Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery Alys Willman, Aziz Atamanov, and Cara Ann Myers Contents Abbreviations and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i Appendix A. List of Persons Interviewed . . . . . 30 Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii Figures 4.1 Pre-lockdown Employment Rates Among 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Ugandan Nationals and Refugees by Gender of Head of 2 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Household and Urban/Rural Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4.2 Pre-lockdown Employment Rates within Economic Guiding Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Sectors Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees by Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Gender of Head of Household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 4.3 Select Income Diversification Indicators for 3 Policy Framework to Support a Gender- Refugee and Ugandan Households by Gender of Inclusive Green Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Head of Household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Gender Equality and Women’s Economic Empowerment . . . 6 4.4 Work Stoppages Among Ugandan Nationals and Policy Framework for Green Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Refugees Who Worked Prior to March 2020 by Gender, Age, and Urban/Rural Residence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 4 Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s 4.5 Ugandan Households Receiving Business Income Economic Empowerment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Prior to and After the March 2020 Lockdown by Sample Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Gender and Age of Head of Household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Prepandemic Situation/Baseline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 4.6 Ownership of Family Business Among Refugees Work Stoppages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Prior to and After Lockdown by Gender and Age of Head of Household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Business Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 4.7 Number of Shocks Faced by Ugandan Nationals Men Moving into Activities Traditionally Dominated and Refugees by Gender of Head of Household . . . . . . . . 17 by Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 4.8 Coping Strategies Among Ugandan and Refugee Experience of Shocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Households that Experienced a Shock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Rise in Gender-Based Violence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 4.9 Sources of Borrowing Money Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Increase in Care Responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 4.10 Reasons for Borrowing Money Among Ugandan Nationals, Coping Mechanisms and Sources of Resilience . . . . . . . . . . 21 March–July/August 2020 (percent of all households who borrowed money) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 The Way Forward: Opportunities for a 5.  Gender-Inclusive, Green Recovery . . . . . . . . 24 Tables Recommendations for Further Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4.1 Descriptive Statistics from the National and Refugee Phone Support for Policy Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Surveys in Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 4.2 Rates of Violence Against Women and Girls, Ages 15–59, in Improving Government Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Uganda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Abbreviations and Acronyms GBV gender-based violence NGO nongovernmental organization GGDS Green Growth Development Strategy UHFPS High-frequency phone survey of Ugandan GJCSP Green Jobs Creation Strategy and Plan nationals GJFLMP Green Jobs and Fair Labour Market URHFPS High-frequency phone survey of refugees Programme in Uganda MGLSD Ministry of Gender, Labour, and Social VSLA Village savings and loan association Development NDPIII National Development Plan III (2020/21–2024/25) Acknowledgements This paper was prepared by a team from the World and Benjamin Reese, Senior Operations Office. The Bank Group under the leadership of Margarita Puerto team is immensely grateful for the support to the expert Gomez and has benefitted from input from peer review- interviews and field interviews provided by Maude ers Richard Walker, Senior Economist; Sreelakshmi Mugisha and Kate Kanya, consultants, and the desk Papineni, Economist Africa Gender Innovation Lab; review written by Harriet Kolli, consultant, as well as Jennifer Solotaroff, Senior Social Development logistical support from Janet Christine Atiang, Program Specialist; and Yalemzewud Simachew Tiruneh, Social Assistant.The preparation of this paper has been sup- Development Specialist, as well as guidance from ported by a grant from the Climate Support Facility. Margaret Arnold, Senior Social Development Specialist; i Executive Summary This paper seeks to improve understanding of the Uganda—refugees and nationals—were less diversified impacts of COVID-19 on women and girls in Uganda than those of men: most women nationals and refu- and recommends actions that Ugandan policy makers gees relied on agriculture or humanitarian transfers, and World Bank Group operations can take to ensure respectively, while men were more likely to earn their women’s participation in an inclusive and sustainable incomes from multiple sources, particularly agriculture recovery process. The analysis draws on data from and businesses. high-frequency phone surveys of Ugandan nation- Women reported higher rates of discontinuing paid als and refugee populations conducted in June and work than men did during the early days of the COVID- November 2020, respectively, further broken down by 19 shock. By June 2020, 23 percent of women respon- age and geography. dents to the survey of Ugandan nationals who had worked before the pandemic had stopped compared The COVID-19 shock affected women and men in with 16 percent of men. People living in urban areas different ways due to the different roles they play in or under the age of 30 were also more likely to have society. ceased work. Prior to the pandemic, women were less likely than The situation was reversed among refugees: 27 men to participate in the labor market; and they were percent of male respondents to the survey of refugees much more likely perform the greater share of unpaid reported a work stoppage between March and October/ care work. Before the first lockdown was introduced in November 2020 compared with 20 percent of refu- March 2020, 89 percent of adult male Ugandan nation- gee women, which might be related to the higher rates als were working compared with 84 percent of their of male employment in the agricultural sector and its female counterparts. The income sources of women in seasonal decline. Refugees living in urban areas were ii Executive Summary iii more likely to have stopped working than those living at informal markets. For both Ugandan nationals and rural areas. Interviews with women refugees living in refugees, the most common type of shock was an rural areas suggests that agriculture served as a safety increase in food prices. The most common shocks net for many people. impacting female-headed households of either group— national or refugee—relate to the death or illness of Young female-headed households are more likely to an income-earning family member, with households have experienced a business closure or drop in income headed by young women particularly affected. during the early days of the 2020 lockdown as well as to have required financial assistance to reopen. Since the start of the pandemic, women and girls have While the surveys of refugees and nationals asked been at greater risk of experiencing gender-based slightly different questions,1 similar observations are violence, and their care responsibilities have increased. made of both groups. About 42 percent of households The prevalence of gender-based violence (GBV) in comprising Ugandan nationals reported receiving non- Uganda is above global and regional averages, and rates farm business income over past 12 months, but this seem to have increased during the COVID-19 shock. A share dropped to 30 percent after the March lockdown 2020 national survey reports that almost all—95 per- when 12 percent of households reported a total loss cent—of Ugandan women between the ages of 15 and of income. Young (ages 15–30) female-headed house- 49 have experienced physical or sexual violence at the holds were the most likely to report a total loss of hands of an intimate partner or nonpartner during their business income. Among refugees, the rate of young lifetime. Nearly half (45  percent) of Ugandan women female-headed households to report ownership of a reported experiencing violence from an intimate part- household enterprise dropped from 40 percent prior ner during their lifetime; 35 percent reported having to the lockdown to 14 percent in October/November been victimized in the past year. These rates are well 2020. above the global averages of 27 percent during a life- More recent surveys covering the 2020–21 period time and 12 percent in the past 12 months as well as suggest that there were smaller gender gaps related to above those for Sub-Saharan Africa at 33 and 20 per- business closures and that many women-owned firms cent, respectively (UBOS 2021). were able to reopen in late 2020/early 2021. However, Service providers, civil society organizations, and firms owned by women were more likely to require international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) financial assistance to reopen than those owned by also report a marked increase in GBV, with a docu- men (EPRC 2021). Many were probably forced to close mented 24  percent increase in rape during the six again during the COVID-19’s second wave and the months following the start of the first lockdown (Apondi associated lockdown measures. and others), driven by extended confinement, isolation from social supports, and stress surrounding the loss Female- and male-headed households are almost of livelihoods (Columbia University 2020). Women in equally likely to have experienced multiple shocks situations of forced displacement are particularly vul- during the crisis, but refugees were more prone than nerable to GBV, and multiple assessments document Ugandan nationals to shocks. an increase in GBV among refugees since March 2020 For refugees, the pandemic coincided with a drop in (GoU and World Bank 2020). People with disabilities rations due to aid agency budget cuts, eliminating a seemed to be most at risk: some NGOs report that source of food security and items to trade or exchange about 95 percent have experienced some form of GBV 1. The survey of Ugandan nationals asked if respondents had received income from a business over the past 12 months; the survey of refu- gees asked about changes in ownership of a household enterprise. iv Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery during the COVID-19 crisis.2 Interviews in urban areas subsistence agriculture after March 2020, increasing revealed that refugee women who fall behind on their the share of female workers in that sector from 49.5 to rent payments are often subjected to sexual harass- 60.4 percent, a full 17 points higher than men’s share at ment by their landlords. 