Report No. 5007-PO Portugal Agricultural Sector Survey A Near-term Action Program for Agriculture Volume Ill July 20,1984 Regional Projects Department Europe, Middle East and North Africa Regional Office Agriculture 11 Division FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY Document of the World Bank This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their officialI duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS March, 1983 - USS 1 Escudos (Eac) 94.00 Esc. 1.00 = USt.0106 December, 1983 UStl - Escudos 130.00 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES (Metric System) ABBREVIATIONS BFN Banco de Fomento Nacional (National Development Bank) BOP Bank of Portugal CAP Common Agricultural Policy CCAM Caixa de Credito Agricola Mutuo (Agricultural Credit Cooperative) CGD Caixa Geral de Depositos (General Deposit Bank) DGHEA Direccao Geral de Hidraulica e Engenharia Agricola (General Directorate for Agricultural Water Resources and Engineering) DGRAH Direccao Geral de Recursos e Aproveitamentos Hidraulicos (General Directorate for Hydraulic Resources and Development) DRA Direccao Regional da Agricultura (Regional Agriculture Directorate) EEC (EC) European Economic Community EPAC Empresa Publica de Abastecimento de Cerais (State Enterprise for Grain Marketing) EUROSTAT Statistical Office of the European Communities FA Fundo de Abastecimento (Supply Fund) FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FFF Fundo de Fomento Forestal (Forestry Development Fund) FOR OFFICAL USE ONLY - ii - IAPO Instituto do Azeite e Produtos Oleaginosos (Oil and Oilseeas Institute) IACA Associagao dos Industriais de Alimentos Compostos para Animais (Association of Animal Feed Manufacturers) IFADAP Instituto Financeiro de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento da Agricultura e Pescas (Agriculture and Fisheries Development Fund) IGEF Instituto de Gestao e Estructuragao Fundiarias (Institute for Land Management and Reform) INE Instituto Nacional de Estatistica (National Statistical Institute) INIAER Instituto Nacional das Investiga;ao Agraria e Extensao Rural (National Institute of Agricultural Research and Extension) JNF Junta Nacional das Frutas (National Fruit Board) JNPP Junta Nacional dos Produtos Pecuarios (National Board for Livestock Products) JNV Junta Nacional do Vinho (National Wine Board) MACP Ministerio da Agricultura, Comercio e Pescas (1inistry of Agriculture, Commerce antd Fisheries) (Has been reorganized to become NAFA) MAFA Ministdrio da Agricultura, Florestas e Alimentacao (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Food) P14A Piano de Mudanca da Agricultura (Agricultural Development Plan) PROCALFER Liming, Fertilization, and Fodder Crop Program RICA Rede de Informa;ao de Contabilidades Agrfcolas (Farm Accounts Information System) UCP Unidades Colectivas de Produ;ao (Agricultural Production Collectives) USAID U.S. Agency for International Development ZIRA Zona de Interven;ao da Reforma Agr4ria (Agrarian Reform Zone) Ti documant has a resticted distbution and may be used by recpients only in the peformance of their ofrici duties. Its contents may not otherwise be dislosed without World Bank authoiation PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY A NEAR-TERM ACTION PROGRAM FOR AGRICULTURE Table of Contents (Volume III) ANNEX 1 : The Natural Resource Base for Agriculture ANNEX 2 : Field Crops and Cropping Patterns 1/ ANNEX 3 : The Livestock Subsector 1/ ANNEX 4 : Fruits and Vegetables 1/ ANNEX 5 : Agricultural Research and Technological Opportunities 1/ 1/ In English and Portuguese Information in these reports reflect available data from the World Bank Sector Mission of March 1983. - 1 - PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY A NEAR-TERM ACTION PROGRAM FOR AGRICULTURE ANNEX 1: THE NATURAL RESOURCE BASE FOR AGRICULTURE 1. INTRODUCTION ......*.e .. eo*** ....* ........* 1 II. SOIL .. *............... .****c***************** 1 Soil Acidity ................ 2 Soil Drainage .............*..........*...... 2 III. CLIMATE ............... ...... ....2.................. 2 IV LAND USE s .......... e.o .................. o. 3 Land Use Capability ............... 3 Exploitation of Agricultural Resources ...... 4 Agricultural Regions ........................ 5 - 2 - ANNEX I Page 1 2190E/mld PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCE BASE I. INTRODUCTION 1. Mainland Portugal comprises two almost equal size, but distinct topographical and climatic regions divided by the Tagus river which flows into the Atlantic Ocean at Lisbon, (Map 17193). North of the Tagus, Portugal is mountainous with a rainy, moderately cool climate; the south has rolling plains, less rainfall and a warm climate, particularly in the interior. Although this is broadly true, the reality is that the country is extraordinarily heterogeneous for its size. It is broken up by 11 rivers of total length of approximately 1,860 kms and extensive mountain ranges that affect rainfall patterns, produce contrasting aspects and accentuate the continentality of the climate. This annex describes the main physical features and then discusses the implications of these for agricultural production. 2. The total area of Portugal is estimated to be 8,888,000 ha, which includes approximately 44,000 ha in three large estuaries. The 11 rivers referred to above, of which five arise in Spain and six in Portugal, have total drainage basins in Portugal estimated to be 7,983,000 ha or 90% of the total surface of the country. 3. Almost half of the area north of the Tagus has an elevation above 400 m, with several mountains, including the Serra de Estrela, exceeding 1,200 m. Less than 3% of the southern section is above 400 m and 63% is at less than 200 m in elevation. General relief is shown in Map 17193. II. SOIL 4. The nature of soils depends largely on the nature of the bedrock from which they develop and in Portugal these are quite diverse. Map 17195 presents the detailed soil classes of the official soil survey map to show the broad soil groups. North of the Tagus, particularly on the western side, skeletal soils and slightly leached soils predominate on the large granitic massif. There are extensive rocky outcrops, but also valleys of fertile alluvial soils. The soils of the north east are derived mainly from schists, with a limited area of heterogeneous soils derived from calcareous and sedimentary rocks. South of the Tagus, soils have developed from schists, sandstones, calcareous and sedimentary rocks and a small area of granite, thus giving rise to a wide range of soil types. Despite the relatively large number of rivers that cut the country, there is a relatively small area of rich flood plains of alluvial soil, which are shown on the soils map (17195) as fluvisols. ANNEX 1 Page 2 5. Soil Acidity. The majority of soils in Portugal are acid to extremely acid. Enough soil analyses have been done in Portugal so that by taking these analytical data in conjunction with the detailed soils map, it has been possible to produce a map which depicts the quantity of lime needed to raise soil pH to 6.5. This map resembles the soils map, with the granitic soils having very high lime needs, the calcareous group having no need and the other soils having intermediate requirements. Furthermore, using this criterion, rather than the pH in the top 20 cms, is of questionable validy, since the requirement for lime is influenced by the amount of soil organic matter, the texture of the soil and the type of liming material. The area of granitic soils is extremely acid and the area of soils derived from sandstones, mainly podsols, is only moderately acid. Much more work has been done to establish the quantities of lime needed to raise soil pH to an optimum level of 6.5 than has been done to relate soil acidity to plant growth and to fertilizer use efficiency. Below a certain level of soil pH, the yield of the most sensitive crop in the rotation is reduced. Lucerne, for example, is a crop for which the soil pH should be around 6.5. However, most crops grown in Portugal grow at a pH below 6.5 and hence the emphasis on the need for lime is being exaggerated. 