Sept. /115'S WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 290 Strengthening National Agricultural Resea:rch Systems in Eastern and Central Africa A Framework for Action Jan Weijenberg, Matthew Dagg, Jacob Kampen, Maurice Kalunda, Andrew M. Mailu, Seyfu Ketema, Luis Navarro, and Mohamood Abdi Noor EED WUN.-M DEVELI :L W' O AND TI Icoi lNVIRONMI VIAIL VA t' .. ;.¢.5~~~F' ', *1 '' ESOUfl' rSELECP ' SPO )EVE Lu. X - . -ND S PJO M E t~- -<''+%,t., ''-g1' ,; 'I'8 ''', -> -A UP 1 EXC H't-i*,@'i'g i, . , - "t,'i,4,,>. " i, RE ES imE RI, RAL E3 - 3.4. .2 S atw-- b09X LNI ~~~~~~ b~~~~~~~;E C iES > S AND IUNIT' EXT s__fflON * L1ND TENURE-LMNG X01 ALGRki' H RURAL RPR 'INGEAi LI P!wm~~~~ m~~IONEULAN OTENURELN T RECENT WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPERS No. 213 Srivastava and Jaffee, Best Practicesfor Moving Seed Technology: New Approaches to Doing Business No. 214 Bonfiglioli, Agro-pastoralism in Chad as a Strategyfor Survival: An Essay on the Relationship between Anthropology and Statistics No. 215 Umali, Irrigation-Induced Salinity: A Growing Problemfor Development and the Environment No. 216 Carr, Improving Caslh Crops in Africa: Factors Influencing the Productivity of Cotton, Coffee, and Tea Grown by Smallholders No. 217 Antholt, Getting Readyfor the Twenty-First Centutry: Technical Change and Institutional Modernization in Agriculture No. 218 Mohan, editor, Bibliography of Publications: Technical Department, Africa Region, July 1987 to December 1992 No. 219 Cercone, Alcohol-Related Problems as an Obstacle to the Development of Human Capital: Issues and Policy Options No. 220 Kingsley, Ferguson, Bower, and Dice, Managing Urban Environmental Quality in Asia No. 221 Srivastava, Tamboli, English, Lal, and Stewart, Conserving Soil Moisture and Fertility in the Warm Seasonally Dry Tropics No. 222 Selvaratnam, Innovations in Higher Education: Singapore at the Competitive Edge No. 223 Piotrow, Treiman, Rimon, Yun, and Lozare, Strategiesfor Family Planning Promotion No. 224 Midgley, Urban Transport in Asia: An Operational Agendafor the 1990s No. 225 Dia, A Governance Approach to Civil Service Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa No. 226 Bindlish, Evenson, and Gbetibouo, Evaluation of T&V-Based Extension in Burkina Faso No. 227 Cook, editor, Involuntary Resettlement in Africa: Selected Papersfrom a Conference on Environmeint and Settlement Issues in Africa No. 228 Webster and Charap, The Emergence of Private Sector Manufacturing in St. Petersburg: A Survey of Firms No. 229 Webster, The Emergence of Private Sector Manufacturing in Hungary: A Survey of Firms No. 230 Webster and Swanson, The Emergence of Private Sector Manufacturinig in the Former Czech and Slovak Federal Republic: A Survey of Firms No. 231 Eisa, Barghouti, Gillham, and Al-Saffy, Cotton Production Prospects for the Decade to 2005: A Global Overview No. 232 Creightney, Transport and Economic Performance: A Survey of Developing Countries No. 233 Frederiksen, Berkoff, and Barber, Principles and Practicesfor Dealing with Water Resources Issues No. 234 Archondo-Callao and Faiz, Estimating Vehicle Operating Costs No. 235 Claessens, Risk Management in Developing Countries No. 236 Bennett and Goldberg, Providing Enterprise Development and Financial Services to Women: A Decade of Bank Experience in Asia No. 237 Webster, The Emergence of Private Sector Manufacturinig in Poland: A Survey of Firms No. 238 Heath, Land Rights in Cote d'lvoire: Survey and Prospectsfor Project Intervention No. 239 Kirmani and Rangeley, International Inland Waters: Conceptsfor a More Active World Bank Role No. 240 Ahmed, Renewable Energy Technologies: A Review of thte Status and Costs of Selected Technologies No. 241 Webster, Newly Privatized Russian Enterprises No. 242 Barnes, Openshaw, Smith, and van der Plas, What Makes People Cook with Improved Biomass Stoves? 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Mailu, Seyfu Ketema, Luis Navarro, and Mohamood Abdi Noor The World Bank Washington, D.C. Copyright i) 1995 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing September 1995 Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development com- munity with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accor- dance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibili- ty for errors. Some sources cited in this paper may be infornal documents that are not readily available. 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ISSN: 0253-7494 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Stengthening national agricultural research systems in Eastern and Central Africa: a framework for action / Jan Weijenberg ... [et al.]. p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494 ; no. 290) Includes bibliographical references (p. ). ISBN 0-8213-3322-4 1. Natural agricultural research systems-Africa, Eastern. 2. National agricultural research systems-Africa, Central. 3. Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa. I. Weijenberg, Jan, 1937- . II. Series. S542.A423S88 1995 630'.7206-dc2O 95-35061 CIP ABSTRACT The development of the agricultural sector in the Eastern and Central African countries depends on the competitiveness of producers in national, regional and international markets, and on the availability of technology to increase productivity in a sustainable manner that does not deplete or degenerate the natural resource base. Science-based technology generation and dissemination should thus be at the forefront of sustainable agricultural development. The problems that this Framework for Action (FFA) seeks to address are the current slow rate of technology generation, transfer and adoption by farmers in the region, and the inadequacies in the quality and relevance of technology available and being developed, given their interface with the changing institutional and policy environment in the region. To deal with these problems, the leaders of the national agricultural research institutions have decided to create the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA). The Association will seek to implement the FFA through: * [nstitutional reforms of the National Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs) in their respective countries, building their capacity to evolve an enabling environment for creativity, innovation and improved performance. Agricultural research should feature prominently on the agenda of policy-makers to ensure adequate, stable and timely funding of recurrent research operating expenditures. * New modes of regional cooperation among NARSs and with the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs), based on the principles of comparative advantage and relative strengths to achieve economies of scale and the critical mass necessary to address common priority constraints. * Farmers' participation in setting the research agenda, and through research and extension delivering technology to them in a comprehensible manner easily understandable terms. The active involvement of scientists, farmers and extensionists in the implementation of research will be encouraged and supported. This approach has several new characteristics. NARSs are the bases of an emerging eco- regional research agenda. They should be empowered to become the leaders of that agenda in partnership with the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and others. E;xperience has shown that NARSs can succeed in this endeavor only when research becomes demand-driven (responds to clients and markets) and when research priorities are based on sound agricultural policy analysis. The FFA builds on the momentum and direction of change of the NARSs' institutional and research focus. This is the first time that the NARSs have reached a consensus on their aims and on the strategies to achieve these objectives. iii CONTENTS FOREWORD viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xii .EXECUTIVE SUMMARY xiv 1. INTRODUCTION 1 Preamble 1 Background 1 2. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND THE EASTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICAN DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE 3 Development Issues and Challenges 4 Socio-Economic Setting and Dynamics 4 Resource Setting and Dynamics 5 Economic Structure and Support 7 Food Security and the Environment 10 Implications for Agriculture and its Development 11 The Opportunities and Restrictions for Agricultural Development 11 Implications for Agricultural Research and its Support 13 Track Record and Support to Agricultural Research 13 The Research Agenda and Conditionalities 14 The Research Approaches and Conditionalities 16 The Extended Challenge and Opportunities 16 3. CURRENT AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH POTENTIAL AND CAPACITY IN THE EASTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA REGION AND RECENT TRENDS 18 Historic Overview and Institutional Context 18 Analysis of Past and Present National Agricultural Research Efforts 22 Food Crops 22 Livestock Production 23 Animal Health 24 Cash/Export Crops 26 v Natural Resources Management and Environment 27 Regional and International Research Efforts 28 National Research Potential and Capacity 32 Physical Facilities 32 Human Resources 33 Funding 39 Recent Institutional Changes and their Dynamics 41 Cross-Cutting Issues and Constraints 45 4. OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY FOR STRENGTHENING AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA 48 Goal of the FFA 48 Objectives 48 Strategy 49 5. A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION (FFA) 51 Principles of NARS Reform and Their Strengthening 51 National Agricultural Research Strategies 51 Generating a Demand-Driven Research Agenda through Farmer Empowerment. 52 Research Programming, Monitoring and Evaluation 53 Governance and Institutional Development 55 Human Capacity Building 57 Scientific Information and Communication 58 Sustainable, Stable and Consolidated Funding 59 National Agricultural Research Funds (NARFs) and Alternative Modes of Funding 60 New Modes of Regional Collabo-ration (Governance in a Regional Context) 61 Operational Arrangements for Regional Collaboration 61 Relationship with the IARCs 70 Funding and Donor Coordination 70 Rationalizing Existing Regional Networks 71 A Regional Scientific Documentation and Information System 71 Criteria for Priority Setting in a Regional Context 72 A Regional Strategic Action Plan 72 Objectives and Criteria for Regional Priorities 72 vi 6. THE ACTION PLAN (MODALITIES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FRAMEWORK) 75 Implementation Schedule, Time -Frame and Funding 75 Restructuring of NARSs and their Strengthening 75 Regional Collaborative Program Design and Implementation 77 Funding 77 Dovetailing with the Evolving CGIAR Strategy 78 7. EXPECTATIONS 80 Expected Benefits and Key Indi-cators for Progress 80 ANNEX 1: COUNTRY PROFILE: BURUNDI 82 ANNEX 2: COUNTRY PROFILE: DJIBOUTI 8S ANNEX 3: COUNTRY PROFILE: ERITREA 88 ANNEX 4: COUNTRY PROFILE: ETHIOPIA 90 ANNEX 5: COUNTRY PROFILE: KENYA 94 ANNEX 6: COUNTRY PROFILE: MADAGASCAR 98 ANNEX 7: COUNTRY PROFILE: RWANDA 100 ANNEX 8: COUNTRY PROFILE: SOMALIA 103 ANNEX 9: COUNTRY PROFILE: SUDAN 106 ANNEX 10: COUNTRY PROFILE: TANZANIA 109 ANNEX 11: COUNTRY PROFILE: UGANDA 112 ANNEX 12: COUNTRY PROFILE: ZAIRE 116 ANNEX 13 120 NOTES 130 vii FOREWORD Africa is facing an economic crisis of This paper details the FFA to strengthen formidable proportions - one that has been agricultural research in eleven countries exacerbated by the nexus of rapidly collaborating in the Association for increasing population, degradation of the Strengthening Agricultural Research in natural resource base and the environment, Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA). and persistent low agricultural productivity. The elements for the Framework were The contintent urgenlty needs to develop and developed and ASARECA was established adopt improved and new farming through an iterative process of workshops technologies if it is to begin to reverse this and in-country consultations by a working worsening crisis. Such a breakthrough will group appointed by the Directors of the depend on dynamic, creative and strong National Agricultural Research Institutes, National Agricultural Research Systems who together constitute the governing (NARSs) that work closely with board of ASARECA (the Commnittee of farmers/herders and extension workers. Directors). Unfortunately, such systems are rare in Sub-Saharan Africa. Past regional The Framework is owned by the collaborative agricultural research efforts Comnnittee of Directors as a guideline for tended to be externally-driven, with out the strengthening of their national systems, adequate regional ownership, and therefore establishing new modes of collaboration in of questionable sustainability. an ecoregional context, including the strengthening of their partnership with the The Special Prograrn for African International Agricultural Research Centers Agricultural Research (SPAAR) was (IARCs), and, last but not least, for established in 1985 by a group of donors as bringing agricultural research closer to the a forum for collaborating on programs to users of its results, the farmers and strengthen African agricultural research. extension services. These guidelines are SPAAR's initial efforts did not have the already being implemented through desired impact on agricultural research institutional reforms and new project systems. Therefore, in May 1990, the formulation in the participating NARSs and SPAAR membership decided to adopt a new through ASARECA taking over the approach, based on regional Frameworks governance of the on-going regional for Action (FFAs). These are related to the collaborative networks by establishing new major ecopolitical groupings of Sub-Saharan partnership arrangements with the IARCs. Africa and are prepared jointly with the leaders and scientists of the NARSs. New initiatives, including a joint focus on natural resources management research and Two FFAs have been prepared so far, agricultural policy analysis, and closer one for Southem Africa and one for the collaboration in research information Sahel .* These Frameworks are presently management should lead to increased and under implementation and are guiding the directly applicable research outputs. The reforms of the NARSs in the regions proposed participation of farmers in setting concerned and fostering collaboration the research agenda and in implementing among them. related initiatives should improve the ix relevance of the research effort and increase they are firmly anchored in the national the demand for its services. The strength of systems, which gives hope for their the Framework's recommnendations is that sustainabllity. Prof. Joseph K. Mukiibi Kevin M. Cleaver Chairman Director ASARECA Technical Department Africa Region x A CKNO WLEDGMENTS The authors express their sincere appreciation to the research managers and scientists of the National Agricultural Research Systems of the Eastern and Central African countries for the development of this Framework For Action. The document is theirs. It is their ideas that the authors have attempted to express. We wish to thank all those from outside the region, the donor community, the representatives of the International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) and the Steering Committee for their substantial comments. We also thank Mr. Harris Mule and Dr. Jock Anderson for their substantial contribution to Chapter 2. The authors are especially thankful to Dr. Cyrus G. Ndritu, Director of KARI and chairman of the Steering Committee, Professor Joseph K. Mukiibi, Director of NARO and chairman of the Regional Network Directors Committee, and Dr. Moctar Toure, Executive Director of SPAAR, for their significant contributions and encouragement. Without their support and guidance we could not have accomplished this work. The authors are most grateful to Ms. Marie-Laure Cossa and Ms. Kamla Pariadhaven, who skillfully did the desktop publishing. Any errors of omission or commission remain the responsibility of the authors. xi I ABBREVIA TIONS AND ACRONYMS APRA Animal Production Research Administration ARC Agricultural Research Corporation ARS Animal Resources Secretariat ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa. CDs Comrnittee of Directors CENRADERU or FOFIFA in Malagasy - Centre Nationale de la Recherche Appliquee au Developpement Rural CFM Consolidated Funding Mechanism CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa CNRO Centre National de Recherches Oceanographiques CRF Coffee Research Foundation CRN Collaborative Research Network CRSP Collaborative Research Support Program CTA Centre Technique pour la Cooperation Agricole et Rurale CVRL Central Veterinary Research Laboratory DRT Department of Research and Training ECA Eastern and Southern Africa FFA Framework for Action FIFAMANOR Centre National de Recherches sur l'Environnement FIRI Fisheries Research Institute FORI Forestry Research Institute FPPCI Food Production Per Capita Index GCA Global Coalition for Africa GDP Gross Domestic Product HDI Human Development Index IAR Institute of Agricultural Research IARCs International Agricultural Research Centers ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas ICIPE International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICRAF International Center for Research in Agroforestry ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semid-Arid Tropics IDRC International Development Research Center IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IGADD Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture xiii ILCA International Livestock Center for Africa ILRAD International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases INAC Institut National de I'Agronomie Coloniale INEAC Institut National pour l'Etude Agronomique au Congo INERA Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agronomiques IRRI International Rice Research Institute ISABU Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi ISAR L'Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda ISERST Institut Superieur d'Etudes et de Recherches Scientifique et Technique ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KARI Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute KEFRI Kenya Forestry Research Institute KETRI Kenya Trypanosomiasis Research Institute KMFRI Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute LDCs Least Developed Countries LIRI Livestock Research Institute MALDC Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Cooperatives MLFR Ministry of Livestock, Forestry and Range MoA Memorandum of Agreement NAARI Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Research Institute NALRM National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan NARIs National Agricultural Research Institute NARO National Agricultural Research Organizational NARSs National Agricultural Research Systems NGOs Non-governmental Organization NRCs National Research Centers OAU Organization of African Unity RCC Regional Research Centers ROR Rate of Return SAARI Sere Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Research Institute SAATS Sustainable African Agricultural Technology Systems SPAAR Special Program for African Agricultural Research SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SUA Sokoine University of Agriculture TAC Technical Advisory Committee TCs Technical Committees TPRI Tropical Pesticide Rese~arch Institute TRFK Tea Research Foundation of Kenya UDS University of Dar es Salaam UNDP United Nations Development Programme USAID United States Agency for International Development UTRI Uganda Trypanosomiasis Research Institute Wgs Working Groups ZRTCs Zonal Research and Training Centers xiv EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ORGANIZATION OF THE DISCUSSION PAPER Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania, The initial chapter provides the background Uganda and Zaire. The Association is a and historical perspective that has led to the result of the attempts in recent years by all writing of this paper. Chapters 2 and 3 those concerned to accelerate scientific and detail the physical and socio-economic technical progress and correct shortcomings, setting of the agricultural sector and through regular communications between agricultural research potential. Chapters 4 NARS leaders, International Agricultural and 5 provide the objectives and detailed Research Centers (IARCs) and donors. proposals for a Framework for Action This process coincided with the political will (FFA) to strengthen agricultural research in of the countries in Eastern and Central Eastern and Central Africa. Chapters 6 and Africa to enhance agricultural productivity 7 provide details on the implementation of through collaboration in agricultural the FFA and the expectations as to its research and the desire of the donor commu- possible impact. nity to assist the countries in these efforts. PREAMBLE THE PROBLEM The Governments of the Eastern and Economic growth in the Eastern and Central African (ECA) countries have made Central African countries is highly large investments in agricultural research. dependent on the sustainable performance of Donors also provided considerable assis- their agricultural sectors. Development of tance to facilitate agricultural technology the agricultural sector depends on the generation and transfer. The rate of techno- competitiveness of producers in national, logy development and adoption has failed to regional and international markets, and on cope with the demands of rapidly increasing the availability of technology to increase populations, a deteriorating natural envi- productivity in a sustainable manner that ronment and overall economic development. does not deplete or degenerate the natural New technology either does not reach the resource base. farmer or is not viable under current conditions. Science-based technology generation should thus be at the forefront of sustainable The response by the research community agricultural development. The problems of the region has been the launching of the which this Framework for Action seeks to current initiative to sign a Memorandum of address are the current slow rate of techno- Agreement (MoA) among the National logy generation, transfer and adoption by Agricultural Research Institutions (NARls) farmers in the region, and the inadequacies of the countries concerned to form an in the quality and relevance of technology, Association for Strengthening Agricultural available and being developed, given their Research in Eastern and Central Africa interface with the changing institutional and (ASARECA). These countries are Djibouti, policy environment in the region. xv THE RATIONALE development of human resources in research. However they, frequently were Viable National Agricultural Research not "owned" by the national systems and Systems have the following characteristics: there was often substantial duplication of effort. Therefore, common constraints to • Their research agendas address agricultural productivity in the region need priority constraints in agricul- to be prioritized and network operations tural production systems. They harmonized and rationalized. are responsive to the users of their research results and to ASARECA is the region's response to the market signals. critical need for efficiency and effectiveness in agricultural research and is based on the * Their scientists are well-trained, realization that the sum of the NARSs of highly motivated and accoun- Eastern and Central Africa is more than its table. parts. * The institutions included in the THE CHALLENGE NARSs have an autonomous management structure, and Agricultural research should be: adequate and timely funding of recurrent research operating * More accountable to its clients expenditures. (i.e. problem-solving and impact -oriented); None of the institutions in the region have all of these above characteristics and * More responsive to economic research is often inadequately focused, development challenges and poorly managed and inefficient with too markets; and much duplication. Quality agricultural research is expensive and frequently beyond * Better recognized and supported the present capacity of national govern- by policy-makers as an impor- ments. National systems therefore need to tant tool to achieve eco-nomic be strengthened and collaboration among growth. them fostered and encouraged. This will result in economies of scale and compa- THE FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION tiblity in addressing common high priority constraints to agricultural productivity. To meet this challenge, the FFA seeks to equip national agricultural research to make More than sixty networks currently exist its essential contribution to equitable deve- or have existed in the region in the past lopment, food security and environmental decade Almost forty are classified as sustainability, regionally and nationally. "collaborative research networks" on six primary areas: cereals (maize, sorghum); This will involve: root crops (potatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes); beans; agroforestry; bananas and * Institutional reforms of National livestock. These networks have resulted in Agricultural Research Systems, some remarkable successes in the exchange building their capacity to evolve and availability of germplasm and in the an enabling environment for xvi creativity, innovation and PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF THE FFA improved performance. Agricul- tural research should feature Immediate Actions prominently on the agenda of policy-makers to ensure the adequate, stable and timely 1. To Strengthen NARSs: funding of recurrent research operating expenditures. (i) To prepare and/or update national strategic plans for agricultural * New modes of regional co- research that include stakeholders in the operation among NARSs and setting of the research agenda, are gender with the IARCs, based on the responsive, concerned with environmental principles of comparative advan- sustainability and ensure that the research tage and relative strengths to agenda: achieve economies of scale and critical mass to address common * Better reflects development priority constraints. trends and opportunities; * Farmers' participation in setting * Applies a production to con- the research agenda, and sumption approach to research; research and extension deli- vering technology to them in * Assures that collaboration easily understandable terms. across borders is based on the The active involvement of needs of the national programs; scientists, farmers and exten- sionists in the implementation of * Sets priorities based on research will be encouraged and realistic human and financial supported. resource constraints; This approach has several new * Promotes institutional plura- characteristics. NARSs are the bases of an lism and consolidates all sources emerging eco-regional research agenda. of funding so as to achieve more They should be empowered to become the coherence in the national leaders of that agenda, in partnership with strategy; and the IARCs and others. * Involves and empowers all Experience has shown that NARSs will stakeholders, including farmers, only succeed in this endeavor when research extension and the private sector. becomes demand-driven (responds to clients and markets) and when research priorities (ii) To generate a demand- are based on sound agricultural policy driven research agenda that empowers analysis. The FFA builds on the momen- farmers through: tum and direction of change of the NARSs' institutional and research focus. This is the * Involving them in the first time that the NARSs have reached a governance of the research insti- consensus on their aims and on the strategies tutions catering to their needs; to achieve these. xvii * Their participation in the funding mechanisms such as private found- final stages of deciding the goals ations funded by endowments. of experiments and studies; and 2. To Develop Further Regional Collaboration in Research: * Involving them in the evaluation of research results of (i) By harmonizing and ratio- both "on-farm" and "on-station" nalizing current collaborative networks and experiments. transforming them into "regional collabo- rative programs" that are owned by the (iii) To strengthen their policy participating NARSs. analysis function to underpin the research agenda and provide policy-makers with (ii) By setting priorities for information on the factors that limit the regional collaboration and helping to start successful introduction, adoption and impact new high-priority initiatives in collaboration of new technology. on agricultural, livestock and natural resources management research. (iv) To improve research programming, monitoring and evaluation at (iii) By creating a regional the national level to ensure research quality governance structure (if participating and relevance. NARSs, consisting of: (v) To reinforce the manage- * A Committee of Directors (CD) ment function and broaden their institutional under the auspices of a Regional base (institutional pluralism) by providing Conference of Ministers to management autonomy for participating provide the necessary political institutions and through the creation of support, inclusive oversight and coordinating mechanisms such as National Agricultural * Ad hoc Technical Committees Research Councils (NARCs). (TCs) and Working Groups (WGs), to ensure research (vi) To build up their human quality and the relevance of capacity by making scientists accountable collaborative efforts, for results through training and through the establishment of schemes of service that * A small Executive Secretariat, provide career incentives to research to assist the DC in its functions; scientists. * Task Forces of NARS scien- (vii) To build up national scien- tists, responsible for program tific information and communication implementation. systems. (iv) By establishing a new (viii) To provide stable and partnership with the IARCs active in the sustainable funding for research through the region, aligned with the evolving eco- establishment of National Agricultural regional orientation of the Consultative Research Funds (NARFs) and "Consolidated Group on International Agricultural Funding Mechanisms" (CFMs), comple- Research (CGIAR). mented by privately-operated alternative xviii (v) By bringing about new 5. Stability of the institutional envi- modes of coordinated funding, whereby the ronment of NARSs, including funding, allocation of regional funds to the NARSs programming and staffing. will be decided by the DC and administered by participating institutions. 6. The increased participation of faculties of agronomy and veterinary (vi) By setting up regionally sciences, private sector institutions, farmers interlinked national scientific documentation /herders and their organizations, NGOs and and information systems. extension in human capacity-building and technology generation and dissemination. 3. Improve Technology Delivery to Producers: 7. The gradual decrease in outside technical assistance and the greater use of (i) By fostering closer liaison indigenous human resources. between scientists and extension practi- tioners through the joint testing of 8. More substantial interaction with appropriate technology delivery systems. relevant IARCs. (ii) By building human capacity g The rationalization and harmoni- in extension, including the upgrading of zation of the regional agricultural research multipurpose grassroots-level agents. This system through a reduction in the number of will help to increase understanding of the networks without clear national and regional farming enterprise and develop the trust of priorities and by the elimination of farmers. uncoordinated regional efforts. EXPECTATIONS IMPLEMENTATION 1. Technological innovations better The signing of the Memorandum of adapted to local situations, and higher rates Agreement by the institutions participating of technology diffusion and adoption. in ASARECA will signal their endorsement of the principles for the strengthening of the 2. A more demand-driven research NARSs. These can only be applied by agenda developed by increased farmer individual institutions, and will be adapted participation, involving them in institutional to specific country situations. management. An important activity of the Association 3. The gradual broadening of the during its first year will be to seek the research agenda and its client base to political support of the ministers responsible incorporate issues important to a market- for agricultural research in the participating driven agriculture, including an emphasis on countries. This should result in a realistic trade, utilization, agroprocessing, market representation of the NARSs of the and product development and policy participating countries. A Conference of analysis. Ministers will be convened in late 1995 or early 1996 for the formal endorsement of 4. The organization of vibrant inter- the MoA. changes between scientists and their clients. xix For the first three years, the Executive management information, and Secretariat will be based in Kampala, for regional priority-setting. Uganda. The nomination of the first Executive Secretary is expected by * Scientific Information and September, 1994. Documentation, to work with CTA on the development of The Committee of Directors (at Egerton this initiative. University, Njoro, Kenya) decide to request ISNAR assistance in: * Agricultural Policy Analysis, to develop proposals to strengthen * Establishing the bylaws of the NARSs' capacity in this ASARECA. important area and to suggest * Research priority-setting in a collaborative arrangements. regional context. * Planning of human resources * Technology Delivery Systems, to development in a regional work with consultants on context. concrete recommendations for * Creation of an efficient research the testing and adaptation of management information and delivery systems to small communication system among farmers (improved planting the participating institutions and materials, veterinary services in with other collaborating insti- conjunction with animal husban- tutions. dry techniques, etc). * Management of the transforma- tion of the operating arrange- Following completion of the studies, the ments for the ongoing networks WGs will advise the CD on the implemen- to the new governance structure tation of the recommendations. decided by the CD. If and when required, ad hoc Technical As soon as the ASARECA Executive Committees will be created by the CD in Secretary has been nominated, the CD close consultation with concerned donors intends to constitute five Working Groups and partner institutions, including the consisting of senior scientists of the partici- IARCs, for evaluating and advising with pating institutions, to help define specific regard to ongoing collaborative research interventions in the following areas: programs, within available budgets. * Human Resources Development, The preliminary budget (July 199 - June to work with ISNAR in deve- 1996) also provides for TCs to advise the loping concrete proposals to CD on the quality and relevance of new strengthen the scientific capa- initiatives. These may include new programs city of the NARSs. focusing on overcoming con-straints in maize and rice production, the Highlands * Agricultural Research Resource Initiative, a regional collaborative research Management, also to work with program proposal on natural resources ISNAR on concrete recommen- management, sponsored by ICRAF, a dations for improving both collaborative effort to strengthen capacity national and regional research for policy analysis, etc. Proposals xx to start up new collaborative regional The formal presentation and adoption of programs will be carefully screened for the Eastern and Central Africa FFA by the consistency with national and regional SPAAR membership is scheduled for the priorities. They will be endorsed only if 15th Plenary Session in South Africa early they address well-identified constraints of in 1995. comnon importance to all or an important subset of participating NARSs. xXI 1. INTRODUCTION PREAMBLE Coalition for Africa (GCA) also endorsed closer collaboration. In response to this The governments of the Eastern and Central political guidance, the leaders of the African (ECA) countries have made NARIs, the IARCs and the donors considerable investments in agricultural established numerous commodity research research. Donors , both bilateral and networks that had a measurable impact on multilateral,, also provided considerable the generation and transfer of technology, assistance to facilitate agricultural tech- the training of scientists and the enhancing nology generation and transfer. However, of contacts among them. However, these the rate of technology development and networks were to a large extent IARC- and adoption has failed to cope with the donor-driven and formed enclaves within demands of rapidly increasing populations, the National Agricultural Research Systems. a deteriorating natural environment and (NARSs)6. overall economic development. BACKGROUND There is, consequently, a clear and urgent need to strengthen the National The current effort to explore opportunities Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs) of for more effective and efficient agricultural the region and to use a more efficiently the research, extension and training in the limited available resources of staff, facilities Eastern and Central African region began in and finance. 1990 under the auspices of the Inter- governmental Authority on Drought and Regional collaboration in Sub-Saharan Development (IGADD), facilitated by Africa (SSA) was initiated during the Canada' s International Development colonial era through the establishment of Research Center (IDRC) with financial specialized institutions in various sectors of assistance from the Canadian International the economy, including agricultural Development Agency (CIDA). The research. After independence, African poli- Thirteenth Plenary Session of the Special tical leaders continued to demonstrate a Program for African Agricultural Research strong desire to work together. They (SPAAR) at The Hague, in the Netherlands created the Organization of African Unity in November 1992 endorsed the region's (OAU), agreed on the Lagos Plan of Action request to assist in the formulation of a and established numerous general and Framework for Action to strengthen NARSs specialized regional and sub-regional and to foster regional collaboration. A organizations. The political will to colla- series of meetings and workshops were then borate is still very much alive. There is, for organized. Each of the original IGADD instance, an attempt to revive the East countries (Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Sudan African Community, including coope-ration and Uganda) prepared country working in agricultural research. The recent meeting papers in five sub-sectors of the agricultural (June 1994) of the Ministers of Agriculture economy: of Eastern and Southern Africa under the auspices of the Global * Food crops; * Cash/export crops; In November 1993, the participating * Natural resources management; Eastern Africa national agricultural research * Animal production; and institutions organized a workcshop in * Animal health Kampala with SPAAR support to: A team of scientists from the Danish * Reach agreements in principle Center for Tropical Agriculture and on a Framework for Action Environment was commissioned to prepare (FFA) to strengthen the NARSs an overview paper for each of these sub- in the region; sectors. A working paper on available human resources was prepared by the . Identify mechanisms to harmo- SPAAR Executive Secretariat. nize and rationalize ongoing regional collaborative research The Technical Center for Agricultural and programs, and to initiate new Rural Cooperation (CTA) also sponsored a ones; and series of workshops and studies to initiate regional collaboration on agricultural * Find ways to improve techno- information needs, focusing on improving logy transfer to the users of research scientific documentation and information results. systems. The ultimate objective of this initiative is to increase access to, and At that workshop, it was decided to transfer of, knowledge for decision-making expand the FFA initiative by inviting at different levels. Ethiopia has been Central African and Indian Ocean countries, selected as the regional focal point for namely Burundi, Eritrea, Madagascar, agricultural research information and Tanzania and Zaire. documentation. A draft FFA and ISNAR's report, During the same period, four regional Towards an Association of Networks for networks (beans, cassava, potatoes and Eastern and Central Africa, were reviewed agroforestry), supported by the United by the Directors of participating NARIs at a States Agency for International meeting in April 1994, at Egerton Development (USAID), IDRC and other University. They decided to create the donors, and managed by CIAT, IITA, CIP, Association for Strengthening Agricultural and ICRAF respectively, sought to devolve Research in Eastern and Central Africa management responsibilities to the Directors (ASARECA) to take on the challenge of of the NARIs involved in these networks. implementing the FFA. ISNAR was commissioned to work with the various stakeholders towards a smooth The ultimate objective of ASARECA is to transfer of responsibilities and to investigate encompass all the elements of the NARSs in how best to harmonize and rationalize their respective countries, under the activities within these networks and with auspices of a Conference of Ministers regard to other ongoing regional efforts. responsible for agricultural research. 2 2. AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND THE EASTERNAND CENTRAL AFRICANDEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE The Eastern and Central Africa Region resources, agriculture becomes the only (ECA) lags significantly behind the world base from which countries in the region can average in terms of development and the attempt to launch their economic well-being of its rapidly growing development. population. On several counts, this gap seems to be growing. However, the Today, macroeconomic and sectoral potential of the region's natural and human policies are being adjusted across the region resource endowment, its integration within to permit the development of the different the international community, and past sectors according to their respective development experiences in the region and capabilities, and to permit a better inte- among Less Developed Countries (LDCs) gration of the regional economies into the elsewhere, suggest that the ECA's global economy so as to gain access to development could be much greater than the larger markets for inputs and outputs. meager progress made during the past ten to These changes are a necessary but not a fifteen years. sufficient condition for accelerating agricul- tural development. However, they make the The identification of available oppor- support to research in general, and agricul- tunities and of how to unleash the existing tural research in particular, an even more potentialities for development is a promising and decisive factor in overall continuing challenge in the region. An sustainable development. important aspect of this challenge the enhan- cement of the inherent know-how and Several case studies in the region have general human capability for development demonstrated the highly competitive returns through supporting research and related and considerable social benefits that can be training. expected from research efforts focused on developing agricultural technologies, parti- Support to research is most important in cularly when the results are in line with those sectors and aspects which are strategic other necessary conditions that favor their for launching and sustaining faster deve- utilization: markets, prices, inputs, rural lopment. Partly due to policies that tended infrastructure and a favorable regulatory to discriminate against the sector, agricul- framework. Within the "space" provided by tural performance and its contri-bution to those other conditions, the research and overall development during the past ten to development of technologies that enhance twenty years have been poor. However, the productivity of available factors of with the exception of Djibouti, agriculture production, while diminishing the environ- provides a large part of Gross National mental and financial costs per unit of Product (GNP), and most of the produce, remain key to meeting immediate employment and foreign exchange for each requirements of food security, economic of the countries in the region. Agriculture gains and other developmental priorities in is also the main user of the natural resource the region. base, particularly land and water. Given the In general, however, the demand with limited access to complementary capital regard to agricultural research is for more .