Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Mammalian Livestock Production Introduction The applicability of specific technical recommendations should be based on the professional opinion of qualified and The Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Guidelines are experienced persons. When host country regulations differ from technical reference documents with general and industry- the levels and measures presented in the EHS Guidelines, specific examples of Good International Industry Practice projects are expected to achieve whichever is more stringent. If (GIIP) 1. When one or more members of the World Bank Group less stringent levels or measures than those provided in these are involved in a project, these EHS Guidelines are applied as EHS Guidelines are appropriate, in view of specific project required by their respective policies and standards. These circumstances, a full and detailed justification for any proposed industry sector EHS guidelines are designed to be used alternatives is needed as part of the site-specific environmental together with the General EHS Guidelines document, which assessment. This justification should demonstrate that the provides guidance to users on common EHS issues potentially choice for any alternate performance levels is protective of applicable to all industry sectors. For complex projects, use of human health and the environment multiple industry-sector guidelines may be necessary. A complete list of industry-sector guidelines can be found at: Applicability www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/EnvironmentalGuidelines The EHS Guidelines for Mammalian Livestock Production The EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and includes information relevant to cattle ranching and farming, measures that are generally considered to be achievable in new dairy farming, and hog and pig farming. Sheep and goat farming facilities by existing technology at reasonable costs. Application operations, while not explicitly discussed, are similar to the of the EHS Guidelines to existing facilities may involve the operations included in this document, and the recommendations establishment of site-specific targets, with an appropriate presented here are also generally applicable. This document timetable for achieving them. The applicability of the EHS does not address feed production, dairy processing, or meat Guidelines should be tailored to the hazards and risks processing, which are covered under other EHS Guidelines. For established for each project on the basis of the results of an guidance on animal welfare, see the IFC Good Practice Note environmental assessment in which site-specific variables, such “Animal Welfare in Livestock Operations.”2 This document has as host country context, assimilative capacity of the the following sections: environment, and other project factors, are taken into account. Section 1.0 — Industry-Specific Impacts and Management Section 2.0 — Performance Indicators and Monitoring 1 Defined as the exercise of professional skill, diligence, prudence and foresight Section 3.0 — References and Additional Sources that would be reasonably expected from skilled and experienced professionals Annex A — General Description of Industry Activities engaged in the same type of undertaking under the same or similar circumstances globally. The circumstances that skilled and experienced professionals may find when evaluating the range of pollution prevention and control techniques available to a project may include, but are not limited to, 2http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/enviro.nsf/Content/Publications_GoodPractice. An additional varying levels of environmental degradation and environmental assimilative source for animal welfare guidance is the Farm Animal Welfare Council available at capacity as well as varying levels of financial and technical feasibility. www.fawc.org.uk APRIL 30, 2007 1 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP 1.0 Industry-Specific Impacts Waste Feed and Management Livestock feed includes hay, grain (sometimes supplemented The following section provides a summary of EHS issues with protein, amino acids, enzymes, vitamins, mineral supplements, hormones, heavy metals, and antibiotics), and associated with mammalian livestock production that occur silage. Livestock operations may produce all, a portion, or none during the operational phase, along with recommendations for of the feed used. Feeding can take place in buildings, feedlots, their management. Recommendations for the management of EHS issues common to most large projects during the and pastureland. Feed can become unusable waste material if construction and decommissioning phases are provided in the spilled during storage, loading, and unloading or during animal General EHS Guidelines. feeding. Waste feed, including additives, may contribute to the contamination of stormwater runoff, primarily because of its 1.1 Environment organic matter content. Environmental issues in mammalian livestock production To maximize the efficiency of the operation and minimize primarily include the following: wasted feed, the following measures are recommended: • Waste management • Promote efficient storage, handling and use of feed by • Wastewater maintaining records of feed purchases and livestock feed • Air emissions use; • Hazardous Materials Management • Use covered or protected feeders to prevent feed from • Ecological impacts exposure to rain and wind; • Animal diseases • Maintain feeding systems in good working condition to prevent spills and feed contact with the ground; Waste Management • Consider mixing of waste feed with other recyclable Solid waste generated during mammalian livestock production materials destined for use as fertilizer, or else consider includes waste feed, animal waste, and carcasses. Other incineration or land disposal options, based on an wastes include various kinds of packaging (e.g. for feed and assessment of potential impacts of each option to air, soils, pesticides), used ventilation filters, unused / spoilt medications, and surface water / groundwater.3 used cleaning materials, and sludges from wastewater Animal Waste treatment if present (which may contain residual amounts of growth enhancers and antibiotics, among other hazardous Mammalian livestock production operations generate significant constituents). . In addition to the following sector specific quantities of animal waste, mainly in the form of un-metabolized guidance, wastes should be managed and disposed of nutrients excreted as manure. A mature pig, for example, according to the guidance for hazardous and non-hazardous waste provided in the General EHS Guidelines. 3 Since some of the growth promoters used in livestock feed contain heavy metals (with the type and concentration of the metals determined by the type of livestock), the environmental impacts of the treatment and disposal options should be assessed (e.g. metals emissions to air from incineration, metals accumulation in soils, or migration into surface water or groundwater media from land application) and mitigated accordingly. APRIL 30, 2007 2 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP excretes on average 67 percent of the protein in feed via its of animal wastes, and to reduce migration of contaminants to urine and feces.4 surface water, groundwater, and air: Manure contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and other excreted • Implement a comprehensive nutrient and waste substances which may result in air emissions of ammonia and management plan that takes into account the potentially other gases and may pose a potential risk of contamination to harmful constituents of this waste including potential phyto- surface or groundwater resources through leaching and runoff. toxicity levels, potential concentration of hazardous Manure also contains disease-causing agents such as bacteria, substances in soils and vegetation, as well as nutrient pathogens, viruses, parasites, and prions which may also limits and groundwater pollutant limits; ;6 potentially affect soil, water, and plant resources (for human, • Observe internationally recognized guidance, such as that livestock, or wildlife consumption). Most of the animal waste is published by FAO, on land requirements for livestock generated at housing, feeding, and watering locations. Animal production for livestock units (LU) per hectare (ha) to wastes can be either liquid, slurry, or solid, depending on the ensure an appropriate amount of land for manure solids content. Animal waste management systems involve the deposition;7 collection, transport, storage, treatment, and utilization (rather • Match feed content to the specific nutritional requirements than disposal) of the waste to reduce such adverse impacts. of the animals in their different production and growth stages;8 Manure collection systems include slotted floors that allow • Use low-protein, amino acid-supplemented diets (e.g. a 1 manure to drop into a storage area located beneath the floor; percent reduction in the protein content of pig feed may scraping of solid floors; and water flushing. The most common result in a 10 percent reduction in the amount of nitrogen manure storage methods are belowground tanks, aboveground excreted);9 circular tanks and earth-banked lagoons, and weeping wall • Grind feed to increase utilization efficiency by the animals, stores (aboveground concrete paneled stores with slots to allow allowing the use of less feed and thereby reducing the liquid seepage to a collection tank). Lagoons should be fenced amount of manure generated (as well as increasing the to prevent access by wildlife and nearby communities. production efficiency); Manure may be used as a fertilizer on agricultural land after • Use low-phosphorus diets with highly digestible inorganic careful assessment of potential impacts due to the presence of phosphates; hazardous chemical and biological constituents. The results of • Use quality, uncontaminated feed materials (e.g. the assessment may indicate the need to some level of concentrations of pesticides, dioxins, and so on are known treatment and preparation prior to its application as a fertilizer as well as the application rates.5 6 A source for good practice includes Roy et al. (2006) Plant Nutrition for Food Security, A Guide for Integrated Nutrient Management, FAO, available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fpnb16.pdf The following management measures are recommended to 7 A livestock unit is a term used to express the generic production of nitrogen minimize the amount of manure produced, to facilitate handling (N) from livestock; one livestock unit produces 100 kg of N per year. Guidance regarding land areas for manure deposition is discussed in Roy et al. (2006). 