43.5 percent (World Bank 2021c). School closures and the need to care for ill house- hold members has increased the unpaid care work Women’s collectives have been a source of social and of women. An analysis of official data from 2020–21 financial support for all women, but the overall needs exposes an increase in teenage pregnancy of 17 per- of refugee women have been greater. cent in the six months following the March 2020 lock- Women’s collective organizations—including village sav- down (Apondi and others). ings and loan associations, women’s economic collec- tives, and savings and credit cooperative societies—have Subsistence agriculture has provided a vital safety net, offered critical social and economic support during the prompting some to migrate from urban to rural areas. COVID-19 crisis, especially to Ugandan nationals. The While the high-frequency phone surveys did not col- needs of refugees have been much higher: about half lect data on migration, people interviewed in urban of all refugee households, whether headed by a male or areas said they had observed an increasing number of a female, borrowed money compared with less than 25 people leaving urban areas—especially Kampala—for percent of Ugandan national households—although this rural zones in the early days of the 2020 lockdown gap could be partly due to the time gap in administering and again in advance of the June 2021 lockdown. the two surveys. The gender disparities for each pop- Notably, the rural interviewees did not report observ- ulation were small: 22 percent of female-headed and ing movement from urban areas, but all interviewees 23 percent of male-headed Ugandan households said noted that subsistence agriculture served as an import- they borrowed money during the crisis compared with ant safety net. COVID-19 restrictions were less strin- 47 and 53 percentof refugee households, respectively. gent in rural areas and the built-in safety net is greater Ugandan households were more likely than refugee from lower-cost (or free) housing and subsistence households to have borrowed money from a neighbor agriculture compared with urban areas. Data from the or friend (46 versus 63 percent) or a village savings Uganda National Household Survey show that more and loan association (40 versus 10 percent). women than men moved out of paid employment into 2. Based on estimates provided in interviews with representatives of NGOs; see chapter 4 for further details. 1 Introduction As Uganda builds back from the COVID-19 shock, nationals conducted in June and one of refugees con- the Ugandan government is strengthening its com- ducted in November 2020; (2) interviews with 28 rep- mitment to a more gender-inclusive and sustainable resentatives of government institutions, development economy. The national Green Growth Development partners, and women’s organizations in Kampala and in Strategy (2017/18–2030/31) aligns the goals of the rural areas; and (3) a review of relevant policy and gray country’s national development plans and Vision 2040 literature1 on climate change, the green economy, and with commitments to moving away from fossil fuels, women’s economic empowerment. which Uganda made as part of its 2016 ratification of Sustainable recovery implies gender-inclusivity the Paris Agreement. Clear gender targets are included and equal opportunity that addresses the risks and in the strategy, reinforcing those in the 2007 National vulnerabilities faced by women due to economic Gender Policy. shocks and climate change. Women shoulder much This report supports these efforts by describing of the burden in caring for sick relatives and children, the gendered impacts of COVID-19 and provides rec- which limits the time they can devote to income-earn- ommendations for Ugandan policy makers and World ing activities. A woman is less likely than a man to be Bank Group operations to ensure women’s partic- employed in the first place, and she is often the first ipation in an inclusive and sustainable recovery. It to lose a job if the economy contracts. A woman is presents gender-disaggregated data from three main also more likely to be employed in precarious sectors sources: (1) high-frequency phone surveys that track and types of jobs, particularly in the informal econ- the impacts of the COVID-19 shock: one of Ugandan omy. Because women tend to be underrepresented in 1. Gray literature includes documents from nonacademic sources—in this instance, local NGOs and development partners. 1 2 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery governance decision making and have less access to men (World Bank 2019a); women-owned enterprises financial and productive assets, have less secure land were also the first to close during the early months of tenures, and limited safety nets, they are less likely the pandemic (World Bank 2020c). At the same time, to benefit from green recovery investments, includ- women’s care responsibilities increased as schools ing access to resources, leadership opportunities, and closed and ill household members needed care.3 assets in more low-carbon growth sectors. The secondary focus of this report is women ref- The impacts of climate change were escalating in ugees. Uganda hosts an estimated 1.4 million refugees, Uganda even before the COVID-19 pandemic. Rising the largest refugee population in Africa and the third temperatures and reduced annual and seasonal rainfall largest in the world, with refugees playing an import- have driven more frequent and longer-lasting droughts, ant role in the country’s economic and social structure. especially in the western, northern, and northeastern Over 82 percent of refugees in Uganda are women and regions, as well as heavy precipitation events linked to children, and more than half of all refugee households an increased risk of flooding and landslides. Over the are headed by women (GoU and World Bank 2020). past 20 years, natural disasters have affected an aver- During the COVID-19 shock, refugees have faced par- age of 200,000 Ugandans every year. The economy’s ticular challenges, including a significant cut in govern- dependence on highly climate-sensitive sectors, such ment rations in February 2020, vulnerable employment, as tourism, agriculture, water fisheries, and forestry, and often very limited savings to serve as a cushion exacerbates the country’s vulnerability. These impacts during economic shocks. This report considers these are expected to further increase, especially toward the characteristics and experiences in light of the COVID- middle of the century, with disruptive effects on agri- 19 shock and offers specific recommendations for this culture, livestock, and transport (World Bank 2021a). group. The COVID-19 shock has had detrimental impacts The report is structured in five sections. Following on women’s livelihoods and has increased their unpaid this introduction, chapter 2 describes the methodology care work. Because they tend to work in more vulner- and guiding questions. Chapter 3 gives an overview of able jobs and sectors, such as services and agricul- Uganda’s policy environment for women’s economic ture, women were the first to stop working during the empowerment and green growth. Chapter 4 covers the COVID-19 crisis (World Bank 2020b). This came amid impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on women, their cop- a context in which the average woman’s earnings were ing mechanisms, and their sources of resilience. The already only half that of a man’s (UBOS 2018b) and analysis is broken down by sex, age, geography, and when labor force participation was already declining— refugee status to describe the impacts of the COVID- from 90 percent in 2012 to 75 percent in 2016, com- 19 shock across select subgroups. Chapter 5 identifies pared with 90 to 80 percent among men (UBOS 2016).2 opportunities for Uganda to pursue a more gender-in- Although rates of entrepreneurism among women are clusive and green recovery, and concludes by offering relatively high in Uganda, women-owned businesses policy recommendations. tend to be smaller, located in more vulnerable sectors, and earn 30 percent less in profits than firms owned by 2. Median monthly earnings among women are UGX120,000 compared with 240,000 among men. 3. Even before the pandemic, field estimates suggested that Ugandan women spent three-and-a-half times more time on unpaid care work than men did (EASSI 2019). 2 Methodology Guiding Questions Gender analysis of high frequency phone survey data on COVID-19 The study is guided by three questions: The analysis for this report draws on data from two u What policies and programs are in place to guide high-frequency phone surveys in Uganda conducted a more inclusive and sustainable recovery from after lockdown measures were enacted on March the COVID-19 shock? 20, 2020. Analyses were conducted separately for u How has the COVID-19 crisis impacted social and Ugandan nationals and refugees based on the surveys economic development for various subgroups of of both groups, the questions of which were largely women, including refugees, rural versus urban aligned and many indicators identically constructed, populations, and people with disabilities? allowing for comparison. u What kinds of coping strategies have women The high-frequency phone survey of Ugandan employed to address such challenges? nationals (UHFPS) was launched in June 2020 to track the impacts of the pandemic. It sought to recon- tact the entire sample of households that had been Data Collection interviewed for the Uganda National Panel Survey The study consists of three data collection activities: (1) 2019/20, assuming there was a phone number for at a gender analysis of high-frequency phone survey data least one household member or a reference individ- on COVID-19; (2) a desk review of program and policy ual. The survey, which is representative at the regional literature; and (3) expert and field interviews. level, included a total of six rounds of data collection, starting in June 2020 with a sample size of 2,227.4 4. For a full description of the survey rounds, methodology, and microdata, see https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/3765. 3 4 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery To reduce bias related to nonresponse and the fact that only households with phone numbers could be interviewed, the data from representative surveys were used to produce and calibrate the weights. The Uganda National Panel Survey 2019/20 was used for the survey of Ugandan nationals,5 and the 2018 repre- sentative refugee household survey was used for the survey of refugees in Uganda. The fact that the two surveys were conducted at different times may necessitate some caution when interpreting the data and findings. Most of the analyzed indicators were constructed based on the surveys’ first rounds because they were conducted after the strictest lockdown measures were introduced in March 2020 and captured the greatest impact from COVID-19. The first round of the UHFPS was conducted in June 2020 and the first round of the URHFPS was conducted in October/November 2020. The recall period of both Only data from the first round have been disaggregated surveys was therefore different, and the refugee survey by gender of the head of household; subsequent rounds may have captured factors not related to the COVID-19 have not undergone disaggregation. restrictions. Depending on the constructed indicator, The high-frequency phone survey of refugees in results are presented by the gender of the respondent Uganda (URHFPS) was launched in October 2020 and head of household and across two age groups (15– and covers refugee populations only. The survey 29 and 30+) and rural versus urban (Kampala) refugee sample includes respondents with active phone num- areas. bers who were randomly selected from the Profile Another limitation to the quantitative analysis of Global Registration System of United Nations High the surveys relates to their definitions of female- and Commissioner for Refugees and the 2018 refugee male-headed households. Female-headed households household survey carried out by the Uganda Bureau of are lumped into a single group that includes women Statistics and the World Bank. The survey is represen- who never married, are widowed, divorced, or mar- tative at seven strata that combine regions in Uganda ried. A related concern is that the headship concept and different countries of origin. A total of three rounds risks conflating gender gaps with differences caused of data collection took place from October 2020 to by demographic composition. Finally, headship status March 2021, with sample sizes ranging from 1,985 is self-reported and reflects social norms and views to 2,010 observations. Only data from the first round about who is understood to be the head of household.6 (October–November 2020) have been disaggregated by gender of head of household (World Bank 2021b). 