64 since projects that target two levels have been counted twice. SECTION 2 31 Lessons from the Earlier Portfolio Since 2006, 59 World Bank projects have been closed in FCV countries. The Independent Evaluation Group (IEG) has reviewed 49 of these, with 69 percent receiving ratings of Satisfactory or Moderately Satisfactory. This is slightly lower than projects in non-FCV contexts over the same period, where 74 percent of projects received such ratings. Given the challenging and unpredictable circumstances under which projects in FCV locations are designed and implemented, this is not surprising. Table 1 presents a breakdown of the closed portfolio by number (and %) of projects in FCV locations and non-FCV locations by their ratings from 2006 to 2021. Box 6 discusses some of the lessons from recently closed projects, as reflected in their completion reports. Table 1. IEG Outcome Ratings of Closed Projects IEG Outcome Projects in % of closed Projects in Non-FCV % of closed Rating FCV countries projects Countries projects Highly Satisfactory 7 2.4% Satisfactory 9 18.4% 84 28.3% Moderately 25 51.0% 129 43.4% Satisfactory Moderately 12 24.5% 62 20.9% Unsatisfactory Unsatisfactory 3 6.1% 14 4.7% Highly Unsatisfactory 1 0.3% Total number of 49 297 projects 32 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 6. Highlights from the Recently Closed Projects in 5 Countries 1. Developing governments’ institutional capacity should be a focus even when external program management units are set up for implementation of projects. Since governments have low capacity and their officials are already stretched, a full-time project management team is often needed for implementation. It is best if the team is embedded in the relevant ministry, giving it some ownership of the project and developing its familiarity with how to manage Bank-financed projects. This approach also facilitates capacity building within the ministry. 2. Assessment of available capacity and resources, as well as politics within ministries, should inform project designs, with weaknesses addressed early in implementation. Flexibility and simplicity in project design should be built in, and the Bank team should be prepared to adjust the design as the project is implemented. For example, development objectives should be structured to focus on service continuity irrespective of potential disruption to education services; progress in conflict environments is rarely predictable or linear and cannot be fully mitigated without adjusting program designs along the way. 3. Decentralized approaches have more impact, but appropriate incentives for strong ownership need to be in place. For example, in the Nigerian project, this allowed schools to assess their needs and align funding against a set of activities in their school improvement plans. For the model to be successful, however, regular and accurate analysis of school performance is needed, as well as adequate capacity building, to allow schools to participate in this exercise – identifying strengths and weaknesses and devising interventions to adequately address these challenges. 4. A strong M&E system is critical for guiding key decisions and ensuring project effectiveness. In FCV settings where little data may be available, data on outputs and outcomes is crucial to assess project implementation and change course if needed. Identifying an entity capable of undertaking core M&E functions should precede project implementation. This could be a government entity staffed with government officials or could be contracted out to a third-party M&E firm. 5. Strong government ownership and adoption are required to ensure sustainability after project closure. For example, in the DRC project, the government first placed teachers on the national teacher payroll and then was reimbursed by the project. This approach promoted greater long-term commitment by the government. Source: Taken from Implementation Completion Reports of recently closed projects in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, DRC, Iraq, and Nigeria In summary, the FCV education portfolio has grown and pandemics, will require even greater response from substantially over the last 15 years, both in real terms the World Bank’s education team, and the resources and as a share of the World Bank’s overall education to do so. Although the evidence base for what works portfolio. It is expected that this share will continue to is limited,63 some lessons have emerged from the rise. Further, the shift to include FCV situations outside closed portfolio. of FCV countries, and future shocks from climate change SECTION 2 33 SECTION 3 ALIGNING WITH THE FCV STRATEGY 3.1 THE BANK GROUP’S 3.2 OPERATIONALIZING THE PILLARS FRAMEWORK FOR OF ENGAGEMENT ENGAGEMENT IN FCV Operationalizing the Bank Group’s FCV Strategy The Bank Group’s FCV Strategy aims to enhance our requires guidance at two levels: i) operating effectiveness in helping countries address the drivers principles to help guide teams and ii) recommendations and impacts of FCV and strengthen resilience, especially tailored to each type of context laid out in the pillars for the most vulnerable and marginalized populations. of engagement. This section summarizes key operating It features four Pillars of Engagement that provide principles and offers recommendations for each pillar. guidance on how to engage in different FCV settings, helping inform Country Partnership Frameworks and programs so that these can provide more effective OPERATING PRINCIPLES and tailored support to government and private sector Certain challenges are common to FCV situations. clients. The pillars are: Hence this general guidance is expected to apply to most operations across FCV contexts. Preventing violent conflict and interpersonal violence by addressing 1. The multiplying effect of reducing gender the drivers of fragility and immediate- to inequalities. Addressing gender inequality and its long-term risks such as climate change, drivers is a common challenge across many contexts and demographic shocks, gender inequality, operations. Tackling these inequalities is a development patterns of discrimination, economic priority in its own right, especially in FCV situations, and social exclusion, and perceptions of where women and girls are often a large share of grievances and injustice. This includes refugees and IDPs. Disruptions to education will leave strengthening the sources of resilience girls especially vulnerable to early pregnancies and and peace before tensions turn into early marriage, as well as at greater risk than boys of full-blown crises. not returning the school. Addressing social norms and other sources of discrimination (e.g., legal, regulatory) Remaining engaged during crises and that underpin gender-based disadvantage—such as active conflicts to preserve hard-won enrollment gaps between boys and girls, labor market development gains, protect essential discrimination against women, and policy frameworks institutions, build resilience, and be ready that are unfavorable to women—will go a long way for recovery. toward restoring social justice and fostering greater Helping countries transition out of fragility cohesion across groups. Explicitly prioritizing the by promoting approaches that can renew heightened GBV risks that are present in situations of the social contract between citizens and the FCV is also a common element across all contexts, with state, foster a healthy local private sector, the World Bank taking an increasingly active role in and strengthen the legitimacy and capacity of ensuring that schools are safe spaces for girls. As we core institutions. pivot to prevention, we see that societies with greater gender equality are more resilient to the challenges Mitigating the spillovers of FCV to that situations of FCV bring.64 Hence, closing gender support countries and the most marginalized gaps and empowering women and girls is at the heart communities that are affected by cross-border of our approach to education in FCV, as a core strategy crises, such as forced displacement or shocks for addressing drivers of conflict. resulting from famines, pandemics, and climate and environmental challenges. 34 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Figure 9. Operationalizing the Pillars of Engagement Source: World Bank Group FCV Strategy 2020-2025 2. Simplicity + flexibility. The Bank Group’s success 16 countries. Another option for enhancing flexibility hinges on our ability to implement operations. Yet are the alternative procurement arrangements that operating in situations of fragility, especially during support implementation in difficult environments: crises and active conflicts, requires an overhaul to the Somalia, South Sudan, Yemen, and Zimbabwe are all traditional approach, which is typified by a complex examples of how alternative arrangements under the scope and rigid operating rules. Instead, operations Procurement Framework have helped the Bank exercise should be designed with a tight focus, removing greater flexibility in responding to FCV needs on the extraneous details and secondary objectives. During ground.. Closer, more hands-on accompaniment from implementation, teams should pursue all opportunities World Bank fiduciary teams can offset the increased for more flexible execution of projects. For example, governance risks that are implied in these more flexible the structuring of legal agreements should anticipate approaches. Teams should also ensure early course disruptions to education in the project objectives, correction, informed by frequent data collection, such such that projects do not require restructuring if as by using call centers to administer simple surveys. circumstances worsen. Similarly, financial management could build in retroactive financing, advances, and 3. Crafting multisectoral project packages. The streamlined financial reporting. Further ramping up the scope of the Bank Group’s overall programming Hands-On Expanded Implementation Support initiative provides opportunities for an integrated view of basic would speed up many procurement processes and services. Initiatives led by the education sector include mitigate delays in FCV settings, as has been done in school feeding, basic services packages that include SECTION 3 35 health or safety net provisions, water and sanitation in regardless of where they are physically located. They schools, and integrated approaches to early childhood approaches use tablets with embedded psychosocial development. At the same time, our approach can support messaging. Evidence from Sudan shows that benefit from increased focus on entry points in participants were able to double their math scores initiatives led by other sectors, with education playing a after 6 weeks in the program, with both boys and contributory role. In Yemen, for example, the education girls showing significant improvements. Effects were sector benefited from the Emergency Electricity largest for the children who were furthest behind. The Access Project to provide comprehensive support to evaluation also showed improved confidence for both critical facilities, with impacts on school attendance, boys and girls. The program has since been expanded especially for girls. Community driven development to Uganda, Lebanon, Jordan, Chad, and Bangladesh.65 projects often incorporate school infrastructure and community engagement in education; these can allow 5. Strategic, selective, mission-driven partnerships. continued engagement even when violence or conflict Partnerships between humanitarian and development disrupt our presence on the ground. At the same time, actors, including the World Bank, need to be streamlined it is important to align community-focused efforts with and strengthened to respond to immediate, short-term, national education policies, such as teacher policies and longer-term education needs at the earliest stages and school standards. The education sector will also of a crisis. But there are real structural barriers that benefit from upstream macro reforms, or those relating need to be addressed to ensure that these partnerships to public sector reform, given the importance of the are effective. These include different funding sources workforce in public services and the size of a country’s and cycles, project timelines, and programmatic and wage bill. institutional policies, as well as the earmarking of funding for humanitarian and developmental interventions. A multisectoral approach allows for continuity in circumstances where it might not be possible to continue Established partnerships can mitigate these challenges direct engagement within education, keeping the door and can be triggered when the need arises without open for dialogue and facilitating future engagements. spending time defining the nature of the partnership, Combined efforts can also amplify impact and promote the roles of each actor, and so on. One such partnership more cohesion in fractured environments, as well as between the EU, UN, and World Bank is jointly maintain services or restore them quickly, helping shore conducting Recovery and Peace-Building Assessments, up human capital. In addition, working multisectorally which define the post-crisis needs of a country, including allows us to work with various partners who have a financial resources. Another partnership, the UN– presence on the ground. Risks that must be managed World Bank Partnership Framework for Crisis-Affected include the possibility that efforts exclude or sideline Situations, helps coordinate support in protracted education authorities, who may be weakened due to crisis situations by aligning strategies, objectives, the fragile situation, as well as greater complexity given and collective outcomes based on joint analyses and the multiplicity of fronts, actors, etc. assessments, as well as scaling up impact by leveraging existing financing and comparative advantages. Yet 4. Promoting EdTech thinking. Box 7 summarizes the another partnership, which ECW, GPE, and the World World Bank’s guidance on how to approach EdTech Bank committed to during the 2019 Global Refugee solutions for clients in various contexts. These principles Forum, aims to coordinate in identifying and closing are especially valid in FCV situations, given the reduced education funding gaps for the forcibly displaced. capacities for carrying out technologically complex interventions. While there is much greater scope Strengthening partnerships at the global level would for incorporating EdTech into operations with each require streamlining the mandates of various agencies innovation, clarity on the motivations behind EdTech is and allowing them to lead in areas of comparative a precondition for success. advantage; this could generate results greater than the sum of each partner’s efforts. There is a global One such example is curriculum-based gaming leadership void in coordinating education actors in approaches to learning that have been designed to FCV settings, and specifically in financing education help children learn progressively in math and reading, 36 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE there. Several organizations, including the World Policies, (g) Stakeholders, and (h) Technical Design Bank, ECW and GPE, are involved in fundraising for (see Annex 2). For FCV situations, political instability, development financing and in determining the country fragility, and uncertainties create even higher risk allocations of funding. This can result in a zero-sum environments for operations. Education operations not game, where funds raised by one organization are only have to account for these higher risks but may be not available to the other, creating competition and at the core of conflicts through systematic exclusions (as undermining coordination. with certain castes in South Asia), ethnic divisions (as in the Western Balkans in the 1990s) or through terrorism As the largest financier of education, the World Bank has and violent conflict centered on education. There are a comparative advantage in mobilizing development also risks related to perceptions of low performance financing. The GPE provides essential grant funding in and limited results from education services, such as that can complement the Bank’s lending. The ECW low learning outcomes (learning poverty), limited and has demonstrated that it can quickly deploy funds inequitable access, school-based violence and safety to UN implementing agencies and to national and concerns, as well as corruption, rent-seeking, and international NGOs that the World Bank and GPE do elite capture. These risks can easily derail education not traditionally reach. This is important to bridge the programs, resulting in ineffective implementation and gap in financing where lending to client governments limited sustainability, and creating disincentives for may be in breach of impartiality and neutrality, or education operations in FCV situations. lending is otherwise delayed. As FCV programming becomes an increasingly It is critical that these overlapping and competing important share of the portfolio, processes for mandates be streamlined through mission-driven identifying, estimating, and mitigating risks should partnerships and supported by better coordination and be adjusted accordingly. While SORT provides an leadership. UNESCO has global convening power and adequate framework, operations must be braced for could play a central role in coordinating these actors both broader inherent political and social risks as well given its mandate as the Secretariat of the SDG 2030 as higher operational and implementation risks. Teams Education Steering Committee. This would, however, and management will need to become comfortable with require a deliberate push to strengthen its role as operating in these more unpredictable contexts. This the central coordinating agency in the humanitarian- adaptation will require particular attention when FCV development nexus for education in FCV. situations develop in traditionally non-FCV countries. 