INFRASTRUCTURE
IN ASIA AND THE
PACIFIC
Road Transport, Electricity,
and Water & Sanitation
Services in East Asia, South
Asia & the Pacific Islands
Acknowledgements
This report was prepared by a team of staff and consultants in the Word Bank Group Infrastructure Finance, Public-
Private Partnerships and Guarantees (IPG) team, including Darwin Marcelo (Task Team Leader), Aditi Raina (Task
Team Leader), Schuyler Houser (Infrastructure Economics Consultant), and Deblina Saha (Associate Infrastructure
Specialist). The report benefited from a partnership with the National University of Singapore’s Lee Kuan Yew School
of Public Policy, including work by Masters of Public Policy students Harman Partap Singh Bhatia, Kaori Suzuki,
Nguyen Phan Dai Trang, and Raiya Kishwar Ashraf. The report also drew on inputs from Michael Gillen (Independent
Water Consultant). Research by Mehdi Mikou, Julie Rozenberg, Elco Koks, Charles Fox, and Tatiana Peralta Quiros on
rural road access was important to understanding the status of road services in Asia. The team would also like to thank
Abedalrazq F. Khalil (Senior Water Resources Management Specialist), Gerald Paul Olivier (Lead Transport Specialist),
and Sunil Kumar Khosla (Lead Energy Specialist), who provided essential inputs and helpful guidance. The report was
copy edited by Luba Vangelova and designed by Victoria Adams-Kotsch.
Disclaimer
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2 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Table of Contents
Introduction and Overview 1
INFRASTRUCTURE SECTORS IN REVIEW 5
Electricity Sector Regional Review 7
Water & Sanitation Regional Review 16
Road Transport Regional Review 27
Looking Forward 32
COUNTRY SNAPSHOTS 35
Regional Overview 36
APPENDICES 63
Appendix 1: Infrastructure Data by Sector and Dimension 64
Appendix 2: Methodology and Sources 80
Appendix 3: References 88
Appendix 4: Electricity Tariff Sources 91
Appendix 5: Operational Costs of Electricity Generation Sources 92
Appendix 6: Water and Wastewater Tariff Sources 94
Appendix 7: Water Quality and Expenditure Sources 96
Introduction and Overview
Infrastructure assets and services provide the basic physical and organizational structures that underpin the
functioning of economy and society. Access to reliable, quality, efficient, and affordable infrastructure services is
critical to reducing poverty, promoting economic growth, supporting social development, and building resilient
communities.
Much of the global population lacks access to basic physical infrastructure, including roads, piped water
supply, improved sanitation, and electricity. Moreover, services may be unreliable, of poor quality, inefficiently
supplied, or unaffordable. These conditions impose constraints on human health, quality of life, education, and
employment, particularly in rural areas of the global south.
Extending provision of quality infrastructure requires an understanding of the current levels of supply, quality,
and affordability of infrastructure services. A first step towards this is to take stock of available data on service
coverage, quality, and tariff and cost levels. Such information can help governments and their development
partners establish key needs, target resources for strategic priorities, and benchmark infrastructure performance.
This exercise is merely the starting point on a greater path of enquiry to understand the overall state of
infrastructure services. Although the more definitive analyses of the root causes and nuances of infrastructure
delivery are sure to follow, the value of this study is in compiling disparate information, otherwise time-intensive
to gather and compare across sectors and countries, into a single volume.
This report provides an overview of infrastructure provision in three key economic sectors—road transport,
electricity, and water and sanitation—as an initial step towards building a more extensive body of knowledge on
the health of infrastructure provision worldwide. Geographically, this report focuses on two of the world’s fastest
growing regions, East Asia and Pacific (EAP) and South Asia (SAR), which also account for approximately
35.8 percent of the world’s extreme poor. This geographic focus is motivated by recognition of significant
infrastructure development needs, particularly in South Asia, coupled with the availability of fairly extensive
data across countries.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 1
INFRASTRUCTURE IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC
Over the past few decades, the East Asia and Pacific and South Asia regions have enjoyed strong economic
growth and steady social development. East Asia has experienced steady growth levels of 4.1 to 4.5 percent over
the past five years, led primarily by China and ASEAN countries,1 and regional poverty has been significantly
reduced.2 South Asia has become the fastest-growing economic region worldwide, with its constituent countries
recording average annual growth rates of 6.1 to 7.6 percent during the period from 2011 to 2017, led largely
by India.3
Nevertheless, governments in both regions face significant constraints, imposed by the insufficiency of
infrastructure to support development goals. Substantial investments,4 targeted policy reforms, and improvements
to planning, management, and operations are needed to overcome significant infrastructure-service shortfalls
and problems associated with both quality and efficiency.
ACCESS, QUALITY, AND AFFORDABILITY
When it comes to infrastructure promoting economic and social development, quality is as important as
coverage. Worldwide, governments and their development partners increasingly recognize the importance of
efficiency and resilience of infrastructure delivery systems and quality of service outputs. Infrastructure should
be safe; resilient with respect to natural disasters and the effects of climate change; and of sufficient structural
integrity to remain cost-efficient over the lifecycle of the asset.
This report goes beyond appraising coverage levels of infrastructure services in Asia, by also providing a selection
of indicators that serve as proxies of multiple dimensions of infrastructure quality. To inform national, regional,
and multilateral efforts to close infrastructure gaps and improve quality of services, this report reviews the status
of infrastructure in the road-transport, electricity, and water-and-sanitation sectors across countries in EAP and
SAR. From a policy perspective, key questions include: Who receives infrastructure services, and at what level of
reliability, quality and affordability? Additionally, how efficiently are these services delivered?
1 Declining from 7.3 percent in 2013, growth in developing EAP has remained strong. Lower growth rates of 6.5 and 6.3 percent in 2017 and 2018,
respectively, are attributed to a slowing of China’s economic expansion. Aggregate growth in Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
countries remained steady at about 5.3 percent throughout 2017 and 2018. Growth in the Pacific Islands lagged at 2.1 to 3.9 percent from 2011
to 2018, owing largely to constraints imposed by narrow markets, geographic dispersion, and vulnerability to natural disasters.
2 World Bank. 2018. East Asia Pacific Economic Update, October 2018: Navigating Uncertainty.
http://www.worldbank.org/en/region/eap/publication/east-asia-pacific-economic-update.
3 World Bank. 2018. South Asia Overview. Extreme poverty is below 2 percent in EAP, including China (4.4 percent if excluding China), and the
lower-middle-income class (LMIC) poverty rates are expected to fall from 9.4 percent in 2017 to 6.4 percent in 2020.
https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar/overview.
4 Although single-number estimates for required investments are likely to be neither helpful nor correct, particularly because they often fail to
consider specific policy objectives or potential efficiency and technological gains (see: Rozenberg, et al. 2019. Beyond the Gap – How Countries
Can Afford the Infrastructure They Need while Protecting the Planet. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/publicprivatepartnerships/
publication/beyond-the-gap---how-countries-can-afford-the-infrastructure-they-need-while-protecting-the-planet), it has been estimated that EAP
(excluding China) requires an additional $52 billion for infrastructure between 2015 and 2020 to keep pace with current growth levels (see:
Ruiz-Nuñez, Fernanda, and Zichao Wei. 2015. “Infrastructure investment demands in emerging markets and developing economies.” World Bank
Policy Research Working Paper, 7414. Washington, DC: The World Bank). Similarly, South Asia may require investments of US$1.7 to 2.5 trillion
to meet its needs (see: Biller, Andres, and Herrera Dappe. 2014. Infrastructure Gap in South Asia: Inequality of Access to Infrastructure Services.
https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/20344). The Asian Development Bank (ADB) estimates that developing Asia needs
to invest US$1.7 trillion per year in infrastructure until 2030 to meet its economic-growth and sustainable-development goals (see: Asian
Development Bank. 2017. Meeting Asia’s Infrastructure Needs. Manila, Philippines: Asian Development Bank. doi: 10.22617/FLS168388-2).
2 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
REPORT APPROACH AND ORGANIZATION
The report is organized with a framework that examines
three dimensions of service provision—access, quality,
and cost—across three key economic infrastructure
sectors: electricity; water and sanitation; and road
transport. This report tracks these three infrastructure
dimensions and sectors across most of the countries of
EAP and SAR.
COSTS & TARIFFS
Electricity
The report presents several indicators to describe
QUALITY
ACCESS
Water national-level performance along each dimension.
Supply When data is available, these indicators are further
subdivided to examine differences in rural and urban
Sanitation
service provision, particularly with respect to access.
Also, because each dimension under consideration
(particularly quality) involves multiple aspects, several
Road
indicators are included. The selection of indicators was
Transport
based on consultations with sector and regional experts,
and the use of the most extensive and comparable data
available across countries.
