32465
74 LCSHD Paper Series
Department of Human Development
Colombian Higher Education in the
Global Market
Isabel Cristina Jaramillo
Patricia Garc�a Zu�iga
Andreas Blom
July 2002
The World Bank__________________________
Latin America and the Caribbean Regional
Office
Human Development Department
LCSHD Paper Series No. 74
Colombian Higher Education in the Global Market
Isabel Cristina Jaramillo
Patricia Garc�a Zu�iga
and
Andreas Blom
July 2002
Papers prepared in this series are not formal publications of the World Bank.
They present preliminary and unpolished results of country analysis or research
that is circulated to encourage discussion and comment; any citation and use of
this paper should account of its provisional character. The findings,
interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the
authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, its
affiliated organization members of its Board of Executive Directors or the
countries they represent.
Preface
The Government of Colombia is examining options for improving the higher education
sector over the next decade. As part of that process, the World Bank, at the behest of the
Government, undertook an assessment of the state of tertiary education and made
recommendations on how its funding, governance, structure, and scope could be
reformed to better meet the needs of the country and the challenges it will face in a global
market economy. The Bank's analysis will become available in a sector study later in
2002.
Five background studies focussed on issues identified as important for the growth and
development of tertiary education in Colombia. The purpose was to move towards
operationalizing the substantial knowledge base which has been created about Colombian
tertiary education over the last decade. The paper, Colombian Tertiary Education in the
Context of Reform in Latin America, by Jos�-Joaquin Brunner, analyzes the underlying
causes behind the underdevelopment of Colombia's higher education system, the
challenges it is currently facing and the transformations and policies that could be
implemented to forge the necessary changes. The concern about quality in tertiary
education and the mechanisms in place to ensure quality in Colombia are discussed in the
fourth paper Quality Assurance in Colombia, by Robin DePietro-Jurand and Maria-Jos�
Lemaitre. The challenges for Colombia's national innovation system could not be
underestimated. In Science and Technology: Status and Perspectives, Natalia Agapitova,
Lauritz B. Holm-Nielsen and Goga Vukmirovic demonstrate that while all of the
essential elements of an innovation system are present in the country, due to a lack of
finance, a poor scientific base, and limited labor competencies, the national innovation
system is substantially underdeveloped and incoherent. The marketplace for knowledge
is global. How does Colombia fare in this market? Over the last decade, foreign
institutions have begun to play an ever expanding role in the Colombian market for
higher education, migration of Colombian graduates (brain drain) is on the rise, and
globalization in general posing a challenge to Colombian higher education. These issues
are discussed in the paper Colombian Higher Education in the Global Market, by Isabel
Cristina Jaramillo, Patricia Garcia and Andreas Blom. The economic opportunities are
dealt with in Economic Perspectives of Higher Education by Andreas Blom and Thomas
Hansen who investigate two central markets surrounding higher education in Colombia:
the market for higher education itself and the labor market for workers with higher
education. Finally, the seventh paper by Arthur Hauptman, Reforming Student Financial
Aid in Colombia: Issues and Alternatives examines the student aid structure in Colombia
and recommends principles to guide its reform.
We have decided to make these studies available as LCSHD discussion papers in order to
stimulate thought and debate, which eventually will encourage improvement of
Colombia's tertiary education system.
Lauritz B. Holm-Nielsen
Table of Contents
1. Introduction..................................................................................................................................1
2. Towards a Global Market for Higher Education .........................................................................2
3. Brain Drain...................................................................................................................................2
4. Internationalization ......................................................................................................................3
5. Political Commitment..................................................................................................................4
6. Student Exchange.........................................................................................................................6
7. Curricula Activities......................................................................................................................9
8. International Networks and Research Collaboration .................................................................10
9. Conclusions................................................................................................................................14
References .................................................................................................................................................. 16
Annex I: The Knowledge Spiral................................................................................................................. 18
Annex II: Brain Drain................................................................................................................................. 19
Annex III: Indonesia: the University Research for Graduate Education Project........................................ 20
Annex IV: Patterns of Academic Collaboration......................................................................................... 21
LCSHD Paper Series.................................................................................................................................. 23
1. INTRODUCTION
Two concepts lie at the core of this paper, internationalization and globalization of higher
education. Following the definitions of Knight (1999) these concepts differ from each
other, but are, at the same time, intimately linked.
Globalization is understood as increasing flows of technology, investments, knowledge,
people, values, ideas, etc. facilitated by new communication technologies. This paper
demonstrates that the current globalization process has significant implications for the
higher education sector in Colombia. Hence, higher education institutions in Colombia
have come under pressure from foreign universities, who use the Internet as a tool to gain
access to the Colombian market for higher education. Moreover, globalization has
revitalized the issue of brain drain, which in the case of Colombia has translated into a
significant loss of skilled labor.
Internationalization, on the other hand, can be seen as a strategic response to
globalization. In the words of Knight, internationalization is defined as a process of
"integrating an international/intercultural dimension into the teaching, research and
service functions" of any given education institution (Knight, 1999: 16). Accordingly,
one of the rationales behind internationalization is that higher education institutions will
benefit from exposure to and collaborations with foreign institutions. Therefore,
increasing internationalization is in the case of Colombia expected to improve the
country's access to international best practices and the global pool of knowledge.
