Secondary Education in Africa (SEIA) A Regional Study of the Africa Region of the World Bank Jacob Bregman Steffi Stallmeister I nvestment in secondary education (SE) yields First, secondary education is crucial for economic considerable social and private returns.1 And in growth. Globalization, the increasing importance of Sub-Saharan Africa there are four critical reasons ICT in the twenty-first century, and rapid techno- for investing in secondary education: logical change have made knowledge essential for competing in the world economy. Secondary edu- cation provides countries with the skills and knowl- Jacob Bregman is a lead education specialist in the Africa Region of edge needed for economic growth, including fur- the World Bank, and task team leader for the study on "Secondary ther learning and training of professionals such as Education In Africa (SEIA)." Since 1989 he has worked with the World Bank as an education and social sector specialist, where he focuses on technicians, scientists, and entrepreneurs2 (Box 1). education sector reform; secondary education reform in developing Next, secondary education helps to socialize countries; and science, mathematics and ICT education and its related teacher training. young people and target at-risk youth. Because this Before joining the Bank's Africa Region he worked in the Middle age group has the greatest potential for changing East and North Africa, South Asia, and Latin America and Caribbean Regions. He holds a Master's Degree in Organic Synthetic Chemistry its behavior,3 secondary education can be decisive from the University of Groningen and in Science Education from the in fostering positive social and civic values. Technical University of Delft in the Netherlands. Mr. Bregman started as a secondary school science teacher, and Third, secondary education yields considerable lived and worked for eight years in Africa as a professor of chemistry private returns, offering young people the chance and science teacher trainer for Dutch Universities. As project director he contributed to building sustainable education management to acquire attitudes and skills that are unlikely to be information systems, and developing local knowledge systems in developed in the primary grades. This in turn en- science and mathematics disciplines, and the reform of secondary education. Between 1987­1989 he was an independent management ables youth to develop job-oriented skills, partici- consultant and director of studies at the Management for Development pate fully in society, take control of their own lives, Foundation in the Netherlands, and was responsible for developing and managing courses for senior government and private sector officials in and continue learning.4 project management and ICT. Jbregman@worldbank.org Finally, the demand for secondary education, es- Steffi Stallmeister holds a Master Degree in Education from pecially at the lower secondary level, is increasing University of Muenster, Germany, and one in International Affairs rapidly. The dependency ratio -- the number in the from the American University, Washington, D.C. She currently works in the Africa Region of the World Bank as an education specialist, economically "nonactive" to "active" population -- focusing on secondary education. in Sub-Saharan Africa is the highest in the world Before coming to the World Bank she worked as an education and (Graph 1). Since the World Declaration on Educa- training advisor for the GTZ (German Development Cooperation) in Indonesia. During her time in Indonesia she focused on school-to-work tion for All (EFA) (Jomtien 1990), many Sub-Saharan transition, in-service teacher training, and private provision of Africa countries have increased enrollment rates sig- education and training. In September 2002 she will become a World Bank Young Profes- nificantly at the primary level -- and a growing sional. Sstallmeister@worldbank.org number of primary students, notably girls, wish to 1 2 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY This concept paper for the regional study "Sec- Box 1 Human development and technological ondary Education In Africa" (CP/SEIA) is the result advances ofanextensiveconsultationandreviewprocesswith ....can be mutually reinforcing, creating a virtuous circle. Techno- educators and policy-makers in Sub-Saharan Africa, logical innovations in agriculture, medicine, energy, manufactur- as well as with donor agencies and World Bank hu- ing, and communications were important -- although not the only -- man development staff. The review and feedback factors behind the gains in human development and poverty eradi- process will continue throughout the SEIA study cation. The evidence that technology helps development is strong. The decline in mortality rates that took more than 150 years in the implementation. The CP/SEIA was discussed dur- now-developed world took only 40 years in the developing world, ing an internal Bank-wide review meeting6 on June in large part thanks to antibiotics and vaccines. The development 12, 2001, chaired by Birger Fredriksen (Director of oral hydration packets -- a simple solution of sugar and salt that increases the absorption of liquids -- has cut the cost of treat- Human Development Africa Region, AFTHD), and ing diarrhea and has saved millions of lives. The problem remains attended by World Bank task team leaders, sector that the great majority of technological advances are produced by, managers, educators, and peer reviewers. The CP/ and for, rich countries. In 1998, nine-tenths of new patents went to OECD countries, home to only one-fifth of the world's population. SEIA was also presented and discussed during an Of the US$70 billion spent on health research in 1998, a mere international education workshop at the Institute US$100 million went to malaria research. In the unequal distribu- of Development Studies in Sussex (June 2001), tion of technology, there is a market failure, both national and glo- which was attended by education task teams and bal. At the national level, the Human Development Report 2001 stresses proper incentives to invest in research and development, specialists from the African Development Bank with a greater emphasis on education because good research de- (ADB) and the World Bank's Africa Region. Subse- mands a critical mass of well-educated workers. quently, the CP/SEIA was presented and discussed at the ADEA Conference in Arusha, Tanzania in Source: The Economist, July 14, 2001. October 2001. It was also discussed at the joint UNESCO-World Bank workshop on secondary edu- continue to secondary, especially lower secondary, cation, hosted by the Government of Mauritius in schools.5 December 2001, which representatives from some Expanding lower secondary education will mean twenty-eight African countries attended. This re- a greater demand to finance secondary education vised CP version incorporates comments and sug- services. In FY2000 over 13 percent of World Bank gestions made by attendees of these events. lending for education and training in Sub-Saharan Africa was for secondary education, more than twice as much as in FY99. Currently, access to secondary education is limited to a privileged few in SSA; less Graph 1 Age dependency ratio than one-third of this age group is enrolled in sec- (dependents to working population), 1999 ondary schools. And, while expanding secondary education will require a substantial increase in pub- SSA lic resources, many SSA countries face severe finan- MENA cial constraints. The costs of lower as well as upper SA