5. Because the phone survey sought to contact respondents with phone numbers from the 2019/20 Uganda National Panel Survey, the team chose to adjust and use weights from it over other potential options, such as the Uganda National Household Survey. 6. For a comprehensive review of the limitations of using household headship to compare outcomes by gender, see Brown and van de Walle 2021. 2. Methodology 5 Desk review of program and policy literature various stakeholders and to organize online interviews As part of the preparation for this study, the World and focus groups. Interviewees represented govern- Bank team conducted a desk review to identify and ment ministries such as the Ministry of Gender, Labour, analyze program and policy literature in Uganda. and Social Development and the Office of the Prime Sources include government policy strategy docu- Minister; international nongovernmental organizations, ments, reports from government and development national organizations, academic institutions, and United partners, field studies, and media reports. Nations agencies. Due to movement restrictions related to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, all interviews were Expert and field interviews conducted online or by phone, with follow up via email Data collection included interviews with 28 key infor- as needed. A full list of the experts interviewed for the mants. The team worked closely with the Ugandan report is included in appendix A. government and civil society groups to ensure a broad The team had planned to conduct field visits to representation of women’s perspectives. A special obtain interviews in more rural and remote areas, but effort was made to reach out to associations of entre- COVID-19 restrictions did not permit this. Instead, the preneurs, refugees, rural women, and people with dis- team conducted phone interviews with seven women abilities. Given the limits of COVID-19 restrictions, the leaders identified by grassroots organizations in two team relied on a local consultant to reach out to the regions. 3 Policy Framework to Support a Gender-Inclusive Green Recovery Gender Equality and Women’s Economic strategic approach to ensure that financial resources Empowerment are generated and allocated in a way that affects women and men equitably. Gender equality is listed as a priority in Uganda’s Some recent policy reforms signal a growing com- guiding policies and strategies. Both the Uganda Vision mitment by the government to gender inclusion in 2040  and National Development Plan III (NDPIII, economic development. Reforms include an amend- 2020/21–2024/25) prioritize women’s empowerment ment to the Public Procurement and Disposal of Public and gender equality as a means of promoting inclusive Assets Authority (PPDA) Act (2003) that seeks to cre- growth and social development. Goal 17 of the develop- ate space for women-owned firms to better compete as ment plan calls for “full gender equality” in its national vendors for public investments. At present, only about Human Capital Development Program. 1 percent of contracts for government works, goods, The National Gender Policy (2007), led by the and services are awarded to women-owned firms. At Ministry of Gender, Labour, and Social Development the time of this writing, the Ugandan parliament had (MGLSD), guides gender mainstreaming in the var- passed the amendment, awaiting assent from the pres- ious sectors of government and establishes gender ident. The Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic focal points in all national ministries, departments, and Development is finalizing guidelines for the implemen- authorities, as well as within local governments, to tation of the new law, which is expected to include a oversee policy implementation. The Ugandan govern- quota for women-owned firms in government contracts ment also adopted gender-responsive budgeting as a and a process for increasing women’s participation.7 7. According to an interview with a representative of UN Women in April 2021. 6 3. Policy Framework to Support a Gender-Inclusive Green Recovery 7 An amendment to the Land Succession Act that during the COVID-19 crisis, with women participating in strengthens protections for women’s land owner- them being better able to cope with economic shocks.8 ship and includes steeper penalties for land grabbing passed the Ugandan parliament in March 2021. Key Policy Framework for Green Growth provisions involve protections of the right of widows and orphans to remain in their homes following the Uganda recognizes the need to address the impacts death of the male household head, including penalties of climate change in its overall development strat- for those who evict or attempt to evict them; an increase egy. In 2016, it ratified the Paris Agreement as a com- to a widow’s share of an estate when a person dies plement to its 2015 National Climate Change Policy. without a will from 15 to 20 percent; protections of chil- Overseen by the National Climate Change Commission dren’s inheritance rights; and an increase in civil and within the Ministry of Water and Environment, the pol- criminal penalties for land grabbing. These reforms are icy assigns climate change focal points to all ministries, crucial to furthering women’s access to land—despite departments, agencies, and local governments. comprising up to 77 percent of the agricultural work- Uganda’s interim nationally determined contribu- force, only 20 percent of women between the ages of tion document, submitted in October 2021, commits 20 and 49 possess a title or deed to the land on which to adaptation as a first response to climate change. As they live and/or work (UBOS 2018a). a low-carbon emitter with high vulnerability to climate Uganda has made progress toward passing legis- impacts, Uganda’s goal is to transition to upper-mid- lation with protections against sexual violence and dle-income status at the same time it moves toward a domestic violence—major barriers to women’s eco- low-carbon and climate-resilient economy. The docu- nomic inclusion. In March 2020, the United Nation’s ment identifies 13 priority sectors: agriculture, energy, Spotlight Initiative selected Uganda, which has passed health, forestry, fisheries, water, urban, tourism, trans- several pieces of legislation to build on, notably the port, built environment, disaster risk reduction, manu- National Policy and Action Plan on the Elimination facturing, and ecosystems (GoU 2021). The document of GBV (2016), a National Strategy on Ending Child does not mention gender but notes a consultation pro- Marriage and Teenage Pregnancy (2016–20), and the cess that involves broad sectors of society (GoU 2021: development of referral pathways for cases of gen- 8). der-based violence (GBV) (2013). Uganda’s Green Growth Development Strategy Uganda has developed a national program to sup- (GGDS, 2017/18–2030/31) provides the guiding port women’s economic inclusion and empower- policy for green growth;9 it is meant to ensure that ment through entrepreneurship. The Uganda Women the goals of the national development plans and Entrepreneurship Program provides training and inter- Vision 2040 are sustainably achieved. Overseen by est-free credit to groups of women entrepreneurs the National Planning Authority, the strategy envisions based on a revolving fund model; the groups also seven outcomes: (1) income and livelihoods enhance- receive skills training related to their business area. The ment; (2) decent green jobs; (3) climate change adap- program has not been formally evaluated, and informa- tation and mitigation; (4) sustainable environment and tion on its impact is currently limited. Interviews with natural resource management; (5) food and nutrition development partners suggest that the groups formed security; (6) resource use efficiency; and (7) social by the program have served as a source of resilience inclusiveness and economic transformation at the national and subnational levels. 8. According to interviews with representatives of Vison Fund and CARE International in April 2021. 9. Green growth is defined as “an innovative growth path that simultaneously generates inclusive economic development and environmental sustainability” (GoU 2017: 3). 8 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery The strategy includes clear targets for gender green jobs, increasing labor productivity, and ensuring inclusion. It specifies the proportion of jobs that should environmental sustainability, with special attention paid be filled by women in five priority sectors: (1) agricul- to groups of jua kali—a Kiswahili term for an informal ture: 75  percent; (2) natural capital: 70 percent; (3) microenterprise. The program document (in draft form green cities: 50 percent; (4) transport: 30 percent; and at the time of this writing) does not include a gender (5) energy: 30 percent (GoU 2017: 52–53, tables 9 and analysis but does list as targets: women—both edu- 10). It notes that women comprise most subsistence cated and uneducated, youth, and people with disabili- agriculture workers and are therefore expected to ben- ties. And while there is no specified target for women’s efit most from the implementation of the NDPIII goal participation in the GJFLMP, the GJCSP does state that of reducing by half the proportion of the labor force in the program will strive at least 50 percent of beneficia- subsistence agriculture—from 6 million in 2012/13 to 3 ries are female. million in 2019/20. While the GJCSP and the GJFLMP do not contain The Green Jobs Creation Strategy and Plan explicit gender targets, the Ugandan government is (GJCSP) (2020/21–2030/31) guides the implemen- working toward a target of at least 50 percent women tation of the Green Growth Development Strategy by beneficiaries in their implementation. In an interview, laying out how the country will expand decent pro- MGLSD officials explained that, by focusing primarily ductive employment in ways that ensure the protec- on the informal sector and agricultural livelihoods, they tion of ecosystems, improve energy and raw material expected to reach small-scale women entrepreneurs. efficiency, and minimize pollution. The MGLSD coor- Guidelines are being developed that are meant to lay dinates the GJCSP across seven ministries, various out strategies for communications and outreach to development partners, local governments, and civil women about the program. society organizations. Notably, at the time of this writing, women com- The GJCSP is focused on the informal sector as prised 71 percent of GJFLMP beneficiaries.10 The the main