Internationalization can happen through various channels. This paper pays particular
attention to the importance of overall government support, student exchange programs
and international networks designed to promote collaboration between academia across
countries, cultures and religions.1
Globalization is a broad concept involving changes at numerous levels. Still, not all of
these processes have equally direct implications on the higher education sector, but two
trends are believed to be of particular importance. First, the emergence of a global market
for higher education poses significant challenges to the institutions that are part of this
educational level Colombia. Second, globalization has fuelled a significant increase in the
outflow of human capital from the country (brain drain).
1 The internalization process depends on the various economic, political, geographic and demographic
factors. For instance, internationalization requires among other factors (i) economic resources to fund
projects, (ii) the existence of communication infrastructure, (iii) political stability to allow bi-directional
exchanges and (iv) language skills. These conditions lie predominantly outside of the tertiary education
sector's sphere and are therefore not treated in this paper.
1
2. TOWARDSAGLOBALMARKET FOR HIGHER EDUCATION
The global market for higher education has been growing significantly in recent years
partly facilitated by the advent of new communication and information technologies and
the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) adopted at the end of the Uruguay
Round (1987-1994). Similar agreements have subsequently spread to several regional
free trade agreements (CHERD, 2001). As a consequence, global trade in higher
education amounted to around US$30 billion in 1999 (11% more than in 1995).
Notwithstanding the GATS agreement, the market regulation remains flawed. Hence a
recent seminar on the issue pointed out that questions of quality assurance and
accreditation remained unsettled (CHERD, 2001).
Colombia has become an important market for international universities, due to limited
coverage and low international exposure of domestic institutions, particularly at master
and doctoral levels. In recent years, the country has seen a growing presence of
international universities from Cuba, Spain, and lately Australia. However, there is
growing concern about the quality of such programs since the accountability issues for
such "multi-national" university programs have yet to be defined. Still, the Ministry of
Education and ICFES have established similar criteria for the establishment of higher
education institutions, national and international alike, which should level the "playing
field".
3. BRAIN DRAIN
"Mobility of highly educated labour is perhaps the most obvious mechanism of
knowledge transfer" (Graversen et al., 2002, see also Annex I2 where the rationale is
further explained). However the flow of people has to go both ways if all countries are to
benefit from labour mobility. Unfortunately, emigration of highly qualified individuals
from developing countries has been a concern for several decades. This also applies to
Colombia. As a consequence, the Departamento Nacional de Planeaci�n (DNP, National
Planning Department) estimated that from 1998 to 1999, 85,000 Colombians with college
studies emigrated. This represented a calculated loss of US$2,365 millions, which more
or less equals the amount invested in higher education over the last three years. The same
study reported that additionally 5,200 persons who attended higher education institutions
abroad did not return to Colombia in the previous three years, from 1999 to 2001 . 3
Colombian communities in the two typical countries of destination, USA and Spain, have
swelled during the last decade where both push-factors for emigration (escalation of the
violent conflict and severe economic recession) and pull-factors (economic prosperity in
countries of destination and easing of immigration laws) have attracted a growing number
2This paper focuses on academic mobility. Nevertheless, productivity is also enhanced by mobility from
research centers to firms and vice versa.
3 The newspapers sources, Tierramerica/Inter Press Service and Diario El Pais differ on the estimated
amount of college emigrants that the DNP study presented, between 80,000 and 85,000.
2
of highly educated Colombians. New Zealand, Australia and Costa Rica are also
emerging as poles of attraction.
A recent study by Carrington and Detragiache (1999) estimated the extent of brain drain
on the basis of 1990 US Census data. In almost all cases, individuals with tertiary
education formed the highest percentage of immigrants. Only countries geographically
close to the US (Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean Countries) had higher
percentages of immigrants with secondary education rather than tertiary. Immigrants
with primary school education were a distant third (7% of total immigrant population)
(see Annex II).4
For Colombia, Carrington and Detragiache found that 8 percent of Colombians with
higher education had opted to leave their home country to work elsewhere. However, the
study draws upon data from 1990. More recent anecdotal evidence suggests that the
Colombian economy has suffered an even stronger loss of highly skilled human capital
over the last decade.5 However, no systematic data is so far available.
Still, emigration does not always represent an absolute loss to the country of origin. Many
people maintain beneficial links to their countries of birth, becoming conduits for
knowledge and technology transfer. Others may re-emigrate later in life, with vastly
enhanced professional skills and experience. Nonetheless, the magnitude of the problems
calls for the attention of policymakers.
Recent economic analysis shows that educated individuals become more productive (and
therefore receive a higher wage) after they immigrate. It is not true, as some economic
theories would hold, that as a scarce resource in the developing world, educated people
command a higher wage premium than they would in the industrialised countries
members of the OECD, where educated workers are already abundant. Instead, it seems
that the presence of other educated individuals (the so-called "critical mass") raises the
productivity of all. An educated individual in isolation--as many find themselves in
developing countries--is not able to capitalise on that education. Individuals with
advanced training (advanced human capital) must be surrounded by their peers in order to
become productive.
4. INTERNATIONALIZATION
Against this backdrop of increasing globalization, this section will review past
internationalization initiatives in Colombia. The section will start by looking at the
political commitment to internationalization of higher education. The subsequent parts
4Some systematic undercounting of immigrants with less educational attainment is inevitable in these data.