secondary education are high -- and unsustainable LAC if participation is to be increased. Access cannot be EAP expanded without major changes in the way sec- ECA ondary education services are delivered. The OECD changes include modification of structure and or- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 ganization, improved teacher management, alterna- tive modes of delivery, and alternative methods of Source: World Bank, WDI, 2001. financing. SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 3 The CP/SEIA will be widely distributed to African The SEIA study educators, institutions, and donor agencies in order to seek cooperation, guidance, ownership, and Objectives broad collaboration for the forthcoming implemen- The SEIA study's intended audience is (a) policy tation of the seven thematic studies, the scheduled makers in Sub-Saharan Africa, (b) African educators, workshops, and the final summary reports. The (c) World Bank task team leaders, and (d) donor or- purpose is to focus on practical solutions and review ganizations and NGOs. The study will summarize best practices within the African context. The SEIA major lessons for reforms in secondary education study will be executed in two phases (Phase I: De- in Sub-Saharan African countries and draw from cember 2001 ­ June 2003; Phase II: July 2003 ­ June successful reforms in other regions. SEIA will offer 2004). Several bilateral donor agencies and the World a forum for discussion and policy dialogue among Bank pledged financing for the study; however, educators, government policy-makers, and donors funding is still being sought for some activities. The in Sub-Saharan Africa.7 This process-oriented ap- World Bank's SEIA coordinating task team will seek proach will result in (a) ownership and commitment African participation and inputs. Overall SEIA peer amongSub-SaharanAfricanpolicy-makersandedu- reviewers are Messrs. Mourad Ezzine (senior edu- cators for SEIA, and (b) a demand-driven output. cation specialist, AFTH2), Jamil Salmi (sector man- The outcome will be the presentation of evidence ager, HDNED), Vincent Greaney (lead education and best practices that show how expanding and specialist, SASED), Guillermo Hakim (senior labor improving secondary education can help reduce market economist, MNSHD). External peer reviewer poverty and contribute to overall economic and so- isProfessor.KeithLewin, UniversityofSussex.Other cial development in Africa, and what the Bank's role external peer reviewers for the specific SEIA prod- might be in this context. ucts and outcomes are still being sought. The SEIA study's goals are: We gratefully acknowledge thematic studies, workshop, and consultant funding by the Norwe- · Collect and summarize best practices and iden- gian Education Trust Fund, the Dutch Trust Fund, tify sustainable development plans for expand- the French Government, and the Irish Education ing and improving the quality, equity, and effi- Trust Fund. The next step will be to carry out the ciency of secondary education in SSA proposed seven thematic studies, the literature and · Identify policy options for the development of a donor program review, and the scheduled work- strategic agenda for implementation of second- shops for Phase I. These will be contracted out to ary education reforms in Sub-Saharan African international consultants and research institutes on countries a competitive basis. Criteria for selection will include · Make recommendations about how donor agen- close collaboration with consultants, educators, and cies can better coordinate and support secondary research institutes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Three in- education reform agendas in Sub-Saharan Africa. ternal and external reviewers will review each the- matic study and synthesis paper. Efforts to fill the SEIA outputs current funding gap will continue. · Seven thematic studies · Comprehensive database on best practices in sec- ondary education, accessible via the Internet · Summary analyses (about 3 ­ 5) of ongoing and completed country-specific studies in secondary education, depending on existing study pro- 4 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY grams, in cooperation with education task team · "Access, financing, and equity: what are the policy leaders and local educators, and funded by non- options for a sustainable and equitable expansion SEIA resources and financing of secondary education in Sub-Sa- · Literature and donor program review of best prac- haran Africa?" tices and trends in secondary education · "How can education transition processes and re- · Approximately four regional workshops in Sub- lated mechanisms from primary to secondary, and Saharan African countries discussing strategic sec- from secondary to tertiary, be made more equitable ondary education reforms, resulting in summary and efficient in the Sub-Saharan African context?" reports of Phase I (December 2001­June 2003) and · "Governance, management, and accountability at Phase II (July 2003­June 2004). the secondary level: how can Sub-Saharan Afri- can countries connect to current secondary edu- Scope and methodology cation reform trends?" · "Secondary school teachers and school principals: The SEIA study will contribute to existing research recruiting, retaining, and retraining" by Sub-Saharan countries, other international re- · "How can the relevance and quality of curricula, search on secondary education, and ever-growing teaching, learning, and assessment be improved evidence that secondary education is crucial for so- at the secondary level?" cial and economic development. SEIA will be imple- · "Thelinkbetweenhealthandsocialissuesandsecond- mented in two phases: aryeducation:lifeskills,health,andciviceducation" Phase I: December 2001­June 2003. During Phase I · "Secondary science, mathematics, and ICT -- rel- a literature and donor programs review of best prac- evanceandquality:whatarethecostsandbenefits?" tices and research for the seven thematic studies will be carried out, and seven draft reports will be pro- duced. In addition, two regional workshops will be An encouraging amount of research, analytical held to discuss the findings, and materials will be work, and other studies are underway or were pro- made available through a database and the "Second- duced over the past five years. Some examples of ary Education In Africa" website. relevant secondary education work the SEIA study Phase II:July 2003­June 2004. Outcomes of the will build on are: seven thematic studies, the results of 3­5 specific · ADEA.8 ADEA working groups conducted sev- country studies in secondary education, and the eral country case studies on policies, practices, and findings of the literature and donor program review mechanisms relating to the financing of education will be discussed in two regional workshops; final in Sub-Saharan countries9(http://www.adeanet.org). reports will be produced. · IIEP Secondary education project. The goals of this study are to (a) compare country strategies for ex- SEIA aims to expand upon existing analytic work panding secondary education systems and (b) fa- onsecondaryeducation.Thisincludesspecificcoun- cilitate an exchange of information on policy issues. trycasestudiesthathavebeencompletedorarenow The SEIA task team is cooperating with the IIEP underway. The SEIA study will focus on seven the- (http://www.unesco.org/iiep/english/research/ matic studies of the main challenges in many SSA secondary.htm). countries. A comprehensive synthesis of the find- · Demographic and health surveys. Thesesurveysare