6. Operating in FCV is risky business – risk tolerance The Pillars of Engagement guide the design and must be commensurate to the task. Teams developing implementation of education projects in countries operations in FCV must account for a wide range of risks experiencing FCV, as well as countries at high risk of and a complex web of possible mitigation measures. developing these conditions. They offer an organizing But the risks are not only detectable at crisis points framework to guide the Bank Group in reflecting on the and in post-crisis situations: they can be anticipated types of contextual challenges, as a starting point for before crises occur. As such, two dimensions need to crafting responses tailored to specific situations. While be considered: i) risk assessments that cover the range the recommendations have been divided by these of risks across the Pillars of Engagement, and ii) teams different contexts, some recommendations will apply that are supported in candidly identifying risks and across pillars. Annex 1 illustrates how these Pillars of creatively mitigating them.e Engagement can be operationalized through projects, working from country examples. To help guide teams The Bank Group offers a simple integrated risk-rating through the recommendations, actions have been tool (SORT), whereby each operation is rated on eight structured according to specific entry points. These are: dimensions of risk: (a) Environment and Social, (b) i) analytics and dialogue, ii) service delivery, iii) curricula Fiduciary, (c) Institutional Capacity, (d) Macroeconomic, and pedagogy, and iv) building state capacity. (e) Political and Governance, (f) Sector Strategies and e I t’s understood that the resulting increased risk tolerance applies to operational aspects such as untested partnerships or delivery modes, though not to exposing children, teachers, or World Bank staff to greater personal risks in situations of conflict. SECTION 3 37 Box 7. The Promise of EdTech in FCV Settings The high costs associated with technology interventions often put marginalized populations on the unfavorable side of the digital divide. When deployed equitably, however, technology can facilitate learning for hard-to-reach students. The EdTech group at the World Bank has proposed five guiding principles to design and implement technology in education: Ask why: EdTech policies and programs need to be developed with a clear purpose, strategy, and • vision of the intended education change to address the learning crisis. In FCV, the ‘why’ can be to serve students that are very mobile, provide continuity of learning when schools are inaccessible, support alternative education delivery models when trained teacher are not available, or provide guidance to teachers that are cutoff from support systems. Design for scale: EdTech design should be flexible and user-centered, with equity and inclusion at • its heart, to realize scale and sustainability for all. Users in FCV situations are often refugees or IDPs that have been forcibly displaced from their homes, so EdTech solutions should be tailored to their abilities, language, and curricula, wherever possible, and account for conditions of low connectivity, including to electricity. Empower teachers: Technology should enhance teacher engagement with students through access • to content, data, and networks, thus allowing them to focus on personalized student learning. EdTech can connect those teachers to support networks through mobile phones for short text information on resources or to info exchange through social networks. When traditional teachers are not available, EdTech solutions need to be calibrated to the level of those accompanying students in their learning. Engage the ecosystem: Education systems should take a whole-of-government and multi-stakeholder • approach to engage and incorporate the most innovative ideas that support student learning. For example, EdTech can leverage existing open educational resources, and gaming technologies have shown promise in Sudan and elsewhere (see Annex 1). Data-driven: Transparent standards and interoperable data architecture support evidence-based • decision making and a culture of learning and experimentation. Service providers should not reinvent the wheel but identify low cost/low connectivity interventions that have been effective in similar environments. Source: Adapted from World Bank (2020), Reimagining Human Connections: Technology and Innovation in Education at the World Bank. Washington, DC. Pillar 1: Preventing Violent Conflict curricular approaches that promote one national narrative at the expense of other groups, creating and Interpersonal Violence fertile ground for the escalation of tensions. Given Violent extremism, gender inequality, systemic exclusion the tremendous human, social, and economic costs of certain groups, and governance issues like corruption of violent conflict, implementing programs that could can all erode the social contract between the state and prevent a full-blown crisis is a worthwhile investment. its citizens. Education systems can inadvertently serve On average, for every $1 spent on prevention, up to as a conduit for reproducing inequalities and exclusion, $16 can be saved in terms of the cost of conflicts. through the uneven distribution of services, and through 38 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE In the past, few education projects have explicitly education-related elements that have been shown to reflected drivers of fragility and conflict, either because contribute to conflict. More nuanced assessments of they are assumed to be peripheral to the learning how each of these plays out in any given context should agenda, or because of political constraints that be a standing operating procedure for teams. make public discourse difficult. Box 8 presents some Box 8. Education-specific Potential Drivers of Conflict 1. Curricula with divisive content / textbooks that teach children to identify against another group. In Rwanda, King (2014) showed how pre-genocide textbooks taught history in such a way that Hutus and Tutsis were in opposition with one another. Similar notions of exclusionist curricula have been documented in Pakistan, India, Sudan, and the Philippines. 2. A hidden curriculum that reinforces the social inequalities of society. The term “hidden curriculum” refers to how norms, values, and beliefs can be transferred to students, intentionally or not, through school- based practices and the structure of relationships. Teachers’ disciplinary practices, for example, can reinforce a tolerance or normalization of violence. 3. Language of instruction policies that favor certain groups. As outlined in the World Bank’s Loud and Clear report,66 policies on language of instruction are contentious in many ways. Instructing students in their mother tongue can be perceived as reinforcing divisions across ethnic groups, while instructing in a “national” language can be perceived as imposing one dominant national view, favoring certain groups over others, and reinforcing existing grievances. Perhaps most importantly, it makes learning to read much more difficult if teaching takes place in a language that the child doesn’t speak. 4. Schools that systematically exclude specific groups. In terms of access, the distribution of education services can also be contentious, with systematic exclusions of specific groups (e.g., girls in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan), and persistently inequitable quality of service provision across areas (e.g., education financing algorithms that result in poor areas receiving fewer resources by design). 5. Governance practices (at system or school levels) that don’t foster equal representation. Whether in the formulation of national policies, teacher hiring practices, or how schools are managed locally, management practices in education sectors are often top-down, with few opportunities for genuine participation from those outside the system. At the central level, this can mean that policy development is insufficiently consultative, resulting in curricula that are not broadly reflective of the population they purport to educate. At the school level, this can mean that administration processes do not consider views of the parents or community members they seek to serve. SECTION 3 39 To operationalize Pillar 1, education operations should 3. Curricula and pedagogy: Strive for continue to strengthen several aspects: socio-emotional learning at all levels 1. Analytics and dialogue: Identify drivers of Empathy, emotional self-regulation, and tolerance • violent conflict and fragility are examples of behaviors and skills that can be developed through pedagogic approaches. Undertake analytical work to bring a deeper • understanding of the local dynamics to conflicts  t each age or development stage, there are specific •A (include gender dimensions), and greater nuance to social and emotional skills that are most malleable. the policy dialogue. This can be done, for example, For instance, in the early years, this could include through more systematic use of political economy empathy, emotional self-regulation, and other analyses and of Risk and Resilience Assessments. elements of executive function. In later adolescents, this could be decision making around managing risk- Broaden education teams to have more systematic • taking behaviors, (see Box 10). inclusion of FCV staff on projects.  imilarly, cognitive behavioral therapy is a proven •S Know that a hidden curriculum often needs to be • method for helping children deal with trauma, while addressed in schools. Use classroom observation to improving educational outcomes (e.g., enrollment, identify problematic elements. attendance, and classroom behavior).67 With social and political grievances better identified, • the Bank will be better positioned for the dialogue 4. Building state capacity: Develop resilience around grievances, diversifying voices in at the community level policy dialogue. Strengthening local government structures enables • communities to address nascent tensions. For 2. Service delivery: Design programs to address management of schools, this could include intense the drivers of violence or fragility support to school leaders, while holding them • Interventions under World Bank–financed operations accountable to ensure that schools serve all should explicitly respond to grievances. This can be groups in their areas. through the provision of education services with a clear sense of equity to include historically excluded Equipping communities with autonomy and • groups (e.g., ethnic groups, or girls’ education in corresponding resources allows them to address Afghanistan). problems according to their priorities, using their own mechanisms. This would help communities • Develop more inclusive policies on language of act proactively to address grievances quickly, instruction, as teaching in the mother tongue as (see Box 9). well as the national language has been shown to be an effective learning strategy for both languages spoken in the home. Promote International Humanitarian Law and Safe • Schools Declaration among key stakeholders to get political buy-in for protecting schools in times of conflict; explore whether non-state actors can also sign on. Implementation arrangements for interventions • should also be adjusted to incorporate excluded actors into meaningful roles in program management, (see Box 9). 40 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 9. TAJIKISTAN: Developing Community Resilience by Investing in ECD Context: Poor public service delivery, a distant centralized state, and an eroded social contract. Tajikistan is a low-income country, with a highly centralized public service delivery system that gives limited autonomy for decision making and financing of local projects. Public service delivery to most Tajiks is severely challenged by difficult mountainous terrain, and the country’s Human Capital Index is quite low at 0.50 (far below Europe and Central Asia’s regional average of 0.69). Poor public service delivery, poverty, social exclusion, and lack of knowledge and ability to identify and address one’s immediate social welfare needs have slowly eroded the state-citizen social contract, leading to marginalized youth, including young women who are caring for their in-laws and young children in isolation. Youth in Tajikistan are particularly susceptible to radicalization and recruitment, due to a lack of jobs, domestic and gender-based violence, and other social vulnerabilities. The country also has an overwhelmingly young population, with 1 out of 3 people under 15 years of age. Yet, it lacks adequate preschool services, with only 14% of children (aged 3-6) enrolled and many parents lacking an understanding of psychological and physical development of children in different age groups. Operational response: Developing capabilities closer to the beneficiaries. The project enables communities to identify their ECD needs and priorities; it helps youth, young women, and communities in general build skills to care for their youngest, whether at home or at community centers. It creates a space for autonomous decision making and community development. The project aims to bring ECD services to all children, especially in hard-to-reach districts. It focuses on developing capacity at the community level by empowering health workers and educators to provide quality services and improving parenting practices (like exclusive breastfeeding, developmental games, and home reading). Developing these in communities fosters resilience for times of crisis. The project will finance alternative models of preschool delivery, like community child development groups; implementation of a targeted social and behavioral change communications campaign at the local level; and training for district staff in planning, implementing, and monitoring progress. Expected outcomes: Greater autonomy and action by communities builds inclusion and resilience. Empowering community leaders and granting autonomy in decision making leads to positive community development that can break the cycle of marginalization, isolation, lack of knowledge, and poverty—all drivers of long-term fragility. It also reduces perceptions of exclusion and injustice that can fuel radicalization. The project will focus on around 500 communities, reaching more than 70,000 children as well as their caregivers who would have otherwise been excluded from such services. Building community capacities today for better ECD services will result in more resilient communities tomorrow, where children will have benefited from the promise of enhanced early interventions. Early Childhood Development Project to build Tajikistan’s Human Capital; $73 million SECTION 3 41 Box 10. Northern Triangle, Central America: Mitigating the Effects of Exposure to Violence on Children and Youth