5New York Times (April 10, 2001) cites sources that approximately 1.1m Colombians �mostly highly
educated- have left the country in the last ten years. The article estimates that the Colombian-American
community counts more than 430,000 emigrants and is rapidly growing.
3
will review specific initiatives undertaken with a view to promote student exchange and
joint research activities, respectively. Hence, the assumption is that a successful
internationalization strategy will contribute significantly to counter some of the problems
listed in the section above. However, it should be noted that internationalization does not
per se provide the solutions for all of the challenges listed above. The problem of brain
drain for example, must be countered through various policy initiatives. Policy-makers
must not only increase the opportunities available to their brightest citizens, but wider
issues such as political stability could also play a role. Moreover, policymakers could
benefit greatly from access to more comprehensive data, which in turn would allow a
more sophisticated understanding of the problem. These reservations notwithstanding,
internationalization is continually believed to play a significant role in countering some
of these problems. This, in turn is confirmed by recent experience from Indonesia, where
the URGE initiative, which included a number of internationalization strategies, proved
successful in retaining young graduates and strengthening the existing higher education
system (see Annex 3).
5. POLITICALCOMMITMENT
Within a framework of economic openness and competition the Colombian Constitution
from 1991 guarantees the autonomy for higher education institutions, in the sense that
they have the freedom to determine their internal norms, but paying respect to the
ideological pluralism6. These new conditions served to expedite the Ley 30 de Educaci�n
Superior of 1992, becoming the legal framework that has supported the transformation
processes that the Colombian system of higher education has gone through in the last 10
years. Ley 30 establishes internalization as one of the main challenges of higher
education, and assigns the responsibility for this to ICFES. Of further importance for this
study is Article 226 of the Constitution, which establishes the principle of promotion of
the internalization of the political, economical, social, and ecological political relations
on the foundation of equity, reciprocity, and national convenience.
The Social and Development Plans that have oriented the national politics since the
beginning of the nineties have considered education as a central element in the
6 The Constitution of 1991 considers education as the right that a person has and a public service with a
social function: through it, the citizens can have access to knowledge, to science, to technology and to the
cultural goods and values, as it appears in Article 67 of the Magna Carta. Article 27 also defines the
freedom of teaching, learning and research. In fact, the right to education is so important for the
development of a country, that it has deserved a special recognition, not only in the Constitution, but in
international agreements like the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 26), the American
Declaration of Rights and Duties of Men (Art. XII), only to mention a few. Article 69 is important because
it guarantees the autonomy for higher education institutions in the sense that they have the freedom to
determine their internal norms, but paying respect to the ideological pluralism. It is therefore the obligation
of the State to guarantee and assure the necessary conditions that a student needs in order to access and
remain in the system.
4
development of the country. The Governmental Plan of President C�sar Gaviria, the
"Pacific Revolution", tried to adjust the conditions of the country to those of the world. It
was therefore necessary to undertake strategies that could improve the human capital and
the strengthening of the technological and scientific capacity. It was acknowledged that
the creation and consolidation of international networks, participation in groups of
excellence, the development of collaborative international research projects, and the
opening of scientific cooperation and its international exposure all were essential tasks
for Colombia's higher education sector to advance. Unfortunately, this ambitious Plan
has been criticized by the way it was developed despite the need to start important
reforms for the country7.
From 1994 to 1998, President Ernesto Samper established his Plan called the "Salto
Social". Employment and education were the focal points of this navigation map.
Internationalization was obviously considered as crucial, in the sense that it could
generate the bases for a more competitive and stable policy for science and technology.
During this period the Colombian International Cooperation Agency was established to
deal with the financing and the technical aspects of the international cooperation.
Universities, as the plan proposed, needed to have excellent standards of quality if they
wanted to compete and be part of the international academic community. Different
circumstances that affected the national development made it impossible to fulfil what
was set out in this ambitious Plan.
In the last four years, (from 1998 until 2002) under the presidency of Andr�s Pastrana,
education continues to be at the center of the Government's declared policy called
"Cambio para Construir la Paz". There should be a fundamental compromise of society
with education, culture and the preparation for work-life if "we want to have less poverty
and a better human and social capital", as it is defined in his Governmental Plan.
Although the international policy expressed in this Plan, as a way to convert the country
into an active participant of the global process, has been very important, they have not
impacted the international dimension of the Colombian higher education. They have had
a more political and economic characteristic, than cultural and educative. It is evident that
the last decade and the beginning of this century show the need to make important efforts
in order to transform the Colombian higher education system. Globalization has clearly
imposed significant challenges to the higher education sector, which in turn forces the
sector to engage in progressive processes of innovation if they want to improve their
relative competitiveness. However, the often-declared official policy of
internationalization has not led to the development of a coherent action plan.
Even though a coherent policy framework is still to emerge, a number of positive
measures have been taken after all. These in turn include the promotion of student
7Saavedra Guzm�n, Ruth, Castro Zea, Luis, et.al. Planificaci�n del Desarrollo. Bogot�: Universidad
Jorge Tadeo Lozano. 2001. p 236
5
exchanges, initiatives aimed at internationalizing students' curricula and efforts to set up
international networks.