6. Soil Drainage. Soils of the Alentejo region are frequently described as poorly drained and indeed problems of water logged soils occur even in years of average rainfall. The effect of water logging is to reduce yields of winter crops of which wheat is the most important, by interfering with cultural operations and inhibiting proper root development. Excess soil moisture in the Alentejo region is an inherent characteristic because the problem of the local combination of factors of climate, geology, geomorphology and topography and the problem is sometimes aggravated by inappropriate farming practices. Although annual average rainfall in the Alentejo is modest (varies around 600 mm), it falls mainly between November and May when evapotranspiration is at its lowest. Soils are either shallow, overlying impermeable lower horizons, or when deeper have high clay contents particularly in the lower horizons. In both instances the soils are readily saturated md hold the water tightly. The topography is of low rolling hills and elevati,.ons, normally less than 400 meters. Steep slopes are short and underlying rocks are hard. All these factors have led to a very restricted natural drainage system. The poorly developed stream system is qui_kly overloaded and surrounding flat areas are easily inundated. Farming practices which obstruct natural drainage lines or which induce erosion that in turn leads to in silting of the inadequate natural drainage system, aggravate the problem. The area affected by poor drainage is officially estimated, from small scale soils maps, as being about 400,000 ha, but it has been suggested as the result of field visits that the total of seriously affected land is closer to 250,000 ha out of approximately 800,000 ha of land classed as suitable for arable agriculture. III. CLIMATE 7. Although the climate is predominately mediterranean, it is moderated by the Atlantic Ocean and the mountains of the Iberian Meseta. From west to east, the moderacing influence of the Atlantic gives away to the continental influence of the mountains. From north to south, the influence of the mountains gives away to the influence of the mediterranean. Map 17196 shows rainfall isohyets. Summer drought, variability from season to season and from year to year, are thought to be constraints to farm production. This has not - 4 - ANNEX_I Page 3 been analyzed from the 30 year rainfall data, but this should be done, as should drought frequency be calculated. Frost frequency is shown on Map 17255, hours of sunshine on Map 17254, and solar radiation on Map 17256 because these three climatic factors are of importance to the production of fruit and are relevant to the assessment of possibilities for which Portugal may have comparative advantages. Climatologists have mapped seasonal rainfall, mean air temperatures and evapotranspiration potential, but these are not reproduced in this report. In standard bioclimatic terms used in the Bioclimatic map of the Mediterranean Zone, all of Portugal is covered by one or other of the sub-groups of mediterranean climate. IV. LAND USE Iand Use Capability 8. In order to ensure optimum land use, it is important that the land resources be assessed in terms of their suitability at different levels of input for differenc types of land use, including agriculture, grazing and forestry. Classification has been made in Portugal in terms of soil classes A to E, that is, from the most suited for agriculture through to non-agricultural land. Map 17194 presents a broad overview of the suitability of land for agriculture in three categories to illustrate (a) the limited amount of land that is well suited to some form of agriculture; and (b) the relatively large area that is generally not suited-to agriculture at all except for 8mall valleys and terraces within it. It is therefore difficult to assess how much land is available for agriculture. In order to provide a basis for planning a land use capability study should be undertaken using criteria including an economic evaluation. This is particularly important in Portugal, in view of the extreme heterogeneity of soils and topography and the scarcity of good land for farming. However, it is not considered to be too difficult, since extensive soil mapping and the classification have already been done in some detail. 9. Reliable data on land use are scarce despite the detail available for some areas. The following rounded figures broadly specify land use. ha Total area of Portugal 8,888,000 Area classified agricultural (A + B + C) 2,377,900 Area classified non-agricultural (D + E) 6,344,400 Area social, saline etc. 165,700 Area cultivated 3,438,000 Area in forest - excluding oak 1,777,200 oak (hence sparse or 1,190,800 very sparse) 1/ total forest 2,968,000 Area of fruit and vines - solid olive orchards 2/ 570,000 - wine grapes 355,000 - fresh and dry fruit 273,000 Total fruit and vines 1,198,000 Area of irrigation - traditional 563,000 - public schemes 79,000 Total irrigation 642,000 1/ An estimated 45Z of the oak area is cultivated and hence double counted (535,900 ha) 2/ There is an estimated 315,000 ha of scattered olives with the land around them - cropped or grazed. ANNEX 1 Page 4 10. The country is divided into 18 administrative districts and into seven agricultural regions. The region boundaries do not always follow the administrative district boundaries, since some municipalities are added or subtracted to give greater homogeneity to the agricultural regions. Table 1 lists administrative districts and agricultural regions. Nevertheless for land use capability purposes, the soil and physical form is so varied within a zone that agricultural regions have been subdivided further for planning purposes to arrive at homogeneous zones. The criteria for arriving at these homogeneous areas vary from zone to zone. In some cases, such as the Entre Duoro e Minho Region, the division is purely on the basis of elevation and slope, in the Alentejo Region, it is on soil type, Region 5, which is the most complex, it is on the basis of a combination of these features. There are 45 zones as follows: Regions Zones 1. Entre Duoro et Minho 3 2. Tras-os-Montes 6 3. Beira Litoral 10 4. Beira Interior 5 5. Ribotejo e Oeste 11 6. Alentejo 5 7. Algarve 5 Total 45 Exploitation of Agricultural Resources 11. Further discussion of how land is used and how it could be used is in other annexes. This paragraph provides estimates of land suited for agriculture and farm size. Climate and soil factors have not been alone in determining the agrarian qtructure as the present farming structure has been strongly influenced by historical and social factors. Historically northern Portugal with its mild humid climate and the long period of continual habitation is characterized by small, intensively operated family holdings which include a large proportion of the settled population. On the other hand, for southern Portugal with little or no summer rainfall, few substantial rivers and a history of invasions, settlement was difficult and this led to the development of large extensively operated farms. Reliable data will be available when the recent census analyzes are completed. Just before the agrarian reform program there were approximately 800,000 farms in Portugal, with 630,000 having less than 4 ha, of which 31,400 had less than one ha. By district, at that time the average farm size was as follows (ha):- Viana do Castelo 1.53 Viseu 2.62 Castela Branco 9.20 Aveiro 1.92 Lisboa 3.62 Braganca 9.96 Porto 1.94 Vila Real 3.78 Setubal 16.71 Coimbra 2.09 Guarda 5.92 Portalegre 28.43 Braga 2.19 Santarem 6.34 Beja 35.77 Leiria 2.42 Faro 7.76 Evora 49.54 -6- ANNEX I Page 5 Table 1 Administrative Districts Agricultural Regions Brags 1. Entre Duoro e Minho Viana do Castelo Braga, Viana do Castelo, Porto Porto parts of Vila Real, Aveiro, Viseu Vila Real 2. Tras-os-Montes Braganca Braganca Aveiro Parts of Vila Real, Viseu, Guarda Viseu 3. Beira Litoral Coimbra Coimbra Leira Parts of Aveiro, Viseu, Guarda, Leira Guarda 4. Beira Interior Castelo Branco Castelo Branco Portalegre Parts of Guarda, Portalegre, Santarem Santarem 5. Ribatejo e Oeste Lisboa Lisboa Setubal Parts of Leira, Santarem, Setubal Beja 6. Alentejo Evora Beja, Evora Faro Parts of Portalegre, Sebutal 7. Algarve Faro - 7- PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY A NEAR-TERM ACTION PROGRAN FOR AGRICULTURE ANNEX 2: FIELD CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERNS I. CROPS AND CROPPING PATTERNS ....................... .... 1 II. CROPPING SYSrEKS .................................................. 11 Production Systems for the Alentejo Region ....... 11 Production Systems in the Northwest ............. 13 Production Systems in the Public Irrigation Schemes *..e.g..eg....e..egegogsuOus. *Ose@SSSU, Il& TII. RECOMMENDATIONS .......................................... is APPENDIX I : Formet for Farm Production Systems Study APPENDIX II: Portugal's Farm Production Systems 8 - ANNEX 2 2170E/mld PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY FIELD CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS I. CROPS AND CROP OPTIONS 1. Wheat, maize and rye are the traditional field crops of Portugal. Each needs to be examined separately, but, it is also important to look at crops that cover less area but are now gaining in importance or might be important in prenent or future cropping systems. This Annex therefore examines each of Portugal's crops and then examines some systems of crop production. Table 1 shows the annual average crop areas planted in the most recent period for which data are available, 1979-81, and an approximate percentage distribution to show the regional relevance of these areas. All area, yields, production data are in Tables 9, 10, 11 in the statistical appendix to the main volume. The traditional cropping patterns can be described as follows:- Maize is grown in an area extending from the north and central coast inland where there is a high density or small farms of which most have supplemental irrigation. Rye is planted in the poor soils of the northeastern part of the country and in the area that extends down the eastern side of the country. Although wheat area has reduced by 30-35Z in recent years it has been grown largely on the better soils of the Alentejo and Ribatejo regions where it is now largely found. The coarse grains barley and oats taken together cover a significant area, predominantly in the same fertile soil zone as wheat. Wheat 2. Wheat remains a crop of importance in Portugal and at the same time it presents a dilemma. The downtrend in area planted followed dry years, abandonment of land for cropping in zone 4, and an effort to restrict wheat to soils for which it is more suited. The