68366 Bpeace (Business Council for Peace). 2009. Where We Work: Afghanistan (http://www.bpeace.org/ The World Bank in South Asia afghanistan.html, accessed May 5, 2009). Afghanistan Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Note Series, No. 4 Kanwar, Asha, and Margaret Taplin. 2001. Brave New Women of Asia: How Distance Education Changed Their Lives. Vancouver: Commonwealth of Learning. Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Klugman, Jeni. 2005. Youth Employment in Ethiopia: Stocktaking and Policy Questions. Joint Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, International Labour Organization, and World Bank Technical Work- shop, December 9, 2005. Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Livestock (MAIL). 2008. Master Plan. Kabul, Afghanistan: MAIL. Ministry of Education (MoE). 2006. The National Strategic Plan for Education in Afghanistan. Kabul, Af- ghanistan: Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (MoE). 2007. 1386 (2007) School Survey Summary Report. Islamic Republic of Af- ghanistan, Ministry of Education (http://www.moe.gov.af/, accessed May 15, 2009). Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs, and Disabled (MoLSAMD). 2008. An Urban Area Primary Source Study of Supply and Demand in the Labor Market. Kabul, Afghanistan: Labor Market Infor- mation and Analysis Unit, under National Skills Development Program. National Skills Development Program (NSDP). 1386/2007. Tracer Study; NSDP Site Visits Conducted by Gender Expert (World Bank Consultant), Sept-Oct 2007. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). 2004. Promoting Skills De- Afghan women become computer literate (left); a woman is trained in tailoring as part of the National Skills Development Program (right). velopment. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning. World Bank. 2005. Afghanistan: National Reconstruction and Poverty Reduction — the Role of Women in Increasing Women’s Employment Opportunities through TVET Afghanistan’s Future. Washington, DC: World Bank. The Afghanistan Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Note Series disseminates the findings of sector World Bank. 2007. NSDP 1386 (2007) Tracer Study. Study based on NSDP site visits conducted by gender work in progress and best practices to staff of the Government of Afghanistan (GoA), its implementing part- expert (World Bank consultant), September and October 2007. ners and agencies, and other practitioners, all of whom are responsible for developing and implementing gov- World Bank. 2008a. Afghanistan Skills Development Project Technical Annex. Washington, DC: World ernment programs. The objective of this particular Note is to discuss gender issues in Technical and Voca- Bank. tional Education and Training (TVET) in Afghanistan. It will explore the experience of recent TVET pro- World Bank. 2008b. Skills Development in Afghanistan. Discussion Paper Series, Report No. 25. South grams with regard to training and employment outcomes, flag gender gaps in these outcomes, and identify Asia: Human Development Sector. determinants of these gaps. Finally, it will present applicable best practices and recommendations for im- proving TVET outcomes for women, particularly in terms of increased participation in training programs and World Bank. 2009a. The Afghanistan Investment Climate in 2008. Draft report. World Bank Finance and higher rates of job placement following training programs. Private Sector Development, South Asia Region. World Bank. 2009b. Engendering ICT Toolkit: Challenges and Opportunities for Gender-Equitable Devel- Background opment. Washington, DC: World Bank. Throughout three decades of conflict, Afghan women have faced pronounced obstacles in their access to Youth Social Work Association Uganda (YSA Uganda), “Dokolo: Youth Van (Children and Youth mobile education and job skills development, culminating in exclusion from formal education and minimal involve- services),� YSA Uganda (http://www.ysauganda.org/projects.html, accessed July 15, 2009). ment in public life under the Taliban (1996–2001). This has left a generation of women with low literacy rates and limited skills for any kind of paid employment. Studies estimate 18 percent literacy among women Production and Publication Arrangements over age 15 and as low as 10 percent in rural areas, where 70–80 percent of the Afghan population resides (MoE 2006, p. 49). Women’s participation in economic activities remains largely agricultural, family based, Authors: Jennifer Solotaroff, Nadia Hashimi, Asta Olesen and not monetarily compensated – even in urban areas where, for example, female household members are The Afghanistan Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Note Series is a product of the responsible for vegetable gardens and backyard poultry production. Aside from these agricultural contribu- Operationalizing Country Gender Assessment