6. STUDENT EXCHANGE
The internationalization process in Colombia has paid considerable attention to student
exchange programs. Financial support for these programs has been provided by the
government and other institutions, and managed mainly through 3 domestic
organizations: Instituto Colombiano de Cr�dito Educativo y Estudios T�cnicos en el
Exterior, ICETEX; Instituto Colombiano para el Desarrollo de la Ciencia y la
Tecnolog�a, COLCIENCIAS; and COLFUTURO. Moreover, various bilateral agreements
provide scholarships funded by foreign sources.
ICETEX
One of the most important governmental institution in charge of credit and scholarships is
ICETEX created in 1957. The Institute selects the beneficiaries of international
scholarships offered by other countries through international cooperation, exchange
programs and other sources, and offered to Colombian students (Chapter I, of Instituto
Colombiano de Cr��dito Educativo y Estudios T�cnicos en el Exterior, ICETEX, Art.
115, Ley 30). Although the amounts of loans for studying abroad have increased since
1995, they have not met the demand for these types of programs. The number of students
benefiting grew from 498 in 1995 to 1002 in 2001, leaving more than 300 applications
unattended in that year alone. The amount of student aids more than tripled in the same
period of time. Hence, in 1995 it totaled Col. pesos 2,173,402, which had increased to
Col. pesos 9,124,000 in 2001. The United States and Europe, particularly Spain seems to
be the most attractive destinations abroad. In the year 2000 approximately 92 students
choose some program in the United States, which represents 16.7% of the total for that
year, while Europe attracted more than 50% with Spain being the country with the
highest percentage, 39.9%. Latin America accounts for approximately the same
percentage as North America with a total of 20% (see table 1). The total number of
students who obtained a loan to study abroad was 551. Most of them have been applied
to Master programs, especially in the areas of Administration and Health.
6
Table 1: Students going abroad by Destination, ICETEX, 2000
Destination Number of students % of total students
going abroad
Argentina 14 2.5%
Brazil 16 2.9%
Costa Rica 12 1.8%
Cuba 13 2.4%
Chile 10 1.8%
M�xico 28 5.1%
Venezuela 9 1.6%
Other in LA 8 1.5%
Total Latin America 110 20%
Canada 20 3.6%
USA 92 16.7%
Total North America 112 20.3%
Spain 220 39.9%
France 34 6.2%
The Netherlands 10 1.8%
Great Britain 24 4.4%
Other Europe 24 4.4%
Total Europe 312 56.6%
Total 551 100%
Source: ICETEX
COLCIENCIAS
Since its foundation COLCIENCIAS has been the lead organization in the promotion and
the development of science and technology activities in the country. It is the only
governmental organization not affiliated with the Ministry of Education, but to DNP
which provides substantial resources to higher education. COLCIENCIAS offers
scholarships to Colombian professionals who want to continue their masters or doctoral
studies abroad. So far 1997 has been the year in which most students received support to
continue their professional training: 151 students for doctoral programs and 42 for
masters programs. These scholarships were part of a credit granted by the Interamerican
Development Bank (BID). These numbers have subsequently dropped considerably.
Hence, only six students received support for Ph.D. programs and two for Masters
7
programs in 2000. The cost of these programs was on average Col. pesos 145.68 million
per student, which is significantly higher than the average cost of domestic post-graduate
students at Col. pesos 9 million.9 This raises the question of whether there is a more
efficient allocation of these resources without sacrificing the international exposure
needed for the Colombian National Innovation System (NIS). The idea of introducing
visiting periods and "sandwich" programs (a period abroad in between domestic studies)
could be an option.10
COLFUTURO
COLFUTURO, a non-profit institution, also offers financial aid for students who want to
pursue either a graduate degree abroad or Colombians wanting to improve their English
skills. It is a joint effort of private firms, public firms and some higher education
institutions, which has also established bilateral arrangements with the Institute for
Housing and Urban Development (Netherlands), the British Council, University of
Alberta (Canada), and the University of Amsterdam. Depending on the credit-scholarship
program, COLFUTURO cancels a percentage of the outstanding debt if the graduate
returns to Colombia, and the percentage also depends on the type of study undertaken
abroad (COLFUTURO organization, 2002). From 1992 to 2001, it has financed 873
students, 80.7% studied masters programs, 13.5% doctorate programs and 5.8%
specialization programs (IELSALC-UNESCO, 2002).
Bilateral programs
The Fullbright Commission of the United States has supported a significant number of
Colombians (2,800) with total or partial scholarships to pursue postgraduate study
programs in the United States. A much smaller number of Americans (approximately
800) have come to the country, as visiting professors or students. During its 45 years of
existence, the Commission has received some US$42 million from the US Government,
and US$5 million from the Colombian government. The specific demand for studies
abroad has changed academic profile over time. Traditionally it was Social Sciences and
Humanities. During the nineties, Engineering and Environmental Sciences have been the
most solicited followed by Financing, Political Science, Humanities and Basic Sciences.
Bilateral programs financed by the British Council, Aliance Franaise, DAAD
(Germany) and the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation have also provided
opportunities for young Colombians to study abroad.11 In the year 2000 these three
8Figure in 1999 constant pesos, calculated by authors.
9 IELSALC-UNESCO. La educaci�n superior en Colombia. Report, April 2002. unpublished. Citing:
Peri�dico Portafolio. "Universidad P�blica: Hacia su sostenimiento". Octubre 15 de 1998, estimates of
Ministerio de Hacienda.