Context: Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador struggle with chronic violence, attributable to long- standing civil war and political instability as well as expansive, transnational criminal networks. The three countries share challenges, including widespread poverty, violence, and corruption, which have prompted many to become refugees. Harsh anti-crime policies, enacted by governments here starting in the early 2000s, failed to reduce crime and may have backfired by dramatically expanding prison populations, a fertile ground for gang recruitment. The presence of gangs in communities has a profound impact on the countries’ educational systems. Students face many risks: those who witness homicides are victims of extortion, while others are forcibly recruited by gangs when they go to school. An estimated 35 percent of middle schools had a gang presence in 2016. This harms learning and has a direct impact on whether children and adolescents stay in school. Social and emotional curricula can be incorporated into programs for children and adolescents at different stages of development. A meta-analysis of 29 formal preschool programs for children aged 3 to 5 in the United States, targeted to children at risk of academic failure and other negative outcomes, showed that programs using an SEL curriculum demonstrated significantly improved children’s socio-emotional competence (Yang et al., 2018). A study on the impact of an after-school program for students aged 10-16 in El Salvador’s public schools found that, in addition to protecting children after school hours, it helped them use their cognition to identify violent responses and address those behaviors. The results showed that the program reduced misbehavior at school and improved academic performance as well as the participants’ ability to regulate their emotions. Growing Up and Learning Together: Comprehensive Early Childhood Development in El Salvador Project; $250 million Pillar 2. Remaining Engaged international players such as NGOs; and ii) working with local civil society. These organizations have a During Conflicts and Crises presence on the ground in hard-to-reach areas that This pillar relates to two types of contexts: active outpaces our capacity for immediate response; they conflicts and crises. Until recently, the World Bank also offer crucial contextual knowledge and technical typically remained inactive during situations of active know-how for working in FCV settings. One area conflict, either due to questions around the legitimacy particularly ripe for collaboration is child protection, of client governments, or because the humanitarian which is paramount in situations of active conflict. Often nature of the needed response did not fit well with our achieving a safe space for children, and attending to original mandate of reconstruction and development. basic needs of shelter and hunger, is a huge success. With the new FCV Strategy comes an expanded The ideal would be for such child protection services agenda for remaining engaged. Our relatively light – including psychosocial support, legal services, and footprint in situations of active conflict, however, makes referral systems – to be managed by social welfare essential that we consider options for partnerships built experts (whether governments or civil society). In on shared objectives and comparative advantages. Two conflict-affected situations, however, these systems are types of partnerships should be scaled up: i) working rarely developed, resulting in child protection being with UN agencies, humanitarian actors, and other relegated to classrooms and teachers. 42 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 11 COVID-19: Managing and Responding to Crisis68,69 The Bank Group estimates that COVID-19 has pushed an additional 29 million people into poverty in Sub- Saharan Africa. Education systems are facing an enormous crisis, with temporary school closures in more than 180 countries resulting in nearly 1.6 billion students being out of school. This will likely translate into an increase in learning poverty from 53 percent of primary-school-age children to 70 percent (about 454 million primary-age students). Globally, school-age students stand to lose $17 trillion in labor earnings over their working lives because of learning losses. The crisis is magnified for children living in FCV countries, where, even before the COVID crisis, about 34 million were typically excluded from education due to forced displacement. These children will now lose additional years of education because of protracted displacement and limited access to learning materials. It is estimated that half of all refugee girls will not return to school even when schools reopen. Most children in FCV countries will suffer much higher learning losses than their counterparts in other countries, as they have little to no access to online or remote services. Only 3 of 54 low-income countries or those affected most by FCV have an internet penetration rate of more than 50 percent. To address the education crises brought on by COVID-19, the World Bank has launched 86 COVID-related education projects (including restructured projects) in 62 countries, which amount to $2.4 billion. In times of crisis, such as climate-induced shocks or  roactively maintain relationships with key actors •P pandemics, the imperative for rapid response is even (within government and outside it) through virtual greater. But government counterparts – the World Bank’s missions, reverse missions, and regular informal primary partner – are often in crisis themselves, further communications. complicating an organized response. Humanitarian actors are quick to fill the void, as they set their global 2. Analytics and dialogue: Ensure classrooms response logistics in motion. Some considerations for remain zones of peace operationalizing Pillar 2:  o keep students and school personnel protected •T at all times, dialogue with government counterparts 1. Analytics and dialogue: Find a way to and partners should push for signing the Safe stay engaged. Schools Declaration, as well as promote the • Education teams should seek to keep up the Guidelines for Protecting Schools and Universities dialogue however possible, and maintain from Military Use During Armed Conflicts.70 disbursements creatively to stay engaged, either through direct payments to service providers, or through partners (e.g., Madagascar, with UNICEF, in 2010). Managing through crises like COVID-19 also calls for continuity in engagement in a context of disruption, (see Box 11). SECTION 3 43 3. Service Delivery: Work in partnership with  artner with local NGOs and private actors, as they •P humanitarian and peace-building actors are often best positioned to reach beneficiaries. Whether faith-based organizations or local entities Carry out joint data collection, analysis, and • like associations of women’s groups, these mission- monitoring in the field. Collaboration on data driven groups are often on the front lines of reaching systems is always a worthwhile effort among the most marginalized. partners, but especially crucial in low-capacity contexts, where government capacity  ommunities have a crucial role in relaying needs; •C becomes strained. connecting government policy with local, NGO, and parental stakeholders; and providing community- Deploy highly targeted programs that reach • based services. vulnerable groups (e.g., girls, refugees, and out- of-school children). Operating solely through 5. Curricula and pedagogy: Ensure child protection government can limit the Bank Group’s scope for doesn’t crowd out learning (and vice versa) impact, especially when insecurity impedes regular access for officials. Hence the need to extend our Child protection is paramount and serves as a • partnerships with humanitarian actors from across precondition for learning. Education and social local and international civil society, as they often welfare systems should have clarity on what belongs have extensive networks that penetrate the most in the classroom, and what is the responsibility of marginalized communities. social welfare experts. • Influence the design of interventions to factor in Ideally teachers would be unburdened from • long-term implications. In addition to ensuring that responding to their students’ protection needs, World Bank financing in times of conflict is aligned to instead referring them to social workers and experts, a long-term vision for the country’s future prosperity, whether from governments or NGOs, (see box 12). we should support a humanitarian response that  hen teachers are required to take on the social •W is coherent with the long-term programming that welfare functions, education systems should strive to governments will eventually have to carry out. do so in a way that does not relegate learning to a For instance, humanitarian programs that set second-tier objective. unreasonably high stipends for teachers can cause perverse effects on education systems in the long term. 4. Service delivery: Explore local alternatives to traditional global partners Work with municipalities and subnational • governments as partners, since the nature of conflicts is often with national actors whose legitimacy is called into question. Lower-level government entities may have both the political legitimacy as well as the operational mandate to operate in affected areas. What’s more, they have the contextual knowledge and proximity to enable quick responses. 44 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 12. Providing Psychosocial Support to Teachers, So That They Can Support Students First responders to traumatized children are often teachers who have also experienced trauma and psychological distress. The paucity of child protection services in many FCV settings leaves the task of helping children cope with their psychological distress to schools and teachers. There are various models for providing school-based psychosocial programming. Teacher sensitization programs are one approach that aims to help them develop skills to respond to the psychological needs of children in such settings – and are largely tied to the education system’s ability to support its teachers.71 Meanwhile, teachers, like their students, are likely to be suffering from psychological distress associated with conflict and would also benefit from support. Teaching effectively in FCV settings requires long hours, with teachers taking on multiple roles, in difficult circumstances amid security constraints, with limited support/professional development, inadequate materials, and overcrowded classrooms. These stressors are further compounded with the traumas of experiencing conflict. In addition to psychological distress, this can drive emotional exhaustion, contributing to lower cognitive and emotional functioning that affect teachers’ well-being and job performance. A study of primary school teachers in the Democratic Republic of Congo’s Katanga province found that the “cumulative hardships” teachers face (e.g., increased workloads, low or infrequent pay, limited professional development, limited voice) negatively influenced their well-being. Teachers are often considered leaders in their communities and may become direct targets of violence, with female teachers also at greater risk of GBV. Limited attention, however, has been paid to supporting teachers’ well-being in FCV settings despite research showing strong linkages between their well-being and students’ own social, emotional and cognitive development. Linkages have been documented of the influence that the difficult lived experiences of teachers have on their classroom management strategies, including their use of corporal punishment. A teacher’s well-being is critical for education in FCV settings. It is strongly associated with socio-emotional competence, which comprises five competencies – self-awareness, self-management, responsible decision making, relationship skills, and social awareness. These can be developed through programs that provide coaching and other forms of teacher professional development. Peer coaching through a teacher learning circle approach has been found to have a positive impact on teacher well-being in the DRC and in Kenya’s Kakuma Refugee Camp. Other promising professional development programs in El Salvador (FHI 360) and Gaza (War Child Holland) are helping support and better understand teachers’ well-being. Research also shows that recognition and opportunities to participate in school-level decision making has significant positive impacts on teachers’ well-being and motivation. It should be mentioned, however, that such approaches and programs are not a substitute when individual teachers need specialized mental health care. Adapted from Falk et al., 2019 Landscape Review: Teacher Well-being in Low Resource, Crisis, and Conflict-affected Settings SECTION 3 45 Box 13. How the Afghan Government Delivered on Girls’ Education for 20 Years Context: A cycle of instability keeping girls from attending school. After decades of civil strife, Afghanistan experienced some stability and economic growth in the early 2000s. A new constitution was approved in early 2004, with the first democratically elected President taking office in December of that year. The significant drawdown of the international security forces in 2011 resulted in slowed economic and social progress. Further, the 2014 presidential election and subsequent political transition undermined the tenuous stability. Around this time the Taliban gained control of a significant portion of the territory, mostly in rural areas. They targeted education by threatening teachers, bombing schools, and poisoning school wells, with the view of preventing girls from attending schools. The four especially binding constraints for girls were: Security concerns, given the Taliban’s strong opposition to girls’ education. • Cultural and social beliefs that give little value to girls’ education (rural areas in particular). • A dearth of schools, especially with appropriate physical conditions such as gender-segregated toilets, • and existing schools being too far from home. An insufficient number of female teachers. • Strengthening basic education, with an explicit focus on improving girls’ access to education, had been a top priority for the government of Afghanistan. The World Bank, together with development partners, has supported Afghanistan’s basic education sector through a series of projects financed by IDA, the Afghanistan Reconstruction Trust Fund (ARTF), and the GPE. These investments all sought to increase equitable access to basic education, especially for girls. Good Practices and Lessons Learned: 1. A multipronged approach for increasing girls’ enrollment is necessary. Increasing girls’ enrollment requires a combination of supply and demand-side actions. Investments supported large-scale nationwide social mobilization campaigns to increase awareness of families and encourage them to send their daughters to schools. To alleviate the basic infrastructure needs, school grants to school management shuras were provided to construct school buildings, boundary walls, and separate toilets for boys and girls. There was also a strong focus on enhancing teachers’ qualifications through pre-service and in-service training. Scholarships were provided to young women to attend Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs) in low female enrollment provinces to create a pipeline of female teachers who could be deployed to schools. 2. Data is crucial to expose weaknesses in system performance (in this case, teachers). Despite a high level of investments in teacher training, low learning outcomes persist. A survey of service delivery quality revealed that as many as 40% of teachers were functionally illiterate, due to most teachers growing up during the decades of conflict that disrupted education. The security concerns and the Ministry of Education’s precarious institutional capacity further compromised the supervision of training activities. In response, projects now have built-in evaluations to inform the policy directions and ensure value for money. A pilot that focuses on classroom observations and coaching of teachers coupled with an impact evaluation are ongoing. 