Recommendations in Afghanistan program tions, most women’s work (even that which is supported by microfinance) is limited to tasks that are tradi- (2007-2009) of the Social, Environment and Water Resources Unit (SASDI), South Asia tionally relegated to females, such as carpet weaving, tailoring, embroidery, and other types of sewing, all of Sustainable Development, the World Bank, with Asta Olesen as Task Team Leader (TTL), which are performed within the household. Among urban residents employed outside of agriculture, only Jennifer Solotaroff as co-TTL, and Nadia Hashimi as Team Member. The Series is published by the World Bank, Washington, D.C., USA and has been made possible by generous support 17.8 percent are women, and most of these women work in the health and education sectors of the civil ser- from Gender Action Plan (GAP) trust funds of the World Bank’s Gender and Development vice or in nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) (MAIL 2008; MoLSAMD 2008; World Bank 2005). Group, Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. Unemployment is a problem for all young people in Afghanistan; however, the pool of unemployed or under- The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this document are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board of employed women is vastly greater than that of men, given high dropout rates among female students past age Executive Directors or the countries they represent. 12.1 In view of this gender disparity, it is especially important for vocational training programs to increase attendance of poor women as well as girls aged 13 to 17 from both urban and rural communities. 1. Starting at grade 7, female enrollments drop from more than 35 percent of the total to less than 28 percent, and continue to decline thereafter; in higher education, only about 20 percent of university entrants are female (MoE 2007). 8 Vocational training activities enable young women to acquire appropriate knowledge and skills to meet basic Mobile workshops. Mobile workshops could be used to train Box 5: VEC in Kenya needs, open doors to job opportunities, and ultimately raise women’s standard of living and status in Afghan women and girls in areas that are rural, remote, or highly restric- Village Educational Center (VEC) ap- society. Nationwide, female participation in TVET programs is very low. In 2007, only 10 percent of Minis- tive of female mobility (Box 6). proaches have met with success in Kenya. try of Education (MoE) TVET students were female (MoE 2007). Table 1 displays MOE’s vocational train- Distance learning through information and communications Returning ownership of training and educa- ing enrollments by gender and geographical zone.2 Female enrollments are highest in the West and North- technology (ICT). Distance learning through ICT provides new tion to the community leads naturally to a east. Somewhat surprising is the relatively low percentage of females in the North, where female general reexamination of its purpose, content, and opportunities for education and training to girls and women, es- relationship to employment; to enhanced education tends to be more prevalent than in other zones with low female enrollments in vocational training pecially those who are time constrained or cannot travel long dis- programs. The National Skills Development Program (NSDP), run out of the Ministry of Labor, Social Af- productivity; to a focus on developing life tances to on-site training. Women tend to report having had posi- skills; and to an education and training sys- fairs, Martyrs, and Disabled (MoLSAMD), has achieved greater success in ensuring a nationwide minimum tive experiences with ICT-facilitated distance education, in part tem likely to complement rather than conflict of 35 percent women among trainees, though female participation rates vary by region in NSDP as well. because the flexibility of access allows them to study at conven- with family responsibilities (UNESCO 2004, Table 1: Afghan Students in Ministry of Education TVET (2007), by Started as a national govern- ient times while juggling family responsibilities. In Asian settings pp. 74–75). Zone and Gender Group ment program in April 2004, women have often had to overcome family opposition to distance NSDP aims to contribute to Box 6: Youth Truck in Uganda education, though this resistance often dissipates when the family Total % the socioeconomic recovery of This approach has worked well in Uganda, Zones (provinces) students Male Female Female as a whole experiences the benefits of the learning, such as im- Afghanistan through building proved income generation, helping women to support their fami- where GTZ used a “youth truck� to travel to Central (Bamiyan, Parwan, Panjshir, Kabul, Kapisa, Logar, 6,325 5,835 490 8% a national TVET system that lies and send children to school and university (Kanwar and Ta- rural