8 Further information is available from Animal Feed Resources Information 4 EC (2003). System AFRIS Publisher by the FAO and available at 5 Additional information on the application of crop nutrients is provided in the http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/afris/tree/cat.htm and in EC (2003). Annual Crops and Plantation Crops EHS Guidelines. 9 Ibid. APRIL 30, 2007 3 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP and do not exceed acceptable levels) that contain no more • Conduct manure spread only as part of well planned copper, zinc, and other additives than is necessary for strategy that considers potential risks to health and the animal health;10 environmental due to the presence of chemical and • Ensure production and manure storage facilities11 are biological agents as well as nutrient balance in an constructed to prevent urine and manure contamination of agricultural setting.12 Ensure that manure is applied to surface water and groundwater (e.g. use concrete floors, agricultural land only during periods that are appropriate for collect liquid effluent from pens, and use roof gutters on its use as plant nutrient (generally just before the start of buildings to collect and divert clean stormwater); the growing season); • Keep waste as dry as possible by scraping wastes instead • Manure storage facilities should have capacity for 9–12 of, or in addition, to flushing with water to remove waste; months of manure production or as necessary to avoid • Reduce the amount of water used during cleaning (e.g. by over application; using high-pressure, low-flow nozzles); • Design, construct, operate, and maintain waste • Minimize the surface area of manure in storage; management and storage facilities to contain all manure, • Cool the manure surface to maintain temperatures at 15ºC litter, and process wastewater including runoff and direct or less (e.g. by using cooling fins on the manure surface), if precipitation;13 practical, to reduce ammonia emissions; • Remove liquids and sludge from lagoons as necessary to • Locate manure stacks away from water bodies, floodplains, prevent overtopping; wellhead fields; or other sensitive habitats; • Build a reserve slurry storage lagoon; • For feedlots, ensure that solid waste (e.g. bedding and • Transport liquid effluent in sealed tankers. muck) is gathered regularly and is not permitted to lie on the ground for long periods of time; Animal Carcasses • Reduce the volume of rainwater in the storage system by Animal carcasses should be properly managed and quickly covering slurry tanks or lagoons with a rigid roof or floating disposed of in order to prevent the spread of disease (see cover and by placing dry manure or litter in a covered or Animal Disease section below) and odors, and to avoid the roofed area; attraction of vectors14. Operators should implement carcass • Check for storage systems leakage regularly (e.g. inspect management and disposal arrangements such that animal tanks for corrosion of seams, especially those near ground level; annually empty and inspect tanks); • Use double valves on outlets from liquid tanks to reduce 12 Additional information on the application of crop nutrients is provided in the the probability of release; IFC Annual Crops EHS Guideline and Plantation Crops EHS Guidelines. 13 Typically designed for 100-year flood event. 14 For further information on culling and disposal of carcasses, in addition to animal health issues, see Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive Review, Kansas State University (2004) available at http://fss.k- 10 Further information regarding animal feed is available from the FAO Animal state.edu/research/books/carcassdisp.html; Guidance Note on the Disposal of Animal By-Products and Catering Waste, UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Production and Health Division, available at and Food (2001) available at http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/by- http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/home/en/home.html prods/publicat/dispguide.pdf; and various documents provided by the Animal 11 Further information regarding manure storage is available from the Livestock Health Australia, available at and Poultry Environmental Stewardship Curriculum, at http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/aahc/index.cfm?E9711767-B85D- http://www.lpes.org/Lessons/Lesson21/21_2_sizing_storage.pdf D391-45FC-CDBC07BD1CD4#ops APRIL 30, 2007 4 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP carcasses are not recycled into animal feed. Recommended the operation, as well as the nature of stormwater management carcass management practices include: features, some facilities may also include point sources which typically require collection and treatment prior to final discharge. • Reduce mortalities through proper animal care and disease In either case, effluents have the potential to contaminate prevention;15 surface water and groundwater with nutrients, ammonia, • Store carcasses until collection, using cooling if necessary sediment, pesticides, pathogens and feed additives, such as to prevent putrefaction; heavy metals, hormones, and antibiotics.18 Effluents from • Use a reliable collection company approved by local livestock operations typically have a high content of organic authorities that disposes of carcasses by rendering or material and consequently a high biochemical oxygen demand incineration, depending on the cause of fatality. (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), as well as nutrients Incineration should only be conducted in permitted facilities and suspended solids (TSS). operating under international recognized standards for pollution prevention and control;16 Effective waste management, as described above, is critical to • Where no authorized collection of carcasses is available, reduce discharges to surface water and groundwater. In on-site burial may be one of the only viable alternatives, if addition, the following management techniques are allowed by the competent authorities. Whether onsite or recommended to further reduce the impacts of water runoff from offsite, the burial area should be accessible to earthmoving mammalian livestock operations: machinery and have stable, low-permeability soils with • Reuse water used for cleaning milking equipment to clean sufficient physical separation from houses and water the milking parlor; resources to avoid contamination by vapors or leachate • Reduce water use and spills from animal watering by from buried, decaying materials.17 preventing overflow of watering devices and using Wastewater calibrated, well-maintained self-watering devices; Industrial Process Wastewater • Install vegetative filters to trap sediment; • Install surface water diversions to direct clean runoff Livestock operations most commonly generate non-point source around areas containing waste; effluents due to runoff from feed (including silage) storage, • Implement buffer zones to surface water bodies, avoiding loading, and unloading, livestock housing, feeding, and landspreading of manure within these areas; watering, waste management facilities, and areas of land • Reduce leachate from silage by allowing plant material to application of manure. Depending on the type and intensity of wilt in the field for 24 hours, varying cutting and harvesting times, and adding moisture-absorbent material as the 15 Information on animal health and disease prevention is available from Animal Health Australia, at silage is stored. http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/aahc/index.cfm?E9711767-B85D- D391-45FC-CDBC07BD1CD4#ops and from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Inspection Service, available at http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/index.shtml 16 Examples of key environmental issues associated with incinerations facilities are available in the IFC EHS Guidelines for Waste Management Facilities. 