3. Third-party monitoring (TPM). The security situation in Afghanistan prevented World Bank staff from making site visits to supervise projects. A firm was hired to monitor the quality of school construction. The firm would visit a set of schools and prepare a list of deviations for MoE to attend to. They also monitored the use and delivery of school grants, validated EMIS data on teachers and other education data. The latest TPM contract combines physical monitoring of project implementation and fiduciary oversight under a single contractual arrangement. 46 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE 4. Targeting hotspots. A nationwide focus spread resources thinly over the country. Focusing on specific regions like lagging provinces or vulnerable groups helps draw the government’s attention to these regions and populations thus maximizing impact. 5. Pooling resources (through the ARTF) put the MoE in the driver’s seat. The use of the ARTF was an important change in the financing of education sector projects in Afghanistan, whereby donor funds were pooled for on-budget financing of projects in multiple sectors, including education. Previously, education investments were donor-driven and fragmented—financing was off-budget, with a plethora of actors financed by various donors. The on-budget financing provided MoE with an opportunity to streamline activities, build capacity, and demonstrate that they could deliver education services on a large scale. The credibility of the MoE increased, donors were more willing to work directly with them, and the MoE was therefore able to take control of the sector dialogue. 6. Integrate Project Implementation Units (PIUs) into the government structure as soon as possible. Institutional capacity is crucial to ensure sustainability and ownership. Continuous reliance on external technical assistance, even for common functions, does not contribute much to institutional capacity development. The World Bank financing worked through MoE institutions at the central and provincial levels. Although challenging, with many bottlenecks, this more sustainable approach builds client capacity, and enhances the legitimacy of the state at the local level. Technical Assistance is needed but requires a clear exit strategy, otherwise heavy reliance on TA risks creating a parallel structure. 7. Conduct candid assessment of the political economy. An honest assessment of the commitment, integrity and capacity of the client agencies is essential, especially in a fragile context, to incorporate appropriate mitigation measures to detect fraud and corruption. At the time of writing, the political situation has changed dramatically, requiring a reassessment. 8. Recognize the limits of the formal system and seeking alternative pathways to education service delivery such as Community Based Education (CBE). CBE is currently mostly funded by external non- governmental resources in a fragmented manner. Although there is a policy that aims to coordinate efforts by partners, the government needs to develop a strategy for how CBEs can be institutionalized and sustained in the future. A clear mechanism for transitioning from CBEs to a government school, strengthened coordination between off and on-budget funding sources, and more importantly, identifying the right scope and need for CBEs nationally are important elements of a functioning alternative to formal schooling. Looking forward, the international community will need to find options for sustaining these gains, given the new political context. Building on these lessons, including successes achieved previously in Taliban- controlled areas, will be paramount. SECTION 3 47 Pillar 3. Helping Countries Build local capacity to reinforce governments • and actors that are closest to beneficiaries. This Transition out of Fragility could include education management functions in Reconstruction efforts undertaken as countries transition communes, districts, municipalities (see Box 14). out of fragility are an opportunity to address structural impediments to good governance. This includes  educe costs of schooling by mobilizing resources to •R correcting systemic inequities, responding to citizens’ schools to generate quick wins that will help restore historic grievances, or strengthening decentralized the state-citizen contract (see Box 15). systems to be better able to serve local citizens. Reasserting the state’s role as financier and provider  nsure that projects do not overwhelm the capacity •E of education helps restore governments’ credibility of line ministries. Use unified delivery mechanisms and strengthen the social contract. Reconstruction (developed through cross-sectoral projects) to also offers an opportunity to help countries prepare deliver benefits to populations where possible, themselves to respond to shocks in the future. The Bank such as by piggybacking on existing initiatives. Group has a wealth of experience in helping countries 3. Build state capacity: Create new government transition out of fragility through its work on rebuilding functions for responding to crises education systems in post-conflict settings, ranging from the Balkans to Rwanda. Elements to consider in  apacity for identifying and managing future crises, •C operationalizing Pillar 3: e.g., through improved early warning systems and standing protocols for incorporating IDPs and 1. Analytics and dialogue: Forming consensus with refugees into schools / education systems. humanitarian partners on phasing out of fragility  elp governments sequence reforms to move crisis- •H Develop a common view with humanitarian actors • affected populations from humanitarian beneficiaries for concrete, costed, time-bound actions that to development participants (see Box 14). represent a transition along the humanitarian- development nexus (see Box 13).  evelop climate-resilient infrastructure that allows •D schools to withstand future shocks, thereby reducing 2. Build state capacity / service delivery: disruptions to education services.72 Strengthen core government service delivery functions Box 14. Turkey: A Phased, Developmental Approach to Integrating Refugees Context: Myriad challenges face millions of refugees. Since 2011, Turkey has received more than 3.6 million Syrian refugees, about one-third of whom are children and youth. The provision of education services to Syrian children and youth in Turkey has gone through different phases. First, education services were provided by NGOs, religious groups, and humanitarian agencies. As time passed, and the crisis became more protracted, all parties began to recognize the need for a longer-term response to the education needs of Syrian children. Along with a different language of instruction, Syrian refugee children came from traditional, mostly single-sex schools, whereas Turkey has mixed-sex schools. Today, a model has emerged in which the Ministry of National Education (MoNE) has complemented its regular education program with interventions to support transition and integration of Syrian students: Turkish language classes, a one-year transition classroom, catch-up (remedial) courses, and back-up (tutoring) courses. A humanitarian approach to education delivery (2011-2014) At the start of the refugee crisis, there was no formalized strategy, curriculum, or budget for education services for Syrian refugees. Without a policy and legal framework, it was unclear what the MoNE and its provincial departments should or could do to address the refugees’ educational needs. At the time, Syrians thought the war would end soon and did not see much value in learning Turkish and assimilating to the Turkish system. 48 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE They wanted their children to study the Syrian curriculum so that they could continue their studies once they returned. Some Syrian students that spoke Turkish, such as Turkmen, did enroll in Turkish schools. However, policy directives in Turkey prevented teaching any alternative curriculum in Turkish public schools. Most education services during this time were provided by first responders and humanitarian agencies. Syrian NGOs established temporary education centers (TECs) using Arabic textbooks and delivering the Syrian curriculum through volunteer teachers. Initially, these temporary schools were not regulated by the government, but starting in 2013-2014, MoNE began to regulate them. This coincided with the Law on Foreigners and International Protection in 2013, which gave Syrians a special protection status in Turkey. Also in 2013, MoNE declared the right to education for all Syrian children. Through this provision, Syrians under Temporary Protection received increased access to education and health care services, including public education. Emergence of a developmental approach (2014-2016) By 2014, the situation in Syria had deteriorated beyond expectation. The number of refugees had increased from about 225,000 a year earlier to 1.5 million. The attitude of the refugees also shifted, as they realized they would not be returning home anytime soon. They welcomed a more formal education offer for their children. While Syrians were able to enroll in Turkish schools, MoNE formalized the accreditation system for TECs. To qualify, centers were required to sign protocols with provincial MoNE offices. Arabic prevailed as the language of instruction, and a Syrian curriculum approved by MoNE was to be used. Several centers were closed after MoNE’s field inspections because they did not meet the new regulations. Many were housed in Turkish schools, facilitating interactions between Turkish and Syrian students and allowing the latter to pick up Turkish much faster. Through MoNE’s efforts, funding and technical support from other institutions became crucial. The Facility for Integration of Refugees in Turkey (FRIT) funded by the European Union provided about $500 million to the education sector – including for school construction and the Program for Integrating Syrian Children in the Turkish Education System. UNICEF paid the salary of Syrian volunteer teachers and developed training modules for teachers to provide psychosocial support to children affected by war in the school setting, classroom management for crowded classrooms, and preparation of lessons plans. During this period, Syrian families had the choice of enrolling their children in TECs or regular Turkish schools. However, no special transition programs existed yet. For example, high school–aged Syrian children could be enrolled in technical and vocational education and training schools without requiring exam results or a diploma. Strengthening integration through an institutionalized approach (2016–present) By 2016, the longer-term education needs of Syrians in Turkey were clear. MoNE began to enroll Syrian students in Turkish schools. By 2018, most TECs had been closed and all Syrian children were directed to enroll in the public education system. MoNE provided complementary programs to support the transition. A one-year “welcoming” classroom was created for students who needed to learn Turkish and to ease socio- cultural adjustments. Turkish schools mainstreamed multi-cultural classroom support, social cohesion training for teachers, and training in Turkish as a second language, with Arabic offered as an elective foreign language. Some TECs were converted to community education centers providing language, psychosocial counseling, remedial education, or tutoring support to migrants and other vulnerable students. MoNE created a department of Migration and Education in Emergencies (MEE), to oversee and coordinate education for migrants, including refugees. The emergence of the new department caps off an institutional development journey from initial humanitarian response, to a transition model using the Arabic language and the Syrian curriculum, to integration into regular Turkish schools. SECTION 3 49 Box 15. Democratic Republic of Congo: Free Primary Education – Just in Time Support to Stability Context: Political instability, prohibitive education costs, and a broken social contract. The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) has had a turbulent history, marked by a protracted war beginning in the 1990s that lasted close to 15 years. Remnants of the conflict continue in parts of the country, notably the east. Political instability, poor governance, and lack of basic service delivery has limited development and led to persistent poverty. Despite a statement in the DRC constitution that primary education must be free, as a constitutionally enshrined right, school fees have been widespread since the 1980s. They were initially introduced to cover teacher salaries and school operating costs after a drastic reduction in public financing and repeated teacher strikes. Over time the fees gradually became normalized, financing the education system despite the breakdown of the state. Before the rollout of free primary education in September 2019, the fees paid by households represented about two-thirds of total system financing. Not surprisingly, this disproportionately burdened the poorest and most vulnerable households, making the cost of schooling prohibitive for many. As a result, an estimated 4 million primary school-aged children were out of school in 2018, with few believing the government could honor its constitutional obligation of free education. The annual cost per primary student in 2019 was $65, while public spending was about $25. However, the 2019 election brought the first peaceful transition of power in 59 years of independence. The new government seized the moment, keeping an election campaign promise of making primary education free. About 2.5 million more children entered the system in September 2019. Operational response: Reduce the burden on households by making education free. The IDA-financed project supports the government’s free primary education flagship program with performance-based conditions. The project lowers the burden of school fees on households, increasing access to primary schooling in 10 focus provinces (phase 1) by financing the elimination of public primary school fees for over 6.5 million poor students already in the system and 1.3 million poor children entering it. The project also supports nationwide governance reforms through a component that focuses on strengthening policies in public financial management, recruitment procedures (introducing merit-based elements), teacher pay, data systems, and rationalization of provincial administrative offices. Strengthening the social contract: The project will reach over 200,000 teachers and 9 million students in 10 provinces while benefiting the education system as a whole. By fostering stability through free education, the project will help restore the public’s faith that the government is able to serve them. By delivering free education, the government can gain the confidence of citizens and strengthen the citizen- state social contract, which will play an essential role in preventing future violence and civil wars. DR Congo Emergency Equity and System Strengthening in Education; $800 million Pillar 4. Mitigating the spillovers The worldwide increase in refugees is driven by many factors: systemic discrimination, violent conflicts, man- of FCV made and natural disasters. Together, these have led Crises can be home-grown or spill across borders to an exponential growth of refugee populations. The from other countries. They can disrupt learning or Bank Group is playing a key role in addressing the heavily affect education systems through exclusion, needs of these people through IDA refugee support discrimination, deprivation of quality services, and and the Global Concessional Financing Facility, as biases built into curricula and teaching practices. well as through some flagship analyses into how these The impact is greatest on refugees and internally populations can be supported through investments, displaced populations. policies, programs, and partnerships. 