areas. The truck was equipped with Wardak) materials regarding career promotion and responds to labor market needs plin 2001). Research on gender and distance learning in Barbados Southeast (Paktia, Paktika, Khost, Ghazni) 141 141 0 0% and provides Afghans with the training (for example how to launch simple indicates that ICT is helping encourage young women to pursue knowledge and skills for de- businesses with low initial capital) and a South (Uruzgan, Zabul, Kandahar, Helmand) 504 438 66 13% science and technology as areas of study (World Bank 2009b). In computer with an interactive database that West (Badghis, Daykundi, Ghor, Farah, Nimroz, Herat) 926 722 204 22% cent work. The program has a Afghanistan, distance learning can be made more accessible and explained how to develop different types of steering committee that com- affordable to women in urban areas if vocational training pro- businesses, and was attended by staff to pro- North (Balkh, Jawzjan, Sar-i-Pul, Samangan, Faryab) 1,267 1,111 156 12% prises several ministries, and it grams can fund the equipment and online access costs for a com- vide skills training and make future visits to Northeast (Badakhshan, Baghlan, Takhar, Kunduz) 827 698 129 16% has set national standards for mon computer, for example in a community center. villages in order to track progress (Klugman East (Kunar, Laghman, Nangarhar, Nuristan) 376 376 0 0% TVET. Prior to NSDP, the fo- 2005; YSA Uganda). cus of all TVET programs had Improve working conditions so that female TVET graduates can seek employment outside the house- Source: Ministry of Education 2007. been access and attendance hold. The Department of Labor under MoLSAMD needs to ensure that both formal and nonformal working rates, with little attention given to quality and placement of trainees. By creating national standards, NSDP conditions are properly monitored for safety and the physical, mental, and social well-being of women work- prioritizes both access and quality issues in TVET, strengthening systems rather just delivering training. Ac- ers. One reason girls and women are declining opportunities for training and work is simply that conditions cording to an NSDP study, vocational training in urban areas is provided by NGOs (50 percent), the private in some training centers and workplaces are not sufficiently clean, safe, or culturally appropriate. The TVET sector (40 percent), and government (10 percent) (MoLSAMD 2008). About 45 percent of training providers Deputy Ministry of Education is creating female-only schools for different technical programs. This measure use their own curriculum, however, which may not meet NSDP standards in terms of relevance and being up could help improve conditions in some training locations, but MoLSAMD needs to take additional measures to date. NSDP is developing standards for a levels-based and competency-based qualifications framework for to improve conditions for women in workplaces. TVET, but it will take years before all TVET providers adopt these standards. Based on current enrollments in TVET, English, computer software, and tailoring are the most demanded skills in the urban areas of all Improving Methods of Tracking Progress in TVET provinces, followed by construction sector skills. Oversupply of female trainees in tailoring and embroidery Establish monitoring and evaluation frameworks for vocational training programs. Such frameworks (Figure 1), however, can lead to high rates of unemployment following training (MoLSAMD 2008, p. 55). should incorporate select qualitative methods for recording community views on culturally appropriate jobs for females, documenting gender issues at training sites, and reporting progress in and barriers to gender in- Figure 1: Percentage of Female Students Enrolled in Vocational Courses clusiveness. Gender inclusion experts should be consulted for monitoring vocational training programs to trace whether women actually obtain employment and keep jobs. TVET programs in Afghanistan also should take into account the tracking of programs in other countries in order to stay up to date with international standards. In addition, MoLSAMD should alert potential employers about women’s ability to manage com- puting and information technology-related jobs. References Aedo, C. 2002. Job Training Programs: The Cases of Chile Joven and Argentina Proyecto Joven. Report for Seminar on Social Protection for the Poor in Asia and Latin America (http://www.adb.org/ Documents/Events/2002/SocialProtection/aedo_presentation.pdf, accessed May 1, 2009). Agnew, Matthew. 2003. Afghanistan Labor Market Information Survey. International Rescue Committee in association with Afghanistan Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. Source: Lifted from MoLSAMD 2008 (original spelling intact). 