17 Many countries forbid burial of carcasses. More information on the treatment of dead animals can be found in the Waste and By-products section of the EHS 18 Forty percent of antibiotics manufactured are fed to livestock as growth Guidelines for Meat Processing and Rendering. enhancers (Reynolds 2003). APRIL 30, 2007 5 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Process Wastewater Treatment odors (e.g. animal housing and waste management), bioaerosols, and dust (e.g. feed storage, loading, and unloading, Techniques for treating industrial process wastewater in this feeding, and waste management activities). Effective waste sector include sedimentation for suspended solids reduction management, as described above, is critical to reduce the using clarifiers or settling ponds; flow and load equalization; emission of air pollutants. The management techniques biological treatment, typically anaerobic followed by aerobic discussed below are recommended to further reduce the treatment, for reduction of soluble organic matter (BOD); impacts of air emissions from mammalian livestock operations. biological nutrient removal for reduction in nitrogen and phosphorus; chlorination of effluent when disinfection is Ammonia and Odors required; dewatering of residuals and composting or land Ammonia gas and other sources of odor are generated primarily application of wastewater treatment residuals of acceptable quality. Additional engineering controls may be required (i) if during denitrification of manure and can be released directly into the atmosphere at any stage of the manure handling process, pass through of active ingredients (residual amounts of growth including through ventilation of buildings and manure storage enhancers and antibiotics, among other hazardous constituents) areas. Ammonia gas levels are also affected by the ambient is an issue, and (ii) to contain and neutralize nuisance odors. temperature, ventilation rate, humidity, stocking rate, litter Management of industrial wastewater and examples of quality, and feed composition (crude protein). Ammonia gas treatment approaches are discussed in the General EHS (NH3) has a sharp and pungent odor can act as an irritant when Guidelines . Through use of these technologies and good present in high enough concentrations. Ammonia gas deposition practice techniques for wastewater management, facilities into surface waters may contribute to their euthrophication. should meet the Guideline Values for wastewater discharge as Release of ammonia gas also reduces the nitrogen content and, indicated in the relevant table of Section 2 of this industry sector therefore, the fertilizer value of the manure. document. Recommended measures to reduce impacts of ammonia and Other Wastewater Streams & Water Consumption odors include the following: Guidance on the management of non-contaminated wastewater • Consider the siting of new facilities taking into account from utility operations, non-contaminated stormwater, and distances to neighbors and the propagation of odors; sanitary sewage is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. • Control the temperature, humidity, and other environmental Contaminated streams should be routed to the treatment system factors of manure storage to reduce emissions; for industrial process wastewater. Recommendations to reduce • Consider composting of manure to reduce odor emissions; water consumption, especially where it may be a limited natural • Reduce emissions and odors during land application resource, are provided in the General EHS Guidelines. activities by applying a few centimeters below the soil surface and by selecting favorable weather conditions (e.g. Air Emissions wind blowing away from inhabited areas); Air emissions from mammalian livestock production include ammonia (e.g. management of animal waste), methane and nitrous oxide (e.g. animal feeding and waste management), APRIL 30, 2007 6 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP • If necessary, apply chemicals (e.g. urinase inhibitors) • Implement balanced feeding (e.g. optimizing proteins and weekly to reduce conversion of nitrogen to ammonia;19 amino acids to correspond to requirements of particular animal groups) • Consider various techniques to manage methane Greenhouse gases emissions from manure including controlled anaerobic The livestock account for 9 percent of anthropogenic CO2 digestion (to produce biogas), flaring / burning, use of emissions (mostly from deforestation / land use changes for biofilters, composting, and aerobic treatment. Use of grazing and pasture for feed crops), 37 percent of anaerobic digestion may also reduce emissions of nitrous anthropogenic methane emissions, mostly from enteric oxide; fermentation by ruminants, and 65 percent of anthropogenic • Minimize the amount of manure production through the nitrous oxide emissions, the majority of which from manure. implementation of animal waste management approaches; Methane has 23 times the global warming potential (GWP) of • Control the temperature, humidity, and other environmental CO2, while nitrous oxide has 296 times the GWP of CO2. factors of manure storage to reduce methane and nitrous oxide emissions. This may involve use of closed storage By improving livestock production efficiency, producers can both tanks, or maintaining the integrity of the crust on open increase profits and reduce methane emissions.20 Methane can manure storage ponds / lagoons. also be produced from microbial action in manure. • Implement pasture / grazing management techniques to The recommended measures to reduce methane generation reduce nitrous oxide and methane emissions, including not and emission follow: overstocking pastures, avoiding late fall and winter grazing, improving soil drainage, and avoiding soil compaction from • Improve the productivity and efficiency of livestock grazing to maintain the anaerobicicity of the soil. production (thus lowering the methane emissions per unit of livestock) through improvements in nutrition and Dust genetics; Dust can reduce visibility, cause respiratory problems, and • Supplement livestock diets with nutrients, as necessary facilitate the transport of odors and diseases. Recommended (e.g. increasing the level of starch and rapidly fermentable measures to reduce dust generation include the following: carbohydrates, use of urea supplements). Production of feed supplements, may also, however, result in production • Install dust-collection systems at dusty operations, such as of GHGs. feed grinding; • Increase the carbon to nitrogen ratio in feeds to reduce • Prevent overgrazing of pastureland; methane and nitrous oxide production; • Implement fugitive-dust-control measures, such as wetting frequently traveled dirt roads, as necessary. 19 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Use of Urease Inhibitors to Control Nitrogen Hazardous Materials Loss from Livestock Waste, 1997. 20 For further information on strategies to reduce emissions of methane from Hazardous materials are used throughout the beef, milk, and livestock rearing activities is available in Livestock’s Long Shadow, Livestock Environment and Development Initiative (LEAD), FAO 2006, available at pork production cycles (e.g. disinfecting agents, antibiotic and http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf APRIL 30, 2007 7 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP hormonal products). Guidance on the handling, storage, and environmental and human health impacts. Recommended IPM transport of hazardous materials is provided in the General EHS approaches in the mammalian livestock industry include the Guidelines . following: Use of Pesticides • Maintain structures to keep out pests (e.g. plug holes, seal gaps around doors and windows); Pesticides may be applied directly to livestock or to structures • Use mechanical controls (e.g. traps, barriers, light, and (e.g. barns and housing units) and to control pests (e.g. sound) to kill, relocate, or repel pests; parasites and vectors) using dipping vats, sprayers, and • Use predators to control pests. Protect natural enemies of foggers. Pesticides can also be used to control predators. The pests by providing a favorable habitat (e.g. bushes for potential pollutants from pesticides include the active and inert nesting sites and other indigenous vegetation) that can ingredients, diluents, and persistent degradation products. house pest predators; Pesticides and their degradation products may enter • Use good housekeeping practices in barns and other groundwater and surface water in solution, in emulsion, or facilities to limit food sources and habitat for pests; bound to soil particles. Pesticides may, in some instances, impair the uses of surface waters and groundwater. Some • Improve drainage and reduce standing water to control mosquito populations; pesticides are suspected or known to cause chronic or acute health hazards for humans as well as adverse ecological • Consider covering manure piles with geotextiles (which impacts. allow water to enter the pile and maintain composting activity) to reduce fly populations; By reducing pesticide use, mammalian livestock production • If pesticides are used, identify in the IPM plan the need for operators may reduce not only the environmental impacts of the pesticide and evaluate their effectiveness, as well as their operations, but also production costs. Pesticides should be potential environmental impacts, to ensure that the managed to avoid their migration into off-site land or water pesticide with the least adverse impact is selected (e.g. environments by establishing their use as part of an Integrated nonleachable pesticides). Pest Management (IPM) strategy and as documented in a Pesticide Management Plan (PMP). The following stages should Good Management Practices be considered when designing and implementing