ings will be prepared at the end of each phase. The nationally representative household surveys with seven thematic studies are: large sample sizes of about 5,000 households. DHS surveys provide data for a wide range of indicators, SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 5 including school enrollment, school attendance, and Box 2 Distance education in secondary reasons for leaving school (http://www. education measuredhs.com). · Strategic directions for IFC10 investments in educa- Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have been using distance-teach- tion. This paper provides a situational analysis of the ing methods to provide a second-level education for many years. most significant trends affecting the education sec- Distance education can be a cost-effective education alternative for students who fail to gain admission to traditional secondary schools. tor in developing countries, and intends to docu- Distance education courses are typically delivered through printed ment the private sector's growing role as a partner self-instruction materials that are supported and supplemented by in education development. radio broadcasts and study centers. The Malawi College of Distance Education for many years provided a good model of this strategy. · The World Bank study on vocational and technical Examination pass rates were low but roughly equivalent to those of education and training in Sub-Saharan Africa, which the traditional schools. Unfortunately, funding constraints forced the includes specific country studies. college to discontinue radio broadcasts and limited its ability to pro- vide materials. Television also can expand access to secondary edu- cation and improve its quality. Telesecundaria is a television-based The study will focus on lower and upper second- rural system in Mexico that offers secondary education as part of ary education, including technical-vocational edu- the national system. Several other countries have adopted the pro- gram, and some are making it available to secondary schools in cation.11 Generally, secondary education covers remote areas to enrich and improve instruction, especially in math grades 7­12/13, including vocational education of- and science. Regional collaboration would result in economies of fered within this range. The terms referring to the scale and drive down cost per student. lower secondary level vary widely: middle, inter- Source: World Bank. 2001. A Chance to Learn: Knowledge and mediate, or junior high school. Depending on the Finance for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Washington, D.C. country, each term may include different grades, studentages,curriculum,andmaybelinkedtoother levels within the system. Upper-secondary level is often simply labeled secondary. This paper will use Expanding access to secondary education with limited the generally accepted terminology. financial resources. Sub-Saharan African countries face the challenge of expanding access to lower and upper secondary education, while improving qual- Thematic studies ity and equity without diverting scarce resources Thematic study 1: Access, financing, and equity: what from primary education. Unit costs at the second- are policy options for a sustainable and equitable ary level are high, averaging several times those in expansion and financing of secondary education in primary schools.12 The costs of lower as well as up- Sub-Saharan Africa? per secondary education are high and unsustain- This study will focus on the following questions: able if participation is to be increased. In order to · How can Sub-Saharan African countries signifi- achieve the goal of expanding access to good qual- cantly increase access to lower and upper second- ity secondary education, Sub-Saharan African coun- aryeducationundersustainablefinancingscenarios? tries must (a) increase the amount of public re- · How can Sub-Saharan African countries provide sources for secondary education and (b) render their incentives for private sector participation in sec- secondary education system more cost-effective. ondary education? The priorities may differ, depending on the eco- · What are cost-efficient examples of distance edu- nomic and social context as well as the current char- cation methods being used to provide and expand acter of the education system. Some countries may access to good quality secondary education? emphasize increasing overall enrollment at either · How can equity in secondary education be im- the lower or upper secondary level, or at both lev- proved and sustained? 6 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY Box 3 Inequality in secondary education Burkina Faso: Educational Attainment, Nigeria: Educational Attainment, ages 15-19 (1999) ages 15-19 (1999) 0.8 1.2 0.7 1 0.6 0.8 0.5 oni tion 0.4 0.6 oportr oporr P0.3 P 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Grade Grades Rich/Male Rich/Female Rich/Male Rich/Female Poor/Male Poor/Female Poor/Male Poor/Female Source: Filmer, Deon. 2000. Educational Attainment and Enrollment Profiles: A Resource Book based on an Analysis of Demographic and Health Survey Data. Development Research Group, World Bank, Washington, DC. els at the same time. Other countries may want to · ALTERING THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATION SYS- increase internal efficiency and quality. There are TEM. Another strategy is to re-examine the struc- trade-offs and balances of costs and benefits, both ture of secondary schooling and how it is seg- at the lower and upper secondary levels. This study mented into more and less specialized cycles. This will identify sustainable financing scenarios for ex- study will investigate if there are efficiency gains panding access to lower and upper secondary lev- when lower secondary is integrated into primary els and explore how these can be brought to scale. education or lower secondary into upper second- Cost-efficient strategies to expand access to secondary ary education. education. Access cannot be expanded without ma- · ALTERNATIVE MODES OF DELIVERY. Alternative jor changes in the delivery of secondary education modes of delivery (e.g., via the Internet or radio) services. Therefore, Sub-Saharan African countries that make use of peer learning, self-instruction, are searching for financially sustainable strategies and distance methods could also reduce unit costs for expanding access to those currently out of school without diminishing quality (Box 2). Non-conven- aswellastolowerunitcostsforthoseenrolled.Some tional modes of delivering secondary education of these strategies are: may help to expand access to secondary educa- · REDEFINING THE ROLE OF THE PRIVATE SECTOR. Some tion in low-population density rural areas. Flex- Sub-Saharan African countries are redefining the ible schooling alternatives may offer a second role of the government vis-à-vis the private sec- opportunity to young adults, recent dropouts, or tor in order to increase access, cost-effectiveness, those unable to attend ordinary schooling. This and to achieve greater equity at secondary level. study will explore best practices where these al- Some Sub-Saharan countries, for example, are ex- ternative forms of delivery offer access to good perimenting with targeted financing mechanisms quality secondary education. (e.g., providing public subsidies to private schools · IMPROVING INTERNAL EFFICIENCY. Improving inter- in Lesotho and matching grants in Botswana and nal efficiency by lowering the high dropout and Tanzania). repetition rates can