2. MoE’s TVET schools are unevenly distributed throughout the country; 17 provinces – Badghis, Bamiyan, Paktia, Paktika, Panjshir, Takhar, Daykundi, Zabul, Sar-i-Pul, Ghazni, Ghor, Laghman, Logar, Nuristan, Nimroz, Wardak, and Kabul – lack any such schools. 2 7 2008). Qualitative research suggests that each of these areas can ab- Box 4: Internships in the Caribbean Barriers to Female Participation in TVET and Related Job Placement sorb women’s labor in ways that conform to Afghanistan’s cultural Aside from cultural constraints, the main determinant of women’s unemployment is their lack of marketable norms. Focus group discussions reveal, for example, that communi- Quite effective in the Caribbean, trainee- skills. Vocational training that provides women with skills and knowledge specific to a particular job, trade, ties find it acceptable for women to work in the repair of computers, ships put unemployed young people to work for approximately four months with or vocation enhances their ability to do that job and their marketability as labor suppliers. Although women’s mobile phones, and other electronics, and in management of commu- a mentor in a workplace, while employers enrollments in training have increased in recent years, overall rates remain low due to persistent obstacles. nity water systems, as long as they are not carrying heavy objects. 5 pay part of a monthly stipend. In St. Lu- As early as 2003, at least 30 percent of urban business owners sur- cia’s Young Apprenticeship Program, Insufficient Educational Foundation veyed would consider hiring women; this percentage has continued more than half of program apprentices are Many TVET programs require basic literacy and numeracy skills at entrance, which may effectively screen to increase (Agnew 2003; World Bank 2009a). Labor market and offered jobs by the employers at the end out a large share of potential female applicants, given women’s low literacy rates. Even in secure areas, enterprise surveys that inform TVET systems planning should in- of traineeships (World Bank 2007). women’s families are not likely to permit them to attend literacy training when the training does not have clude questions to ascertain what skills women would need for employers to hire them. Survey information obvious applications to income-earning activities or when training centers are not in close proximity to vil- could be used to develop training packages for female trainees. lages.3The lack of integration between MoE’s literacy and TVET programs thus undermines enrollment rates. Identify subfields of growth sectors where women already comprise a large part of the labor force. Low Numbers of Female Staff and Trainers in TVET Courses This can be achieved by including more focused questions in labor market surveys and other studies of sec- In all types of TVET delivery in Afghanistan, the dearth of female teachers, trainers, and staff discourages tors in which there is already high female labor participation. In addition, MoLSAMD and other relevant girls and women from attending vocational courses. MoE does not provide centers to train women who could GoA agencies should ensure that all government job vacancies in the health and education sectors are filled become TVET trainers, as it does with teacher training centers for education. Women returning from Paki- with the required female staff. This would be the preferred approach for professional jobs in all sectors in stan and Iran may have the required vocational skills, but lack the pedagogic skills to be hired as effective which it is socially acceptable to employ women. In health and education in particular, such an approach TVET trainers. In 2007, only 221 of MoE’s 1,089 TVET teachers and staff were women; moreover, women would result not only in increased female employment, but also in dramatically improved health and educa- teachers were concentrated in only eight provinces – Baghlan (1 woman teacher), Balkh (23), Parwan (5), tion outcomes for girls and women, as they would have greater access to services. Jawzjan (5), Samangan (9), Kunduz (12), Helmand (8), and Kabul City (158) (MoE 2007). Male teachers and staff, on the other hand, were present in vocational training institutions in 17 provinces, plus Kabul City. A Undertake gender sensitization of training providers. TVET system planners could require that vocational considerable number of trainees in NSDP participate as apprentices under masters of a trade, which also dis- training institutions undergo gender sensitivity training as part of their certification process. Sensitized train- courages prospective female trainees since the prospect of a female apprentice working under the tutelage of ing institutions could be given small grants to encourage recruitment of women trainers and masters and to a male master is culturally unacceptable for the girl’s family. Masters of trades linked to higher-paying jobs train women in nontraditional female activities. Large TVET programs such as NSDP