source of employment for the majority of selection of beneficiaries involves the submission Ugandans. It was recently updated to recognize the of a needs assessment form, after which the select- disproportionate impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on ing agency—the Green Jobs Secretariat—endeavors unprotected workers and those in the informal econ- to ensure that at least 50 percent of those selected omy, noting that women, because they represent most are women. The target has been overshot due to of the workers in the informal, agricultural, and tourism the over-representation of women applicants to the sectors, are the most adversely affected (GJCSP: 45). program. Notably, the GJCSP’s objective of gender inclu- Support delivered through the GJFLMP follows sion does not specify a target, nor does it include the lines of sex-segregation in the market rather than specific activities to increase women’s participation. promoting opportunities for women to cross over Objective two of the implementation plan—promoting into more profitable sectors. During interviews, offi- green entrepreneurship—includes training “a critical cials said that women were being targeted as benefi- mass of under-privileged rural women and youth” in ciaries within the sectors that tend to be more female renewable energy installation and maintenance, but dominated, such as hairdressing, food services, and the framework does not specify what proportion of the small-scale textile businesses. At present, there is no projected 4,368 beneficiaries should be women. support targeted toward women to enable their cross- The Green Jobs and Fair Labour Market Pro- ing over into more male-dominated, higher-profit sec- gramme (GJFLMP) is an implementing arm of the tors, although officials claim that this would be a priority GJCSP. Coordinated by MGLSD, it is aimed at creating going forward. 10. According to an interview with a representative of MGLSD on June 2, 2021. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on 4  Women’s Economic Empowerment The measures taken in Uganda to slow the spread of employment shock hurt women the most, particularly the COVID-19 virus were particularly restrictive by younger women with less education (Kugler 2021). regional comparison. Even before the first confirmed Oxfam, using data from the International Labour case on March 22, 2020, the government enacted travel Organization, estimated women’s job losses at 64 mil- restrictions; required a 14-day quarantine for all inter- lion during 2020, costing at least US$800 billion, more national arrivals; and canceled all public gatherings, than the combined gross domestic product of 98 coun- including religious services. By March 30, 2020, the tries (Oxfam 2021). According to a survey of businesses president declared a national curfew from 7:00 p.m. to in 49 countries, women entrepreneurs were the first 6:30 a.m., closed public transportation and schools, and to have to close their businesses between April and put in place restrictions on movement of government September 2020 (Torres and others 2021). Job and and private vehicles. While many of these restrictions business losses have contributed to a growing gender were eased toward the end of 2020, the resurgence of poverty gap, with an expected 47 million women of an the Delta variant of COVID-19 prompted a second lock- estimated total of 96 million people who are expected down in June 2021 that closed markets and schools to fall into extreme poverty in 2021 (UN Women 2020). and suspended all interdistrict travel. While the COVID-19 shock has affected all people Across the globe, women have been dispropor- living in Uganda in some way, women and girls have tionately impacted by the COVID-19 crisis. A phone been impacted differently due to the roles they tend survey conducted in 40 countries showed that the to play in the household and in the economy. This 9 10 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery analysis draws on a gendered examination of data from surveys of Ugandan nationals (UHFPS) and refugees Table 4.1. Descriptive Statistics from the National (URHFPS), supplemented by data from a gray literature and Refugee Phone Surveys in Uganda review and expert interviews. While it is too early to Ugandan Refugees identify trends, key observations can be made regard- Nationals ing how women experienced the COVID-19 shock in the period immediately following the first lockdown in Average age of respondents 43 38 March 2020; these observations can serve as the basis for recommendations in support of greater gender Female respondents (%) 49 53 inclusion moving forward. Female heads of household (%) 31 51 Sample Characteristics Respondents without education (%) 8 22 Table 4.1 provides a breakdown of the samples for the Households without children, ages 23 15 high-frequency phone surveys of Ugandan nationals 0–14 (%) and refugees. Notably, the demographic composition Source: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; of Ugandan nationals and refugees is significantly authors’ calculations. different. Refugee respondents are younger, with a slightly larger share of female respondents and a sig- nificantly higher share of female heads of household gaps in favor of men from both groups.11 As shown in than Ugandan nationals. In addition, a larger portion figure 4.1, the employment rate of Ugandan nationals of refugee respondents had no formal education and was about 86 percent prior to March 2020, about 30 were more likely to have children in their households percentage points higher than that of refugees. Gender than were Ugandan nationals. employment gaps in favor of men existed both among Ugandan nationals and refugees before the lockdown. For example, 63 percent of male refugee respondents Prepandemic Situation/Baseline worked before March compared with only 49 percent Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, women were more of female refugee respondents. The employment gen- excluded from the overall economy. der gap among Ugandan nationals was greater in urban Women have long played key roles in Uganda’s econ- than rural areas. omy. They comprise 77  percent of the agricultural Women’s incomes are less diversified across the labor force, a sector that accounts for 40 percent of the board. Ugandan women primarily depend on agricul- country’s exports and 21 percent of its gross domestic ture; refugee women rely on government assistance. product (NPA 2015). As the main care providers and Figure  4.2 illustrates the sectoral composition of collectors of water and fuel, women’s unpaid work employment by gender prior to the lockdown. In addi- underlies the economic contributions of other house- tion to gender differences in selected sectors, overall hold members. refugee respondents were less likely than Ugandan Refugees are less likely than Ugandan nationals to respondents to work in agriculture. Among Ugandan participate in the labor market, but there are gender nationals, more women than men were employed in 11. In both surveys, respondents were asked if they had been engaged in any work for pay for at least one hour over the past seven days. Those who had not worked were then asked if they had been employed prior to March 2020, when strict lockdown measures were intro- duced. These two indicators allowed for the construction of prelockdown employment rates, with the assumption that those who had worked during the previous seven days had also been working before March 2020. 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 11 Figure 4.1. Pre-lockdown Employment Rates (%) Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees by Gender of Head of Household and Urban/Rural Distribution 100 90 80 94 89 85 87 70 84 83 Nationals 60 63 63 Total: nationals 50 61 40 49 50 49 Refugees 30 Total: refugees 20 10 0 Female Male Female Male Female Male Gender Urban Rural Source: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. Note: Urban areas for refugees include Kampala; rural areas include South West and West Nile regions. Figure 4.2. Pre-lockdown Employment Rates within Economic Sectors Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees by Gender of Head of Household a. Ugandan Nationals b. Refugees 5 7 Other 6 Other 5 7 Male 14 Male Personal services 9 Personal services 13 Female Female Professional activities 5 11 3 Professional activities 5 Transport 0 7 Transport 0 4 Buying and selling 18 24 Buying and selling 11 41 Construction 0 7 Construction 0 8 Industry 3 8 Industry 2 3 Agriculture 44 55 Agriculture 44 33 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Source: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. agriculture, while the opposite held true for refugee female-headed households were more likely than male- respondents, with more men than women working in headed households to exclusively rely on income from agriculture. There was a noticeable gender gap for agriculture, which corresponds with women’s higher working in the “buying and selling” sector among refu- share of employment in the agriculture sector. Among gees, with women more likely than men to work in this refugees, female-headed households were significantly sector prior to the pandemic. more likely than male-headed households to report no An assessment of income sources among Ugandan income from labor, which corresponds to women ref- nationals and refugees reveals a particular vulner- ugees’ smaller share of participation in the labor force ability among women. Among Ugandan nationals, (figure 4.3). 12 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery Figure 4.3. Select Income Diversification Indicators for Refugee and Ugandan Households by Gender of Head of Household 50 40 32 30 20 20 10 4 1 0 Female Male Female Male Nationals Refugees Only income from agriculture Only wage employment income Agriculture income and either wage or family business No labor income Only business income Source: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. Note: For both surveys, income sources are reported for previous 12 months. Work Stoppages stopped working as of June 2020 (about 17  percent of all respondents). Among refugees, the share was COVID-19 related restrictions affected female Ugandan higher—24 percent had stopped working by October/ national respondents the most, particularly those in November 2020.12 In both groups, work stoppages urban areas; those under 30 were more likely to have were more pronounced among respondents living in stopped working between March and June 2020. urban areas/Kampala and among respondents under Before the COVID-19 crisis, the rate of labor force par- the age of 30. Among Ugandan nationals, personal ticipation among women was already on the decline. services, buying and selling, and transport sectors Women’s labor force participation dropped from 90 to were most affected, while the agriculture sector was 75 percent between 2012 and 2016, compared with a least affected. Among refugees, construction, personal decline from 90 to 80  percent among men. An esti- services, and transport sectors were most affected. mated 3.1 million adults were considered inactive in the Substantial work stoppages were also happening in the labor force in 2016, 73 percent of whom were women agriculture sector among refugees, probably related to (World Bank 2021c). seasonal changes. The COVID-19 shock negatively affected employ- Among Ugandan nationals, work stoppages were ment for younger respondents, particularly those more pronounced for women than for men. In June living in urban areas. In both surveys, it is possible 2020, about 23 percent of female Ugandan respon- to estimate the share of respondents who stopped dents who had worked before the lockdown had working after March. Among Ugandan nationals, 19 stopped working—a significantly higher rate than their percent of respondents who worked before March had male counterparts at 16 percent. The gender gap was 12. Because the surveys were conducted at different times, the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on refugees and Ugandan nationals is not strictly comparable. 