also reduce costs. The wast- SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 7 age carries significant costs, both social and eco- Box 4 Transition from initial education to nomic. This study will identify ways to reduce working life these inefficiencies. The issue of transition from initial education to working life has been a long-standing policy priority among OECD members. The transi- Expanding access and improving equity. Greater eq- tion from initial education to work is a key stage in the continuing progression of learning and working throughout adult life. Some of uity in the distribution of educational opportuni- the features that contribute to successful transitions are: ties will enable the poor to gain a larger share of · Clearly defined, well-organized, learning pathways and qualifica- the benefits of economic and social development, tion frameworks designed and developed in a lifelong learning process; and contribute to an overall increase in the growth · Attractive and accessible information, guidance, and follow-up rate. Large-scale exclusion from educational op- services for all young people, integrating educational, labor mar- portunities results in slower economic growth, ket, and social counseling; while those with access to skills and knowledge · Institutional frameworks for the organized and continuous involve- ment of and cooperation among all the players at the national, enjoy the benefits of growth.13 However, in many sectoral, and local levels in order to achieve policy coherence Sub-Saharan African countries the secondary edu- and effective program implementation. cation systems perpetuate social and gender in- equalities (Box 3). The poor may not be able to Source: OECD. 2000. From Initial Education to Working Life. Paris. spare their children -- particularly girls -- from household work in order to attend school. Poor households may also not be able to afford educa- tion. The study will investigate which interven- costs of these inefficiencies are significant, and the tions (e.g., scholarship programs, vouchers, im- problems of those who leave early without qualifi- proving school safety, or matching the school cal- cation remain serious. SSA governments have to endar to the local agricultural cycle) are most ef- prepare young people to continue to the next stage fective in expanding access to secondary educa- of education or training, whether in the same or a tion to marginalized groups, such as girls, rural different institution. But many students at the sec- youth, and the poor. ondary level do not receive the guidance to help them plan their futures. Support systems and educational pathways. The Thematic study 2: How can education transition pro- school system can provide services to help students cesses and mechanisms be made more equitable and complete the lower secondary school cycle, after efficient at the secondary level? which students can either find employment or con- · What are successful experiences for improving the tinue their education. During the last years of pri- equity and efficiency of the transition process to mary and the lower secondary cycle, students need and within the secondary education system? support (information, coaching, support for "learn- · How can Sub-Saharan Africa develop and main- ing how to learn") in order to make a successful tran- tain cost-efficient student and parent support ser- sition. During the lower secondary cycle, many stu- vices? dents need to make choices that will affect their pro- · How can transitional problems in lifelong learn- fessional development. In general, secondary school ing be addressed? teachers provide the support services through vari- ousarrangements;andoutsidethesecondaryschool The challenge to improve transition processes. In many the support services are complemented by local la- Sub-Saharan African countries secondary education bor market information and employers and union suffers from high repetition and dropout rates, es- services. pecially among students from poor families. The 8 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY The transition within the upper secondary cycle Box 5 The management of secondary and from upper-secondary to tertiary is even more schools -- Mozambique complex. Secondary schools must provide better job and study information in order to strengthen the Secondary schools in Mozambique generally face management connections to local labor markets and enterprises. problems, though the quality of management varies greatly. The In middle and higher income countries, this led to salary of a school director (regardless of type or size of school) is the development of complex systems of informa- not competitive enough to ensure high quality managers. There are no performance contracts, and the nature of the system does tion and communication with the local universities not inspire personal enthusiasm and commitment. Management is and tertiary education institutes, and with the pro- complicated by the dual (and often triple) shift system. Manage- spective job sources (enterprises, international com- ment training has been limited. Most principals knew of the "Better panies). In many European countries, all secondary Schools" program, but its implementation varies from province to province. schools must now have an institutionalized link Few schools have management committees or school councils, with local companies, and this is included in the with representation from the community and civil society. This weak- School Development Plan. ens the accountability of the school to civil society in general and But in Sub-Saharan African secondary schools, to the local community in particular. Less than 20 percent of sec- ondary teachers are women, and less than 10 percent of school these links are weak -- or do not exist at all -- for a directors are female. This does not create many role models for girl number of reasons: lack of expertise, other priori- students. The sexual harassment of girl students is reported to be ties, teacher working conditions, and school man- an increasing problem and is not being treated as a serious man- agement issue. agement responsibilities. However, providing these services is critical for (a) better functioning of the school in a more realistic framework; (b) improved Source: "Secondary and Secondary Teacher Education Strategic Plan-- Mozambique", Draft, 2000. streaming of students and more rational choices of subject matter for both students and parents; (c) re- duction of dropout and repetition because of better This theme will focus on the following questions: coached and motivated students; (d) improved eq- · What are the needs for governance, management, uity by targeting youth from low-income families; and accountability at (a) central, (b) provincial or and (f) significant reduction of social and health district, and (c) school and classroom levels, and problems, provided the information and support how can these be improved? services focus on these potential problems. · How can decentralized policy decision-making In addition to support services, clearly defined, improve the effectiveness of secondary education open, and coherent learning pathways and qualifi- delivery? cation frameworks can improve transition processes · How can ICT improve decentralized secondary and are the basis for a lifelong learning process (Box school-based management and accountability for 4).14 This study will examine how Sub-Saharan Af- learning outcomes? rican countries can improve the equity and effi- ciency of transition