could select training in growth sectors (for example carpentry, metalwork, plumbing, and repair of electronic equipment) are al- providers based on their qualifications for and history of inclusive training, not just based on lowest cost. most invariably male, which preempts the possibility of females learning these skills through apprenticeship. Incorporate community inputs. Most Afghan communities already accept women’s involvement in a broad Insufficient Attention to Job Placement for Women in Demand-Driven Training range of agriculture and livestock production activities. TVET planners and those who conduct research for Labor market studies that identify areas of skills demanded by growth sectors and inform program design do planning should, once they acquire permission from community leadership, further consult communities on not pay sufficient attention to skills areas that are culturally appropriate for women. A 2008 survey projects their views of what is appropriate work for women outside the household. NSDP already employs this good that the service sector will present the greatest demand for urban employees (over 30 percent), while con- practice to some degree; its training curricula for women now include fruit and vegetable processing, animal struction will demand almost 25 percent, business and commerce about 20 percent, agriculture 10 percent, husbandry, and poultry raising, as well as the usual carpet weaving, tailoring, and embroidery (NSDP and industry 5 percent (MoLSAMD 2008). Employee demand by sector is projected for provinces and urban 1386/2007). Before launching programs for women in the traditional fields, it is critical to ensure that such centers, but there are no data relevant to how much of this demand could be met by trained women. The vast training adds value and leads to lasting income opportunities. majority of women are still trained in skills that produce goods requiring high labor inputs (carpet weaving, tailoring, embroidery) for which there is little market demand (Box 1). The system also lacks linkages be- Overcoming Barriers Related to Safety, Working Conditions, and Household Responsibilities tween training providers and potential employers, which could facilitate job placement of female graduates. Facilitate safe access to training. Programs can provide transport, female dormitories, and stipends to male escorts in very conservative communities. An alternative is to establish training centers close to the target Safety Constraints, Poor Working Conditions, and Household Responsibilities beneficiaries so that communities feel it is safe to send girls to training. In addition, training providers need Security risks inhibit families and communities from allowing women to participate in TVET programs. to encourage male members of households to allow women to participate in TVET programs and to seek em- Training centers are largely located in urban areas, with training opportunities in rural areas almost nonexis- ployment outside the household after graduation. Some international best practices include the following: tent (World Bank 2008a, p. 32). The distance to training centers makes it difficult for rural women and girls to attend vocational courses. Families may also fear that, even if safe dormitories are provided, female stu- Village educational centers. The United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization dents are still at risk of harassment and damaging gossip if they are trained alongside male trainees, and later (UNESCO), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), and other organizations monitoring best prac- tices in TVET have identified the village educational center (VEC) as an effective, practical, and relevant are in workplaces where men are present and working conditions are poor. According to staff in the Eco- nomic Department of the Ministry of Women’s Affairs and NSDP, work facilities often are not sufficiently mode of training delivery, particularly in remote rural areas. A VEC serves as part adult learning center, part day-care center, and part primary school, and already-literate or skilled adults are responsible for much of the sanitary or appropriate for women; there usually are no suitable toilet facilities for them. Although NSDP standards cover safety and good working conditions, many training providers and employers do not abide by teaching. VEC timetables adapt to agricultural seasons, and the community is integrally involved in decisions these standards and even violate labor laws.4 In 2003, although 98 percent of urban and rural women inter- regarding what needs to be learned and how to meet those needs (Box 5). Communities do require outside assistance in establishing VECs, such as advice on market-based training opportunities that realistically in- viewed expressed interest in attending a vocational training course, many felt prohibited by families “not al- lowing� them (18 percent), “household responsibilities and family work needs� (16 percent), and mobility crease income opportunities for both men and women. 