government in the recent improvement plan (Piano de Mundanca da Agricultura - PMA) proposes that wheat be grown only on 235,000 ha of the best soils. The highest average annual production for tnis area would be approximately 650,000 tons, which falls short of the approximately one million tons estimated as the country's need by 1990. This level of production would also require more consistent use of improved production techniques. Consideration therefore needs to be given to expanding, if possible, -he area of wheat planted on soils that are not the best and also some under irrigation in order to push production closer to the milltion ton target. PORTUGAL CROP AREAS AND DISTRIBUTION (1978-81) Annual Approximate Percentage Distribution by Zone Aver.agi 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Crops ArLea Entre Tras-os- Beira Beira Ribatejo Alentejo Algarve (ha) Duoro e Montes Litoral Interior e Oeste M4inho Winter, Rainfed Cereals Wheat 324,000 7 6 9 73 Rye 204,700 13 32 14 31 7 Oats 164, 700 7 13 71 Barley 75,100 7 12 61 9 1 Grain Legumes Broad beans 32,600 16 30 37 13 Chick peas 35,400 6 8 8 13 61 Oilseeds Sunflower 24,100 96 Summer, Irrigated Crops Rice 31,500 26 32 42 Maize 366,600 30 33 11 13 8 Dry beans /a 258,100 47 33 7 9 /a Treated as a vegetable for discussion in Annex 4. Source: Mission Date: July 1983 PORTUGAL RAINFALL EFFECTS ON SOILS WITH DRAINAGE PROBLEMS (Rainfall in mm) Be ja Evora Elvas Sept.- May Cuwulative Wheat Sept.- May Cumulative Wheat Sept.- May Cumulative Wheat Rainfall Deficit or Yield Rainfall Deficit or Yield Rainfall Deficit or Yield (Mean 531) Surplus (Ton/ha) (Mean 631) Surplus (Ton/ha) (Mean 575) Surplus (Ton/ha) (961 Annual) (97X Annual) (95% Annual) 1970 450 - 81 - 577 - 54 - 461 -114 _ 1971 445 - 167 1.34 457 - 228 1.30 377 - 312 1.48 1972 481 - 217 1.33 545 - 314 1.09 528 - 359 1.18 1973 482 - 266 1.54 466 - 479 1.19 385 - 549 1.20 1974 500 - 297 1.21 459 - 651 1.20 367 - 757 1.40 1975 442 - 386 1.46 376 - 906 1.39 341 - 991 1.51 1976 726 + 195 1.38 717 + 86 1.26 578 + 3 1.51 1977 710 + 374 .89 820 + 275 .90 687 + 115 .96 1978 707 + 550 .75 819 + 463 .59 728 + 268 .73 1979 551 + 570 .83 473 + 305 1.04 495 +188 1.07 1980 1.26 1.31 1.30 Source: Misston Dete: July 1983 tbw - 11 - ANNEX 2 Page 4 3. The major wheat growing areas (essentially Alentejo and areas of Ribatejo e Oeste) are well supplied with rainfall (550-700 mm) with essentially winter incidence, have reasonable soils (although drainage is a problem) and have gently rolling topography. Annex 1, para. 6, points out the extent of the drainage problem in the Alentejo region. Several components of the production package need to be considered to ensure consistently better yields: namely, seedbed preparation, choice of variety and seed quality, and fertilizer strategy. In addition, the place of wheat in the cropping system is a major issue in these regions and will affect the area cropped. Seedbed preparation is of major importance to allow for a reduction in the depth of cultivation, and the use of moisture conserving strategies, yet at the same time, to facilitate surface drainage. Instead of benefitting from above- average rainfall, wheat yields are generally depressed by it under the present cultural system as a conseq..>nce of this drainage problem (Table 2). While the effects of above-average rainfall may be manifested in several ways the net effect is to lower the yield although agricultural production systems should be capable of using this extra water with benefit. Land use systems can be developed to reverse this tendency and at the same time raise yields substantially. 4. Both durum and bread wheat are grown but a much greater area is devoted to bread wheat despite the fact that the fixed price of durum wheat is 3OZ-352, higher, depending on quality grade. Durum wheat is confined to areas of clay soils near Beja, south of Elvas and north of Lisbon. Plant improvement research for both species is in progress and satisfactory varieties now exist. Inadequate supply of good quality seed of the appropriate varieties is more of a problem than lack of varieties. This issue is addressed in the recommendation to include a seed production component in the wheat and livestock production project. However, because of the tendency for the growing season to conclude quickly, breeders need to match varieties carefully to the spring climatic conditions. Fertilizer strategies appear to be inefficient because standard recommendations 1/ are too broad. These should be refined with more extensive field response experiments and adapted to farm conditions. It appears that those who use fertilizer tend to use too much, especially of nitrogen. The question of crop rotation with wheat as the key course becomes a major one and is taken up separately (p3ra. 27). It is noteworthy that the three components of the wheat production package that have been singled out for special mention are all influenced by crop rotation. 5. Wheat production would become of special concern on Portugal's accession to the EEC since import prices would go up and subsidies would go down. Hence, there is a clear advantage to Portugal in growing as much wheat as it can, commensurate with optimal land use and having due respect for economic considerations at the farm level. In the Alentejo, Ribotejo e Oeste, and parts of the Beira regions, wheat should be planted on all class A and B soils as the key course in rotations which would normally consist of 3 courses. Mean yields of 3 - 3.5 tons/ha would be the goal. In the intermediate (C) soils, wheat should appear as the key course in 4 course rotations (mean yields of 2-2.5 tons). Subject to research, wheat should have a regular place in many of the irrigation schemes where winter temperatures are low and rainfall is moderate. Yields of 5 tons per hectare would then be possible if controlled supplementary irrigation is used. Under these conditions, production of wheat could be: l/ Guio Practico de Fertilizacoa, DGER 1980. - 12 - ANNEX 2 Page 5 Classes A and B 120,000 ha x 3 - 360,000 Class C 130,000 ha x 2 - 260,000 Class D 100,000 ha x 1.5 - 150,000 Irrigation 10,000 ha x 5 - 50,000 Total 820,000 tons This analysis of production ignores wheat as a secondary crop in rotation, which is a possibility (para. 27). Rye - Triticale 6. Cereal rye occupies approximately 200,000 ha in the northeastern part of the country, where it has developed a traditional role that has been clearly justified. Cereal rye has certain attributes that farmers in this region exploit. These are its ability to grow in poorer soils and in colder conditions than the other winter cereals. It is able to germinate at low temperatures, grows even better than oats in cold conditions, has a low temperature summation requirement for moving through the physiological phases, and hence flowers earlier. Overall rye has better tolerance of unfavorable climatic conditions and has the ability to use soil moisture supply through its vigorous and extensive root system, which also makes better use of residual fertility. It does not use nitrogen efficiently, however. Characteristically cereal rye has a stable but low yield. For the region defined, the yield is on the order of 0.6-0.7 tons per ha. Cereal rye has potential for early grazing (before it becomes unpalatable). It is sometimes grazed and allowed to recover for grain, a practice which reduces grain yield severely. This practice does not appear to be common in Portugal and hence is not expected to be a factor in the low mean yields. Approximately half of the rye grain goes into commerce and is used for bread. 7. The PMA expects that the same area will be retained, but it projects improved yields of 1.7 to 2 tons per ha. These yields are possible under special conditions but appear optimistic in this region of Portugal. No development work is being undertaken. and it is doubtful whether such investment would be justified. Sources of improved yield would be (a) improvement of varieties for increased yield potential, disease tolerance, and nonshattering characteristics; and (b) better cultural techniques. These are not likely to be very profitable areas of research. Generally improved field work which ensures better seed beds, cleaning and grading of seed, and sound fertilizer recommendations would enable farmers to make better use of the genetic potential of the existing varieties. Neither breeding programs for the characteristics mentioned, nor extensive testing of introduced genetic material is likely to be very rewarding. As cereal rye is a cross fertilized plant, when a variety has been growing in an area for a few years it will adapt itself to the local environment by natural selection of vigorous plants. Local strains are frequently as good for a local niche as named cultivars. A more profitable utilization of rye germ-plasm is in further development of Triticale, of which rye and wheat are the parents. 