an IPM If the application of pesticides is warranted, spill prevention and strategy, giving preference to alternative pest management control measures consistent with the recommendations strategies, with the use of synthetic chemical pesticides as a last applicable to pesticides and other potential hazardous materials option. as noted in the General EHS Guideline should be followed. Integrated Pest Management In addition, the following actions specific to mammalian livestock IPM uses an understanding of the life cycle of pests and their production should be taken to reduce environmental impacts: interaction with the environment in combination with available • Train personnel to apply pesticides according to planned pest control methods to keep pests at a level that is within the procedures, while using the necessary protective clothing. economically damaging threshold with a minimum of adverse APRIL 30, 2007 8 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Where feasible or required, pesticide application personnel • Select application technologies and practices designed to should be certified for this purpose21 reduce unintentional drift or runoff, only as indicated in an • Review the manufacturer’s instructions on the maximum IPM program, and under controlled conditions recommended dosage and treatment, as well as published • Maintain and calibrate pesticide application equipment in experiences on the reduced rate of pesticide applications accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations; without loss of effect, and apply the minimum effective • Store pesticides in their original packaging, and in a dose dedicated location that can be locked and properly • Avoid the use of pesticides that fall under the World Health identified with signs, with access limited to authorized Organization Recommended Classification of Pesticides by persons. No human or animal food should be stored in this Hazard Classes 1a and 1b location • Avoid the use of pesticides that fall under the World Health • Mixing and transfer of pesticides should be undertaken by Organization Recommended Classification of Pesticides by trained personnel in ventilated and well lit areas, using Hazard Class II if the project host country lacks restrictions containers designed and dedicated for this purpose on distribution and use of these chemicals, or if they are • Used pesticide containers should not be used for any other likely to be accessible to personnel without proper training, purpose (e.g. drinking water) and should be managed as a equipment, and facilities to handle, store, apply, and hazardous waste as described in the General EHS dispose of these products properly Guidelines . Disposal of containers contaminated with • Avoid the use of pesticides listed in annexes A and B of the pesticides also should be done in a manner consistent with Stockholm Convention, except under the conditions noted FAO guidelines and with manufacturer's directions;23 in the convention;22 • Purchase and store no more pesticide than needed and • Use only pesticides that are manufactured under license rotate stock using a “first-in, first-out” principle so that and registered and approved by the appropriate authority pesticides do not become obsolete. Additionally, the use of and in accordance with Food and Agriculture obsolete pesticides should be avoided under all Organization’s (FAO’s) International Code of Conduct on circumstances;24 A management plan that includes the Distribution and Use of Pesticides; measures for the containment, storage and ultimate • Use only pesticides that are labeled in accordance with destruction of all obsolete stocks should be prepared in international standards and norms, such as the FAO’s accordance to guidelines by FAO and consistent with Revised Guidelines for Good Labeling Practice for country commitments under the Stockholm, Rotterdam and Pesticides; Basel Conventions • Implement groundwater supply wellhead setbacks for pesticide application and storage; 21 For example, tThe US EPA classifies pesticides as either “unclassified” or • Maintain records of pesticide use and effectiveness. “restricted.” All workers that apply unclassified pesticides must be trained according to the Worker Protection Standard (40 CFR Part 170) for Agricultural Pesticides. Restricted pesticides must be applied by or in the presence of a certified pesticide applicator. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/worker.htm. 23 See FAO Guidelines for the Disposal of Waste Pesticides and Pesticide 22 The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001), controls Containers on the farm. the use of the following POPs-pesticides: Aldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, 24 See the FAO publication on pesticide storage and stock control manual. FAO Endrin, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene, Mirex, and Toxaphene. Pesticide Disposal Series No. 3 (1996). APRIL 30, 2007 9 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Ecological Impacts endangered species, or important wildlife breeding, The most significant potential ecological impacts resulting from feeding, and staging areas; mammalian livestock production are associated with water and • Be aware of the presence of critically endangered or air emissions, as discussed above. In addition, livestock with endangered species in the areas already used for livestock access to creeks, rivers, and other natural water sources may production and consider them during management cause environmental damage by contaminating the water with processes; animal waste, destroying riparian habitat, and eroding the • Provide for minimum disturbance to surrounding areas stream banks. In addition overgrazing may contribute to soil when managing livestock. losses because of severe erosion, and a reduction in soil productivity caused by alteration of the vegetation composition Animal Diseases and associated organisms in rangelands. Animal disease-causing agents can spread rapidly, especially in Effective waste management, control of water discharges and intensive livestock operations. Animal diseases can enter a air emissions, and management of pest control products, as facility with new animals, on equipment, and on people. Some described above, are critical to reducing adverse ecological diseases can weaken or kill large numbers of animals at an impacts from mammalian livestock rearing operations. In infected facility. In some cases, the only remedy available to an addition, the management techniques discussed below are operation is to sacrifice an entire group of animals to prevent the recommended to further reduce potential ecological impacts: spread of the disease to other parts of the facility or to other facilities. The procedures to protect against the spread of animal • Prevent animals’ access to surface water bodies using diseases will depend on the type of animal at a facility, the way fences, buffer strips or other physical barriers; the diseases of concern spread to and infect animals, and the • Prevent overgrazing of pastureland through use of: vulnerability of the animals to each specific disease. o Rotational grazing systems based on seasonal and The key to developing adequate disease-prevention procedures local ecosystem resilience (e.g. riparian zones) is to find accurate information about animal diseases and how to o Use of livestock trails to reduce soil trampling and prevent them. Some of the recommended general types of gully formation / erosion near streams management methods to reduce the potential for the spread of animal pathogens include the following: The following actions should be taken to help maintain regional biodiversity: • Control farm animals, equipment, personnel, and wild or domestic animals entering the facility (e.g. quarantine • Before converting land to livestock production, survey the periods for new animals, washing and disinfecting crates, project area to identify, categorize, and delineate natural disinfection and coverage of shoes before entry into and modified habitat types and ascertain their biodiversity livestock zones, providing protective clothing to personnel, value at the regional or national level; and closing holes in buildings to keep out wild animals); • Ensure that any natural or modified habitat to be converted • Vehicles that go from farm to farm (e.g. transport of to livestock production does not contain critical habitat, veterinarians, farm suppliers, buyers, etc.) should be including known habitat of critically endangered or APRIL 30, 2007 10 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP subject to special precautions such as limiting their addition, the following management measures specific to operation to special areas with biosecurity measures, mammalian livestock production may reduce the risk of spraying of tires and treating parking areas with accidents and injuries. disinfectants; • Sanitize animal housing areas; • Ensure that all underground manure storage tanks and lagoons are properly covered and fenced off at a sufficient • Identify and segregate sick animals25 and develop height; management procedures for adequate removal and disposal of dead animals).26 • Store liquid manure (e.g. in barn pits, pumping stations, storage tanks, and application tankers) to minimize release of dangerous gases (e.g hydrogen sulfide); 1.2 Occupational Health and Safety • Design pens, gates, and chutes to facilitate movement of Agriculture has one of the worst fatal accident and occupational livestock and reduce the need