50 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE For internally displaced populations (IDPs), a similar set  ystems that treat refugees/IDPs and host •S of drivers force communities to seek shelter outside communities similarly stand a better chance of of their home areas but within their home country. By lessening community tensions. some estimates, the scale of IDP needs is much larger than those of refugees and expected to grow. Examples 2. Service delivery: Displaced teachers are an include situations driven by the earthquake in Nepal, important resource for displaced students floods and mudslides in West Africa, as well as civil  lmost all displaced communities include people •A wars in the Central African Republic, the Democratic who served as teachers, school directors, or other Republic of Congo, and other countries. members of the education system in the places they left behind, (see Box 17). Both types of forced displacement are accelerating and place a major burden on host communities in countries  hese resource people can make the difference for •T such as Bangladesh, Chad, Colombia, and Ethiopia. a successful integration of refugee and IDP students Often, host communities themselves are poor, deprived, into host countries’ national systems. and affected by the same underlying causes as the refugees or IDPs they host, such as ethnic tensions or 3. Service delivery: Consider layered, multisectoral a changing climate. Moreover, forced displacement efforts for IDPs and refugees puts a major strain on local service delivery, livelihoods,  ddress problems related to supply and demand. •A markets, and social cohesion. This in turn may lead to Displacement inevitably leads to increasing out-of- mistrust, conflict, and violence. Effective support to pocket expenses and opportunity costs, both for address displacement thus needs to include the host refugees and host communities, (see Box 19). populations, to mitigate the potentially devastating spillovers of FCV.  hereas refugees lack jobs and livelihoods, hosts •W also face the negative impact of decreasing wages, In close partnership with humanitarian organizations, increasing prices, reduced quality of education, and the World Bank Group has become increasingly rising transportation costs. involved in providing services to refugees and internally displaced people. Box 16 summarizes the evidence  afeguarding gains in education attainment, and •S for what works in serving populations that face forced motivating families to keep children in school, displacement. requires demand-side support such as cash transfers. 1. Analytics and dialogue: Targeting formula based 4. Curricula and pedagogy: Build on-ramps on need, not status from alternative/non-formal education to host public systems In most cases, host country governments face • fiscal pressures to provide quality education for  iven the increasingly protracted nature of forced •G all, improve school infrastructure and teacher displacement, it is worthwhile to invest time training, and cover the demand-side needs of their in developing the elements that will facilitate populations, such as conditional cash transfers, integration of forcibly displaced students into host transportation, uniforms, or school feeding. The community schools. added burden of financing interim solutions for displaced populations is often financially nclusive curricula that support integration are one •I out of reach. such dimension. Somalia, Jordan, and South Sudan are all examples of countries where curricula take • Although humanitarian agencies can cover short- into consideration the realities facing displaced term needs, protracted displacement requires children, to normalize their presence in the longer-term financing solutions, (see Box 18). classroom, and explicitly address challenges they face. Discrimination against newly arrived refugees or IDPs • is nearly inevitable, and it deters the displaced from accessing educational opportunities to which they are legally entitled. SECTION 3 51 Box 16. Forced Displacement and Education: A Synthesis of the Evidence for What Works In 2018, the Bank Group, UNHCR, and the United Kingdom’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) began a multiyear analytical exercise to assess the best practices and effective interventions to support education for displaced populations. The effort aims to inform systemic solutions for how to strengthen education systems for host communities as well as refugee populations. The review by Burde et al (forthcoming) covers 32 experimental and quasi-experimental studies, 14 studies with information on costs, and 202 qualitative studies in 22 countries affected by situations of forced displacement. The authors find a dearth of robust evidence, rending it difficult to make forceful conclusions about any dimensions of what works. The findings are categorized according to outcome variables relating to (i) access, (ii) quality, and (iii) well-being. Access Community-based education increased access for displaced and marginalized learners, since decentralized 1.  decision making allowed local schools to respond to local needs. Start-up costs were high but enabled the community mobilization needed to ensure success (with support from international NGOs). Alternative/remedial education helped refugee children successfully integrate into host country education 2.  systems, focusing on language acquisition. 3. Early childhood kits helped younger refugee learners prepare to enter national systems. Quality 4. Culturally relevant curricula have been shown to help displaced children integrate into host schools. 5. Complementary/parallel education initiatives should build in linkages to the host country’s official curricula. Specialized training for teachers helps them handle challenges related to students’ backgrounds and 6.  needs for psychosocial support. Well-being Social and emotional learning (including cognitive behavioral therapy) has been shown to reduce depression 7.  and post-traumatic stress disorder among displaced children. Peacebuilding programs help children productively engage in conflict resolution, but should be directly 8.  related to the broader sociopolitical context. Adapted from Burde, D. et al. (Forthcoming) “Forced Displacement and Education: Building the Evidence for What Works.” Phase I Report: Evidence Synthesis and Intervention Map. 52 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 17. Refugee Teachers as School-Community Liaisons for Syrian Refugees in Lebanon Labor laws can impede refugee teachers from serving their displaced community in the host country. This has been the case for Syrian teachers living in Lebanon and Turkey, where local laws forbade them from earning a regular salary, despite the urgent need for their knowledge and specialized skills in education for Syrian refugees. In the short term, teachers often worked as volunteers, in order to serve their communities. However, this is not a sustainable solution. In Lebanon, the Ministry of Education and Higher Education, together with UNCHR, UNICEF, and the World Bank, found a way to get Syrian teachers into schools, even if not formally as teachers. Called “community liaisons,” they serve a dual role of representing the school in refugee communities and representing families in the schools. As part of this bridge function, community liaisons are trained to carry out the following functions: Follow up with families on student absenteeism • Ensure that parents stay engaged in their children’s education • Identify and prevent cases of violence in schools • Promote tolerance as a strategy for combating bullying • Mediate quarrels between children • Advocate with school authorities and teachers for students who need special support • Refer students in need of more specialized services, such as child protection • While the approach has been successful, with more than 400 community liaisons working in Lebanese schools, remuneration is still far below what qualified refugee teachers could earn by legally practicing their profession. Yet in the meantime, this bridge function is helping reduce inter-group tensions and dropouts among refugee students. Lebanon Reaching All Children with Education Project (P159470); $234 M SECTION 3 53 Box 18. How IDA Responds to Refugees, IDPs, Host Populations — and COVID-19 The IDA Window for Hosts and Refugees is a $2.2 billion facility that seeks to: Mitigate the shocks caused by refugee inflows and create social and economic development • opportunities for refugee and host communities. Facilitate sustainable solutions for protracted refugee situations, including through the sustainable • socio-economic inclusion of refugees in the host country and/or their return to the country of origin. Strengthen country preparedness for increased or potential new refugee flows. • Under this window, the World Bank conducts a systematic review of refugee policy and institutional environments. Accordingly, for each program, a Refugee Policy Review Framework is developed, which identifies the key areas that are relevant for the socio-economic development of both host communities and refugees. During the COVID-19 pandemic, this IDA window has been activated. Operations address the challenges stemming from displacement as well as COVID-related school closures, learning losses, and policies for school reopening. 54 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 19. Cameroon: Multisectoral Service Delivery to Refugees, IDPs, & Host Communities Context: Waves of refugees and IDPs complicate already difficult education service delivery. Cameroon hosts about 430,000 refugees and is home to about 1 million IDPs. Refugees are fleeing political instability in neighboring Nigeria and the Central African Republic. IDPs are trying to escape violence (terrorism and/ or political crisis) particularly in Northern regions (due to the Boko Haram crisis) and in anglophone regions (a persistent sociopolitical crisis). These displacements have increased the strain on resources and services in places that were already poor and underserved. The presence of displaced populations has exacerbated existing challenges, with refugees, IDPs, and host communities all facing unmet needs in their nutrition, food security, and access to health, education, and water and sanitation. Since most displaced people are living in villages rather than camps, host communities can feel disenfranchised and disadvantaged at times when support is directed mainly to refugees. This may fuel tensions between the two communities over resources, aid, and land use. Operational response: Providing benefits to both hosts and refugees/IDPs: The government decided on a needs-based approach to tackle issues that face both refugees and host communities. Targeting localities with the largest influx of refugees, the government’s response is for everyone living in these places. Hence benefits accrue to refugees, IDPs, and host communities simultaneously, as most displaced children are enrolled in regular schools. The government’s needs-based targeting also increases the efficiency of expenditures and decreases regional inequalities. With the recent increase in IDPs, the model applied for refugees is being scaled up to provide support to schools hosting IDPs and to host communities outside the North West and South West regions. The response features an integrated approach, including health, social protection, education, and community-driven development. Promoting synergies between interventions at the central and at the local level helps address education challenges facing refugees and host communities while also strengthening local administration and communities. At the local level, the Education Reform Support Project’s interventions are complemented by actions from other sectors/projects that: (i) develop social infrastructure in the education sector; (ii) increase access to school-based health activities (psychosocial support, deworming, nutrition, water and sanitation, and other health promotion) and respond to gender-based violence; (iii) support parental education; and (iv) promote livelihoods for the most vulnerable families. A focus on access to individual registration remains a critical challenge for accessing benefits, reinforcing the need for a coordinated approach to all affected populations. Outcomes: This integrated approach addresses current emergencies and supports the government’s long-term vision for human capital, while reducing tensions and decreasing regional inequities. For education specifically, it will reach about 400 schools, enrolling about 150,000 pupils, including 20,000 refugees. The approach will be incorporated in the overall education sector strategy for 2021-2030 to ensure that the education system is resilient to crisis, especially during recovery from COVID-19. Education Reform Support Project ($100 million from IDA & $30 million from IDA18 Refugee Sub-window) SECTION 3 55 CONCLUSION There’s a virtuous cycle to be sparked, where FCV need to be more systematically identified and children living in fragile and conflict-affected settings addressed. Our projects, ranging from ECD to higher have opportunities for learning that extend beyond education, should consider opportunities to impart literacy and numeracy to the social and emotional the social and emotional skills in children and youth spheres. Achieving such whole-child development that will boost their resilience to adversity, facilitate will help a new generation become more empathetic understanding of the “other,” and serve them as skills and tolerant, more skilled at managing conflict, and for school, the labor market, and life more generally. better able to calculate risks. They will be better able to The Bank Group will not shy away from curricular and overcome divisions and build social cohesion. This is the pedagogic activities that seek to deconstruct divisive transformation needed to deliver “peace dividends” – “hidden curricula” and that support proven approaches jobs, increased productivity, economic growth – which, for changing perspectives and improving inter-group in turn, will bring even greater learning opportunities relations, such as through building up socio-emotional for subsequent generations. skills such as empathy and tolerance. We will also put greater gender equality at the heart of our approach, To help set this virtuous cycle in motion, the World as closing gender gaps and empowering women and Bank Group will: girls is a core strategy for addressing drivers of conflict; Extend the scope of our operations. Schools 1.  it also makes societies more resilient to the challenges play a unique role in shaping skills and mindsets for that FCV situations bring. social cohesion; they can also address grievances For Pillar 2: Remaining engaged during crises and and persistent inequalities through the distribution active conflicts, we will help countries protect schools of education services. As we deliver on our as zones of peace, securing both children’s safety FCV Strategy, the Bank Group will place the and learning. In contexts of active conflict, remaining prevention of violent conflict at the heart of engaged means keeping lines of communication with our work in education. government counterparts open, and working to ensure Increase the scale of our investments. Building 2.  that schools are zones of peace. This requires tighter on our leadership position as the largest financier partnerships with humanitarian and peace-building of education in FCV situations, the Bank Group will actors to achieve both child protection and learning. continue to prioritize financing for these education Above all, it requires creative partnerships with local activities. In terms of commitment, $6.2 billion actors who are more closely situated to the populations is already committed to active projects, with we seek to serve: community-based organizations, another $676 million expected to be approved women’s associations, religious groups. by June 30, 2022. Under Pillar 3: Helping countries transition out of 3.  