~ than just improved production technologies. ranging from 2.1 (Burundi) to 5.6 percent It also includes contributions to the deve- (Djibouti) per year since 1960 - it is lopment of organizational and policy projected to grow at just slightly lower rates innovations necessary to modernize and until 2000. transform the agricultural sector into more than just an employer of last resort and a Kenya (0.369) and Madagascar (0.327) producer of subsistence food in the region. are the only countries in the ECA region The objective is to accelerate and enhance where the 1990 Human Development Index the contribution of agriculture to general (HDI) (UNDP 1993) was higher than in development through the creation of high- SSA in general (0.263), but still lower than value, diversified and sustainable agricul- in all LDCs as a group (0.468). For the tural surpluses. The challenge for the industrial countries, the 1990 HDI was research communities is to meet such 0.919. All three components of the HDI- demands, while maximizing efficiency in life expectancy, literacy and income of the the use of the limited research resources people-have improved only marginally in available and the benefits of partnerships the ECA region and are well below the and collaboration amongst themselves with- world averages during the past decade. in a changing environment of restrictions This reflects the deficient development of and opportunities. the health and educational services, and the constrained access to proper food and DEVELOPMENT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES shelter in the region. Reversing the downward trends in these social indices is The main development issues facing the crucial to the region's development. people in Eastern and Central Africa are reflected in some key social and economic The inadequate human development in the indices. These are shaped by the region has been reflected in problems of potentialities of the region's natural and governance and is dramatically manifested human resources, by the ways in which in the cases of military and civil strife that those resources are being organized and have affected most countries of the region utilized in response to needs and oppor- during recent decades. The famines and tunities available internally and inter- refugee problems resulting from civil strife nationally, and finally by the region's have been compounded by those resulting inherent know-how and general capability to from severe droughts that have also plagued adjust to the emerging pressures and the region during this period. Erratic in opportunities. their occurrence, droughts are an intrinsic part of the climate of the region and the Socio-Economic Setting and Dynamics ECA countries are yet to develop proper policies and mechanisms to be well prepared Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, for them. Sudan and Uganda, the core of Eastern Africa as served by IGADD,7 constituted a The social stagnation is partly explained conglomerate of 129.2 million people in by the slow and insufficient growth of the 1991. When Burundi, Rwanda, Madagascar, economy and of productive employment, Tanzania and Zaire are added, the total notwithstanding the rounds of policy stands at 219.8 million people or 4.1 adjustments already attempted and imple- percent and 42.3 percent of the population mented in the region. After a tendency of the world and of Sub-Saharan Africa, towards market-oriented economic policies respectively. Population has grown at rates during the 1960s, the region shifted, during 4 the next decade, towards heterogeneous chronic and high during the period. To development strategies, including several compound this situation, both annual cases of centralized state planning coupled inflation (2.1-107 percent) and population with industrialization for import growth (2.1-5.6 percent for the 1960-1991 substitution. Since the mid-1980s, all the period) were much higher than per capita ECA countries in ECA have begun to income growth across the region. Conse- reconverge towards to market-oriented quently, the proportion of the population economic policies, mainly through structural under the poverty line grew at an alarming adjustment programs, influenced and in pace (UNDP 1993). During the same most cases financed by the IMF and the decade, per capita income decreased at 1.1 World Bank. These adjustments have, in percent per-year for SSA and grew at 2.3 themselves, been insufficient to permit the percent per year for the world. countries to cope with the vagaries of the climate and other adverse conditions Furthermore, external long-term out- regionally, and those of markets, trade standing debt had increased and also policies, financial and other support to accumulated significant arrears in all developing countries, internationally. countries of the region by the end of 1991. As a consequence, in terms of foreign Consequently, since 1980, ECA has support, net transfers to the ECA countries experienced chronic current account and have been low or even negative during the budgetary deficits. Trade balances have decade. In 1991 the debt service ratio always been negative, reflecting in part the ranged from 4 percent in Sudan, the ECA structural rigidity and the inabilities of the country with the greatest arrears, to 64 per- economies to adapt to the changing external cent in Uganda (Mule 1993). environment, inappropriate macro and sectoral economic policies, and deteriorating Resource Setting and Dynamics international terms of trade. Kenya and Burundi were the only countries where The countries serviced by IGADD within export expansion compensated import ECA cover 489.7 million ha (24 percent of increases during the 1980s. Since 1987, the SSA, 3.8 percent of all countries) of which terms of trade have deteriorated across the 33.6 million ha are arable lands (6.8 percent region, from 6 percent in Sudan to 57 of the land area in the region and 27.4 percent in Burundi. The importance of percent of all arable lands in SSA). exports as a component of Gross Domestic Pastures cover 195 million ha (46 percent) Product (GDP) has decreased in all and forests another 80 million ha (18 countries except in Uganda. percent) (Mule 1993). The total area and arable lands in ECA are 868.4 million ha The nominal per capita GDP reached its (42.6 percent of SSA and 6.7 percent of the highest level in 1990 of US$ 400 for Sudan world's area) and 49.5 million ha (5.7 and US$ 370 for Kenya, compared with percent of the land area in the region), US$ 490 for SSA and US$ 810 for all respectively, when Madagascar, Tanzania, LDCs in that year. In fact, per capita Zaire, Rwanda and Burundi are included. income decreased for Rwanda, Uganda, Madagascar, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Somalia The population density in ECA, about and Zaire, and grew only marginally (in 0.24 inhabitants per hectare, is similar to annual average) for Burundi (1.3 percent) that of SSA as a whole but less than that of and Kenya (0.3 percent) during the 1980- the world (0.41) and of all LDCs as a group 1990 period. Unemployment was also (0.54). With the exception of Latin 5 America, no other developing region river, the Nile, is shared by Kenya, presents a lower population density, i.e. a Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan (and Egypt). higher ratio of land per inhabitant. Uganda, Kenya (and Tanzania) share Lake However, in terms of arable land per capita, Victoria; Kenya and Ethiopia share Lake ECA (0.23 ha/capita) is lower than the Turkana; Ethiopia and Somalia share the world average (0.36 ha/capita) . Juba and Shabele Rivers; Ethiopia and Djibouti share Lake Abe; and the coastal The region has tremendous contrasts in waters of the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean ecological settings. The most common are shared by Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, features are limited and erratic rains in most Djibouti, Somalia and Kenya. The proper of the region and the frequency of droughts, management and utilization of these shared particularly in the arid and semi-arid lands. water resources represents another consi- About 30 percent of the land in the IGADD derable challenge. portion of ECA is classified as wet to humid, 17 percent sub-humid, 28 percent People constitute the most abundant and arid and semi-arid and 25 percent desert rapidly increasing resource in ECA. The (Mule 1993). Rainfall increases from north total population, which grew at 3.1 percent to south and from lower to higher per year from 1960 to reach 219.8 million elevations. Almost every year, at least one people (42.3 percent of the SSA population) of the countries in the region experiences in 1991, is expected to grow annually at 3 drought. Of the total area, 53 percent is percent during the 1990s, i.e. 6.7 million subject to drought conditions (split between additional people per year. 28 percent arid and semi-arid and 25 percent desert). Literacy among people older than 15 years is still low in the region. In 1990, it Only the wet, humid and sub-humid areas ranged from 27 percent in Sudan to 70 (47 percent of the total land area in the percent in Kenya and 80 percent in IGADD portion of ECA) are suitable for Madagascar. During the same year, the intensive crop and livestock production and average years of schooling among popu- these also support most of the remaining lations older than 15 years ranged from 0.2 forest. Almost half of the arid and semi- in Somalia to 2.3 in Kenya, while the same arid area (47 percent) can also be used for ratio was 3.7 for all developing countries more extensive crop and livestock and 5 for the world. The SSA index was production but with considerable risk of 1.6. These and the following numbers drought. Although irrigation is possible in underscore the effort still needed to trans- the region, it is constrained by, amongst form the human resources of the region into other things, lack of appropriate cost- more productive human capital. While the effective technologies and capital resources. world as a whole had 22.2 people per 1,000 Irrigated lands that amounted to 3.05 trained, on average as scientists or tech- million ha for ECA are insignificant in nicians and all the developing countries as proportion to available arable land except in group registered 8.9, the highest figure in Sudan, Somalia and Madagascar, where ECA was 1.4 in Kenya. This ratio was, they reached 15, 11 and 29 percent, however, under 0.5 in the other countries respectively, during 1989-90 (UNDP 1993). where information was available for the period 1986-1990. Science graduates as a The ECA countries contain important percentage of all graduates at the tertiary shared water resources. For example, in level ranged from 3 percent in Sudan to 32 the IGADD countries, the most important percent in Madagascar. The regional aver- 6 age of about 20 percent was below the Furthermore, the agricultural sector is the SAA's 23 percent and the world's 30 main user of natural resources, particularly percent during the 1988-1990 period. land and water. The situation among women, who However, and in great measure due to the constitute slightly over 50 percent of the prevailing macroeconomic policies that total population and about 55 percent of the discriminated against agriculture in the allo- labor force in the region, is much worse cation of resources and the development of than among males. The literacy of women appropriate technologies, agriculture has not in 1990 was two-thirds that of males and the performed or contributed to the economic school-going percentage was less than half. development of the region in line with its The enrollment of women for primary, importance in the economy (Table 2.2). In secondary and tertiary level education was fact, Tables 2.1 and 2.2 suggest that, given 84 percent, 67 percent and 40 percent that its weight and poor performance, the sector of males, respectively, during the period has perhaps even pulled down GDP growth 1988-1990 (UNDP 1993). rates over the past ten-fifteen years. Even though some progress has been Still, the present structure of the economy achieved, health and nutrition problems are and the utilization of available indigenous still widely prevalent, particularly among resources point to agriculture as the sector women and children in the region. These with the most potential to make an problems constitute yet another major immediate and significant contribution to challenge for the development of human development. The challenge is to unleash capital. this potential, to transform agriculture into a stronger and more environmentally friendly sector that can serve as a core for building Economic Structure and Support up a more diversified and modem economy that is strongly linked to the international How resources are being organized and community. This challenge is compounded utilized is reflected in the economic by the less than ideal conditions of the structure and the accompanying set of physical infrastructure in general, and by policies, as well as the institutional and unfavorable policies and inefficient public infrastructural support in each country. The institutions. general structure of the economies in ECA is reflected in Table 2.1. The state of the support infrastructure, such as roads, particularly in rural areas and Despite major efforts to promote the to markets, ports, communication, storage, industrial and service sectors during the past transport and other goods-distribution thirty years, the agricultural sector remains facilities, is generally deficient across the the most important sector in the region as a region. This is due not only to limited whole. With the exception of Djibouti, it resources but also to faulty decision- directly provides at least one-third of the making. Infrastructure comprises more than GDP, accounts for at least three fourths of just the physical facilities, it includes all export earnings and employs no less than maintenance and operation. In ECA, these two thirds of the labor force across the last two have usually been neglected or region. A significant portion of the activi- distorted by limitations of operation ties and contributions to the economy by resources and the absence of proper other sectors is also linked to agriculture. guidance and support. 7 Table 2.1 Structure of the Economy in the Eastern and Central Africa Region Agriculture Industry Service % EXP %GDP %Labor % GDP % Labor % GDP % Labor 1990 1990 1989-91 1991 1989-91 1991 1989-91 Burundi 93 56 92 15 2 29 6 Djibouti 17 (6) na na na na na Ethiopia 76 41 80 17 8 42 12 Kenya 68 28 81 21 7 51 12 Madagascar 48 33 81 13 6 54 13 Rwanda 86 38 90 22 4 40 6 Tanzania 62 59 85 12 5 29 10 Uganda 86 67 86 7 4 26 10 Somalia 85 65 76 9 8 26 16 Sudan 98 (30) 62 na 10 na 28 Zaire 86 30 71 33 13 37 16 LD CO 7 61 36 14 47 25 SSA CO 22 67 35 9 43 24 INDTRL CO 4 7 37 26 59 67 WORLD 7 48 37 17 56 35 * LD= less developed, SSA= Sub-Saharmn Africa, INDTRL= industrial, CO= countries. Source: UNDP. 1993. Human Development Report 1993. New York: UNDP. Percent EXP (per cent of total exports) extracted from FAO. 1992. 7he State of Food ad Agriculture 1992. Rome: FAO. Figures in parentheses, cited by Dr. H. Mule in 1993. Similarly, the institutional support public sector. The ongoing round of policy structure, designed to facilitate (a) access to adjustments across the region are, in part, inputs, including finances, technical and addressing these concerns. market knowledge and (b) linkages to markets by all economic agents, is plagued Present macroeconomic policies are very by problems of lack of motivation, limited similar across the region. The main resources and the absence of guidance and objectives noted in the respective Policy control to keep it on target and on schedule. Framework Papers for the post-1990 (Mule An added challenge here is to determine on 1993) period include the following: (a) to the proper mix of public and private attain an annual increase of 2 percent in per participation in the structure and operation capita income, (b) to stabilize and control of this institutional support. The temptation inflation to single digit levels, (c) to for most governments has been to strengthen the balance of payments suffi- participate or control activities as much as ciently to permit an improvement in foreign possible. The rationale was to prevent the reserves. potential "wastage" and "distortion" imposed by an unchecked private sector. To attain these objectives, various policy The consequences in many cases have been measures are being taken. wastage and distortion by an unchecked 8 * Exchange Rate. The tendency cularly of the agricultural is towards liberalization in the sector, and worsens income exchange rate. The expectations distributions. are to reduce domestic demand, redirect trade and industry by * Trade Policy. The common reducing anti-export biases, intention across ECA is to encourage efficiency in produc- liberalize both internal and tion, the growth of non- external trade, complemening traditional exports, domestic the exchange rate policy. and foreign investment, and a Policy-makers have noted that shift in the composition of internal trade restrictions did domestic expenditure between not bring about the expected foreign and domestic goods. price stability and food security. The intention is to avoid an So far, internal trade overvalued exchange rate that liberalization has lagged noto- penalizes exports, reduces inter- riously in implementation. national competitiveness, parti- Table 2.2 Total and Sectoral Growth in the East and Central African Economies GDP Agricult. Industry (Manufact.) Services 70/ 80/ 70/ 80/ 70/ 80/ 70/ 80/ 70/ 80/ 80 91 80 91 80 91 80 91 80 91 Burundi 4.2 4.0 3.2 3.1 11.6 4.6 3.8 5.8 3.5 5.4 Djibouti na na na na na na na na na na Ethiopia 1.9 1.6 0.7 0.3 1.6 1.8 2.5 1.9 3.9 3.1 Kenya 6.4 4.2 4.8 3.2 8.6 4.0 9.9 4.9 6.8 4.9 Madagascar 1.5 1.1 0.4 2.4 0.6 0.9 na na 0.6 0.2 Rwanda 4.7 0.6 7.1 -1.5 na 0.5 4.9 0.5 na 3.1 Tanzania 3.0 2.9 0.7 4.4 2.6 -2.4 3.7 -0.8 8.4 2.0 Uganda** 0.6 2.8 1.2 2.5 4.3 5.5 -3.7 5.2 1.1 3.3 Somalia na 1.1 na na na na na na na na Sudan 5.6 na 3.3 na 4.5 na 3.9 na 8.1 na Zaire na 1.6 na na na na na na na na LMI CO 5.3 3.3 2.7 2.8 na 3.3 na na 6.2 3.5 SSA CO 4.0 2.1 1.5 1.8 5.3 2.0 3.5 na 5.5 2.5 WORLD 3.5 3.0 1.9 2.6 3.2 na 3.9 na 4.1 na Source: World Bank. 1993. World Development Report 1993. Washington D.C.: World Bank, For * (years 1965-80 and 1980-90, World Bank. 1992. World Development Report 1993, Washington DC.: World Bank For** years 1980-90, UNDP. 1993. Human Development Report 1993. New York.;UNDP. * LMI= low and medium income, SSA= Sub-Saharan Africa, CO= countries. * Fiscal Policy. Fiscal policy economy through budget-deficit objectives across the region reductions, attempted via tax- include: (a) to stabilize the rate adjustments and reducing 9 government expenditures; (b) adjustments across the region discriminated reduce government claims on against or disregarded the agricultural sector monetary markets, thus releas- of the economy. This could explain, in ing credit for the private sector; part, the poor performance of agriculture (c) reduce governmental and, consequently, the growing inability of expenditure pressure on balance the region to feed its people during the past of payments; (d) concentrate twenty years. rationalized governmental ex- penditures on priority areas In terms of supply of food energy, none such as agriculture and infra- of the countries in the region, except structure repairs. Burundi in the 1960s, has been able to fully meet the requirements of its population. * Monetary Policy. The main More so, this capability has deteriorated objective is to control infla- during the past two decades in all countries tionary pressures through the of ECA except in Rwanda, Tanzania and control of money supply to Sudan. This deterioration is certainly match the growth in demand correlated with the decrease in the Food associated with changes in the Production Per Capita Index (FPPCI) 8 GDP. Reforms include liberali- registered in all countries of the region zation of money markets and except Kenya since the beginning of the interest rates. Another intention 1980s. The biggest decrease in the FPPCI is to strengthen the countries' occurred in Rwanda and in Sudan, two foreign reserve position through countries torn by civil strife during the support to the exchange rate period, while Kenya was the only country policy. Tight money control, able to increase its FPPCI. Even though the liberalized interest rates and Food Import Dependency ratio has decontrolled exchange rates continued at below 20 percent for all must work in tandem to contain countries, except Djibouti (about 90 inflation and stabilize the percent), and below 10 percent for most exchange rate. countries of ECA, this ratio has also increased for most countrie~s, except * Institutional Reforns. .Insti- Uganda, Tanzania and Djibouti. tutions are also being reformed across the region to facilitate The lack of support and policy attention policy implementation and to agriculture has been coincident with capacity-building. The center- significant environmental degradation across piece remains the privatization the region. Soil erosion and water pollution of parastatals and the removal of as a consequence of inappropriate agricul- other controls in the economy. tural practices and technologies and Public enterprises are being unchecked deforestation are commonplace. placed on a competitive com- These further decrease the quantity and mercial basis through rational- quality of resources available for develop- ization and divestiture. ment. Resource-poor farmers, a majority in the region, contribute to this situation Food Security and the Environment because of their resource constraints and their subsistence needs. Better-endowed Except for recent structural adjustment farmers, on the other hand, contribute to programs, previous rounds of policy environmental degradation mainly due to the 10 lack of proper guidance and incentives, None of the countries in the region which reflects the limitations of prevalent appears well endowed with mineral or other agricultural policies, particularly in their resources, or to otherwise have access to the support of the environment. financial and technological resources needed to exploit them. This leaves agriculture and IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURE AND the creation of agricultural surplus as the ITS DEVELOPMENT most accessible source of overall economic development. The challenge is to build up From the preceding analysis, it is the capacity of agriculture to create such a apparent that regional problems of develop- surplus. ment have probably affected the agricultural sector most significantly. Thus, agriculture Broadly stated then, the role of has declined in terms of both per capita food agriculture in the region has been, and production and contribution to national remains, to contribute to the overall national GDP. Despite this poor perfor-mance, and development goals of food security, elimi- because of its importance in terms of the nation of malnutrition and poverty utilization of human and natural resources, alleviation. Its additional tasks are to faci- agriculture should still be expected to litate equitable income distribution, the contribute more meaningfully to develop- creation of employment and income-earning ment in the region. This contribution opportunities, the earning and saving of depends on the intrinsic potential of foreign exchange through export promotion agriculture to develop a surplus that can and import substitution, and the conser- spill over to feed the development of other vation of natural resources, both within the sectors in the economy. sector and as a spillover to other sectors. Presently, agriculture in ECA involves The Opportunities and Restrictions for mainly small-scale traditional farmers. A Agricultural Development high proportion of these farmers, and most of the farm laborers, are women. This The causes of past poor agricultural traditional agriculture is, within itself, performance in the region have been many. economically efficient. Given the low Among them, the analyses made here and levels of technology, other support and by ISNAR (Jan 1992) identify: in- generally unfavorable farm level prices, appropriate policies and infrastructure, lack these farmers allocate their resources (i.e. of credit, unavailability and inaccessibility limited and low-quality land, unskilled labor of agricultural inputs, narrow markets, and and simple implements with little or no the lack of improved and appropriate other capital input) in a manner that technologies. Another is insecurity and civil probably optimizes output. However, the unrest. levels of production and, except for capital, the levels of factor productivity, are usually Agricultural policies low. This situation is defined as low-level- equilibrium trap, even though it absorbs a All countries in ECA have remarkably preponderant portion of each nation's land similar objectives and strategies for the and labor resources. This is in line with the agricultural sector. The primary goal is to sector's poor performance and contribution increase agricultural output (targeted by the to economic development seen in the World Bank at 4 percent per year as the aggregate. 11 minimum necessary) to enhance food labor availability in rural areas, despite the security and export earnings (World Bank generally high birth rate. 1989). Another goal is to diversify the agricultural production and export base. Production Potential and Restrictions Facing rapidly increasing population and fixed resources, increased agricultural The physical impediments to agricultural output must derive mainly from techno- growth are formidable. Unused high- logical factors rather than from area potential land is almost non-existent, except expansion. probably in Uganda, where cultivated land is about 30 percent of estimated availability, As noted here, macroeconomic policies Ethiopia, Sudan,'0 Madagascar and Zaire. are being changed across the region. The The land area suitable for crop and livestock liberalization elements of these policies production is restricted in great measure by should facilitate adjustments in the prices of the scarcity and variability of rainfall across commodities and, thus, improvement in the the region. More than half of the total area terms of trade for agriculture within the in the region is subjected to drought economy. Still, the instability and uncer- conditions. Notwithstanding these rest- tainty associated with the period of policy rictive conditions above, there is capacity adjustment constitute an added challenge to for significantly increased sustainable crop, agricultural developers and farmers. livestock and fisheries production. Population Growth and Agricultural Among the most obvious prospects for Intensification increased production are cash crops such as coffee, tea, cotton, sugar cane and oil crops. Up to the 1970s, agriculture grew mainly The market for the expanded production of through expansion in area. This option has these crops is in some cases available. For become almost non-existent. In 1991, about example, Ethiopia has never been able to 168 million people in the region (76.4 meet the 200,000 tonnes quota allotted to it percent of the total) lived in rural areas. by the International Coffee Agreement, and Despite substantial rural-urban migration its coffee fetches a premium price for (5.7 percent per year for the period 1980- superior quality. Other apparent oppor- 1990) the rural population is expected to tunities include fresh fruits and vegetables, rise to about 203 million by the year 2000 nuts, essential oils, flowers and ornamental (Mule 1993). Population pressure, creating plants. Increased food production, how- scarcity of land and increasing its price ever, stands out as a food-security and relative to that of labor, results in more strategic priority. intensive land use. This favors the adoption of intensification-oriented technologies, Other Opportunities and Restrictions which leads to a need for the development of appropriate technologies. Other elements that significantly limit agricultural development are related, in a Intensification in agricultural production, "vicious cycle," to the generally low level may also aggravate existing environmental of economic development, particularly problems. To manage this risk is also a income levels, and also to the status of insti- demanding task for policy-makers and tutional development and inherent know- technology developers. Another difficulty how in the region. These include: (a) is the high and accelerating urbanization inefficient and in many cases monopolistic rate. This trend anticipates a reduction in marketing systems, (b) inaccessible or 12 expensive yield-augmenting inputs, (c) (lARCs). Ethiopia and Sudan have fairly inaccessible or expensive financial inputs, well-coordinated National Agricultural (d) ineffective and inefficient institutional Research Systems (NARSs). Kenya, support, particularly in terms of market Uganda, Rwanda and Madagascar are information and technology development restructuring their NARSs with donor and dissemination (research and extension). support. IMPLICATIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL A series of studies have made more RESEARCH AND ITS SUPPORT evident the substantial benefits to be gained from research and the development of The developmental challenge for improved agricultural technology when agricultural research is to help transform these efforts are coupled with the effective agriculture so that it can effectively play its transfer of the research results, and are role as a "jump-start" engine of sustainable strengthened by supportive market, price and equitable development in the region. and other policies. In addition to the widely This challenge is shaped by the known reports linked the "Green Revo- developmental problems and priorities lution" in Asia and Latin America, recent discussed previously, and also by the case studies from Africa seem equally viability and related capability of agricul- promising. tural research itself. In a report by Crawford and Oehmke The viability of agricultural research (1993) of eleven case studies of research depends on the support it receives. The and development of technology that capability of agricultural research to included transfer efforts, and spanning perform well, in turn, is determined by its periods as wide as 1924-1974 or as narrow motivation and determination to meet the as 1986-1991, all but two cases (oil crops in developmental challenge, the resources and Uganda and cowpea, sorghum and millet in opportunities available to do so, and the Niger) registered positive rates of return to knowledge and skills to mobilize those the investments made. The report includes resources to meet the challenge. All this rates of return of 33 percent for the period has implications for scientists and other 1924-1974 in wheat and 40 to 60 percent stakeholders, including policy-makers. It is for the period 1955-1988 in maize, both in not sufficient to merely have an agricultural Kenya. Sanders (1993) reported rates of research capability in the country: its return of 22 percent for similar efforts for objectives, and the nature of its resources, sorghum (Hageen Dura I hybrid) in Sudan and the available know-how have to be and 74 percent for maize in Ghana. attuned to the developmental requirements. The rate of return summarizes the benefits, costs and time-frame of the research and Track Record and Support to Agricultural transfer effort in a single number. The rates Research of return reported indicate benefits in excess of the opportunity costs of the investments Organized agricultural research has made, and reflect millions of dollars worth existed in the region since the beginning of of social benefits that have accrued to the this century. Today, it includes a multi- respective country in terms of increased plicity of semi-autonomous public income generated by the rural poor and institutions, autonomous public bodies, improved nutrition levels. private institutions, public enterprises, and Inter-national Agricultural Research Centers 13 In the aggregate for the region, however, The Research Agenda and Conditionalities the effects of agricultural research have not been sufficient to produce the necessary Initially, in the region, the agenda for increase in agricultural output to generate a agricultural research focused on cash-export significant agricultural surplus that contri- crop development and research priorities butes adequately to overall development. were defined by the government when selec- More so, agricultural research appears to ting the commodities to be produced to have failed to achieve a rate of technology maximize export earnings. With the rapid generation sufficient to cope with the food changes in technology and consumer prefe- demands of rapidly increasing populations, rences in the world, the heterogeneous agro- and a deteriorating natural environment. ecology of the ECA countries, and the Despite the reports by individual national economic policy reforms currently under programs on technology development in way in the region, the research agenda- food crops, animal production and natural setting process must now necessarily be resources, a number of more general studies flexible to accommodate this diversity. This (ISNAR 1989-1990) suggest that, except for responsibility lies with both policy-makers its contribution to cash-export crop deve- and research managers. Constraint analyses, lopment, agricultural research in the region which are the basis for developing research has not until recently responded to farmers' agendas, should take a production-to-con- technological needs and priorities, parti- sumption systems approach, where market cularly those of the majority of small- efficiency considerations lead into technical holders. efficiency and policy environment consi- derations. The reasons for the poor agricultural research performance in the aggregate The context for the definition of specific include: (a) ill-conceived priorities or agricultural research agendas and appro- implemented national plans and research aches to meeting the development challenge policies; (b) non-incongruence of agricul- is to ensure an effective contribution to: a) tural research agendas with other policies food security, enhanced nutrition and and efforts related to agriculture or the improved employment opportunities within needs and preferences of the producers and outside the agricultural sector, particu- themselves; and (c) weak and unsustained larly among the poor, women and children; financial support to agricultural research, and b) the sustainability of the environment. including extreme dependence on outside donor support with variable conditionalities. Technological Innovation Foci and Conditions Still, decision-makers, particularly policy- makers and the financiers of agricultural Traditionally, agricultural research in the research ought to be aware of the returns region has focused on on-farm decision- that can be achieved. Improved and more making, and the development of the related aggressive efforts to identify and measure production-technology component. Since the these should be part of the process of challenge is to generate the required agricul- assessing the opportunities for research and tural surplus to support general development development by researchers and policy- beyond just meeting national food security makers alike. In this context, the increased requirements, technological innovation to capability of research to justify and promote increase production at farm level remains a itself is crucial for its viability. critical concern and a priority for the region. 14 Given the scarcity of capital, the limited Commodity Foci and Conditions and deteriorating natural resources, and the restricted development of human capital From the outset, agricultural research in resources in the region, increasing factor the region was focused on and has been productivity in the sector becomes a strongest in the case of cash-export commo- necessary condition for improved techno- dities: tea, coffee, sisal, cotton, pyrethrum logies to increase agricultural production and sugar cane. In several cases, the and surpluses. Furthermore, such increased respective industries are funding the factor productivity must result in lower cost research on cash-export crops. The decli- per unit of produce (both monetarily and ning per capita food availability in the environmentally), which is the key to the region, partly explained by rapidly increas- new technology contributing to overall eco- ing populations and frequent droughts in the nomic development. In the case of food 1970s and 1980s, and the consequent commodities, lower costs can provide for increase in food imports, has made food lower food prices and more accessibility to security a top priority in the development food by more people, i.e. improved food agenda. This has accelerated a shift in the security. In the case of tradeable commodi- research agenda towards food commodities, ties, their competitiveness will be improved, with an emphasis on drought-resistant which could lead in a series of steps crops. Initially, food-crop research was towards self- sustaining development."1 organized through rural and commodity development projects financed by donors. There are other necessary conditions to The ineffectiveness of such ad hoc organi- ensure the effect and impact of technological zational structures led to the progressive innovation. These relate to the matching of strengthening of the research organizations those innovations with the decision-making that now constitute the NARSs. circumstances of producers across the region and over time, i.e. conditions that Livestock, cereals, pulses and root crops ensure the utilization of the research results. development will be critical to meeting the These conditions, which should also inspire growing demand for food and ensuring food the choice of research approaches, include: security. Livestock contribute significantly (a) recognizing the farmer's motivation for to food security and nutrition and also to increasing production, and his/her restricted income generation. More and careful atten- resource availability, knowledge and skills, tion is required, however, to its potentially as well as the policy, infrastructural and high investment requirements and the institutional support environment in which environmental costs of production. With farmers operate; (b) effectively dealing with the currently high rates of urbanization and the wide ecological variability and fragility, prospective increases in income, the demand particularly in the low and erratic rainfall for livestock products is expected to grow at and drought-prone areas of the region; (c) a faster rate than population, given the flexibility to fit the continuing changes in "income-elastic nature" of such demand. the product mix and quality preferences by Pulses, root crops, some cereals and live- consumers, especially those that will emerge stock are among the few viable production from liberalization policies and income alternatives in the vast and fragile arid and changes. semi-arid lands of the region. 15 Given the region's heterogeneous collaborative research efforts are parti- characteristics, issues such as the increasing cularly promising as a means of strengthe- population density, the required inten- ning NARSs with overlapping or comple- sification in land use and resulting mentary research agendas. The effective environmental deterioration risks, mixed utilization of available relevant knowledge crop-livestock production systems, includ- can be facilitated by different types of part- ing agroforestry and improved soil and nerships and collaborative arrangements and water conservation practices, are especially it thus constitutes a basic research manage- critical for research and development. ment responsibility that prevent the wastage of scarce research resources. The need to generate foreign exchange implies assigning a high priority to tradi- A part of this process of developing tional cash and export crops and for partnerships and the utilization of available improvements in their competitive price or knowledge is the sharing of research results, quality advantage. This concern should also and the active promotion by scientists of the motivate research to identify and develop utilization of those results. While this other high-value and competitive cash and includes the usual reporting and diffusion of export crops, and to strengthen the compe- original research results, it must also titiveness of emerging non-staple commo- include ex-ante and ex-post impact evalua- dities such as horticultural products. tion studies of research results and their reporting as part of the research respon- The Research Approaches and sibilities, along with the increased Conditionalities participation of scientists in the disse- mination and championing of promising Again, the objectives of seeking impact, research results among stakeholders. These equity and efficiency, which determine the latter efforts are crucial to positively performance and viability of agricultural impressing on governments and donors that research, ought to be considered in selecting agricultural research is indeed an effective research approaches. Two key conside- instrument for contributing to improved rations are the fostering of potential part- food security, nutrition, employment, nerships and the more effective utilization of equity, environmental sustainability and available and relevant knowledge. other aspects of overall development. Partnerships help to identify strategic The Extended Challenge and Opportunities priorities and opportunities for effective research, sharing of resources and other Even though the core responsibility and capabilities, and finally widen the impact of comparative advantage for agricultural results with greater efficiency in the use of research remains in the research and deve- available resources. Useful partnerships and lopment of production technologies to be linkages are possible with the final users used at the farm level, this cannot be its and beneficiaries of research on one side, only responsibility. Agricultural scientists and scientists, policy makers and donors on will also be challenged to develop improved the other. Opportunities to develop these methods for priority-setting, the discovery partnerships lie in the use of consortia, of alternative opportunities for agricultural multi-disciplinary and community partici- development and for the setting of policies patory approaches, improved linkages with and other support to development. farmers and extension services, networks, Agricultural research will have to develop and collaborative research efforts. Regional further its own methods of doing research, 16 including the establishment of new part- The refinement of networks for nerships and how to link with producers, on collaboration in research planning, the the one hand, and policy- makers on the implementation and diffusion of results, the other, as a way to define more effective incorporation of participatory approaches to agendas, making implementation more internalize and also to influence the thinking efficient and to optimize the utilization and of farmers, policy-makers and other deve- impact of results. It must continue to lopment agents will continue to represent develop the skills required for linking important components of agricultural research agendas to particular needs and research. opportunities, and to build on the reputation that comes from doing so successfully. 17 3. CURRENTA GRICULTURAL RESEARCH POTENTIAL AND CAPACITYIN THEEASTERNAND CENTRALAFRICA REGION AND RECENT TRENDS HISTORIC OVERVIEW AND INSTITUTIONAL region is carried out in collaboration with the CONTEXT International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) e.g. C1AT, CIMMYT, CIP, Agricultural research services in some of the ICARDA, ICRAF, ICRISAT, ILCA, IGADD countries have a long history -- ILRAD, IITA, etc. More detailed information Sudan (1902), Kenya (1903) and Uganda on the NARSs in the region is provided in the (1908). However, these research services subsequent text. were set up with the main objective of improving the production of major export Burundi crops such as cotton (Sudan), cotton and coffee (Uganda), tea, coffee and pyrethrum Agricultural research (crops and livestock) (Kenya) and tended to neglect research into in Burundi is the responsibility of the Institut food crops, natural resources and the special des Sciences Agronomique du Burundi needs of smallholder farmers. (ISABU), which was founded in 1962 after the break-up of the Institut National pour les In the case of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda, Etudes Agronomique du Congo Belge these national agricultural research services, (TINEAC) which carried out agricultural from the 1950s and through the 1970s, research previously in Burundi, Rwanda and collaborated in the East African Agricultural Zaire. ISABU is a semi-autonomous insti- and Forestry Organization (EAAFRO) which tution under the Ministry of Agriculture. It was promoted under the East African High has six main stations and five smaller centers Comnmission and later the East African in different ecological zones of the country. Community. EAAFRO provided the national The Faculty of Agricultural Sciences of the institutions with specialist services in limited University of Burundi also conducts agricul- fields, namely: food crops (mainly maize and tural research both independently and in wheat), forestry and livestock (exotic breeds). collaboration with ISABU. The Veterinary The Community also handled all the fisheries Laboratories carry out research in animal and trypanosomiasis research through other health. ISABU collaborates in regional agri- specialized organizations. After the break-up cultural networks that are supported by the of the Eastern African Community, regional lARCs. research was divided among the national research services in the respective countries. Djibouti Agricultural research in most countries of The national mandate for research in the region is mainly conducted at research Djibouti is vested with the Institut Superieur institutes and higher institutions of learning. d'Etudes et de Recherches Scientifique et The private sector is generally supportive of Techniques (ISERST). The Institute is export crops research. A substantial amount charged with the development, orientation and of agricultural research in the countries of the coordination of research, studies scientific and technical work in theory and practice, in the context of their application to the economic has a considerable degree of autonomy and a and social development of the nation. ISERST Board of Directors. The Institute is officially comes directly under the President's office and responsible for formulating national agricul- is authorized to work with international tural research policy within the framework of organizations. It is organized in four sections: overall national planning and for implemen- Life Sciences, Geology, Human and Social ting this policy through coordinated programs Sciences, and Technology.Currently, ISERST of applied research. It conducts research in does not conduct research related to food the areas of food crops, animal production, crops, animal production, animal health, cash animal health, cash and export crops, natural and export crops or natural resources and it resources, farm implements and agricultural does not have any formal collaboration with econonics. The Institute has eight major the Ministry of Agriculture. Part of the stations. Currently, several higher education research that it conducts includes research in institutions and other centers conduct agricul- tissue culture and plant protection. tural research. These are: the University of Addis Ababa, the Alemaya University of Eritrea Agriculture, the Awassa College of Agricul- ture, the Ambo Junior College of Agriculture Agricultural research in Eritrea comes and the Jimma Junior College of Agriculture. under the Department of Research of the Teaching staff are obliged to allocate 25 per- Ministry of Agriculture which was established cent of their time to research. The Veterinary after independence in 1993. The department Epidemiology and Economics Unit, National has one research station for the highlands and Tsetse and Trypanosomiasis Investigation and another one is being developed for the Control Center and Institute of Pathology lowlands. The areas of focus are field and also engage in research. horticultural crops. The departrnent has seventeen scientists. Kenya Ethiopia Kenya's Agricultural Research System is one of the oldest in Africa (1903). The Kenya The inception of formal agricultural Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) was research in Ethiopia corresponded with the established in 1986 an is comprised of the establishment of the Jimma Agricultural and former Kenya Agricultural Research Institute Technical School and the College of Agricul- (Muguga), the Scientific Research Division of ture at Alemaya in 1952. In fact, the first the Ministry of Agriculture, and the documented research on crops and animals Veterinary Research Division. Its mandate is came from Jimma and then continued at to manage and administer all agricultural Alemaya until the Debre Zeit Agricultural research in the country, with the exception of Research Center was established in 1956. research on tea, coffee, fisheries, forestry and From 1956 to 1966, agricultural research was trypanosomiasis, and the research activities of carried out at Alemaya, Debre Zeit and the universities and the private sector. KARI Jimma on various cereals, oil crops, pulses comes under the Ministry for Research, and horticultural crops as well as on crop Technology and Technology Training and is protection, soil fertility and animal organized into National and Regional production. Research Centres (NRCs and RRCs. The goals of a National Centre are to perforn After this period the major research stratgic research at the national level. Thus, establishment, i.e the Institute of Agricultural the responsibilities for commodity research Research (LAR), was established in 1966. It are mandated to different National Centres . 