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 13 Figure 4.4. Work Stoppages Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees Who Worked Prior to March 2020 by Gender, Age, and Urban/Rural Residence a. Ugandan Nationals (June 2020) Gender Residence Age group Total Urban Rural 15-30 above 30 Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male 0 -10 -14 -13 -20 -16 -15 -19 -20 -23 -30 -25 -30 -40 -37 b. Refugees (October/November 2020) Gender Residence Age group Urban Rural 15-30 above 30 Total Female Female Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male 0 -10 -20 -17 -20 -19 -25 -24 -30 -27 -26 -26 -30 -40 -50 -45 -60 -55 Source: High-frequency phone surveys of Ugandan nationals and refugees; authors’ calculations. Note: Work stoppages are calculated using those who worked before March 2020 as the denominator. 14 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery very large in urban areas and among those under 30. percent reported receiving family business income after Even after controlling for other factors—residence, the March 2020 lockdown; and 12 percent reported a region, age, sector, and share of children in household total loss of income. size—women were significantly more likely than men to Young, female heads of household were more have stopped working. In Uganda’s urban areas, female likely than other Ugandan nationals to lose business wage employees were also more likely than their male income. Forty-two percent of households who had counterparts to report an inability to work as usual. business income prior to March 2020 lost it after the One out of three women who were engaged in wage lockdown began compared with an overall rate of 27 per- employment in June 2020 reported being unable to cent among male- and female-headed households. work as usual, compared with one in 10 men.13 The pattern observed in refugee households is Among refugees, male respondents were more quite similar, even though that survey asked a differ- likely than female respondents to have stopped work- ent question. Figure 4.6 illustrates the levels of owner- ing. In October/November 2020, about 27 percent of ship among refugees of a household enterprise before men who had been employed before March 2020 had and after the start of the lockdown. The percentage of stopped working compared with 20 percent of women. all refuges reporting ownership of a household enter- The gender gap in favor of women was observed prise declined by 10 percentage points (23 percent) by regardless of the respondent’s age or whether they April–December 2020 compared to the prelockdown resided in a rural or urban area.14 rate of 37 percent. Male-headed households experi- enced more closures than female-headed households did, possibly because they were more likely to own Business Closures businesses before the COVID-19 shock. Women’s businesses were more likely to close or restrict As with their Ugandan national counterparts, operations in 2020 during the early stages of the households headed by young female refugees are lockdown; younger entrepreneurs were most affected. much more likely to have had to close a household The questions in the survey of Ugandan nation- enterprise. Rates of ownership of such enterprises als were slightly different than those in the survey declined among households headed by girls and women of refugees, but the data yield similar observations. (age 15–30) from 40 percent prior to the lockdown to The Ugandan nationals survey asked if households 14 percent in October/November 2020. had received income from a family business over the An International Rescue Committee Safety audit past 12 months, while the refugee survey inquired report found that restrictions set by the government about changes to ownership of household enterprises. in the early days of the crisis hurt small-scale busi- Figure 4.5 shows the results for Ugandan nationals by ness operations (IRC 2020). Microenterprises selling gender and age of the household head. About 42 per- household items and foodstuffs, small restaurants, and cent of Ugandan households reported receiving income alcohol brewers were among the most affected. The from a family business before the lockdown, with no report further notes how some retailers who bought differences by gender of head of household. Only 30 foodstuffs and other commodities from the neighboring 13. Due to the small sample size, this finding should be treated with caution. 14. This may be due to the fact that the survey of refugees was implemented four months after the survey of Ugandan nationals. Factors unrelated to the COVID-19 restrictions also may have impacted work stoppages. Given that male refugee respondents were more likely to work in agriculture prior to the pandemic, they might therefore have been more affected than women by seasonal work stoppages. Another potential reason relates to a much higher prevalence of female heads of household—who tend to be sole income earners—more among refugees than Ugandan nationals. 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 15 Figure 4.5. Ugandan Households Receiving Business Income Prior to and After the March 2020 Lockdown by Gender and Age of Head of Household (percent) Received business income last 12 month 50 Received business income after March 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Female Male Female Male Female Male 15–30 Above 30 Heads of household Source: High-frequency phone survey of Ugandan nationals; authors’ calculations. Figure 4.6. Ownership of Family Business Among Refugees Prior to and After Lockdown by Gender and Age of Head of Household Ownership of family business before lockdown Ownership of family business after lockdown till December 2020 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total Female Male Female Male Female Male 15–30 above 30 Heads of household Source: High-frequency phone survey of refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. 16 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery districts of Koboko and Arua feel the pinch of limited the loss of work among many men was relaxing gender transport and closure of shops selling nonfood items. norms around work, allowing men to move into differ- More recent research has found less of a differ- ent jobs. Alternatively, the increased stress on liveli- ence between the number of male- and female-owned hoods could have pushed men into jobs they would not businesses that closed during the crisis. A rapid sur- have previously considered. It is too early to tell if this is vey of 177 businesses conducted by the Economic a trend that will continue as the economy improves and Policy Research Centre in March 2021 revealed that more livelihood opportunities become available. 54 percent of all businesses closed operations at some By contrast, interviewees in rural areas did not point, with an average closure time of 101 days (EPRC make such an observation. Rather, the women inter- 2021).15 No significant differences were observed in viewed noted that some men who could not continue terms of the duration of business closure between in their occupations due to COVID-19 restrictions had male- and female-owned enterprises, although 59.8 started working with their wives in family gardens or percent of male-owned businesses reported closing providing agricultural labor on neighborhood farms to for a period of time compared with 50.4 percent of support their families. Those unwilling or unable to female-owned businesses. The survey also found that find alternative occupations depended on their wives women-owned firms, especially those in the service to support the family. Overall, rural areas were less sector, were much more likely than male-owned firms affected than urban areas by the lockdown, and work to require financial assistance to reopen. Overall, half of stoppages were less common. surveyed businesses required some financial support: 85 percent of female-owned businesses compared with Experience of Shocks only 30.7 percent of male-owned businesses. Refugees were more prone than Ugandan nationals to shocks, but male-headed households of Ugandan Men Moving into Activities Traditionally nationals were the most likely to report multiple shocks. Dominated by Women Refugees experienced considerably more shocks16 Interviews suggest that as the pandemic wore on, men than Ugandan nationals—every single respondent in urban areas began to adopt livelihood strategies reported at least one shock. Among Ugandan nation- traditionally exercised by women; this trend was not als, about 42 percent of households did not experience observed in rural areas. a shock between March and June 2020 in sharp con- Several expert interviewees from urban areas noted trast to the 88 percent of refugees who had experi- that men were beginning to take jobs that would pre- enced at least one shock between March and October/ viously have been in the exclusive purview of women. November 2020, including a considerable percentage For example, it was not uncommon to see men selling who had experienced multiple shocks. No signifi- vegetables by the roadside or door-to-door, or mop- cant differences were observed in terms of the gen- ping floors in hotel lobbies—activities that would have der of household head among refugee households; been done exclusively by women in the past. There is a the differences among Ugandan nationals were slight sense that women’s increased care responsibilities and (figure 4.7). 15. The report does not specify the proportion of female- versus male-owned businesses in the sample. 16. The two surveys differ in terms of the list of shocks offered as multiple-choice options. For the survey of Ugandan nationals, the choices offered were death, disability of working adult, death of someone sending remittances, illness of income-earning member, loss of important contact, job loss, business closure, theft of crops or cash, destruction of harvest, harvest failure, increase of food prices, inputs, and reduction in prices of outputs. For the survey of refugees, the choices offered were job loss, business closure, theft of cash or other property, disruption of farming, increase of prices of inputs, increase of food prices, Illness, injury, and death of income-earning household member. 