Enhance the nature of our programming. fragility, our recommendations center on capacity This paper has highlighted actions to be considered building to strengthen the resilience of education across all types of FCV settings as per the pillars authorities. For countries transitioning to stability, the of the FCV Strategy. These are structured around most important entry points are those that allow for the entry points of analytics and dialogue, service building state capacities for early warning and crisis delivery, curricula and pedagogy, and building response, as peaceful progress is rarely linear. This state capacity. includes considering climate-resilient infrastructure and building schools that can serve as emergency shelters in Under Pillar 1: Preventing violent conflict and times of crisis. As project implementation arrangements interpersonal violence, we call for more nuanced weigh where to invest, special consideration will go to analytics, more attention to drivers of fragility, the level closest to beneficiaries, as communities and and more focus on social and emotional learning. municipalities are solid sources of resilience, providing For our clients to be able to unlock the violence- a foundation on which to build. preventing potential of education systems, drivers of 56 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Under Pillar 4: Mitigating the spillovers of FCV, we The success of the Bank Group’s work in education recommend focusing efforts on refugees, IDPs, and will increasingly be determined by our ability to host communities alike. The Bank Group is uniquely operate effectively in crisis-affected situations. placed to advocate for and support the integration of It will be predicated on paying greater attention to, refugee education into host country systems. The focus and making more out of, the possibilities for violence should include country curricula, assessment, facilities, prevention that education systems can engender. and classes; integration provides a path for continuing And notwithstanding our leading role as a financier formal education and the opportunity to be competitive of education in FCV, success requires marshaling far in job markets when labor market participation is greater resources to the education agenda, so that permitted or when young people return to their country the response is equal to the challenge. There are of origin. Support to refugees and IDPs should not opportunities specific to FCV under IDA, as well as exclude host communities that often face the same through the Global Concessional Financing Facility, but underlying factors that drove the forced displacement more resources must be sought out, especially in times and are in just as much need as the populations they are of humanitarian crisis. Most importantly, success will hosting. True integration into public education systems, be determined largely by how effectively we work with often the only financially viable long-term solution to partners – whether international or local – on the ground. the protracted situations that refugees and IDPs face, Leveraging each other’s relative strengths, the collective requires painstaking work in building the dialogue impact of our response will mean that more schools are between host communities and displaced populations. reached, more teachers are supported, and – ultimately Proper curricular and pedagogical design elements – more children will gain from the opportunities of safe can advance this process, especially if actors along schooling. Our ability to be effective will depend on our the humanitarian-development nexus work closely ability to be flexible and responsive to the ever-changing together. This includes incorporating culturally relevant landscapes in FCV situations. We must demonstrate a curricula for refugees and IDPs, with “on ramps” that careful understanding of the drivers of fragility in any allow short-term remedial programs (e.g., to familiarize given context, and work with local partners to create children in the host country’s language of instruction) or made-to-measure responses with the communities, other parallel education initiatives. Refugees who were teachers, and governments we seek to serve. teachers in their home countries should be deployed to help students transition to schools in host countries, even if not formally recognized as teachers. CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 57 ANNEX 1. MENU OF OPTIONS This Menu of Options offers a starting point for Bank studies as the Perry Preschool Program, Head Start, and Group education teams, complementing their work others show that delivering quality preschool programs in identifying the conflict-specific drivers of fragility can be one of the most effective and cost-effective and violence. The menu offers a short description of strategies for violence prevention.73 Perry Preschool, select interventions, and findings from implementation for example, promoted an active learning process of in specific contexts. As per the recommendations “plan-do-review,” whereby both children and teachers in Section IV, the options are structured around the had a leading role in the learning process. Program Bank Group FCV Strategy’s Pillars of Engagement. graduates were much less likely to commit crimes, were The options featured are not an exhaustive list, more likely to graduate from secondary school, earned nor necessarily the most promising in all contexts. higher wages on average, and were more likely to be Rather, given the objectives of the interventions, and employed than a control group of similar children who the current state of the evidence, the interventions did not participate. offer a variety of jumping-off points for education programming, organized by types of FCV contexts. Early childhood activities that integrate socio- The recommendations are meant to complement emotional learning curricula have been shown to be more general education interventions that have been particularly effective among disadvantaged groups. recommended through the Bank Group’s flagship A meta-analysis of 29 formal preschool programs for education policy documents, such as the “Ending children aged 3 to 5 in the United States, targeted to Learning Poverty: What Will it Take?”f and “Realizing children at risk of academic failure and other negative the Future of Learning.”g outcomes, showed that children in programs using a SEL curriculum demonstrated significantly improved socio-emotional competence (Yang et al., 2018). These PILLAR 1. PREVENTING VIOLENT included the following measures: (a) attention and self- CONFLICT AND INTERPERSONAL regulation (ability to control aggressive-oppositional VIOLENCE impulses); (b) cooperation (interpersonal skills in interaction and negotiation with others); (c) emotional Option 1. Promoting Social Emotional understanding and expression (emotion identification, Learning (SEL) Through Early Childhood expression of feelings, and situational knowledge associated with emotions); (d) positive coping Development behavior (adaptive/constructive actions in response Given the strong focus on building up the knowledge, to challenging social situations); (e) positive feelings skills, and attitudes associated with reducing risks of (confidence); and (f) social skills (helping others, giving violence, actions at the early childhood development compliments). These competencies are all associated stage are crucial. It is well known that intervening in with violence prevention and with pro-social attitudes the early years bring benefits across a range of areas and behaviors. for several generations. Evidence from such classic f  ttps://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32553/142659.pdf?sequence=7 h g http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/250981606928190510/pdf/Realizing-the-Future-of-Learning-From-Learning-Poverty-to-Learning-for-  Everyone-Everywhere.pdf 58 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE PILLAR 1: PREVENTION Option Description Country Examples Option 1. Promoting SEL Empathy, emotional self-regulation, El Salvador – Crecer Juntos through ECD and tolerance are examples of Honduras – Miles de Manos behaviors and skills that can be developed through pedagogic Syrian refugees – Sesame Workshop approaches during early childhood. Option 2. Promoting SEL through Proven to help children deal with Sierra Leone – Youth Readiness Cognitive Behavioral Therapy trauma, while improving educational Intervention outcomes, including enrollment, Liberia – CBT for men attendance, and classroom behavior. Option 3. Developing capacity and Fosters resilience, which can be Tajikistan – Community-based resilience at the community level an asset to communities prone to ECD centers violence. Alternative models of preschool delivery like community child development groups could be the channel. Option 4. Curricular approaches Helping students learn to critically Northern Ireland – Multi-perspective that use multi-perspective history, analyze conflicting stories has been history teaching encouraging tolerance and proven to change their attitudes and Israel/Palestine - Empathetic Dual awareness of human rights perceptions about the past as well narrative history teaching and as improve intergroup relations. Critical-Disciplinary pedagogy Option 5. Teaching both the Language acquisition has been Turkey – Syrian refugees integrated language of the home and the shown to promote social cohesion. into Turkish public schools language of power Myanmar - PBEA Option 6. Skills development Apprenticeship programs – short- El Salvador – Temporary Income for youth cycle vocational training programs Support Program that offer faster integration into Mali – Skills Development and Youth the labor market – led to gainful Employment Project employment, which in turn reduces participation in crime. CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 59 PILLAR 2: REMAINING ENGAGED DURING ACTIVE CONFLICTS Option Description Country Examples Option 1. Child protection as a Child protection programs can Save the Children Child Protection precondition to a safe learning create safer learning environments Handbook environment for students and can increase access to schooling for vulnerable groups. Option 2. Use gaming technology Employing low-cost tablets that use Sudan – Can’t Wait to Learn to improve learning in conflict- adaptive, gaming technology; can (Also introduced in Uganda, affected areas be scaled cost-effectively. Lebanon, Jordan, Chad and Bangladesh) Option 3. Think outside the bricks – When schools are closed or aren’t Turkey – Temporary non-formal education safe, radio, television, and other Learning Centers remote learning strategies have Liberia and Sierra Leone – proven essential. Radio broadcasts during Ebola Colombia – Escuela Nueva’s Learning Circles Option 4. Provide psychosocial For teachers to serve as first Varia cited in Falk, D. et al (2019) support to children and teachers responders for students, their own well-being must be assured. This option includes practical tips to consider in attending to teachers’ psychosocial distress. 60 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE PILLAR 3: TRANSITION OUT OF FRAGILITY Option Description Country Examples Option 1. Higher education Reconstruction requires highly Afghanistan – Higher Education programs that develop skills skilled labor. Universities play a Development Project and capabilities needed for critical role in forming the labor reconstruction market that a country needs. Option 2. Strengthen community- Strengthening the relationship Mali – Community based school school relations through shared between communities and schools management committees school governance through school management committees that demonstrate the principles of active citizenship; can be a powerful step toward good governance. Option 3. Strengthening the social When governments are keen to Haiti – Education for All Project contract by implementing national demonstrate results for citizens, but free education policies with third- don’t have the operational capacity party providers to deliver services, private delivery of publicly financed services can be important for strengthening the social contract and achieving quick wins. CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 61 PILLAR 4: MITIGATING THE SPILLOVERS OF FCV Option Description Country Examples Option 1. Use displaced teachers as Although refugee teachers often Lebanon – Community Liaison a resource for students can’t serve as regular teachers in Turkey – Volunteer teachers host country public schools, they are an important resource in facilitating the transition of refugee children to their new settings. Option 2. Complementing curricular Tablets can be loaded with curated Syrian refugees – Pi4L, Rumie approaches with learning resources learning resources based on home from the home country country curricula. They can track the student’s progress, and the delivered content is customizable. Option 3. Alternative education These initiatives can help refugee Turkey initiatives that use benchmarks/ children transition into host milestones as an on-ramp into countries’ education systems national systems through accelerated learning programs and community-based education. Option 4. Curricula that focus on Inclusive curricula that support Somalia elements of inclusion integration are one such dimension. South Sudan Option 5. Transition programs and Such programs facilitate inclusion Lebanon – Accelerated accelerated learning programs for into the formal education system learning program out-of-school children and the transition to gainful Mali – Apprenticeship programs employment or self-employment. Apprenticeship programs for for youth out-of-school youth 62 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Box 20. Incorporating SEL into El Salvador’s Preschools: Crecer Juntos In El Salvador, the government, with support from the World Bank, has launched Growing Together (Crecer Juntos), to respond to challenges posed by gang violence in many communities. The program adapts the country’s early childhood curriculum for children aged 0 to 7 with elements that strengthen socio-emotional skills. The curriculum is based on principles of peace and democratic values, promoting well-being, gender equality, intercultural awareness, and inclusive education. Programs are delivered through the country’s Early Childhood Care and Education centers, training teachers and directors in how best to strengthen cognitive and socio-emotional skills. A focus on developing gender-neutral and gender-free pedagogical practices helps ensure that schools are safe spaces, while also helping identify boys and girls who are at risk of exposure to multiple forms of violence. Social Emotional Learning through Mass The mass media approach brings certain risks, especially if inter-group cohesion is a parallel Media in the Early Years objective of the programming (Moland, 2015). When Reaching children through mass media is a time- Sesame Workshop first brought its approach to Nigeria, tested approach to supporting “whole child Blue Square faced several challenges. First, it sought development.” In the words of the Sesame Workshop, not only to develop the knowledge, skills, and attitudes the programs seek to teach the “Emotional ABCs” among its young viewers that would bring about pro- to children, usually through television, though also social behaviors at an individual level, but also to increasingly through digital platforms, especially foster inter-group social cohesion and build a national during COVID-19 (see Box 21). In partnership with identity across Nigeria, goals that the new iteration of the IRC, Sesame Workshop has expanded its reach, the program does not necessarily espouse. When the now seeking to target Syrian refugee children through purported task was multicultural education through Welcome Sesame (Ahlan Simsim).h The intervention mass media, the Sesame Square case is instructive in promotes engagement with a caring adult and how difficult it is to strike a balance between diversity nurturing care, which strengthens resilience in children and unity. The inherent tensions include how to and can mitigate the effects of traumatic experiences. represent diverse groups in a way that is both equal The digital materials (mainly video, broadcast via TV, and authentic, and, within that, how to celebrate ethnic and other platforms) are complemented by in-person or religious diversity without exacerbating the political direct services across Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Syria. divisions across groups. The country context is key to determining the best course of action. Whereas the United States and Nigeria are both societies with diverse ethnic minority groups, the strength of the state makes accentuating diversity much less risky in the United States, as compared to a deeply divided society like Nigeria (Moland, 2015). h Sesame Workshop will be rolling out similar programming for Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh, in partnership with BRAC. CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 63 Box 21. Teaching “Emotional ABCs” to Refugee Children For Syrian refugee and host community children, the Sesame Workshop and the International Rescue Committee (IRC) have rolled out television programming that seeks to impart the knowledge, attitudes, and skills that make up socio-emotional learning. Designed in close collaboration with local producers, creatives, and early childhood development experts, each Ahlan Simsim episode features a comedic