19 Regional Centers carry out location-specific Rwanda research and are responsible for funneling research results to the farmers. They, During the colonial period, Rwanda shared therefore, focus on a smaller area, region or with Burundi and Zaire, INEAC as the ins- district and are supposed to perform more titution responsible for agricultural research. applied research in close connection with the In 1962, L'Institut des Sciences Agro- extension services. In 1985 and 1990, KARI nomiques du Rwanda (ISAR) was established formulated and updated its agricultural as a semi-autonomous institution. In addition, research strategy with assistance from the Faculty of Agriculture, the Departments ISNAR. Other national agricultural research of Geography, Social Sciences and Energy of institutions are the Kenya Trypanosomiasis the National University of Rwanda also carry Research Institute (KETRI), the Coffee out some agriculture-related research. The Research Foundation (CRF), the Tea Institut de Recherches Scientifiques et Research Foundation of Kenya (TRFK), the Technologiques does research on medicinal Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research plants and sociological studies. The proposed Institute (KMFRI) and Kenya Forestry National Agricultural Research Council Research Institute (KEFRI), this last institute (NARC) is anticipated to be an umbrella having been established in 1986. organization that will coordinate all public sector agricultural research among the major Madagascar stakeholders. The recent unrest has disrupted the entire research system. Once the situation Agricultural research was initiated in has been stabilized, a major rehabilitation Madaga3car at the turn of the century in the effort may be required. formn of botanical gardens, which were eventually merged with the Institut National Somalia de l'Agronomie Coloniale (fNAC) in 1921. Currently, the dominant agricultural research Prior to the civil war, the Agricultural institution is the Centre National de la Research Institute, a department of the Recherche Appliquee au Developpement Ministry of Agriculture, was responsible for Rural (CENRADERU) or FOFIFA in crop research, while the Ministry of Live- Malagasy with responsibility for crops, live- stock, Forestry and Range (MLFR) handled stock and forestry. The Centre National de livestock research. The Faculties of Agri- Recherches Oceanographiques (CNRO) is culture and Veterinary Sciences also responsible for research on marine resources; conducted some research in their respective the Centre National de Recherches sur fields. Some development projects and com- I'Environnement has a mandate for soil, mercial enterprises had adaptive research water, medicinal plants and mangrove components on sugar, banana and rice. The research; FIFAMANOR, under the Ministry recent civil war completely destroyed of Agriculture carries out some crop and live- Somalia's agricultural research infrastructure stock research in the highlands, the Faculties and most of the experienced scientists are of Agriculture and Science and the currently outside the country. Laboratory for Radio-Isotopes of the Univer- sity of Antananarivo carry out research on Sudan crops, livestock, forestry, socio-economics, food, agro-industries; and the Faculty of Research in the Sudan started in 1902 to Science of the University of Tulear has a develop cotton technologies for the Gezira marine science station. Scheme. Thus, agricultural research was initiated in the irrigated sub-sector. About 51 20 percent of the total time allocated for research Tanzania is for the irrigated sub-sector compared to 15 percent for rainfed agriculture, 15 percent for The most important agricultural research food crop research, 10 percent for forestry, 5 institution in Tanzania is the Department of percent for fisheries and 4 percent for Research and Training (DRT), under the wildlife. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Deve- lopment and Cooperatives (MALDC), which At present, the Agricultural Research has a mandate for research on crops and Corporation (ARC), established in 1968, is livestock. In addition, the Sokoine University the largest organization in terms of manpower of Agriculture (SUA), the University of Dar and research output. ARC is an autonomous es Salaam (UDS), the Tropica! Pesticide institution under the Ministry of Agriculture, Research Institute (TPRI) and some private Natural Resources and Animal Wealth. It estates also conduct agricultural research. implements an interdisciplinary research The DRT has seven Zonal Research and approach where disciplinary trials are formu- Training Centers (ZRTCs) that are located in lated into projects with a leader and the most important agro-ecological zones with cooperating scientists. Accordingly, the ARC an extensive network of stations and sub- strategic research plan has identified about a stations. As a result of the formulation of the dozen programs that include: cotton, oil National Agricultural and Livestock Research crops, horticulture and, in general, conducts Masterplan (NALRM), the department is research in the areas of food and cash crops, undergoing a major restructuring to target the livestock, fisheries and forestry in all agro- priority research areas identified by the ecological zones of the country. The Animal masterplan. Resources Secretariat (ARS) under the Ministry of Agriculture, Natural and Animal Uganda Wealth is responsible for the overall planning and development of the livestock sector The government has established the including research, which comes under the National Agricultural Research Organization Animal Production Research Admninistration (NARO) which is managed as an independent (APRA). A small research component on organization and which reports directly to the livestock and feed is undertaken by ARC. Ministry of Finance in fiscal matters. The The Kuku Research Complex and the Faculty creation of NARO is intended to consolidate of Animal Production at the University of and improve components of the national Khartoum are also involved in research. The research system in government ministries and General Veterinary Research Administration departments and facilitate the coordination of and the Central Veterinary Research agricultural research activities. Selected insti- Laboratory (CVRL) conduct animal health tutions such as Makarere University are research and diagnostic investigations on incorporated into this research system. The animal diseases. To some extent, there is a National Research Strategy and Plan includes formal collaboration with the Agricultural six national research institutes and six University of Gezira while the University of stations according to commodities and Khartoum is loosely tied to the agricultural factors. The Livestock Health Research research system, and even less with extension Institute is responsible for animal health work. 21 research and animal breeding. This Institute research. Its research stations were reduced will be placed in Tororo with the Uganda from twenty-six to ten and its commercial Trypanosomiasis Research Institute (UTRI) activities were discontinued. with the implication that the former Animal Health Research Center (AHRC) will be ANALYSIS OF PAST AND PRESENT moved from Entebbe. Other agricultural NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH research institutions are Namulonge Agricul- EFFORTS tural and Animal Research Institute (NAARI), the Serere Agricultural and Animal Food Crops Husbandry Research Institute (SAARI), the Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute Food crops are regarded as the most (KARI), Livestock Research Institute (LIRI), important commodities in Eastern and Central the Forestry Research Institute (FORI) and Africa, and the focus of research for a long the Fisheries Research Institute (FIRI). time aimed at reaching food self-sufficiency. The food composition in the region is a Zaire cereal-based diet, though some regional diversity in staple composition does occur. The primary autonomous agricultural Millet and sorghum are important in the drier research institution in Zaire is the Institut areas, maize is dominant in the southem part National pour l'Etude et la Recherche Agro- of the region except Madagascar where rice is nomiques (INERA) which inherited the important, while wheat is grown in the whole function and the facilities of INEAC but did region. Cooking bananas and plantains are not havt the financial or the human resources important in Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and to maintain the high level of scientific output. Zaire and tef is important in Ethiopia. Protein Several donors and IARCs supported research supply also originates from a diversity of on commodities with sonme positive results. In pulses. Therefore, food crops could be 1985 and 1989, the government, with the regarded as the most important focus for assistance of ISNAR, carried out a review regional research because of the potential and formulated a national master plan for benefit to human food supply and farm agricultural research. As a result, INERA households. was restructured and given the mandate to carry out or supervise all agricultural 22 With regard to achievements in the area of food crops research for all the countries under Bop 3.1: Success of Wheat Research in review except Djibouti, past research acti- Ethiopia vities have delivered a number of outputs. Ethiopia is recognized as being the center of These include high-yielding disease-resistant genetic diversity for tetraploid wheat among varieties, varieties adapted to stress conditions which duni wheat (Trilicum durum), is the of low moisture, appropriate crop manage- dominant type and grown by 60-70 percent of the ment practices, crop protection measures and wheat farmers in the country. The current wheat the nutrient requirements for most of the production area in the country is 529,000 ha. important food crops that include cereals, pulses, root and tuber crops and oil crops. Hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum), commonly known as bread wheat is a recent introduction to The major food crop research objectives Ethiopia. Through research, bread wheat across the countries of the region are similar varieties have better adapted to local conditions and consist of (i) food security; (ii) import and are higher yielding than durum wheat. The substitution and export; (iii) production of national average yield of durum wheat land races raw materials for agro-industries; (iv) grown by farmers is 9q/ha., while the yield of creation of employment, (v) increase in improved bread wheat varieties when grown by farmners' income, (vi) satisfying the needs of farmers using improved management practice urban consumers and (vii) sustainability of goes up to 35q/ha. Between 1958 to 1990, forty- production. To attain these objectives, the three improved bread wheat varieties were agricultural research focus is on genetic developed and released to farmers. Varieties improvement, productivity-enhancing agro- currently under production include: K6290 Bulk, nomic practices, plant protection including K6295-4A, ETl3.A2, Enkoy, Pavon 76 and Integrated Pest Management (IPM), irri- Dashen. gation, water harvesting and conservation, and the reduction of post-harvest losses. I Farmers have appreciated the benefits of the most,improved varieties of bread wheat varieties improved through research most of the countries,imrvdaieeso and currently bread wheat occupies 30-40 the most important food crops are available, percent b read wheat some~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ecn ofhma theage total land areavnderwhea some technical packages have been developed, production -- evidence of success resulting from the most important pests and their control are long years of national commitment to support relatively well- known and some post-harvest research. This research success has assisted technology is available. Although there is Ethiopia in reducing its import of bread wheat field-level impact, the continuous flow of and reallocating its foreign currency towards technologies and their adoption by the other development areas. producers are essential for attaining a productive and sustainable food crop sub- rise from the present 180 million to 260 sector. million by the year 2005. The anticipated rise in population, increased and largely un- Livestock Production controlled urbanization and the predicted changes in the consumption pattem of society, Continued population pressure and limited will place additional demands on food land resources will increase the demand for production, marketing and distribution. meat and milk in the ECA countries. It is Further it is predicted that the population estimated that the total population of Djibouti, increase will necessitate greater intensification Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda and Kenya will and expansion of the smallholder, mixed- crop-livestock agricultural systems in the 23 countries of this region. If livestock produc- systems; lack of adequate and dependable tion continues the same trend as in the 1960s funding for research programs, worn-out or and 1980s (2.6 percent per year for meat and obsolete equipment and inadequate physical 3.2 percent for milk), the ECA countries may facilities; shortage of scientific manpower as face serious deficits in meat and milk supplies well as inefficient utilization of the available in the urban areas within a period of ten to staff due to the shortage often complete twenty years. Livestock research activities absence of funds. are weakly developed in some of the ECA countries. Ranked in order of volume Kenya, The objectives of livestock research in most closely followed by Ethiopia, has far larger of the countries in the region is to meet the programs than most countries in the region. growing demand for meat and milk This is despite the fact that in these countries, production, the improvement of the income of the genetic potential of the animals is far from pastoralists and farners, and for the exporting fully exploited. Djibouti apart, buildings and countries of Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia and laboratories for livestock research are in Sudan, to sustain traditional livestock export existence in the other countries. In Sudan, markets. The research foci in most countries Tanzania and Uganda, equipment is are similar and include: (i) evaluation of insufficient and lacks maintenance. It could be existing cattle breeds for milk production, said that national livestock research is non- selection and crossing with cxotic breeds; (ii) existent in Djibouti; nearly halted in Sudan; fertility and reproductive improvement in collapsed in Somalia; weak in Eritrea, most species; (iii) breeding of goats for dual Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania and Zaire; about purposes (milk and meat); (iv) improvement to be revitalized in Uganda after fifteen years of sheep for meat production; and (v) small- of standstill, slacking off in Kenya, and fair, holder zero-grazing dairying. As a result of but not quite up-to-date in Ethiopia.2. this research, some progress has been made in dairy cattle milk production in Ethiopia, As stated earlier, livestock production in the Kenya, Sudan and Uganda, zero-grazing for countries of the region does not nearly meet dairy cows and dual-purpose goats in Kenya, demand. This is related to low productivity, better understanding of rangelands, improved as the number of animals are more than animal drawn tillage practices in Ethiopia and sufficient in most countries in the region. suitable forage crops in most countries. Nevertheless, the area of genetic diversity However, with the exception of dairy produc- offers potential for future improvement tion and zero-grazing in Kenya, the impact of through breeding and selection. these technologies are still limited. Animal Health Currently, the major constraints in the livestock production sector in the region In general, the livestock sector has, in include: socio-economic factors (including several of the ECA countries, been subjected pastoral tradition and guaranteed access to to policies that have adversely affected the land); poor animal husbandry practices; low development of the animal industry. Among quality of feed and insufficient forage others, resource allocation to livestock production resulting in feed shortage; diseases disease-related research and veterinary and parasite problems as well as a general services has not been adequate. No updated, lack of disease-control measures which is realistic policies which focus on sustainable mainly due to limited diagnostic capacity and animal health delivery in both the intensive surveillance, inadequate vaccine availability and extensive livestock sectors in any of the and, in general, inefficient health delivery ECA countries have been formulated and 24 implemented on a large scale. There is how- whose severity is influenced by the ever, a growing understanding at the policy environment; (iii) production diseases, whose level of basic market forces and incentives, prevalence and severity are strongly and the need to privatize the health delivery influenced by nutritional status, genotype, system. Today, it is generally accepted that management and environmental factors; (iv) the highest priority for animal health research zoonosis (infectious diseases that affcct both is to develop and maintain sustainable means livestock and humans); (v) inability to to prevent and control habitat-related maintain disease surveillance due to the lack diseases. of diagnostic laboratory capacity and the sub- optimal performance of existing laboratories; In spite of all these difficulties, research on (vi) inadequate vaccine production and drug livestock diseases has a distinguished tradition shortages which affect supply; (vii) sub- in the ECA countries and it may be argued optimal and not well-defined/executed that in many areas, knowledge and technology strategies for animal health delivery systems; is available which would improve productivity and (viii) the presence of large wildlife in the intensive and semi-intensive livestock reserves, next to or intermixing with livestock. production systems if access was reliable and economically feasible (e.g. East Coast Fever The objectives of most countries in the immunization). Rising costs, the periodic region in addressing animal health constraints unavailability of drugs and vaccines and are similar and the need for regional and inefficient veterinary support is a problem international collaboration have long been facing many farmers utilizing improved realized due to the constant movement of animals or production systems. The imminent livestock and vectors across borders and the challenge is to formulate, implement and similarity of the constraints experienced. The support livestock/farm production systems most important objectives are: (i) the with sustainable health care in the future. prevention and control of major diseases and The question is therefore, which areas of their vectors; (ii) the improvement of the research will result in the highest rate of survival of exotic breeds and cross-breeds; return and over what time- span. These (iii) increasing the productivity of livestock questions need to be analyzed before the through disease control; and (iv) sustaining research program is decided to make sure that export opportunities. the technology is relevant in terms of improving livestock productivity. The most significant diseases in the region are rinderpest in areas where vaccination is Diseases severely reduce the productivity of impaired by insecurity, foot and mouth livestock in all agro-ecological zones and disease in limited areas, contagious bovine production systems that are present in the pleuro-pneumonia, especially in carrier Eastem and Central African countries. animals, tick-bome diseases, tsetse and Annual losses are estimated at approximately trypanosomiasis, affecting mostly livestock 25 percent of the total value of livestock but also humans (e.g. Uganda) and parasitic production. diseases. Constraints to the animal health sector in Among the achievements are the continuous the region as a whole include: (i) epidemic survey of zoonosis diseases in most countries, diseases which cause continent-wide risks, the study of toxic and veterinary medicinal high mortalities, severe economic losses of plants, survey diseases especially on dairy, diseases, mainly vector transmitted, which exotic breeds and poultry in Ethiopia, the have a wide geographic distribution and development of new technology for 25 trypanosomiasis and tick-borne diseases in Tanzania. Djibouti produces 10 percent of its Kenya, the development of brucella vaccine horticultural crops needs. Actual yields of the S 19 in Sudan and the rehabilitation of various main cash crops have been deteriorating vaccine production capabilities and the across the region and current production control of human (sleeping sickness) and stands at between 20 to 50 percent of the animal trypanosomiasis in Uganda. In potential compared to research findings. addition to the national efforts, the countries in the region collaborate in the Pan African The main constraints to cash/export crops Rinderpest Campaign. However, the research and production in the region are the movement of livestock and insecurity within following: production disincentives as a result the region creates pockets that act as of government pricing policies and reservoirs for reinfestation. government levies on exports, the shortage and in some cases a lack of high-yielding Cash/Export Crops drought-resistant varieties; increasing occurrence of diseases and high costs of plant The most import cash crops in the region protection; deteriorating soil fertility and the are coffee, tea, cotton, horticultural crops, increasing prices of fertilizers; poor crop and sugar cane and oil crops. The most important soil management; inadequate maintenance and goals of most of the countries are: (i) the management of processing plants; weak diversification and expansion or maintenance extension services, and weak linkages between of exports; and (ii) the provision of raw extension and research. materials for agro-industries. to achieve these goals, increased productivity and the To attain these objectives the emphasis is improvement of post-harvest technology are on: (i) the breeding of high-yielding, disease the often-stated objectives to attain and drought-resistant varieties of superior incremental quantitative and qualitative quality and marketability; (ii) improvement in improvement. agronomic management practices; (iii) improvement in plant protection, including Cash/export crops constitute the main integrated pest management; and (iv) foreign exchange earning source of the improvement in post-harvest technology. economies of the ECA countries, except for Djibouti. Their share of export earnings are: Among the notable achievements are: (i) the 95 percent in Burundi, 75 percent in Ethiopia, development of high-yielding and Coffee 70 percent in Kenya, 40 percent in Berry Disease-resistant varieties of coffee and Madagascar. 80 percent in Rwanda, 10 improved varieties of cotton and oil crops in percent in Somalia, 98 percent in Sudan, 80 Ethiopia; (ii) the improvement in the yield and percent in Tanzania, 90 percent in Uganda quality of tea and Robusta coffee, cotton, and 69 percent in Zaire. Local agricultural sugar cane and horticultural crops in Kenya industries and processing are, to a large through the development of superior varieties extent, dependent on these crops. Coffee is the and improved management practices, (iii) main cash/export crop for Burundi, Ethiopia, improvement in tea and coffee husbandry in Madagascar, Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Rwanda; (iv) the breeding of high-yielding Zaire; in Kenya, it is tea followed by coffee varieties of cotton and sugar cane as well as and horticultural crops; cotton in Sudan and the development of integrated pest manage- bananas in Somalia. In addition, sugar cane ment systems for cotton in the Sudan; and (v) is an important cash crop that is locally the improvement in the post-harvest handling consumed in most of the countries of the of horticultural crops in Uganda. However, region. Cotton is also a major export crop in cash/export crops on the whole receive 26 inadequate research coverage and lack the Already, the yields of major crops are regional collaboration and input from LARCs reported to be declining throughout the region. common to food crops research in the region. Natural resources management research is Natural Resources Management and weak in three main areas: monitoring and Environment assessment of the land degradation process; (ii) the generation of technology to cope with The ECA countries exhibit a considerable land degradation phenomena; and (iii) and the degree of commonality with respect to analysis of policies detrimental or conducive agroecological potential, socio-economic to the conservation of the natural resource constraints, environmental degradation, and base demand for food. Agricultural productivity must be increased, at a minimum of 4 percent The major constraints in the region for this annual growth, to adequately sustain the sector include: the lack of national growing populations. Pursuance of this goal commitment as well as the fact that natural will require land-use intensification, resources management research is being increasing the risk of nutrient depletion and supply-driven (that is largely influenced by will demand improved farming technologies to the donors' different and changing prefe- cope with land degradation. The productive rences); in irrigated areas, inappropriate potential of the region in terms of moisture cultivation practices and water management, regimes, radiation levels and the length of the water resource degradation including sedi- growing season is quite high. In addition, mentation, salinity and alkalinity; wide-spread although the availability of (new) land desertification and deforestation; land degra- suitable for agriculture is shrinking, sub- dation, erosion and loss of soil fertility; stantial areas of land with agricultural degradation of rangeland including the loss of potential and yet idle or underutilized land is vegetation and soil fertility; biological available, particularly in Ethiopia, Sudan, degradation (reduction of vegetation cover Tanzania, Uganda and Zaire, including large and soil content of humus and micro- areas with a high irrigation potential. organisms mostly in rangelands due to bush Substantial land and soil degradation resulting burning and the overexploitation of vegetation from over-utilization and mismanagement of cover); lack of a sufficient number of trained otherwise renewable - though fragile natural scientists and the shortage of operating funds resources is now widely reported throughout for research. the region, where deforestation has claimed the major forest areas and left part of the Discussing achievements for this sector in woodlands denuded. Whereas the scale of detail is not easy since impact evaluation is deforestation is obvious and relatively well- very difficult, partly because of a lack of documented, hard evidence for land tangible results from natural resources degradation is scant. Nevertheless, the research in the short term. Also, there is a continuing deterioration of soil fertility in all general lack of information on the impact of major farming systems of the region, science-based soil and water conservation primarily through the depletion of soil measures. However, research in the areas of nutrients, is a most serious threat to the soil and water conservation and management, sustainability of future agriculture and must soil fertility management, tillage, irrigation be addressed accordingly by research and and drainage, rangeland management and possibly by policy measures that secure land agroforestry has been carried out and some rights and promote market development. achievements made in some countries. 27 Agroforestry research is relatively new to the research institutions is encouraging. This region and achievements in the area are positive development reflects the increasing minimal. Sudan and Madagascar have awareness of governments and donors and notable achievements in irrigation research. inputs from natural resource scientists, both Ethiopia and Kenya have conducted extensive national and international, in the formulation research in soil fertility management and have of national strategic plans. developed appropriate recommendations which currently are being utilized by farmers. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL The current research activities on fertilizer RESEARCH EFFORTS recommendations need considerable streng- thening and a reorientation from basic Regional collaboration in agricultural fertilizer trials towards integrated nutrient research was initiated in Eastern Africa management. Extensive soil and water during the colonial period. In the 1940s, the conservation- based development activities East African High Commission developed the have taken place in Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, East African Community's 13 (Taylor 1991) Madagascar and Rwanda. However, consi- agricultural research institutions, namely: (i) dering the magnitude of the land degradation the East African Agricultural and Forestry problem, the conservation programs imple- Organization, Kenya (EAAFRO); (ii) the East mented so far are inadequate. In Ethiopia, the African Freshwater Fislieries Research programs have covered less than 7 percent of Organization, Uganda (EAFFRO); (iii) the the erosion-prone highland area. Although East African Veterinary Research Orga- some research results have been reported on nization, Kenya (EAVRO); (iv) the East tillage techniques, most ongoing research African Trypanosomiasis Research Organi- programs in this area are still very weak and zation, Uganda (EATRO); (v) the East not necessarily responsive to the needs and African Virus Research Organization, general priorities of the countries of the Uganda (EAVIRO); (vi) the Tropical Pesti- region. cide Research Institute, Tanzania (TPRI); and (vii) the Empire Cotton Growing Association, Research objectives, in a limited number of Uganda (ECGA). In Burundi, Rwanda, and countries in the region, show some simi- Zaire, agricultural research was also orga- larities, but there is a general lack of nized regionally through the Institut National coherence in addressing natural resource man- pour les Etudes Agronomiques du Congo agement issues. Traditionally, the NARSs Belge (INEAC). In Madagascar, the Institut have been organized along crop and commo- National d'Agronomique Coloniale, with dity lines, emphasizing productivity increases extensive regional linkages, had the mandate through agronomic techniques like plant for agricultural research. In Italian East breeding. However, the need for close link- Africa (Somalia, Eritrea), agricultural ages between productivity improvement and research was carried out by the then Colonial environmental protection is increasingly being Institute (currently the Overseas Institute, recognized in the region. Thus, although Florence, Italy). Eventually, these metropolis productivity is given the highest priority at the institutions were replaced by national national level, the strategic plans of the institutions. NARSs now also include environnental protection, natural resources conservation and The NARSs in Eastem Africa are involved sustained productivity as high-priority objec- in several regional and international co- tives. The increased recognition given to operative projects and activities. Burundi, environmental aspects im national strategic Rwanda and Zaire are members of the Institut plans and in the operational objectives of de Recherche Agronomique et Zoo technique 28 (IRAZ) which carries out some regional Currently, the most effective cooperation is collaborative work on crop and livestock carried out through regional networks which research. IGADD14 assisted its member are backstopped by the International Agri- countries in organizing research forums and cultural Research Centers (LARCs). Annex workshops, sponsored training for national 13 lists twenty-nine ongoing programs and agricultural research scientists and carried out networks in the ECA region and describes a regional study on agricultural research, their activities. The involvement of the training and extension with the objective of IARCs in the region is substantial and there is identifying activities for regional colla- significant impact on the generation of rele- boration. Tanzania is a member of the vant technology, the transfer of germ plasm, Southern Africa Centre for Cooperation in the training of scientists and in the improve- Agricultural Research (SACCAR), an agency ment of agricultural research management. of the Southem African Development The enhanced involvement of NARSs leaders Community (SADC), and is the pilot country 15 in the planning, rationalization - to reduce for the Southern Africa Framework for Action duplication - and evaluation of these networks to revitalize agricultural research in a regional should contribute to their responsiveness and context. However, regional collaboration lead to the devolution of these networks to the through IGADD, SACCAR and IRAZ is still national institutions. modest. 29 Box 3.2: Network Impact in Eastern Africa - Rwanda During the past decade, several collaborative research networks have developed between the NARSs of Eastern and Central Africa and the IARCs. Two that have achieved conspicuous impact, both in productivity and in increasing national research effectiveness, focus on bean and potato. Examples from Rwanda illustrate this impact. In 1980, nearly all potatoes in Rwanda were of European origin and were highlv susceptible to late blight (the cause of the 19th century potato famine in Ireland). Similarly, 95 percent of the beans grown in southern and central Rwanda were of low-yielding bush types originating mainly from the limited range of germplasm introduced to Africa more than 200 years ago. Broadly similar network strategies were followed for both crops. Germplasm introductions from the crops' Latin American centers of origin were intensified (e.g. 18,000 potato genotypes over ten years and about 800 bean genotypes annually); limited additional resources for varietal selection were focused on key problems through an agreed sharing of responsibilities among countries based on comparative advantage; farmers became much more involved in the setting of priorities and in evaluating materials; and systems for multiplication and dissemination of varieties were improved. From these efforts, Rwanda released fourteen potato and nine bean varieties with high yield potential and disease resistance. Conservative estimates of potato yield increases from on-farm trials data indicate a 40 percent yieid increase nationwide. Several of the new bean varieties were climbing types having a yield potential by double that of the bush types to which farmers were accustomed. Demand for the new varieties has been extremely high. In response, potato basic seed production rose from just 23 tons in 1980 to 662 tons in 1991, an increase of 2,800 percent. Dissemination of the new bean varieties shifted to non-formal approaches, with farmers being prepared to pay well above food-bean prices to obtain very small (e.g. 250 g) packets made available through their traditional sources including markets and local shops. The European varieties of potato have been completely replaced on Rwanda farms. Over 40 percent of farmers nationwide have adopted the climbing beans, with the highest rates of 50 percent among the very poorest, including female-headed households. Rates of return to investment in research have been impressive. Internal rates of return from expenditures on potato research in this region during a span of 14 years (1978-1991) are estimated at 91 percent. This surpasses the profitability of the majority of development projects. The use of improved climbing beans in Rwanda had brought about an estimated annual increase in value of production of US$ 10 million in 1992, only five years after the first widespread dissemination of this technology, which is still spreading rapidly within Rwanda and neighboring countries. This research has been accompanied by intensive training, planning and information exchange which had enabled the NARSs of Rwanda and other countries and their IARC partners, CIAT and CIP, to work together. While the LARCs remain important sources of new germplasm, adoption of elite varieties identified by NARS has also become routine. 30 Among the substantial positive achieve- addition, some of the technologies developed ments at farm-level are: (i) improved cassava by these programs have potential benefits for germplasm with a yield potential of 50 the entire region, e.g. research on the tons/ha; (ii) the biological control of insects management of acid soils. such as green spider mite and mealy bug; (iii) the release of several high-yielding potato Despite the limited overall impact on varieties and improvement in the storage and increased agricultural production, the maintenance of high quality seed tubers, (iv) national, regional and international efforts in the release of improved bean varieties, (v) agricultural research have had some important improved cool season legumes and wheat; and isolated impacts. The studies carried out on (vi) the improved management of vertisols. the economic rates of return of agricultural research in the region indicate substantial The CGIAR system, the partner of the potential for benefits and some positive NARSs in the regional networks, is farmer-level impacts, that have led to undergoing a process of reorientation and significant productivity increases, as docu- restructuring, aiming at a more eco-regional mented in Chapter 2 (Crawford and Oehmke approach which would integrate research on 1993; CIP 1992) Among the notable commodities and factors (productivity achievements are: (i) the development and enhancement) with research on the sustainable wide adoption (60 percent) of high-yielding management of the natural resource base. In maize composites and hybrids and appro- anticipation of this new research approach, priate technical packages in Kenya; (ii) the the IARCs and the NARSs are jointly introduction and adaptation of high yielding planning new collaborative regional programs bread wheat cultivars in Ethiopia, Kenya and such as the East African Highlands Initiative, Sudan; (iii) the development of Hageen-Dura sponsored by ICRAF. It is anticipated that I (HD-I), a sorghum hybrid, which with the new approach will result in research moderate inputs produces about 3.3 tons/ha networks that are better tailored to specific as compared with 1.1 tons/ha for traditional agro-climatic zones. The sustainability of this varieties with similar inputs; (iv) the intro- form of collaboration requires greater duction, adaptation and release to farmers of integration of regional networks with the more than fourteen high-yield potential (40 NARSs in all aspects of their management to percent) and disease-resistant potato varieties increase their efficiency and accountability for in Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda and results and to gradually reduce the continued Zaire; (v) the introduction of dual-purpose dependency on international funding and goats with improved forage production management. practices resulting in a 66 percent increase in food yield for small-scale farm families in Another initiative is the Collaborative Kenya; and (vi) the introduction of broad-bed Research Support Programs (CRSPs) (CRSP planting in vertisols in Ethiopia associated 1991) which were created by the U.S. with yield increases of 330 percent for faba administration to facilitate the involvement of beans and 130 percent for wheat grain and the land-grant and other U.S. universities in straw. research programs aiming at fostering sus- tainable agriculture and national produc- Regional and intemational collaboration in tivity. Although these programs are world- agricultural research enhanced the human wide, some ECA countries such as the Sudan resource development of the region. The (high yielding sorghum hybrid) and Kenya Makerere College and later on the Makerere (nutrition and dual-purpose goat), have University, in UJganda, under the East African benefited from this intemational effort. In Community, produced the bulk of graduates 31 in agriculture until the breakdown of the must be found for and agreements reached on Community in the 1970s. The International the following issues: (i) rationalization and Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology transformation of successful on-going net- (ICIPE) organized, in collaboration with works; (ii) priority setting for new collabo- African universities and research institutions, rative agricultural research initiatives; (iii) the African Regional Postgraduate sustained funding of regional collaborative Programme (ARPPIS) (ICIPE 1991). The agricultural research, (iv) mechanisms for IARCs, e.g. IITA, CIMMYT, CIAT, CIP, effective governance and coordination; (v) ICRISAT, ILRAD, ILCA, ISNAR, determination of the appropriate of NARSs ICARDA, etc. in collaboration with the and IARCs in regional collaboration; (vi) an NARSs, sponsored both short-term and long- assurance of continued national and regional term degree training, occasionally in co- ownership and commitment by the coope- operation with universities, to enhance the rating NARSs, IARCs and donors; and (vii) capacities and the effectiveness of research accountability and transparency in the workers in cooperating NARSs. In addition, management and implementation of collabo- training under national programs, mainly in rative programs. collaboration with bilateral donors was responsible for a quantum jump in the number NATIONAL RESEARCH POTENTIAL AND of scientists with PhD and MSc training. CAPACITY As already indicated, regional collaboration Physical Facilities in agricultural research has a relatively long history in Eastern and Central Africa. It The agricultural research institutions and suffered a set-back in the break-up of the East universities in Eastern and Central Africa African community for reasons that were not have reasonably adequate networks of related to agricultural research. A similar set- research stations, sub-stations and multi- back resulted from the break-up of INEAC. locational experimental sites, as well as However, the continued need for collaboration access to farmers' fields for on-farm adaptive resulted in its revival through the introduction research. In some countries, there are under- of networks with strong leadership provided staffed and underutilized physical facilities by the IARCs and with financial support from that drain the limited available financial donors. At present, there is a growing resources. Some of these facilities are in- consensus amnong NARSs, IARCs and donors appropriately located and are difficult to staff. about the need to transfer network leadership Although some facilities were inherited from and management to the NARSs with the colonial era, the most rapid expansion continued support and back-stopping from the came as a result of: (i) uncoordinated donor IARCs. A successful transfer requires the funding; (ii) duplication among university and further strengthening of the participating research institution facilities, sometimes in national agricultural research systems and adjacent locations; and (iii) combining finding ways to make their funding research objectives with production objectives sustainable. To achieve the objective of to pay (in part) for research. enhancing the partnership among the NARSs in the region and with the IARCs, solutions 32 The agricultural research facilities in the twelve ECA countries are shown in Table 3.1. Kenya, Ethiopia, the Sudan, Tanzania and Box 3.3: The Anatomy of Successful Uganda have, in that order, the most extensive Agricultural Research network of stations and sub-stations. The Several national and regional agricultural research Kenya Agricultural Research Institute programs in Eastern Africa have generated (KARI) has officially reduced its number of technologies that were adopted by farmers in research centers and stations to the current several countries resulting in a positive impact on level. However, there are still facilities that productivity. Other similar technologies are at are not used but yet kept in the system, thus advanced stages of dissemination. An adequate reducing the efficient use of limited resources. understanding of the most important elements that Uganda (ISNAR 1991), as a result of restruc- contribute to such success and their reproduction turing and the creation of the National would be useful. The most common features of Agricultural Research Organization (NARO), these programs are: has reduced its institutes/stations from 16 to ( Well identified commodity/factor constraints;, 12 and INERA in Zaire, recently reduced its (ii) Involvement and ownership by NARSs and the research stations from 29 to 10. The ECA participating scientists; region has about 154 stations, and 47 sub- (iii) Articulated and widely accepted research stations. A careful assessment of these faci- agenda, training and adequate incentives, and lities and a further reduction in their numbers interaction among national scientists; is possible and desirable, taking into consi- (iv) Dependable funding for the duration of the deration economies of scale that should result program (often about eight to ten years); and from enhanced regional collaboration. (v) Linkage to IARCs or other established scientific institutions. Human Resources The numbers and the level of training of scientists have increased in most NARSs in restructuring following the adoption of the the region in recent years as shown in Tables new agricultural research strategy. 