8. Triticale, the first man made cereal, has a short history and hence little genetic diversity. Already, testing of cultivars in Portugal shows its potential. It has inherited many of rye's characteristics of being able to withstand harsh conditions and to grow well in poor soils. Development programs at the Plant Improvement Station of the National Institute of Agricultural Research and Extension (INIAER) in Elvas, and at the University of Tras-os-Montes and Alto Duoro in Vila Real are studying triticale. Its yield potential should easily be 2 tons or more per hectare in the harsher areas of the northeastern part of the country, where cereal rye now grows. - 13- ANNEX 2 Page 6 Yields of 4-5 tons (better than wheat yields) have been obtained on the good soils of Elvas. Its bread making characterictics are as good as cereal rye, although it is better used in cakes and unleavened products. As an animal feed, it has an average value better than cereal rye and equal to maize, a better protein-energy ratio than most feedgrains and an equally satisfactory digestibility of carbohydrate and protein. These characteristics make it useful in pig and poultry feeds. Gradually, Triticale should reptace cereal rye in the northeastern region. Barley and Oats 9. The coarse grain cereals (barley and oats) require little comment except to define their place in crop rotations (para. 27) with the object of increasing the area as much as possible and ensuring that yields increase. The low yields shown in available data (namely, oats 0.5 tons per ha, barley 0.6 tons per ha) are misleading since an indeterminate amount of planted area is cut for forage or is grazed and hence is not harvested for grain. In the barley area, approximately 50,000 ha are planted under contract for malting purposes. This planting is always 2 row type barley and improved varieties are available. This area requirement for malting will remain at between 50,000 ha and 60,000 ha. In order to ensure the best malting quality it will be preferable to grow barley in this area as a secondary cereal, that is, following wheat in the rotation. The remainder of the barley crop is 6-row type and is based on the old Californian variety Arivat. There is pleaty of scope to use improved varieties and there is a great deal of scope for coarse grain production to reduce feedgrain imports. When-grain alone is the objective, barley should be preferred over oats but when forage or dual purpose use is likely, then oats should be considered. Field research only, is justified for these two, in view of their secondary nature, but serious efforts are needed to adapt the extensive research work being done outside of Portugal. Maize 10. Maize has two important roles in Portuguese agriculture, but these are not necessarily closely linked. One is its role as a raw material in the mixed animal feed industry. The following summary for the period 1980-82 (1982 numbers are estimates) shows the relative use of these raw materials. (Metric tons) Total cereals 2,240,700 (Maize 2,028,800) Oilseed meals 715,800 By-products 290,900 Other materials 214,800 Total 3,462,200 Maize is 91% of the total cereal component and 59% of the total raw material. The 2 million metric tons of maize used for animal feed should be compared with the 430,000 tons average annual production for the same period, the 250,000 tons required for nonanimal feed purposes and the 2.3 million tons imported. Without doubt, maize is a satisfactory carbohydrate source in concentrated mixed feeds, but it is not the only source. It finds itself in this position because of price and availability and could be partly replaced if this situation changed, just as the total amount of concentrate used could be reduced if other sources of nutrition were found for ruminant anilmals. - 14 - ANNEX 2 Page 7 11. The other important role for maize is as a crop in the northwestern part of the country (pars. 1). Maize has assumed a traditional role as a suimer growing cereal since it is able to exploit the carry over soil moisture in this area of high rainfall and long growing season, and the widespread traditional supplemental irrigation. Maize also has an established use for human food and animal feed, especially for direct animal feeding and conservation. The downtrend in area planted in recent years has been due to abaudonment of certain rainfed areas and those difficult to cultivate because of their topography. This has been accompanied by an increase in mean yields, which are attributed to better fertilizer use and an increasing use of hybrid varieties. 12. There is pressure to confine maize to approximately 233,000 ha (35% reduction in area) to allow it to be grown only on the better soils and only where full season irrigation is available. There is also pressure to produce as much as possible to reduce maize imports. Properly handled this reduced area could produce around one million tons. A third pressure, by the farmers, is to use an increasing proportion of the crop for forage or silage instead of holding it as grain for winter feeding. The rationalization of these pressures will depend on both technical and economic issues. 13. Dairy production is the main outcome of the national maize production, with plant mixtures of cereal and fodder being used in the winter, but curtailed in time to plant maize in the late sprin2. The maize is harvested as silage or grain. From an animal management standpoint, the two processes should be integrated. Reduction of the area to avoid those with topography problems is reasonable, but exclusion of areas that have less water than is required to complete the crop is open to question. These areas often have enough water to grow the crop through the first part of its vegetative cycle but not the 7000-9000 m3 per ha (which includes the soil accumulation from rainfall) to complete it. Under these circumstances, consideration should be given to using the available water to produce good early vegetative growth for feeding to animals. 14. Several aspects of the agronomy of maize production require attention if the regional yields are to be raised from a little over a ton per ha to at least 4 tons per ha. Variety is an extremely important characteristic. Maize is a cross-pollinated plant, and the old open-pollinated varieties produce very variable populations. Yield is a genetically complex character in maize and in in-bred lines deleterious yield genes show their effects. Crossing in various combination masks these deleterous genes so that hybrid varieties have a much greater yield potential. The use of hybrids is increasing but at present hybrid plantings cover only around 40,000 ha. Of these only about 4,000 ha are planted to single hybrids and the rest to doubles. Single hybrids, if all the right inputs are used, yield up to 12 tons per hectare but the seed is very expensive, compared with the double hybrids that are lower yielding. Taking the crop as a single entity, the high price of seed is warranted but other considerations (para. 30) need to be taken into account. Presently, there are a wide range of national and international hybrids being marketed, and it is clear that extensive testing and more precise recommendations are required. Plant density is a precise requirement in Maize culture, since the maize plant cannot compensate for loss of plant population as the winter cereals do. Hence, uniform establishment and optimum density are important. Maize does not tolerate weed competition well so, by inference it is important to reconsider the strategy of growing dry beans between the rows and planting the winter rye grass late in the growth cycle to have it - 15- ANNEX 2 Page 8 well advanced before the cold weather arrives. This double cropping vould reduce maize yield but not necessarily the overall productivity of the land. Fertilization and soil correction strategies have a tremendous impact on yield. Maize has an optimum soil pH range of 6.2-6.5, while all of these soils are less than 6 and many less than 5.5. Experiments have shown that lime applications accompanied by other inputs significantly increase yield. It is difficult to attribute yield increases to any one element on the basis of the limited data, but adequate nitrogen and particularly phosphorus, with lime, is necessary to make best use of the soil and water resources, since around 28 kg N and 10 kg P205 are required for each ton of Rrain produced. High yields require high levels of these nutrients. A great deal of emphasis is given to the issue of the small parcel size of the small and fragmented farms because it restricts mechanization and hence yield improvement. There is little evidence that this factor directly affects maize yields. 15. Maize is grown in an intricate farming system on the small traditional dairy farms (para. 31). It is necessary to look at its culture through the whole farm approach. On the larger farms the crop itself can be considered more in isolation and the higher levels of technology can be applied more easily than on the smaller farms. The most important issue is for government planners to regard maize in the context of the farming systems in which it is grown rather as a means of reducing the present importation of maize grain. Rice 16. Little need be discuosed about rice. Its culture is confined to certain irrigated areas that are reasonably well utilized. Yields are moderately good in the southern part of the country where the main areas are located; in 9 of the last 15 years yields have been between 4.5 and 5 tons per ha. Yields of the 8,500 ha in the northern part of the country, where the majority is in the Mondego Valley, have been closer to 3 tons per ha. The government's intention is to raise production to cover the national need, which is between 225,000 and 250,000 tons annually. This would have to be achieved by both increases in yield and increases in area. The goal is a yield of 5 tons per ha, which is possible with modest efforts in better water management, greater use of good quality seed of recommended varieties and some attention to fertilizer strategy. However, the area planted in rice needs to be increased. Taking into account that the northern rice area will reduce to around 6,000 ha, the southern rice area will need to be expanded to approximately 37,000-39,000 ha. This is projected to be available downstream in valleys of the Tagus and Sorraia Rivers. Oilseed Crops 17. At the beginning of the 1970s, Portugal planted more than 25,000 ha of safflower and 2,000 ha of sunflowers. In the decade following, the position of predominance reversed to arrive at a mean annual area (Table V) of 31,500 ha of sunflowers and an insignificant area of safflower. The latter will disappear, as it has done in many countries because safflower is a winter crop with many agronomic problems and cannot compete with the winter cereals for ease of production and profitability. 