10See Reforming Student Financial Aid in Colombia: Issues and Alternatives by Arthur Hauptman
11More recently, the European Union has also undertaken other initiatives to support student exchange
programs in Colombia.
8
organizations financed 185 students to go abroad, which represents an international
exposure of less than 1% of the students who graduated in 1999.12
7. CURRICULAACTIVITIES
In response to the Strategic Export Plan of 1999-2009, several initiatives have been
launched to internationalize the curricula of higher education programs in Colombia. In
this respect, the "C�tedra de Negocios Internacionales" has been made available, with
support of the Ministry of Education, to students in professional, technological and
technical programs. The program draws extensively on international elements and
experiences, with a view to strengthen the export culture in the country.
Since the establishment of Colombian higher education in international markets has
become so central to the current Government, the Chamber of Commerce of Bogot� has,
in collaboration with the universities in Bogot�, developed an Export Plan for higher
education services. The plan enjoys strong support from the Major's office and
Proexport, the Colombian trade promotion department. The Chamber expects to
consolidate this plan during the year 2002.
In the same direction the government (ICFES through its program Diplomacia
Educativa) shows the general interest on the internationalization process that higher
education institutions have started with the idea of strenghthening the academic
international cooperation with institutions of higher education of neighbouring countries
like Venezuela, Panama, Ecuador in the Andean Region; Guatemala, Honduras and
Nicaragua in Central America and some others in the Caribbean region. The participant
higher educations institutions come from all the regions of the country which have been
present in international events and academic misions in order to exchange experiences
and promote the Colombian higher education institution�s services and programs. Its
main objective is "to positioned Colombian higher education within the Diplomatic and
Academic Community, national and internationally, in order to facilitate the international
process. This process should improve not only the student exchange intended to improve
the quality of education, but also to strenghthen the international relations of our country
and to generate more financial resouces for the country through the academic
ooperation"13.
120.17% if we considered 185 students over the class of tertiary education for 1999, 106,755 graduates.
Source: ICFES Estad�sticas de la Educaci�n Superior 1999.
13participating programs have been certified by the National Council of Accreditation, CNA
9
8. INTERNATIONALNETWORKSAND RESEARCH COLLABORATION
The rationale behind the establishment of international networks is to foster the exchange
of ideas between higher education systems through visiting scholar programs and, related
to that, promote joint research activities. The recently established European Research
Area (ERA) provides a good example of regional cooperation (Box 1:). Therefore, the
ERA experience draws attention to the fact that the pooling of collaborative funds in
areas of common interest greatly increases the perspectives for carrying out excellent
research. Drawing a parallel to Latin America, the European example makes a case for
strengthening research collaboration in the Latin American region. Still, it should be
noted that the ERA has benefited from a highly developed European policy, something
that does not yet exist in Latin America.
The Colombian Network for International Cooperation (RCI) is the most comprehensive
effort undertaken in Colombia. In addition, other network programs have been initiated
with the support of foreign countries, notably the COLUMBUS and ALFA launched by
the European Union.
Box 1: European Research Area (ERA)
The European Union (EU) has long recognized the critical role that research, innovation, knowledge and
human capital. Hence, the desire to improve R&D efforts led the European Council to formally launch the
European Research Area (ERA) at the Lisbon Summit in June, 2000.
The ERA is based on principles of cooperation across countries, to work in a cohesive manner within the
union countries. At the same time, it recognizes country identities, national priorities and launches
complementary projects. Priority is given to research projects assumed to be beneficial to all countries.
Moreover, the target projects are large-scale projects, above and beyond the possibilities of a single country.
ERA also considers building networks of excellence, through the adoption of joint programs and staff
exchanging. It also encloses activities aimed at applying innovation by providing funding and connections
between financing entities and universities for the development of incubators for technology companies.
Infrastructure and human resources continuous improvement is considered key. Society involvement is
another important element, realized through the public dissemination of findings and initiatives to promote
public's knowledge of science and technology. Moreover, the relationship between society and science is
represented in the creation of an European scientific reference system that provides principles for sustainable
development. ERA, even when based on previous experience of building "clusters" and networking, is more
that an extrapolation of previous programs. It can be understood as the European joint effort to build centers
of world class research, linking them trough a network of excellence, and most importantly, sharing an
integrated research program based on their individual national programs.
Source: European Commission, 2000
10
Colombian Network for International Cooperation, RCI
In 1994 a forum convened by ICETEX proposed to create an institutional network
for the Colombian international relations offices. The network was designed to
consolidate, not substitute, the ongoing internationalization activities of the individual
universities. This network, with more than 100 members representing all the regions of
the country, is a non-governmental, non-profit organization, which includes most of the
International Relations Offices of higher education institutions in the nation. RCI which
is coordinated by the Association of Colombian Universities, ASCUN was created in
order to stimulate, promote and strengthen the culture of international cooperation within
Colombian universities. It equally serves as the focal point for cooperation with other
similar international networks worldwide. Furthermore, RCI is supported by ICFES and
ICETEX. It is open network and program activities are funded through grants from its
parent organizations like ASCUN, ICFES or ICETEX.