3.2, 3.3 and 3.4. As indicated in Table 3.4, there is a high concentration of scientists in There is adequate training capacity for animal health (34.4 percent) and food crop entry-level technicians and graduates and a (19.3 percent) research, while cash crops, modest capacity that could be enhanced for natural resources management (excluding soil post-graduate training in most countries in the scientists) and animal production research are region. In addition, considerable training has underrepresented. There was also a rapid been carried out abroad through donor- increase in the total number of scientists from supported projects. The lARCs also have 1,806 in 1983 to 4,525 in 1993. A compa- carried out both in-service and postgraduate rison of this growth and the 10 percent training in their projects. The LARCs also constrained demand projection proposed by have carried out both in-service and post- Swanson and Reeves (1986) shows that the graduate training in their mandate areas. As a highest growth has taken place in Ethiopia, result, there were about 2563 scientists with Somalia, Sudan, Uganda and Zaire. postgraduate training and about 1942 scientists with Bsc degrees in 1993 (Table However, in the case of Uganda, the 3.3. The limited capacity for postgraduate number of scientists in NARO, the major training calls for close regional collaboration agricultural research institution, was reduced among universities and research institutions to 189 by the end of 1993 as a result of so as to enhance quality and contain expenses 33 Table 3. 1 National Institutions Involved in Agricultural Research and Their Facilities in Eastern Africa Institute/Stations/ Country Institution Centers Sub-Stations Burundi ISABU 5 5 Faculty of Agriculture - - Djibouti ISERSET I - Eritrea Dept. of Research and Training 2 Ethiopia IAR 8 AUA 3 ACA 2 - ESTC I 1 MOA- FRC 1 SCRP I WUARC I - PGRC I - Kenya KARI - NRC 14 3 NRC/RRC 3 9 RRC 9 KEFRI 18 - CRF 1 6 TRFK I - Madagascar FOFIFA 13 5 CNRE I FIFAMANOR 3 - Rwanda ISAR 8 IRST 3 - FA/U`NR - - Somalia MOA/ARI 4 Sudan ARC 19 3 Tanzania DRT 7 15 Uganda NARO 12 4 MU/FA I MU/FVS I Zaire INERA 10 Total 154 47 Sources: Noor, M.A. 1993. Status of Agricultural Research in Eastern Africa. Washington, D.C.: SPAAR. Roseboom, Johannes and Philip G. Pardey. 1993. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Kenya, ISNAR Indicator Series Project, Phase II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. 1993. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Rwanda. ISNAR Indicator Series Project, Phase II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. The World Bank. 1994 - Eritrea: Options and Strategies for Growth. Washington, D.C: World Bank; Roseboom, J. and Philip G. Pardey. 1994. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Madagascar. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. FOFIFA. 1994. Apercu Global sur le FOFfFA. Madagascar; The World Bank. 1991. Staff Appraisal Report. Zaire: National Agricultural Research Project. Washington, D.C: World Bank. [NERA. 1994. Personal communication. 34 Despite the achievements in terms of self an often serious demotivating research capacity, i.e. numbers of qualified factor for research scientists. scientists, there are two issues that affect almost all the NARSs of the region: These two overriding issues are often compounded by the following problems: (i) * Overstaffing in a few disciplines the lack of funds often prevents the recruit- and understaffing in others ment and retention of competent scientists, causes for national research which has frequently led to the departure of agendas and strategies to be the most experienced ones (the so-called brain supply-driven, making a shift drain); (ii) many institutions are seriously towards a more client and market overstaffed in terms of support staff, affecting -driven research difficult; and the availability of funds for operating expen- ditures; (iii) the inadequate capacity for * The underfunding of research postgraduate training in universities in the operating expenditures and the region, in particular with respect to the unreliability of regarding both the retraining of scientists to improve the skills availability of funds and their mix; and (iv) the lack of collaboration among timeliness seriously affects agricultural research institutions and univer- research efficiency, and is in it- sities in the sharing of human resources and facilities. 35 Table 3.2 Trends in the Development of Human Resources in the East and Central African Countries (Diploma Holders Excluded) Country 1983a 1989b 1993c Constrained Demand Projection for 2001 Burundi 49 48 48 198 Djibouti - 6 8 16 Eritreae - - 17 29 Ethiopia 235 649 928 705 Kenya 573 533 604 1032 Madagascarf 65 - 167 263 Rwanda 26 38 35 105 Somalia 42 75 1224 145 Sudan 328 875 1552 836 Tanzaniah 237 - 353 711 Uganda 159 289 309 406 Zaireg 92 - 382 373 Total 1806 -- 4525 4817 Sources: a. Swanson, B.E. and W.H. Reeves. 1986. Agricultural Research: Eastern and Southern African Manpower and Training. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 1986. Discussion Paper Eastern and Southern Africa Projects Department. b. Noor, M.A. 1993. The Status of Agricultural Research in Eastern Africa. Washington, D.C: SPAAR (Excludes Madagascar, Tanzania and Zaire). c. Djibouti: Mohamed (1993) and Djanma (1993), Ethiopia: Ashgari et al (1993), Kenya: Abate (1993), Kilewe (1993), Mailu (1993), Wabula (1993), Wafula (1993), Sudan: El Sheik (1993), Marsal (1993), Musand (1993), Omar (1993), Uganda: Baliddawa (1993), Kalunda (1993), Maiteki (1993), Ssentongo (1993). d. ISNAR. 1990. A Strategic Update of Somalia's National Agricultural Research Plan. e. The Hague: Netherlands, The World Bank. 1994. Eritrea: Options and Strategies for Growth. Draft. Washington, D.C. f. Roseboom, J. and P. Pardey. 1994. Statistical Brief on the NARS of Madagascar. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. g. The World Bank. 1991 - Staff Appraisal Report. Zaire: National Agricultural Research Project. Washington, D.C.: World Bank h. DRT and ISNAR. 1991 - National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan. The Hague, the Netherlands: ISNAR. 36 Table 3.3 Summary of Current Status ofAgricultural Research Human Resources in East and Central African Countries (1993) Country Ph.D DVVM MSc Total Post- B.Sc Total graduate Burundi 2 - 29 31 17 48 Djibouti - - 3 3 5 8 Eritrea - 2 7 9 8 17 Ethiopia 82 319 234 635 293 1914 Kenya 107 - 314 421 183 676 Madagascara 46 - 83 129 38 167 Rwanda 3 2 23 28 7 35 Somalia 2 - 44 46 76 122 Sudan 315 - 302 719 833 1596 Tanzania 34 - 157 191 136 327 Ugandab 61 20 151 233 76 331 Zaire 78 - 40 118 270 388 Total 730 343 1,387 2,563 1,942 4,505 Sources: a. Burundi: ISNAR. 1989. Orientation and Management of Research in the Burundi Institute of Agricultural Science (ISABU): Analysis and Recommendations; Djibouti: Mohammed (1993) and Djama (1993), Ethiopia: Ashgari et al (1993), Kenya: Abate (1993), Kilewe (1993), Mailu (1993), Wabula (1993), Wafula (1993), Sudan: El-Sheik (1993), Marsal (1993), Musand (1993), Omar (1993), Uganda: Baliddawa (1993), Kalunda (1993), Maiteki (1993), Ssentongo (1993), Rwanda: (i) ISNAR. (1989). The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. A Review of the Agricultural System Research in Rwanda. (ii) The World Bank. 1992. Washington D.C. Staff Appraisal Report. Rwanda Second National Research Project Washington, D.C.: World Bank; Somalia: ISNAR. 1990. A Strategic Update of Somalia's National Agricultural Research Plan; Annexes I - 12 of this study; DRT and ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. a. Includes 26 expatriates. b. Prior to the restructuring. 37 Table 3.4 Distribution of Scientists by Sub-Sector Sub-sector Burundi J2ibout Entrea Ethiopia Kensz Madagascar Rwanda Somalia Sudan Tanzani Ugand Zaire Total % a a Food Crops n.a. - 7 308 148 59 22 n.a. 60 62 120 84 870 19.3 Cash Crops n.a. I 1 50 91 n.a. n.a. 36 n.a. 47 13 239 5.3 Nahtral Resources n.a. 7 6 124 57 31 2 n.a. 214 29 48 58 576 12.8 Animal n.a. - 1 142 139 10 4 n.a. 30 11 10 59 406 9.0 Production Animal Health n.a. - 2 304 168 10 n.a. n.a. 914 28 84 40 1550 34.4 Unclassified 48 - - - - 59 7 122 298 197 - 131 862 19.2 Total 48 8 17 928 603 169 35 122 1552 327 309 385 4503 100 Source: Annexes 1-12 of this study. 38 Funding * The reluctance of donors to fund a reasonable share of recurrent fixed The funding of agricultural research in the operating expenditures and over- ECA countries was found to be inadequate, heads, even though these are directly untimely and not dependable in the mid- related to the donor-funded research. 1980's (World Bank 1987). The shortage in funding mainly affected research operating * The responsibility for commitments expenditures and the maintenance of research and payments of many donor funds facilities. The situation has not improved remains with the donor agency, i.e. since then. Furthermore, with the exception excluding national institutions from of Ethiopia, there is a high proportion of the management of sizable parts of external funding in all the countries. Donor their operating budgets. funds are mostly allocated to technical assistance, training and the development of * Weak public administration account- physical facilities. On the other hand, ing systems not adapted to research government funding barely covers salaries, needs (often the reason that donors which have eroded significantly in recent are reluctant to part with the years due to exchange rate adjustments and management of their funds) and inflation. This leaves extremely limited salary scales not attractive to recruit resources for operating expenditures and capable accounting staff becomes a maintenance. As a result, some of the vicious circle inherent to most public completed physical facilities are not utilized or parastatal institutions. or are underutilized. Also, the bulk of the scientists are often concentrated in a few * Centralized public administration research stations that are close to the urban and parapublic accounting proce- centers. This state of affairs has, in a dures do not provide for budgeting, number of countries, led to important agri- internal budget control and account- cultural production areas not being serviced ing procedures adapted to a decen- by research. tralized management structure which is typically the case in for NARSs The financial capacities of the public with research installations spread sector agricultural research institutions in the throughout a country with weak twelve ECA countries and of two agricultural communication links. research foundations are indicated in Table 3.5.The publicly-funded agricultural research * Another drawback of over- institutions, with the exception of Ethiopia centralized management systems is and Djibouti, are characterized by: (i) serious the lack of a clear definition of who underfunding of research operating expen- is to be held accountable for what ditures in terms of availability of funds per expenditure. Timeliness of the scientist; (ii) too high a proportion of govem- availability of funds is essential for ment funding going to salaries; (iii) a high agricultural research to avoid losing dependency on extemal funding; and (iv) out on research quality and thus funds for investments, when available, efficiency (once an experiment has deriving from external sources only. These started, everything is timed to avoid problems are compounded by the following involuntary variables). factors: 39 * Finally, the lack of transparency in On average, total budget outlays (both existing accounting and management government and donor) for agricultural systems is often a serious limitation, research in the ECA countries are compar- making the tracing of earmarked able to the average outlays for developing funds difficult if not impossible, countries worldwide as indicated by the ratio which in turn has prevented donors of agricultural research expenditures to from trusting their funds to national AgGDP (Agricultural Research Intensity institutions, thus often creating Rate (ARI)) shown in Table 3.6. The ARI is autonomously managed "enclave an indication of the priority given to agn- projects" within the national systems. cultural research. Some countries, namely, Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Among the ECA countries, only Kenya, Rwanda (prior to the civil war) and Tanzania has two private research foundations, namely have an ARI higher than the average for the Coffee Research Foundation (CRF) and developing countries worldwide. In Uganda, the Tea Research Foundation of Kenya the agricultural research budget will increase (TRFK). These foundations focus on starting in 1993/1994 as a result of World research in their respective commodities. Bank funding. These relatively high ratios Research is carried out by a small number of are attained because of the availability of scientists i.e. twenty-five in CRF and twelve external funding. The problem is, however, in TRFK. Funding comes from cesses on the that these external funds are often erratic and commodities and there is no government or often not available to fund recurrent opera- donor funding. Because of their institutional ting and maintenance costs. On the other autonomy and accountability to their clients hand, government budget outlays remain built into their governance and funding constrained because of their low fiscal arrangements, these institutions do not face capacities (Anderson and Dillou 1989; Elliott any of the problems indicated here that are 1990). Therefore, an attempt must be made typical of public sector institutions. For the to integrate local and external resources, not two foundations, expenditures on staff so much to increase the total allocation for constitute about 55 percent of total operating agricultural research, but to improve overall expenditures. Annual operating expenditures resource use efficiency, i.e. to enhance the per scientist amount to about US$ 18,000. timeliness of government funding and the With the exception of Rwanda and Burundi, utilization of external resources for operating where a large proportion of operating expenditures, i.e. moving away from the expenditures are funded by external sources, funding of "enclave projects." all other countries are below USS 10,000 per scientist and some below US$5,000.00 which RECENT INSTITUTIONAL CHANGES AND demonstrates the seriousness of the problem THEIR DYNAMICS of underfunding. At independence, the ECA countnes had At present, the public sector research expatriate-dominated, colonially-funded, institutions can be financially viable only national and regional agricultural research with heavy inputs from external resources. institutions. This arrangement continued in The most externally dependent NARSs are the 1960s with gradual increases in the Burundi (75 percent), Kenya (66.3 percent), number of donors using the time-limited Madagascar (55.5percent), Rwanda (70.3 model of supply-driven projects. These percent), Somalia (43 percent), Uganda (96 projects were often self-contained, short-term percent) and Zaire (52.1 percent). "enclaves" to assure success and to avoid government bureaucracy. Institution building 40 was not among the objectives. Donor input operating funds resulted in idle human and was not coordinated and this resulted in the physical resources and eventually a "brain rapid expansion of physical facilities, i.e. the drain." The desired generation and transfer number of research stations. The training of of technology as well as the impact on scientific human resources was a very agricultural productivity was modest in important objective. However, upon comple- comparison with the impact of the "Green tion of these projects, the paucity of Revolution" in Asia. 41 Table 3.5 The Financial Capacities of the Public Agricultural Research Institutions and Foundations in Eastern and Central Africa Key Indicators Bunrndi Djibouti Eritrea Ethiopia Kenya Madag. Rwanda Somalia Sudan Tanza. Uganda Zaire KARI CRF/ TRFK Year 1989 1993 1992/ 1992/93 1992/ 1991/ 1993 1991 1989 1989 1990/91 1993/4 1992 93 93 92 Investment/ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 46.4% <1% 49% 7.4% n.a. n.a. 27.3% 16% 18.7% Total Govenmuent 25% 94% 61% 94% 33.7/o 0% 37% 14.2% 570/o n.a. 72.3% 4% 45.2% Budget/Total External 75% 6% 390/o 6% 66.3% 0% 55.5% 70.3% 43% n.a. 27.7% 96% 52.1% Resources/ Total Own Resources/ n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. 100% 7% 15.5% n.a. 82% n.a. n.a. n.a. Total Staff/Total O.C. 30% n.a. n.a. 64% 25% 55% 36% 65% n.a. n.a. 34.1% 57% 98.2% Staff/Gov. 30% 96% n.a. 68% 74.6% 55% 51% 457% n.a. n.a. 28.3% 633% 176.6% Budget O.C. (Excl. 35 n.a. n.a. 6.6 5.9 17.8 9.9 34 n.a. 0.8 9.3 3.0 0.23 StaffyScientist in 1000 of USS Total 50 56.2 4.6 20.4 25.9 39.3 30.4 138.7 24.0 4.2 23.5 15.0 15.3 Budget/Scientist in 1000 of US$ PhD & 65% 37.5% 52.9% 68% 85.4% n.a. 77% 72% 38% 46% 58% 67% 43.7% MSc/Total Scientists Numberof 86 8 17 928 572 37 167 57 79 1552 353 189 270 Scientists Source: Annexes 1 - 12 of this study. 42 Table 3.6 Agricultural Research Expenditures of Eastern and Central African Countries as percentage ofAgGDP and Comparison with Other Economic Groupings. Country GDP AgGDP AgGDP Ag. Research (million US$) % (million US$) Intensity (ARI)a Burundi 986 56 552 0.78 Eritrea 248 26 65 0.12 Ethiopia 6257 43 2690 0.75 Kenya 6884 31 2134 0.70 Madagascar 2767 33 913 0.52 Rwanda 1552 37 574 1.37 Somalia 879 65 571 0.33 Sudan 11677 36 4203 0.09 Tanzania 2345 50 1172 0.71 Uganda 2998 76 2278 0.12 Zaire 8206 30 2462 0.24 Average for ECA countries 0.42 Low income LDCs 0.32 Lower middle income LDCs 0.40 Upper middle income LDCs 0.51 All developing countries 0.42 Developed countries 2.01 World Bank. 1992 and 1994. World Development Reports 1992 and 1994. Washington, D.C: World Bank, Annexes 1-12 of this study; Elliott, Howard. 1990 National Agricultural Research Systems. A Report on Progress : The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR, Pardey, Philip G. et al 1989 - Structure of Public Support for National Agricultural Research Systems: A Political Economy Perspective." Agricultural Economics 3 (1989) 261-278; Elliott, Howard and Philip G. Pardey. (1988) "Determinants for National Agricultural Research Systems." The Changing Dynamics of Global Agriculture: A Seminar/Workshop on Research Policy Implication for National Agricultural Research Systems. DSE/ZEL Feldafing, Germany: ISNAR, DSE and CTA. Source: a. Agricultural research intensity (ARI) ratio=public agricultural research expenditure/AgGDP 43 To address this issue, the donor community agricultural research is being promoted carried out studies (World Bank 1987; through on-going projects in Ethiopia, Kenya, Steppler 1986) and attempted the coordination Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. of their activities. Among the coordination mechanisms established were the Cooperation Kenya and Tanzania have created for the Development of Africa (CDA) the Agricultural Research Funds (ARFs), through Special Programn for African Agricultural which contracts are given on a competitive Research (SPAAR) and networking through basis to individual scientists (or teams) in all the LARCs and other institutions. institutions that constitute the national system. Other countries in the region are also experi- In addition, most ECA countries have menting with contract research as a means to carried out reviews and analyses of their improve accountability for results, to enhance NARSs with assistance from ISNAR (Noor collaboration among institutions, and to create 1993), e.g: Burundi in 1989, Ethiopia in a degree of competition among scientists and 1987, Kenya in 1985 and 1990, Madagascar institutions alike. These new modes of in 1983, Rwanda in 1983, 1989 and 1993, operation are still experimental, but one Somalia in 1984 and 1990, Sudan in 1988, lesson can already be drawn, i.e. wherever Tanzania in 1991, Uganda in 1987 and Zaire introduced, research contracting has markedly in 1989. These studies reconimended: (i) improved the formulation of research institutional reformns, (ii) improved research proposals in terrns of their quality and programning and priority-setting to enhance relevance. In terms of their implementation, efficiency, (iii) human resources development, there is one overriding advantage in that, once (iv) closer research/extension linkages, (v) a contract has been given out, its funding is stability of funding, (vi) regional and assured till completion. Most institutions in international collaboration, and (vii) impro- the region, however, are still facing severe ving the monitoring of progress and assessing imbalances in available resources - human, the impact of research. Many of these financial and physical - that can only be over- recommendations are being irmplemented in come through institutional reforms combined the NARSs of the ECA countries. with a search for alternative sources of funds to make them sustainable. The ISNAR reviews and the subsequent projects initiated reforms. As indicated in Some aspects of the necessary institutional Table 3.7, most of these countries now have reformns are lagging behind. These aspects semi-autonomous agricultural research insti- concem mainly: tutions. In addition, Rwanda was, at the onset of the civil war, in the process of creating a The lack of accountability of the semi-autonomous agricultural research institutions (and of the scientists council, and another one is planned in working in them) towards their Ethiopia. These councils are apex organi- constituency, i.e. the users of the zations that are intended to oversee research research results. Most institutions in all the public sector institutions within a are still government bureaucracies or NARS, to foster collaboration among them, to semi-public parastatals, with govern- allocate funds to them, and to promote private ing bodies consisting of exclusively sector research. The involvement of the civil servants. faculties of agriculture and veterinary * The lack of autonomy with respect to sciences, as well as the private sector in financial and administrative mana- 44 gement (including personnel manage- despite their shortcomings and problems, the ment, i.e. the incentive structure, staff only stable elements in the region. evaluation, and the hiring and firing of staff), Cross-Cutting Issues and Constraints The static internal organization of Despite some remarkable incidental research institutions with overly cent- successes, a fundamental fact of the agricul- ralized decision making procedures, tural research system in the ECA region, making management by objective including the IARCs and the regional (problem-solving and results- networks, is the slow rate of technology gene- oriented) difficult to implement, ration and its limited impact on economic because this typically requires inter- growth. What then are the constraints that institutional collaboration and multi- cut across the entire spectrum and that have disciplinary team-work across in- been limiting 'success'? Three areas are ternal organizational boundaries, suggested here. At the regional level, three initiatives are * One, the users of the research converging, namely : (i) the attempt by product are generally not involved in NARSs leaders, IARCs and donors to ratio- the identification of the research nalize networks and to transfer their manage- task, nor do they participate ment to the NARSs; (ii) the Frame-work for sufficiently in the design of the Action (FFA) to revitalize NARSs within a research effort and its implemen- regional context; (iii) the eco-regional tation. Scientists must learn to approach initiated by IARCs with parti- participate with farmers in both the cipation by the NARSs. identification of production cons- traints and in finding solutions to The combined objectives of these initiatives them. Also, much closer linkages are: (i) the efficient utilization of existing must be established with the exten- resources at national and regional levels, (ii) sion services and other agencies inter- to cast agricultural research in a demand- acting with the farmer (private sector, driven, responsive and participatory mode farmer groups and NGOs). All this is involving the clients: (iii) to find ways and necessary to ensure that research is means for dependable and sustainable and remains relevant. funding; (iv) to create coalitions of partners to maximize collaboration among national, * Two, the general absence of a sub- regional and international institutions; (v) to sector approach to the identification enhance the creation of data basis at national and prioritization of production and regional levels and to improve infor- constraints, which are not necessa- mation exchange through the establishment of rily limited to biological constraints cost-effective international linkages; (vi) to only, i.e. the constraints related to strengthen the transfer of appropriate agricultural input availability (chemi- agricultural technologies; and (vii) to ratio- cals, labor, land and capital); post- nalize national and regional research capacity harvest processing, handling and to reduce redundancies. However, these storage; communication and trans- attempts are doomed to fail if they are not port; and those related to marketing, anchored in the national systems, which are, market -demand and market-access. 45 In many cases, these constraints and are not insignificant, but they rarely the lack of research on finding cover even 50 percent of total solutions to them, severely limit the recurrent costs. Donors must accept success of biological breakthroughs. to continue to bear a significant portion of these costs, even as new Three, the overriding problem of sources of finance from other sources recurrent cost finding. Government (private sector, endowments, etc.. are contributions in the ECA countries identified 46 Table 3. 7 Characteristics of the East/Central African National Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs) Country Agric. Research Semi-autonomous MOA Depanhlnst. Foundation Universities Existence of National Agricultural ARF Council Research Inst. Research Strategy None Comp Burundi - ISABU - - FA/BU X Djibouti - ISERST - - X Erin-ea - ARTD - - UA X Ethiopia ESTC/ARC (I) IAR (1) FRC - (1) FA/AUA x (2) PGRC/E (2) SCRP (2) FVM/AU (3) PPRC (3) WUARC (3) ACA (4) JCA Kenya - (1) KARI - (I) TRFK (I) FA/NU X X (2) KEFRI (2) CRF (2) FVM/NU (3) EU Madagascar - (1) FOFIFA (I) FIFAMANOR - UA, UT X (2) CNRE Rwarnda NARC ISAR - (1) FA/NUR x x (2) DG/NUR Somalia - - ARI - (1) FA/SNU X (2) FVM/SNU Sudan - ARC (1) RPA - (1) KU, EES X X (2) VRA (2) UG (3) APRA (3) SUST/CA Tanzania NARC - (1) DRT - (1) SUA, UDS x x Uganda - NARO - - (I) FA/MU X X (2) FVM/MU Zaire - INERA - (1) UKIN/UKIS X X ACA = Awassa College of Agriculture FA/NUR = Faculty of Agric./Nat'l Univ. of Rwanda KEFRI = Kenya Forestry Research Institute APRA = Animal Prod. Research Admin. FA/SNU = Faculty of Agric./Somali Natl Univ. KU = Khartourm University ARC = Agric. Research Council (Corp) FOFIFA = Acronym for Centre Nat'l de Recherche NARC = Nat'l Agric. Research Council ARI = Agricultural Research Institute App. au Dev. Rural NARO = National Agric. Research Org. ARF = Agricultural Research Fund FRC = Forestry Research Center PGRC/E = Plant Genetic Res. Ctr/Ethiopia ARTD = Agric. Research and Training Dept. FVM/AU = Faculty of Vet./Addis University PPRC = Plant Protection Research Center CNRE = Centre Nat. de Rech. sur l'Env. FVM/MU = Faculty of Vet./MU RPA = Range and Pasture Admin. CRF = Coffee Research Foundation FVM/NU = Faculty of Vet./Nairobi Univ. SCRP = Soil Conservation Research Project DG/NUR= Dept. of Geography/NUR FVM/SNU = Faculty of Vet./SNU SUA = Sokoine University of Agriculture DRT = Department of Research and Training IAR = Agricultural Research Institute SUST/CA = Sudan Univ. of Sc. & Tech/College ESTC = Ethiopian Sc. and Tech Comm. IES = Institute of Environ. Studies of Agric. EU = Egerton University ISABU = Institut des Sciences Agron. du Burundi TRFK = Tea Research Found. of Kenya FA/AUA= Faculty of Agric./Alemaya Agric. Univ. ISAR = L'lnstitut des Sc. Agron. du Rwanda UA = University of Asmara FA/BU = Faculty of Agric./Burundi Univ. ISERST = Inst. Superieur d'Etudes et de Rech. Sc. UDS = University of Dar es Salaamn FA/MU = Faculty of Agric./Makarere Univ. et Tech. UG = University of Gezira FAINU = Faculty of Agric./Nairobi Univ. ICA = Jima College of Agriculture VRA = Veterinary Research Admin. KARI = Kenya Agric. Research Institute WUARC = Wood Utilization and Research Ctr. 47 4. OBJECTIVES AND STRATEGY FOR STRENGTHENING A GRICUL TURAL RESEARCH IN EASTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA The major objective for the governments of for Action (FFA) to strengthen agricultural the Eastern and Central African countries is research in Eastern and Central Africa. to improve the economy and well-being of their peoples. The earlier chapter have GOAL OF THiE FFA shown that the improvement of agricultural productivity is a prime engine for growth The goal of the FFA is to improve the leading to adequate food supplies with capability of national agriculture research to reduced prices, and surpluses for processing make its essential contribution to equitable and competitive exports. These vital development, food security and environ- improvements in productivity will require a mental sustainability in countries within the substantial and sustained effort in agricul- region. tural research, with the additional concern that the increased productivity does not OBJECTIVES seriously degrade the natural resource base and the environment. It is recognized that the~~~~~~~ ~ reeac reore ofidvda The objectives of the key actions are to: the research resources Of individual countries are limited and that cross-country Improve the relevance, quality collaboration in research can address some * cost-effelene, ali- and cost-effectiveness of agri- common problems most efficiently. For cultural research institutions other problems, a combined regional effort through the adoption of prin- to provide a 'critical mass" of researchers, ciples of operation, manage- larger than any single country can afford, ment, organization and capacity- will be necessary for research success. building to enhance their perfor- However, the primary operative agencies mance in using available for carrying out the research are the national resources in delivering research conclusions that address farmer agricultural research services or systems. constrains adatial prie- This review shows that while there have rties a been substantial improvements in the func- rities; tioning of NARSs in the past decade, there are still many serious constraints that need mestabish an supportegina to be reduced to strengthen the capability m esms ctolrinoreian and increase the flexibility of the NARSs to imove Researc collabratio whic wil among NARSs and with inter- perform their essential tasks, national agencies such as to include national as well as regionally muster resources and meet directed research. With this in mind, the national and regional priorities; leaders of the ECA NARSs decided, during their Kampala meeting in November 1993, Improve the delivery of appro- to develop a Framework priate new information and technology to clients. STRATEGY tutions into a consolidated national program. To Str-engthen NARSs* To improve the information * To build on the established flow and linkages between strengths of autonomous researchers, national, regional research institutions and on and international, and with national strategic plans for agri- national extension staff. cultural research by increasing linkages with policy-makers and * To establish a practical structure stakeholders and by regularly to monitor adherence to the updating such strategic plans to national strategic plan and respond to national development arrange for periodic scientific policies, farmer constraints and and financial audits. a changing economic environ- amchangint. economic environ-To improve research facilities ment. where needed. * To achieve and maintain a stable and reliable funding resource in To Develop Regional Collaboration in balance with resources of Research research staff and physical faci- To set up formal and legal lities, ensuring adequate opera- mechanisms that facilitate tional funding per scientist. rechanisearch faborate regional research collaboration * To develop a stable human and the exchange of infor- resource capacity through mation; to facilitate better colla- appropriate training and condi- boration with IARCs and other tions of services. international research agencies; and to collaborate with donors * To establish improved struc- for the support of regional tures, procedures and methodo- research activities. logies for research program planning, priority-setting and g To establish authoritative review, at all levels of decision- groups from NARSs to reach making, from the national level consensus on regional objectives to research station. for research, based on the congruence of national research * To generate a demand-driven objectives and common cons- research agenda by involving traints, and to set priorities for users-of-research in all bodies main research areas based on making decisions on research these constraints. programs and in evaluating To develop regional collabo- results. *T eeo elnlclao rative research programs and * To integrate the available projects on high-priority topics. research capacity in all insti- 49 * To pursue and establish reliable research institutes, and in funding mechanisms on a long- evaluating research conclusions. term basis. * To promote the testing by scientists of proposed techno- To Improve Technology Transfer to logies under farmer conditions Producers with active participation by extension staff. * To foster closer liaison between scientists and extension practi- * To improve the dissemination of tioners. new information in terms readily appreciated by farmers * To ensure the participation of in all categories. extension staff and farmers in research program-priority set- * To encourage the development ting, in planning committees in of multipurpose grassroots-level extension agents. 50 5. A PROPOSED FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION (FFA) The proposed solutions to the issues raised prerequisite for successful regional colla- in Chapter 3 and the objectives set forth in boration. Chapter 4, are the subject of the proposed Framework for Action and are based on the National Agricultural Research Strategies17 recommendations of the Kampala Workshop 16 These actions concern: While many countries in the region have developed research master plans, few have * The necessity to restructure and updated them regularly. These plans are improve the management of only useful if they are used as a tool to National Agricultural Research prioritize and orient research within Systems (NARSs) to deliver prevailing resource limitations (both finan- quality and innovative research cial and human). Therefore, there is a in a resource - constrained envi- general need to quantify the national ronment. strategies, i.e. include realistic estimates of the human and financial resources available * The necessity for regional for the implementation of the strategy. collaboration between countries Also, congruencies in the priorities of with a common interest to national strategies should be the basis for enhance research efficiency identifying areas for regional collaboration. through economies of scale and As a first step, the NARS leaders in the to avoid duplication of effort. region have decided to share their experiences and exchange their national * The necessity to mnake agri- strategies. In the context of the regular cultural research accoun-table to updating, many plans will need to be the users of its results and thus revised to: make it demand-driven (clients/ markets). * Include stakeholders (farmers, herders, processors and their PRINCIPLES OF NARS REFORM AND professional organizations) in THEIR STRENGTHENING the setting of the research agenda, and ensure the gender- The following paragraphs offer a set of responsiveness of such an measures necessary to strengthen national agenda. agricultural research systems in the ECA * Better reflect national agri- region. They comprise the recommen- cultur relopment tri- dations of the Kampala workshop and were cultural development trends, endorsed during subsequent meetings of the opportunities and objectives. ECA NARS leaders in Nairobi and at Egerton University, Kenya. Some of these * Apply a "production-to- measures are already being implemented in consumption" (sub-sector) app- a number of countries, both within the ECA roach to research to identify region and elsewhere in Sub-Saharan researchable constraints rather Africa. The strengthening of the national than limiting the scope for systens is seen by the NARS leaders as a research to biological cons- traints ony research to biological cons- capital); post-harvest processing, handling traints only.18 and storage; communication; and rural infrastructure. Analyses of the relationship * Assure that regional collabo- between all the factors affecting agricultural rative programs are based on the productivity and finding solutions to them needs of the national programs. should become an integral part of the national agricultural research agendas. * Set priorities, taking into Since this area of research is under account more realistically developed in most NARSs of the ECA human (both quantitative and region, the Committee of Directors of the qualitative) and financial participating countries have, in their resource constraints on the one meeting at Egerton University, decided to hand, and also integrate and give priority to collaborating on policy develop as yet untapped analysis through the creation of an agri- research capacity in universities cultural policy analysis network. The and non-public institutions. International Development Research Center (IDRC) has indicated its interest in suppor- * Consolidate research activities ting such a network. This initiative and coordinate all sources of coincides with a similar one promoted by public and donor funding to Ministers of Agriculture following a ensure the coherence of the conference in Harare in June 1994 under the national strategy. auspices of the Global Coalition for Africa (GCA). Both initiatives are a clear response * Ensure the collaboration and to the problems that African agriculture is involvement of intermediate facing and a realization that focusing stakeholders, including the research on "biological" constraints only is extension services and the not sufficient. It is imperative that both private sector. initiatives should be developed together, and that the agricultural policy network of the The national strategies should set the ECA countries should not be limited to stage for creating the enabling institutional scientists only but should also include environment conducive for quality- problem "policy practitioners". solving - research. In most of the NARSs in the region this will require the substantial Generating a Demand-Driven Research reinforcement of their capacity for agri- Agenda through Farmer Empowerment. cultural policy analysis and the broadening of their institutional base. Giving farmers a voice in the deter- mination of the research agenda will require Agricultural policy analysis can take three actions: different forms. In general, it should identify constraints to agricultural produc- (i) Involving farmers and their orga- tivity improvement that are not necessarily nizations in the central governance "biological" constraints. Such constraints of the institutions catering to them, are in the first place related to market- through participation in the decision demand, market-access and market deve- -making processes that determine lopment, and to the regulatory framework. the national agricultural research They are also related to agricultural input agenda and its implementation by availability (human resources, land and participating research institutions. 52 (ii) Involving farmers in the decisions for results, national research institutions on short-term projects and studies need sound and thorough management within research institutions, and procedures for research programming, thus having them participate in the monitoring and evaluation. Such proce- final stages of planning experiments dures are the principal tools for managing and studies. research programs, and are of particular importance in a regional context when (iii) Involving farmers in the evaluation collaborative regional programs are inte- of research results of both "on- grated with national programs. farm" and "on-station" experiments, and in the evaluation of broader Following initial national and regional research conclusions at institute and decisions on the most important commo- national levels. dities and themes for research, as contained in the national strategic plan, a typical Generating a demand-driven research research programming cycle consists of: agenda will thus have important impli- cations for the institutional development and * The identification of major governance of national agricultural research constraints to productivity for systems. It should also lead to different each of the priority commo- approaches to research by scientists, both on dities, themes or research the broad research effort on various comnimo- programs by teams of senior- dities and on particular experiments to level scientists with the partici- improve the productivity of a commodity. pation of the users of research For example, the improved plant charac- results and the extension teristics of beans pursued by scientists services; at this stage, rapid should be those the farmers consider most rural appraisal techniques are important; possible improvements in crop often used to identify farmer management should be feasible for farmer constraints and to set priorities implementation. An additional advantage of among them. such change at the detailed planning level will be to tap indigenous sources of * The preparation of long-term knowledge and innovation, which by them- plans (five to seven years) for selves may guide the research metho- each of the programs, including dologies. In the context of the FFA, two the allocation of resources actions will be pursued by the NARSs: (i) to according to their availability formally include farmers in the decision- and the identified priorities; making processes that set the research agenda, and (ii) to train scientists and These first two steps may in certain cases farmers in constraints assessments and parti- be included in the strategic plan, depending cipatory research methodologies. on its level of detail. However, each insti- tution of a national agricultural research Research Programming, Monitoring and system should go through these steps for Evaluation their mandated area of research. Also, at this stage of the programming cycle, joint To ensure adherence to national agri- programns among national institutions and cultural research objectives as set forth in regional collaborative arrangements are the strategic plan, and to ensure that identified. research remains relevant and accountable 53 The next steps in the cycle are typically * The next step consists of the intra-institutional and the process should be consolidation of the research "bottom-up," i.e. originate through a close proposals, experimental work interaction between scientists, farmers/ plans and budgets, together with herders and the extension services. the ongoing experiments into the annual institutional budget The preparation of research and thus the allocation of proposals, experimental work resources for all research acti- plans and budgets. These are vities. Because of the nature of arguably the most important the research effort, whereby the documents in the management activity is not confined to one of the research process. They year, or where the growing should be of such detail to faci- season straddles two fiscal litate monitoring of progress, years, many institutions are and to ensure their relevance, moving towards three-year roll- the research proposal should be ing budgets to ensure funding prepared in close consultation for the research activity through with the users of the research completion. results and the extension services. * Once funding has been secured, only then should scientists While the main themes for research can proceed with the preparation of be determined centrally, it is not possible to research protocols and field prescribe from the central level, details of books, whereby their super- the experiments that will finally constitute visors, and ultimately the the national research program - these must scientific director, are respon- be closely related to local agro-ecological sible for maintaining scientific and socio-economic conditions, research quality, i.e. assuring that the facilities and current staff. Many NARSs protocols are adapted to the are opting for a decentralized system of research proposals and that the program formulation, involving scientists, proposed statistical analyses are farmers and extension staff. At the level of adapted to the selected research the experiment stations, it is important to methodology. again set priorities among experiments and themes of research. * The last step is the actual implementation of the expe- * To ensure that the research riments and studies, both on- proposals 19 are of a sufficient station and on farmers fields. quality, i.e. that the proposed Here again, the users of the research methodology is well research results should be adapted to the identified cons- involved in evaluating both raints, they should go through a ongoing research and the final rigorous process of reviews, product. For on-farn research, including peer reviews, program farmers should actually partici- committee reviews and ulti- pate in the implementation of mately a review by the scientific the experiments. Continuous director and concerned staff. feedback from farmers is 54 important to ensure the rele- (ii) Ex post evaluation, the expected vance of the end-result. impact of new technology upon its release for dissemination, All agricultural research institutions have often based on the actual perfor- a process for developing a program of mance of the technology in on- experiments and studies. However, there is farm testing. usually room for improvement in program- ming procedures to ensure that the resultant (iii)Impact evaluation, the impact national program is more closely in line on production as measured by with the strategic plan, is highly relevant to the fanner adoption rate of new the user-client, of good quality, and technology and productivity efficient design. The training of research increase. scientists and team leaders in constraints assessments and research proposal prepa- The ex ante evaluation is prepared by ration is often very desirable. scientists with inputs from the future users of research results and is required for The monitoring function at the level of decisions on whether research proposals are research institutions concerns both the acceptable. The ex post evaluation should process (adherence to the programming be a joint activity by scientists, farmers and cycle) and progress of implementation. The extension staff, required before the decision process is monitored by program leaders is taken to release the technology. Ex post and the research director and staff to ensure evaluations are often recorded in annual that appropriate procedures are followed. reports. Impact evaluations are generally Typically, key indicators are established in done by objective outsiders, five to ten the research proposals and work plans. years after the release of the technology. Annual progress in most institutions is Their purpose is mainly to assure continued monitored through the publication of the support for agricultural research by annual report, intermediate reports and governments and donors, and to provide the publications for ongoing research, and the necessary feedback for research program publication of the results of completed orientation. Although essential for