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 17 Figure 4.7. Number of Shocks Faced by Ugandan Nationals (March–June 2020) and Refugees (March–October/November 2020) by Gender of Head of Household 100 90 19 24 80 37 39 No shock 70 One shock 38 Multiple shocks 60 35 50 40 51 49 30 20 43 41 10 12 12 0 Female Male Female Male National Refugee (March–June) (March–October/November) Source: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. Among Ugandan nationals and refugees, female- as maize, beans, and cooking oil are used for barter and headed households were more likely to experi- investment in the settlements. Women often sell part ence shocks related to the death or illness of an of their rations and invest in small businesses such as income-earning member, including those sending retail shops. Thus, the cut in rations has also affected remittances. Experiencing an illness, injury, or death of the overall income and savings of women.17 a household income-earning member was also more Some COVID-related shocks have acutely affected likely to happen among refugee households headed by people with disabilities. Transport restrictions often young women (under age 30) compared to their male prevented caregivers from traveling to their jobs. Many counterparts, but the gender gap was not as stark. people with disabilities could not access transportation The pandemic coincided with a decrease in to pharmacies for routine medications or hospitals to rations for refugee settlement communities due to receive care. And, while the government led food and broader budget cuts among development partners. other aid programs in all districts, people with disabili- Interviewees spoke of a detrimental effect on women ties faced challenges in accessing the information about refugees, who bear much of the responsibility for their aid distribution and in reaching the distribution sites.18 families’ food security. In addition, food products such 17. According to an interview with representative of CARE International on April 27, 2021. 18. According to an interview with a representative of the National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda in April 2021. 18 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery Rise in Gender-Based Violence Table 4.2. Rates of Violence Against Women and Women and girls have been at greater risk of Girls, Ages 15–59, in Uganda experiencing gender-based violence during the pandemic. Lifetime Last 12 Months The prevalence of gender-based violence (GBV) in Intimate partner violence (%) (%) Uganda is among highest in the world. According to Physical 45.0 22.0 a 2020 national survey of violence against women, which was designed as part of the Uganda National Sexual 36.0 28.0 Household Survey and drew from its nationally rep- resentative samples, almost all—95 percent—Ugandan Emotional 55.2 35.6 women (ages  15–49) have experienced physical or Physical and sexual 56.0 34.6 sexual violence by an intimate partner or nonpartner during their lifetime (table 4.2) (UBOS 2021). Over half Violence by a nonpartner (56 percent) of all Ugandan women over the age of 15 had experienced physical or sexual violence by an inti- Physical 31.0 mate partner in her lifetime, and almost 35 percent had been victimized in the year prior to the survey—nearly Sexual 55.0 twice the global averages of 27 and 12 percent, respec- Physical and sexual 75.7 tively, and higher than averages in Sub-Saharan Africa of 33 and 20 percent, respectively (WHO 2021). Any physical or sexual violence The rate of nonpartner violence in Uganda is quite 95.0 by partner or nonpartner high. One-third of Ugandan women said they had experienced physical violence by people other than Source: UBOS 2021. their partners; family members are the most common perpetrators at 22 percent, followed by teachers at 10 percent and friends or acquaintances at 1 percent. (Apondi and others). Other nongovernmental orga- Fifty-five percent had experienced sexual violence by nizations (NGOs) report similar rises. According to a nonpartner during their lifetime—well above the per- the Uganda Child Helpline (Sauti 611), calls reporting centage reporting experiencing sexual violence by an violence against children escalated to 881 in March intimate partner (36). The World Health Organization 2020, up from an average of 248 cases per month reports global averages of sexual violence by a non- over the previous three years. A qualitative study that partner at 6 percent, which is also the average in Sub- included interviews with 27 service providers in July– Saharan Africa—both well below the rate in Uganda September 2020 documents an increase in GBV due to (WHO 2021). prolonged confinement, a rise in economic insecurity, There was a marked increase in GBV following the and school closures—all of which increased household first lockdown of March 2020. An estimated 3,280 stress. These impacts were exacerbated by disruptions domestic violence cases, including intimate partner in transport and the diversion of resources away from violence, were reported to the police between March sexual and reproductive health services and toward a 30 and April 28, 2020, compared with a monthly aver- COVID-19 response, limiting women’s access to needed age of 1,137 cases in 2019 (MGLSD 2020). Official data support services (Columbia University 2020). reveal a 24 percent increase in the incidence of rape The rise in people with disabilities experiencing in the six months after the start of the first lockdown GBV is especially alarming. Some interviewees for 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 19 this study claim that the rate has doubled since the start centers, but these were closed under lockdown restric- of the pandemic. According to the National Union of tions. Later, when they were reopened, interviewees Women with Disabilities of Uganda, while about 80 per- noted a drop in attendance, which they attributed to a cent of women report having experienced some form fear of spreading COVID-19 and the fact that women of GBV during the lockdown, the rate among women could not afford to attend workshops or participate in with disabilities was 95 percent.19 savings groups. In cases where women are confined Among refugee populations, there was a perceived with abusive partners, the lockdown has left them even rise in GBV-related risks, especially among young more isolated from community support systems. women. In an interagency assessment conducted in Interviewees reported that sexual harassment by November 2020, which included a survey of 1,500 ref- landlords has been a growing problem for refugees ugees in Kampala and the settlements as well as 185 in urban areas during the crisis. With the drop in live- expert interviews, 23 percent of respondents said there lihoods, many women had trouble paying their rent, was an increase in sexual and GBV, and 17 percent leaving them vulnerable to harassment or demands for said there was an increase in domestic violence (GoU, transactional sex to remain in their apartments. Women UNHCR, UN Women, DRC, IRC, ALIGHT, and CARE also faced the challenge of people distributing food items International 2020). Respondents listed multiple per- asking them for sexual favors in exchange for food.21 ceived drivers, including increased stress and lack of Interviews with women in rural areas suggest confidence among men due to their loss of livelihoods, that the risk of GBV escalated along with the stress a rise in substance abuse, and social isolation. related to coping with income drops, especially All interviewees noted an increase in negative cop- among men. Some women’s collectives were able to ing mechanisms during the crisis, several of which draw on pooled resources to buy livestock during the expose women to GBV-related risks. The interagency crisis, which served as a source of food and income. In report describes gender difference in coping strategies, many households, women and men worked collectively with men and boys more likely to turn to theft, selling with these new assets, but this arrangement served as drugs, or borrowing money; girls and women were at a source of tension in some households. higher risk of engaging in transactional sex. In addition, women and girls reported spending more time collect- Increase in Care Responsibilities ing fuel and water, activities that put them at risk of sexual and gender-based violence in some areas (GoU, The survey of Ugandan nationals did not include ques- UNHCR, UN Women, DRC, IRC, ALIGHT, and CARE tions on unpaid care work, but reports from inter- International 2020). International NGOs interviewed for national agencies and interviews conducted for this this report said that the reduction in women’s incomes report suggest it has increased among women and due to the lockdown and the increased food insecurity girls. Before the pandemic, national surveys reported caused by the cutting of rations increased women’s vul- that Ugandan women spent an average of 48 hours nerability to sexual exploitation and/or child marriage.20 per week on unpaid domestic and care work, includ- Many of the social support systems that refugee ing cleaning, cooking, fetching water or fuel, and caring women rely on to prevent or respond to threats of for other household members, compared with an aver- violence were affected by the lockdown. Many set- age of 36 hours for men (UBOS 2017). Climate change tlements have physical spaces dedicated to women’s and increased pressure on natural resources has 19. According to an interview with a representative of the National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda in April 2021. 20. According to interviews with representatives of CARE International and International Rescue Committee. 21. According to interview with representative of CARE International on April 27, 2021. 20 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery exacerbated the problem, with women often needing to official data from national health systems conducted walk longer distances to gather firewood and water. with support from the U.S. Center for Disease Control During the pandemic, increased care work has lim- and Prevention documented a 17  percent increase in ited the time women and girls can devote to other pregnant adolescent girls presenting at health clinics activities, including school and paid work. The inter- between April and September 2020 compared with agency report on refugees documented that 53 percent the October 2019 to March 2020 period (Aponde and of girls and 46 percent of women (ages 18–24) said others 2021). Key informants for the interagency report they had taken on additional unpaid work during the on refugees drew a strong connection between school COVID-19 crisis, most commonly cooking, housework, closures and the increase in teen pregnancies (21 per- caring for children, collecting firewood, and fetching cent) and child marriage (18 percent). All interview- water (GoU, UNHCR, UN Women, DRC, IRC, ALIGHT, and ees for this report made similar observations, adding CARE International 2020). The need to carry out house- that many early pregnancies were the result of mar- hold chores has affected the learning of 27 percent of riage initiated by families in the early months of the girls and 13 percent of boys (GoU, UNHCR, UN Women, lockdown. Concerns were expressed that girls were DRC, IRC, ALIGHT, and CARE International 2020). leaving school due to early motherhood, adding to the Adolescent pregnancy appears to be on the already heavy economic pressures they face.22 rise in the context of the pandemic. An analysis of Figure 4.8. Coping Strategies Among Ugandan (March–June 2020) and Refugee Households (March-October/November 2020) that Experienced a Shock 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Additional Assistance Borrowed Reduced Reduced Relied Did Humanitarian income- from friends from friends food nonfood on nothing assistance generating and family and family consumption consumption savings activities Ugandans: female Refugees: female Ugandan: male Refugees: male Sources: High-frequency phone surveys of nationals and refugees in Uganda; authors’ calculations. 22. According to interviews with representatives of International Rescue Committee and CARE International in April 2021. 