Four main lines of work characterize RCI:
i. Formation and training in international management
In relation to formation and training in international management, RCI has maintained a
continuous educational program since its creation through workshops, general meetings,
congresses, and seminars to assist institutions in their internationalization efforts. In the
year 2000 with the support of ICFES, it conducted an itinerary program, with the
participation of most of the Directors of International Offices of higher education
institutions. Unfortunately, financial provisions for this type of programs are not
available for the time being.
ii. Information and publication of cooperation opportunities
The Network has published several manuals, which have been the only reference in
Colombia for information about student opportunities abroad, scholarships, credits etc.
Likewise, members of the Network have published "The Guide for International
Students". This is the product of a thorough investigation of the most relevant aspects
relevant to any international student who wishes to come to Colombia to study in any of
the higher education institutions located in the capital, Bogot�. The publication in
English has received the support of the Chamber of Commerce of Bogot� and will be
delivered to the most important national and international organizations involved with
higher education.
The information activities are also supported by a web-page designed to keep all its
members informed of the latest information related to internationalization and
international cooperation.
iii. Academic Mobility
The program Intercambio Acad�mico, T�cnico y Cient�fico � RCI has been designed to
offer opportunities of international exchange to the academic community in general. It
11
was conceived for pre- and postgraduate students, teachers, researchers and
administrative staff and provides for different modalities: Short stays (minimum 8
weeks), semesters abroad and postgraduate programs. The program, which was created
by the Asociaci�n de Universidades de Am�rica Latina y el Caribe para la Integraci�n,
AUALCPI,14 transferred the coordination of the program to the Colombian International
Network which has made a great effort to implement it in several countries. Still the
sustainability of the program is threatened due to lack of financial resources. During the
year 2000, Colombian higher education institutions received around 30 Brazilian
students, professors and researchers. In the year 2001, by contrast, only 3 students from
Mexico and Brazil participated in this program.
iv. Promotion and Exportation of Colombian Higher Education
Along with the initiatives generated by the Government, RCI has worked permanently on
how to work closely and in cooperation with other institutions and organizations of the
region, particularly with Central America, the Caribbean and the Andean Region. This
work has had the support and the cooperation of different Governmental organizations
along with the Chamber of Commerce, which has identified Bogot� as the pilot project in
order to gain some experience and then extend it to the rest of the country.
Although the network has gained nationwide recognition, significant barriers exist. The
difficult situation that the country is going through does not permit a sustained exchange
program. The image of Colombia abroad and the economic recession have a dramatic
impact on international collaboration and consequently on higher education institutions.
Other barriers to international collaboration include the existence of restrictive emigration
politics, inflexible legal norms, rigid curricula and lack of financial support.
Foreign Networks: COLUMBUS and ALFA
Some institutions have build links with international programs, such as COLUMBUS, an
initiative supported by the European Commission. The program is designed to establish
links between European and Latin American higher education institutions. The stated
objective of the program is to promote "the clustering of universities around specific
themes with the aim of promoting institutional development and multilateral cooperation"
(COLUMBUS, 2002). It has 10 Colombian member institutions: Universidad del Norte,
Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Se�ora del Rosario, Escuela de Ingenier�a de Antioquia,
Universidad de Antioquia, Universidad Cat�lica de Colombia, Universidad de la Salle,
Universidad Externado de Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Universidad
Pedag�gica Nacional, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana. So far the program has facilitated
evaluation projects and seminars in Colombia, yet there are none currently in process.
ALFA is a European Commission initiative, which includes two sub-programmes, one on
joint projects in institutional management and a second seeking to support scientific and
14AUALCPI is a collaborative network with 27 universities from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, El
Salvador, Guatemala, M�xico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Per�, Uruguay and Venezuela.
12
technical training. The objectives include the strengthening of links between the
academic communities of Europe and Latin America, and the creation of sustainable
mechanisms of cooperation and mobility between the two continents. ALFA tries to
maintain a geographic balance of participation, allowing for less develop institutions to
be eligible. Colombia is currently participating with 5 institutions.
It is difficult to assess the degree to which networking schemes have been successful.
Yet, the level of co-authored articles as seen in Figure 1: can be used as a proxy for the
level of international integration in the higher education sector.15
In the period 1986-1988, Colombia shared 55.7% of its joint publications with the United
States, a figure that has subsequently been reduced to 44% in 1995-1997 in spite of recent
internationalization efforts. At the same time, its collaboration with Spain rose from 1.1%
to 11.2%, with France from 6% to 9.4% It should be better stated.16
Figure 1: Colombia Co-authorship Patterns
eslci 60
art
55.7
1986-88 1995-97
50
hored 44.0
-autocyl 40
onali 30
rnatetni 20
13.9
anib 13.4
7.7
6.6 9.4 11.2
mo 10 5.5 7.0
4.4 5.0 6.0 6.2
3.3 4.9 4.2
Collal 1.1 0.0 1.1 0.52.9
0
of
% US nada UK any ile
Ca rm France Spain Brazil Mexico Ch
Ge Argentina Venezuela
Source: NSF Science & Engineering Indicators 2000.
15 Still, the level of collaboration is influenced by numerous factors, Accordingly, a recent RAND study
(2000) stressed the following issues: geographic proximity, historical relationships, common language,
common scientific problems (as a natural disasters) and economic factors, that may provide more funding
to certain scientific fields.
16 While sharing its internationally coauthored articles with around 30 countries (1995-1997) this figure is
still small considering that the highest, the United States, shares more than 1% of its coauthored papers
with at least 160 countries, and China (the 75 percentile) shares it with around 70 countries. (RAND 2000).