decision research. The publication and dissemination -making, the evaluation function in most of intermediate and final research results is NARSs is weakly developed and will need a weak point in many NARSs. To over- to be strengthened substantially. come this will require training scientists, setting up a (peer) review system within the Governance and Institutional Development research institutions and often the esta- blishment or reinforcement of a publication There are two clearly distinct functions unit. which should not be mixed: (i) governments are responsible for defining policies and Agricultural research is generally strategies for publicly-funded agricultural evaluated at three stages: research; and (ii) research institutions are responsible for implementing the strategies. (i) Ex ante evaluation, the eco- Governments, together with donors and nomic and social justification stakeholders, are responsible for overseeing accompanying new research the implementation. That is why several proposals, based on expected governments have decided to create results. National Agricultural Research Councils (NARCs) whose functions are: 55 * To define the national agri- Many countries have realized that cultural research strategy (the governments have no business in imple- strategic plan), subject to formal menting research - they set the policy and government approval. are concerned with the results. These governments have transformed their national * To oversee the implementation institutions into autonomous private or para of research through periodic -public organizations or even foundations external and independent evalu- that are not burdened by bureaucratic public ations (scientific audits). sector procedures and can develop their own management and accounting systems. * To decide on new research However, in a number of cases, the para- proposals.20 public institutions do not have a free hand in personnel management, nor can they sell * To coordinate (consolidate) or acquire fixed assets, or even retain their research funding and in certain own-generated income. As a result, para- cases 21 provide for external and public institutions often have excess staff on independent financial audits 22. the pay-roll and excess research facilities to be maintained, which has lead to under- NARCs should be semi-autonomous and funding of operating expen(ditures and main- provide a forum for governments, donors tenance because of government budget and stakeholders in fulfilling these constraints. In these cases, to attain opera- functions. Including farmers in NARCs tional autonomy, a further restructuring of decision-making body will provide them national institutions is an essential condition with a voice in the setting of the research to improve the quality and efficiency of agenda. Including donors should lead to a research and to assure their sustainability. consolidation of efforts through joint oversight (joint scientific and financial Agricultural research based on a multi- audits). This in turn should help in the disciplinary team approach to the solution better coordination of funding arrange- of properly identified priority constraints is ments. Also, this should alleviate the ideally suited for "management-by- burden on institutions of multiple financial objectives." Typically, under such a style audits and scientific reviews organized by of management, ad hoc multi-disciplinary each donor separately. Essential to achie- teams of scientists are formed to find a ving joint audits and reviews is the inde- solution to a constraint; once the solution is pendence of the arrangements, so as to found, the team is disbanded. Present ensure donor (and government) confidence bureaucratic organizational structures in in the system. many of the agricultural research insti- Broadening the institutional base of tutions in the ECA countries do not allow NARSs to include universities, private insti- for such flexibility, nor do their accounting tutions, foundations and NGOs should systems. This has been one of the main become an important objective of national reasons that the multi-disciplinary team agricultural research strategies, to: (i) tap approach to research has often floundered. under-utilized research capacity; (ii) avoid The same rigid organizational structures duplication of effort; and (iii) create compe- often prevent collaboration among insti- tition for scarce research funds which tutions belonging to the same NARS, e.g. should improve the quality of results and between a national institute and a university. efficiency and accountability. For successful regional collaboration among NARSs, it is essential that institutions adapt 56 their internal organization and procedures to that will ascertain that the funds of each make them conducive to multi-disciplinary donor (including government) separately team work and inter-institutional colla- have been used for their intended purpose. boration. Moreover, if regional collaborative programs are to be managed by national Autonomous institutions should have institutions, a transparent and efficient personnel management procedures accept- accounting system is a prerequisite. able to their board of directors (not neces- sarily subject to government approval). Several institutions in the ECA region are Such procedures should include arrange- introducing management information ments for staff evaluation and promotion, systems, such as the INFORM system deve- and rules for staff recruitment and for loped by ISNAR. Such systems are doomed dealing with redundancies and grievances. to fail without timely, accurate and pertinent Most important, truly autonomous insti- information. Most elements of such infor- tutions have their own policies (subject to mation need to be provided by the accoun- Board approval) with respect to staff moti- ting system. At present, most accounting vation, whereby salary scales and benefits systems are facing severe problems regar- are not necessarily similar to civil service ding both the timeliness and the pertinence pay scales. Some countries (e.g. Rwanda - of the information. before the civil war-and Uganda) are implementing structural changes that allow Human Capacity Building for autonomy in personnel management, which could become examples for other With approximately 2,500 postgraduate countries in the region. The NARS leaders scientists in the region, there is apparently in the region strongly support the no shortage of scientific capacity, except in operational autonomy of research insti- the case of a few countries such as tutions, which should be extended to the Madagascar and Eritrea. The issue there- management of staff and fixed assets. fore is not the numbers but rather the skills- mix (mix of disciplines) which often does Institutions that are funded by multiple not correspond to the priorities identified in donors and government need transparent the national strategies. To a certain extent and efficient accounting systems that can this can be overcome by retraining. keep track of expenditures by source of funds and at the same time provide In the absence of an adequate incentive managers and scientists with timely and system, one of the main problems of many pertinent information on budget expen- NARSs in the region is the rapid turn-over ditures. Few institutions have a fully satis- of scientists (often the best, most expe- factory system in place that has been rienced elements). This has left these accepted by all donors. Before the recent NARSs with relatively young inexperienced events, ISAR in Rwanda was perhaps an staff requiring in-service training in such exception and a number of institutions (e.g. areas as natural resource management, NARO in Uganda) are actively developing biometry, participatory research metho- their systems. In many cases, there is a dologies, scientific writing, and research need to further develop and strengthen the proposal preparation. In-service training accounting systems, in particular, to reach a may also be needed for non-scientific staff point where donors will accept that their such as technicians, farm managers, accoun- funds can be managed by the beneficiary ting staff, equipment operators and institutions, subject to joint financial audits laboratory technicians. There is also a need 57 in the region for up-grading, i.e. PhD. and staff deployment (a prerequisite for moving MSc. education for those scientists that have towards a "management- by- objectives" the capability. mode) and are less burdened by excessively high fixed staff costs. The Eastern Africa Region is endowed with a number of well-known universities Scientific Information and Communication with faculties in agriculture and veterinary sciences. Many NARSs in the region have Up-to-date scientific information is an ample funds from bilateral and multilateral essential ingredient for quality research. sources for the training of scientists and Scicntists need to stay informed about other staff. The challenge is to bring the developments in their disciplines and new two together. Regional collaboration among research proposals should contain a 'state- universities to cater to the training needs of of-the-art' analysis based on a review of NARSs, both at the national and regional (recent) literature (national, regional and levels, is high on the agenda of the NARS international). Again, funding should, in leaders. To help universities to operate in a most cases, not be a problem and the demand-driven mode, the NARS leaders technology for rapid access and disse- intend to launch a survey of retraining, up- mination is available (CD ROM). How- grading and in-service training require- ever, the problem in manv NARSs. Thus ments. Participating universities will then the lack of capacity to design and operate an get together and agree on how to best efficient scientific information system respond to the demand through collabo- limiting access to information by scientists. rative training programs. This in turn will A regional scientific information system, help in making agricultural and veterinary based on the exchange of and easy access to science faculties an integral part of national information across borders depends entirely agricultural research systems. on the strength of the national information systems of participating countries. As to the incentive system, the only Therefore, reinforcement of the national solution for research institutions may well information systems through building be to become autonomous in personnel man- capacity to operate them has one of the agement, allowing for the introduction of a highest priorities among NARS leaders in scheme of service geared towards staff the region. This should be achieved retention and including incentives for through the careful planning of information accomplishments. The reward system components as an integral part of agri- should be clear in that the accomplishments cultural research investment programs. should relate closely to what the user of the research results may expect from the Inadequate in-country communication research system. These values and the links with often remote research stations expected performance should be made clear also limits scientist access to information. to research staff. The corollary of this is Therefore, more use should be made of the introduction of a performance-based available modern technology, such as elec- staff evaluation system. One route being tronic mail, to improve access at the explored by several NARSs is the national, regional and international levels. recruitment of scientists under contract, Communication links between these levels linked to accountability for results, and the understandably have the highest priority for introduction of a tenuring system. This the NARS leaders in the region. However, generally allows for higher salaries, while improving regional links will gain consi- the institutions have greater flexibility in 58 derably in value if national communication separate review of each source of funds, as networks are established at the same time. to whether expenditures have been used for their intended purpose. Sustainable, Stable and Consolidated Funding The system described so far does not require the commingling of funds. It Much has been said and written in recent accommodates both "joint" and "parallel" years about the so-called Consolidated financing. The only difference between the Funding Mechanisms (CFMs). The follow- two is that in the case of "joint" financing, ing paragraphs are an attempt to clarify the each co-donor pays a percentage of the total concept and to reach agreement amongst expenditure, whereas with "parallel" NARSs on such a concept. First, a CFM is financing, each co-donor takes on a separate a mechanism to consolidate research efforts total expenditure. In both cases, govern- at the national level. Consolidation of agri- ments, bilateral and multilateral donors will cultural research efforts is the responsibility continue to insist on having their funds of National Agricultural Research Councils accounted for separately. (NARCs) or similar national apex insti- tutions. The tool being used by a NARC to Fourth, the system can only work when: reach consensus among donors (including (i) it is lead by a NARC or similar government) to consolidate research efforts, institution, acting on behalf of government; is the national agricultural research strategy, and (ii) governments and donors have including realistic estimates of likely avail- agreed to joint and independent scientific able human and financial resources needed and financial audits under the auspices of for its implementation. NARC. Second, once agreement is reached on the Figure 5.1 offers a graphical repre- national strategy, donors should indicate sentation of a Consolidated Funding Mecha- which research activities they intend to nism. All research activities (programs, sub- support financially. At this point, one of programs, experiments and studies) of a the problems becomes apparent, i.e. the national agricultural research system are funding of recurrent indirect research costed separately. Each budget contains all operating expenditures, staff costs and over- costs related to the activity, including direct heads. NARC's role is to make sure that no and indirect expenditures, staff costs, research is undertaken without adequate general overheads and maintenance. The funding (by government, the donor suppor- key for the mechanism to work is that an ting the activity, or otherwise) of a reason- activity is only taken on once funding has able share of indirect operating expenditures been assured till completion. Such funding and general overheads, including "direct" can be obtained from government or one and "indirect" staff costs (which are in donor for the entire activity and all its accounting terms also operating expen- costs. Several donors (including govern- ditures). ment) can also jointly finance the activity, as long as all costs are covered. Third, beneficiary institutions should have transparent accounting systems that can In summary, this system is in its entirety keep track of expenditures by source of called a Consolidated Funding Mechanism. funds (i.e. separate accounts for each source It requires national research institutions to of funds) and are subject to independent have: (i) an adequate research programming financial audits. Auditors should present system; and (ii) a transparent budgeting and 59 accounting system. Donors and govern- should be mandated to review all new ments, in turn, will have to agree to joint research proposals for quality and rele- responsibility through NARC, for scientific vance, and to ensure that the proposed and financial oversight. For this, NARC activity is Sully funded till completion. Figure 5.1: A Consolidated Program Budgetting & Funding Mechanism Research Research Program Researcharc Program "Pr <~~~~~ 0 e Q Research / x\On & iDf\YoRea Program P "B" Research ~ ~ ~ ~ a oss eeac Prog Cmm °XStaff _osts\(5 Program "B" T t l 1 \ / 4 I A~~~~~~~~ctivityizl" Research Research Prog ra m < ] 1 ~\1V9 2" \,v tyResearch Program IC" National Agricultural Research Funds (NARFs) and Alternative Modes of down from the funds is often slower than Funding expected. This is mainly due to inade- quacies in the proposals being presented for To guarantee adequate funding for funding, which will require clear guidelines individual research proposals and to for research proposal presentation and promote the involvement of all the elements training scientists in proposal-preparation. of national agricultural research systemi (i.e. The advantages of the system largely out- universities, NGOs, the private sector, weigh the unforeseen stumbling blocks at etc.), several countries (Kenya, Tanzania, start-up, in that: (i) scientists are account- Zimbabwe) have established National Agri- able for results once they receive a research cultural Research Funds (NARFs) as a grant (or contract) through NARF; (ii) precursor to a nationally Consolidated funding is guaranteed through the com- Funding Mechanism. The experience so far pletion of the research activity and cannot is generally positive, even though the draw- be siphoned off for other purposes; and 60 (iii) the system facilitates collaboration NEW MODES OF REGIONAL COLLABO- among research institutions through the RATION (GOVERNANCE IN A REGIONAL funding of joint research proposals. The CONTEXT) biggest shortcoming of NARFs presently in operation is that they do not yet fund a Operational Arrangements for Regional reasonable share of "indirect' research ope- Collaboration rating expenditures, institutional over-heads and staff costs. At their meeting at Egerton University, Nairobi, the Directors of the national One of the greatest advantages of a NARF agricultural research institutions of the ECA is that it promotes research contracting, countries decided to create the Association which is for beneficiary institutions much to Strengthen Agricultural Research in easier to administer and account for; it Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA). makes scientists accountable for results; it The Association will be governed by a introduces competition for scarce resources; Memorandum of Agreement (MoA), signed the quality of research proposals improves; by the Directors of the national institutions. linkages among the various elements of a Once the constitution of the Association has NARS are strengthened; and it guarantees been formalized, and to ensure that the funding through completion of the research Directors can act on behalf of the entire activity. Research contracting is not national agricultural research system of their necessarily limited to NARFs. In certain respective countries, i.e. all publicly funded countries, National Agricultural Research institutions, signature to the MoA will also Councils let contracts. Direct contracting be sought from the Ministers of the partici- between research institutions and the private pating ECA countries that have agricultural sector will continue and hopefully expand. research in their portfolio. For this, Research contracting should perhaps be ASARECA will organize a Conference of gradually expanded to cover the entire Ministers by late 1995 or early 1996. This national agricultural research system. This Conference will provide overall guidance, will certainly help research institutions to legal authority and a political umbrella for move towards a "management-by- the Committee of Directors. objectives" mode of operations. The MoA includes a summary description NARFs could also be a precursor to of the "blue-print" for the strengthening of alternative modes of funding (Blase 1993) the national agricultural research systems, agricultural research. However, apart from presented in the preceding paragraphs. 'debt for research swaps', 24most other Signing the Agreement thus signifies the alternative modes seem to be operated. comnmitment of the Directors to the reforms There is an array of possibilities, ranging of the national systems according to the from private foundations and endowments to principles outlined in the preceding sections self-imposed (i.e. not governrnent-imposed) and chapters. cesses on cash or export crops (e.g. coffee and tea in Kenya). Such alternatives will need to be actively pursued by the NARSs in their quest to make funding for agricul- tural research more sustainable. 61 The prime objective of regional (ii) Ensuring that new programs collaboration among the NARSs is to will complement existing improve the quality, relevance and cost- ones and that new and effectiveness of agricultural research current programs will focus through their being strengthened, through on the resolution of collaboration between their research common priority con- programs, and through collaboration with straints, as identified in the the IARCs and with other relevant national strategic plans. institutions. On regional collaboration, ASARECA proposes a clear departure from (iii) Contributing human re- past practices in that such collaboration will sources, facilities and be based on the identification of constraints finance to collaborative to agricultural productivity that are common programs mutually agreed to most of the agricultural production upon. systems in the region, rather than on identifying research sectors (commodities) * Defining operational arrange- for collaboration. With this in mind, the ments and scientific collabo- NARS leaders agreed that the areas of ration with international collaboration among them will include research institutions, including research, training, information exchange joint collaborative agreements and documentation, and encompass the with the IARCs. following: Promoting regional collabora- I Identifying common regional tion in human capacity-building constraints to agricultural pro- and training, including partici- ductivity, developing a regional pation in graduate degree and agricultural and natural re- short-term training programs. sources management research strategy, and the setting of prio- * Formulating a regional agri- rities for its implementation. cultural research information policy and establishing scientific * Implementing joint regional information,documentation,pub- agricultural research and natural lication, translation and distri- resources management research bution systems, including the programs and activities through: exchange of scientists and sharing of information through (i) Strengthening ongoing and conferences, workshops and new collaborative agricul- other means. tural research programs and establishing new ones that * Promoting through collaboration are regionally coordinated the efficiency and cost-effective- and multidisciplinary in ness of technology dissemi- nature; harmonizing and nation mechanisms, essential to rationalizing (minimizing the long-term impact and duplication) current net- sustainability of the NARSs in works; the region, including dissemi- nating new knowledge to farmers through improved 62 research-extension, farmer- governed by a Committee of Directors, market linkages. consisting of the Directors of national agricultural research institutes, who should Promoting the free exchange of represent the entire national agricultural germ plasm among the NARSs research system of their respective of the Region, with due recog- countries. Task Forces 25 of national nition of the sources of the scientists, where necessary complemented material, in line with each by scientists from collaborating institutions country's policies; pursuing the and IARCs, would be responsible for revision of current regulations planning and conducting collaborative that constrain such exchanges. research. During the follow-up meetings in Nairobi and at Egerton University, the At the level of participating NARSs, Committee of Directors reached a consensus national and regional program activities on how the future regional research system will be merged. This should help in should be governed. To assist the avoiding duplication and in making maxi- Committee in the execution of its mandate, mum use of the comparative advantage of a small permanent Executive Secretariat will individual NARSs. In certain cases, this be established in Kampala and ad hoc may include the temporary out-posting of Technical Committees and Working Groups national scientists to neighboring countries will be created as the need arises, to advise to create a critical mass; in particular in on the planning and implementation of cases where the CD - for reasons of effi- research programs and studies. The follow- ciency - designates a Lead Center or Lead ing paragraphs provide details on the Institution. Implementation of regional mandates and functions of the elements that programs will be managed in each will govern the regional system, as they participating NARS by national program appear in the MoA. Figure 5.2 presents the leaders. functional relationships between the different elements of the new system. The Kampala Workshop recommended a regional governance structure that would be 63 Figure 5-2. The Governance Structure of ASARECA Conference of Ministers Commitee of function aanpltlcoEgial body of executve s acDirecos Ad Hoc Technical peers, whEr almo CommitaeesNborkifbg Secretariand Groups mended that donor and ARC epreen- overallobjectivesforregionalcollaborationExecutive Secretary Task Force Ta he Coumittee of Directors aCD) will coopted by the CD, and to plan and function as an apolincal collegial boCd of execute its activities through its peers, where almost all decisions will be executive bodies. made by consensus and each voice has equal weight. The Kampala Workshop recom- (ii) To regularly review and define the mended that donor and IARC represen- overall objectives for regional collaboration tatives should be invited to attend its and to decide on strategies, regional meetings. The functions of the CD will program priorities, and corresponding include the following: resource alIocations. (i) To constitute an autonomous (iii) To rationalize current regional net- coalition of National Agricultural works, and initiate and authorize Research Institutes (NARls) - future regional programs. ultimately forming a coalition of National Agricultural Research (iv) To adopt terms of reference and the Systems (NARSs) under the reporting requirements for its body auspices of a Conference of of officers and its various executive Ministers - which will provide bodies, and decide on their guidance for the implementation of composition. regional collaborative programs in consultation with the donors, IARCs, and other institutions 64 (v) To nominate Task Force Leaders for donor coordination and the search for and their Delegates (see below), and non-traditional modes of financing. to adopt their specific mandates. (xiii) To act as a steering mechanism for (vi) To enter into agreements for all regional activities agreed upon, support to the planning and imple- including collaboration in human mentation of regional programs with capacity-building and training, dis- the relevant IARCs and other semination of research results, a concerned institutions. compatible management information system, and a regional scientific (vii) To provide its executive organs with documentation and infornmation guidelines/formats for the prepa- system. ration and presentation of plans for regional collaborative research The Committee of Directors will meet at programs, research proposals, work least once a year. plans and budgets. The Chairperson of the Committee of (viii) To deliberate and approve work Directors will be nominated for a period of plans, budgets and their financing two years from among the CD members on arrangements. a rotating basis. The responsibilities include the following. (ix) To allocate resources to regional programs and NARIs involved, (i) To chair the meetings of the CD. approve arrangements for the dis- bursement of funds. (ii) To ensure that all functions of the CD, specified under its mandate (x) To formulate mechanisms and stated above, are carried out. procedures to monitor and evaluate implementation, progress and (iii) To act as the principal spokesperson impact; and to mandate independent for the Association in external scientific and technical audits of relations, notably with governments, regional activities. funding agencies, and partner insti- tutions, including the IARCs. (xi) To mandate independent external financial audits of regional activities (iv) To represent the Association in for all sources of funds that need to laws. be accounted for, whenever the recipient NARI is not already (v) To supervise the work of the subject to independent external Executive Secretariat, and to keep audits; and to request an opinion written records of all commu- regarding the appropriate use of all nications with the Executive funds for regional activities for Secretary. those NARIs having independent external audits. (vi) To ensure that all decisions of the CD are recorded in the minutes, that (xii) To initiate funding requests for those requiring action are imple- regional activities and programs, striving mented within the allotted time frame, and that the CD members 65 and all others concerned are kept recommendations to the CD; and to informed. liaise closely with the Task Forces and ad hoc Technical Committees. (vii) To delegate responsibilities and corresponding authority to the (ii) To monitor the implementation of Executive Secretary or members of ongoing regional activities and the CD, as appropriate for the programs, including their internal optimal functioning of the Asso- coordination and management. ciation, ensuring that all such delegation is substantiated, recorded (iii) To ensure the overall administrative in writing and acknowledged by the coordination and financial manage- officers concerned, and copied to all ment of the regional activities and members of the CD. programs that are under CD governance. The Chairperson will represent the NARSs of the ECA region at the Plenary (iv) To ensure the channeling of funds to Meetings of SPAAR. the regional activities and programs. The Vice-Chairperson of the Committee (v) To ensure that work plans and assumes all responsibilities of the CD budgets are prepared in line with the Chairperson and carries out the duties, guidelines and formats approved by stated here, when the latter is not in a the CD, and prepare consolidated position to exercise his/her function. To administrative reports and financial provide the necessary continuity, the Vice- statements. Chairperson will succeed the Chairperson in these functions (vi) To organize regular scientific and annual financial audits of regional A small Executive Secretariat will be part research programs according to the of the CD, responsible for daily operations terms of reference accepted by the under the responsibility of the Chairperson CD. when the CD is not in session. The Secretariat will consist of an Executive (vii) To prepare the CD meetings and Secretary, a Finance Officer and support assure their secretariat, and to make staff as required and determined by the CD. practical arrangements for regional Its administrative and accounting functions workshops and other regional should be kept at a minimum and only be program activities. used for the channeling of funds to colla- borating institutions responsible for the (viii) To act as a secretariat to the CD implementation of components of a regional Chairperson. program, and only when direct disbur- sements from a funding agency to the (ix) To arrange for annual meetings of collaborating institution is impractical. The all Task Force Leaders to review Secretariat will have among its tasks the activities and progress; and on this following. basis to compile and summarize, annually, their research progress (i) To examine proposed collaborative reports for presentation to the CD. regional research and training programs and to submit these with 66 (x) To oversee the publication in suit- collaborative research and other activities able form of all completed research approved by the CD - these may be activities, studies and workshop considered "mini-networks." Task Force proceedings. members are generally national scientists complemented by international scientists (xi) To propose to the Chairperson, as working in the region on similar research the need arises, the formation of ad hoc problems. As national scientists, Task Force Technical Committees and Working members will also have a major role to play Groups. in the dissemination of technology in their respective countries. The functions of the (xii) To ensure that all CD decisions are Task Forces will include the following: communicated to the associate and co-opted members of the CD, the (i) To identify priority constraints Task Force Leaders, the ad hoc within their respective thematic Technical Committees and Working areas. Groups, and other as indicated by thie CD. (ii) To define regional thematic research objectives and strategies, and to The Executive Secretary will be an prepare research proposals accord- experienced research manager at a level of ing to guidelines, and within the seniority at par with the NARS directors. overall strategies and objectives His/her mandate will be defined by the CD. provided by the CD, for its The responsibilities of the Executive approval. Secretary will include the following: (iii) To prepare and propose pluri-annual (i) To assure the efficient functioning and annual work plans and budgets, of the Executive Secretariat, and to decide on task distributions, and notably the accomplishments of all to implement the work plans. its tasks as specified previously. (iv) To identify, set standards, and (ii) To liaise closely with the develop formats for the scientific Chairperson on all matters and technical data to be collected as important to the effectiveness and part of the research and which are reputation of the Association, the essential for the analysis and operations of the Task Forces, the reporting of the activities, and to ad hoc Technical Committees and ensure through peer reviews that Working Groups, the Executive these are adhered to by all Task Secretariat, and particularly on new Force members. initiatives. (v) To organize the collection of data (iii) To act as secretary of all CD and information relevant to the meetings and to represent its program's objectives, and to Chairperson in contacts with assemble, maintain, exchange and donors, IARCs and other co-opted update data bases of program institutions. activities; Thematic Task Forces will be the basic units for planning and conducting 67 (vi) To ensure that the work of the Task farmers will be involved in the imple- Force is fully integrated in the mentation and evaluation of the proposed national programs. experiments. (vii) To review progress in program Each Thematic Task Force will have a implementation against the agreed Task Force Leader nominated by the CD objectives, and to exchange and according to procedures laid down in the disseminate information on research bylaws of the Association. They will be the results. "spokespersons" but not the managers. Task Force Leaders will generally be (viii) To produce regular progress reports proposed by the Task Force membership on and publish, in suitable form, all the basis of collegial consensus agreement. completed research as well as In comparison with the current "Network workshop proceedings. Cuordinators," the person will have much less of an administrative task. In particular, (ix) To identify human resources the management of funds and the requirements and training needs for procurement of goods and services would, their program and to make corres- in future be, handled by the national ponding action plans and budget institutions involved, provided they have proposals. reliable and transparent accounting and procurement systems. Insofar as such (x) to present/report all the above to the systems do not exist, the Executive CD through the Executive Secretariat will handle the management of Secretary; and funds and procurement. This will make the Task Force Leader much less a manager and (xi) To ensure that all relevant records, far more a research leader ("facilitator"), at data bases, reports and commu- par with national program leaders. The CD nications are, for safety reasons, will issue specific terms of reference for maintained in duplicate with the each Task Force Leader upon his or her Task Force Leader and his/her nomination. A Task Force Leader will have Delegate. among his/her responsibilities the following. In defining their research objectives, (i) To chair all meetings of the Task including the details of experiments to be Force and, if required, to assign conducted, Task Forces will have to ensure Secretariat responsibilities. the full participation of the users of research results so as to make the research (ii) To ensure that all guidelines issued agenda 'demand-driven.' This will include by the CD with regard to the farmer participation in the constraints planning, execution and reporting of analyses through rapid rural appraisals or Task Force activities are adhered to. by other means, and their participation in the implementation and evaluation of (iii) To ensure that all the activities individual experiments. From this pers- specified for the Task Force under pective, regional programs should follow its mandate, as stated previously are the same processes as proposed for national carried out. research programs. Research proposals should therefore include details of how the (iv) To coordinate the research activities constraints analysis was conducted, and how and the scientific information-gathe- 68 ring carried out under the programn, keeping the Executive Secretary with particular emphasis on the fully informed. maintenance of high standards of quality. Delegate Task Force Leaders are appointed by the CD for safety reasons and (v) To assist participating scientists in will have the following responsibilities: the access to, and in the exchange and dissemination of information, as (i) To carry out all duties of the Task well as in the transfer of techno- Force Leader as stated previously logy. when the latter is not in a position to exercise his/her functions. (vi) To assist participating scientists in the preparation of progress reports (ii) To maintain copies of all Task and in the publication of their Force research records, data bases, results. reports and communications as specified by the Task Force. (vii) To organize the internal monitoring and evaluation of the program's Ad Hoc Technical Committees (TCs) are activities. specialist committees set up by the CD to study specific regional issues, questions or (viii) To monitor program implementation constraints derived as priorities from the and to compile for the Executive national strategic plans of the countries of Secretary and the CD periodic tech- the region, with a view to developing nical progress reports, including an appropriate approaches towards answering annual report. or solving them. Similarly, Ad Hoc Work- ing Groups (WGs) are assigned by the CD (ix) To facilitate external reviews (scien- to monitor, evaluate and advise on the tific audits) of the program's activi- implementation of special studies or ties mandated by the CD. initiatives. The chairpersons will report TC/WG findings to the CD. On occasion, (x) To prepare and organize the Task they will invite resource persons with Force meetings, field visits, work- specialized knowledge in specific fields. hops and seminars, and training The TCs/WGs are the "think tanks" of the courses, as well as peer reviews of regional system. They are important new research proposals, in accor- vehicles through which the CD can imple- dance with work programs and ment its responsibility to act as the "clearing budgets approved by the CD. house" and "convener" for collaborative regional program activities. The main (xi) To maintain contact with relevant function of the TCs/WGs will be to provide national institutions, IARCs and scientific leadership to assure technical other regional or international quality. Their membership will be deter- research institutions, to seek new mined by the CD on the basis of opportunities for scientific/technical professional competence; their composition partnerships, and to maintain will ensure that concerns of the users of contact with other regional research results are adequately represented. programs whose activities impinge The TCs/WGs carry out the following upon his/her own program, while functions: 69 (i) To provide the CD, as per the terms all IARCs will be represented on the CD. of reference of each TC/WG, with The CD will invite only those that have a proposals for regional strategies, stake in the region on the basis of their eco- priorities, research programs and regional mandate. This does not exclude, activities, corresponding human however, other IARCs who do not have resource development and training such a clear mandate, to be involved in plans, as well as budgets, and the regional programs and thus be full members setting up of appropriate Task of the relevant Technical Committees and Forces, including their composition. Task Forces. The details of the partnership arrangements between the IARCs and the (ii) To report on progress and to submit CD will the subject of a formal Memo- final study reports to the CD as randum of Understanding (MoU). The specified in each TC/WG's terms of relationship with the IARCs will not be reference. exclusive in that the CD may decide to co- opt other scientific institutions and univer- (iii) To carry out any follow-up actions sities in collaborative arrangements. towards the implementation of the proposed activities as the CD may Funding and Donor Coordination request. In the same vein as for the IARCs, donors (iv) To conduct evaluations of specified and other co-opted scientific institutions ongoing or completed activities up- supporting collaborative programs in the on the request of the CD. region will be invited to participate as "partners-in-debate" to attend CD meetings, Relationship with the IARCs rather than as decision-makers. To ensure openness and transparency, participating or The CD will provide a "steering mecha- "associated" donors, IARCs and other co- nism" for all eco-regional activities. It is opted institutions will receive full docu- essential in this context to establish an mentation on the deliberations of the CD inclusive partnership relation with the (minutes of meetings, technical reports, IARCs that are active in the region, in work plans and budgets, etc.). particular those that have a clearly profiled eco-regional mandate. To achieve this, To ensure full independence of the CD, IARC scientists based in the region who are NARS Directors and 'associated members" actively involved in research alongside will pay for their participation in CD colleagues in the national systems, will be meetings from national resources. This full partners in relevant Task Forces. principle is also reflected in the draft Senior IARC scientists and NARS program Memorandum of Agreement among the leaders, selected on the basis of their NARSs. competence in relevant specialized fields, will be full members of the Technical Ideally, the costs associated with the Committees. To underscore the inclusive Executive Secretariat should also be borne partnership relation, IARC representatives by the NARSs. However, the experience at the level of Director General (or at least with operating a regional organization based Deputy Director General), will also be on annual contributions from national invited to participate in the CD meetings as governments has not been very good. resource persons, "partners-in-debate" and Therefore, to make the operation of the colleagues. It is impractical to expect that Secretariat sustainable in the long run, the 70 CD will explore alternative funding arrange- forestry, bananas, and livestock. These ments, possibly based on a one-time contri- networks will be gradually brought under bution from national governments (or other the auspices of the CD. The four colla- sources) that would be capitalized in the borative networks with the IARCs on beans form of an endowment. The Executive (CIAT), agroforestry (ICRAF), potatoes Secretariat could then be created as an (CIP) and cassava (IITA) are being independent non-profit organization under transformed into "regional collaborative the auspices of the CD. In the meantime, programs" under the leadership of the CD. the costs of the Executive Secretariat will be CIP's Regional Office in Nairobi is charged to the regional programs as an temporarily providing coordinating services overhead. These costs are thus an integral until the Executive Secretariat becomes part of a regional program's budget. operational and the Executive Secretary has been nominated. In consultation with Apart from the direct costs associated sponsoring donors, the other networks will with the program, the budgets for regional follow over the next few years, once these programs will also include the costs of the four programs have harmonized their program to the participating NARSs, i.e. activities along the lines described in this indirect research operating expenditures, chapter. maintenance, institutional overheads and staff costs. This will demonstrate that a A Regional Scientific Documentation and considerable portion of the total costs of a Information System regional program is borne by the participating NARSs, who will thus in While a large body of useful agricultural practice be co-financing the program with data and knowledge already exists (mainly the external donor(s). This also illustrates in the form of grey literature) within the the important role that participating NARSs East and Central African NARSs, there is will continue to play together with the CD need for reliable access to and transfer of and the Technical Secretariat in coordi- this knowledge to all those who may need it nating donor funding. for decision-making at different levels. There is also need for more data to be Additional external funds for regional collected at the local, national and regional programs, presently disbursed through the levels indicating the current status and trend IARCs, will in the future be allocated of agricultural research in relation to through the CD to the NARSs, and will be national economic development. This calls disbursed through participating institutions for a critical mass of skilled information that have transparent accounting systems specialists and committed organizational (i.e. allowing for the tracing of funds by core funds to support the scientific docu- source), subject to independent audits. mentation and information systems. Cooperation in operating scientific inform- Rationalizing Existing Regional Networks ation and documentation systems will very much rely on well-developed national Of the sixty-six networks that presently systems. In addition, each country should exist or have existed in the region in the have a National Agricultural Information past decade (Martella 1993), thirty-seven Policy to determine system compatibility are classified as "collaborative research and ensure the smooth exchange of networks" 26 on six primary areas, cereals agricultural information in regional commu- (maize, sorghum), root crops (potatoes, nication networks. Existing national and cassava, sweet potatoes), beans, agro- international mechanisms of information 71 processing and exchange must be