The study compiles data about these sectors for countries across EAP and SAR, including five regional high-
income benchmark countries (Brunei Darussalam, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, and the Republic of Korea).
Other countries are categorized into three categories: East Asia, South Asia, and the Pacific Islands. All of the
graphics in the report use a standardized color scheme for the four sub-regional categories, as follows:
HIGH-INCOME EAP EAST ASIA SOUTH ASIA PACIFIC ISLANDS
Brunei Darussalam Cambodia Afghanistan Fiji
Japan China Bangladesh Papua New Guinea
New Zealand Indonesia Bhutan Samoa
Singapore Lao People’s India Solomon Islands
Korea Democratic Republic Maldives Vanuatu
Malaysia Nepal
Mongolia Pakistan
Myanmar Sri Lanka
Philippines
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Vietnam
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 3
INFRASTRUCTURE
SECTORS IN
REVIEW
6 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ELECTRICITY SECTOR REGIONAL REVIEW
Access to Electricity (% of Population)
Source: Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database, 2020 (using 2017 data)
Emerging East Asia has a fairly high regional average access level of 92.5 percent.
East Asia’s lowest access-level country — Myanmar (69.8 percent) — is limited by
underdeveloped distribution and transmission networks, particularly in rural areas.
Mongolia (55.7 percent), Myanmar (59.9%), and Timor-Leste (71.9%) exhibit low rural
access levels, though urban rates are high. Cambodia has extended access significantly in
recent years, bringing total access to 89.1% in 2017 from 56.1% in 2015.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 7
Access to Electricity (% of Population)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Brunei Darussalam
Japan
Korea
New Zealand
Singapore
China
Malaysia
Thailand
Vietnam
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Philippines
Cambodia
Mongolia
Timor-Leste
Myanmar
Maldives
Afghanistan
Bhutan
Sri Lanka
Nepal
India
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Samoa
Fiji
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu
Papua New Guinea
Urban Rural
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database, 2020 (using 2017 data)
South Asia’s average electricity access is fairly high (92.5 percent), and even rural-coverage
levels average 88.8 percent.
Electricity coverage amongst Pacific-Island states varies significantly. Although Samoa and
Fiji enjoy coverage rates over 95%, the remaining Pacific-Island states exhibit a low average
coverage level (60.0 percent). Papua New Guinea—the lowest regional performer—has only
54.4 percent electricity-service coverage, largely due to extremely limited rural services (50.4
percent).
8 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Quality of Electricity Supply (1-7, From Best to Worst)
Survey data from the Global Competitiveness
Singapore
Report asks respondents to score perceptions
of electricity service from 1 (worst) to 7 (best). Japan
High-income benchmark countries rank New Zealand
highest, with an average assessment of 6.38, Korea
and the average quality score in emerging East Brunei Darussalam
Asia (4.59) is higher than that of South Asia Malaysia
(3.98). Thailand
China
South Asia’s average score is skewed negatively Lao PDR
by Nepal and Pakistan, the only countries
Indonesia
(for which data is available) scoring less
Vietnam
than 3. Although Nepal has a record of low
Philippines
perceptions of electricity-service quality, recent
Mongolia
improvements made by the Nepal Electricity
Cambodia
Authority since 2016 have brought 24-hour
Bhutan
electricity services to Kathmandu and Pokhara.
India
Pakistan still has frequent lengthy outages.
Sri Lanka
Although year-over-year changes from 2016 Bangladesh
were minimal, China recorded the largest Pakistan
improvement, with a 0.3 score increase. Survey Nepal
data is not available for the Pacific Islands.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia
Source: World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness Report,
2018; data unavailable for Myanmar, Afghanistan, the Maldives,
Timor-Leste and the Pacific Islands.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 9
Average Time for Businesses to Connect Electricity Services (Number of Days)
Korea 13 The World Bank’s Doing Business
Brunei Darussalam 25 report records the average number
Singapore 26 of days required to connect a newly
New Zealand 58 constructed warehouse to permanent
Japan 81
electricity services.
Malaysia 24
Thailand 30 Interestingly, income levels are
Vietnam 31 uncorrelated with the average
Indonesia 32 connection durations, and variance
China 32 is high in the region, even amongst
Philippines 37
high-income benchmark countries.
Myanmar 70
Mongolia
The countries with short connection
79
Lao PDR 87
times include high-income states
Timor-Leste 93 such as Korea, Singapore, and
Cambodia 179 Brunei Darussalam, but also middle-
Nepal 49 income countries such as Thailand
India 53 and Malaysia, and lower-income
Bhutan 61 emerging markets such as Samoa,
Maldives 75 the Philippines, and Indonesia. Thus,
Sri Lanka 100
sub-regional comparisons are of
Pakistan 113
Afghanistan
limited use.
114
Bangladesh 125 Cambodia, Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
Samoa 34 Pakistan, Sri Lanka, and Vanuatu
Solomon Islands 53 stand out for extended connection
Papua New Guinea 66
Fiji
times of between 100 to 180 days,
81
Vanuatu 120
largely due to complicated and
inefficient administration processes.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: World Bank, Doing Business, 2017.
10 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Transmission and Distribution (T&D) Losses
2% 3% 4% 6% 6% 5% 6% 6% 9% 9% 9% 11% 12% 14% 7% 11% 17% 19% 25% 33%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Singapore
Korea
Japan
New Zealand
Brunei Darussalam
China
Malaysia
Thailand
Philippines
Vietnam
Indonesia
Mongolia
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Sri Lanka
Bangladesh
Pakistan
India
Nepal
Afghanistan
T&DLosses
T&D Losses High-IncomeEAP
High-Income EAP EastAsia
East Asia South
SouthAsia
Asia
Sources: All countries, except Afghanistan and Lao PDR: IEA Statistics, 2018 (using 2014 data); World Bank
estimate for Afghanistan based on Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat data, 2020; Lao PDR source: EDL Statistic
Report, 2018.
Notes: Electric power transmission and distribution losses include losses in transmission between sources of
supply and points of distribution and in the distribution to consumers, including pilferage. Data is unavailable
for Myanmar, Bhutan, and Pacific Islands.
Electrical-power transmission and distribution losses include losses between supply sources
and distribution points in the distribution to consumers, including due to pilferage. These
losses are reflective of the technical quality of the network and the efficiency of the distribution
system. Data is self-reported by countries to the International Energy Agency.
High-income regional benchmark countries generally have fewer losses (averaging 4.4
percent), though some emerging markets, including China, Malaysia, Thailand, and Sri
Lanka, perform around the same levels. Emerging East Asia (the countries for which data
is available) generally performs better than South Asia, experiencing losses of 8.7 percent,
compared to 15.7 percent. Within East Asia, Cambodia records the highest losses (13.7
percent).
Afghanistan (33.0 percent) and Nepal (25.0 percent) have the most significant transmission
and distribution losses amongst countries for which data is available. While Nepal has
recorded steady improvements, its high losses are largely attributable to limited financing, a
lack of sufficient planning, and difficulties associated with land acquisition.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 11
System Average Interruption Duration (Average Hours per Customer per Year)
Korea
Japan
Singapore
Brunei Darussalam
New Zealand
Thailand
Malaysia
China
Vietnam
Indonesia
Philippines
Lao PDR
Cambodia
Myanmar
Mongolia
Sri Lanka
India
Bhutan
Pakistan
Maldives
Solomon Islands
Fiji
Vanuatu
Samoa
Papua New Guinea
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 160 170 180 900 910 920 930 940 950
Average number of times per year
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: World Bank, Doing Business, 2019.
Note: System Average Interruption Duration is the average total duration of outages over the course of a
year for each customer served. Figures are national, except for city-level data for China (Beijing), India (Delhi),
Indonesia (Jakarta), Japan (Tokyo), and Pakistan (Karachi). Data is unavailable for Afghanbistan, Bangladesh,
Nepal, and Timor-Leste.
High-income regional benchmark countries exhibit low service interruption frequencies and
low overall durations of interruption. Amongst emerging markets in the region, low overall
interruption durations are recorded for China, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam,
all of whom average less than three cumulative hours of interruption per customer each year.
Mongolia, Pakistan, Maldies, and Papua New Guinea all recorded high per-customer service
interruption disruptions. Papua New Guinea’s extremely high outage durations are associated
with high frequencies of disruption, due largely to insufficient maintenance of plants and
transmission lines.Pakistan suffers from outdated facilities and a complex distribution system
vulnerable to damages.