13
A great potential for Latin American cooperation exists due to shared language, common
historical background and geographical proximity.17 Accordingly, patterns of
collaboration have been strengthened over the last decades (see Annex IV). Yet,
compared to the European Union, the level of Colombia-Latin American joint
publications continuously lag behind (2).18 Still, the increase in regional co-publications
is a promising sign, which suggests that past networking efforts may have had some
impact. This in turn makes a case for strengthening regional networks even further and
possibly aim at establishing a regional research area along the lines of ERA (see above).
9. CONCLUSIONS
Globalization has posed serious challenges to the higher education sector in Colombia.
Hence, internationalization efforts, which go beyond the current scope of activities, are
warranted.
First of all, the government needs to move beyond the level of declarations, and translate
its commitment into a coherent and targeted policy program. The commitment should
stem not only from the government, but also from higher education institutions and the
academia itself. The current Governments participation, related to legislation, regulations
and funding, could be transformed into an integrating and facilitating role, based on close
consultation with higher education institutions.
The Governments must establish adequate foreign policy, immigration, and labor
movement regulations in order to respond to the new challenges imposed on Colombian
higher education institutions. It should eliminate the barriers that obstruct the
internationalization process, if it is committed to offer a modern education. The term
internationalization should be adopted in the agenda of higher education for future years
given the implications it has for Colombia�s ability to compete in an open global market.
Further, it is necessary to regularly collect and analyze data about internalization, in order
to monitor this activity and provide information to strengthen this process. Governmental
organisms like ICFES, along with private associations like ASCUN, should keep track of
the advancements and trends and collectively provide strategic directions for the higher
education system.
Higher education institutions should define an international policy and subsequently
international strategies to direct its development and its implementation. For example the
17When referring to Latin America, this section just considers Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Chile and
Venezuela due data availability.
18This averages includes the co-authorship percentages of 14 out of the 15 countries. The percentages
widely differ, when United Kingdom, France, and Germany present a two digit number, countries as
Portugal have a less than 1 percentage number.
14
international dimension could be added to all existing programs allowing the institution
to graduate professionals with global competencies, with language and information skills
and with a better understanding of the cultural differences.
With regard to the specific policy instruments at hand, a special case is made for
strengthening current networking efforts. Hence, the setting up of networks has proven to
be a less costly alternative than student exchange programs, which have proven
extremely costly. Thus, inspired by a recent surge in the level of joint publications and
the experience of other regions, EU is a case in point, it is suggested to continue along
these lines. Even though the Latin American region does not benefit from a institutional
set up similar to that of the European Union, a common historical background and a
similar economic situation, where no country can develop multiple world class research
centers in isolation makes a strong case for integration. In consequence, it is hoped that a
successful integration scheme could lift the quality of higher education throughout the
region, which in turn would make it more attractive for Colombians to study and work in
Colombia, rather than in Europe or the US.
Student exchange programs, on the other hand are not only costly, but it should also be
pointed out that these programs fuel the current level of brain drain to some extent. Thus,
a review of the program design is recommended, keeping in mind that the objective is to
develop human capital for the country's teaching, research and innovation activities. This
comprehensive effort requires financial support to guarantee sustainability over time.
Nevertheless it is of fundamental importance to provide sustained political and financial
support to academic mobility programs which continues to be at the core of the
internationalization process. Efforts should be made from the public and the private
sector to provide grants per participant. This would reduce the financial burden that
higher education institutions, students and families have to bear, reducing the
opportunities of those who wish to be part of these kinds of programs.
Finally, further support should be channeled towards programs designed to
internationalize curriculum. The results of C�tedra de Negocios Internacionales project
have yet to emerge, but it remains without doubt that such efforts give students both the
cognitive skills and the intercultural understanding necessary to perform in the current
economy.
15
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Rodriguez, Carlos Eduardo, Rodriguez, Martha Luc�a. "Gu�a para la
Internacionalizaci�n de las Instituciones de Educaci�n Superior de Colombia".
ICFES. 2002
Carrington, William J. and Enrica Detragiache, "How Extensive is the Brain Drain?"
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Innovation". Key Figures. Brussels, 2000.
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Svanfeldt, Mikael Akerblom. "Knowledge transfer by labour mobility in the
Nordic countries". Analyseinstitut for Forskning. Working papers 2002/1.
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Tadeo Lozano. Segunda Edici�n. 2001.
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17
Annex I: The Knowledge Spiral
Nonaka et al. (1998) offer a view on how the transfer of knowledge is done based on human interaction. They
divide knowledge in two categories: tacit and explicit. These are mutually complementary, but only the later
can be formally measured. Tacit knowledge is thought of as individual specific knowledge that can be shared
through interaction. Nonaka et al, presents four modes of knowledge transmission:
Socialization: from individual tacit knowledge to group tacit knowledge.
Externalisation: From tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge.
Combination: from separate explicit knowledge to systematic explicit knowledge.
Internalisation: from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge.
These nodes serve as background for the knowledge spiral, that often starts with socialization where
dialogue makes the knowledge be externalised, then, by linking explicit knowledge, one gets into
combination. Learning by doing then converts combination into internalisation, where field building converts
into socialization. When the process integrates outsiders (e.g. researchers, foreign employees, etc.), it is
assumed that the organization (e.g. research centre, university, firm, etc.), can integrate their external
knowledge in combination and thus, get a enrich spiral.