18. Sunflower is a summer crop and is grown in two separate locations with quite different methods and expectations. On the alluvial soils of the Tagus valley, sunflower is grown on a few hundred hectares as an irrigated crop - 16- ANNEX 2 Page 9 in the same manner as maize, but using less water. Yields average from 1.5 to 2 tons per ha. The greater area planted in sunflowers is in the Alentejo region on the deeper soils such as those where durus wheat (para. 4) is the key crop. It fits snugly into the rotation in the following manner. Cultivation of wheat land begins in January with deep plowing, subsequent leveling, and follow-up shallow cultivations. Sunflower is planted into this fallow between mid March and mid May as a cash crop to compensate for the cost of land preparation. The sunflower crop receives no irrigation and is harvested by September in time for a shallow cultivation to precede planting the wheat crop (para. 27). Yields vary according to the amount of soil moisture and are in the order of 0.7 ton per ha. Several commercial considerations make growing sunflowers in this system worthwhile. Crop budget analyses show it to be profitable, and input costs for the sunflower crop reduce those for the following wheat crop. At the same time available soil moisture that may have been conserved by the fallow is used up but without research there is no way of knowing whether this is important. The crop calendar is probably optimum for the region. Sunflower oil quality is best when there are cool moist conditions after flowering so extension of the crop season into the autumn is desirable. The rotation itself is a problem that is taken up in paragraph 27, but if it is to be continued some actions can be taken to stabilize the yields of sunflower seeds. A soil preparation strateRy is necessary to reduce the depth of the initial cultivation and to pay careful attention to moisture conservation. Fertilizer that includes a phophorus application split between the sunflower and the wheat, and a carefully calculated amount of nitrogen is important. Plant density is important as low populations result in larger heads with seeds that are slow to ripen and difficult to harvest. 19. Soybeans as a crop for Portugal seems to have no particular relevance, although the fact that it is a legume could give it a place in some cropping systems. However, it is a summer grower. It requires a 110-140 day growing period, according to the cultivar chosen. However, it would be a straight competitor for irrigation water with maize so that other considerations would decide whether it should be grown. The EEC is not self-sufficient in oilseeds and they can be imported without duty or levy. Since Portugal has developed a good trade in importing soybean, crushing it, using the meal and selling the oil (including export), there seems little point in adding another crop to the long list, and a lot of advantage in keeping up the import. If the nitrogen-fixing characteristic needed to be exploited, growing soybean crops would present no problem since they could be grown using cereal crop equipment and marketed through the well established channels of the Oil and Oilseeds Institute - IAPO. The area planted in soybeans would for the present be confined to the alluvial valley soils. Sugar Beet 20. Sugar beet has not been grown in Portugal, except experimentally, since raw cane sugar has been imported for refining. PortuRal has limited areas well suited for both irrigated and rainfed sugar beet: irrigated and rainfed areas in the valleys of the Tagus and the Sorraia, the valleys of Mondego and the Vouga, the central plains of Beira Alto, and certain irrigated zones in the Alentejo region. The Tagus valley is of first priority because of its favorable farm structures. Agronomically, sugar beet is a good crop and almost always profitable. The following technical elements are significant. It is a crop with a long growing season. The normal crop calendar calls for planting in October -November and harvest in the summer and as late as August - 17- ANNEX 2 Pase 10 in more northerly latitudes. It therefore does not permit double cropping but is a good crop to precede winter cereals in a rotation. It can be planted in the spring and harvested in autumn, but such practice is less common and more difficult. A side benefit is that beet pulp and beet tops are important livestock fodders. The sugar beet issue is such a complicated one because of the sugar surplus in the EEC that it will finally be decided on nontechnical grounds. If it is prudent to develop the crop in Portugal, it should be understood that production needs to match refining capacity. Building up the crop to this capacity would take time to sensitize farmers and putting seeds and machinery in place. Lupins 21. Lupins are known in Portugal because at least three species have existed in semi-domesticated or wild forms for centuries. Except for minor uses, their potential has not been developed even though the crop has been recognized in preparing the PMA. Lupins are frequently associated with the colonizing of poor soils. Characteristically they grow on coarse - textured well-drained acid soils, although there are distinct preference8 among species. The yellow lupin, which grows wild in Portugal, adapts well to strongly acid to mildly acid soils and will tolerate high aluminium levels. The narrow-leaved lupin, also found in Portugal, grows best on moderately acid to neutral soils, and the white lupin, which is used to a limited extent in Portugal, grows on mildly acid to slightly calcareous soils. Lupins are legumes and hence can fix atmospheric nitrogen to improve soil fertility. Beyond their potential for soil improvement, they have considerable potential for animal feeding, now that alkaloid-free (nonbitter) varieties are available and now that the animal disease called lupinosis is better understood. 22. The estimate of potential area in the PMA of 500,000 ha per year is perhaps optimistic. Nonetheless, a considerable portion of the Class C and some Class D soils, particularly those of course texture, could adapt well to lupin crops in a cereal-lupin rotation. A typical area would be the Charnaca subzone in the Ribatejo e Oeste region. Annual Forage Legumes 23. The main annual forage legume of significance for Portugal is subterranean clover. Its potential is well recognized, and research has been going on for a number of years at the plant improvement station in Elvas. Presently there are estimated to be 20,000 ha of subterranean clover-based pastures, all in the Alentejo region, while in that same region there are one million hectares available for improved pastures. Cropping systems based on subterranean clover in close rotation with winter cereals should be the basis of production systems on 600,000 ha, while subterranean clover should be the foundation for longer-term pasture on another 500,000 hectares. The significance of subterranean clover is its pivotal role in the integration of livestock production with crop production. The pasture phases of the rotation build soil fertility, as vell as providing fodder far in excess of that naturally available, and it is self-regenerating if properly managed. This is taken up in the discussion of cropping systems in paragraph 27. 