12 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Share of Electricity Generated by Renewable Sources (%)
Nepal Bhutan Lao PDR New Zealand Myanmar Sri Lanka
Cambodia Fiji Vietnam Papua New Guinea Pakistan Samoa
China Philippines Vanuatu Japan India Afghanistan
Indonesia Malaysia Thailand Mongolia Solomon Islands Korea
Singapore Maldives Bangladesh Brunei Darussalam Timor-Leste
Source: All countries except Afghanistan, China, Lao PDR, and Mongolia: OECD/IEA, IEA Statistics, 2018 (using 2015 data);
Afghanistan source: World Bank estimate, based on Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat data, 2020; China source: China Power
Industry Statistics Express, 2019; Lao PDR source: Calculated by World Bank Energy Team based on the MEM consolidated power
development projects, 2020; Mongolia source: World Bank Energy team estimate, 2019.
The share of electricity generated via renewables varies widely in the region, reflecting
significant differences in both resource availability and policy. Income levels are not, however,
a significant predictor of renewables dependence. Nepal’s and Bhutan’s vast hydropower
resources, for example, afford the countries near-total reliance on renewables for generation;
the next-highest performers, New Zealand and Lao PDR, are 20 percentage points lower. In
contrast, Bangladesh, Brunei, Korea, Maldives, Mongolia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, and
Timor-Leste heavily depend on non-renewables for generation. In countries where electricity
demand is rapidly increasing, governments often find it challenging to introduce renewable
energy while overcoming insufficient energy supply.
Data reflects domestic generation; countries may consume more imported electricity
generated by non-renewables.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 13
Average Electricity Tariff (US$/KWh)
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
Korea
Singapore
Japan
Mongolia
Myanmar
Lao PDR
Vietnam
Indonesia
China
Malaysia
Thailand
Philippines
Cambodia
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Nepal
India
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Maldives
Vanuatu
Solomon Islands
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Sources: RISE database, various years, except Bhutan, and Singapore, see Appendix 4.
Notes: Average electricity tariff for all users (US$/KWh) based on $ revenue / total KWh consumed; Data unavailable for Brunei
Darussalam, New Zealand, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Timor-Leste.
On average, countries in East and South Asia have generally low retail electricity tariffs,
coupled with high electricity-access rates, except for the Maldives.
Although data is unavailable for most of the Pacific Islands, the region does generally record
higher tariff rates due to geography, under-developed distribution and transmission systems,
and high costs of construction and maintenance. Of the countries for which data is available,
the Solomon Islands records the highest tariff rate.
14 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Average Electricity Tariff versus Average Operational Cost of Electricity Generation (US$/KWh)
In comparing average retail electricity tariffs with
Japan
the operational costs of supplying electricity, most
countries in the region (for which data is available) Korea
cover per-unit (per kWh) operational costs with Singapore
per-unit tariffs. Bhutan, Indonesia, Lao PDR, and
Cambodia
Myanmar are exceptions, with Bhutan charging a
subsidized tariff rate significantly below operational China
costs.
Indonesia
East Asian countries have lower average operational
Lao PDR
costs for supply than countries in South Asia. Most
countries use a varied electricity mix, with active Malaysia
investments in renewables. Mongolia
South Asia’s higher average operational costs are Myanmar
largely attributable to the Maldives (US$0.30-40/
Philippines
kWh), where high dependency on oil has increased
the costs of supply. Nepal, on the other hand, has Thailand
one of the lowest operational cost levels, due to Vietnam
reliance on hydropower. Its comparably high tariff
levels are associated with energy-import tariffs. Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Fiji
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu
Sources: RISE database, various years, except Bhutan, and
Singapore, see Appendix 4. 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.80 0.90
Notes: Data unavailable for Brunei Darussalam, New Zealand,
Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, and Timor-Leste. Cost of Generating Electricity
High-Income EAP East Asia
South Asia Pacific Islands
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 15
WATER & SANITATION REGIONAL REVIEW
Access to Piped Water (% of Population)
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data).
In this report, water access refers to household piped connections to services. Although
broader definitions are more relevant to progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs),5 this report focuses on large-scale, centralized water systems typical of government
provision, particularly in densely populated areas. As such, the access measure does not
consider non-networked systems such as protected bores, wells, or rainwater systems.
5 See, for example, SDG 6.1, which measures access to safely managed drinking water services,
http://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgs/
16 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Access to Piped Water (% of Population)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Brunei Darussalam
New Zealand
Singapore
Korea
Japan
Malaysia
China
Thailand
Timor-Leste
Lao PDR
Vietnam
Philippines
Cambodia
Mongolia
Myanmar
Indonesia
Bhutan
Maldives
Nepal
India
Sri Lanka
Pakistan
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Fiji
Samoa
Vanuatu
Solomon Islands
Papua New Guinea
Urban Rural
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data).
Note: This measure includes access to improved, piped water sources, shared and on-premises.
Although access to piped water is high amongst regional benchmark countries and a few
of the region’s emerging markets—including Bhutan, Malaysia, Fiji, and Samoa—many
countries in Asia still lack widespread access to piped household water.
Moreover, there are stark differences in urban and rural access. Urban-rural divides are
especially large in Papua New Guinea, the Maldives, Cambodia, and Vietnam. The urban-
rural divide is particularly critical in poorly urbanized countries such as Papua New Guinea,
where 87% of the population lives in rural areas, yet receives a marginal portion of sector
investments. Although networked piped services may not be the most efficient option outside
of urban areas, these differences indicate areas where improvements to rural water service
access may need to be targeted.
Amongst low- and middle-income regional countries, Malaysia, Bhutan, Fiji, and Samoa
stand out as having extended piped water services to 80 percent or more of their populations.
Eleven countries, however, still have not reached coverage levels of 40 percent. Piped water
services in Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan are extended to less than 25 percent of
their populations.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 17
Access to Piped Sewerage (% of Population)
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data),
except Brunei (2016 data)
Sanitation includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment, and disposal or reuse of
human excreta and wastewater. The first indicator of access focuses on the percentage of
the population with household connections to centralized municipal wastewater systems.
This type of networked sanitation service is the focus of reporting on the status of physical
sanitation infrastructure, though attainment of SDGs, as with water, is better captured by
broader measures of access to safely managed sanitation.6
6 See indicators for access to safely managed sanitation, http://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgs/
18 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Access to Piped Sewerage (% of Population)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Korea
Singapore
New Zealand
Japan
Malaysia
China
Mongolia
Cambodia
Indonesia
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Philippines
Lao PDR
Myanmar
Vietnam
Maldives
Pakistan
India
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Afghanistan
Vanuatu
Solomon Islands
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Urban Rural
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data),
except Brunei (2016 data).
Notes: Data unavailable for Indonesia, Fiji and Solomon Islands.
Piped connection rates are generally very low, ranging from less than one percent in Myanmar
and Vietnam to 79 percent in Malaysia. Piped sewerage coverage exceeds 30 percent only in
China, the Maldives, and the regional high-income benchmark countries.
The rates for urban populations are much higher than the rural and overall averages, but even
urban piped-connection rates are low in most countries in the region. Only the high-income
benchmark countries and the Maldives, China, and Malaysia have extended urban services
to more than 60 percent of the population.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 19
Access to Improved Sanitation (% of Population)
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data).
Added context is provided to differentiate between access to piped household-sewerage
connections and to improved sanitation, more generally. A broader measure of sanitation access
would take into account access to improved sanitation facilities, including household and
shared facilities, as well as non-networked treatment technologies such as septic tanks. These
access rates are significantly higher than those limited to household sewerage connections,
though some countries still record extremely low overall access levels to improved sanitation.
20 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Non-Revenue Water (%)
16.3%
23.4%
14.4%
20.5%
23.8%
25.3%
29.2%
32.8%
35.5%
21.6%
24.9%
32.9%
34.0%
36.3%
41.2%
44.0%
32.3%
45.1%
50.8%
55.6%
59.9%
2.7%
5.0%
6.7%
100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Japan
Singapore
Korea
New Zealand
Cambodia
Mongolia
China
Vietnam
Philippines
Lao PDR
Indonesia
Malaysia
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
India
Bhutan
Nepal
Afghanistan
Pakistan
Vanuatu
Fiji
Samoa
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Non-Revenue Water High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Various sources and coverage at national or municipal levels, see Appendix 7.
Note: For Philippines, the NRW rate is an average of rates across Manila and Davao. For Singapore, the NRW value refers to
Singapore’s reported rate of ‘Unaccounted-for Water’
Non-revenue water (NRW) measures the percentage of water produced by utilities that does
not generate revenues, due to distribution losses, theft, or failure to collect user fees. As such,
it is an indicator of both the physical condition of the distribution network and the overall
efficiency of the supply system.