for farm workers to enter health records of any major employment sector. Occupational pens; health and safety hazards related to the daily operations of the • Instruct staff in correct livestock care, to reduce the mammalian livestock sector include: incidence of bites and kicks. • Exposure to physical hazards Chemical Hazards • Exposure to chemical hazards Hazardous materials are used throughout the beef, milk, and • Exposure to biological agents pork production cycles (e.g. disinfecting agents, antibiotic and • Confined spaces hormonal products). Chemical exposures should be prevented and controlled according to guidance presented in the General EHS Guidelines. Physical Hazards Many occupational safety and health hazards injuries Exposure to pesticides associated with equipment and vehicle operation and repair, trip and fall hazards, and lifting heavy weights, are common to other Potential exposures to pesticides include dermal contact and industries and are discussed in the General EHS Guidelines. In inhalation during their preparation and application as well as ingestion due to consumption of contaminated water. The effect 25 Information on animal health and disease prevention is available from Animal of such impacts may be increased by climatic conditions, such Health Australia, at http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/aahc/index.cfm?E9711767-B85D- as wind, which may increase the chance of unintended drift, or D391-45FC-CDBC07BD1CD4#ops and from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Animal and Plant Inspection Service, available at high temperatures, which may be a deterrent to the use of http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/index.shtml 26 For further information on culling and disposal of carcasses, in addition to personal protective equipment (PPE) by the operator. animal health issues, see Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive Review, Kansas State University (2004) available at http://fss.k- Recommended management practices include the following: state.edu/research/books/carcassdisp.html; Guidance Note on the Disposal of Animal By-Products and Catering Waste, UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food (2001) available at http://www.defra.gov.uk/animalh/by- prods/publicat/dispguide.pdf; and various documents provided by the Animal Health Australia, available at http://www.animalhealthaustralia.com.au/aahc/index.cfm?E9711767-B85D- D391-45FC-CDBC07BD1CD4#ops APRIL 30, 2007 11 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP • Train personnel to apply pesticides and ensure that result in a permanent lung condition commonly known as personnel have received the necessary certifications,27 or farmer's lung. equivalent training where such certifications are not In addition to the general dust exposure prevention and control required; guidance provided in the occupational health and safety section • Respect post-treatment intervals to avoid operator of the General EHS Guidelines, industry specific exposure during reentry to crops with residues of recommendations for dust control include: pesticides; • Respect preharvest intervals to avoid operator exposure to • Use local air extraction devices at dust-generating pesticide residues on products during harvesting; equipment, such as silos and grinders; • Ensure hygiene practices are followed (in accordance to • Store only dry grain (and dry, well-cured forages and hay) FAO and PMP) to avoid exposure of family members to to reduce microorganism growth; pesticides residues. • Repair and / or decommissioning of facilities for liquid manure should be carried out by experts with relevant Air quality training and qualifications following strict confined space Sources of organic dust in mammalian livestock operations entry procedures, including the use of personal protective include handling and storage of grain and milk powder which equipment such as air-supplied breathing apparatuses. may include particles from grain, mites, fungi, and bacteria, as well as inorganic material. Other respiratory sensitizers include Biological Agents animal urine and manure. Manure storage areas (e.g. in pits Workers may be exposed to disease-agents such as bacteria, within the barns, and in pumping stations, storage tanks, and fungi, mites, and viruses transmitted from live animals, manure, application tankers) may release dangerous gases such as animal carcasses, and parasites and ticks (zoonoses). Workers hydrogen sulfide. may also be exposed to skin sensitizers such as animal proteins Jobs that can entail a risk of exposure to dust include cleaning from urine that can cause an allergic reaction.Because of the silos and grain hoppers, milling feed grain, and handling animal use of antibiotics in feed, antibiotic-resistant microorganisms waste, among others. Acute toxic alveolitis, otherwise known as might develop in the gastrointestinal tract of animals. Resistant organic dust toxic syndrome, can accompany brief, occasional bacteria can potentially infect humans on or in the vicinity of the exposures to heavy concentrations of organic dust in agricultural farm. The genetic material (DNA) can be taken up by other environments. Some dust (e.g. from moldy forage, grain, or bacterial human pathogens. hay, carries antigens that can cause severe irritation to the Management measures that can be taken to avoid the negative respiratory tract. Breathing dust from moldy feed materials can consequences of worker exposure to biological agents include the following: 27 The US EPA classifies pesticides as either “unclassified” or “restricted.” All workers that apply unclassified pesticides must be trained according to the • Inform workers of potential risks of exposure to biological Worker Protection Standard (40 CFR Part 170) for Agricultural Pesticides. Restricted pesticides must be applied by or in the presence of a certified agents and provide training in recognizing and mitigating pesticide applicator. For more information, see http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/worker.htm those risks; APRIL 30, 2007 12 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP • Provide personal protective equipment to reduce contact Additional management measures that can be taken to prevent with materials potentially containing pathogens; any detrimental effects on the community include the following: • Ensure that those who have developed allergic reactions to • Banned chemical and biological substances in mammalian biological agents are not working with these substances. livestock production should not be used; Additional guidance on prevention and control of biological • Avoid application of solid or liquid manure directly onto hazards is presented in the General EHS Guidelines. grazing areas or edible crops. Confined Spaces Concerning risks to community health and safety from the Occupational health and safety impacts associated with ingestion of hazardous substances in beef, milk, and pork, the confined spaces associated with mammalian livestock FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius provides guidance on veterinary operations (e.g. manure pits, silos, grain bins, water tanks, or drug residues (such as growth hormones) and pesticide inadequately ventilated buildings) are common to most residues and provides official Codex standards for dairy and industries, and their prevention and control are discussed in the meat products, such as cheese and ham. For example, the General EHS Guidelines. Codex contains 147 maximum residue limits (MRLs) for veterinary drugs in cattle tissue (including milk), as well as 1.3 Community Health and Safety MRLs for pesticide residues in cattle and pig tissue.28 Community health and safety issues associated with the The following actions should be taken at the system level to construction and decommissioning of livestock production ensure the proper use of veterinary drugs: facilities are similar to those of other large projects and are addressed in the General EHS Guidelines. Community health • Facilities involved in livestock production should use a and safety hazards specific to mammalian livestock operations veterinary service on an annual or more frequent basis to include the potential spread of animal diseases already review and assess the health of the stock and employees’ addressed in this document as well as the following food safety competence and training. With the assistance of the issues. veterinary service, facilities should develop a Veterinary Health Plan to include the following aspects29: Food Safety Impacts and Management Routine treatment of animals with antibiotics may result in • Summary of major diseases present and potentially antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in the intestinal tract of present; treated animals. Potential routes for infection of humans are the • Disease prevention strategies; consumption of contaminated meat or water or of food contaminated by manure. People living near the farm may also 28 The Codex Alimentarius provides maximum residue limits (MRLs) for be at risk of infection. Residues of feed additives and veterinary drug residues and pesticide residues in all major food raw materials, contaminants may also be present in meat and dairy products. including cattle and pigs. The FAO/WHO veterinary drug MRL database is available at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/mrls/vetdrugs/jsp/vetd_q-e.jsp The FAO/WHO pesticide MRL database is available at Measures to mitigate environmental and occupational