24. Subterranean clover is not the only annual forage legume that will find a place in Portugal. Serradella, Medicago 8p, and Persian clover will have limited applications as well as the perennials, white and strawberry clovers and lucerne. All these others are of limited significance, compared with subterranean clover simply on account of the ecology of the Alentejo region. The question is why then the development of subterranean clover in -18- .ANNEX 2 Page 11 the Alentejo region is so slow. One reason has to do with nontechnical issues involving land tenure. From the technical standpoint, there are some unresolved issues as well. There are two of prime importance. The first concerns varieties. Too much emphasis has been placed on late maturing cultivars, probably because of the meen annual rainfall of the region. Rainfall and length of growing season are frequently correlated, but in this case dry spring conditions are much more comon than the rainfall figures would indicate. Rainfall alone is a poor guide to varieties. Under the poor spring conditions the cultivars being used set little (or no) seed and bury very little of it, and the seed has a low percentage of hard seededness. The test of fitness of annual forage species of this sort is the ability to set large quantities of seed of appropriate characteristics. For the Alentejo region it will be essential to use mixtures of three or four earlier maturing cultivars to fit the varying situations in respect to the steepness and direction of slope, depth of soil and soil characteristics which result in varying soil moisture regimes. Suitable cultivars are, however, available. The second problem is the general lack of research effort to learn how to, and to demonstrate to the farmers hov to, fit the components of the new land use system together. The important factor is management of the subterranean clover pastures and the cereal crops. All of the factors necessary for managing the system properly have been studied extensively elsewhere, and the hypotheses to be tested are easily constructed. CROPPING SYSTEMS 25. As vell as looking at crops in isolation, it is important, particularly in a country like Portugal where crops are grown in many combinations, to look at them win the context of the whole farm operation; that is, from a farming systems perspective. A true farming system approach would involve the total environment in which the farm family operates, including both technical and human (exogenous and endogenous) elements. This requires detailed study of what is happening at the present time, but this has not yet been done. This report can therefore deal only with farming systems subjectively. Annex 1 outlines the immense heterogeneity in Portuguese agriculture and lists subzones within the seven agricultural regions, each of which has several common farming systems. Extensive proposals for future crop and livestock production system' are made in the PHA, but these are more based on the intuition of local agricultural technicians and obvious national goals rather than on an understanding of the farmers' resources and ambitions. It is proposed in this Annex to refer to three agricultural situations to illustrate the importance of understanding these farm level interactions as a basis for planning. Production Systems for the Alentejo Region 26. Any discussion of Alentejo region production systems should ignore the question of irrigation (present or future) and accept the Alentejo reRion for what it is: namely, a typical winter rainfall, rainfed cereal and livestock region. For the moment it should disregard the changing and uncertain land tenure situation and assume two significant farm categories: (a) 370 units cooperatively managed and averaging 1,000 ha in size; and (b) medium-size, private farms averaging 30 ha in size. The reRion has approximately 1.9 million ha of arable land. The remainder outside of the approximately 43,000 ha in irrigation schemes, falls into eight land capability classes ranging from high potential for intensive cropping to very low potential and of minor usefulness for extensive grazing. Individual farms mostly have a range of classes. The approximate areas are as follows: - 19 - ANNEX 2 Page 12 Class A highest potential 98,800 ha Class B moderate to high potential 206,200 ha Class C1 best soils in class 87,500 ha Class C2 secondary soils 204,100 ha Class C3 under trees 80,000 ha Class DI better soils in class 36,000 ha Class D2 remainder 446,700 ha 1/ Class E lowest potential 706,600 ha T/ 1/ Much of this is under sparse oak forest. 27. With few exceptions, there is little complication caused by tradition. Although human elements affect decision making, the impact of technical elements is much greater. Besides vineyards and vegetables, which are treated as separate industries, production mainly focuses on wheat while livestock, coarse grains, oilseeds, and olives are relatively secondary. Farmers usually carry on several interrelated (but not integrated) activities so that clear-cut technological opportunities exist to develop integrated production systems which would greatly enhance production of the same products. Two main production patterns can be found. For the good soils (A and B) farmers are following a very exploitive rotation of wheat, barley, and sunflower in the fallow. This is dangerous in two major regards. First, it does not include a phase for restoring soil fertility. Bare fallow might be regarded as such, but it is being planted to sunflower (para. 18), and thus any mobilized nutrients are used up. The constant cultivation, with no return of organic matter, will continue to have serious implications, particularly for physical fertility. There is little opportunity to control root borne cereal diseases. Second, the farmers use deep plowing, which is incorrectly believed to be a moisture retention technique but this can only worsen soil fertility and the drainage problems. In the intermediate land-use classes (C and D) the rotation consists of wheat, oats and three or more years of fallow (land left idle, occasionally fertilized, and spontaneous growth that is grazed). This is a less exploitive rotation and associates livestock raising to a greater extent, but is not particularly productive. In this region, as in many similar ecological regions, the relationship between sheep numbers and crop area is striking even when there has been no attempt to integrate the two, since livestock numbers are usually determined by the extent of crop residues. 28. The crop rotation system that would appear to be the most logical and that would give most opportunity.for on-farm decision-making, as well as the flexibility to move quickly from one commodity to another but continue to integrate livestock and wheat as the major commodity objectives, would be as follows: - 20 - ANNEX 2 Page 13 Best soils: (A) Wheat, secondary cereal, grain letume (34,000 ha) (33,000 ha) (33,000 ha) 100,000 ha (B) Wheat, secondary cereal, 2 years of sub. clover based pasture 1/ (62,500 ha) (62,500 ha) (125,000 ha) 2/ 250,000 ha Intermediate: soils (C) Wheat, 3 years sub. clover 1/ based pastures (90,000 ha) (270,000 ha) 360,000 ha Low class: soils (D) Wheat, Cereal - 5 years sub. clover 11 based pastures (80,000 ha) (400,000 ha) 480,000 ha 1/ Subterranean clover's role in soil fertility restoration and livetock - crop integration is discussed in para. 23. 2/ Sunflover grown as a cash crop in the short fallow being prepared for wheat can be built in this rotation on a limited area according to soil type. 29. This set of rotations allows for a high intensity of cultivation on the beat soils vith a measure of soil fertility restoration which is now missing, and with an increasing length of the pasture phase as the potential of the land declines. This implies that livestock can be involved only to the extent of the available crop residues .n the 'Jest soils, but would be self-contained in any of the other rot4tions- Reference is made in each pasture phase to subterranean clover which should be the most important annual forage legume but as was pointed out in para. 24, there are limited areas where other forage legumes might be superior. The method of management and the purpose do not change. The virtue of flexibility to shorten or extend the rotation or to change crops easily remains. This flexibility is significant. The second phase in the first two rotations is labelled "secondary cereal", which say be barley, oats, wheat, or a cereal based fodder crop to suit the particular farm need or economic pressure. Clearly 50,000-60,000 ha in the region will be malting barley to respond to the demands of the brewing industry. The other needs vill be decided by similar market pressures. Production Systems for the NorthWest 30. By contrast with the situation in the Alentejo region where there are large comuercial farms with no definite patterns of production and many opportunities to intensify and integrate production of commodities, the reverse situation is seen in the northwestern part of the country which includes the less mountainous parts of the agricultural regions of Entre Duoro e Minho and Beira Litoral. Farms are small (averaging 2 ha), there is a long tradition of farming and comitment to dairy production, and there are distinct production systems that show a good degree of integration and intensity. Consequently, there is much less opportunity to manipulate the system. Researchers and planners need to take account of human elements to a much greater extent. - 21 - Traditional systems on small farms and the few larger farms are based on maize in the summer and green forage in the winter. The majority of farms have access to water for supplemental irrigation. Frequently this water runs throughout the winter and is spread on the pasture or forage crop to keep the temperature above freezing. The farming systems approach to research and development needs to be applied very carefully and, in this context, should start with a careful description of what the farmer is doing and why. 31. All of the potentials that are proposed in the PMA are purely speculative, based on rationalizing production of individual crops and taking no account of interactions between enterprises. The factors restricting production frequently have a basis in tradition. For example, farmers prefer white grained maize if they use it for bread, plant density in maize is arranged to allow for intercropping with beans and undersowing rye grass or cereal for the winter. Change factors can surely be introduced, but not without the heavy involvemenc of the farmer in the research process, as well as interaction between the social scientist and the biological scientist. 