NRW rates are very high in several countries, reaching nearly 60 percent in the Solomon
Islands. It is not uncommon for utilities in emerging Asia to lose a quarter or more of the
value of water produced due to distribution losses and poor collection rates.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 21
Quality of Water Supplied (% samples passing potable standard test)
Singapore
Mongolia
Cambodia
China
Vietnam
Pakistan
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Nepal
India
Vanuatu
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Fiji
Solomon Islands
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Various sources, See Appendix 7.
Water-quality compliance measures the percentage of water samples that pass residual
chlorine tests or other potable water quality standards that indicate the microbial quality
of water. Failure to provide clean water poses significant risks to public health. Although
many utilities in the region are able to provide uncontaminated water according to published
standards, recorded quality figures in India, Nepal, and Solomon Islands (amongst countries
for which data is available) are particularly low.
22 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Water Tariff (Purchasing-Power-Parity-Adjusted Tariff for First 15 m3 per Month, in US$ per m3)
The PPP-adjusted water tariff Singapore (Singapore) 1.46
reports the per-m3 residential tariff
Japan (Tokyo) 1.08
rate for water services, adjusted
for purchasing-power parity New Zealand (Auckland) 0.94
(PPP). The rate reported is for Korea (Seoul) 0.60
subsistence-level consumption, Brunei Darussalam
0.14
i.e., the rate for the first 15m3 (Bandar Seri Begawan)
consumed in a month. Prices are Philippines (Manila) 1.80
in US$ at the conversion rates Indonesia (Jakarta) 1.23
for their year of reporting (2017-
Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar) 0.91
2020).
Thailand (Bangkok) 0.66
PPP-adjusted tariffs are reported Vietnam
0.61
for the water utility in the largest (Ho Chi Minh City)
city in each country. China (Shanghai) 0.50
PPP-adjusted tariffs are highest Lao PDR (Vientiane) 0.49
in Male, Maldives; Manila, Cambodia (Phnom Penh) 0.38
Philippines; Jakarta, Indonesia; Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) 0.34
Kabul, Afghanistan; and
Singapore. Conversely, tariffs Myanmar (Yangon) 0.10
are lowest in Thimphu, Bhutan; Maldives (Male) 5.80
Suva, Fiji; Yangon, Myanmar; Afghanistan (Kabul) 1.27
and Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei
India (Mumbai) 0.61
Darussalam.
Nepal (Kathmandu) 0.47
Because tariffs may be
accompanied by varying levels of Bangladesh (Dhaka) 0.29
cost recovery, efficiency, and re- Pakistan (Karachi) 0.27
investment, however, tariff rates
Sri Lanka (Colombo) 0.26
must be considered alongside
quality and access measures in Bhutan (Thimphu City) 0.11
order to make utility-specific Solomon Islands
0.75
(Guadacanal Province)
assessments of their relative
Vanuatu (Port Vila) 0.63
appropriateness.
Papua New Guinea 0.51
(Port Moresby)
Samoa (Apia) 0.46
Fiji (Suva) 0.12
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 5.00 6.00
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 6. High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 23
Wastewater Tariff (Purchasing-Power-Parity-Adjusted US$ per m3)
New Zealand (Auckland) 1.93
Japan (Tokyo) 0.89
Singapore (Singapore) 0.71
Korea (Seoul) 0.33
Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar) 0.48
China (Shanghai) 0.40
Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) 0.12
Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City) 0.06
Cambodia (Phnom Penh) 0.02
Sri Lanka (Colombo) 0.33
Bangladesh (Dhaka) 0.29
Nepal (Kathmandu) 0.24
India (Mumbai) 0.17
Pakistan (Karachi) 0.03
Samoa (Apia) 2.11
Solomon Islands (Guadacanal Province) 0.37
Papua New Guinea (Port Moresby) 0.24
Fiji (Suva) 0.16
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 6
Some utilities charge separate tariffs for water and wastewater services. By charging separately
for wastewater, utilities can ring-fence funds needed to improve wastewater collection and
treatment.
Amongst emerging market countries in the region that charge separate wastewater tariffs,
Apia, Samoa’s tariff is highest.
24 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Operational Expenditure, Water and Wastewater (US$ per m3 of water sold)
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
New Zealand
Korea
Cambodia
Thailand
Vietnam
Lao PDR
China
Mongolia
Bangladesh
Pakistan
Afghanistan
Nepal
Vanuatu
Samoa
Fiji
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: IBNET and various sources; see Appendix 7.
Note: Unit Operational Expenditure, Water & Wastewater (US$/m3 water sold) is equal to the total annual operational expenses /
total volume of water sold.
Reported operational expenditures for water and wastewater account for utilities’ operating
expenditures per cubic meter of water produced and sold. They do not always account for the
costs that utilities must cover, even for operations, because some costs are covered outside of
reported utility expenditures. In some cases, utilities report combined water and wastewater
expenditures. Generally, the higher operational expenditures reported in high-income
benchmark countries are correlated to higher quality service, high coverage rates, and higher
levels of cost recovery. The high expenditures reported in Samoa and Solomon Islands, on the
other hand, are associated with high NRW and high input costs.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 25
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Korea
New Zealand
Singapore
Cambodia
Vietnam
Philippines
Malaysia
Indonesia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
China
Thailand
Bhutan
Bangladesh
Nepal
Afghanistan
Sri Lanka
Pakistan
India
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Vanuatu
Samoa
Fiji
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Various sources, See Appendix 7.
Notes: Operational cost coverage is the ratio of total annual operational revenues to total annual operational expenditures.
The operating-expenditures coverage ratio measures utilities’ total operational revenue
divided by total operational expenditures. Although the measure does not include capital
expenditures or debt service, it is a reasonable proxy for the capacity of utilities to attain
cost-recovery levels.
Values above 1.0 indicate that revenues exceed operational expenditures. Nine countries for
which data is available have attained high levels of cost recovery. In fact, Solomon Isands’
operating cost coverage more than doubled between 2010 and 2018.
26 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ROAD TRANSPORT REGIONAL REVIEW
Rural Access to All-Season Roads (% of Population)
Source: Mikou et al., 2019
Rural access to roads is estimated based on the World Bank Rural Access Index (RAI)
methodology (see Appendix 2). Drawing on open-access geospatial data, the estimate
captures the share of the rural population within a walking distance of two kilometers to
all-access roads. Rural population density provides the necessary context when considering
these results, because low RAIs are more problematic, in absolute terms, in countries where
rural population densities are high.7
7 For further comparison of RAI and rural population density data, see Appendix 1.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 27
Rural Access Index (RAI)
# people per km2
100% 1,000
90% 900
80% 800
70% 700
60% 600
50% 500
40% 400
30% 300
20% 200
10% 100
0% 0
China
Japan
Korea
New Zealand
Vietnam
Philippines
Malaysia
Indonesia
Timor-Leste
Thailand
Myanmar
Cambodia
Lao PDR
Mongolia
Sri Lanka
Nepal
Bangladesh
India
Pakistan
Bhutan
Afghanistan
Maldives
Samoa
Papua New Guinea
Solomon Islands
Rural Population Density
RAI
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: Mikou et al., 2019
In India, Pakistan, the Maldives, Bangladesh, and Indonesia, where rural population densities
are high and RAIs are less than 50 percent, large numbers of people lack proximal access to
all-season roads.
Among emerging economies, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and the Philippines have achieved
significant rural-access rates well above 60 percent. The lowest accessibility levels are found
in the Maldives, the Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Mongolia, and Afghanistan,
where less than 20 percent of rural residents have access to paved roads within a 2-kilometer
radius. High-income benchmark nations for which data is available (Japan, New Zealand,
and Korea) all have ratios higher than 80 percent. The RAI is not applicable in Singapore.
28 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Quality of Roads Infrastructure (On a Scale of 1-7, From Worst to Best)
Access to road infrastructure is not enough
Singapore
to attain trade and transit development goals.
The quality of road infrastructure is also an Japan
important factor in minimizing the transaction Korea
costs of travel and trade and improving the Brunei Darussalam
efficiency and resilience of road networks. New Zealand
Although additional factors—for example, Malaysia
network connectivity and regulation—affect China
the quality of transport as a service, this report Thailand
focuses on hard road-transport assets. Indonesia
The Global Competitiveness Report compiles Philippines
survey data on perceptions of road quality, Cambodia
with a rating of 7 being the best. The Vietnam
regional high-income benchmark countries Lao PDR
and Malaysia score highest with respect to Mongolia
perceptions of road-infrastructure quality. India
On average, emerging East Asia (3.86) scores Pakistan
slightly better than South Asia (3.56).