safety http://www.codexalimentarius.net/mrls/pestdes/jsp/pest_q-e.jsp 29 For more information, see EUREPGAP guidance on integrated farm and health also will reduce potential risks to the community. assurance at http://www.eurepgap.org/farm/Languages/English/documents.html APRIL 30, 2007 13 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP • Treatments to be administered for regularly encountered 2.0 Performance Indicators and conditions; Monitoring • Recommended vaccination protocols; • Recommended parasite controls; and 2.1 Environment • Medication recommendations for feed or water. Emissions and Effluent Guidelines Table 1 presents effluent guidelines for this sector for If antibiotics are recommended, the following measures should concentrated livestock feeding operations generating point be considered: source effluents. Guideline values for process emissions and • Apply approved over-the-counter antibiotics in strict effluents in this sector are indicative of good international accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions to ensure industry practice as reflected in relevant standards of countries responsible and correct use; with recognized regulatory frameworks. These guidelines are • Apply approved antibiotics that are purchased and utilized achievable under normal operating conditions in appropriately on prescription under the guidance of a qualified designed and operated facilities through the application of professional; pollution prevention and control techniques discussed in the • Make a contingency plan covering how antibiotics should preceding sections of this document. be applied following the identification of disease outbreaks; • Store antibiotics in their original packaging, in a dedicated Table 1. Effluent levels for mammalian livestock production location that: Pollutants Units Guideline Value o Can be locked and is properly identified with signs, with access limited to authorized persons pH pH 6 –9 o Can contain spills and avoid uncontrolled release of BOD5 mg/l 50 antibiotics into the surrounding environment COD mg/l 250 o Provides for storage of containers on pallets or other Total nitrogen mg/l 10 platforms to facilitate the visual detection of leaks Total phosphorus mg/l 2 • Avoid stockpiles of waste antibiotics by adopting a “first-in, Oil and grease mg/l 10 first-out” principle so that they do not exceed their Total suspended solids mg/l 50 expiration date. Any expired antibiotics should be disposed Temperature increase °C <3b of in compliance with national regulations. Total coliform bacteria MPN a / 100 ml 400 Active Ingredients / To be determined on a case specific Antibiotics basis Notes: a MPN = Most Probable Number b At the edge of a scientifically established mixing zone which takes into account ambient water quality, receiving water use, potential receptors and assimilative capacity APRIL 30, 2007 14 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP These levels should be achieved, without dilution, at least 95 production and nutrient content and nitrogen availability rates percent of the time that the plant or unit is operating, to be respectively that can be used as part of a manure nutrient calculated as a proportion of annual operating hours. Deviation management strategy. from these levels in consideration of specific, local project conditions should be justified in the environmental assessment. Environmental Monitoring Environmental monitoring programs for this sector should be Mammalian livestock production operations may also be implemented to address all activities that have been identified to characterized by non-point sources of effluents or emissions have potentially significant impacts on the environment, during which may need to be monitored through the proper normal operations and upset conditions. Environmental implementation of nutrient management strategy as described monitoring activities should be based on direct or indirect above, taking into consideration potential impacts to human indicators of emissions, effluents, and resource use applicable health and the environment from the presence of disease- to the particular project. agents in the waste streams. The objective should be the minimization of “excess” nutrients and other pollutants in runoff Monitoring frequency should be sufficient to provide with additional considerations for discharge to surface waters as representative data for the parameter being monitored. described in the General EHS Guidelines . Monitoring should be conducted by trained individuals following monitoring and record-keeping procedures and using properly Resource Consumption and Waste calibrated and maintained equipment. Monitoring data should be The following section presents benchmarks for emissions and analyzed and reviewed at regular intervals and compared with waste in the mammalian livestock production industry. These the operating standards so that any necessary corrective benchmarks may be used to facilitate the estimation of nutrient actions can be taken. Additional guidance on monitoring balances. Tables 2 and 3 provide a summary of manure programs is provided in the General EHS Guidelines. APRIL 30, 2007 15 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Table 2. Nutrient balance for beef, milk, and pork production. Annual manure Content of nutrients in manure (kg per production animal per year at storage) per animal Type of housed all year Number of livestock Type of livestock and housing manure (tons at storage) N P K per livestock unit Solid manure 10.6 60.3 19.1 33.5 Tied up 0.85 Urine 10.4 55.4 2.1 85.2 1 dairy c ow, Free range; heavy type, Liquid cubicles and manure 22.8 124.1 21.5 118.7 0.85 per year slats Free range; deep litter with Deep litter 15.2 128.4 23.8 168.2 0.85 straw Solid manure 8.7 49.8 16.5 28.1 Tied up 1.0 Urine 8.5 45.5 1.7 72.0 1 dairy cow, small type Free range; Liquid (Jersey), cubicles and manure 18.2 102.2 18.5 100.1 1.0 per year slats Free range; deep litter with Deep litter 12.6 105.9 20.1 141.3 1.0 straw 1 sow per year incl. 23 Partly slatted Liquid 5.4 24.0 6.6 9.6 4.3 piglets to 7.2 floor manure kg 1 piglet 7.2– Partly slatted Liquid 1.13 0.5 0.1 0.3 175.0 30 kg floor manure 1 growing pig Partly slatted Liquid 0.49 2.8 0.6 1.3 35.0 30–102 kg floor manure Source : Values calculated from Danish Agricultural Advisory Service Instruction 95.03-03 and Plant Directorate, Danish Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Fisheries. APRIL 30, 2007 16 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Table 3. Nitrogen losses from manure management. Losses from Total Total losses available Animal Manure management system N excreted Building Storage Field to air for crops (pounds N per head per year) Lagoon, uncovered 18.3 4.9 9.5 0.8 15.2 3.1 Lagoon, covered 18.3 4.9 0.5 2.8 8.2 10.1 Hogs Deep pit, surface applied 18.3 6 0 2.6 8.6 9.7 Deep pit, incorporated 18.3 6 0 0.4 6.4 11.9 Flush barn, surface applied 220 44 125 11.2 180.2 39.8 Flush barn, incorporated 220 44 125 2.8 171.8 48.2 Dairy Daily spread, surface applied 220 15.2 2.2 37.7 55.1 164.9 Daily spread, incorporated 220 15.2 2.2 8.3 25.7 194.3 Solid storage, surface applied 102 0 20.8 13.8 34.6 67.4 Fed beef Solid storage, incorporated 102 0 20.8 0.7 21.5 80.5 Source: Aillery et al. (2005) APRIL 30, 2007 17 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP 2.2 Occupational Health and Safety designed and implemented by accredited professionals as part of an occupational health and safety monitoring program Occupational Health and Safety Guidelines Facilities should also maintain a record of occupational Occupational health and safety performance should be accidents, diseases, and dangerous occurrences and other evaluated against internationally published exposure guidelines, kinds of accident. Additional guidance on occupational health of which examples include the Threshold Limit Value (TLV®) and safety monitoring programs is provided in the General EHS occupational exposure guidelines and Biological Exposure Guidelines . Indices (BEIs®) published by American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH),30 the Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards published by the United States National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH), 31 Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs) published by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States (OSHA),32 Indicative Occupational Exposure Limit Values published by European Union member states,33 or other similar sources. Accident and Fatality Rates Projects should try to reduce the number of accidents among project workers (whether directly employed or subcontracted) to a rate of zero, especially accidents that could result in lost work time, different levels of disability, or even fatalities. Facility rates may be benchmarked against the performance of facilities in this sector in developed countries through consultation with published sources (e.g. US Bureau of Labor Statistics and UK Health and Safety Executive)34. Occupational Health and Safety Monitoring The working environment should be monitored for occupational hazards relevant to the specific project. Monitoring should be.35 30 Available at: http://www.acgih.org/TLV/ and http://www.acgih.org/store/ 31 Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/ 32 Available at: http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDAR DS&p_id=9992 33 Available at: http://europe.osha.eu.int/good_practice/risks/ds/oel/ 34 Available at: http://www.bls.gov/iif/ and http://www.hse.gov.uk/statistics/index.htm 35 Accredited professionals may include certified industrial hygienists, registered occupational hygienists, or certified safety professionals or their equivalent. APRIL 30, 2007 18 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP 3.0 References and Additional Sources Aillery, M., et al. 2005. Managing Manure to Improve Air and Water Quality. 