story segment in which Basma and Jad experience emotions in situations relatable to young children, like fear of the dark during a movie night or frustration when friends don’t play by the rules of a game. The characters learn to manage their feelings by practicing concrete strategies such as counting to five, belly breathing, and expression through art. A new video playdate format for Season 2 (August 2020) reflects how families everywhere are staying connected during the global pandemic and helps children cope with the uncertainty so many families face. Season 2 also introduces new “Number of the Day” and “Word of the Day” segments designed to meet children’s learning needs at a time when many schools and early childhood programs are interrupted. Ahlan Simsim is part of a broader humanitarian partnership of the same name between Sesame Workshop and the IRC, which aims to address the devastating impacts of crisis and displacement by delivering early learning and nurturing care to children and caregivers affected by the Syrian refugee crisis. It not only addresses children’s immediate needs but builds a strong foundation for their future well-being. It is poised to become the largest early childhood development intervention in the history of humanitarian response. Socio-emotional Learning There are also risks in trying to improve child development outcomes by working through parents. Through Parenting First, whereas children themselves are often a willing Parents also play a critical role in programs to (if captive) audience, parents may not be as naturally develop socio-emotional learning. Educating parents predisposed to participating in such programming. This on ways to build up social emotional knowledge, could be for various reasons, such as time constraints, skills, and attitudes is a cost-effective and sustainable lack of interest, skepticism about the program, and so approach to developing these attributes in children. on. In the Central American context, reaching fathers The Thousands of Hands (Miles de Manos) program in can be difficult, which is especially problematic given Honduras sought to do just that, through a program the association between the culture of violence and that offered workshops to parents and teachers masculinity, with young men the main perpetrators and through schools. A quasi-experimental evaluation victims of violence in the region (Serrano-Berthet, R. & of the program, consisting of 36 treatment and 36 Lopez, H., 2014). comparator schools, showed that parents in treatment schools reported using more protective actions toward their children (Dinarte Diaz & Egana-delSol, Option 2. Social and Emotional Learning 2019) (ChildFund, 2017). The evaluation also reported Through Cognitive Behavioral Therapy improvements in problem-solving skills among the Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is another parents, more involvement in their children’s lives, and proven approach that offers governments adaptable more recognition and positive reinforcement in their programming for children. Given children’s different parenting practices. Most importantly, monthly reports developmental stages, some SEL aspects are best from teachers showed that emotional, psychological, developed later in adolescence, once the brain is and physical violence have all been substantially more fully formed. CBT consists of a psychoanalytical reduced in the classroom. The evaluation attributes approach that treats harmful beliefs and behaviors this to working with both parents and teachers, both by making people aware of the behavioral cycles and of whom altered their own behaviors in how they treat patterns that they fall into, seeking to disrupt them by children, having been introduced to positive discipline employing a “learning by doing process” (Betancourt techniques (ChildFund, 2017). 64 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE et al., 2014). It has been used successfully to improve As with the other policy options presented here, the behaviors associated with violence as well as the CBT is not without risks. First, it requires a fair academic performance of adolescents aged 10-16 in El amount of expertise to adapt the therapy sessions to Salvador, as well as to address the PTSD of older youth the contexts. Technical expertise in psychoanalytical (aged 15-24) in Sierra Leone. training is not always available locally. Second, delivery of training also requires facilitators with backgrounds in CBT has also been delivered through after-school psychology, such as counselors and social workers, who programs, with good outcomes for children living are likely not readily available, especially in areas where in violent contexts. In contrast to the experience in people are most affected by violence. Scaling up such Sierra Leone, the El Salvador case shows that CBT can a model with the needed dosage of program exposure work with younger children too, in this case adolescents to achieve results similar to those cited can be very aged 10-16. Participants in the after-school program difficult. In addition, it would be good to have a better were taught to identify violent responses and learned sense of the gender-disaggregated effects of CBT. Only to address those behaviors. The authors hypothesize researchers in the El Salvador intervention report the that the observed reduction in violence and disruptive heterogeneous effects of the intervention (Dinarte Diaz behavior, and improvements in academic outcomes, & Egana-delSol, 2019), with several caveats for why the are due to improved emotional regulation (one of the indication that boys seem to benefit more than girls SEL core competencies). In addition to the positive may be misleading. results for participants, the program found positive spillover effects for children who didn’t participate at these schools (Dinarte Diaz & Egana-delSol, 2019). Option 3. Developing capacity and resilience at the community level In Sierra Leone, CBT was used effectively to Interventions that build up community structures are improve the mental health, behaviors, and academic a proven investment in strengthening resilience for performance of war-affected youth aged 15-24. populations should tensions lead to violent conflict. The program consisted of a 10-session group training, Developing capacity at the community level fosters with some participants in school and some out of resilience, which can be an asset to communities that school. The authors conducted baseline and follow-up are prone to violence. This could include empowering data collection on the following dimensions: emotion community leaders (such as health experts and regulation, psychological distress, pro-social attitudes/ teachers) in setting up and administering ECD services, behaviors, social support, functional impairment, and using grants. In addition to making service delivery post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Betancourt et al., more tailored to the populations served, providing 2014), all of which are associated with the CASEL core autonomy to the authorities closest to beneficiaries can competencies of SEL. The intervention had significant help change perceptions of exclusion and break cycles positive effects on emotion regulation, prosocial of distrust, marginalization, and possible radicalization. attitudes/behaviors, social support, and reduced functional impairment. On academic outcomes, the intervention improved school enrollment, school Option 4. Curricular approaches that use attendance, and classroom behavior. Interestingly, multi-perspective history, encouraging after youth participated, they were re-randomized to tolerance and awareness of human rights receive an education subsidy (or not). The subsidy had How contentious topics like history are taught can no effect on their mental health or classroom behavior. be more important than what is taught. Teaching The authors conclude that the significant effects on subjects in a way that fosters critical thinking is a mental health and functioning, coupled with the long- particularly promising approach. Evidence exists on term school-related effects, show that CBT could be the effects of using “multiple-perspective history” a very promising approach for preparing war-affected approaches, whereby students are encouraged to youth for educational opportunities. Similar research in critically analyze information from conflicting sources.74 Liberia, with men involved in crime and violence, also The approach has been shown to have significant showed promising results for how CBT can change impacts on students’ attitudes as well as their behaviors, especially for men, in FCV settings (Blattman perceptions of past events in Northern Ireland75 and et al., 2017). CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 65 Israel/Palestine.76 These studies have also shown that PILLAR 2. REMAINING ENGAGED curricula and pedagogical approaches that encourage DURING CONFLICTS AND CRISES students to actively construct their own historical meaning from a variety of sources can help shape Option 1. Child protection as a their perceptions of out-group members and can even improve intergroup relations. precondition for a safe learning environment Option 5. Teaching both the language of The first priority during active violent conflict is child safety, security, and well-being. Child the home and the language of power protection services are best handled by specialized Language of instruction debates are difficult to entities (whether governmental or non-governmental) manage and fraught with tension, but with their that are equipped to respond to the complex needs potential upside to the learning agenda, they of war-affected children. These services should operate should not be avoided. Experiences in Myanmar in tandem with the education system, with clearly and Turkey show an important relationship between delineated roles, so that actors know where their language acquisition and social cohesion. In Turkey, responsibilities begin and end. Unfortunately, such language acquisition efforts in non-formal education services are rarely available in a systematic way in FCV settings helped Syrian refugees transition into Turkish situations. Hence teachers should be equipped with a schools. In Myanmar, discussions on language policy minimum package of support to be able to respond helped develop public awareness of the importance of to urgent child protection needs that may arise. There instructing children in their mother tongue, starting at are two entry elements to this minimum package: basic a young age. training in first aid for teachers, tailored to the context, and first aid kits, to be deployed to all schools. Option 6. Skills development for youth Apprenticeships and vocational training can help Option 2. Use gaming technology keep young people in school – especially those to improve learning in at risk of being recruited into gangs or violent conflict-affected areas conflict – and can help them regain the confidence Several creative efforts to keep children focused of parents. Offering short-term skills development on learning have emerged that warrant further and apprenticeship programs for out of school exploration, including more adaptation, evaluation, youth can help keep them connected to schools, and being taken to scale. Curriculum-based gaming or otherwise engaged in constructive skill-building approaches to learning are designed to help children activities. The development of rural apprenticeship learn progressively in math and reading. In addition programs is one example. These should be designed to the games, the tablets offered psychosocial in close consultation with local authorities and farmers’ support messaging. Evidence from Sudan shows that organizations to ensure that they respond to the skills participants were able to double their math scores needs and the specificities in agricultural production and after 6 weeks in the program, with both boys and livestock of the area, as well as related activities such as girls showing significant improvements. Effects were processing and transformation of agricultural products, largest for the children who were furthest behind. The maintenance and repair of equipment, machinery, evaluation also showed improved confidence for both irrigation and water management techniques, motor boys and girls. The program has since been expanded pumps, solar panels, and craftsmanship – all examples to Uganda, Lebanon, Jordan, Chad, and Bangladesh.77 of productive activities in rural areas that youth could be meaningfully engaged in. 66 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Option 3. Think outside the bricks – PILLAR 3. HELPING COUNTRIES non-formal education TRANSITION OUT OF FRAGILITY When schools become targets in situations of political violence, alternatives need to emerge, Option 1. Higher education programs including homes, virtual spaces, and other safe that develop skills and capabilities community spaces. For example, in Sierra Leone, needed for reconstruction children gathered in “listening groups” when schools State building as part of long-term reconstruction were closed, where a facilitator helped guide students efforts requires a labor force with a continuum of through a radio instruction program. The school skills, including highly skilled workers. This means closures imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic have helping higher education institutions train and graduate renewed interest in interactive radio instruction in the labor market participants that the workforce will several countries.78 need in the medium to long term. In Afghanistan, the Higher Education Development Project has a core Another alternative to formal schools is “learning thematic area to increase access to priority degree circles,” which can be quickly established to provide programs for economic development. The project also services to children who are otherwise out of school. seeks to ensure that labor market entrants are properly First introduced in Colombia for children internally qualified by improving university faculty qualifications displaced by violence, learning circles seek to ease the and quality assurance systems, as well as stimulating transition for children from the streets into schools. The research that will inform future economic development. focus is on acquisition of basic skills, while providing counseling and social services for children that need them. The pedagogic approach seeks to mimic some Option 2. Strengthen Community- aspects of school, such as the academic calendar, parts School Relations Through Shared of the grading system, and extracurricular programs. In School Governance the medium term, this approach is beneficial to schools Post-conflict reconstruction efforts can invest in the too, as it eases the reintegration of these students into governance and management capabilities of the formal schools. authorities located closest to the populations they serve. As part of the Education Resilience Approach Option 4. Provide psychosocial support Program, the Bank Group studied the situation in to children and teachers Mali, to see how education investments could further Teachers are also victims of violence, whose strengthen community governance arrangements that psychosocial needs must be attended to. A teacher’s were in place. The report concluded that Mali had a well-being, strongly associated with socio-emotional school-based managed structure (known as Comité de competence, is critical in FCV settings. This can be Gestion Scolaire, CGS) that could be strengthened to developed through programs that provide coaching and further the long-term mutual support that had emerged other forms of professional development. Peer coaching between schools and communities during the crisis. using a learning circle approach has been delivered The CGS was well positioned to help make decisions in the Democratic Republic of Congo and in Kakuma around issues of safety, social and emotional well- Refugee Camp in Kenya, where it was considered to being, and the quality of learning. Bringing together have a positive impact on teacher well-being. Other parents and other community members to discuss these promising professional development programs are issues helped identify activities that would improve underway in El Salvador (FHI 360) and Gaza (War Child social cohesion and ensure that the right policies were Holland) to support and better understand teachers’ in