Sri Lanka
Amongst emerging economies, Malaysia Bangladesh
easily scores highest, although conditions are Nepal
significantly better in West Malaysia than in
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
East Malaysia. Nepal, on the other hand, is
perceived to have the poorest road quality and
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia
is the only country to score less than 3. There
is no data available on road quality for Pacific
Island states. Source: World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness
Report, 2018.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 29
Road Traffic Death Rate (Deaths per 100,000 People per Year)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Singapore
Japan
New Zealand
Korea
Indonesia
Philippines
Timor-Leste
Mongolia
Lao PDR
Cambodia
China
Myanmar
Malaysia
Vietnam
Thailand
Maldives
Pakistan
Sri Lanka
Afghanistan
Bangladesh
Nepal
Bhutan
India
Fiji
Samoa
Papua New Guinea
Vanuatu
Solomon Islands
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia Pacific Islands
Source: WHO Global Health Repository, 2019 (using 2016 data).
Traffic death rates are affected by road-system safety features, as well as by topography, traffic
regulations, and behavioral customs. As such, although the annual traffic death rate is an
indirect and partial measure of road quality, it is a useful indicator of overall road-system
safety.
Singapore, the Maldives, and Japan exhibit the lowest traffic death rates, followed by New
Zealand and Fiji.
Amongst emerging economies, the Maldives notably has the lowest traffic death rate (only
0.9 per 100,000 people in 2016). Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and India, on the other
hand, have the highest traffic death rates (more than 20 per 100,000 people).
Intra-regionally, South Asia (14.6 percent) and the Pacific Islands (13.7 percent) have lower
average traffic death rates compared to East Asia (19.0 percent).
30 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Total CO2 Emissions from Road Transport (MTCO2)
Brunei Darussalam
Singapore
New Zealand
Korea
Japan
Mongolia
Myanmar
Cambodia
Philippines
Vietnam
Malaysia
Thailand
Indonesia
China
Nepal
Bangladesh
Sri Lanka
Pakistan
India
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 600 650 700 750
High-Income EAP East Asia South Asia
Source: IEA Statistics, Total CO2 Emissions from Road Transport,
2019 (using 2017 data).
High-income Asia and East Asia have generally higher volumes of transport CO2 emissions
that other regions, with the exception of India. China and India - the region’s two largest
economies - have the largest road networks and populations and highest levels of road
transport emissions.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 31
Looking Forward
This report takes stock of the status of access, quality, and costs of infrastructure service
across East Asia, South Asia and the Pacific Islands. Inevitably, the exercise can draw only
on available data. Although this can bring focus to the most evident areas of need, and
spur key questions about critical relationships amongst the dimensions of infrastructure
service, the quality of infrastructure must be more deeply examined in order to be able
to make important decisions about how and where to focus investments and development
efforts. Additional research can provide a better diagnostic of the status of infrastructure, by
exploring the relationships between quality and access, and by further examining linkages
between status indicators; economic and human development indicators; and infrastructure
governance and investment.
The results suggest that there are marked differences in access to and quality of services
between countries (particularly, between low- and medium-income East Asian countries,
and between ASEAN, South Asia, and the Pacific Islands), as well as between rural and urban
communities. Large-scale investments are still required, particularly in water and sanitation
and transport, in several low- and middle-income countries.
In the case of water supply, records on non-revenue water suggest that there is a need to
rehabilitate aging and under-performing urban supply systems. Data also demonstrates
a need to connect users to water-supply networks in Cambodia, Lao PDR, Mongolia,
Myanmar, and the Philippines; across the Pacific Islands (except for Fiji); and across South
Asia (except for Bhutan and the Maldives). Although extending access remains important,
such developments must include upgrading existing assets and improving the maintenance
and efficiency of utility operations. Urban areas require financial support to address the
insufficient access and quality of sewerage connections and wastewater treatment across the
region. Additionally, access to paved roads is low, particularly in Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao
PDR, Mongolia, Myanmar, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Afghanistan,
Bhutan, the Maldives, and Pakistan.
Many countries also lack updated data on access, quality, tariffs and costs, limiting the strength
of regional comparisons. This is, undoubtedly, the most significant challenge with respect to
understanding the status of infrastructure services. Better quality and more extensive data
would also allow for deeper analysis of potential causal factors for and correlations between
quality, access, and tariffs and costs. Moreover, current data is insufficient to appraise the
affordability of infrastructure services or the efficiency of current approaches to delivery,
32 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Geographically, the most notable data deficiencies are in the Pacific Islands. Topically, data
is limited in the areas of cost recovery, road costing, and road quality. Moreover, the direct
comparability and generalizability of tariff and cost data at the national level is compromised,
because reported figures are for different years and different samples of utilities.
In addition to the issues on the previous page, these needs include up-to-date, comparable
cross-country data on per-unit tariffs and costs (capital and operational), because current
estimates are limited to urban areas and, often, the largest cities. This would also enable a
better assessment of cost-recovery levels for both electricity and water utilities. Given the
importance of water quality to public health, there is a need to collect water-quality data
(such as the presence of coliforms, etc.) in piped-water systems. In general, there is little
information on the cost of road construction, nor is there an objective quality assessment.
Aspects of infrastructure-services delivery are often difficult to compare across countries, not
only due to data issues, but also due to the high variation in developmental priorities, physical
geographies, the availability of natural-resource inputs, and complexities in the measurement
of aspects such as efficiency. Nevertheless, this report provides a starting point for engaging
in data-informed dialogue about priority areas for developing quality infrastructure to most
effectively serve economic and social development needs.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 33
COUNTRY
SNAPSHOTS
REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Minimum, maximum, and mean values for each indicator are calculated based on data from all countries
included in the study, and for which data is available.
Values in each cell are provided in the following format: minimum / average / maximum.
ACCESS QUALITY
Urban (%) 73.77 / 97.60 / 100 Electricity Quality (1–7) 2.8 / 4.9 / 6.9
ELECTRICITY Rural (%) 50.42 / 86.55 / 100 T&D Losses (%) 12.28 / 22.64 / 33
Total (%) 54.43 / 90.43 / 100 System Average Interruption
0 / 58.1 / 940
Duration (hours)
TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
0 / 28.7 / 500
Frequency (# per year)
Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.04 / 0.17 / 0.89
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost 0 / 382.9 / 4618.2
0.01 / 0.08 / 0.26 (MTCO2)
of Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 0 / 29.32 / 100
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.04 / 0.10 / 0.17
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 13 / 66.93 / 179
ACCESS QUALITY
Rural Accessibility (%) 6.5 / 45.5 / 93.3 Road Quality (1–7) 2.6 / 4.2 / 6.4
ROAD TRANSPORT Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
0.9 / 14.9 / 32.7
people per year)
CO2 Emissions (road transport)
1.3 / 89.7 / 726.3
(MTCO2)
ACCESS ACCESS
Piped Water, Urban (%) 22.66 / 68.79 / 98.88 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 1.73 / 22.43 / 79.36
WATER & Piped Water, Rural (%) 2.50 / 33.69 / 83.73 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 1.00 / 8.94 / 38.50
SANITATION Piped Water, Total (%) 14.90 / 50.20 / 98.79 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 1.11 / 23.42 / 83.76
TARIFF & COST TARIFF & COST
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.02 / 0.49 / 3.87 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.01 / 0.39 / 2.32
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.10 / 0.81 / 5.80 0.02 / 0.49 / 2.11
(US$/m3) Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Operational Expenditure,
0.11 / 0.62 / 2.08
Water (US$/m3) Wastewater (US$/population 0 / 64.32 / 503.20
served)
Operational Cost Coverage
0.39 / 1.25 / 2.57
Ratio
Operational Expenditure,
QUALITY
Water and Wastewater 0.12 / 0.58 / 2.61 Wastewater Treatment (%) 0 / 21.2 / 100
(US$/m3)
Wastewater Connection (%) 0 / 25 / 100
QUALITY
Non-Revenue Water (%) 2.74 / 29.76 / 59.93
Water Quality
75.23 / 95.47 / 100
(% passing chlorine test)
36 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
AFGHANISTAN
POPULATION 37,172,386 | GDP PER CAPITA US$521
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.50 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
While overall access to all sources of elec- Rural (%) 97.09 T&D Losses (%) 33.0
tricity is quite high, access to grid elec-
tricity is only approximately 31% (World Total (%) 97.70 System Average Interruption
–
Bank Energy estimate based on utility Duration (hours)
data). Rural access in Afghanistan is low- TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
er than the regional average. Although –
Frequency (# per year)
most service-quality data are unavailable, Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.10
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
quality is reportedly poor, leading to Average Operational Cost of –
0.03 (MTCO2)
challenging conditions for residents and Generation (US$/KWh)
businesses. This may partly be due to the Renewables (%) 12.67
Levelized Cost of Energy
decentralized power supply across the N/A
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 114
country, with limited interconnectedness.