2003/04. p 23. HSE. Available at Economic Research Report No. ERR9. USDA Economic Research Service. http://www.hse.gov.uk/agriculture/pdf/fatal0405.pdf Available at http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/ERR9/ HSE (Health and Safety Executive, UK). 2005b. Fatal Injuries Report 2004/05. ATTRA–US National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Matching Fatal Injuries in Farming, Forestry and Horticulture. Part 3: Non-Fatal Injuries in Livestock and Forage Resources in Controlled Grazing. Available at the Agricultural Sector, 1994/95–2003/04, pp. 42–46. HSE. Available at http://www.attra.org/attra-pub/matchlandf.html - intro http://www.hse.gov.uk/agriculture/pdf/fatal0405.pdf DAAS (Danish Agricultural Advisory Service). 2000. Manuals of Good Irish EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1998. Integrated Pollution Control Agricultural Practice from Denmark, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. DAAS. Licensing. Batneec Guidance Note for the Pig Production Sector. Dublin, Available at http://www.lr.dk/international/informationsserier/intfbdiv/cgaps.htm Ireland: Irish EPA. Available at http://www.epa.ie/Licensing/IPPCLicensing/BATNEECGuidanceNotes/ DAAS (Danish Agricultural Advisory Service) and IMBR. 2004. Farm Standards for Feed and Manure Storage. Stables. Poland: European Commission. Knowledge Centre of Manure and Biomass Treatment Technology. The centre is gathering knowledge about research and technology within the manure and DANCEE (Danish Co-operation for Environment in Eastern Europe). 2004. biomass sector. Available at www.manure.dk Implementation of the IPPC Directive in Zachodniopomorskie Voivodship, Poland. Guideline for inspections regarding integrated permits in IPPC Kolpin, D.E. 2002. Pharmaceuticals, Hormones, and Other Organic Wastewater companies. Sector-specific guideline: pig farms. Draft 1. Cowi in association with Contaminants in U.S. Streams, 1999–2000: A National Reconnaissance. Carl Bro. Environmental Science & Technology, 36(6): 1202–1211. Available at http://toxics.usgs.gov/pubs/FS-027-02/index.html) EC (European Commission). 1991. EU Nitrate Directive — Protection of Waters against Pollution Caused from Agricultural Sources (91/676/EEC). EC. Michigan State University Extension. 1993. Michigan’s Drinking Water. Nitrate Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/water/water- — A Drinking Water Concern. Ext. Bulletin WQ-19. Michigan State University nitrates/directiv.html Extension. Available at http://www.gem.msu.edu/pubs/msue/wq19p1.html EC (European Commission). 1992. Natura 2000 Directive 92/43/EEC. EC. National Safety Council. Includes HS, for example. Available at Available at http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/nature/ http://www.nsc.org/library/facts.htm EC (European Commission). 2003. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control. Ohio Livestock Manure and Wastewater Management Guide Bulletin 604. Reference Document on Best AvailableTechniques for Intensive Rearing of Available at http://ohioline.osu.edu/b604/b604_15.html Oleson, J.E. 2006. Poultry and Pigs. Seville. Spain. Seville, Spain: EC. Available at Sådan reducers udledningen af drivhusgasser fra jordbruget [How to Reduce http://eippcb.jrc.es/pages/FActivities.htm Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Agriculture]. Danish Agricultural Advisory Service. Available at http://www.lr.dk/planteavl/informationsserier/info- EUREP (Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group). 1997. EUROGAP. EUREP. planter/PLK06_07_1_3_J_E_Olesen.pdf Available at http://www.eurep.org/documents/webdocs/EUREPGAP_Livestock_base_modul OSHA (European Agency for Safety and Health at Work). European Network. e_CPCC_IFA_V2-0Mar05_1-3-05.pdf FAQ on Agriculture Sector. OSHA. Available at http://agency.osha.eu.int/good_practice/sector/agriculture/faq_agriculture AO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Agricultural Department for Livestock and Health provides various software and publications Peterson, S.O. 2006. Søren O Petersen: Emission af drivhusgasser fra on livestock. Available at landbrugsjord [Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Agriculture]. Danish http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/resources/en/resources.html Agricultural Advisory Service. Available at http://www.lr.dk/planteavl/informationsserier/info- FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Animal Feed planter/PL K06_07_1_1_S_O_Petersen.pdf Resources Information System AFRIS. Available at http://www.fao.org/ag/AGA/AGAP/FRG/afris/tree/cat.htm Reynolds, Kelly. 2003. Pharmaceuticals in Drinking Water Supplies. Water Conditioning and Purification Magazine, 45(6). Available at FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Gives http://www.wcponline.com/column.cfm?T=T&ID=2199 UNFCC (United Nations recommendations and links to various sources on feed safety. Available at Framework Convention on Climate Change). Greenhouse Gases Database. http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/agap/frg/feedsafety/special.htm Emission from Livestock Production. Available at http://ghg.unfccc.int/ FAO and WHO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Roy, R.N., A. Finck, G.J. Blair & H.L.S. Tandon. 2006. Plant Nutrition for Food World Health Organization).1962–2005. Codex Alimentarius. Geneva: FAO and Security, A Guide for Integrated Nutrient Management. FAO Fertilizer and Plant WHO. Available at http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/index_en.jsp Nutrition Bulletin 16. Available at ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/agll/docs/fpnb16.pdf HSE (Health and Safety Executive UK). 2005a. United Kingdom, Fatal Injuries US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Dairy Production. National Report 2004/05. Fatal Injuries in Farming, Forestry and Horticulture. Part 2: Agriculture Compliance Assistance Centre, Agriculture Centre, Ag 101. Analysis of Reportable Fatal Injuries in the Agricultural Sector, 1994/95– Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/dairy.html APRIL 30, 2007 19 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Beef Production. National griculture Compliance Assistance Centre, Agriculture Centre, Ag 101. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/beef.html US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). Pork Production. National Agriculture Compliance Assistance Centre, Agriculture Centre, Ag 101. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/ag101/pork.html US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Permit Regulation and Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Standards for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), 68 FR 7175- 7274. Washington, DC: US EPA. Available at http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA- WATER/2003/February/Day-12/w3074.htm US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=7 USDA (Department of Agriculture). 1997. Use of Urease Inhibitors to Control Nitrogen Loss from Livestock Waste. Washington, DC: USDA. USDA (Department of Agriculture). Natural Resources Conservation Service Nutrients. Available from Livestock Manure Relative to Crop Growth Requirements at http://www.nrcs.usda.ov/technical/land/pubs/nlweb.html APRIL 30, 2007 20 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Annex A: General Description of Figure A.1: Mammalian Livestock Production Cycle Industry Activities The EHS Guidelines for Mammalian Livestock Production Meat production covers cattle ranching and farming, dairy farming, and hog and Culling of dairy Breeding pig farming. Sheep and goat farming operations, while not cattle and breed stock explicitly discussed, are similar to the operations included in this document. The document does not address the processing of agricultural livestock products (e.g. meat processing plants, milk processing, and so on) and only discusses livestock production Weaning to the point of sending the livestock to the processing point (e.g. Growth beyond the feedlot). The individual processes involved in raising Milk different livestock for different purposes vary significantly. production However, many of the basic process and operations described below are common to most operations in this sector. balance should provide information on the land area Mammalian livestock facilities generally include the following requirement for the agricultural hinterland and the manure operations: feed storage and handling, livestock housing, application rates to ensure that the nutrient load resulting from feeding and watering, management of animal waste, and pest landspreading does not become an environmental problem. control. Facilities generally consist of a core production area with an agricultural hinterland. The livestock are gathered in the Breeding core production area to facilitate drinking, watering, and animal Traditionally, cattle breeds have been selected simultaneously welfare; the surrounding agricultural hinterland is ideally used for beef and milk production, and this integrated form of for tillage crop production and facilitates the use of the