streng- respond to national program thened to ensure the effective and equitable needs, rather than simply being availability of information generated within "add -ons." This means that they the national agricultural research systems. will have to pass the same plan- Special emphasis should be placed on ning and review procedures that packaging existing data and information into are in place for the national more useful packages for decision-making programs. by different target groups. However, there is a need to develop a During the Kampala Workshop, it was pragmatic Regional Strategic Action Plan recommended that the value of electronic covering both ongoing activities and future mail to scientists and research managers be ones. The Regional Action Plan should recognized and that its use be encouraged clearly spell out priorities for regional wherever feasible. It was further recom- research and the modalities for their mended that a computerized management implementation. The Plan should be information system (MIS) such as INFORM prepared by the Task Forces and Technical (Nestel 1991) be established in each NARS Committees, coordinated by the Executive and that the CD decides on what country Secretariat. It should be based on the expe- should take the responsibility for rience gained with ongoing regional net- coordination of information flows between works and on the guidelines contained in these systems. this document, once accepted by the CD. The Regional Strategic Action Plan would CRITERIA FOR PRIORITY SETTING IN A thus evolve overtime into a truly Regional REGIONAL CONTEXT Strategy. The end-product should provide planning guidance to the CD for their A Regional Strategic Action Plan decisions on the future orientation and implementation of regional collaborative The present Regional Strategy consists de programs, and to the NARSs for the facto of rationalizing the existing regional integration of regional programs with networks. Once the Technical Committees national programs in their strategic plans. have been established for these networks, However, before the work on the Strategy their first order of business will be to can start, the CD will have to agree on review the impact of past network activities objectives and clear guidelines/criteria for 27 ,as a basis for proposing research priority-setting in a regional context. priorities within these programs. There are two important points to be taken into Objectives and Criteria for Regional consideration in this context: Priorities (i) The necessary dovetailing with When there are many proposals for ongoing regional research net- collaborative regional research competing works and integrating these into a for limited resources, it will be essential to Regional Strategic Action Plan apply a method for priority-setting to (recognizing that the region does choose the most important. All priority- not start from a zero base). setting for choices depends on the weighted balance of objectives to be served (Dagg (ii) The need to make sure that on- 1993). Appropriate weights have to be going networks and future colla- given to the more important objectives for borative regional programs regional research 28. A set of criteria can 72 then be selected to reflect each objective the users of research results. The Task (but the primary weighting goes to objec- Forces will subsequently prepare detailed tives). These should be based on the and costed research proposals for expe- congruence of national objectives as riments and studies for review by the presented in the national agricultural Technical Committees and for a decision to research strategies. be taken by the CD. The first two choices or steps should together constitute the In agricultural research, there are essen- Regional Strategy - the third step will define tially three choices to be made, for which the actual research program to be imple- priority setting is needed: mented. The important point here is to integrate this process with the process in the (i) Among commodities, factors of national system described earlier, so as to production, and systems (at the get to a full integration of the two with level of the region and congruent respect to resources. with national priorities). It is essential for consistency and (ii) Among constraints to the produc- coherence that the original regional tivity of a commodity, factor or objectives agreed to by the CD should system (at the level of the regional remain the same throughout the three stages programs, also based on the of choice. However, the weights assigned commonality of constraints across to each objective will change at each level, the region). and the criteria to assess each objective will also change at each level of choice. (iii) Among the many possible solu- Information must be gathered to assess each tions leading to a reduction of the criterion. In the case of regional objectives constraint (at the level of research and priorities, sufficient information should projects, experiments or studies). be available from the national strategies, and economic considerations should be the Decisions at each level by the appropriate main criteria for the selection of regional groups are needed before an actual research objectives. Information with respect to the program can be carried out. For regional constraints to productivity should be in the collaborative research programns, the first form of constraints analyses by the Task decision to be made by the CD will be Forces, including "state-of-the-art" analyses regarding the first priority commodities, of past and ongoing research. When it factors of production or systems that will comes to the selection of possible solutions become the subject of regional collaborative to the constraints selected for research, the programs, including a definition of the interplay between farmers and scientists general objectives of each program. The comes into focus, and farmers should Technical Committees for each program will provide the necessary information. then have to present the constraints that could be researched in each program At each step, decisions will need to be together with a proposal on priorities made on the criteria to be applied to each (ranking) in line with the original objectives objective and in particular to the weighting for review and decision by the CD. The of objectives (scoring method to be used). Task Forces will then prepare a listing of Apart from economic considerations, the possible solutions and a ranking of their overriding criteria should refer to objectives priorities based on the original objectives, that cannot readily be achieved on a national but this time with the criteria agreed with basis. This includes, amongst others: the 73 research effort being required is beyond the with respect to management and accounting, reach of any one country, the combined etc. It is important for the integrity of the strength of scientists on specific aspects, the process that consensus is reached amongst need for an ecoregional spread, availability the members of the CD on the objectives to of funds and willingness of donors to be used and their weighting, and on the contribute, etc. Other criteria to be included main criteria to be used to assess objectives, in a scoring system include: the comparative prior to their application for the scoring of advantage of research institutions in terms alternatives in the setting of regional of human resources and research facilities, priorities the relative strength of research institutions 74 ANNEX 6: COUNTR Y PROFILE: MADA GASCAR BACKGROUND The Democratic Republic of Madagascar is a capacity in terms of human resources engaged in large island with an area of 587,000 sq. km. The agricultural research. In addition, the Centre population in 1990 was estimated at 12 million Nationale de Recherche de Oceanographic with a growth rate of 3 percent per annum. The (CNRO) is responsible for marine resources, the GNP per capita is estimated to be about U.S.$ Centre Nationale de Recherches sur 210. I'Environnement has a mandate for soil, water, medicinal plants and mangroves research, the AGRICULTURE FIFAMANOR, under the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for crops and livestock research, Agriculture is the most important sector of the the Faculties of Agriculture and Science and economy. It contributes about 33 percent of Laboratory for Radio-Isotopes of the University GDP and about 88 percent of the population of Antananarivo carry out research in crops, depend on agriculture. Approximately 47 per- livestock, forestry, socio-economics, food, agro- cent of the land area is cultivated and 51 percent industries and Faculty of Science of the of it is irrigated making it the country with the University of Tulear has a marine sciences second largest area of irrigated crops in the station. The universities carry out only 6 percent region after Sudan. About 21 percent of the land of the research conducted in the country. is covered by forest. Research in Madagascar focuses on crops The most important food crops are rice, (food and cash crops) (35 percent), livestock cassava, maize, beans, sweet potatoes, vegetables (11.6 percent), forestry (16.6 percent), fisheries and fruits. Export crops are coffee, vanilla, (8.1 percent), natural resources (2.0 percent) and cloves, pepper, cowpeas, cocoa, sisal, sugar about 26.7 percent is classified as "other," and cane, peanuts and cotton. Agricultural exports include farming systems research, socio- represent about 85 percent of total exports. economic studies and post-harvest technology. Coffee is responsible for 43 percent of Madagascar's foreign exchange earnings. Live- In the 1 970s, agricultural research in stock, fisheries and forestry are also important. Madagascar suffered a set-back as a result of the abrupt terrnination of technical and financial AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH assistance from France. This resulted in a consi- derable contraction of human resources and T'he domainant agricultural research institution funding. The number of full-time scientists in 1991 is shown in Table A 6.1 and Table A 6.2 IS the Centre Nationale de la Recherche .. Appliqume au Developpement Rurale indicates the financial resources and uses for (CENRADERU or FOFIFA in Malagasy). It agncultural research in 1993.? accounts for 80 percent of the national research * Research priority-setting in a and personnel management regional context. systems. * Planning of human resources development in a regional con- * Scientific Information and text. Documentation, to work with * Creation of an efficient research CTA on development of this management information and initiative; communication system among the participating institutions and * Agricultural Policy Analysis, to with other collaborating insti- develop proposals to strengthen tutions. the NARSs' capacity in this * Management of the transfor- important area and to suggest mation of the operating arrange- collaborative arrangements. ments for the ongoing networks to the new governance structure * Technology Delivery Systems, to decided by the CD. work with consultants on concrete recommendations for With the nomination of the ASARECA the testing and adaptation of Executive Secretary, the CD intends to delivery systems to small constitute five Working Groups consisting farmers (improved planting of senior scientists of the participating materials, veterinary services in institutions, to help define specific inter- conjunction with animal husban- ventions in the following priority areas. dry techniques, etc.). * Human Resources Development, The results of the first two WGs activities with the objective of developing on human resources and agricultural rese- a "blue-print" for the region to arch resource management are expected to strengthen the scientific capacity be available by late 1995. of the NARSs, and to work with ISNAR in developing concrete In close collaboration with IGADD, the proposals regarding re-training, CD will also become the leading force upgrading and in-service train- behind the CTA/IGADD initiative to ing requirements, and the design develop and establish a regional agricultural of collaborative regional train- research documentation and information ing programs for universities in system. The design of such a system is the region to meet these require- under way and should be completed by ments. early 1995, following a final workshop organized by CTA in Mauritius in * Agricultural Research Resource December 1994. Management, 30 also to work with ISNAR on concrete re- IDRC and CIDA have indicated their commendations for improving interest in supporting the agricultural policy both national and regional analysis initiative. The activities of the WG research management infor- may start early 1995. At the latest Global mation, regional priority- Coalition for Africa (GCA) conference in setting, including funding Zimbabwe (June 1994) a decision was taken mechanisms; budgeting, budget to launch a similar Africa-wide activity. control and accounting systems; 76 The CD intends to dovetail their initiative IARCs on beans (CIAT), agro- with that of GCA. forestry (ICRAF), potatoes (CIP) and cassava (IITA). The CD intends to commission in October 1994, with financing from IFAD, a study of (ii) Harmonizing and rationalizing other the opportunities for the countries in the on-going collaborative networks. region to collaborate in the development of more effective and efficient agricultural (iii) Initiating new priority regional technology delivery systems, including: (a) collaborative programs. the identification of "common action themes, e.g. staff training; (b) research - New initiatives may include programs on farmer - extension linkages, (c) information constraints into maize and rice production, "packaging," (d) extension to women the Highlands Initiative (ICRAF 1993) farmers, and (e) extension for livestock (regional collaborative program proposal on owners and pastoralists. natural resources management, sponsored by ICRAF) a collaborative effort to streng- Following the completion of the studies, then capacity for agricultural policy the WGs will advise the CD on the imple- analysis, etc. Proposals to start up new mentation of the recommendations. The collaborative programs will be carefully ASARECA Work Program Proposal screened for consistency with national and contains an indicative budget for the regional priorities. They will be endorsed Working Groups for meetings, travel and only if they address well-identified con- consulting services to be administered by straints of common importance to all or an the Executive Secretariat. important subset of participating NARSs. Regional Collaborative Program Design The formal presentation and adoption of and Implementation the Eastern and Central Africa FFA by the SPAAR membership is scheduled for the If and when required, ad hoc Technical 15th Plenary Session in South Africa early Committees will be created by the CD in in 1995. close consultation with concerned donors and partner institutions, including the Funding IARCs, for evaluating and advising with regard to ongoing collaborative research Funding for the workshops and meetings programs, within available funds. The indi- leading to the creation of ASARECA has cative budget also provides for TCs to been provided through SPAAR and directly advise the CD on the quality and relevance by: of new initiatives. The TCs will be respon- sible for the design of regional collaborative * CTA/EU (workshops on the programs, whereas the Task Forces will be Scientific Information and Doc- in charge of analyzing constraints to umentation initiative) agricultural productivity with the users of * DANIDA (special grant to faci- research results and preparing research litate the preparation of back- proposals. In the near future there are three ground papers and ASARECA important tasks to be accomplished: meetings and workshops) a World Bank(consulting services) (i) Completing the restructuring of the four collaborative networks with the 77 * IDRC/CIDA (consulting ser- * The costs of implementing vices, workshop related IGADD regional collaborative programs and network support); will also account for the full * USAID and other donors (sup- costs incurred by host countries port to regional networks and (operation and maintenance of ISNAR); and research facilities and staff * IFAD (support to study regional costs), including the costs of collaboration in technology deli- national research efforts that are very systems). part of or essential complements to the regional program. These Several national institutes participating in costs will be borne by the ASARECA have funded the costs of travel NARls, complemented by ex- and per diems from their own resources. ternal funding allocated by the CD. In addition, the costs of a For the future, to provide for sustainable regional program to be borne funding, to ensure the autonomy and inde- entirely by external sources will pendence of the CD and to ascertain the include overheads charged by commitment of participating national insti- the Executive Secretariat, the tutes, the following arrangements have been operating expenditures for the agreed: Task Forces, the Task Force Leaders and their delegates, as • As a general principle, the costs well as the costs of external of the CD meetings will be financial audits. borne by the NARIs from their own funds. In exceptional hard- * Funding for studies, evaluations ship cases, the CD may decide and reviews by ad hoc Tech- to pay for the participation of nical Committees and Working individual members from Groups with special assignments external resources at its will be solicited from external disposal. sources. * The costs of the Executive Secretariat will, as far as is DOVETAILING WITH THE EVOLVING reasonable, be charged to the CGIAR STRATEGY collaborative regional programs as an overhead. Initially, the A regional research agenda serving CD will also solicit start-up region-specific needs consists of the com- support from other sources. bined efforts of all the actors, i.e. the Such funding will in the future NARSs, the IARCs and other co-opted be substituted or complemented scientific institutions. New regional colla- by the proceeds of endowments borative programs, such as the High-lands to a special fund to be created Initiative, seek to integrate ongoing or for this purpose by participating planned research activities with a similar governments, donors and other thrust. This could take various forms, interested public and/or private depending on the comparative advantage of institutions. the scientific partners concerned. In the 78 case of the IARCs active in the region, emphasizing a more ecoregional approach collaboration could vary from the simple and a greater responsiveness to the needs of back-stopping of a regional program, to the the NARSs. This presents a unique oppor- outposting of IARC scientists, to an IARC tunity for the NARSs and their repre- being invited to initially take the lead in sentative body - the Committee of Directors setting up and/or managing a program. The - to shape the future of the regional important underlying principles should agricultural research system and its agenda. remain that: (a) research objectives respond This, in turn, should help in shaping the to specific research needs of the region; and agenda of the IARCs active in the region. It (b) regional collaborative programs are is therefore of the utmost importance that executed by participating NARSs on the CD clearly defines its strategy, inclu- existing research installations. The key to ding the role - as partners - they expect the collaboration with IARCs and other inter- IARCs to play in this strategy. The IARCs, national, regional and national institutions is on the other hand, will then see their role their willingness to subscribe to the regional changing towards "leading-through- research agenda and priorities while main- serving." This should lead to a much more taining their own scientific integrity. focused and efficient regional research system with a greater impact for its The CGIAR system as a whole is beneficiaries - the farmers. expected to undergo a major reorientation, 79 7. EXPECTA TIONS Growth in the agriculture sector in the gain recognition by showing significant Eastern and Central African countries is results. needed to spearhead economic growth. A market-oriented agriculture requires the Agricultural research in the region has for countries in the region to be competitive in a long time been supported by high levels of national, regional and international markets, external funding, a situation that is expected and to gain competitiveness in new ones to continue for the foreseeable future. This through diversification. This means that has made the NARSs extremely vulnerable trade policies, prices and the regulatory and dependent, up to the point where the framework need to be conducive for farmers sustainability of some of the systems is now to produce. However, agricultural policy in question. Many donor-funded programs alone is not enough to spur agricultural remain "enclaves" within the system, put- development in the absence of science-based ting into doubt the lasting effects of their technology that farmers need to increase interventions. The FFA proposes solutions productivity. These imperatives shape the to escape from this vicious circle through research agenda. the "statutory reforms" of the NARSs and the introduction of Consolidated Funding The research systems in the region have Mechanisms, combined with measures to started to reform to respond to the make institutions and scientists accountable challenge. The Framework for Action for results. From this perspective, donors outlined in Chapter 5 builds on these have as much responsibility for the success changes. Mechanisms are proposed for the or failure of the FFA as have governments. NARSs in the region to respond to the priorities - substantive and institutional - set EXPECTED BENEFITS AND KEY INDI- by farmers and policy-makers. However, CATORS FOR PROGRESS while a more productive research system can contribute significantly to agricultural Successful implementation of the FFA is growth, it cannot do it alone. A deepening expected to be indicated by the following. of reforms at broader macroeconomic, institutional and political levels is needed so (i) Increased number of technological that agricultural research can perform and innovations well adapted to local its impact be clearly demonstrated. situations accompanied by higher rates of technology diffusion and A successful national agricultural sector adoption policy needs a solid underpinning supported by a relevant agricultural research system. (ii) Increased farmer participation in the This highlights the importance of political setting of the research agenda and support for and recognition of a national involvement in the governance of agricultural research system for it to be the institutions catering to them, motivated, creative and successful. The thus resulting in organization of FFA is designed to gain such support at the vibrant interchanges between scien- highest political level, without which its tists and their clients so that the success could be greatly compromised. Hence the need for agricultural research to research agenda is more demand- in human capacity-building and driven. technology generation and dissemi- nation. (iii) The gradual broadening of the research agenda and its client base (vi) The gradual decrease in outside to incorporate issues important to technical assistance and the greater market-driven agriculture, including use of indigenous human resources. an emphasis on trade, utilization, agro-processing, and market and (vii) More substantial interaction with product development. relevant IARCs as equal partners and for mutual benefit. (iv) Stability in the institutional envi- ronment of NARSs, including (viii) The rationalization and harmoni- funding, programming and staffing. zation of the regional agricultural (v) The increased participation of research system, perhaps through a faculties of agriculture and vete- reduction in the number of networks rinary sciences, private sector insti- not driven by national and regional tutions, farmers/herders and their priorities and by the elimination of organizations, NGOs and extension uncoordinated regional efforts. 81 * USAID assisted work ANNEX 1: COUNTRY PROFILE: B UR UNDI BACKGROUND the scarcity of land resulting in the sub- stitution of cattle with small ruminants. The Republic of Burundi is a small (25.6 Burundi exports hides and skins. thousand sq km) landlocked and densely AGRicuLTuRAL RESEARCH populated country. The population in 1990 was estimated at 5.6 million, with a growth rate of about 3.0 percent/annum, a density of Agricultural research in crops, livestock 219 persons/sq km and an estimated Gross (husbandry and health), forestry, socio- National Product (GNP) of U.S. $220 per economics and extension methodology is the capita per year. responsibility of the Institut des Sciences Agronomiques du Burundi (ISABU), which AGRICULTURE was founded in 1962. ISABU is a semi- autonomous institution under the Ministry of Agriculture is the most important economic Agriculture. Prior to the establishment of activity in Burundi due to its high rainfall and ISABU, agricultural research was carried out reasonably productive land endowment. by the Institut National pour les Etudes Approximnately 91 percent of the population Agronomiques du Congo Belge (INEAC), live in the rural areas and depend on which carried out agricultural research in agriculture. The sector also contributes 56 Zaire, Burundi, and Rwanda. ISABU still percent of the Gross Domestic Product receives substantial assistance from Belgium (GDP). Cropland constitutes 52 percent, 35 in addition to other multilateral and bilateral percent is pasture, 2.6 percent is forest and donors. 6.3 percent unclassified. There are indi- cations that forest land is decreasing and ISABU has six main stations and five farming and pasture are encroaching on smaller centers in different ecological zones of marginal lands. Burundi is self-sufficient in the country. ISABU cooperates with KARI in the most important staples. Kenya, FAO, CIP, CIAT, CIMMYT, ICRAF, INTSOY, IITA, IRRI, ICRISAT and Food crops cover about 92 percent of other advanced country institutions. In addi- cultivated land and cash crops about 8 per- tion to the traditional emphasis on cash crops, cent. The most important food crops are ISABU is now focusing on research on food bananas, beans, peas, cassava, potatoes, crops and agroforestry. sweet potatoes, maize, sorghum, groundnuts, rice, wheat, oil palrn and sugar. Export crops The Faculty of Agricultural Sciences are coffee, tea and cotton and are responsible (FACAGRO 1993; Barampama 1992) of the for 95 percent of Burundi's foreign exchange University of Burundi also conducts research earnings, in crops and livestock. In addition to thesis work by students, the staff carry out research Burundi's livestock herd comprised 430,000 in food security, exploitation of traditional cattle in 1990, down from 560,000 in 1986 crops, small ruminants and soil fertility and (Steppler 1986) and 1.2 million sheep and conservation. Agricultural research at the goats, up from about 1.07 million in 1986 faculty is funded by the government as well as (World Bank 1987). This is an indication of donors such as the EEC, the World Bank, IFS, etc. The Veterinary Laboratories also funding for a comprehensive coffee research carry out some research in animal health. program e.g. soil conservation, post-harvest There is a degree of coordination between improvement, seed production and coffee ISABU and FACAGRO in livestock, agricul- related socio-economic studies. The project is tural chemistry and rice research. also foreseen to result in the introduction of a levy on coffee export sales to eventually The Burundi Small Farming System finance coffee research. Research (SFSR) project funded by USAID, (USAID 1992) carries out farming system The Institute of Agronomic and Livestock research (FSR) in the context of two regional Research (IRAZ) (Barampama 1992) of the research workshops. The Belgian government Economic Community of the Great Lakes also funds three additional regional research (CEPGL), in cooperation with ISABU, workshops. Through these workshops, on- carries out research in bananas, forage crops, farm adaptive agronomic and socio-economic and small ruminants. research as well as other pre-extension activities are carried out in the five major eco- Major challenges are posed by the rapid logical zones of the country. The USAID population growth, the increasing pressure on SFSR project also supports Burundi's portion marginal lands, and the high post-harvest of the Regional Potato Improvement Network losses estimated to be between 10-25 percent. (PRAPAC), which is coordinated by the Capitalization on the advantage of crop inten- International Potato Improvement Center sification and increasing productivity through (CIP). In addition, funding through the SFSR appropriate and sustainable technology are project enabled ISABU to obtain the assis- urgent priorities. tance of the International Service for Agricultural Research (ISNAR) in the Among the achievements of agricultural evaluation of agricultural research in Burundi. research in Burundi are the introduction and Based on the ISNAR study (ISNAR 1989) in-vitro multiplication of bacterial wilt-free and recommendations ISABU carried out potato seeds, the introduction of high-yielding reforms in its structure, management, potato cultivars, e.g. the Mexican variety approach to agricultural research and respon- Cruza 80 (Ndina magara) through Rwanda siveness to clients. and the high yielding CIP clones, adoption of new bean varieties, improved soil and water The Coffee Sector Project (World Bank conservation and breeding of Ankole Sahiwal 1990) funded by the World Bank, provides cattle for dairy production. 83 Table A 1.1 The Number and the Qualifications ofAgricultural Research Scientists in ISABU of Burundi (1989) * Qualification National Expatriate Total percent Ph.D 2 9 11 13 Ing. Agron. 29 28 57 66 Ing. Technician 17 1 18 21 Total 48 38 86 100 Source: ISNAR. 1989. Orientation and Management of Research in the Burundi Institute of Agricultural Sciences (ISAB U): Analysis and Recommendations. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR * The Faculty of Agronomic Sciences of the University of Burundi has about thirty staff members with Ph.D and Ing. Agron. degrees, of which large numbers were expatriate. Table A 1.2 Burundi: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1989) * Institution Source Resources Uses US$ (m) uS$ (m) Salary Operation ISABU Government 1.075 0.322 0.753 Extemal 3.225 0.968 2.257 Total 4.300 1.290 3.010 Key Indicators: Investment/total n.a. Govemment Budget/total : 25 percent Extemal Resources/total : 75 percent Own Resources + Contracts/total : n.a. Staff (national)/Total O.C. (incl. staff) : 30 percent Staff (national)/Government Budget : 30 percent O.C. (extemal staff)/Scientists (incl. foreign) : US$ 35,000 Total Budget/Scientists (incl. foreign) : US$ 50,000 Ph.D and M.Sc/Total Scientists : 65 percent Number of Scientists : 86 ISNAR. 1989. Orientation and Management ofResearch in Burundi Institute ofAgricultural Sciences: Analysis and Recommendations. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR 84 ANNEX 2: COUNTRYPROFILE: DJIBOUTI 31 32 BACKGROUND The Republic of Djibouti has an area of In addition to the local livestock, a consider- 23,000 sq km, a population of about 483,000 able flow of livestock takes place from the and a GDP of 1,070 U.S.$ per capita (1990). neighboring countries for local consumption About 75 percent of the population is urban, and export. The potential annual fish catch is and of this percentage, 75 percent live in the estimated at 7000-9000 tons. There is limited capital. The importance of Djibouti lies in its forest area in the northern highlands (Day location, and its modem free port which Forest) and Doum Palm groves along the serves the neighboring countries. coast. Both areas suffer from considerable degradation, and conservation and The climate of Djibouti is hot and arid with reforestation are a priority. erratic rainfall, mostly in the winter months, ranging between 50-300 mm per annum. A AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH limited area of the northern highlands receives between 300-350 mm per annum. The low The Institut Superieurs d'Etudes et de rainfall, high temperatures, and the high Recherches Scientifique et Techniques evapo-transpiration result in saline soils that (ISERST) which comes under the Presidencv, constrain agricultural development. has a department of life sciences which covers agricultural research. The Ministry of Agri- The Republic of Djibouti has about 630 ha culture and Rural Development (MARD) has under crops, mostly irrigated gardens that tap donor-supported development projects that water from shallow wells. The land is have some research components. Most of the cropped with vegetables, fruits and green projects are in the Department of Agriculture fodder. The size of holdings range between and Forestry and the Department of Livestock 0.3 and 0.4 ha. The livestock population and Fisheries. Each Department conducts consists of 920,000 sheep and goats, 70,000 adaptive research activities in its area of cattle and 60,000 camels, which are main- responsibility. A mechanism for coordination tained under semi-nomadic management. between MARD and INERST is being Agriculture contributes about 6 percent of formulated. GDP of which about half is from livestock. Table A 21 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Djibouti (1993) Sector Institution Ph.D DTA' M.Sc Total B.Sc Diploma Total Ph.D DVM MSc B.Sc Total Post- graduate Food Crops ISERST - - - - - - - - Cash Crops ISERST - - 1 1 - - 1 - Natural Resources ISERST - - 2 2 5 - 7 1 - - - 1 Animal Production ISERST - - - - - - - Animal Health ISERST - - - - - - - - 5 - - 5 Total 3 8 6 Sources: Djana Ali. 1993. National Resource Management and Conservation as Related to Agriculture. "National Working Paper for the East African FFA. Mohamned Sheik. 1993" La Recherche Scientifique et Technique a Djibouti. " National Working Paper for the East African FFA. Djibouti: ISERST. Moharned Sheik. 1993. "Elevage et Sante Animale en Republique de Djibouti 'National Working Paper for the East African FFA. Djibouti: ISERST. Some o0 the currenL staff are expatriate. 86 Table 2.2 Djibout: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1993) * Resources (millions) Uses (millions) Institution DF USS DF US$ ISERST Ag. Research only 75.0 0.43 Salary & Operations 78.8 0.44 External Resources 4.6 0.03 Equipment 0.8 0.05 Total Ag. Research 79.6 0.46 79.6 0.49 Key Indicators: Investment/total N.A. Staff/Total Operations n.a. Total Budget/Scientists US$ 56,250 Gov. Budget/total 94 percent Staff (local)/Gov. Budget 96 percent Number of Scientists 8 External Res. Total :6 percent O.C. (excluding staff) Own Res. & Contract/total : n.a. /Scientists n.a. Mohamed, " Sheik - 1993. ISERST. La Recherche Scientifique et Technique a Djibouti." Djibouti, ISERST. 87 ANNEX 3: COUNTRY PROFILE: ERJTREA 33 BACKGROUND Eritrea became independent in May 1993. It seeds are grown. Livestock production has an area of 125,000 sq km and the depends on pastoralism and agropastoralism. population is estimated at 3.5 million. About The most important livestock species are 80 percent of the population live in rural goats, cattle, sheep, donkeys and camels. areas and depend on agriculture for employment and income. Approximately 25 AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH to 30 percent are pastoralists. The GDP per capita is estimated to be US$120-150. Some adaptive research on crops was (World Bank 1994). initiated by the Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) especially after 1987 in the AGRICULTURE liberated areas. After independence, research came under the Department of Agricultural Agriculture contributed 26 percent to the Research and Training of the Ministry of GDP in 1992. However, about 80 percent of Agriculture. The Department carries out the population depends on agriculture for field experiments on cereals and vegetables, their sustenance. During 1991-92 agri- plant protection survey and control studies, culture grew by 10 percent due to a some limited soil survey and the combination of favorable weather, peace, the establishment and maintenance of a gene introduction of market-based policies and bank for indigenous crop species. The rehabilitation of the sector. About 3.4 per- Department has one research station in ccnt of the total land area is cultivated Asmara and another one is being developed (439,000 ha), of which 5 percent is irrigated in Shambuco in the Gash-Setit province for (21,600 ha). The most important food crops the lowlands. The Department has only six are sorghum, barley, millet, tef and maize. scientists. In irrigated areas, fruits, vegetables, and oil Table A 3.1 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Eritrea (1994) Sector Institution Ph.D DVM M. Sc Total Post- B.S. Total graduates Food Crops DRT, MOA - - 3 3 4 7 Cash Crops DRT, MOA - - 1 1 - I Natural DRT, MOA - - 3 3 3 6 Resources Animal DRT, MOA - - - - I I Production Animal Health DRT, MOA - 2 - 2 - 2 Total 2 7 9 8 17 Source: Director, Department of Research and Training, MOA. (1994) Table A 3.2 Eritrea: Financial Resources for Agricultural Research (1992/93) Sector Source Resources EB US$ Food Crops Government 0.110 0.022 External 0.062 0.012 Cash Crops Government 0.027 0.005 External 0.007 0.001 Natural Resources Govemment 0.057 0.011 Extemal 0.067 0.013 Animal Production Government 0.019 0.004 Extemal 0.010 0.002 Animal Health Government 0.028 0.006 External 0.010 0.002 Subtotal Government 0.241 0.047 External 0.156 0.031 Grand Total 0.397 0.078 Key Indicators: Investment/total n.a. Government budget/total : 61 percent Extemal resources/total : 39 percent Own resources/total : n.a. Staff/total O.C. (incl. staff) : n.a. Staff7government budget n.a. O.C. (Excl. staff)/scientist n.a. Total budget/scientist : US$4588 (Ph. D & M. Sc.)/total scientists 52.9 percent Number of scientists :17 89 ANNEX 4: COUNTR YPROFILE: ETHIOPIA BACKGROUND Ethiopia is a relatively large country with an production is constrained by a wide spectrum area of 1.225 million sq km and a population of diseases and inadequate nutrition. (IFAD of 50.7 million growing at 2.9 percent/year 1987). and a GDP per capita of U.S. $ 120/year in 1990. The expansion of crop production in the mid and high altitude areas resulted in soil The country is divided into five climatic degradation due to extreme erosion. It is zones (IGADD 1992). About 56 percent of estimated that I billion (one thousand mil- the total area consists of Arid and Semi-Arid lion) tons of soil are lost annually through lands (ASAL) called Kola and Berha; the erosion from the cultivated areas and that majority of the cultivated land is in the high forests are being lost at the rate of 200,000 rainfall areas of Wurch - 3.6 percent, Dega - ha/year. 14.5 percent and Woina-Dega 72 percent. Thus, the central highlands (44 percent of the The most important food crops are tef (an surface area) account for 91 percent of the Eragrostis, a very small seeded cereal), cultivated land and 75 percent of the animal barlcy, wheat, sorghum, maize, noug, which population. The ASAL constitute 56 percent is the species (Guzotia abyssinia), an edible of the land area, but only 9 percent cultivated oil, and enset which is the species Ensete land and 25 percent of the livestock ventricosum, a member of the banana family population. in which starch is extracted from the corm and pseudostem. Tef, noug and enset are Agriculture is the most dominant economic unique to Ethiopia. Coffee is the most activity. The sector contributes about 43 important export crop. percent of GDP, employs about 74 percent of the population and accounts for more than 90 The agricultural sector in Ethiopia has the percent of the country's exports. Cropland potential to reach food self-sufficiency, constitutes 12.65 percent, pasture 41 percent, produce raw materials for local industries, wood-land and forest 24.6 percent and and produce export commodities while con- unclassified areas 21.8 percent of the total serving the natural resource base. In recent service area. times, however, the rate of growth and the productivity of the sector were low as a Livestock are an important part of result of inappropriate agricultural policies. agriculture, providing draft power, meat, The current reform policies reinforced by milk, hides and skins (for export), and new applicable agricultural technology manure and account for about 20 percent of should result in improved productivity. Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AGDP). Ethiopia has the highest popu- Fish production is low (about 5,000 lation of livestock in Africa i.e. 28.6 million tons/annum). However, the country has the cattle, 41.4 million sheep and goats and 1.1 potential to produce about 100,000 tons/ million camels (1990). However, livestock annum from the coastal waters of the Red Sea. There is also potential for inland than 30 percent of the total annual budget, fisheries. However, the consumption of fish leaving more than 70 percent for investment in the hinterlands is limited. and recurrent costs. In the same period, the number of national scientists increased from AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 235 to 649. About 50 percent of the scientific staff (315) have postgraduate The Institute of Agricultural Research training and only 28 were expatriate. The (IAR) is the main agricultural research bulk of the funding for agricultural research agency in the country. It was established in was from domestic resources (between 57 1966. In 1979, its charter was reconfirmed percent - 75 percent for the period 1986- and IAR was given the mandate to carry out 1989). As a result of increased allocations, the coordination of agricultural research in there has been a substantial investment in the Ethiopia, excluding forestry, fisheries and necessary infrastructure for agricultural food technology research. The Minister of research. Therefore, Ethiopia seems to enjoy Agriculture is the Chairmnan of the Board of adequate basic facilities and scientific capa- IAR. city that now need to be maintained and provided with adequate operating funds. In In addition to IAR, several Ministries, addition to government, major funding commissions and agencies also carry out (IFAD 1987; World Bank 1984) for agri- research. These include the Alemaya Univer- cultural research comes from the World sity of Agriculture (AUA), the Awassa Bank, LEAD, EEC, IDRC, andUNDP/FAO. Junior College of Agriculture (ACA), the Ethiopian Science and Technology As already mentioned, several institutions Commission (ESTC), the Ministry of Agri- are responsible for agricultural research, culture (MOA), and the Plant Genetic namely: Resource Center (PGRC). The International Agricultural Research Centers (IARCs) are R The Institute of Agricultural also active collaborators in agricultural Research (JAR) which has the research in Ethiopia. Among the IARCs mandate to coordinate agri- with substantial involvement are the Inter- cultural research excluding national Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), forestry, fisheries and food tech- the International Crop Research Institute for nology research. LAR has eight the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), the research centers and twenty trial International Center for Agricultural sites. Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA), the Inter- national Center for Tropical Agriculture Agriculture UA), which ha (CIAT) and the International Potato Center Agriculture (AUA), which has (CIP). The International Service for three research centers/sub- National Agricultural Research (ISNAR) centers and threc trial sites. It carried out a review of Ethiopia's research combines teaching and research. program management and manpower plan- raing (ISNAR 1987). * The Awassa Junior College of Agriculture (ACA), which has Since 1984/85, agricultural research has two research centers and three been well funded. Allocations increased trial sites. from U.S. $3.4 million in 1983 to U.S. $18.4 million in 1989. Salaries accounted for less 91 * The Ethiopian Science and exchange, collaborative research program- Technology Comnuission ming through zonal and national committee (ESTC), which runs the Plant annual research reviews, seminars and Protection Research Center conferences. However, cooperation with (PPRC). other Eastern African countries is limited and is mainly through the international networks. * The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), which operates the Agricultural research in Ethiopia contri- Forestry Research Center buted in the dfvelopment of improved (FRC), the Soil Conservation varieties of coffee (Coffee Berry Disease Research Project (SCRP), and resistance) tef, wheat, barley, sorghum, the Wood Utilization and maize, faba beans, chick peas and lentils. In Research Center (WUARC). addition, some improvement in the dairy herd was also attained through cross-breeding * The Plant Genetic Resources local strains and exotic breeds. Center at Addis Ababa. The Joint Vertisol Project (Crawford and * The International Livestock Oehmke 1993) with inputs from IAR, AAU, Center for Africa has its head- AUA, the Land Use Planning and Regulatory quarters in Addis Ababa, and Department, ILCA, ICRISAT, AFRC Engi- has three research stations in neering and IBSRAM, managed to modify Ethiopia. the traditional Ethiopian plain (maresha) so that is could form a broad planing bed that Despite the multiplicity of institutions, enhanced drainage. The improved drainage there is reasonable coordination and coope- resulted in increases in the yield of crops ration among the members of the National such as faba beans and wheat and wheat Agricultural Research System (NARS) as straw which is essential for the sustainability well as with the LARCs in the areas of germ- of animal traction, a necessity in such heavy plasm and information soils. 92 Table A 4. 1 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Ethiopia (1993) Sector Institution Ph.D DVM AI.Sc Total B.Sc Diploma Total Study/Long Leave Total Postgraduates Ph.D DVM M.Sc B.Sc Foodcrops All 38 - 111 149 159 208 516 12 - 40 34 86 Cash crops All 2 - 14 16 34 54 104 - - 1 3 4 Natural resources All 19 - 56 75 49 79 203 16 - 19 7 42 Animal production All 17 33 42 92 50 52 194 - - - - Animal health All 6 286 11 303 1 592 896 - - - - Total 82 319 234 635 293 985 1913 28 - 60 44 132 Source: Ketema Seyfu, ct al. 1993. "National Working Paper on East African FFA on Agricultural Research: Ethiopia." Addis Ababa: Institute of Agricultural Research. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: IAR. Table A 4.2 Ethiopia: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1992/93) Sector Source Resources (millions) Uses (millions) EB US$ EB US$ Foodcrops Government 14.932 2.986 Salary 7.152 1.430 External 2.581 0.516 Operation 7.779 1.556 Livestock Govermnent 73.803 14.760 Salary 53.557 10.711 External 0 0 Operation 20.245 4.049 Cash Crops Government 2.583 0.516 Salary 1.484 0.297 External 0.533 0.107 Operation 1.099 0.220 Natuwal Resource Govermment 3.523 0.705 Salary 2.137 0.427 External 3.145 0.629 Operation 1.381 0.276 Subtotal Govermment 94.841 18.967 Salary 64.330 12.865 External 6.259 1.252 Operation 30.504 6.101 Grand Total 101.100 20.219 Key Indicators Investment/total : n.a. Staff/Government Budget : 68 % Government Budget/total : 94 % O.C. (excluding staff)/Scientists : US$ 6,574 -iternal Resources Total : 6 % Total Budget/Scientists : USS20,438 iwn Resources and Contract/total n.a. (Ph.D + MSc.)