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 21 Coping Mechanisms and Sources of “We did not have people returning to the village as Resilience such. However, we have people who used to work Ugandan nationals and refugees displayed very dif- ferent coping mechanisms, with the latter relying in Mbarara on staying here at home. However, now heavily on humanitarian assistance and reducing food they cannot go to work because some businesses are consumption (figure  4.8). Only 6 percent of refugee households have relied on savings to cope with shocks, closed. Even if they wanted to go and work, they do while 43 percent of Ugandan nationals employed this not have transport. So those people are now work- strategy. Refugee households were more likely than their Ugandan counterparts to engage in additional ing, and they are mainly men.” income-generating activities, at 25 and 9 percent, —Chairperson, Kabucebebe Women’s Group, Mbarara respectively. Despite the observed gender differences in each group, most gaps were not statistically signif- continued with their usual work with less interruption. icant. However, among Ugandan nationals, female- However, markets were affected, and many rural peo- headed households were more likely than male-headed ple saw drops in the prices for their goods. households to rely on assistance from friends. Male- headed households were more likely to engage in addi- Several interviewees observed urban residents, tional income-generating activities. particularly in Kampala, leaving for rural areas during the lockdown of 2020, and that as of April 2021, many Agriculture and rural areas as a safety net had not returned. Interviewees in Mbarara pointed out The survey of Ugandan nationals did not include that while they had not noticed people moving into dis- questions about sources of resilience; however, trict’s rural areas, they had noticed some who had pre- data from interviews suggest that migration to rural viously worked in Mbarara but lived in outlying villages areas and a reliance on subsistence agriculture were no longer traveling into the city to work—a trend have been crucial. seen as primarily affecting men with jobs in Mbarara and women who sell goods there. There was consensus among interviewees that rural communities fared better than urban commu- Village savings and loan associations and other local nities during the lockdown. There are several poten- collective organizations tial reasons for this. First, the COVID-19 restrictions on Women’s collective organizations provided so- movement and economic activity were less stringent in cial support and an economic safety net for many rural areas, allowing many informal microenterprises women to continue functioning to some degree. Rural areas were perceived as safer than urban areas in terms of Data from the refugee survey show that refugee spreading COVID-19. There is also a more robust built-in households needed much more financial support social safety net in rural areas than in urban areas. during the crisis than Ugandan nationals did. Less Most urban residents need to earn enough money to than one quarter (23 percent) of Ugandan house- cover rent and basic needs, while in rural areas many holds but at least half of refugee households borrowed people are able to live with family and rely on subsis- money to cope with the impacts of the COVID-19 emer- tence agriculture for food. The interviews with women gency. These differences are consistent across gen- in rural areas suggest that women who earn a living der: 22 percent of female-headed and 23 percent of by growing food crops and keeping domestic animals male-headed Ugandan national households borrowed 22 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery Figure 4.9. Sources of Borrowing Money Among Ugandan Nationals and Refugees (percent of all households) 100 90 80 70 46 Other 60 63 Neighbor/friend VSLA 50 Savings group 40 Commercial bank 24 30 20 14 15 10 15 10 1 0 Ugandans Refugees Source: High-frequency phone survey of Ugandan nationals, second round. money during the crisis compared with 47 and 53 per- more likely to borrow from savings and credit coopera- cent of female- and male-headed refugee households, tive societies and credit institutions but were less likely respectively. The large gap between Ugandan nationals than male-headed households to borrow from friends and refugees may relate to the different recall period or neighbors. Among refugees, however, neighbors and as well as the fact that refugees have significantly less friends represented the single largest source of bor- access to savings. rowing money (63 percent). About 29 percent of sur- There were scant differences between urban and veyed refugees had borrowed from either a VSLA or rural Ugandan nationals, but differences by age were other savings group (figure 4.9). significant. Rates of borrowing money were about the Significant gender differences were found in the same for urban and rural women at 20 and 21 per- reasons Ugandan households borrowed money. cent, respectively. Young women (15 to 30 years old) Male-headed households were more likely to borrow were more likely than women (over 30 years old) to money because they were unable to sell their produce, borrow money at 36 and 20 percent, respectively, or while female-headed households were more likely to than young men or men over the age of 30, at 30 and borrow because they were unable to obtain assistance 22 percent, respectively. (figure 4.10). The two groups’ sources for borrowing money Interviewees spoke about the role of women’s col- were significantly different. For Ugandan households, lective organizations in cushioning the social and eco- the chances of borrowing money either from neighbors nomic impacts of the crisis. Savings groups provided a and friends or from saving groups or village savings source of savings that women could draw on, enabling and loan associations (VSLAs) were relatively equal: some to move into new sectors or lines of business or 46 and 40 percent, respectively. Male-headed house- to restart their businesses after the lockdown (Vision holds were more likely to borrow money from com- Fund Uganda 2020). In addition, women’s collectives mercial banks compared with female-headed ones. served as a platform for women to offer social support Young female-headed households (ages 15–30) were to one another. In one rapid survey conducted in April/ 4. Impact of COVID-19 Crisis on Women’s Economic Empowerment 23 Figure 4.10. Reasons for Borrowing Money Among Ugandan Nationals, March– July/August 2020 (percent of all households who borrowed money) 100 27 22 80 38 Could not get assistance 28 Could not sell produce 60 24 15 Sales decreased Business was closed 40 Lost my job 25 20 18 0 6 Overall Female Male Head of household gender Source: High-frequency phone survey of Ugandan nationals, second round. May 2020, 80 percent of VSLAs were continuing to Interviewees in rural areas noted that their access meet, albeit in smaller groups to comply with govern- to VSLAs helped them avoid the business closures ment restrictions (Vision Fund Uganda 2020). Other that many individual women owners experienced. In interviewees emphasized the role of women’s collec- general, microenterprises of women’s groups involved tives in negotiating access to land and credit and in in trade, agriculture, and service provision in rural engaging in collective bargaining to secure better mar- and suburban areas resumed after the partial lifting ket prices for their products.23 of lockdown restrictions in 2020. Some businesses During the crisis, interviewees in rural areas said steadily registered profits and expanded until the sec- their VSLAs lowered the required weekly payments to ond lockdown of June 2021. However, many observed ensure that the group continued to function. In some that women’s individual small-scale businesses either cases, fees were cut in half to accommodate members closed completely or shrank in size after the March who were struggling financially. 2020 lockdown. 23. According to an interview with a representative of UN Women on April 14, 2021. 5. The Way Forward: Opportunities for a Gender-Inclusive, Green Recovery Around the world, decisions made over the next few Recommendations for Further Research years will determine whether countries respond The high-frequency phone surveys provide a snapshot to the climate crisis and fallout from the COVID-19 of the situation in Uganda in late 2020. However, in pandemic by falling back to business as usual or by a rapidly evolving context, it is crucial that observations building back in a more sustainable and inclusive gleaned from these data be monitored to determine if way. History attests to the negative consequences they represent long-term trends as well as their impli- of economies that rely on fossil fuels and undervalue cations. Potential areas of inquiry include the reversion the contributions of women. Harnessing the economic to subsistence agriculture as a safety net; pathways contributions of women in an economy less reliant on for women to move into greener jobs and sectors; nonrenewable energy sources has the potential to also he observed movement of men living in urban areas deliver social benefits such as a better quality of life into sectors and lines of work traditionally dominated and better health due to a reduction in air pollution, by women; the rise in teen pregnancy rates; sources improved food safety, and higher quality jobs, as well as of resilience for women; women’s care responsibili- a more dynamic overall economy. The central challenge ties and economic empowerment; the attitudes of men going forward is to capitalize on women’s energy and toward women’s economic empowerment; and green talents in a way that is both sustainable and that recog- growth. They are described in turn below. nizes their different roles, particularly in terms of care responsibilities. 24 5. The Way Forward: Opportunities for a Gender-Inclusive, Green Recovery 25 Reversion to subsistence agriculture as a safety Women’s care responsibilities and economic net. All of the interviewees for this study noticed many empowerment. Women’s care responsibilities have people moving out of urban areas in the early days increased due to the COVID-19 shock. What can be of the crisis, and survey data suggest that agriculture learned from this to inform policy options that support was an important economic safety net. What could this a more efficient care economy and enhance women’s movement mean for the broad structural transforma- economic empowerment? tion that was underway in Uganda prior to the COVID- Attitudes of men toward women’s economic 19 shock? What does the movement of people into rural empowerment and green growth. As Uganda rebuilds areas say about the social safety nets in urban versus its economy with a view toward putting women at the rural areas, and what are the policy implications for center of an inclusive and sustainable recovery, it will social protection and other programs? be crucial to understand how men perceive or even Pathways for women to move into greener jobs resist such a process. and sectors. Uganda has identified agriculture, natural capital, and “green cities” as priorities going forward. Support for Policy Implementation What investments are needed for women to access new jobs? Will reskilling be required and, if so, for what With critical guiding policy frameworks in place, skills and technologies? What will this mean for human Uganda can now look toward implementing its pol- capital investments overall? icies and programs for a gender-inclusive recovery. The observed movement of men living in urban As described in more detail below, policy implemen- areas into sectors and lines of work traditionally tation gaps will need to be addressed by ensuring a dominated by women. Several informants remarked greater role for women in the design of resilience pol- how, as the COVID-19 crisis wore on, men appeared to icy; designing short-term policies to support women take on jobs such