processes in light of severe fi- Institutional capacity.Onereasonthatmanagement nancial constraints and how student and parent and planning capacities are weak in SSA is that support services and educational pathways can be many secondary education systems are managed developed and financially sustained. centrally. Regional and local level school adminis- tration have little flexibility in regard to adjustment Thematic study 3: Governance, management, and ac- of the curriculum to local needs, recruitment of staff, countability at secondary level: how can Sub-Saharan or the involvement of communities, parents, teach- African countries connect to the current reform trends? ers, and students in educational decisions. As a re- SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 9 Box 6 Improving secondary education criteriaforstudent,teachers,schools,schooldistricts, management and other areas of education administration; (c) dif- ferent tasks for education sector professionals in Côte d'Ivoire developed a management information system for sec- both teaching and administration; and (d) elimina- ondary school students that can be used to monitor student and tion of some tasks. All of these imply changes in school results. The implementation began with a communication strat- behavior among stakeholders, and education pro- egy that included posters, information leaflets, stakeholder consul- tation, and an information campaign through radio and television. fessionals at all levels may face new roles and re- Training local technicians in computer and organizational techniques sponsibilities. was also a central part of the implementation strategy. The MIS proved In many OECD16 and developing countries new to be useful for monitoring and managing the schools involved in the pilot project. It highlights the organizational problems that schools approaches are being tested, such as school-based without a MIS have and the possible role of ICT in addressing these management, developing school leaders, and pri- problems. The system provides a means for effective decentraliza- vate administration to enhance the the delivery of tion, which requires detailed information at the local level. education. Some Sub-Saharan African countries, Source: "What Works and What's New in Education:Africa Speaks." such as Gambia, Namibia, and Côte d'Ivoire (Box ADEA, 2001. 6), developed a management information system that uses ICT to improve management and account- sult, teachers and principals may not feel account- ability within the secondary education system. able to local communities, while parents may not Critical questions raised by this study are: Under wish to participate in school affairs. The effective- what conditions are such role, behavior, and power- ness of the secondary education system manage- balance changes at the central, district, and school ment is further constrained because many educa- level successful? How can governance, manage- tion managers, especially principals, have not re- ment, and accountability be improved at all levels? ceived enough management training (Box 5).15 In What is the possible contribution of ICT in improv- addition, the generally weak information systems ing secondary school-based management and ac- are obstacles to effective management of many Af- countability? rican secondary education systems. Data on enroll- The study will also explore successful ongoing ment,learningperformance,teachers,facilities,equip- reform efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa as well as their ment, and finance is often unavailable or unreliable. actual effect on effectiveness and efficiency of the Strengthening governance, management, and account- secondary education system. ability. In order to improve delivery of secondary education, Sub-Saharan African countries have to improve management, governance, and account- Thematicstudy4:Secondaryschoolteachersandschool ability. Accountability affects the country's transpar- principals: recruiting, retaining, and retraining ency and inclusiveness in setting goals, and the na- · How can highly qualified individuals be attracted ture of the goals determines whether system man- to and retained in the teaching profession at the agers have clear directives. Secondary education secondary level? management decides the quality of information, · What are examples of effective incentive and in- policy analysis, and implementation capacities. service training systems for post-primary teach- Sub-Saharan Africa must distribute authority and ers and staff performance in Sub-Saharan African responsibility with the goal of improving account- countries with significant budget constraints? ability and learning outcomes. This process implies · How can governments in Sub-Saharan Africa im- changes in delivery and management (e.g., by us- prove their relationship with unions when imple- ing ICT), including (a) different resource allocation menting secondary education reforms? mechanisms; (b) different performance appraisal 10 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY Graph 2 Student to teacher ratio, secondary, 1997 Box 7 Guinea: Teacher-designed professional development projects 12.4 ECA The goal of the teacher-designed professional development 15.2 OECD projects is to enable teachers to become full-partners in the re- 17.2 form of education in Guinea by initiating and carrying out their MENA 20.7 own professional development projects. With the help of ministry EAP personnel designated as facilitators, team of teachers design 25.4 projects and compete for small grants to carry them out. Those SSA Anglophone 29.8 selected for funding are offered quasi-contracts in which the min- SSAFrancophone istry promises to provide the resources teachers have requested 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 in their proposal and budget in return for their commitments to Source: World Bank Ed Stats. carry out a systematic plan of activities to improve teaching and learning in their classrooms. After being piloted in two regions Shortage of qualified secondary education teachers. and part of a third in the interior of the country, the program is Teacher and nonteaching staff salaries (including being expanded to all other regions. school principals) are the major recurrent expendi- Source: Tatto, Maria Teresa. 1999. "Conceptualization and study- ture in the education system. Because of their im- ing Teacher Education across World Regions:An Overview." Work- portanceintheteachingandlearningprocess,teach- ing Draft. ers and principals play a crucial role in determin- ing the efficiency and effectiveness of public edu- Butattractingandretainingbright,motivated,and cation expenditures. well-trained teachers does not ensure high quality In Sub-Saharan Africa, however, many secondary teaching in the classroom; many other factors affect education teachers are unqualified or too narrowly teachers' performance in the classroom, including qualified (normally, secondary teachers should be incentives for performance, supportive working qualified to teach two subjects at lower secondary, conditions, and opportunities for training and re- and one subject at upper secondary level). In training. In many Sub-Saharan African countries the Uganda, for example, only 28 percent of the second- remuneration systems are based on seniority, not ary teaching force are qualified enough (graduate on actual performance. In addition, many of the degree), about 57 percent need to be upgraded, and work environments in these countries are not con- 15 