/total scientists : 68 % ,taff/Total O.C. (incl. staff) : 64 % Number of Scientists : 928 93 ANNEX5: COUNTRYPROFILE: KENYA BACKGROUND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH The Republic of Kenya has a land area of Kenya's agricultural research system is among 567,000 sq km and a population of 24.9 million the oldest in Africa. The Scott Agricultural growing at 3.8 percent per annum and GDP per Research Laboratory was established in 1903, capita of about U.S. $ 380 in 1990. The high the Coffee Laboratory in 1910 and several other rate of population growth and the resultant institutions in the 1940s and 1950s. A number of pressure on the land have resulted in frag- regional research institutions were part of the mentation of smallholdings, increasing land- dissolved East African Community. In 1977, on lessness and migration into marginal areas. the basis of the Science and Technology Act, the Kenya has 44.4 percent of its land in the humid National Council of Science and Technology was and sub-humid zones, 52.6 percent in the arid created. The act was amended in 1979, creating and semi-arid lands (ASAL) and about 3 percent sub-sectoral agricultural research bodies: namely, in desert areas, the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), the Kenya Forestry Research Institute Kenya has basically an agricultural economy. (KEFRI), the Kenya Marine Fisheries Research Agriculture provides 31 percent of GDP, about Institute (KEMFRI), the Kenya Trypanosomiasis 76.5 percent of the population are rural and Institute and the Veterinary Research Adminis- about 60 percent of the export earnings are tration. Agricultural research is also carried out derived from the sector. Cropland constitutes by the University of Nairobi. about 4.3 percent, pasture 67.1 percent, forest 4.1 percent forest and 24.5 percent is un- In addition to the autonomous public classified. The most important food crops are institutions there are commodity-based foun- maize, wheat, rice, sorghum, millet, beans and dations such as the Coffee Research Foundation sugar cane. Important export crops are coffee, and the Tea Research Foundation. These foun- tea, cotton, pyrethrum and horticultural crops. dations secure their research funds from cesses on coffee and tea. This has established a close It is estimated that 24 percent of AGDP comes association between the research establishment from livestock. The most important livestock and the growers. Other industries such as sugar species are cattle (13.4 million), sheep and goats and the breweries also carry out their own (13.9 million), camels (0.8 million) and chicken adaptive research. (24 million). Small ruminants and camels graze mostly in the marginal ASAL areas. The International Center for Research on Agroforestry (ICRAF), the International Labo- Kenya's high potential areas are among the ratory for Research on Animal Diseases most productive in Africa. The productivity of (ILRAD), and the International Center for Insect maize, coffee, tea, milk (under intensive dairying) Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) have their head- and horticultural crops are reasonably high. quarters in Kenya and conduct a considerable Additional increases in productivity are essential amount of research in the country. Kenya also for the sustenance of the growing population. benefits from the presence of other regional and international institutions e.g. CIMMYT, CIP, progress. The Kenya Agricultural Research ICRISAT, IITA and ILCA. Institute (KARI) was reformed and restructured. the number of centers and sub-centers were Funding for agricultural research in 1983 was reduced from forty-six to twenty-five. Of these, U.S.$ 24.6 (0.56 percent of AGDR) and almost fifteen are National Research Centers (NRCs) stayed the same nominally until 1988-1989 and ten are Regional Research Centcrs (RRC). (U.S.$ 25.4), but declined as a percentage of Of the former, four (Katumani, Kitale, Muguga AGDP to 0.35 percent and in real terms. As a and 'Njoro) are both NRCs and RRCs. result of restructuring, scientific staff decreased in numbers from 573 nationals and 53 expa- In addition to restructuring, other reforms triates to 533 nationals and 27 expatriates. The include: (i) the introduction of improved adminis- proportion of salaries in the budget is high (85 trative and accounting procedures and the deve- percent) squeezing resources for recurrent costs. lopment of a programme budget; (ii) the tasks of About 72 percent of the allocation was from the NRCs and RRCs being clearly defined and external sources and 28 percent was from the understood by the scientific commu-nity, (iii) Kenyan government. improvement in the training of scientific staff and to a lesser extent, of the support staff; (iv) the Agricultural research in Kenya has made upgrading of the salaries of staff; and (v) considerable contributions to increasing considerable improvement in the research agricultural productivity. The most notable of facilities. these contributions that had impact are the development and the introduction of improved On the negative side: (i) KARI still maintains composites and hybrids of maize, and the some of the stations that were to be transferred breeding of rust-resistant wheat varieties. and these constitute a drain on resources; (ii) the Research on coffee and tea, which is managed by ratio of personnel emoluments to operating cost private foundations, has contributed to has deteriorated from 80:20 and 85:15 (the target germplasm improvement as well as sustainable set by NARP was 60:40); (iii) KARI faces cash cultural practices. The Improvement of dairy flow problems to its headquarters and in turn to breeds in the highland has resulted in increased research centers (this involves both donors and productivity. In addition, considerable improve- GOK resources); and (iv), a system of national ments have been achieved in the area of soil and scientific and technical staff evaluation is not yet water conservation and agroforestry. in place. In 1981, with assistance from ISNAR, a review If the achievements attained so far are of Kenya's national agricultural research systems maintained, and some of the outstanding difficult (NARSs) was carried out. This led to the formu- constraints addressed, Kenya's NARS should lation of a national agricultural strategy and plan significantly contribute to science-led produc- in 1985, also with assistance from ISNAR. In tivity in agriculturc. 1987, the National Agricultural Research Project (NARP) (World Bank 1987; ISNAR 1990) was Among the East African countries, only Kenya initiated with multidonor parallel financing. In has two foundations, namely the Coffee Research addition to the Government of Kenya (GOK), the Foundation (CRF) and the Tea Research World Bank, USAID, EEC, ODA, the Foundation of Kenya (TRFK). These found- Netherlands, Australia (ACIAR), CIDA, ations focus on research in their respective Gennany, Japan (JICA), SIDA and UNDP/FAO commnodities. The foundations have an efficient provided funding. body of scientific and support staff which has generated and dissetninated appropriate techno- 'The project called foi WjIe'ogi3gSL .'ei'rUs: 4pic 'i tI.,e proulliti1MB arid processing of their some have been achieved and others are in respective commodities. The public research 95 institutions of Eastern African can learn valuable lessons from these foundations Table A 5.1 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Kenya (1993) Sector Institution Ph.D MSc Total Post- B.Sc Diploma Total Study/Long Leave Total graduates Ph.D M.Sc B.Sc Food Crops All 12 76 88 60 - 148 9 7 1 17 Cash Crops All 8 49 57 34 72 163 6 13 - 19 Natural Res. All 6 35 41 16 - 57 8 17 - 25 Animal Prod. All 30 78 1(8 31 - 139 - - - - Animal All 51 76 127 41 - 168 19 - - 19 Health Total 107 314 421 182 72 675 42 37 1 80 Source: Mailu, A.M. 1993, "Draft Working Paper on Food Crops for the East African FFA Initiative." Nairobi: KARI; Wabule, M.N. 1993. "Draft Working Paper on Export Crops." Nairobi: KARI; Kilewe, A.M. 1993. Draft National Working Paper on Natural Resource Management and Conservation." Nairobi: KARI; Abate, A.N. 1993."Draft National Working Paper on Animal Production Research in Kenya." Nairobi: KARI; Wafula, J.S., 1993. Report on Animal Health Research in Kenya." Nairobi: KARI. Table A 5.2 Kenya: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Resources (1992/93) Institution Sources Resources Uses KE US$ KE US$ All Government 17.476 4.993 Salary 13.032 3.723 Training N.A. N.A. Investment 0.156 0.045 Operation 4.200 1.200 Training 2.823 0.807 External 34.460 9.839 Investment 23.950 6.843 Operation 7.687 2.196 51.936 14.839 Salary 13.032 3.723 Total Training 2.823 0.807 Investment 24.106 6.887 Operation 11.887 3.396 Key Indicators: Investment/Total : 46.4 percent Staff/Government Budget : 74.6 percent Government Budget/total : 33.7 percent O.C. (Excl. staff)/scientist: US$ 5,937 External Resources/total : 66.3 percent Total Budget/Scientist : US$ 25,942 Own resources+contract/total : n.a. (Ph.D + MSc.)/Total Scientist : 85.4 Staff/total O.C. (incl. Staff) : 25 percent Number of Scientists : 572 Source: Ndiritu, CyrUs. 1993. Financing Agricultural Research In Kenya.. Nairobi, Kenya: KARI 96 Table A 5.3 Kenya.' Coffee and Tea Foundations Research Expenditure and Uses* Institution Number of Allocation (in Millions) Uses (in Millions) Scientists KE US$ KE US$ Coffee Foundation** 25 4.35 1.243 Salary 2.430 0.694 Operation 1.910 0.546 Capital 0.010 0.003 Tea Foundation*** 12 0.742 0.212 Salary 0.351 0.100 Operation 0.391 0.112 Total 37 5.092 1.455 Salary 2.781 0.794 Operation 2.301 0.658 Capital 0.010 0.003 Key Indicators: Investment/total : less than 1 Staff/foundation budget : 55 percent percent --- (Excl. staff)/scientists US$17,784 Government budget/total 0 Total budget/scientist US$39,324 External resources/total 0 (PhD+MSc)/total scientist: n.a. Own resources + contract 100 percent Number of scientists : 37 Staff/total O.C. (incl. staff) : 55 percent * Ndiritu, Cyrus. 1993. Financing Agricultural Research in Kenya. Nairobi, Kenya: KARI ** 1991 ** 1991/92 97 6. THEACTIONPL4N (MODALITIES FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE FRAMEWORK) The preparation of the Framework for An important activity of the Association Action has been a collaborative undertaking during its first year will be to seek the by a Working Group of NARS and SPAAR political support of the Ministers respon- staff, supplemented by staff from a few sible for agricultural research in the donor agencies. The process was guided by participating countries. This should result the CD, which was created following the in a realistic representation of all the Kampala Workshop in November 1993. elements of the national agricultural The CD met again in February 1994 in research systems of the participating Nairobi and provided its first feedback. As countries. A Conference of Ministers will mentioned earlier, during their meeting at be convened in late 1995 or early 1996 for Egerton University, the CD decided to the formal endorsement of the MoA. create ASARECA, an arrangement which was formalized in September 1994 in Addis Adoption of the MoA by the participating Ababa through the signature of the Memo- institutions in September 1994 should signal randum of Agreement. The Executive the start-up of a series of activities, some of Secretary was also nominated, at that time. which can proceed in parallel, while others Since the last meeting at Egerton should be carefully sequenced. Implemen- University, a Work Program Proposal 9 has tation of institutional reforms is country- been prepared for the period July 1994 - specific, each of the NARSs being at a June 1996. The Action Plan described in different stage of development. How-ever, this chapter provides details of the proposed in many cases, these reforms will hinge on Work Program, which was estimated to cost designing and formalizing the necessary US$ 1.24 million, of which about half has statutory changes and the introduction of been commnitted as of July 1994. Consolidated Funding Mechanisms. Second, in the light of the newly-proposed IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE, TIME - regional collaborative programs, manage- FRAME AND FUNDING ment and accounting systems and national research and human resources development Restructuring of NARSs and their strategies will need to be adapted to each Strengthening other in a regional context, so that each NARS can play its role and reap the benefits Many NARSs in the region have gone of the evolving regional research agenda. through or are undergoing a process of The most important goal remains building restructuring. This time however, the the capacity necessary for a further streng- signing of the MoA by the participating thening of the NARSs. national institutions will signal their endorsement of the principles for the streng- To achieve this, the CD decided, at thening of the NARSs, described in the Egerton, University, to request ISNAR previous chapter. These principles can only assistance in: be applied by individual institutions, and will be adapted to specific country * Establishing the bylaws of situations. ASARECA. Table A 6.1 The Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Madagascar (1991) Institution Nationals Total Post- BSc Expatriates Total graduates PhD MSc FOFIFA 12 81 93 38 26 157 Faculty of Agriculture UA 8 2 10 0 2 12 Total 20 83 103 38 28 169 Source: Pardey, Philip G. and J. Roseboom. 1991. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System ofMadagascar. ISNAR Indicator Series. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Note: About 35 percent of the scientists are working on crops, 11.6 percent on livestock, 16.6 percent on forestry, 8.1 percent on fisheries, 2 percent on natural resources (excluding forestry), and the remainder, 26.7 percent on farming systems research, socio-economies, post-harvest technology, etc. Table A 6.2 Madagascar: Financial Resources and Usesfor Agricultural Research (1993) Institution Source Resources Uses US$ millions US$ millions National Contribution: FOFIFA - Grants - FNDE 0.378 Investment 2,315 - FCP 0.589 Salaries 902 0.791 Other operations 1,549 Sub-total 1.778 4,766 Own Resources and .348 Contracts External 2.651 Total 4.777 Key Indicators: Investment/total : 49 percent Staff/government budget : 51 percent Government Budget/total : 37 percent O.C. (Excl. staff)/Scientist : US$9,866 External Resources/total : 55.5 Total budget/Scientist : US$30,427 percent PhD & MSc/Scientist : 77 percent Own Resources and Contracts : 7 percent Number of scientists :167 Staff/total O.C. (Incl. staff) : 36 percent 99 ANNEX 7: COUNTRYPROFILE: RWANDA BACKGROUND AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH Rwanda is a small, landlocked country with a During the colonial period, Rwanda shared land area of about 25,990 sq km, a popu- with INEAC Burundi and Zaire as the lation of 7.5 million (1990) growing at 3.8 institution responsible for agricultural percent per year and a GDP per capita of research. In 1982, L'Institut des Sciences U.S. $ 310 per annum. It has the highest Agronomiques du Rwanda (ISAR) was population density in Africa. Topographi- established with the assistance, financial and cally, Rwanda is mainly high plateau with technical support from Belgium until 1982, hilly terrain and marshy valley bottoms, with when management and funding passed to elevations of between 1000-3000 m above Rwanda. In addition to ISAR, the Faculty of sea level. Rainfall ranges between 700 mm Agriculture, the Departments of Geography, in the East and to 2000 mm in the West. Social Sciences and Energy of the National Temperatures are generally moderate and University of Rwanda also carry out some depend on altitude. There are three distinct agricultural research. The proposed National geographical zones, namely: (i) the Savannah Research Project calls for an umbrella zone in the East (1000-1500 mm); (ii) the organization that will coordinate all agri- Central Plateau (1500-2000 m); and (iii) the cultural research with the active parti- Mountainous Zaire-Nile crest in the West cipation of clients, the university as well as (above 2000m). ISAR. Agriculture accounts for 37.1 percent of To meet these objectives, the project GDP and about 91 percent of the population would: (a) support the establishment of an live in rural areas (1990). About 1.16 autonomous National Agricultural Research million ha were intensively cultivated in 1990 Council (NARC), through which all official (double cropping is common). The most funding for agricultural research would be important food crops are beans, bananas (for coordinated; (b) support the transformation beer), sweet potatoes, cassava, Irish pota- of ISAR into an autonomous institution, and toes, maize and sorghum. The com-mercial reorganize and strengthen it to improve crops are coffee, tea and pyrethrum. research efficiency and accountability for Pastures and forests account for a declining results; (c) strengthen internal linkages area of about 19 percent and 21 percent, (research - farmer - extension) to ensure respectively. research relevance and to accelerate the dis- semination of research results; (d) strengthen The livestock herd is small and there is an external linkages and support the parti- apparent substitution of cattle with small cipation of Rwandese institutions and ruminants. There are about 610,000 head of scientists funded through NARC in regional cattle and about 1.5 million sheep and goats. and international collaborative research 100 programs; (e) strengthen human resource Past research efforts have resulted in development and management and provide improving the husbandry of tea and coffee, for in-country and overseas training; (f) as well as introduced improved varieties of support research contracts with public, beans, soybeans, maize, potatoes, sweet private and non-governmental institutions, potatoes, wheat and triticale. The proposed both inside and outside Rwanda, funded reform and coordination of agricultural through NARC; and (g) rehabilitate and research is anticipated to enhance the renew research plant and equipment. programming and budgeting of agricultural research with an anticipated emphasis on ISAR has, in the past, collaborated with solving the acute problems facing the farm- the IARCs of the Consultative Group for ing community. International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) e.g. the International Potato Center It is anticipated that agricultural research (CIP), the Intemational Institute of Tropical will be funded by the Govemment of Agriculture (IITA), the Intemational Maize Rwanda, the beneficiary institutions, the and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) private sector and donors to the order of US and the Intemational Centre for Tropical $36.5 million for the coming seven years, i.e. Agriculture (CIAT). The Intemational an average allocation of US$5.2 million per Service for National Agricultural Research year. About 70 percent of the allocation for (ISNAR) carried out a review of agricultural agricultural research is from extemal research systems in Rwanda. In addition, sources, about 14 percent is from govem- USAID, UNDP/FAO, GTZ and the World ment budget and 15.5 percent (table A 7.2) Bank assist in carrying out Farming Systems from ISAR's own resources. Under the new Research (FSR) in various regions of the project, government contribution to agri- country. cultural research will increase to 17 percent over the duration of the five-year project Table A 7.1 The Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Rwanda Sector Institution 1989 1990 Planned National 1995* National National"* Expatriate Total Crop Production ISAR 18 9 27 22 31 Animal Production ISAR 4 0 4 4 9 Forestry ISAR 3 2 5 2 5 Farming System, Soils and Water ISAR 9 4 13 7 15 Conservation and Fertility Support Services: ISAR 4 1 5 - (Biometrics/Laboratories) Total 38 16 54 35 60 Source: ISNAR. 1989. A Review of Agricultural System Research in Rwanda. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. World Bank, 1992. Staff Appraisal Report, Rwanda Second National Research Project. Washington, D.C. * Technical assistance will be available in research planning, M & E Laboratories and Biometrics. In 1989, about 60 percent of the scientific staff was Ing. Agron. and only 6 percent had Ph.Ds. 101 Table A 7.2 Rwanda: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1991) Institution Source Resources! Uses/US $ millions/Total US $ millions ISAR Government 1.125 Personnel 5.141 Sale oflproducts or services 1.228 Operation 1.941 Donors 5.569 Maintenance 0.103 Training 0.150 Investment 0.586 Total 7.922 Key Indicators: nvestment/total : 7.4 percent OC(excl. staff)/Scientist Government Budget/total :14.2 percent (incl. Foreign) US$33,993 External Resources/total : 70.3 percent Total budget/scientist Own resources+contract/total :15.5 percent (incl. Foreign) :US$138,739 Staff/total O.C. (incl. staff) : 65 percent Ph.D + MSc./total Scientists : 72 percent Staff/Government Budget : 457 percent Number of scientists : 57 Source: Pardey, Philip G. and J. Roseboom. 1993. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Rwanda. ISNAR Indicator Series Project: Phase II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. 102 ANNEX 8: COUNTRYPROFILE: SOMALIA BACKGROUND Experiment Station and Agricultural School and the Serum and Vaccine Institute in Somalia has a land area of 627,300 sq km, a Merka. In 1964, the Genal facility was population of 7.7 million, growing at 3.1 closed and the Central Agricultural Research percent and a GDP per capita income of U.S. Station (CARS) at Afgoi (IGADD 1992) and $170 (1990) i.e. prior to the civil war. Over the Bonka Agricultural Research Station the last two years 1991-1992 about 300.000 (BARS) in Baidoa were established with people died of starvation, at least 100,000 assistance from USAID and technical people were killed and about 45 percent of assistance from the University of Wyoming the population were displaced in-country or (USA). The Serum and Vaccine Institute outside as refugees. was relocated to Mogadishu in 1970. The UNDP, with technical assistance from FAO, In 1990, cropland was estimated to be assisted both CARS and the Serum and about 1. I million ha of which 12 percent was Vaccine Institute in the 1970s and 1980s. irrigated and the rest rainfed. Pasture covers about 43 million ha and forest and wood- In 1984, at the government's invitation, the lands about 9.6 million ha. About 70 percent International Service for National Agri- of the population are rural. Of these, about cultural Research (ISNAR) conducted a 55 percent are pastoralist or agropastoralist, detailed study of national research require- 24 percent are crop farmers and 1 percent ments (ISNAR 1984). Its recommendations are fishermen. The remainder are urban constituted a strategy for crop and livestock dwellers. production research. Since then, plans for developing agricultural research in Somalia Agriculture contributed about 65 percent have been based on the recommendations of of GDP in 1990 of which livestock was this study. The strategy was updated by responsible for 51 percent, crops for 38 per- ISNAR in 1990. cent, forestry for 9.5 percent and fisheries for less than I percent. The Agricultural Research Institute of the Ministry of Agriculture was responsible for The principal food crops are sorghum, crop production research, while the Ministry maize, sesame, cowpeas, sugar cane and rice. of Livestock, Forestry and Range (MLFR) Commercial crops are banana, citrus (mainly handled livestock research. The Faculties of grapefruits and lemons), vegetables, cotton Agriculture and Veterinary Sciences also and frankincense and myrrh (spontaneous conducted some research in their respective species). Livestock and livestock products fields (ISNAR 1990) and had considerable account for 80 percent of exports, banana for capacity to do even more. Several develop- 10 percent and fish, frankincense and myrrh ment projects and commercial enterprises for the remainder. had adaptive research components, e.g. the Somalfruit Company on banana, the Juba AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH Sugar Estate on sugar and the Fanoole Irrigation Project on rice. During the colonial era, the Italian The ARI was responsible for CARS in the administration established the Genale Afgoi and the Gelib Research Station and conducted joint planning and sessions review beans (rainfed). However, the fluctuating with the Bonka Dryland Agricultural external assistance and low budgetary allo- Research Station (BDARS) in Baidoa and cation from government have kept research Aburrin Research Station in the North West. outputs low. These two stations were administratively under the Bay Region Agricultural The civil war has resulted in wide spread Development Project and the North West looting and destruction of research and Agricultural Development Project, respec- educational facilities and the displacement of tively. The BDARS was expanded with the scientific community. The majority of resources from the World Bank, USAID, the the research scientists and university African Development Bank (AfDB), and the professors are refugees in Kenya, Ethiopia, International Fund for Agricultural Deve- Italy, Egypt, U.K. and North Amenrca. lopment (IFAD), with technical assistance Therefore, new institutional arrangements, from the University of Wyoming in the considerable rehabilitation and the recons- 1980s. titution of the dispersed trained manpower will be essential to revitalize agricultural Among the modest achievements of research. Starting from this base should agricultural research are the development of hopefully result in more rational institutional composite varieties and technical packages arrangements with a unified agricultural for maize for irrigated areas, the introduction research system, once national reconciliation of improved cultivars of grapefruit, rice, is achieved. sugar cane (irrigated), cowpeas and mung Table A 8.1 The Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Somalia (1990) Institution Ph.D MSc B.Sc Total Agricultural Research - 17 56 73 Institute Faculty of Agriculture/SNU 2 27 20 49 Total 2 44 76 122 Source: ISNAR. 1990. A Strategic Update of Somalia's National Agricultural Research Plan. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. 104 Table A 8.2 Somalia: Financial Resources and Usesfor Agricultural Research (1989) Institution Source Resources Uses US $ (m) MOA Government 1.083 Salary n.a. Extemal 0.817 Operation n.a. Total 1.900 Key Indicators: Investrnent/total n.a. Staff/Government Budget :US$13,708 Govemment Budget/total 57 percent O.C. (Excl. Staff)/Scientist : n.a. External Resource/total 43 percent Total Budget/Scientist :US$ 24,050 Own Resources + (Ph.D + MSc.)/ contracts/total n.a. Total Scientists : 38 percent Staff/total O.C. n.a. (1990) Number of Scientist 79 Source: ISNAR. 1990. A Strategic Update of Somalia's National Agricultural Research Plan. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. 105 ANNEX 9: COUNTRY PROFILE: SUDAN BACKGROUND The production of fish in the Sudan is very limited although the potential is high. It is The Sudan is the largest country in Africa, estimated that the Red Sea catches were with an area of 2.4 million sq km, a about 1,000 tons and the potential was population of 25.9 million, which is growing estimated at 10,000 tons in 1989. No data is at about 2.3 percent per annum and a GDP available from riverine catches, although the per capita of U.S.$ 540 per annum in 1990. potential is considered substantial. About 38 percent of the Sudan is humid or subhurmid, 25 percent is classified as ASAL AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH and 37 percent is desert. Agricultural research in the Sudan started Agriculture is the most important sector in with the establishment of Shambat Research the Sudanese economy. It accounts for about Station, Khartoum (IGADD 1922) in 1902. 36 percent of the total GDP, about 59 By the 1960s, a network of seventeen percent of the population were classified as research stations and were established to rural in 1990, and about 95 percent of serve the main agro-climatic production exports of which cotton is responsible for 51 zones. Several developmental projects also percent were derived from agriculture. Other had research components. Budgetary cons- agricultural exports include groundnuts, traints have resulted in the deterioration of livestock, gum arabic, sorghum and sesame. some of the substations, and resources seem to be concentrated on main stations where The crop production sub-sector comprises most of the scientific staff are located. about 12.9 million ha of which about 20 percent are modem, capital-intensive and The Agricultural Research Corporation irrigated, 27 percent large-scale mechanized (ARC), with headquarters in Wad Medani, rainfed farming and 53 percent traditional established in 1967, is the main agricultural rainfed farming. In the 1970s and 1980s, the research institution in the Sudan. The ARC productivity of the crop production subsector is a semi-autonomous organization under the declined due to wveak agricultural services, Ministry of Agriculture. The Laboratories low producer prices, the reduced availability and Veterinary Research Administrations of inputs and intermittently inadequate established in 1973 are responsible for rainfall. However, there are indications that research in animal health, and the Animal productivity is recovering as a result of Production Research Administration, esta- recent marketing liberalization. blished in 1957, is responsible for animal production research. The Sudan is an important livestock producer. The national herd consisted of The ARC has (FAO 1990) if research about 20 million cattle, 34.6 million sheep stations, one commodity stations and four and goats and 27.6 million camels in 1990. national research centers. The majority of the production is nomadic followed by settled mixed farming and a In 1983/1984, ISNAR reviewed the small modem dairy and fattening sector near training needs of ARC. IN 1987, ISNAR urban centers. and the Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD) initiated the deve- However, the resource allocation to lopment of a proposal for Strengthening agricultural research is very low. The Agricultural Research Management in Arab number of scientific staff grew from 328 Countries (SARMAC) 3 As part of this scientists in 1983 to 875 in 1989 and 1552 in initiative, a team of Sudanese scientists, 1993. However, during the same period, ISNAR and AOAD formulated the Agri- annual allocations decreased from U.S. $15.1 cultural Technology Management System in million to U.S. $3.7 million (Table 9.2) and the Sudan. The study consisted of a expenditure on agricultural research as a per- diagnosis of the NARS and alternatives for centage of AGDP declined from 0.34 percent systems improvement. In 1988, a national to 0.05 percent. Most of the allocation seminary was held to discuss the report and (about 82 percent) goes into salaries, leaving the recommendations made were incor- very little for investment and recurrent cost. porated in the report. In the past, agricultural research in the In addition, with input from the Sudan had considerable impact on the Agricultural Research, Extension and generation of agricultural technology. The Training Project (ARETP), funded by the genetic imDrovement of cotton, sorghum, World Bank, a five-year collaborative faba beans, the adaptation of wheat to program was developed between ISNAR and tropical hot environments and integrated pest ARC (AOAD/ISNAR 1988). Through this management for cotton, are some of the association, programme budgeting, human achievements that have had lasting impact. resource management and monitoring and evaluation procedures were introduced. A The ARC has cooperative programs with computerized system of documentation of several international agricultural research current research activities (DOCRA) (ARC centers, especially ICARDA and ICRISAT. 1992) has been tested and adapted to In addition, various donors provide support research activities for 1991/1992. for agricultural research e.g. the World Bank, IFAD, the Netherlands and the The Sudan has the basic infrastructure and UNDP/FAO. manpower needed for agricultural research. 107 Table A 9.1 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in the Sudan (1993)Study/Long Leave sctor Instution Ph.D D FM M&.Sc Total Post- B.Sc Diploma Total Total graduate Ph.D DVM MSc B.Sc Food Crops ARC 36 - 24 60 - - 60 5 - 5 3 13 Food/Cash ARC/FRC 20 - 10 30 6 - 36 - - - - - Other Programs ARC 75 - 50 125 - - 125 - Al fields KU 71 - 8 79 - - 79 - Al fields UG 42 - 5 47 - - 47 - All fields SUST/CA - - - 47 - - 47 - Soils IES 5 - 26 31 71 12 114 - - - - - Range & Pasture RPA - - - 55 57 - 112 - - - Animal Production ARS 9 - 21 30 - - 30 7 - 9 - 16 Animal Health ARS 57 - 158 215 699 32 946 - - - - Total 315 - 302 719 833 44 1596 12 - 14 3 29 Sources: Omar, M.E. 1993. National Working Paper on Food Cropsfor the East African FFA Initiative; Marsal, I.E. 1993. National Working Paper on Cash/Export Cropsfor the East African FFA Initiative. Musand, H.A. 1993. National Working Paper on Natural Resources Management and Conservation for the EastAfrican FFA; El-Sheikh, O. 1993. Sudan Frameworkfor Action on Animal Production Research Administration. Table A 9.2 Sudan: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1989) Institution Source Resources = US$ Uses = US $ (m) ARC Government + Donors Salary 3.034 3.7 Operation 0.666 Key Indicators: Investment/total n.a. Staff/Govemrnent Budget : n.a. Government Budget/total n.a. O.C. (Excl. Staff) Scicntist) US$761 External Resources/total n.a. Total Budget/Scientist US$ 4228 Own Resources + contracts/total n.a. Ph.D + MSc./Total 46 percent Staff/total O.C. 82 percent Number of Scientists :1552 Source: IGADD. 1990. Agricultural Research, Training and Extension in IGADD Countries. Djibouti: IGADD. 108 ANNEX 10: COUNTRYPROFILE: TANZANIA BACKGROUND Training (DRT), under the Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock Development and Tanzania has an area 945,000 sq km and had Cooperatives (MALDC); the Tropical a population of 24.5 million in 1990 with a Pesticides Research Institute (TPRI); the growth rate of about 2.8 percent per annum Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA); and and an average density of 26 persons per sq to a lesser degree, the University of Dar es km. The GNP is estimated to be U.S.$11 0 Salaam. A member of private estates also per year. carry out research related to their business. AGRICULTURE The DRT has a network of over fifty research institutes and associated centers/ substations that cover crop and livestock Agriculture iS the most Important economic reach TeNtinlAiutrlad sector in Tanzania. It accounts for 50 percent L esearch MaterplAnc(NalRM) of the country's GDP, for more than 80 Lvestock Research Masterplan (NAfLRM) percent of its export earnings and provides 90 c ntaIoNAof potr arch on twe percent of its rural employment. The sector two research snatedtfo gre ata rte f 57 ercnt n 186,4: two research stations that are designated for grew at a rate of 5.7 percent in 1986, 4.4 rehabilitation. Among these, are seven Zonal percent in 1987,4. perce in 1988 an t Research and Training Centers (ZRTCs), result of positive govera nent economic each compnrsing a lead station and associated centers/substations. The ZRTCs are located policy. Arable land is estimated to be 41.6 in the most important agro-ecological zones of million ha of which 12 percent is suitable for the country. The total area of land held by irrigation. About 15 percent (6.2 mullion ha) DRT is estimated to be 35,424 ha of which of the arable land is currently cultivated and 14,840 ha are used for research. 42.7 million ha are covered with forest. However, there is rapid deforestation. DRT, in cooperation with ISNAR and with Rainfall ranges between 500-2000 mma * ~~assistance from SPAAR, developed the NALRM which reviewed the existing research The most important food crops are maize, stain rwu rpsl o mrvn cassava, rice, sorghum, millet, grain legumes, thanin, o rganzaio and manaemnt banana, wheat and sweet and European agricr rearin the memet on potatoes. The main export crops are coffee, agcultural research In the medium to long cotton, tea, tobacco, sisal, pyrethrum and term and worked out priorities, programs, cashew nut. Livestock population in 1988 resources, linkages and support services to was estimated at 13.5 million cattle, 4.7 strengthen the research capacity.. In addition, mIlion sheep and 6.6 million goats. The ODA developed a mechanism for the reform ml ~~~~~~~~~~~of organization and management. majority of these animals are low-yielding indigenous breeds. The NALRM selected primary and AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH secondary priority research areas. The first pnority was: coffee; cotton; tea; nrce; animal health and livestock diseases; ruminant meat The Tanzanian agricultural research system and milk production; soil and water manage- consists of the Departnent of Research and ment; agroforestry; farming systems research (FSR); and agricultural economics. The Agricultural Research Council (NARC); (iii) second priority was: maize; roots and tubers; the setting up of Zonal Agricultural Research phaselous beans; grain legumes; vege-tables Advisory Comrnittees; (iv) the endorsement of and oil seeds. The NARLM also provided NALRM by the government and donors; and guidance on the restructuring and the the establishment of an Agricultural Research rehabilitation of physical facilities, redeploy- Fund (ARF) through which the university and ment of scientific human resources, creation DRT scientists can carry out contract of an enabling environment for DRT staff, research. improved and more transparent research funding, and better linkages with other key However, some important reform steps players such as the universities, the extension remain to be carried out, namely: (i) the service and policy makers. strengthening of livestock research; (ii) the slow enhancement of the capacity DRT for As a result of the NALRM, the government project implementation; (iii) addressing the established a donor group for agricultural issue of inadequate recurrent cost funding; research to enhance coordination. Some and (iv) the lack of improvement in the progress was consequently made in: (i) the working conditions of DRT scientists and reorganization of the Tanzanian NARS under other staff. the DRT; (ii) the establishment of a National Table A 10.1 The Number and Qualifications of Agricultural Research Scientists in Tanzania (1990) Sector Ph.D MSc. Total Post- B.Sc. Total graduates Food Crops 9 38 47 15 62 Cash Crops n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. Animal Production 3 5 8 3 11 Animal Health 8 13 21 7 28 Natural Resources 3 20 23 6 29 Other I 1 81 92 105 197 Total 34 157 191 136 327 Source: DRT and ISNAR. 1991. National Agriculture and Livestock Research Masterplan. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Note: Twenty-six of the natural resources scientists are in soil sciences. 110 Table A 10.2 Tanzania: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1990/91) Institution Source Resources Uses in Tsh in US$ in Tsh in US$ DRT Government 1180.0 6.00 Salary 333.3 1.70 External 443.0 2.30 Training 204.3 1.04 Development 442.7 2.27 Operation 642.4 3.29 Total 1623.0 8.30 1623.0 8.30 Source: DRT and ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Key indicators: Investment/total : 27.3 Stafflgovernment : 28.3 percent percent O.C. (excl. staff)/scientist : US$9,320 Government/total : 72.3 Total budget/scientist : US$23,513 percent Ph.D and M.Sc./total scientists : 58 percent External/total : 27.7 Number of scientists : 353 percent Own Resources and Contracts/total : n.a. Staff/total O.C. (incl. staff) : 34.1 percent 111 ANNEX11: COUNTRYPROFILE: UGANDA BACKGROUND (trypanosomiasis, tick-borne disease, etc.) and, to a lesser extent, infectious diseases Uganda has a land area of 199,500 sq km, a (rinderpest, food and mouth disease, etc.). population of 19.5 million (1990) that is growing at 3.4 percent per annum and a per About 21 percent of Uganda is covered by capita GDP of U.S. $250 per year. In 1990, lakes, rivers and swamps with good potential cropland was estimated to be 6.7 million ha for fisheries production. Currently, the (34 percent), pasture 5.0 million ha (25 Uganda-catch is estimated to be 245,000 percent), forests and woodland 5.7 million ha tons per year (1990). This provides the (29 percent) and unclassified land 2.5 million population with a substantial proportion (11 ha (12 percent). The entire land area of percent) of its protein requirement. Fish Uganda is within the humid and subhumid production is predominantly artisanal. How- classification. ever, both aquaculture and modem fishing are on the increase. The Ugandan economy is based mainly on agriculture which accounts for 76 percent of AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH the GDP and 97 percent of export eaming. Within the sector crops contribute 84 per- Agricultural research in Uganda started cent, animal products 13 percent, fisheries 1 with the establishment of the Namulonge percent and forestry 2 percent of AGDP. Cotton Research Station in 1908, the Serere The rural population is estimated at 90 Research Station in 1920 and the Kawanda percent and about 83 percent of the working Research Station in 1937. In addition, population are engaged in agriculture. various faculties e.g. the Agriculture and Veterinary Science Faculty of Makarere The most important food crops are University (MU) also carried out research. bananas/plantains, finger millet, sorghum, The Namulonge Research Station has a maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, beans and mandate for cotton, food crops, pasture and groundnuts. The most important commercial livestock; the Serere station for cotton, crops are coffee, cotton, sugar, tea and cereals, oilcrops, root crops, pasture and tobacco. Coffee alone generates 90 percent livestock; and the Kawanda Research Station of the export eamings. for coffee, tea, sugarcane, maize and beans. The livestock herd comprises about 3.5 Agricultural research in crops, livestock million cattle, 3.2 million sheep and goats husbandry and farm management is carried and about 0.5 million pigs. There are indi- out at Kabanyolo University farm, which is cations that the cattle population is declining run by the Faculty of Agriculture, Makere as more rangeland is converted into cropland. University. Research in animal health is Dairy and beef production is usually carried carried out by the Faculty of Veterinary out in specialized animal ranches. However, Science of University and the Animal Health the integration of livestock and crop Center at Entebbe. The Nakawa Forestry production is on the increase. The major Research Center carries out research in constraints facing animal production are forestry and agroforestry. parasitic diseases 112 The NARS in Uganda is undergoing of Makerere, parastatals and private orga- profound changes as result of reviews carried nizations that are involved in agricultural out in 1988-1990 which resulted in the research. It is foreseen that the clients of formulation of a National Agricultural agricultural research would be involved at all Research Strategy and Plan (Uganda 1991) levels of agricultural research, planning, in 1991 by a national Working Group with execution and utilization of technology. The assistance from ISNAR and the World Bank. implementation of the proposed research The Strategy established research priorities priorities and reorganization is in progress. and called for a unified organization. As a The proposed plan calls for an average in- result, the National Agricultural Research vestment of U.S. $3.4 to 7.5 million annually Organization (NARO) was established. depending on the option selected and the NARO comes under the supervision of the number of stations maintained. However, the National Agricultural Research Board allocation for 1993/94 is U.S. $2.82 million (NARB), which is accountable to the Uganda which is substantially higher than U.S. $1.83 National Council of Science and Technology million, the average for 1984/1989. In (UNCST). This system brings research in addition, NARO competitively rehired 189 crops, livestock, fisheries and forestry under scientists of a total of 289 in 1993 (Table A one autonomous body. The new NARS in 11.2). Uganda will consist of NARO, the University 113 Table A 11.1 Current Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Uganda (1993) Sector Institution Ph.D DVM MSc Total Post- B.Sc Diploma Total Study/Long Leave graduate Ph.D D VM M&Sc B.Sc Food Crops Kawanda 5 - 31 36 25 - 61 Namuionge 7 - 15 22 3 - 25 Scrcx 2 - 7 9 4 - 13 MU 14 - 7 21 - - 21 Natural Resources All a - 29 37 11 - 48 Cash Crops All 9 - 23 32 IS 22 69 Anima Production AU 1 - 3 4 6 - 10 Animal Health FVM/MU 12 15 23 50 2 - 52 AHRC 1 2 7 10 4 - 14 UTRD 3 3 6 12 6 - 18 Total 61 20 151 233 76 22 331 Sources: Baliddawa, C.W. 1993. Draft National Working Paper on Food Crops in Ugandafor the FFA Initiative. Entebbe, Uganda: NARO. Maiteki, G.A. 1993. A Draft National Working Paper on Cash/Export Crops in Uganda for the FFA Initiative. Entebbe, Uganda: NARO. Ssentongo, Y.K. 1993. Working Paper on Livestock Production Research. Entebbe, Uganda: NARO. Kalunda, M. 1993. National Agricultural Research Sector Working Paper on Animal Health Research. Emtenne, Uganda: NARO. Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, Makarene University. 1991. Five Year Development Plan. 1991. National Agricultural Research Strategy and Plan. Uganda Working Group 9A and ISNAR. 1991. Volumes 1 and 2. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. AHRC = Animal Health Institute, FVM = Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, MU = Makerere University, UTRO = Uganda Trypanosomiasis Organization Note: AHRC and UTRD to be merged into Livestock Health Research Institute (LIRI) 114 Table A 11.2 Uganda: Financial Resources and Uses forAgricultural Research (Average/1984-89)8 Institution Source Resources Uses (JS S millions) (US (mN)) Pre-NARO Government/Donors 1.83 Salary 1.464 Operation 0.366 NARO Government 0.12 Salary 0.76 (Proposed 1993/94)b External 2.72 Operation 0.58 Investment 0.45 Total 2.82 Training 1.05 Key Indicators: Actual Prop.93/94 Actual Prop. 93/94 Investment total n.a. 16 percent Staff/Government Budget n.a. 633 percent Govermment budget/total n.a. 4 percent O.C. (excl. staff)/Scientist US$1,266 US$3,068 External Resources/total n.a. 96 percent Total Budget/Scientist US$6,332 US$15,026 Own Resources Contract n.a. n.a. Ph.D + MSc/Scientists 75 percent 67 Staff/operation -incl staff 80 percent 57 percent Number of Scientists 289 189 a Ugimda Group 9A/ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural Research Strategy and Plm. Volume 1. b NARO. 1993. Personal Communication (the number of scientists is for NARO only). 