ROAD TRANSPORT ACCESS QUALITY
Road data reflects poor access and road Rural Accessibility (%) 20.3 Road Quality (1–7) –
quality. The road transport master plan
prepared by the ADB estimated that 85% Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
15.1
people per year)
of the road network is in poor condition.
Afghanistan experiences significantly CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
higher traffic mortality than its regional (MTCO2)
neighbors, and a low proportion of paved
roads.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 45.10 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 8.14
Afghanistan ranks lower than its regional Piped Water, Rural (%) 13.76 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
neighbors in all water-and-sanitation
access indicators. With a diarrheal disease Piped Water, Total (%) 21.67 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 2.60
burden almost twice that of the region,
significant investments in quality and TARIFF & COST (KABUL) TARIFF & COST (KABUL)
access are required.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.34 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
A multi-agency led Community-Led To-
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted (US$/m3) 1.27 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
tal Sanitation project, in partnership with Adjusted (US$/m3)
–
the government, aims to end open defe- Operational Expenditure, Water
–
cation by 2030. The initiative is expected and Wastewater (US$/m3) Operational Expenditure,
Wastewater (US$/population –
to improve rural sanitation access. Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.01 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.16
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 8.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 41.21
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 37
BANGLADESH
POPULATION 161,356,039 | GDP PER CAPITA US$1,698
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.5 Electricity Quality (1–7) 3.7
Rural access to electricity in Bangladesh Rural (%) 81.28 T&D Losses (%) 11.0
is significantly lower than the regional
average along with high transmission Total (%) 88.00 System Average Interruption
–
losses and high tariffs. Use of Duration (hours)
renewables is notably low, which may TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
be contributing to high tariffs and –
Frequency (# per year)
limited access. Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.08
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost of 36.9
0.07 (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 1.23
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 125
ROAD TRANSPORT
The survey-based indicator shows that ACCESS QUALITY
the quality of road infrastructure is Rural Accessibility (%) 47.0 Road Quality (1–7) 3.1
perceived to be very poor. Dhaka has
alarming levels of congestion, and the Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
15.3
traffic death rate is also high. These people per year)
factors have recently sparked major CO2 Emissions (road transport)
8.4
debate around the need for tariff reform (MTCO2)
as well as strict implementation of traffic
regulations on both urban streets and
highways.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION
Piped Water, Urban (%) 37.08 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 14.36
Water and sanitation access are
Piped Water, Rural (%) 2.50 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
significantly low, with rural areas lagging
behind urban areas by a wide margin. Piped Water, Total (%) 14.90 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 5.24
Formal piped access remains demand-
driven in urban areas. Combined with TARIFF & COST (DHAKA) TARIFF & COST (DHAKA)
high population densities, this may lead
to a high disease burden. Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.12 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.12
Rapid-response mechanisms in health Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.29 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.29
Adjusted (US$/m3)
centers that specialize in diarrheal disease Operational Expenditure, Water
0.11
and public-information campaigns and Wastewater (US$/m3) Operational Expenditure,
have led to a decrease in the number Wastewater (US$/population 4.67
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.33 served)
of diarrheal deaths, but infrastructure
services will be challenged to support Operational Expenditure, Water
0.14
further gains in sanitation. and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 2.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 21.56
Water Quality
98.71
(% passing chlorine test)
38 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
BHUTAN
POPULATION 754,394 | GDP PER CAPITA US$3,360
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.10 Electricity Quality (1–7) 5.8
Bhutan’s electricity sector performs very Rural (%) 96.76 T&D Losses (%) –
well compared to other countries in
the region in terms of access, quality, Total (%) 97.70 System Average Interruption
7.1
and affordability. Bhutan has attained Duration (hours)
near-total access in both urban and TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
rural areas. Ambitious targets to reach 2.9
Frequency (# per year)
full electrification by 2020 were revised, Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.04
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
and Bhutan Power Corporation has Average Operational Cost of –
0.08 (MTCO2)
continued expanding the distribution Generation (US$/KWh)
network to hard-to-reach locations, Renewables (%) 99.99
Levelized Cost of Energy
especially with greater investment in –
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 61
clean energy and renewables, capitalizing
on high access to hydropower resources.
Electricity generation costs are low, but
data on T&D loss and renewable energy
is missing.
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 34.2 Road Quality (1–7) –
Difficult terrain and dispersed
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
communities increase the challenge of people per year)
17.4
road connectivity. This is reflected in a
relatively low ratio of paved roads and CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
(MTCO2)
higher-than-average traffic death rates.
Nevertheless, road-surface conditions are
generally very good.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION
Piped Water, Urban (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 12.30
Although Bhutan is a regional leader in
Piped Water, Rural (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 1.15
aggregate access rates for water, there
is still low accessibility of sanitation. Piped Water, Total (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 5.63
Possibly as a result of this, deaths from
waterborne diseases are quite high. No TARIFF & COST (THIMPHU) TARIFF & COST (THIMPHU)
operational cost information is available.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.04 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.11 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.75 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 10.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 33.96
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 39
BRUNEI DARUSSALAM
POPULATION 428,962 | GDP PER CAPITA US$31,628
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 5.4
Rich in fossil fuels and natural gas, Rural (%) 100.00 T&D Losses (%) 6.4
Brunei Darussalam’s electricity sector
performs very well in terms of access, Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
0.4
quality, and costs. Tariffs and costs Duration (hours)
are extremely low compared to other TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
countries in the region. To reduce CO2 0.3
Frequency (# per year)
emissions, the country aims to increase Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) –
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
the share of renewable energy to 10 Average Operational Cost of 2.6
– (MTCO2)
percent by 2035. Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 0.05
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 25
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) – Road Quality (1–7) 4.9
Road-quality survey scores rate Brunei
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
Darussalam second highest in the EAP people per year)
–
region, after Singapore. The country is
amply funded from natural-resource CO2 Emissions (road transport)
1.3
(MTCO2)
revenues that serve a small population in
a small land area. Thus, investment and
maintenance of roads is well funded.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION
Piped Water, Urban (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) –
Brunei Darussalam performs well over-
Piped Water, Rural (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) –
all, though some improvements are still
needed to improve water treatment. Data Piped Water, Total (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) –
on tariffs and costs is limited.
TARIFF & COST (BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN) TARIFF & COST (BANDAR SERI BEGAWAN)
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.08 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.14 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio – served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) -
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 44.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) –
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
40 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
CAMBODIA
POPULATION 16,249,798 | GDP PER CAPITA US$1,510
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.06 Electricity Quality (1–7) 3.5
Cambodia’s electricity sector faces Rural (%) 86.09 T&D Losses (%) 13.7
serious problems with respect to
access, quality, and tariffs. Although Total (%) 89.07 System Average Interruption
20.8
urban access and T&D losses have Duration (hours)
significantly improved, access in rural TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
areas is the lowest among East Asian 15.4
Frequency (# per year)
countries, due to underinvestment. Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.19
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Losses are huge, and interruptions are Average Operational Cost of 4.1
0.08 (MTCO2)
frequent. These system deficiencies and Generation (US$/KWh)
high dependencies on imported oil lead Renewables (%) 46.42
Levelized Cost of Energy
to high electricity costs. –
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 179
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 38.1 Road Quality (1–7) 3.3
Cambodia’s roads generally have good or
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
fair surface conditions, but the quality people per year)
17.8
of road infrastructure is still perceived
as poor. The core problems seem to be CO2 Emissions (road transport)
4.5
(MTCO2)
low connectivity and inefficiency (ADB
2017).
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION
Piped Water, Urban (%) 77.28 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 50.83
There is a significant disparity between
Piped Water, Rural (%) 10.87 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 3.43
access rates in urban centers (home to
21 percent of the population) and rural Piped Water, Total (%) 26.13 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 14.32
areas. Rural rates are below the regional
average. Phnom Penh Water Authority TARIFF & COST (PHNOM PENH) TARIFF & COST (PHNOM PENH)
performs well, with a low rate of non-
revenue water, low operation costs, Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.15 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.02
and high cost recovery, but it needs to Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.38 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
improve wastewater treatment quality, as 0.02
Adjusted (US$/m3)
wastewater-treatment facilities face Operational Expenditure, Water
0.12 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
a severe shortage of capacity. Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 2.57 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.12
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 10.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 6.74
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 41
CHINA
POPULATION 1,392,730,000 | GDP PER CAPITA US$9,771
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 5.0
China’s electricity sector performs Rural (%) 99.97 T&D Losses (%) 5.1
generally well in terms of access, quality,
and tariffs. To narrow performance gaps Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
0.8
with respect to regional benchmarking Duration (hours)
countries, China must further reduce TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
interruption durations and frequencies. 0.2
Frequency (# per year)
Moreover, the time necessary for Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.10
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
businesses to get electricity connections Average Operational Cost of 4618.2
0.05 (MTCO2)
is the second worst in East Asia, Generation (US$/KWh)
requiring government administrative Renewables (%) 26.00
attention. As the largest producer of Levelized Cost of Energy
0.04
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 32
CO2 emissions in the world, a focus on
renewables will remain important.