percent received no training at all. ducive to teaching and learning -- for example, The challenge to attract, retain, and retrain qualified large classes and insufficient teaching materials. teachers. Recruitment (selection), retaining (salary, Ongoing professional and instructional support professional development), and retraining (in-ser- will enhance teaching and learning.17 The question vice training) of teachers and school principals are then arises what role supervisors, unions, and asso- central issues in the growing demand for more sec- ciations play in supporting professional develop- ondary education access, better quality, and equity. ment of secondary education teachers. The knowl- These factors are especially important at secondary edge base on how secondary education teachers are levels, where schools tend to be larger and teachers recruited, accredited, evaluated, and promoted -- are specialized in a few or only one subject. Teach- and how teacher-training programs can be more ing at the secondary education level and managing a cost-effective -- must be improved. More informa- secondary school require different skills and training tion is also needed on recruitment and incentive thansimilaractivitiesinprimaryeducation.Therefore, policies as well as training programs. Finally, this SSA governments need to attract and retain highly study will examine how governments can improve skilled individuals at the secondary level. their relationships with unions when secondary SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 11 "prevocational curricula" or "vocationalization" of Box 8 A land of orphans general secondary education.18 Sub-Saharan Afri- "The boys look at the future with despair. It is very bleak," says can countries are examining how curricula can be Tsepho, at 17 a head of a household of three young boys. He had linked to practical concerns while the costs associ- to quit school, has no job, will probably never get one. "I've given ated with diversification can be minimized. These up my dreams. I have no hope." Many orphans must fend for questionsareparticularlyacuteinlightofthehighun- themselves, struggling to survive. The trauma of losing parents is compounded by the burden of becoming a breadwinner. Most deremployment among secondary school graduates. orphans sink into penury, drop out of school, and suffer malnutri- At the same time, the absorption capacity of the tion, ostracism, and psychic distress. "They hardly ever succeed domestic market in many Sub-Saharan African in having a life," says Siphelle Kaseke, 22, a counselor at an AIDS orphans' camp near Bulawayo. countries is a major constraint, and human capital, in both quantity and quality, must remain in line Source: Time, February 12, 2001. with the demand of the labor market.19 The rel- evance of the curriculum also pertains to such reforms call for fundamental changes in incentive emerging issues as sexual harassment in schools, structures, training, evaluation, and responsibilities violence,andHIV/AIDS(Box8),whichrarelyreceive for both teaching and nonteaching staff. proper attention in the programs. The study will address how to integrate issues of civic education, Thematic study 5: How can the relevance and qual- health, and life skills into mainstream secondary ity of curricula, teaching, learning, and assessment education curricula. It will examine how secondary be improved at the secondary level? education curricula can better reflect modern cur- · How will secondary education curricula and ricula organization and economic trends in SSA. teaching need to change to better reflect (a) mod- Delivering relevant curricula. In many Sub-Saharan ern curricula and curricula organization and (b) African countries, there is too much reliance on rote the economic and social trends in Sub-Saharan learning and a significant lack of relevant and ef- Africa? fective learning materials. The response of many · How can emerging issues like civic education, countries in the region has been to promote com- health, and life skills be integrated into main- puters in schools, but this carries a steep price, and stream secondary education curricula? will not fundamentally change the flaws in the cur- · How can effective and relevant secondary school rent system. In other words, there is a great need to curricula be delivered in a cost-effective way, and introduce relevant curricula changes and explore how can ICT be used to improve learning and possibilities for providing more and better learning teaching in secondary schools in Sub-Saharan materials (school books, extra-curricula materials, Africa? ICT materials, journals, newspapers, and language · How can assessment and examination systems be materials). used to monitor and improve the quality and rel- Although Sub-Saharan African countries can evance of secondary education? profit from the ongoing reforms in many industrial and middle-income countries, many formidable Relevance and quality of curricula. Better links be- obstacles remain. The challenge is to retrain teach- tween secondary schools and the local job market ers in different subjects, to develop new curricula, must be created. Given the high cost of diversifying and to provide new textbooks and learning materi- curricular tracks, governments are searching for als for effective learning to take place. This study ways to augment the vocational relevance of sec- will explore how relevant secondary school cur- ondary schooling, for example, by introducing ricula can be delivered in a cost-effective way in the 12 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY Sub-Saharan African context. It will also review Box 9 Education can equip girls to protect trends in using ICT to improve learning and teach- themselves ing in secondary schools. Monitoring and assessment. Weak monitoring and ! In one district in Uganda, 32 percent of school girls and 15 assessment systems remain major obstacles for im- percent of boys reported being sexually abused, mainly by proved learning outcomes at the secondary level. teachers. ! In South Africa, 40­47 percent of sexual assaults are perpe- Systematic and internationally comparable assess- trated against girls of 15 or younger. ment of learning in secondary education at class- ! 55 percent of adolescent girls in rural Malawi reported being room, school, and system levels is not widespread,20 forced to have sex. Violence and sexual abuse against women and girls is de- and considerable reliance has been placed on pub- pressingly widespread. Girls learn that sexual violence and abuse lic examinations to ensure that the common cur- are an inescapable part of going to school every day -- so they ricula are covered. The examinations then affect the don't go. Education is among the most powerful tools for slowing down and reversing the spread of HIV and reducing the vulner- content and skills covered in school, and teachers ability of women by contributing to poverty reduction, gender equal- gear their teaching to the examinations, which tend ity, and awareness of human rights. to encourage rote memorization. Consequently, stu- dents are given little opportunity to develop skills Source: "A window of hope....education and the global epidemic of HIV/AIDS." Draft, World Bank, 2001. in observation, problem-solving, reasoning, and cre- Human Rights Watch World Report, South Africa, 2001. ativity. And unqualified teachers -- who are often unfamiliar with assessment terminology and pro- cesses -- will require in-service training to learn The HIV/AIDS epidemic is presenting