5. Various World Bank researchers have held focus group discussions on such topics with women’s shuras (community groups) in Kabul City 3. Wardak, Rahim. Personal interview. 14 December 2008. The World Bank’s gender team for Afghanistan thanks NSDP Coordinator Eng. (April, Sept–October 2007), Mazar-e-Sharif, and Ghulm district of Balkh province (February 2009). Rahim Wardak and other NSDP staff in the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD) for their valuable inputs. 4. These comments were made by participants in the World Bank-sponsored Stakeholder Consultation Workshop to review a draft version of this Implementation Note on May 26, 2009 at the Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Martyrs and Disabled (MoLSAMD) in Kabul., Afghanistan. 6 3 Box 1: Skills Training for Women under National Skills Development Program (NSDP) issues (8 percent) Add business development services to the ex- Box 2: Bpeace Model in Afghanistan (Agnew 2003). Perva- isting skills training programs for women. As sive among all regions Afghanistan’s economy is mostly informal and The Business Council for Peace (Bpeace) has been involved in Afghanistan since 2004 (Bpeace 2009), sponsoring “fast run- and social groups is the working conditions are not adequate for women, ners� – women entrepreneurs identified by on-the-ground part- cherished ideal that many graduates may prefer self-employment as ner organizations or through their response to advertisements men are the breadwin- an income-earning option. Adding business de- on radio or television – who run businesses that will be large ners of the household, velopment training to TVET programs will in- enough to train or employ other women in the community. while women take care crease women’s self-employment opportunities Bpeace sponsors the selected fast runners for three years, dur- of domestic chores. and income-earning potential. ing which they receive a mix of consulting, training, mentor- Female wage labor ing, business site visits, and out-of-country apprenticeships, as NSDP has achieved high female enrollments (more than 35 percent) in its training programs, but most often is still viewed as Increasing Female Trainers and Staff in well as equipment, technology, branding and marketing, and skills training is for production of goods for which there is little market demand. Pictured: Salma sitara TVET Courses training in Nangarhar (left); carpet weaving in Jawzjan (center); and tailoring in Kabul Province (right). a solution of last resort employee technical training, as necessary. Bpeace has spon- Identify Afghan women already trained in sored fast runners in a diverse set of trades and activities that for households in desperate straits – although skilled, non-manual and well-paid (office) jobs are acceptable technology and other growth sector skills to include printing, radio announcing and other radio station for women, provided their child-caring obligations can be managed. serve as trainers. Many of these women have work, and carpentry. Many of the Afghan women selected as recently been repatriated from locations abroad runners have lived abroad – often in Pakistan or Iran – for Lack of Relevant Curricula some years, during which they acquired skills training not Although girls’ general education enrollments have increased from nearly 0 percent in 2002 to 35.38 percent where they acquired skills they can now teach to available in Afghanistan. Such women have great potential to of total enrollments in 2006/7, women are still significantly underrepresented in TVET programs (MoE other women. Women with a sufficient skills serve as TVET trainers of nontraditional female skills for girls 2007). One of the reasons for such low female participation is the limited relevance and appropriateness of foundation can also be sent to train with female and women in either the center-based training or apprenticeship curricula to the needs and aspirations of women. Currently, TVET courses are primarily oriented toward en- masters outside Afghanistan and then return as systems. The Bpeace model introduces one way in which voca- gine and mechanical repair and construction, fields that do not employ women (World Bank 2008a, p. 28). trainers or masters themselves (Box 2). tional training programs can identify Afghan women already There is little skills training in health services, accounting, management, and business, even though potential Compensate for a Lack of Female Trainers. trained in growth sector skills to serve as trainers in courses. employers express an interest in hiring women with these skills, particularly in the health sector (World Bank Currently, 21 entrepreneurial Afghan women are involved in Internships and