32. The small traditional farm system, based on maize in the summer and fodder in the winter, is intricate and represents intensive use of natural resources. The climate is relatively mild for an area with such high rainfall. Double cropping annually and almost 200% land use is practiced. Many of the grapes grown for green wine are grown on these farms usually as borders. Areas in potatoes are small enough so as not to compete with the dairy operation and some vegetables are grown for home consumption. As long as this size of farm persists it is difficult to see more than minor chantes in the production systems. The larger farms in the same areas have greater scope for change even though they too have an extroordinarily high degree of land use. The larger farms are more heavily involved in using subsidized concentrate feeds for their cows and herd size is consequently disproportionate to farm size. Although this practice is not wrong in the present economic climate, research and development in respect of this farming system is urgent to prepare for the point when the subsidy on concentrate feed disappears. The proposals for maintaining herds of a minimum size of at least 12 cows, based on some European model, in order to create an efficient dairy industry appears to have no logic as a starting point for developing an active agriculture in the area. This region is one in which the farming systems approach to research and development is most pertinent. It should be preceded by careful compilation of information on what is currently happening and why. This is necessary before any serious planning can be undertaken. Production System, for Public Irrigation Schemes 33. Problems in public irrigation schemes are described in a separate Annex mainly from an engineering point of view. The general issue of their unsuitability in some cases for intensive agriculture because of lack of foresight in planning is vell known. Another important issue is the extent to which particular schemes are specializing in particular crops. For example, the percentage of area planted to tomatoes is as high *a 88% in the Roxo scheme. By contrast, the Mira scheme with 6% tomatoes is being developed largely for irrigated pastures for livestock. Such crop concentration is dangerous from several points of view. In the case of tomatoes, for example, the obvious build up of soil borne pathogens (nematodes) bas reduced yield. Also dangerous is the vulnerability of farm income and cash flow when there is - 22 - ANNEX 2 Page 15 an exclusive and perishable product. Thirdly, such production biases rarely optimize the output from the land. It is important to combine several hiRh return crops, particularly horticultural crops, in agronomically sound rotations. 34. In the specific case of these public irrigation schemes, no research data have been produced on the basis of which crop options can be compared, but development of an hypothesis for testing is easy because there are not many options. This is required as an initial step in a long-term farm systems research program. Without it the Alentejo and southern Beira Interior schemes cannot be rehabilitated, nor is any further expansion in this region justified. III. RECOMMENDATIONS 35. It must be recognized that Portugal, because of its small size and limited areas of good soil (rather than climatic constraints or farm size limitations) has a very limited capacity to produce field crops. Areas are likely to be less than in the past rather than more when price and subsidies are rationalized and the marginal areas come to be used in wider rotations wich increased livestock. In general terms increasing the area of one crop vill result in a decrease in another. Because of demands for wheat for human consumption and feedgrains for livestock, strategies to maximize their production are the main focus. 36. In anticipation of Portugal's accession to the EEC it is clear that priority should be given to increasing wheat production. Strategies are discussed in paragraphs 2 to 5 above. As this depends to some extent on establishing an effective research organization the action proRram must be an integral part of any proposal to reorganize and strengthen research. In view of its urgency initial steps should be taken as sooa as possible to set up field development programs for wheat. 37. Second in importauce to wheat production is the production of feed grains. The case is made in this and other Annexes to reduce Portugal's dependence on feedgrain, particularly to change the feeding of ruminant animals by taking advantagc of their innate physiology and maximizing the use of forage and fodder crops. None the less, Portugal will remain deficient in feedgrains so that maize, barley, and oat production should be emphasized. Technological opportunities exist to improve the yield of each of these cereal crops significantly. 38. Portugal's climate and land capability combination allow the production at a high level of two annual forage legumes -- namely, subterranean clover and lupin -- which have strong soil fertility restoration capabilities as well as the capacity to produce very substantial amounts of animal feed. Using these plants effectively as the basis of croppinR systems, as has been done in similar environments (40 million ha in Australia) can bring about the most dramatic production increase that can be envisaged for Portugal. 39. Portugal stands to gain more than an average benefit from applying the farming systems approach to agricultural development at the farm level because of the diversity of production opportunities and the physical need to rotate crops and integrate livestock. The lack of definition of the existing systems prevents imoediate application of this approach and planninR groups need to be guided in the development of these definitions (Appendix 1). ANNEX 2 - 23 - Appendix 1 Page 1 PORTUGAL AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY FORMAT FOR FARM PRODUCTION SYSTEMS STUDY I. INTRODUCTION 1. The farming s7stems approach to research and planning requires an understanding of both technical and human elements. The format for obtaining this information should be developed in the field. What is presented here could be a basis for this development. Below is a list of statistical data and other information required to define the farming systems of Portugal. It is necessary to record the sources of data and information, and particularly, to indicate which data have been derived from the 1979 Census. A summary of the required information (not all of which may be available) follows: (a) For each of the seven agricultural regions. Ci) name the region and list the administrative districts which are included in it; (ii) prepare a brief statement giving the reasons for grouping; (iii) prepare a brief statement on the physical characteristics of the region discussing geographical location, elevation, climate, and natural vegetation; (iv) prepare a brief statement on land use capability based on land classification and climate; .v) prepare a table of land tenure, using information from section 5 of the 1979 Census; (vi) assemble socioeconomic data on nt'mbers and types of farmers, and on numbers of farms according to farm and herd size; (vii) indicate the type and location of agricultural services; (viii) list the farming systems, both major and minor, and indicate where the individual system fits into the region. (b) For each individual major farming system within a region: (i) list principal activities: for example, wheat, milk; (ii) describe crop rotation by year and percentage of arable area; (iii) list permanent crops; pasture, fruit trees, forest trees; (iv) list the areas of non-arable land; (v) describe the main reasons for (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv); ANNEX 2 - 24 - Appendix 1 Page 2 (vi) note areas irrigated and type of irrigation; (vii) note mechanization: power source and type of equipment; (viii) list uses of inputs such as fertilizer, selected seed and chemical plant protection; (ix) list labor used in terms of family, permanent, temporary, special; (x) indicate crop calendar for each crop, and water use when irrigation is applied; (xi) give yields of crop products; (xii) list uses of products for home consumption, sale, or reconversion on the farm; (xiii) describe opportunities for agricultural improvement according to product or in time. (c) For livestock at the regional and farm level: ii) list livestock distribution according to farm size; (ii) list input and output prices; (iii) give herd composition; (iv) list technical coefficients; Cv) give sources of animal feed; (vi) describe use of products. Formats for recordIing the statistical data and other information are attached. There is some overlap between crop and livestock data to facilitate subsequent handling. - 25 - ANNEX 2 PORTUGAL Appendix 2 Page 1 AGRICULTURAL SECTOR SURVEY FIELD CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS Farming Systems Approach 1. Reference is made in pare. 25 to the need to look at crop production in the context of the whole farm operation, that is, from a farming systems point of view. This approach recognizes that the system of production that a farm family will adopt will combine within the limit of their managerial skills, their available land, labor and capital to produce crop or animal products, or to pursue some activities off the farm, in order to try to meet objectives which they have set. The smaller the farm the more overlap there is between production and consumption. 