special chal- how to conduct exams and school-based assess- lenges to the education sector: (a) reduction in the ments. This study will explore the impact of assess- supply of teachers; (b) meeting the needs of increas- ment and examination systems on secondary edu- ing numbers of orphans; (c) adapting to new inter- cation and discuss ways to transform examinations actions within schools and between schools and systems into a tool for improving the quality and communities; (d) curriculummodification;(e)altered relevance of secondary education. rolesofteachersandtheeducationsystem;and(f)the planning and management of the system. Thematic study 6: The link between health and so- In addition, violence and sexual harassment are cial issues and secondary education: life skills, health, widespread in Sub-Saharan African schools, and and civic education many parents are reluctant to allow their children -- · Which schooling programs are effective at lower especially their daughters -- to face these risks by and upper secondary levels to supply young attending schools.21 A major concern is youth in the people with good information on health issues 12 ­ 19 age group, which covers lower and upper and civic and life skills? secondary education. In many countries, secondary · Which learning programs are increasing partici- education is characterized by low enrollment, high pation and reducing dropout rates among at-risk dropoutandlowcompletionrates,especiallyamong youth at the secondary level? the poor. Consequently, a large proportion of young people from poor families will not participate in or · How can teachers and staff in secondary educa- complete even lower secondary education. They tion become agents in tackling problems like HIV/ remain excluded and at risk. AIDS, malaria, sexual harassment, and in promot- ing positive civic values? The secondary education system can respond to the social and health crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa by providing information on health issues, fostering SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 13 positive civic values, teaching life skills, and by tar- Box 10 Secondary education in Argentina: geting at-risk youth. For example: targeting at-risk youth · Health education. The secondary education system is a critical entry-point for providing information To address problem of violence, juvenile delinquency, and unwanted to young people on protecting themselves from teen pregnancies, the Province of Buenos Aires introduced a spe- diseases. And people in this age group demon- cial secondary education program for inner city schools: Jornada Completa. The "Full School Day" runs double shifts and aims to strate the greatest capacity to change behavior.22 keep students in the secondary schools, improve the learning pro- Evidence from Sub-Saharan African countries cess, provide more and better equipment, and reduce "dropout (e.g., Senegal, Uganda, and Zambia) and Latin and exclusion" in the secondary learning cycle. A special feature America suggests that comprehensive HIV/AIDS of the program is that the students in each school decide how to spend a small allocation of money, and define a work program or education, provided through formal and non-for- project for this purpose. This has been very successful, and over mal education systems, can help reduce HIV in- 80,000 "student projects" have been processed so far. Students fection levels. appear to feel better "ownership" of their school, and it strengthens the school and classroom environment (lower incidences of vio- · Civic education. Rapid changes in the social, politi- lence, better information, more contact with the parents and com- cal, and economic order have prompted many munities, less street crime by "out-of-school" youth). countries to review their approaches to civic edu- cation, raising questions about the direction that framework of professional ethics for teachers, call- citizenship education should take and, in particu- ing upon educators to refrain from any form of lar,thecontributionofschoolstocitizenship.23 Sec- sexual relationship with students or sexual harass- ondary education can give students the skills and ment, physical or otherwise. The council recently understanding to play an effective role in society, announced that it intends to launch a national in- helpingthemtobecomeinformedandresponsible vestigation into the extent of sexual harassment citizens. However, there is little up-to-date infor- and abuse of pupils by teachers.25 The question mation about civic education for young people in then becomes what role teachers and their pro- Sub-Saharan Africa, and how civic education is fessional associations can play in tackling prob- integrated into the curricula at the secondary lems like HIV/AIDS, malaria, sexual harassment, level. This study will review trends of what role and in promoting positive social values. secondary schools play in initiating African young people into their communities. Although secondary education can certainly play · Life skills and youth-at-risk. Secondary education a key role in addressing the social and health crisis can contribute significantly to addressing the in Sub-Saharan Africa, examples of good practices problemsofyouthviolenceandsexualharassment are hard to find. More information is needed about (Boxes 9 and 10). Argentina and El Salvador, for effectiveprogramsthataddressthesocialandhealth example, implement programs that try to help at- crisis in Sub-Saharan Africa. The study will explore risk youth from the poorest families to complete what lessons can be learned from these experiences. the secondary cycle. These interventions help young students break the cycle of missed chances Thematic study 7: Secondary science, mathemat- and exclusion, and give them an opportunity to ics, and ICT (SMICT): relevance and quality: what develop skills for a better life. In addition, address- are the costs and benefits? ing sexual violence in secondary schools is cru- cial for increasing enrollment rates among girls · How can Sub-Saharan African countries make and in the fight against HIV infection. The South their science, mathematics and ICT education at African Council for Educators,24 has distributed a secondary level (a) high-quality, (b) cost-efficient, and (c) relevant? 14 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY Box 11 Science teaching practices in southern Africa What do we know about the actual patterns of teaching and learning -- the curriculum-in-action -- in science classrooms in the southern African region? Although most of the information is anecdotal, the overall impression is unfavorable. Especially because of the poor socioeconomic situation and its negative consequences for teaching conditions, science education has only deteriorated over the last decade in most African countries. Many obstacles, e.g., shortage of qualified teachers, inadequate textbooks and facilities, weak communications networks, and conflicting policies still stand in the way of effective science education programs. In particular, the quality of the science education teaching force leaves much to be desired. There are a few striking examples from different countries: · In Botswana 56 percent of science and mathematics teachers are expatriates; · Only about 15 percent of Namibian junior secondary teachers and 50 percent of senior secondary teachers can be considered qualified; · Nearly 60 percent of science teachers across seven provinces in South Africa have no accredited training in science. A variety of teacher education strategies have been tried but have shown limited results. In line with a systemic view of educational change, the entire teacher education system needs to be addressed by providing professional development opportunities for teachers. Sources: Leo de Feiter, Hans Vonk, and Jan van den Akker. 