115 ANNEX 12: COUNTRY PROFILE: ZAIRE BACKGROUND imports. The most important food crops are cassava, plantain/banana, grain/legumes and The Republic of Zaire is the second largest other root crops. The livestock herd is rela- country in Sub-Saharan Africa with an area tively small but growing i.e. 1.5 million cattle, of 2,345,000 sq km and a population of 40 3.5 million small ruminants, 700,000 pigs and million in 1992. The rate of population 16 million fowl. growth is estimated at 3.0 percent per annum. The country has immense energy and agri- AGRICULTURALRESEARCH cultural resources. This potential is not realized as reflected in the GDP per capita Prior to independence, agricultural research which is about US$220. was carried out by the Institut National pour les Etudes Agronomiques du Congo Belge AGRICULTURE (INEAC), which had a large number of expatriate researchers (300 of which only one Zaire has a diversity of climates and soils, was Zairian). The system also had excess which are suitable for diverse agricultural physical facilities consisting of twenty-six production system. Rainfall ranges between research stations covering 300,000 ha. After 1000 mm to 2200 mm, with most of the independence, INEAC was replaced by the country in the higher rainfall area. However, Institut National pour l'Etude et la Recherche of the estimated 35 percent arable land, only 3 Agronomique (INERA). However, due to the percent is cultivated and 1.5 percent is departure of expatriate scientists and the dis- utilized as pasture. The country has the turbances of the early 1960s, over-size largest intact tropical forest in Africa infrastructures and reduced government covering 47 percent of the land area. About support, the system deteriorated. 75 percent of the population are directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture for This was followed by a period where employment and subsistence. Agriculture several donors supported various commodities contributes about 30 percent to the GDP. as research projects or components of deve- About 65 percent of the agricultural GDP lopment projects. The International Agni- come from crop production and 15 percent cultural Research Centers (IARCs) also come from livestock production. carried out collaborative research that resulted in positive achievements. The Inter- Agriculture contribute only 8 percent to national Maize and Wheat Improvement total export as a result of the decline in the Center (CIMMYT) carried out research in competitiveness of traditional exports such as maize, the International Institute of Tropical oflpalm, rubber and tea. Coffee is the most Agriculture (ITTA) carried out research in important export crop and accounts for about cassava and the International Potato Center 65 percent of the agricultural export followed (CIP) carried out research in potatoes. As a by forest products (17 percent). oil palm (5 result, some improved varieties of these crops percent), and rubber and quinine (4 percent were released and widely adopted by farmers each). Zaire imports a substantial amount of in certain regions. food commodities such as maize, rice and wheat, which constitute 20 percent of the 116 The Belgium Administration for ISNAR, formulated a Master Plan for Development Cooperation (AGCD) provided Agricultural Research The Master Plan support for rice germplasm conservation and identified twelve priority programs (nine cotton varietal research and the private sector existing and three new), namely, maize, carried out research on the development of cassava, grain, legumes, potatoes, rice. dwarf, wilt-resistant oil palm varieties and cotton, coffee, oil palm, livestock, conser- selection of sugar cane clones. USAID helped vation of natural resources, farming system establish the National Applied Research and research and germplasm conservation. In Extension Service (SENARAV) under the addition, the Master Plan offers guidelines on Ministry of Agriculture and supported human resource development, basing research research and extension on basic food commo- in the most important agro-ecological zones dities such as maize, cassava and grain and rationalization of the management and the legumes. However, work was carried out at structure of INERA, which will be respon- INERA stations. sible for all agricultural research directly or through overseeing and supervision. In 1985, an interministerial study group assisted by ISNAR with funding from The Faculties of Sciences of the USAID, recommended (i) the integration of Universities of Kinshasa and Kisangani and all research efforts with focus on national the Faculty of Veterinary Science of the priorities; (ii) the establishment of result- University of Lubumbashi carry out some oriented programming, budgeting and research in agriculture. In addition, INERA accounting procedures, (iii) the transfer of collaborated with the Universities of Louvain, INERA headquarters from Yangombi to Gembloux and Gant. Zaire is also a member Kinshasa and the reduction of the number of of the Institut de Recherche Agronomique et research stations from twenty-six to ten; (iv) Zootechnique (IRAZ) and, in collaboration staff development and review of benefits; and with Rwanda and Burundi, carries out (v) the separation of research and commercial research in potatoes and other crops and live- activities. Between 1987 and 1990, the stock systems that are suitable for the eastern government carried out some of the proposed highlands. reforms and in 1989, with assistance from 117 Table A 12.1 The Number ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Zaire (1992) Sector Institution National Expatriate Total Food Crops INERA 58 2 60 IFA 8 0 8 CRM 12 4 16 Sub-total 78 6 84 Cash Crops INERA 13 0 13 Natural Resources INERA 10 0 10 CRSN 17 0 17 IFA 6 0 6 Fac. Sc. UK 25 0 25 Sub-total 58 0 58 Animal Production INERA 1 2 0 12 CRAA 30 0 30 IFA 8 0 8 Fac. Vet. Med. ULU 9 0 9 Sub-total 59 0 59 Animal Health CRSN 3 0 3 Fac. Vet. Med. ULU 22 0 22 Lab. Vet. 15 0 15 Sub-total 40 0 40 Other All 122 9 131 Total 370 15 385 Source: INERA Table A 12.2 The Distribution ofAgricultural Research Scientists in Zaire byLevel of Qualifi cation Institution Ph.D. Total M Sc. Tota B. Sc. Tolal I National Expatriat National Expatriate National Expatriate e INERA 11 0 11 26 0 26 78 3 81 CREN-K 8 0 8 0 0 0 5 0 5 CRAA 3 0 3 0 0 27 0 27 CRSN 3 0 3 0 0 30 0 30 Fac. Sc. UKIN 13 2 15 4 0 9 0 9 IFA 12 0 12 2 0 23 1 24 Fac. Sc. UKIS 8 2 10 I 0 17 0 17 Fac. Vet. Med. ULU 7 1 8 2 0 30 0 30 CRN I 1 2 2 0 12 0 12 Lab. Vet. 0 0 I 0 0 15 0 15 ISDR BUKAVU 4 2 6 3 0 20 0 20 Total 70 8 78 40 0 226 4 270 Totai Source: INERA 118 Table A 12.3 Zaire: Financial Resources and Uses for Agricultural Research (1992) (in USS 000) Institution Total Budget Sources Uses (Salary) National External National Loan External Total National External Total Open Inv. INERA 1,899 607 1,899 157 450 2,506 1,758 450 2,208 3.0 295.0 CREN-K 197 0 197 0 0 197 177 0 177 20.0 - CRAA 188 787 189 0 787 976 139 0 139 50.0 787.0 CRSN 173 3 173 0 3 176 170 0 170 3.0 3.0 Fac. Sc. UNIKIN - 300 - 0 300 300 - 300 300 - - IFA 63 150 63 0 150 213 61 150 211 1.4 .6 Fac. Sc. UNIK1S - 300 - 0 300 300 - 300 350 - - Fac. Med. Vet. 45 150 45 0 150 195 43 150 193 2.0 0 CRM 13 600 13 0 600 613 12 600 612 1.0 0 Labo. Vet. 12 0 12 0 0 12 6 0 6 4.0 2.0 ISDR, BUKAVU 44 300 44 0 300 344 38 300 338 2.4 3.6 Total 2,634 3,197 2,635 157 3,040 5,832 2,404 2,250 4,654 86 1091.2 Key Indicators: Investment/total :18.7 percent StafflGovernnent budget :176.6 percent Government Budget/total : 45.2 percent O.C. (Excl. staff)/Scientist : US$227 External Resources/total 52. 1 percent Total budget/scientist : US$15,267 Own Resource/Contracts n.a. PhD and MS/Total Scientist : 31 percent SLaff/Total O.C. incl staff : 98.2 percent Number of Scientists (incl. 8 expatriate) : 382 119 N4 NEX 1 3 Table A 13.1 Summary of CGIAR Centers'Collaboration with Eight Selected East African Countrics (1987-91) Country CJAT ClMMYT CIP IBPGR ICARDA ICRAF ICRISAT IFPRI IITA ILCA ILRAD INIBAP ISNAR Burundi * * * * * * o * * * * * Djibouti 0 0 0 *0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ethiopia * * * * * * * * o Kenya * * * * 0 Rwanda * * * 0 Somnalia * * 0 * * 0 * 0 0 0 * * * Sudan * 0 0 * * 0 * * 0 0 * 0* Uganda * * * * 0 0 = prescnc..c of programn(s) and/or activity o absencc of progran(s) or activity ICLARM, IIMI, IRRI and WARDA were omitted because there were no programs across the board. SVource: Table A 13.2 120 Table A 13.2 CG1AR Centers'Programs and Activities in Eight Selected East African Countries (1987-91) Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries CIAT Regional Network on * Strengthen the national research capacity of participating countries: to jointly develop adapted Ethiopia Beans: Eastern Africa and improved bean production technology components for traditional and improved cropping Kenya systems; to stimulate increases in the production of beans, and consequently to contribute to Somalia the necessary food security of this high density population region of the world. Sudan, Uganda CIAT Regional Network on Burundi Beans: Rwanda Great Lakes Same as above (Central Africa) CIMMYT East Africa Cereals * Strengthen the maize and wheat agronomy research capacity of the national agricultural Burundi (Maize and Wheat) research and extension institutions throughout the region. Ethiopia Program Kenya Rwanda Somalia Uganda CIMMYT On-farm Research in * Provide assistance in conducting on-farm research (OFR) to a number of national agricultural Burundi Eastern and research and extension institutions throughout the region. Ethiopia Southern Africa Kenya Rwanda Uganda C MD"T Eastern Africa * Identify the needs of national programs and strengthen their maize breeding, agronomy, and Burundi Maize Regional other research capacities through consultation, in-country training, and regional workshops Ethiopia Program and conduct germplasm collection activities that arc not practicable at CIMMYT Kenya licadquarters. Rwanda Somalia, Uganda 121 Partcipating ('enter Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries CIMMYT East/South Africa Support national research programs through consultation, in-country training, and regional Burundi Wheat Regional workshops and spearhead special efforts such as development of wheat varieties for marginal Ethiopia Program lands. Kenya Rwanda Somalia, Uganda CIMMYT Eastern and Southern Strengthen the capacity of national programs to conduct efficient agricultural research by Burundi Africa Econornics working with national program scientists to formulate, refine, test, and evaluate impact of Ethiopia Regional Program research. Focus on particular regional needs through training, workshops, and consultation Kenya with national programs. Rwanda Somalia, Uganda CIP Sub-Saharan Africa Assistance in training; Burundi Regional Program Arrangements for planning conferences in the region to identify research priorities important Ethiopia to both country programs and CIP headquarters to assist in program planning; Kenya * Transmittal of information on research needs of the region to CIP headquarters to assist in Rwanda program planning; Uganda * Collaborative rescarch projects with national program scientists for CIP's international role and to meet needs of national programs; * Scientific advicc in program planning and priority-setting and related program activities; * Advice to country programs on CIP germplasm and technologies that are ready for verification or farm testing and use. CIP PRAPACE * One of ClIP's six unique collaborative networks that are fundamental vehicles for Burundi (Programme Regional implementing cost-efficient research and disseminating its results among center's clients. In Ethiopia d'Amelioration de la this network , countries share responsibilities for certain priority research, according to Kenya Culture de la Ponune comparative advantage. CIP participates in the networks as an equal partner, providing Rwanda de Terre et de la technical assistance in areas of expertise as well as administrative guidance. Uganda Patate Douce en Afrique Centrale et de l'Est) 122 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries IBPGR Regional Office for * Responsibilities include: germplasm conservation; regional activities such as developing and Burundi East and Southern maintaining contact with national and regional genetic resources program as well as providing Djibouti Africa scientific and technical advice; crop networks: germplasm collection and distribution; Ethiopia characterization and documentation; training. Kenya Rwanda, Somali Sudan, Uganda ICARDA Nile Valley Regional Originally concerned with the improvement of faba bean production in the Nile Valley (Egypt Djibouti Program and Sudan) and, since 1985, also on the highlands of Ethiopia. Expanded in 1989, the new Ethiopia (NVRP) program, in addition to faba bean, covers research and training activities to improve the Somalia production of other cool-season food legumes (chickpea and lentil, and field pea for only Sudan Ethiopia) and cereals (wheat, in cooperation with CIMMYT, and barley). Activities are built around a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional, and problem-oriented approach that makes full use of the expertise, human resources, and infrastructure available in the participating countries. ICRAF Subhumid Highlands Research focuses on the subhumid highlands at altitudes ranging from 1000 to 2500 m. Burundi of Eastern Africa Population density is high, farm sizes are small and land use systems are among the most Ethiopia Zone intense in Africa. Agricultural practices have not always kept pace with increasing pressure on Kenya the land, often resulting in a decline in the natural resource base. A key consideration in the Rwanda design of the research program has been complementarity among activities in each country. Uganda Agroforestry technologies with potential for the zone as a whole are being tested at multiple sites undcr varying environmental conditions. ICRISAT Eastern Africa * Evaluate sorghum and millet genotypes in four major agroecological zones: highlands; Burundi Regional Cereals and intermediate elevations; low elevations; and very dry lowlands. Researchers screen sorghum, Ethiopia Legumes (EARCAL) pearl millet, and pigeonpea for dry short-season adaptation in the long rains, and intermediate Kenya adaptation in the short rains. Rwanda, Somalia Sudan, Uganda 123 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries IITA CORTIS * The goal is to encourage interaction between scientists in both streams for additional impact, Kenya (Collaborative Group and to avoid duplication of effort. The ultimate aim is to produce improved technologies for Rwanda for Root and Tuber root-and- tuber-based cropping systems, to help .ncrease farmers' productivity and help them Improvement and meet the food needs of rapidly growing populations. Systems) JITA East and Southern * Aims to increase cassava and sweet potato productivity among resource-poor farmers through Burundi Africa Root Crops adoption of technologies which stabilize production and optimize productivity while Kenya Research Network sustaining the resource base. Expected project outputs are: generation of useful germplasm and Rwanda (ESARRN) improved varieties adapted and acceptable to farmers and consumers; benchmark database for Uganda cassava and sweet potato production, cropping systems, and production technologies; characterization of postharvest handling, rural processing, and utilization of cassava; effective transfer of germplasm and multiplication of varieties in the region and promotion of farmer adoption, and production technologies that are economically viable and sustainable. IFPRI Collaborative * IFPRI conducts virtually all of its field-based research in partner-ship with developing-country Ethiopia Research institutions. Goals of collaborative efforts are to build research capabilities and attune rcsearch Kenya with the need for appropriate policies. Collaborations include: Rwanda Sudan Fthiopia Ethiopian Nutrition Institute, Addis Ababa, on the consequences for productivity and the implications for adoption of agricultural technology of seasonal food insecurity; Office of the National Central Committee for Planning, Food Security Unit, Addis Ababa, on famine prevention and relief. Kenya Kenyatta University, Nairobi, on a study of the effects on nutrition of agricultural policies and programs in Kenya; Ministry of Planning and National Development, Nairobi, on a study to assess the income and nutritional effects of structural adjustment. Rwanda Ministry of Agriculture and National Agricultural Research Center (ISAR), Butare, on research on policy issues for long-term growth in fertilizer use. Sudan Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, Khartoum, on a study examining famine in the context of successions of bad crop years and the performance of rural markets and different household food security strategies. 124 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries ILRAD African * A research network established to study the health and productivity of trypanotolerant and Burundi Trypanotolerant susceptible cattle, sheep and goats under different levels of tsetse-transmitted tirpanosomiasis Ethiopia Livestock Network risk. The goal is to provide information on genetic and acquired aspects of trypano-tolerance Kenya and the factors affecting the susceptibility of livestock to trypanotolerance infection. This Rwanda information should lead to improved breeding programs and the optimum use of Uganda trypanotolerance livestock in the vast tsetse-infested regions of Africa. ILRAD is collaborating with ILCA and national livestock ministries and development programs. ILRAD Cooperative and * ILRAD's mandate and strategy for finding means of controlling theileriosis and Ethiopia Outreach trypanosomiasis are based primarily on laboratory research conducted on immunological Kenya aspects of these diseases. The aim is to more effectively transfer the technology developed at Somalia ILRAD in this basic research, as well as to disseminate the Laboratory research results more Sudan efficiently, to national and regional organizations in Africa. The training program is designed Uganda primarily to develop veterinary research and disease control capabilities in African countries where trypanosomiasis and East Coast Fever (ECF) are important animal health problems. Training programs are for scientists and technicians from laboratories and field programs in Africa and other developing areas, postgraduate training for students working towards master's and doctoral degrees and post-doctoral positions to enhance the professional knowledge and experience of young scientists. In addition, conferences and workshops are held throughout the year on topics related to ILRAD's rescarch program. ILRAD Nairobi Cluster * A loose confederation of institutes in and around Nairobi working on the ileriosis, Kenya trypanosomiasis and their vector. The main aim is to facilitate scientific cooperation through the exchange of biological material, joint seminars, training and other mechanisms. Cluster members have no direct input into ILRAD's programs or the protocols of the other institutes. With regard to the NARS, ILRAD carries out field work in Kenya through KARI, KETRI and the Department of Veterinary Services. The collaboration with KARI at the coast is a typical example of the application of strategic research findings in the field. The University of Nairobi makes use of ILRAD's facilities, particularly for the training of postgraduate students and short-term training in special skills. 125 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Counries INIBAP East African Regional *INIBAP proposes the following country-specific activities: Burundi Network Burundi - cropping systems research, socioeconomic surveys; Ethiopia - bananas: soil salinity, Ethiopia (EANET) crop agronomy; Ensente: taxonomy, crop physiology, agronomy, plant pathology, Kenya socioeconomic surveys; Kenya - agronomic and economic surveys; Rwanda - cropping systems, Rwanda banana weevil control, socioeconomic surveys; Somalia - soil salinity, crop husbandry; Uganda Somalia - cropping systems, banana weevil and nematode control, biochemistry of fruit quality. Uganda ILCA Cattle Milk and Meat Themes include: Ethiopia * Reproductive wastage and hygiene management; Kenya * Feeding and management systems; Burundi * Milk preservation and processing technologies; * Economics of cattle production; * Brecd cvaluation and improvement; * Network coordination. ILCA Smal' Ruminant Meat ILCA's research is directed at undcrstanding the role of small ruminants in farming systems, Burundi and Milk identifying constraints and devcloping technologies that optimize the use of resources available Ethiopia on the farm. This research is carried out under five themes. A sixth, "Network coordination," links the work with that of ILCA's partners in NARS of Sub-Saharan Africa. The five themes are: * Economics of small ruminant production; * Breed evaluation and improvement; * Forage and feeding systems; * Reproductive wastage and hygiene management; * Systems and economics. 126 Participating Center Program Acttvities/Themes/Thrusts Countries ILCA Animal Feed The aim is to develop feed technologies that use herbaceous forage legumes, leguminous fodder Ethiopia Resources trees and agro-industrial byproducts to supplement native pastures and food-crop residues. The Kenya goal is to: Uganda achieve higher, sustainable levels of meat and milk production. The objective of the thrust is Rwanda pursued under five major themes: Burundi * Resource assessment and services; Sudan * Initial evaluation of feed resources; * Multipurpose trees; * Legume forages in crop livestock systems; * Network coordination - there is one collaborative network: the African Feed Resources Network (AFRN). The network play vital roles in testing the results of the work in various crop- livestock production systems. They are instrumental in training NARS staff in forage evaluation and production and in facilitating the supply of seed for multilocational trials. The information exchange links between the program and the NARS are strengthened through training courses, workshops. conferences and network newsletters. ELCA Trypano-tolerancc The goal is to contribute to improved livestock production in tsetse-infested areas of Africa by Ethiopia developing a better understanding of the factors affecting the perfornance of trypanotolerant animals and the effectiveness of trypanosomiasis control measures. In pursuing this goal, ILCA and ILRAD have continued their collaboration with national partners in the African Trypanotolerani Livestock Network. The thrust is pursuing its objectives under four major research themes: * Trypanosomiasis epidemiology; * Trypanotolerance; * Genetics of trypanotolerance; and * Biological and economic evaluation of productivity responses to interventions. 127 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries ILCA Livestock Policy The overall objectivc of this thrust is to support national efforts to improve the policies affecting Ethiopia and Resource Use the livestock sector and to increase the efficiency with which natural and other resources are used Kenya in Sub- Uganda Saharan Africa. Projects are grouped into six themes: * Policy services; * Policy research; * Range trends; * Semi-arid livestock; * Resource services; * Network coordination - this theme provides resources for the establishment and coordination of networks to foster collaboration between NARSs in respect of the work of this thrust. ILCA lTraining Individual Training and Group Training programs aim at improving and strengthening the Ethiopia capabilities of African scientists to conduct research aimed at incrcasing livestock production Kenya in Africa. Uganda Training Materials and Methods pro, ide cducational support to ILCA training courses and to Burundi NARS institutions Rwanda Sudan ISNAR Advisorv Service This is the primarv contact between ISNAR and the NARS. The service is carried out in three Burundi major stages: a diagnostic review; a planning stage to tackle the problems identified in the Kenya revicw; and an implementation stage. Rwanda Somalia Sudan Uganda ISNAR Research Designed to develop solutions to problems, analytical procedures, and management tools for Ethiopia NARS. Major projects are concerned with agricultural indicators (database on NARS), on-farm Kenya client-oriented research, research-technology transfer linkages, priority setting, biotechnology, and small countries. 128 Participating Center Program Activities/Themes/Thrusts Countries ISNAR Training * Training adds strength to NARS by helping managers further develop their skills in research Ethiopia policy, organization, and management. Kenya Sudan Uganda Sources: IGADD. 1992. Agricultural Research, Training and Extension in IGADD Countries. The World Bank. 1990. SAR. Kenya: Forestry Development Project. Washington, D.C.: World Bank; World Bank. 1994. Agricultural Strategy Note. Washington D.C.: World Bank. Pardey, Philip C. and Roseboom, J. 1994. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System ofMadagascar. ISNAR Indicator Series. Table 6.1 shows the .lumber of full-timc scientists in 1991 and Table 6.2 indicates the financial resources and uses for agricultural research in 1993. FOFIFA = Foibem Pirenena Uomba ny Fikarohana Amphiharina Amin' ny Fampanarosoana ny emy Ambanivohitral. ISNAR. 1989. A Review ofAgricultural Systems Research in Rwanda; World Bank. 1987. Eastern and Southern AfTica Agncultural Research Review. World Bank. 1993. Second National Agricultural Research Projcct. FAO. 1991. Production Year Book. Volume 45. Rome: FAO; Department of Research and Training (Tanzania) and ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan; Spurling, Andrew et. al. 1992. Agricultural Research in Southern Africa: A Frameworkfor Action. Discussion Paper. No. 184. Africa Technical Department Series. Washington D.C.: World Bank. IGADD. 1992. Agricultural Research, Training and f xiension in IGADD Countries. 129 NOTES I Spurling A., Teck Y. Pee, G. Mkamanga, and C. Nkwanyana (1992). Agricultural Research in Southern Africa, A FrameworkforAction. Discussion Papers, No. 184. Africa Technical Department Series. World Bank, Washington D.C; - Weijenberg, J., Dione, M. Fuchs-Carsh, A. Kerd and J. Lefort (1993). Revitalizing Agricultural Research in the Sahel, A Proposed FrameworkforAction. Discussion Papers, No. 211. Africa Technical Department Series. World Bank, Washington D.C. 2 D. Martella, Regional Collaboration, USAID/REDSO,. Paper presented at the Kampala Workshop, November 22-26, 1993. 3 The Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR) has identified the following categories of networks: (1) information exchange networks; (ii) scientific consultation networks; and (iii) collaborative research networks. 4 Ad hoc Technical Committees are specialist committees set up by the CD to study specific regional issues, questions or constraints derived as priorities from the national strategic plans of the countries of the region, with a view to developing appropriate approaches towards answering or solving them. Similarly, ad hoc Working Groups are assigned by the CD to monitor, evaluate and advise on the implementation of special studies or initiatives. s Thematic Task forces will be the basic units for planning and conducting collaborative research. They will be constituted to find solutions for clearly identified and prioritized common constraints. Once the solution is found, they will be disbanded. This represents a clear departure from the commodity network approach, often linked to the mandates of participating international institutions. 6 For the purposes of this document, the internationally accepted definition of a NARs is understood to encompass all national agricultural research, be it through a publicly-financed national agricultural research organization, the universities, private firms, individuals and/or Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). 7 IGADD is the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development. 8 FPPCI, the average annual quantity of food produced per capita in relation to that produced in 1979-1981= 100. Food is defined as comprising nuts, pulses, fruits, cereals, vegetables, sugar cane, sugar beets, starchy roots, edible oils, livestock and livestock products. (UNDP 1993). 9 Ratio of Food Imports to: (National Food Production + Food Imports - Food Exports). '° Country reports prepared for the Eastern and Central Africa FFA development. I I The potential sequence of events is as follows. With more competitive tradeable commodities, exporters will be able to gain a greater share of the international market without the risk of "pressuring" the price down (the region as a whole is relatively small), thus capturing more foreign exchange for the country. In a second round, the enhanced foreigh exchange will permit additional developmental investments in the agricultural and non-farm sectors. Next is the appreciation of the nation's currency in foreign exchange markets and increased welfare and income for the country as a whole. As per capita income rises, a market is created for more agricultural outputs and also for goods and services in the non- 130 farm sectors. All this leads to increased overall production, savings and investments, which in turn can further increase demand. Growth becomes self-sustaining. 12 East African Framework for Action Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research; Synthesis Paper, Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. 1 3 The East Africa Community consisted of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. 14 The Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD) is composed of the countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. ' 5 Centre Director Committee, CGIAR. "Strengthening Research Partnerships in Sub-Saharan Africa". Report of a Round-Table Dialogue between NARS leaders and Directors General of IARCs. ICRAF House, Nairobi, Kenya. June 15-16, 1992. 16 Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on an Eastern Africa Framework for Action on Agricultural Research, November 22-26, 1993, Kampala, Uganda. 1 7 A national strategy defines overall research objectives and principles of operation to achieve them. A "strategic or master plan" combines both the strategy and its implementation, i.e. provides details on human and financial resource requirements. The use of "strategy" and "plan" in the text refers to "strategic plan." 18 Limiting the scope for research to biological constraints only may lead to solutions that can not be applied because of overriding constraints in the total production process (e.g. if there is no market, why should farmers introduce a higher yielding variety requiring more inputs?). 19 New research proposals typically contain :(i) a constraint analysis; (ii) a critical review of available technology to meet the constraints to farmer adoption of available technology; (iii) the problem definition; (iv) a "state-of-the-art" analysis of research results; (v) the definition of research objectives; (vi) a description of expected results, and the economic and social justification of the proposed research; (vii) a description of research activities, corresponding to the objectives; (viii) the selection and justification of the research methodology; (ix) the proposed experimental design and methodology for statistical analysis; (x) key indicators for monitoring progress and evaluating impact; and (xi) a budget through completion of the proposed research. 20 In general, the review of new research proposals by the NARC does not include details of each and every new experiment or study, but rather the review of major new research themes or an important reorientation of ongoing research themes. The review concerns the relevance and quality of proposed new research, and whether such research conforms with the strategic plan. The NARC should pay particular attention to new research themes that were not foreseen in the plan. 21 For institutions with their own statutory Boards of Directors, financial audits would be under the auspices of the Board. 22 In countries with a National Agricultural Research Fund (NARF), NARC also manages this fund, in total independence from the beneficiary insitutions, to avoid conflicts of interest. Some institutions may have an own managed fund in cases where no public funds are involved. 23 In-country courses when there is a critical mass to be trained. 131 24 In concept similar to ."debt for nature". 25 The principles of regional program organization are similar to the ones applied by WARDA in West Africa. See also, WARDA (1991). A Program of Partnership, WARDA 's New Vision andApproach to Collaboration with NationalAgricultural Research Systems. Bouake, Cote d'lvoire. 26 SPAAR had identified the following categories of networks: (i) Information Exchange Networks; (ii) Scientific Consultation Networks; and (iii) Collaborative Research Networks. 27 For example, the development and spread of high-yielding bean, potato and cassava varieties; and the adequacy and number of private and public nurseries producing seedlings for farmers involved in agroforestry. 28 The generally accepted objectives are: economic efficiency, equity, food security, natural resource conservation and scientific validity. 29 ASARECA (Association for Strengthen Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa). 1994. Work Program Proposal (1/7/1994-30/6/1994). 30 This is of particular importance to allow for the channeling of money for regional collaborative programs through the NARSs, and to develop and introduce Consolidated Funding Mechanisms. 31 Agricultural Research, Training and Extension in IGADD Countries, October 1992. 32 Mullen, J. "Institutional Strengthening in Rural Development: The Case of Djibouti." Agric. Admin. & Extension 28 (1988) 181-189. 33 World Bank (1994) "Eritrea: Option and Strategies for Growth (Draft)" . Washington, D.C. 34 Source: FOFIFA 35 AOAD/ISNAR, (1988) The Agricultural Technology Management System in the Sudan, Wad Medani, Sudan. 132 BIBLIOGRAPHY NATIONAL FFA WORKINGPAPERS (Copies availablefrom the authors) Abate, A.N. 1993. "Draft National Working Paper on Natural Resource Management and Conservation in Kenya." Nairobi, Kenya: KARI. Ashgari, Dereje, Ephrem Bechere, Seyfu Ketema, Akog Laike and Mulugeta H-Selassie. 1993. "National Working Paper on East African Framework for Action on Agricultural Research in Ethiopia." Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR). Baliddawa, C.W. 1993. "Draft National Working Paper on Food Crops in Uganda for the FFA Initiative." Entebbe, Uganda: NARO Djama, Ali. 1993. "National Resource Management and Conservation in Djibouti as Related to Agriculture." National Working Paper for the East Africa FFA. Djibouti: ISERT El-Sheikh, 0. 1993. "Sudan Framework for Action on Animal Production Research Administration." Wad Medani, Sudan: ARC Kalunda, M. 1993. "National Agricultural Research Sector Working Paper on Animal Health Research in Uganda." Entebbe, Uganda: NARO Kilewe, A.M. 1993. "Draft National Working Paper on Natural Resource Management and Conservation in Kenya." Nairobi: Kenya. KARI. Mailu, A.M. 1993. "Draft Working Paper on Food Crops in Kenya for the East African FFA Initiative." Nairobi, Kenya: KARI. Maiteki, G.A. 1993. "A Draft National Working Paper on Cash/Export Crops in Uganda for the FFA Initiative." Entebbe, Uganda: NARO Marsal, I.E. 1993. "Sudan National Working Paper on Cash/Export Crops for the East African FFA Initiative." Wad Medani, Sudan: ARC Mohamed, Sheikh (1993) "Elevage et Sante Animale en Republique de Djibouti. National Working Paper for the East African FFA." Djibouti: ISERST Mohamed, Sheikh. 1993. "La Recherche Scientifique a Djibouti. National Working Paper for the East African FFA. Wad Medani, Sudan: ARC Musand, H.A. 1993. "Sudan National Working Paper on Natural Resources Management and Conservation for the East African FFA." 133 Omar, M.E. 1993. "Sudan National Working Paper on Food Crops for the East African FFA Initiative." Wad Medani, Sudan: ARC. Ssentongo, Y.K. 1993. "Working Paper on Livestock Production Research in Uganda." Entebbe, Uganda: NARO. Wabule, M.N. 1993. "Draft Working Paper on Export Crops in Kenya for the East African FFA Initiative." Nairobi, Kenya: KARI. Wafula, J.S. 1993. "Report on Animal Health Research in Kenya." Nairobi, Kenya: KARI. REGIONAL FFA WORKING PAPERS (Copies availablefrom the authors) Bruhn, K. 1993. "Livestock Production Research." Paper prepared for the East Africa FFA Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research. Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. Jenson, J.R. 1993. "Natural Resources Management and Environment Emphasizing Soil and Water Management and Conservation." Paper prepared for the East African FFA Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research. Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. Lehn-Jensen, Henrik. 1993. "Animal Health Research." Paper prepared for the East African FFA Initative for Strengthening Agricultural Research. Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. Noor, M.A. 1993. "The Status of Agricultural Research in East Africa." Washington, D.C.: (SPAAR). Ottosen, C.O. 1993. "Food Crop Production Research." Paper prepared for the East African FFA Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research. Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. Qaraeen, A. 1993. "Cash/Export Crops." Paper prepared for the East African FFA Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research. Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. PAPERS PRESENTED (OR REFERRED TO) AT THE FFA REGIONAL WORKSHOP. Kampala, Uganda, November 22-26, 1993. (Copies available from the authors) Adesina, A.A. 1993. "Institutional Capacity for Regional Cooperation and Collaboration and Agricultural Research Networking in West and Central Africa: A Consultancy Report to the SPAAR Task Force on the FFA for the Humid/Sub-Humid Zones of West and Central Africa." Bouake, Cote d'Ivoire: WARDA Bruhn, K. 1993. "East African Framework for Action Initiative for Strengthening Agricultural Research; Synthesis Paper." Copenhagen, Denmark: DCTAE. 134 IGADD. 1993. "Proposal to Establish Agricultural Research Management Information Systems in IGADD Countries NARS." East African Framework for Action, Draft Working Paper, Djibouti: IGAAD. Kampen, J. and S.V. Reddy. 1993 "Agricultural Technology Generation and Transfer in the East African Region.". Kampala, Uganda Mailu, A.M. 1993. "Toward an Eastern Africa Framework for Action on Agricultural Research: Background Information." FFA Working Group. Kampala, Uganda Martella, D. 1993.* Regional Collaboration. Nairobi, Kenya. USAID/REDSO. Paper presented at the Kampla Workshop, November 22-26. Kampala, Uganda. Matlon, Peter J. 1992. "Collaboration Among NARSs in a Regional Systems Approach: A Potential Role for IARCs." Paper presented at the SPAAR Workshop on the Humid and Sub- Humid Zones of Africa. Abuja, Nigeria: WARDA. Mule, H. 1993. "An Eastem Africa Framework for Action on Agricultural Research: Economic Context." Kampala, Uganda Noor, M.A. 1993. "Human Resources for Agricultural Research." Washington, D.C. SPAAR. Noor, M.A. and Jan Weijenberg. November 1993.* "Institutional, Human Resources and Funding Issues of the East African Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs)." Kampala, Uganda: SPAAR. Olaloku, E.A. 1993. "Sustainable Livestock Production in Sub-Saharan Africa: ILCA-NARS Collaboration Research Networks." Paper presented to the SPAAR Working Group on Networking Meeting. Montpellier, France. Sanders, John H. 1993. "Economic Impact of the Commodity Research Networks of SAFGRAD." USA: Purdue University. Sanders, John H. 1993. Measuring Agricultural Research Impact: Some results and Implications for Sub-Saharan Africa, Framework for Action Workshop, November 1993. Kampala, Uganda. Wangati, F.J., Kee Kwong and R. Ng. 1993. "Agricultural Information Needs of Countries of East Africa: Regional Overview." Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA). West Africa Rice Development Association. A Program for Partnership: WARDA 's New Vision and Approach to Collaboration with National Agricultural Research Systems. 135 IARC PRESENTA TIONS ON CURRENT INVOL VEMENT IN THE EASTERNAFRICA REGION King, S. ICRISAT/EARSAM. Krah, Kwesi Atta. ICRAF/AFREMA. Martin, Bicamumpaka, CIP/PRAPACE. Whyte, James B. IITA/EARMET. OTHER REFERENCES Anderson, Jock R. and John L. Dillon. 1989. "International Agricultural Research Systems." Agricultural Economics 3 (1989): 255-398. Barampama, Daniel. 1992. "Certain Aspects of Agricultural Research Management in Burundi." Seminar on International Strategy for the Management and Policy of Agricultural Research in Samil countries. Mauritius. Blase, Melvin G. 1993. "An Analysis of Funding Alternatives for Agricultural Research with Special Reference to Africa." USA: Columbia, Missounr. Centre Director Committee, CGIAR. 1992. "Strengthening Research Partnerships in Sub-Saharan Africa." Report of a Round-Table Dialogue Between the Leaders of NARSs and the Director Generals of lARCs. ICRAF House. Nairobi, Kenya. CIP. 1992. Research for Development: The Growth of Potato Production in East and Central Africa. Contant, R.B. and J.F. Merlet. 1994. "Towards an Association of Networks in Eastern and Central Africa: Report of an ISNAR Mission." ISNAR: The Hague, The Netherlands. Crawford, Eric W and James F. Oehmke. 1993. "The Impact of Agricultural Technology in Sub- Saharan Africa. A Synthesis of Symposium Findings. Michigan State University International Development Paper No. 14. MSU, East Lansing, Michigan: Department of Agricultural Economics and Department of Economics. Washington D.C. CRSP. 1991. "Scientific Accomplishments and Social Impact Through Joint Research and Training." CRSP Council. Dagg, Matthew. 1993. "Brief on Priority Setting Presented to Each of the Six Research Institutes of NARO in Uganda." The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. 136 DRT and ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural and Livestock Research Masterplan. Elliott, H. 1990. "National Agricultural Research Systems in Developing Countries: A Report on Progress." The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. FAO. 1990. Agricultural Research Systems in the Near East and North Africa. Rome: FAO. FACAGRD, U.B. 1993. " Le R6Ie de la Faculte des Sciences Agronomiques dans la Recherche Agricole et le Developpement du Burundi." AAAF Meeting. Abidjan, C6te d'Ivoire. FOFIFA. 1994. Apecu Global sur FOFIFA. Madagascar. ICIPE Proceedings. 1991. "International Planning Conference on Establishing Sub-Regional Centers for the MSc Degree in Insect Science in Africa." Nairobi, Kenya: ICIPE ICRAF. 1993. Integrated Natural Resource Management Research for the Highlands of East and Central Africa: Report of the Consultative Workshop. EnteDbe, Uganda. IFAD. 1987. "Ethiopia - the Fourth Livestock Development Project." Rome: IFAD. IGADD. 1992. Agricultural Research, Training and Extension in IGADD countries. Djibouti: IGADD INERA, Personal communication. ISNAR. 1984. Somalia's Agricultural Research Program. Volumes 1 and 2. 1987. Review of Program Management and Manpower Planning at the Institute ofAgricultural Research in Ethiopia. Report No. R 26. 1989. Orientation and Management of Research in the Burundi Institute ofAgricultural Scientists (ISABU): Analysis and Recommendations. 1989. A Review ofAgricultural System Research in Rwanda. 1990. A Strategic Update of Somalia's National Agricultural Research Plan. 1989-1990. On-farm client-oriented Research. Series of Case studies and Comparative Studies, G OK, Donor Team - 1990. Kenya: National Agricultural Research Project. Mid-Term Review." 1991. Uganda Working Group 9A, National Agricultural Research Strategy and Plan. Volume I and II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Jain, H.K. 1992. "Organization and Management of Agricultural Research in Sub-Saharan Africa: Experience and Future Direction." ISNAR Working Paper No. 33. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Katema, Seyfu, et al. 1993. "National Workshop Paper or East African FFA on Agricultural Research, Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Institute of Agricultural Research. Multeu, J. 1988. "Institutional Strengthening in Rural Development: The Case of Djibouti." Agricultural Administration and Extension 28 (1988): 181-89. 137 Ndiritu Cyrus, 1993. Financing Agricultural Research in Kenya. Nestel, Barry. March 1991 "INFORM: Information for Agricultural Research Managers." The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Pardey, Philip G. and Johannes Roseboom. 1993. "Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Kenya. " ISNAR Indicator Series Project, Phase II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Pardey, Philip G. and Johannes Roseboom. 1993. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Rwanda. ISNAR Indicator Series Project: Phase II. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Pardey, Philip G. and Johannes Roseboom. 1994. "Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Madagascar. " The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. "Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on an Eastern Africa Framework for Action in Agricultural Research. " 1993. Kampala, Uganda. Steppler, Howard A. 1986. An Analysis ofAgricultural Research Priorities for Selected Commodities and Activities Recommendedfor Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia and Uganda. CDA East Africa Region: IDRC. Swanson, B.E. and W.H. Reeves. 1986. Agricutlural Research: Eastern and Southern Africa: Manpower and Training. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Taylor, T.A. January 1991. "Organization and Structure of National Agriculture Research Systems in Anglophone Sub-Saharan Africa." ISNAR Working Paper No. 38. The Hague, Netherlands: ISNAR. Uganda Working Group 9A and ISNAR. 1991. National Agricultural Research Strategy and Plan. Volumes I and 2. UNDP. 1993. Human Development Report 1993. New York: UNDP USAID. 1992. "Burundi SFSR Evaluation Report." Final Report - Washington, D.C. : USAID. WARDA (1991). A Program ofPartnership, WARDA 's New Vision and Approach to Collaboration with National Agricultural Research Systems. Bouake, Cote d'Ivoire. World Bank. 1994. Eritrea: Options and Strategies for Growth. Washington, D.C. _ . 1993. World Development Report 1993. Washington, D.C. 138 _ 1993. Statistical Brief on the National Agricultural Research System of Rwanda. ISNAR Indicator Series Project, Phase II. Washington, D.C. _ 1992. Staff Appraisal Report: Rwanda Second National Research Project. Washington, D.C. 1991. Staff Appraisal Report. Zaire. National Agricultural Research Project. Washington, D.C. 1990. Staff Appraisal Report. Burundi Coffee Sector Project. Washington, D.C. 1989. Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, A Long- Term Perspective Study. Washington, D.C. _ 1987. StaffAppraisal Report. Kenya. National Agricultural Research Project. Washington, D.C. _ 1987. Eastern and Southern Africa Agricultural Research Review. Washington, D.C. 1984. StaffAppraisal Report. Ethiopia Agricultural Research Project. 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