2. The approach takes into ac=ount the family that operates the farm, as well as the farm. The system of production that can be undertaken is determined by the total environment of the farm and the family. The total environment embodies technical and human elements, many of which can be changed and some which cannot. The technical environment can be seen as three elements, namely: (a) the natural environment which includes the soil, topography, climate, water supply; (b) the biological environment which includes plant and animal species compatible with the location and their pests and diseases; (c) the cultural environment over which the farmer has control such as time and rate of planting, fertilizer strategy etc. The human elements are usually divided into external and internal. External factors concern the general social milieu in which the farm operates and includes such things as social customs and traditions, distance and accessibility, and support services. The internal human factors include labor, capital and managerial skill. The interaction of, and the opportunities to supplement these, are obvious. 3. The bottom to top approach is especially relevant in research and gives rise to the so-called farming systems approach to research. It is equally as relevant in agricultural planaing. It is always assumed that the primary aim is to increase overall productivity and hopefully the well being of the farm family as a result, within the framework of the factors that go to define the existing production system. Growing interest in this general approach is brought about to avoid some of the failures that have resulted from other approaches. 4. There are several dimensions which are easily overlooked without a whole farm approach. The first is purely technical and very significant. It concerns the integration of enterprises to get greater total productivity, long term stability of yields and greater flexibility to emphasize or de-emphasize an enterprise without serious disruption. This involves, (a) rotation benefits of soil fertility restoration, and disease and weed management; (b) carry over effects of fertilization; and (c) soil water management. From the socio-economic standpoint there are opportunities to increase the exploitation of resources particularly labor. The third dimension has to do with the aspirations and motivations of the farmer who do have preferences for particular enterprises, noticeable in mixed farming situations particularly where crops and livestock are produced on the same farm. ANNEX 2 - 26 - Appendix 2 Page 2 5. The farming systems approach to research is extremely relevant in Portugal with the diversity of farms of production. It is imperative to have farmers' inputs at two levels, namely, in defining the research priorities and in fine-tuning the results. Research conducted in this manner will make extension feasible and easier. This does not preclude or compete with more upstream research which is still important for development. It simply recognizes that the latter is complementary and does not produce results for iumediate adoption. 6. Likewise this approach does not preclude the development of national production goals. It simply implies that in reality the national goals be developed having in mind the limitations at the farm level. ANNEX 2 - 27 - Appendix 2 Page 3 PORTUGAL'S FARM PRODUCTION SYSTEMS I. REGIONAL LEVEL l. Name of Region: ......................................... 2. Tk.e administrative districts included in the region are:............. ............................. ............................ ............................... 3. This group of districts forms a logical region because (for example, physical features, social structures, land tenure, land use capability, market opportunities, etc.): 4. Land Use Capability The total surface area of the region is approximately .......o... ha. (divide this total on a percentage basis into land-use capability classes using land classification, climate and soil erosion potential as presented in the guidelines following this section). Percentage of Total Surface Climate Categories /a Category I Category 2 Category 3 lass I II IV V VI VII .VIIIll /a Climate may need one or more columns to distinguish between rainfall, or temperature regimes or a combination of the two. ANNEX 2 -28- Appendix 2 Page 4 5. Land Tenure This region has approximately ................ farm families Type of ownership /1 Area (ha)Z Private farmer Share farmer Production cooperatives Collective farm Cooperative company Common land (baldios) State or public company Other Total Agricultural Land Non-agricultural /1 As in agricultural census form, para. 5. 6. Farm Size Distribution Number Area Size of Farm (ha) No. Total ha X Less than 0.5 0.5 - 1 1- 2 2- 5 10- 20 20- 50 50- 100 100 - 200 200 - 500 Greater than 500 Total ANNEX 2 - 29 - Appendix 2 7. Land Use on a Regional Basis Page 5 Area in hectares Rainfed Irrigated Total % Land in Rotation Cereals Grain Legumes Oilseed Vegetables Forage Fodder Fallow Sub-total Permanent Crops Forest Orchard Pasture. so8W Pasture natural Sub-total Nonarable Total ANNEX 2 - 30 - Appendix 2 Page 6 8. Prices of Outputs at Farm Gate (1983) ---Range… Product Mean High Low I t IF II ANNEX 2 - 31 - Apniddix 2 Page 7 9. Physical Characteristics of the Region (Geographical location, elevation, climate, natural vegetation) 10. Agriculttiral Services Major Credit Sources Seed Production Centers Fertilizer Wholesale Outlets Ext ens ion Research 11. Farming Systems List the major and minor farming systems in the region and indicate where (geographically) each fits into the regions. For example: (1) small farm, irrigated vegetables - milk; upstream river valleys; (2) large farm) fallow-field crops - sheep; central plains. ANNEX 2 - 32 - Appendix 2 Page 8 LAND CLASSIFICATION AS BASIS OF LAND USE CAPABILITY General Guidelines Suitable for Annual Crops Class I Slopes less than 1%; no soil conservation method required. Class II Land with slopes from 2-9X; contour cultivation using permanent markers, with occasional widely sloped earth banks as necessary along with improved agronomy. Class III Land with slopes from 10-25Z; closely spaced earth banks, gully control, water disposal areas, contour cultivation and improved agronomy. Suitable for Perennial Crops Class IV Flat or nearly flat land, where surface rock exceeds 50% of surface; requires no special conservation method. Class V Slopes 16-25% requiring intensive and strict conservation practice with either terraces for tree crops or permanent carefully grazed pasture. Suitable for Forestry Class VI Slopes greater than 25% and adequate rainfall, requiring intensive soil conservation practices before planting. Suitable for Grazing Only Class VII Low rainfall or steep (similar to Class VI) land where forage production is encouraged by low cost techniques that do not require cultivation and where grazing is strictly controlled. Not Suitable for Agriculture, Horticulture, or Fnrestry Class VIII Roadsides, creek beds, villages, etc. ANNEX 2 - 33 - ippend;x 2 Page 9 II. DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR FARMING SYSTEMS Prepare a separate annex for each major farming system listed in the regional summary. ("Major" can be interpreted loosely as being more than 10% of the regions farmers.) The purposes are to have a basic description of the farming system and the reasons why particular groups of farmers are attached to it; to assemble whatever data are available to measure its output, and indicate the opportunities for improving the production in this category of farms. 1. Principal Production Activities (for example: field crops - wheat, rye; vegetables - potatoes; fruit - citrus; forestry; animal products - sheep meat, milk) 2. Land Use Area in hectares Rainfed Irrigated Total Z Land in Rotation Cereals Grain Legumes Oilseeds Vegetables Forage Fodder Fallow Sub-total Permanent Crops Forest Orchard Pasture sown Pasture natural Sub-total Nonarable land Total ANNEX 2 34 Appendix 2 Page 10 2. Land Use (to be used in place of preceding form if precise numbers are not available) Average farm size is ha Total Farm Area Arable Arable Land Land Irrigation Permanent Production Rotation (a) (b) (c) ----- Percentage of Total Farm Area----- ---------- Percentage of (b) or (c z Forest Fruit Pasture - sown - natural Sub-total / / / / / ~Cereals Crain legumes Oilseeds Vegetables - winter - sunmer fodder crops Annual pasture Sub-total ANNEX 2 - 35 - Appendix 2 3. Crop Rotation Employed on Arabl Land Use the number of courses to correspond with the number of years in the rotation (2 or more) Course I Course 2 Course 3 Course 4 4. Type of Irrigation (State whether the irrigation facility is modern or traditional, the method of irrigating, and reliability of water supply). 5. Crop Calendars (Kark month with X for each month from planting to harvest. Replace X with number of cubic meters of water/ha when irrigation in applied). Crop Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. ct. Nov. Dec. _ < _I-- 6 lnpuc Use - g t~~~~~~~Cereals G rn ~ O. Clt-vaeS-Frui11t or V nes' ~ *.tabe oo I I.puta Pr aoes CJi t | U. SVJJ der70r.cAIg! T;5.i7jay) POreFA1nI 1 T.mporiry ! Special .4celb. Trjctor.NJckinwry | i I-ooirs Other- I i * . I j I ; Aniral Eq1ip"ent | I | 8113 , . j H4 K1 11 :un-oct^) i ; it §. i| :i^