1998. Towards more effective science teacher development in Southern Africa. VU University Press, Amsterdam. · In the African context, which curricula organiza- an integrated science subject. The latter would in- tion should be applied (integrated, general sci- clude relevant links with environmental science. At ence, single subjects) and at what point should theupper-secondarylevel,thechoicesarewhenand specialization occur (core curriculum vs. electives) how science subjects will be taught and by which in view of the limited resources and the severe teachers. shortage of teachers? The choices will have repercussions for the train- · How can ICT be taught in secondary schools in ing, certification, and management of science teach- Sub-Saharan Africa? ers. Many secondary schools in Sub-Saharan Africa cannot offer biology, chemistry, and physics as sepa- Mathematics and science education are a basis for rate subjects at the same secondary school because science-based knowledge and skills.26 And attain- of a severe shortage of science-oriented teachers. In ing high levels of scientific literacy is crucial in the addition, the choices about the science curriculum new knowledge economy. Even those jobs not di- will have important consequences for the second- rectly linked to science and technology often require ary school infrastructure, i.e., science laboratories. abilities (creative thinking, rational logic, and prob- Science laboratories and their equipment are one of lem-solving skills) that correlate with a good science the more expensive budget items. and mathematics education. In many Sub-Saharan In order to make balanced decisions, more infor- African countries, however, the quality and rel- mation is needed on best practices, and experiences evance of the subjects at secondary level must be like the "Secondary School Science Project" (Zim- significantly improved. This study will survey ways Sci) in Zimbabwe or the "South African Schools in which Sub-Saharan African countries can im- Online Project" as well as from other countries. This prove the quality, cost-efficiency, and relevance of study will look at how and when these subjects are their science, mathematics, and ICT education at the being taught in secondary schools. It will map out secondary level. the costs and benefits of science education and ICT Teaching SMICT and teachers. Secondary education at the secondary level.Thestudywillalsolookatcosts systems in Sub-Saharan Africa face important and sustainability of science laboratories and equip- choices in science and mathematics education. In ment, and will survey trends and cost-effective expe- lower secondary education, the choice is whether riences in science teacher training and certification. the sciences will be taught as separate subjects or as SECONDARY EDUCATION IN AFRICA STRATEGIES FOR RENEWAL : 15 Equipping students with ICT skills. Throughout the bilateral as well as multilateral donor organizations. world, ICT is seen as a tool for educational transfor- Educators from Sub-Saharan Africa and World Bank mation. It can be brought into the schools in three staff will serve as peer reviewers of the thematic ways: (a) as a tool for delivery of information and/ studies as well as the two synthesis papers. or services, including school administration; (b) as All Sub-Saharan African countries are invited to a tool to teach other subjects,27 or (c) as an academic participate in the SEIA study. The SEIA core team curriculum subject to equip the students with skills wouldagreeupontheSEIA-relatedresultsfromspe- for the knowledge economy. This study will exam- cific countries, and outcomes would be discussed ine the latter aspect of ICT at the secondary level. during regional Sub-Saharan workshops and con- ferences, and be included in the final SEIA reports. Country SEIA action should include (a) a clearly Methodology and expected output identified local team with formal responsibility, (b) a local "team coordinator," and (c) adequate local SEIA will be implemented in two phases. Sub-Sa- resources. The following is a "choice menu" for haran African educators and policy-makers will be countries to consider: consulted extensively throughout both phases. The · Implement a comprehensive study of the second- SEIA study aims to produce a "road map" for sec- ary education sub-sector, similar to the SEIA seven ondary education reform, taking into account the thematic studies. A local team would execute the intended audience, and helping its users to find rel- study. On request, the SEIA core team will pro- evant information, the main trends, and best prac- vide advice. tices. The SEIA study will continue to evolve over · Select one or more specific thematic studies that time -- the key is to provide relevant information have particular relevance for the country and at the right time, structured in a way to make it ac- carry out a countrywide study for inclusion in the cessible for the intended audience. It is also impor- final reports. tant to recognize that (a) there are many effective · Work with one or more of the universities or in- solutions already applied in Sub-Saharan African stitutions contracted by the SEIA team to execute secondary education systems as well as in OECD one of the specific thematic studies, and indicate countries; (b) secondary education systems are dy- how this will be coordinated and supported by namic and constantly changing; and (c) many use- the local team. Local educators and institution ful studies dealing with various secondary educa- should be appointed to prepare and participate tion issues have been produced in the past decade, in surveys, local research, and data collection. The and many more are under development. Therefore, country would finance these activities. the results of this SEIA study will build on the work · If a country has already completed a study of the of others. secondary education sub-sector, a local team could The World Bank seeks cooperation with African submit existing country-specific secondary edu- educators and institutions to carry out SEIA. The cation studies to the SEIA core team. The goal thematic studies will be contracted out to interna- would be to place the study in the regional SSA tional consultants and research institutes on a com- and international contexts, and compare the les- petitive basis. One criterion for selecting consultants sons with those from other countries and regions. will be their close collaboration with consultants and · Organize and execute regional Sub-Saharan Af- research institutes in Sub-Saharan Africa. This ap- rica (SSA) workshops and international confer- proach is intended to build on and strengthen the ences to discuss the results of the studies and pre- research capacity within the region. The World Bank pare a SSA regional Secondary Education Action will also seek technical and financial assistance from Plan. 16 THE WORLD BANK SEIA REGIONAL STUDY Costs and financing The overall cost is estimated at about US$1.4 mil- lion. The World Bank, the Norwegian Education Trust Fund, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Dutch Trust Fund, and the Irish Trust Fund will provide financing. Negotiations with other donor agencies are underway to fill the financing gap.