as cleaning hotels and selling veg- engaged in subsistence agriculture; harnessing wom- etables on the roadside. However, this trend was not en’s labor and skills toward a long-term transition away observed by interviewees in rural areas. Is this a long- from heavy dependence on subsistence agriculture; term trend or merely a short-term coping mechanism? enhancing coordination of work on gender with work What might such a shift mean to economic recovery, that addresses climate change, especially at the local social relations, and gender norms around work? level; strengthening the implementation of policies that Rise in teen pregnancy rates. All interviewees noted seek to prevent gender-based violence (GBV) and the that teen pregnancy and early marriage rates seemed state’s response for survivors; and preventing GBV in to have spiked in 2020, but the phone surveys were not refugee communities. designed to glean such information. Future household Ensuring a greater role for women in the design surveys could provide insights that would help deter- of resilience policy. Uganda is committed to climate mine if this is a short- or long-term trend, how it is adaptation with the goal of growing its economy in a impacting girls transitioning into the labor market, and low-carbon and climate-resilient manner. Women, what the other health and social implications might be. who represent most workers in the key growth sec- Sources of resilience for women. The surveys and tors of agriculture and natural capital, are critical to this interviews suggest that women’s collective organiza- transition. Uganda must harness the role of women tions and subsistence agriculture have been serving as as designers and builders of green policies, poten- safety nets for women during the pandemic. What can tially using as a platform the broad-based consulta- be learned from these experiences to inform a more tion process employed for the nationally determined gender-inclusive recovery? contribution. 26 Gendered Impacts of the COVID-19 Crisis in Uganda and Opportunities for an Inclusive and Sustainable Recovery Designing short-term policies to support women enable an integrated approach to gender and climate engaged in subsistence agriculture. Women comprise change has been scant, particularly at the local govern- most subsistence agriculture workers, and their number ment level. Further, the roles and responsibilities of the increased during the COVID-19 shock as many moved climate change focal points in district governments are out of urban areas and back into rural, agricultural not well defined. zones. The gender targets of Uganda’s Green Growth Strengthening the implementation of policies that Development Strategy specify that women should fill seek to prevent GBV and the state’s response for 75 percent of new agricultural jobs and 70 percent of survivors. Uganda has been putting in place stronger new natural capital jobs. Over the short term, it is vital policies to protect against sexual and gender-based to ensure that women have access to what they need to violence and to strengthen the service referral sys- enhance their productivity: access to land, capital, and tem for survivors. There is little doubt that women and appropriate technologies. girls have been at increased risk of violence since the Harnessing women’s labor and skills toward a first lockdown measures of March 2020. Nevertheless, long-term transition away from heavy dependence national-level efforts to collect and present data that on subsistence agriculture. If Uganda is to meet could drive a policy response remain limited. The rise the goal of reducing the proportion of the labor force in violence during the pandemic suggests the need to engaged in subsistence agriculture, as set forth in the redouble such efforts. National Development Plan III, it must create pathways Preventing GBV in refugee communities. Many for women to move into other sectors and jobs. The women in refugee communities have experienced sev- Green Growth Strategy sets gender targets for women eral recent shocks that have increased their vulnera- in the growth areas of green cities (50 percent), trans- bility to violence, including a cut in food rations, work port (30 percent), and energy (30 percent). If women stoppages that have heightened food insecurity, and the are to move into these sectors, the government must interruption of crucial health services where women invest in education, technical skills building, and access can report and receive responses to acts or threats of to appropriate technology for women. violence. Livelihood opportunities need to be improved Enhancing coordination of work on gender with to include built-in GBV prevention; and multisectoral work that addresses climate change, especially at services, referral mechanisms, and coordination efforts the local level. All departments, agencies, and levels must be strengthened across service providers to of government have focal points for gender and for cli- ensure an effective response to violence. mate change. The national-level gender focal point, part of the National Climate Change Commission, is respon- Improving Government Programs sible for integrating gender into climate change pro- cesses. A gender and climate change technical team Uganda is already home to multiple programs that comprises government, civil society organizations, support women’s economic empowerment. Many private sector, academia, and development partners. such efforts have served vital roles during the COVID- Although gender and climate change focal points exist 19 crisis, and it is vital to build on them. The government across all national and local government agencies and is actively examining current programs, particularly departments, they often lack capacity on the nexus of the Green Jobs and Fair Labour Market Programme climate change and gender to coordinate effectively. and the Uganda Women Entrepreneurship Program, Training and information dissemination that would to better adjust implementation to the realities of a 5. The Way Forward: Opportunities for a Gender-Inclusive, Green Recovery 27 post-COVID-19 world and link them to green recovery u Improve targeting and support within exist- strategies. Additional recommendations for improving ing women’s entrepreneurship programs for government programs include: women crossing over into more profitable and sustainable jobs and sectors. Women are cur- u Strengthen evaluation practices. This will facil- rently being targeted within traditional sectors, itate the learning of lessons from programs that such as hairdressing and food selling, according already have national reach and that provide a to interviewees. The Green Jobs and Fair Labour strong foundation for scaling up, particularly the Market Programme should target women entre- Uganda Women Entrepreneurship Program. preneurs with the potential of moving into tra- u Consider the barriers women face in accessing ditionally male-dominated sectors. The Uganda women’s economic empowerment programs. Women Entrepreneurship Program is another Key constraints include increasing care respon- key program to consider. sibilities and disabilities. Examine communication u Support women’s collective organizations as and mobilization strategies to better understand platforms for economic empowerment and sup- how women access information and ensure flex- port services. Survey and interview data suggest ibility to accommodate their time constraints. that collective organizations helped women keep u Explore options for addressing care responsi- their businesses open and meet their household bilities within existing programs or as separate needs during the lockdowns of 2020 and 2021, initiatives. Uganda could benefit from invest- as well as providing a space for women to sup- ments in diverse forms of childcare provision, port one another during an emotionally taxing including developing community childcare cen- time. This infrastructure should be built on going ters and exploring employer-based models.24 forward. u Strengthen the focus on women’s entrepre- u Put in place measures to mitigate the social risks neurship as a means of restarting the econ- associated with women’s economic empower- omy, reducing refugee reliance on government ment, especially sexual and gender-based vio- assistance, and maximizing women’s eco- lence. The interviews and desk review point to nomic contributions in a sustainable way. a steep increase in GBV during the COVID-19 Women’s businesses—especially those of refu- crisis. Women’s economic empowerment has gee women—were the first to close during the also been associated with an increased risk of early days of the pandemic and required more GBV, suggesting the need to better integrate pre- financial capital to restart. 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Prevalence Estimates for Intimate Partner Violence against Women Washington, DC: World Bank. https://openknowledge.world- and Global and Regional Prevalence Estimates for Nonpartner bank.org/handle/10986/34395. Sexual Violence Against Women. Geneva: WHO. Appendix A. List of Persons Interviewed # Name Title Organization 1. Alex Asiimwe Commissioner of Labour, Industrial MGLSD Relations and Productivity 2. Enoch Mutambi Green Skills Specialist, Green Job MGLSD Programme 3. Hillary Businge Assistant Commissioner Labour MGLSD Productivity 4. Nuluyati Nabiwande Principal Labour Officer MGLSD 5. Janet Karungi Monitoring and Evaluation Officer MGLSD 6. Caro Brenda Lorika Project Manager Office of the Prime Minister—NUSAF 7. Peter Malinga Sustainable Livelihoods Pilot (SLP) in- Office of the Prime Minister—NUSAF charge Village Revolving Fund 8. Harriet Kezaabu International Rescue Committee (IRC) 9. Melch Natukunda Financial Inclusion and Policy Advisor  CARE International in Uganda 10. Grace Majara Program Manager CARE International in Uganda 11. Sam Okello CARE International in Uganda 12. Hellen Tomusange Head of Women Banking Centenary Bank—Partnering with CARE International in Uganda 13. Roger Nyakahuma Regional Project Manager VisionFund—Partnering with CARE International in Uganda 14. Achayo Rose Chairperson National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda 15. Eunice Among National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda 16. Betty Achana Executive Secretary National Union of Women with Disabilities of Uganda 17. Madina M. Guloba Senior Research Fellow Economic Policy Research Centre Makerere 30 Appendix A. List of Persons Interviewed 31 18. Angela Bageine Outgoing Chairperson Uganda Women Entrepreneurs Association Limited (UWEAL) 19. Constance Kekihembo Chief Executive Officer Uganda Women Entrepreneurs Association Limited (UWEAL) 20. Harriet Karusigarira Programme Officer United Nations Development Programme 21. Enock Mugabi Programme Specialist, Women’s UN Women Economic Empowerment. 22. Allen Namusoke Member Nyakabungo Women’s Village Savings and Loan Association Ntungamo District 23. Allen Wambooka Chairperson, Kakiika Women’s Group Kakiika Division, Mbarara 24. Gertrude Namuwonge Chairperson Eka-Emwe Women’s Village Savings and Loan Association and Catering Group Kakiika Division, Mbarara City 25. Jovia Kashaka Chairperson Kabucebebe (B) Women’s Group 26. Jovanis Kyagabirwe Chairperson Biharwe Women’s Group Biharwe Division, Mbarara 27. Sophie Annet Cherop Secretary Tambajja Nyali Women’s Group Kaekep Subcounty Kween District 28. Alica Chemusto Chairperson Mengya Joint Women Farmers Group © 2022 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 202-473-1000 | www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved. 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