place for language of instruction, girls’ education, well-being. Programs that provide training in self-care and so on. techniques, psychological first aid, and practical tips to prevent stress and burnout, when combined with peer support and social and spiritual activities, may also reduce psychological distress and promote teachers’ well-being. These can help teachers reduce their own stress and build effective coping strategies, so that they are better equipped to support their students.79 CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 67 Option 3. Strengthening the social with resources specifically adapted to refugee students. While still being implemented at a small scale, contract by implementing national examples abound following a similar model of pre- free education policies with loading content onto tablets that can function offline. third-party providers For instance, several programs based on Syria’s national As nascent governments seek to solidify their curriculum are being rolled out to refugees across the transition to stability, reinforcing the social contract Middle East, including the Pi for Learning Initiative led by delivering social services to the poor is a core by UNICEF in Lebanon, the Learn Syria project by The strategy to spark a virtuous cycle of confidence- Rumie Initiative, and programs with resources from building measures. However, in many instances, while Nafham and Tahrir Academy. states may find ways to finance services, delivering them requires implementation capacity that many Option 3. Alternative education institutions on the cusp of fragility do not have. In initiatives can use milestones as an Haiti, the government’s tuition waiver program sought to reduce costs for households to send their children on-ramp into national systems to school, boosting enrollments nationwide.80 Linked For protracted situations of forced displacement, to this effort was the incorporation of school feeding, national host country systems often become the only which also helped increase people’s confidence in its viable option for sustainable provision of education government’s ability to provide services. In both cases, services. Several elements can help refugee and IDP while the financing was provided by the government, children transition from temporary learning situations services were delivered through third parties. into more permanent schools. In Turkey, MoNE was able to implement a series of measures for Syrian refugees, including Turkish language training, an accelerated PILLAR 4. MITIGATING THE learning program based on the Turkish curriculum, a SPILLOVERS OF FCV remedial learning program for students to follow once in the Turkish public schools, and tutoring. For Escuela Option 1. Use displaced teachers as Nueva’s learning circles in Colombia, sessions are resource for students structured around the same school calendar, use similar evaluation frameworks, and base core activities on the Teachers living as refugees and IDPs are an essential national curriculum. resource in helping children transition into their new surroundings and mitigate learning loss. Syrian teachers in Lebanon and Turkey were deployed Option 4. Curricula that focus on to temporary arrangements to facilitate children’s elements of inclusion learning, focusing on the home-country curriculum and When curricula speak to both host and refugee/ teaching in Arabic. However, displaced teachers often IDP populations, the prospects for social cohesion face obstacles of their own, especially labor regulations improve. In both South Sudan and Somalia, efforts to that may impede their access to the classroom, or incorporate peacebuilding into the national curricula restrict the possibility of remuneration. Exemptions created a more inclusive learning environment by for refugee teachers to be able to serve should be recognizing the experiences of children and adolescents integrated into the Bank Group’s policy dialogue with affected by conflict.81 This is consistent with other host governments. studies that underscore the importance of designing curricula that are culturally relevant for refugees and Option 2. Complementing curricular IDPs, whereas not doing so renders learning more approaches with learning resources from difficult and leads to students withdrawing from the the home country classroom.82 To limit the learning loss that accompanies forced displacement, education interventions should use resources from the home country wherever possible. Technology can help. Several initiatives have been rolled out to help complement formal education 68 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE ANNEX 2. EXAMPLES OF RISKS & MITIGATION MEASURES Preventing Violent Conflict and Remaining Engaged during Helping Countries Transition out of Mitigating the Spillovers Interpersonal Violence Conflict and Crises Fragility of FCV Risks Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Social Education may Social targeting, Vulnerable Building High opportunity Demand-side Stigma, trauma, Focus on serve as a trigger ethnic and populations trust through costs and measures (like stereotyping, psychosocial of division and gender-sensitive “exit” feeding, high risks for transportation, lack of trust support/SEL, fragmentation curriculum, vaccination, communities to scholarships)and among working with between those and physical safety measures re-engage community- communities; CBOs and who benefit and infrastructure based services impact on host NGOs those who are mainstreamed communities excluded from learning Environmental Climate crisis, Building Services, Low- and high- School Safe school Natural and Communities, natural disasters disaster schooling tech solutions rehabilitation infrastructure, man-made NGOs and response interrupted, doesn’t follow strengthening of disasters lead schools may Mismanage- capacity, learning loss, Community- safety standards, online systems to displacement provide ment of natural emergency vulnerable based services school design and bring about psychosocial resources readiness population including doesn’t account further trauma, support systems in groups drop out health, safety, for local conflict services, safe education and nutrition conditions space to in schools through schools Adverse effect children of displacement on host populations and communities Gender GBV/SEA Gender GBV/SEA, Community- Girls are held back Demand-side Girls suffer Provide home- sensitive higher risk of based health, from re-entry interventions, from extra based learning curriculum, dropout for sanitation, e.g., CCT, risks, violence, solutions, train psychosocial girls, early nutrition transportation, trafficking; female teachers, support, pregnancies services school WASH held back from psychosocial empowerment facilities, school to work support -SEL psychosocial at home support /SEL Fiduciary Increased risk Strong focus Fraud, Community Fraud, corruption, Community Fraud, Community of elite capture, on targeting, corruption, elite involvement elite capture, involvement corruption, elite involvement rent seeking participatory/ capture, conflict in oversight, conflict of interest, in oversight, capture, conflict in oversight, transparent of interest, rent contracting rent seeking contracting of interest, rent contracting budget seeking of NGOs and of NGOs and seeking of NGOs and management CBOs CBOs CBOs Institutional High costs of Focus on local Capacities at Strengthening Political cycles Building Uncoordinated Stronger capacity service delivery, and community- the central institutional often lead capacities at programmatic coordination; monitoring based solutions, level may be resilience, to educated, local level, support leads create parity mobile disrupted or capacities at qualified, trained, involving CBOs to parallel between technology- otherwise local level and experienced in monitoring programs, services for based become public servants and NGOs in tensions displaced innovations for dysfunctional replaced delivery between and host monitoring by political displaced communities appointees and host communities Political and Social and Empowering Education Use Unequal access to Work with Serving Find champions governance ethnic divisions local becomes communication quality schooling CBOs, NGOs displaced to help with permeate governments secondary to campaigns and in remote, hard- and religious populations political political and other priorities social media to-reach locations organizations proves messaging, leadership communities with more to focus on gets reinforced to improve politically work to align immediate the role of education unpopular incentives political credit schools, bring services between hosts Safe Schools and displaced Education declaration into populations actors become the political co-opted in the dialogue political conflict CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 69 Preventing Violent Conflict and Remaining Engaged during Helping Countries Transition out of Mitigating the Spillovers Interpersonal Violence Conflict and Crises Fragility of FCV Risks Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Risks Mitigation Sector Regressive Clear targeting, Large disparities Provide training Sector policies Focus on early Exclusion, Lessons from strategies and sector policies needs remain in in emergency lack realism, grades, build discrimination, global best policies lacking equity assessment, emergency response sustainability, foundational displacement practices, local focus; realism demand-based response to local local context, skills, create increase innovations and sustainability interventions, capacities, governments, and may lead space for out-of-school could be conserve and sustained leaving school to unintended innovations populations, brought in implicit forms of monitoring especially management, consequences (PPPs, non-state social conflict, and scaled exclusion vulnerable and use delivery), local violence up through populations out technology to monitoring development of schooling reach out to Negative partnerships options populations impact on host affected by community is Support to host crises and left unattended community disasters education improvement programs is built into refugee response plans Stakeholders Low level of Focus on Local actors, Involvement Local and Local and NGO Support for Stronger transparency, community- traditional of local actors nongovernmental participation education coordination accountability, based authorities and traditional stakeholders are may help of displaced between global and interventions; remain authorities left out of design, sustainability populations is and local participation, working with uninvolved, and through implementation, and monitoring not maintained, solutions leads especially by traditional crisis response outreach and and monitoring of services; GBV, not efficient, to sustainable, minority groups (ethnic, programs lack advocacy SBV kept in or lacks inclusive religious) local trust, check; learning formalization systems with authorities impact improvements solid gains sustained Technical Curriculum Qualitative Service delivery Designs that Institutional Bundle TA Technical design choices, analytical work strategies that allow for capacity building services with solutions language of to understand incorporate early course that relies on TA other sectors to premised on instruction and the hidden unreliable correction, that is not readily make capacity unrealistic other barriers curriculum EdTech flexibility available building political can aggravate at work interventions to avoid contracts more conditions conflict and even restructurings attractive violence due to minor changes 70 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE ANNEX 3. EDUCATION PORTFOLIO ON SITUATIONS OF FCV Region Country Project Name Approval Closing $ AFR Burkina Faso Education Access and Quality 04/02/2015 07/31/2020 50.0 AFR Burkina Faso Higher Educ Support Project 07/10/2018 09/30/2023 70.0 AFR Burundi Early Grade Learning Project 05/24/2018 09/15/2023 40.0 AFR Cameroon Education Reform 05/01/2018 12/29/2023 130.0 Support Project AFR Central African Republic Emergency Basic Education 06/06/2018 06/30/2023 25.0 Support AFR Chad Education Sector Reform 06/21/2013 10/31/2020 65.0 Project P2 AFR Chad Skills Dev for Youth 06/21/2019 10/31/2024 50.0 Employability AFR Congo, Democratic Qual. & Relevance Sec. & 05/26/2015 12/31/2021 200.0 Republic of Tertiary edu AFR Congo, Democratic Education Quality 04/18/2017 02/28/2021 100.0 Republic of Improvement Project AFR Congo, Democratic Emergency Education 06/15/2020 12/31/2024 800.0 Republic of AFR Congo, Republic of Skills Development for 09/17/2013 03/31/2021 10.0 Employability AFR Congo, Republic of Education Sector 04/28/2016 06/30/2022 30.0 Support Project AFR Gambia, The Education Sector 03/28/2018 12/31/2022 30.0 Support Program AFR Guinea-Bissau Quality Education Project 07/31/2018 10/31/2023 10.7 AFR Liberia Getting to Best in Education 05/17/2018 06/30/2022 11.1 AFR Liberia Improving Results in 07/02/2019 11/30/2023 47.0 Secondary Education AFR Mali Skills Development and 06/27/2014 06/30/2021 63.0 Youth Employment AFR Mali Higher Education 05/07/2015 12/31/2020 33.0 Support Project AFR Niger Skills Development for 04/30/2013 11/30/2022 80.0 Growth Project AFR Niger LIRE 04/06/2020 04/30/2026 140.0 CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 71 Region Country Project Name Approval Closing $ AFR Nigeria Better Education Service 06/20/2017 10/31/2022 611.0 Delivery for Al AFR Nigeria Inno.Dev and Effec in Acq of 02/18/2020 06/30/2025 200.0 Ski (IDEAS) AFR Sudan GPE Accelerated Fund 05/14/2020 02/28/2021 11.6 AFR Mali Improving Education Quality 02/23/2021 06/30/2027 80.0 and Results AFR Mozambique MozSkills 09/08/2020 12/31/2025 104.0 AFR Sudan GPE2 11/10/2020 04/30/2025 61.5 AFR Nigeria Edo BESST PforR 08/25/2020 12/31/2024 75.0 AFR Burkina Faso Education Access and 08/25/2020 # 100.0 Quality AF AFR Cameroon Secondary Educ and Skills 07/16/2020 12/31/2025 125.0 Development AFR Nigeria AGILE 07/28/2020 07/31/2025 500.0 AFR Congo, Republic of Skills Development for 12/17/2020 # 15.0 Employability AF AFR Mozambique Moz Learning 03/26/2021 12/31/2025 160.0 AFR Liberia Learning Foundations (GPE) 04/02/2021 # 5.6 AFR Cameroon Education Reform 11/24/2020 # 45.0 Support Project AF AFR Central African Republic Education Sector Plan 04/27/2021 # 30.9 Support Project AFR Chad COVID-19 Educ. Emerg. 02/11/2021 # 6.8 Resp GPE Proj AFR Sudan Education COVID-19 Response 08/04/2020 12/31/2021 10.7 EAP Myanmar Decentralizing Funding 05/20/2014 07/20/2021 80.0 to School EAP Myanmar IAQE project 03/03/2020 09/30/2023 100.0 EAP Timor-Leste BEST 04/22/2020 06/30/2025 15.0 EAP Tuvalu Learning Project 06/05/2020 12/31/2025 14.0 EAP Marshall Islands Education & Skills 01/21/2021 01/05/2026 10.0 EAP Lao People's Democratic LEAP 03/18/2021 05/31/2026 30.0 Republic ECA Kosovo Education System 09/10/2015 12/31/2020 7.5 Improvement Project LCR Haiti Providing an Edu of Quality 11/10/2016 10/30/2022 69.0 in HT (PEQH) 72 SAFE AND LEARNING IN THE MIDST OF FRAGILITY, CONFLICT, AND VIOLENCE Region Country Project Name Approval Closing $ MNA Lebanon RACE Support Project 09/27/2016 02/28/2023 100.0 MNA West Bank and Gaza Education-to-Work Transition 05/15/2012 01/31/2022 11.5 MNA West Bank and Gaza Early Childhood Development 12/18/2019 01/31/2025 9.0 in WB&G SAR Afghanistan Second Skills 05/19/2013 06/30/2021 55.0 Development Project SAR Afghanistan Higher Education Project 07/07/2015 12/21/2022 55.0 SAR Afghanistan EQRA 09/28/2018 12/31/2023 75.5 SAR Afghanistan EQRA AF 03/29/2021 # 25.0 SAR Yemen, Republic of Restoring Education and 12/17/2020 12/16/2024 100.0 Learning AFR Africa First ACE Impact 03/27/2019 12/31/2023 32.0 AFR Western Africa African Centers of Excellence 04/15/2014 09/30/2020 89.0 AFR Western Africa Second ACE Impact 11/26/2019 06/30/2024 102.0 SAR Bangladesh Reaching Out of School 10/02/2012 12/31/2020 155.0 Children II MNA Djibouti Expanding Opportunities 09/30/2019 12/15/2024 15.0 for Learning AFR Ethiopia GEQIP-E 12/19/2017 07/31/2022 300.0 SAR Pakistan KP HC Project 06/23/2020 06/30/2025 200.0 AFR Uganda UG-Skills Development Project 04/22/2015 08/31/2020 100.0 MNA Jordan Education Reform Support 06/29/2020 # 122.0 P4R AF MNA Jordan Education Reform 12/05/2017 05/31/2025 200.0 Support Program CONCLUSION & ANNEXES 73 ENDNOTES 1  orld Bank Group. 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