ROAD TRANSPORT ACCESS QUALITY
Road-quality surveys and the ratio of Rural Accessibility (%) 57.4 Road Quality (1–7) .6
paved roads are relatively high compared
to regional averages. From 2012 to Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
18.2
people per year)
2017, the country built and renovated
1.28 million kilometers of rural roads. CO2 Emissions (road transport)
726.3
Though it has been investing intensively (MTCO2)
in transport, further effort is needed to
enhance the rural transport network.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 92.22 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 79.36
Utility performance information from
Piped Water, Rural (%) 53.77 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 38.50
IBNET comes mostly from Shandong
Province. Although China provides better Piped Water, Total (%) 76.06 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 62.18
access and quality of water and sanitation
than other countries in the region, tariffs TARIFF & COST (SHANGHAI) TARIFF & COST (SHANGHAI)
and operating costs remain high.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.28 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.23
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.50 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.40
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.41 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.76 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.43
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 56.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 20.54
Water Quality
99.86
(% passing chlorine test)
42 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
FIJI
POPULATION 883,483 | GDP PER CAPITA US$6,267
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.92 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Fiji’s electricity sector performs very Rural (%) 91.06 T&D Losses (%) –
well compared to other countries in
terms of access, quality, and tariffs. Total (%) 96.00 System Average Interruption
5.0
Access in rural areas has significantly Duration (hours)
improved. Gains in rural electrification TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
are attributed to proactive government 4.7
Frequency (# per year)
initiatives, including grid extensions. Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) –
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
The government needs to focus Average Operational Cost of –
0.10 (MTCO2)
attention on reducing the time for Generation (US$/KWh)
businesses to secure electricity services. Renewables (%) 45.02
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 81
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) – Road Quality (1–7) –
Though the ratio of paved roads is very
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
high compared to other countries in the people per year)
9.6
Pacific Islands, it is still relatively poor
overall. As with other Pacific Island states, CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
(MTCO2)
data on transport is limited.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 97.01 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) –
Fiji is a regional leader in aggregate
Piped Water, Rural (%) 74.32 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) –
access rates for piped water, with recent
significant increases in rural access. Data Piped Water, Total (%) 86.97 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) –
is not available for piped-wastewater
access, but there has been a notable TARIFF & COST (SUVA) TARIFF & COST (SUVA)
increase in the wastewater-treatment rate
since 2017 (up from 4 percent). Tariffs Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.08 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.10
and operating costs are cheaper than Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.12 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
regional averages, though cost recovery 0.16
Adjusted (US$/m3)
has not been attained. Operational Expenditure, Water
0.75 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 33.07
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.81 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.80
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 10.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 39.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 45.06
Water Quality
95.11
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 43
INDIA
POPULATION 1,352,617,328 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,010
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.21 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.7
Access in rural areas lags in comparison Rural (%) 89.31 T&D Losses (%) 18.6
to urban regions, due to distribution
challenges. The tariff rate is below the Total (%) 92.62 System Average Interruption
4.6
regional average, due to decreasing Duration (hours)
renewable tariffs, especially for solar TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
power. The quality of supply is rated 2.6
Frequency (# per year)
moderately, but fares slightly better than Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.09
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
the regional average. Although there is Average Operational Cost of 1100.4
– (MTCO2)
scope for improvement, several steps are Generation (US$/KWh)
being taken by the government to reduce Renewables (%) 15.34
losses and strengthen the T&D network, Levelized Cost of Energy
0.09
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 53
especially in rural areas.
ROAD TRANSPORT
The Government of India has laid out
an ambitious target of building 83.6 ACCESS QUALITY
thousand kilometers of roads in five
Rural Accessibility (%) 42.8 Road Quality (1–7) 4.4
years, at an estimated cost of US$108
billion. In 2017 alone, India constructed Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
22.6
9,800 kilometers of roads, doubling the people per year)
build rate from the previous year. India CO2 Emissions (road transport)
fares better than other countries in South 256.7
(MTCO2)
Asia for road quality, but the traffic death
rate remains high, with about 1.2 million
road deaths from 2007 to 2017.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 67.87 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 29.55
India has good rates of access for both
Piped Water, Rural (%) 31.53 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
piped water and sanitation, coupled with
relatively low tariffs. Nevertheless, utility Piped Water, Total (%) 43.74 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 10.56
data from 2009 across 12 provinces
revealed poor continuity, high system TARIFF & COST (MUMBAI) TARIFF & COST (MUMBAI)
losses, and inadequate cost recovery.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.19 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.05
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.61 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.17
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 0.00
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.39 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 19.2
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 11.7
Non-Revenue Water (%) 32.90
Water Quality
81.7
(% passing chlorine test)
44 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
INDONESIA
POPULATION 267,663,435 | GDP PER CAPITA US$3,894
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.4
Access to electricity is widespread Rural (%) 95.66 T&D Losses (%) 9.4
across the country, but rural areas still
have the lowest connectivity rates. In Total (%) 98.14 System Average Interruption
2.6
general, most quality indicators are Duration (hours)
high. Nevertheless, Indonesia’s share TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
of renewable energy is low, propelling 2.2
Frequency (# per year)
the government to increase efforts to Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.09
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
reach its target of 23 percent of energy Average Operational Cost of 195.9
0.10 (MTCO2)
derived from renewables by 2025. Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 10.65
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.12
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 32
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 47.9 Road Quality (1–7) 3.9
Indonesia has relatively high-quality
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
roads and a high ratio of paved roads, people per year)
12.2
which contributes to a low road traffic
death rate. CO2 Emissions (road transport)
124.5
(MTCO2)
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 22.66 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 9.52
Indonesia has low access to piped water
Piped Water, Rural (%) 13.01 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 13.53
by regional standards, and the lowest
wastewater-treatment score in the region. Piped Water, Total (%) 18.28 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 11.34
There is limited information on piped
sanitation access. Tariff and NRW data TARIFF & COST (JAKARTA) TARIFF & COST (JAKARTA)
come from PALYJA, a private consortium
operating in western Jakarta, where both Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.46 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) _
reported costs and tariffs are relatively Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 1.23 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
high. –
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.05 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 2.5
Non-Revenue Water (%) 32.80
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 45
LAO PDR
POPULATION 7,061,507 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,542
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.50 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.8
Although access has significantly
improved due to rapid power- Rural (%) 90.51 T&D Losses (%) 12.3
generation capacity increases, Lao Total (%) 93.60 System Average Interruption
4.0
PDR still has not reached a regional Duration (hours)
average level. Interruption duration
and frequency, although improved, TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
22.7
Frequency (# per year)
also remain problematic, largely due to Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.08
natural disasters and poor electricity- CO2 Emissions (electricity)
–
Average Operational Cost of (MTCO2)
equipment quality. 0.09
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 81.00
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 87
ROAD TRANSPORT
The Lao PDR road network is vulnerable
to climate change impacts, including
floods and landslides. Every year, a
significant amount of the government
budget is spent on disaster recovery and ACCESS QUALITY
emergency repair. In addition, a large
segment of the population lives in rural Rural Accessibility (%) 31.5 Road Quality (1–7) 3.2
areas where road access is restricted in Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
16.6
the rainy season. Lao PDR is located in people per year)
the hub of Greater Mekong Sub-region CO2 Emissions (road transport)
(GMS) countries, and has seen an increase –
(MTCO2)
in transit traffic. Therefore, it is essential
to undertake climate resilient road
improvement and raise the standards of
the core road network serving regional
connectivity to the ASEAN standards.
ACCESS ACCESS
WATER &
Piped Water, Urban (%) 82.34 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 1.94
SANITATION
Piped Water, Rural (%) 32.28 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
Although Lao PDR has the largest
water resources per capita in Asia, access Piped Water, Total (%) 49.48 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 1.11
and quality are still serious problems,
especially for sanitation, which is TARIFF & COST (VIENTIANE) TARIFF & COST (VIENTIANE)
characterized by an inadequate sewerage
system and poor wastewater-treatment Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.19 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
facilities. Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.49 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.87 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.33
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) <1.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 29.17
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
46 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
MALAYSIA
POPULATION 31,528,585 | GDP PER CAPITA US$11,373
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 5.9
The electricity sector performs very Rural (%) 100.00 T&D Losses (%) 5.9
well compared to the rest of the region.