traineeships can increase num- Bpeace programs, with seven women engaged in businesses 2008b, p. 33). While NSDP mandates that implementing partners must ensure a minimum of 35 percent fe- bers of female trainees when no female trainers such as freight forwarding, construction, media, and human male participation, this requirement pertains to universal enrollments, such that training courses can be or trade masters currently exist for trades in resource services. The others are engaged in apparel and acces- highly gender segregated – with women predominating in training for traditional women’s work and absent which women do not traditionally participate. If sory production in Kabul, and each employs at least 12 and up from training programs for technical skills with higher marketability – and still meet the universal minimum. accompanied by a male family member or other to 300 women doing piecework in their homes and small work- male individual acceptable to families, Afghan shops. Inadequate Tracking of Progress in TVET, Including Gender Considerations women can undertake internships that train in Vocational training systems tend to lack up-to-date, accurate, gender-disaggregated labor market information Box 3: Joven Program skills which the sponsoring employer would re- and other data necessary to effectively monitor progress, identify problem areas, and correct gender-sensitive quire of a permanent employee. Traineeships In Argentina and Chile, the Joven programs combine technical approaches to skills training programs. This inadequacy is not unique to Afghanistan, but is typical of TVET training and internship experiences under employers with life focus even more on helping students transition systems across the globe (UNESCO 2004). NSDP’s 2006 pilot program achieved high rates of female enroll- skills training and additional support services to ensure job from school into the labor market (Box 3). Both ment – women actually outnumbered men among center-based trainees – and overall high rates of stated em- readiness and social integration of trainees (Aedo 2002). Con- internships and traineeships are appropriate for ployment among both male (96 percent) and female (92 percent) traced trainees (World Bank 2007). Women tracted via public bidding mechanisms, both private and public women in the Afghan context, as these ap- had notably low employment, however, among those trained in computing (52 percent of traced females), institutions organize the internships and provide the training. proaches have proven successful in Afghanistan. compared to over 90 percent employment among males trained in computing and traced by the study. Programs target the poor, women, and other vulnerable groups, In 2001, CARE International was among the first and have increased the likelihood (for example by more than 10 Women’s low employment indicates that employers are still not used to hiring women, and that women do organizations to start an internship program for percentage points over a control group for women over age 20 not have access to the same networks about job information that men do. male and female high school graduates with few in Argentina) that beneficiaries secure employment upon or no marketable skills for employment. Interns graduation, as well as increased earnings over a control group. Recommendations: Increasing Women’s Employability through TVET devote 50 percent of their time to working for Chile’s program increased the probability of employment by 21 CARE programs and 50 percent to training in percentage points, with strongly significant results for young The following recommendations address the barriers and constraints to female participation in vocational people up to age 21 (Aedo 2002). skills such as human resource management, fi- training that is linked to sustainable employment opportunities. nance, procurement, logistics, and administration. The one-year internship program operates in every Af- Strengthening Women’s and Girls’ Educational Foundation ghan city with a CARE office. CARE hires most interns upon graduation, though some go on to jobs in Make literacy and numeracy training a standard part of skills development programs. By tying basic NGOs or government agencies (Box 4). literacy and numeracy training to vocational skills programs, TVET training will be accessible to a greater pool of girls and women. The programs will appeal more to them and their families because the literacy train- Making Demand-Driven Training More Appropriate and Relevant to Female Trainees ing is directly linked to enhanced income-earning opportunities, providing greater incentives for families to Increase gender orientation of market research. Urban labor market surveys have identified services, send female members of households to these trainings. construction, and business and commerce as the top three growth areas for labor demand (MoLSAMD 4 5