Dialog Dialog
Socialization Externalization Socialization Externalization
Field Linking
Field Linking
building Explicit Explicit
knowledge building
knowledge
Internalization Combination Internalization Combination
Learning by Learning by
doing doing
Source: Langberg and Ebbe K. Graversen. Mobility among researchers. Analyseinstitut for Forskning.
Figure 1. Nonaka et al's knowledge spiral [Citing Nonaka et al (1998) own drawing].
18
Annex II: Brain Drain
Brain Drain Statistics by Country and Emigration/Immigration Flows
Country (ies)/ Emigrants Emigrants in Tertiary Percentage of Population
Geographic Area of living in the US with Emigrants/ Country with Tertiary Education
Origin US (1990) Tertiary Total
Education Emigrants who Emigrate
M�xico 2,700,000 351,000 13% Jamaica 77%
Philippines 730,000 +50% Guyana 70%
China 400,000 200,000 50% Ghana 26%
India 300,000+ 225,000+ 75% Iran 25%*
Korea 300,000+ 159,000+ 53% Philippin
es 10%*
Africa 128,000 95,000 75% Korea 15%*
Jamaica 42% Pakistan 7%*
Trinidad/Tobago 46% Egypt 7%*
South America Roughly
50% India 2.7%*
(*Includes only immigrants to OECD countries; actual total are likely higher)
Source: Carrington and Detragiache (1999)
19
Annex III: Indonesia: the University Research for Graduate Education Project
In 1994 the Indonesian government initiated the University Research for Graduate Education Project (URGE), to give
greater financial autonomy to public institutions, while making the allocation of resources more efficient and
improving the quality of graduate education in the system. The URGE project, assisted by the World Bank from 1994
to 2001, addressed the issue in a comprehensive manner. It aimed at raising the higher education system to world
participation standards. The particular objectives established were to (a) increase competitive funding for domestic
graduate education and university research activities, (b) to strengthen the procedures for selecting grant and
fellowship proposals, (c) to integrate university research with graduate training, (d) to strengthen research capacity
and dissemination of research findings in universities and (e) attract highly qualified candidates for domestic graduate
education.
URGE contemplated increasing the institutional capacity of the University Research Council (URC) and assisting it in
the implementation of new procedures for allocation of grants and fellowships. The URC adopted a new paradigm that
stressed the objectives of equity, relevance and quality of projects founded, while promoting the autonomy of
institutions.
A second component was making resources available through grants and fellowships in a competitive manner,
addressing different needs of the system, from the formation of graduates to the growth of the national research
network. Competition was used to raise research levels.
Grants were awarded to research centers on the basis of accomplishments. Funds were also awarded to Research
Teams that integrated both students and faculty in research activities and young academics. Among the merits of the
program, it should be highlighted that the share of female participation in research activities increased significantly.
In order to increase the pool of graduates, researchers and academics, two additional grant programs were designed:
(i) The Merit Fellowship program designed to attract highly qualified and capable students into domestic graduate
programs; (ii) the pre-graduate program to give individuals the opportunity to participate in top-level universities
graduate programs. After completion they returned to their home institutions to disseminate their acquired knowledge.
One of the grant requirements that helped retain researchers was that the topic had to be relevant to Indonesia.
Accordingly, the best available resources were to be found within Indonesia, in terms of fellow researchers working
on the same issue or libraries and information.
The domestic collaborative research grant helped to establish links between senior researchers with wide expertise and
grantees. The grantee would visit a Research Center or University benefiting from the equipment and the interaction
with a large and active team.
Finally, URGE exposed scholars to international environments through the provision of means to travel abroad,
international seminars and conferences.
This program proved successful not just in retaining and motivating researchers, but it also helped to establish a new
paradigm in competitive research allocation and provided more autonomy to institutions. Furthermore, the
connections and collaborative pattern introduced through the URGE program have consolidated and continue to be in
practice in the Indonesian research system.
Source: World Bank. University Research for Graduate Education (URGE). Implementation Completion Report.
Internal document (2001).
20
Annex IV: Patterns of Academic Collaboration
Figure 1: Patterns of Co-authorship, USA, Latin America and Europa
8% - 29% Scientifically advanced ARG=Argentina, AUS=Australia, BRA=Brazil, CAN=Canada, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia,
30% - 49% Scientifically proficient CUB=Cuba, FRA=France, GER=Germany, ITA-Italy, JPN=Japon, Mex=Mexico,
Scientifically developing ESP=Spain, GBR=United Kingdom, USA=United States , VEN=Venezuela.
50% - 69% Scientifically lagging Source: NSF Science & Engineering Indicators 2000.
Over 70%
21
Figure 2: Patterns of Co-authorship between Proficient, Developing, and Lagging Countries.
8% - 29% Scientifically advanced ARG=Argentina, BRA=Brazil, CHL=Chile, COL=Colombia, CUB=Cuba, Mex=Mexico,
30% - 49% Scientifically proficient ESP=Spain, PRT=Portugal, VEN=Venezuela.
Scientifically developing Source: NSF Science & Engineering Indicators 2000.
50% - 69% Scientifically lagging
Over 70%
Source: RAND (2000)
22
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25