manure production is still used in many parts of the world. Increased as a crop nutrient. The typical land requirement for the core specialization means that milk and beef production have production area varies considerably, depending on the number become separate sectors, and farms may even specialize in a of livestock units and the type of production. particular part of the production cycle, for example, fattening beef cattle in feedlots. The milk production sector uses special The typical land area requirement for the agricultural hinterland cattle breeds characterized by a high milk yield, and the beef also varies considerably, depending on the number of livestock production sector uses special cattle breeds that are units and, among other things, the volume of manure generated. characterized by high daily gain and good meat quality. It is essential to conduct a mass balance of nutrients when considering the location of a livestock facility. The mass nutrient Although dairy cattle herds are culled to remove cows that are no longer suitable for milk production, the meat quality is not normally as high as that of beef cattle. APRIL 30, 2007 21 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Pork production is always divided into three phases: (1) sow delivers another calf 9 months later. Dairy cows are normally section, (2) weaned piglets section, and (3) growing pigs milked after calving for a period of 12–14 months before milking section. These phases are collectively known as “three-site” or is terminated some 2 months before the next calving. Dairy “multisite production.” The three sites can be located at the cows average 2.5 lactations in a lifetime, although some may same site; however, the intention is to physically separate the remain productive for longer.36 Pigs 30–100 kg are kept in the growth phases for environmental and animal health reasons. growing section. At 100 kg they are ready for the market. Some The sow section holds the breeding stock and consists of a gilts may be transferred back to the sow section to replace mating section, a gestation section, and a farrowing section. culled sows. Sows typically farrow a litter of 8–12 piglets. Production Infrastructure Weaning The need and specifications for cattle production buildings After birth, the calf is usually removed from the cow after less depend on which climatic region the production is located in and than 1 day. As soon as it is dry, it is moved to an individual pen the type of production. Milk production in temperate regions or hutch. Initially it is fed with milk, which is gradually replaced requires dairy barns with insulation and a milking parlor. Milk with water and starter feed before it is fully weaned at the age of production in subtropical and tropical regions also requires a 6–8 weeks. Male calves from dairy and beef cattle herds may milking parlor and dairy barns to provide protection from the sun either be castrated and raised as steers for beef production or and rain. In some climatically favorable regions, only milking raised as veal calves. A small number of bull calves from dairy parlors are required because the cows can stay outside year- and beef cattle herds may be raised for breeding stock. Female round with or without access to grazing. Beef cattle production calves from the dairy herd are raised as replacement heifers to normally has no specific requirements for building facilities. replace culled cows. Female calves from the beef cattle herd Cows with suckling calves are put to graze, and steers are become heifers and part of the breeding stock. either put to graze or finished in feedlots, which requires only some feeding and manure-handling facilities. Shelter for The piglets are typically kept with the sow until reaching an age protection against rain and sun is recommended under certain of 4r weeks and a weight of 7 kg. Some facilities use farrowing climatic conditions. Milking parlors and milking equipment are crates in the sow section to protect piglets from being crushed cleaned with water and disinfected after each milking; other when suckling. The piglets that weigh 7–30 kg are in the buildings and equipment are cleaned regularly. weaned piglets section; once they reach 30 kg, they are moved to the nursery section. The need for pork production buildings depends on the climatic region in which the production is located and the type of Growth and Milk Production production. Pig farm buildings in the temperate regions should Growth and milk production constitute the main operational be fully insulated and equipped with mechanical or natural phase of the production cycle. Steers in beef and dairy cattle ventilation to remove ammonia gas. Building requirements are herds are fed until they reach market weight. Heifers in beef and simpler in subtropical regions, where a roof to protect against dairy cattle herds are bred to deliver their first calf at 24 months the sun and rain is sufficient. Ventilation systems are not of age. A 12-month calving interval then takes place, in which the cow is rebred 2–3months after birth of a calf and then 36 US EPA. APRIL 30, 2007 22 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP installed in these open constructions, but ventilators for air production constitute an environmental risk if not managed movement and nozzles for water spraying are often required. All correctly. The qualities of the manure produced reflect the building facilities and equipment are cleaned with water and animal housing and the feed given. For example, pigs raised in disinfected after each batch of pigs has been moved from a production systems that do not use bedding produce slurry with section. a dry matter content of 5–10 percent. Pigs raised in production systems that do use bedding materials, generally straw, produce Feed pig dung with a dry matter content of 15–20 percent.37 Cattle feeding varies according to the type of production and the climatic region in which the production is located. Dairy cow Manure can be gathered by a wide variety of methods. The feed is based on roughage, such as corn or grass silage, hay, simplest is dry scraping of livestock areas, such as feedlots, to fresh grass, and grazing. However, high-yield dairy production remove solids. A more sophisticated method, used in production requires that a certain proportion of the feed be concentrate buildings, is to place animals on slatted floors above manure feed. Beef cattle feed is based on grazing and roughage, such pits. The manure pits are emptied, according to need, by a as corn or grass silage and hay. The final fattening of beef cattle vacuum system. Mechanical or biological methods can be used for slaughter is based mainly on concentrate, although a certain to separate the manure into a solid fraction and a liquid fraction. proportion of roughage can be used. Roughage feed is normally Liquid effluent is pumped to manure storage tanks on site. Solid produced on the farm. Concentrate can be produced on the waste is stored on a sealed concrete slab. Manure is applied to farm or purchased from a feed mill. By-products from the food agricultural land where it acts as a fertilizer. Other treatment processing industry are often available — for example, methods include incinerating it and using it to develop biogas. molasses from sugar manufacture — and can contribute as a Slaughtering and Culling resource-efficient cattle feed. Fully grown cattle and pigs are sold to the market and Pig feed is normally 100 percent concentrate based on grain, slaughtered for the production of beef and pork. Culling is the protein source, minerals, and vitamins, but in some regions a process in which animals that show signs of weakness are minor part of the feed can be based on roughage feed. The removed from the herd or stock. The average cow in a beef main part of the feed can be produced at the pork production cattle herd remains productive for 7–9 years; this interval is location. The pig feed is produced on the farm in accordance usually 5 years for dairy cattle. with the pigs’ nutrient requirements. Another option is to purchase ready-made feed from a feed mill. By-products from the food processing industry — for example, molasses from sugar manufacture — are often available and can be used as inexpensive pig feed supplement. Manure Livestock manure left by cattle grazing on grassland is not normally considered to have an environmental impact; however, the volumes of manure generated by intensive livestock 37 Irish EPA (1998). APRIL 30, 2007 23 Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines MAMMALIAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION WORLD BANK GROUP Dairy cows may be culled for a number of reasons, including low health problems, and failure to conceive or because they are milk production, infertility, mastitis, and lameness. Beef cattle able to raise only a low number of pigs per litter. Culled animals are culled because of infertility and disease. Sows may be may be sold to the market for conversion into meat products or culled because of age, disposed of by incineration or by other means, depending on their health. Figure A-2. Principal Operations in Mammalian Livestock Production Feed milling and grinding Feed storage Feed mixing Unloading and loading of animals Animal housing Storage of Wastewater carcasses Storage of waste Storage of manure treatment On-farm manure Landfill Incineration treatment External Storage of Application on processing residual products own land External treatment or application APRIL 30, 2007 24