Per-capita consumption is the third Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
0.5
largest in the region, after Brunei (9.3) Duration (hours)
and Singapore (9.0), although the gap TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
remains large. Malaysia is expected 0.5
Frequency (# per year)
to further increase supply to support Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.10
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
economic growth and also aims to Average Operational Cost of 106.9
0.06 (MTCO2)
decrease dependence on fossil fuels by Generation (US$/KWh)
investing in renewables. Renewables (%) 9.96
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.11
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 24
ROAD TRANSPORT
Malaysia made rapid improvements in ACCESS QUALITY
road-surface conditions and now enjoys
Rural Accessibility (%) 50.1 Road Quality (1–7) 5.5
the second-highest-rated roads in the
region, after Singapore. Nevertheless, Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
23.6
the traffic death rate is slightly higher people per year)
than the regional average. Because CO2 Emissions (road transport)
58.9
the motorcycle is a popular mode of (MTCO2)
transportation, further improvement of
road quality and safety for motorcyclists
is important.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 98.88 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) –
Malaysia is a regional leader in access (in
Piped Water, Rural (%) 81.20 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) –
terms of piped water and wastewater) and
sanitation quality (in terms of DALY rate, Piped Water, Total (%) 94.54 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 79.18
and treatment rate). Significant increases
in wastewater-treatment rates are major TARIFF & COST (KUALA LUMPUR) TARIFF & COST (KUALA LUMPUR)
gains. Tariffs are generally lower than in
regional neighbors, although operating Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.13 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.05
costs are slightly higher. Malaysia needs Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.34 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.12
to focus on further reducing non-revenue Adjusted (US$/m3)
water levels. Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.15 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 61.6
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 31.8
Non-Revenue Water (%) 35.50
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 47
MALDIVES
POPULATION 515,696 | GDP PER CAPITA US$10,331
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.70 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Maldives has 100% electricity access Rural (%) 99.86 T&D Losses (%) –
since 2008. It is dependent on fossil
fuels, mostly imports, for its electricity Total (%) 99.80 System Average Interruption
168.0
needs. The tariffs are above the regional Duration (hours)
average mostly due to the geographical TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
disadvantages and high dependence on 2.5
Frequency (# per year)
foreign oil. The Government’s SREP Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.31
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
(Scaling Up Renewable Energy Program) Average Operational Cost of –
0.30-0.40 (MTCO2)
is transforming its Energy Sector by Generation (US$/KWh)
building in-house RE capacity and Renewables (%) 1.28
Levelized Cost of Energy
improving national energy security. –
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 75
ROAD TRANSPORT
Since Maldives is a collection of many
small islands and atolls, the need for ACCESS QUALITY
and availability of land transportation
is minimal. Except for a few islands, the Rural Accessibility (%) 6.5 Road Quality (1–7) –
land area of islands is very small – most Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
of them are less than a square kilometer. 0.9
people per year)
Land transport vehicles are found in the
CO2 Emissions (road transport)
capital island, Male. However, a key issue (MTCO2)
–
facing infrastructure, including roads,
stems from climate change risks especially
rising sea levels. Resilient infrastructure
tends to require large upfront costs,
which is fiscally challenging in a context
such as the Maldives, where the unit
cost of construction per capita is already
higher than other countries due to the ACCESS ACCESS
large geographical dispersion of the Piped Water, Urban (%) 98.30 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) >99.0
islands.
Piped Water, Rural (%) 15.00 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 34.24
Piped Water, Total (%) 47.80 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 60.13
WATER &
TARIFF & COST (MALE) TARIFF & COST (MALE)
SANITATION
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
3.87 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Freshwater resources in the Maldives
are scarce, with the main source being Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 5.80 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
shallow groundwater aquifers. These Operational Expenditure, Water
have depleted in many areas due to over- – Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
extraction causing saltwater intrusion. Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio – served)
Rooftop rainwater harvesting is widely
practiced in the Atolls and in Male, Operational Expenditure, Water
–
desalinated water is distributed through a and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
piped network.
Wastewater Treatment (%) –
Untreated wastewater continues to QUALITY
be discharged in to the sea, leading to Wastewater Connection (%) <1.0
risks to the sustainability of the tourism Non-Revenue Water (%) –
industry and potential health risks to the Water Quality
–
population. Improving sewerage systems (% passing chlorine test)
and fecal sludge management are needed.
48 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
MONGOLIA
POPULATION 3,170,208 | GDP PER CAPITA US$4,122
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 99.82 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4
Compared with other EAP neighbors, Rural (%) 55.74 T&D Losses (%) 11.4
Mongolia scores relatively low on
electricity access (especially for rural Total (%) 85.87 System Average Interruption
62.0
areas), quality, and share of renewables, Duration (hours)
even though end users’ tariffs are TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
relatively low. 15.0
Frequency (# per year)
Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.06
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost of 12.8
– (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 7.00
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 79
ROAD TRANSPORT
Mongolia’s road infrastructure is ACCESS QUALITY
generally underdeveloped, with a low Rural Accessibility (%) 18.9 Road Quality (1–7) 3.1
percentage of paved roads and modest
surface conditions. Nevertheless, the Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
16.5
ratio of paved roads has increased to people per year)
approximately 11.5% in 2017 from 6% CO2 Emissions (road transport)
1.4
in 2013, due to government efforts to (MTCO2)
connect all provinces to Ulaanbataar by
paved roads.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 34.45 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 29.41
With the exception of urban access to
Piped Water, Rural (%) 4.98 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 3.11
water, Mongolia will need to focus a lot
on expanding the national access to both Piped Water, Total (%) 25.13 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 21.09
water and sanitation, preferably through
reduced tariffs and costs. Nevertheless, TARIFF & COST (ULAANBAATAR) TARIFF & COST (ULAANBAATAR)
high water quality and waste-treatment
rates have delivered positive outcomes, Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.33 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.17
notably the small diarrheal burden. Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.91 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.48
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.36 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 9.24
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.84 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.56
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 10.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 33.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 14.40
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 49
MYANMAR
POPULATION 53,708,395 | GDP PER CAPITA US$1,326
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 92.55 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Despite recent electricity-access Rural (%) 59.92 T&D Losses (%) –
improvements, Myanmar remains
below regional average rates, especially Total (%) 69.81 System Average Interruption
30.3
for rural areas. Data is unavailable for Duration (hours)
many quality indicators. Interestingly, TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
the country has a high share of 26.4
Frequency (# per year)
renewables, possibly due to focused Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.06
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
policy over the last few years and Average Operational Cost of 8.1
0.07 (MTCO2)
abundant natural resources. Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 58.85
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 70
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 38.3 Road Quality (1–7) –
Road quality data is missing, but traffic
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
death rates are high, indicating poor people per year)
19.9
conditions. Rural accessibility is also
considerably low. CO2 Emissions (road transport)
4.3
(MTCO2)
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 56.85 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) <1.0
New data reflects a recent increase in Piped Water, Rural (%) 10.50 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
water-access rates, although they remain
low by regional standards, particularly in Piped Water, Total (%) 24.55 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) <1.0
rural areas. Sanitation access and quality
(DALY rate) remain poor. TARIFF & COST (YANGON) TARIFF & COST (YANGON)
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.02 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.10 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio – served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) <1.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) –
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
50 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
NEPAL
POPULATION 28,087,871 | GDP PER CAPITA US$1,034
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 98.69 Electricity Quality (1–7) 2.8
The electricity sector performs fairly Rural (%) 94.74 T&D Losses (%) 25.0
in terms of access and tariff levels, but
quality data is limited. The country Total (%) 95.51 System Average Interruption
–
has an excellent record of clean-energy Duration (hours)
consumption, attributable to high TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
access to hydropower. Nevertheless, –
Frequency (# per year)
system losses are high, and energy- Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.09
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
quality survey scores are low, indicating Average Operational Cost of 0.0
0.01 (MTCO2)
a need for focused investments to Generation (US$/KWh)
improve the distribution network. Renewables (%) 100.00
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 49
ROAD TRANSPORT
Facing similar challenges as Bhutan, the
road quality information is inconsistent ACCESS QUALITY
with public reports. Save the Children
Rural Accessibility (%) 51.7 Road Quality (1–7) 2.6
recently rated Nepal one of the worst
places for a child to fall ill, due to poor Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
15.9
connectivity. These evaluations were people per year)
done after severe infrastructure damage CO2 Emissions (road transport)
resulted from the 2015 earthquake. The 4.8
(MTCO2)
World Bank is leading several investment
projects to improve access and quality of
all-weather roads.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 55.31 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 19.22
Poor rural water and sanitation access Piped Water, Rural (%) 45.51 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 1.75
is accentuated by a high incidence of
death from diarrheal disease. Sanitation Piped Water, Total (%) 47.40 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 5.13
access is low, even in urban areas. Tariff
information and quality indicators are TARIFF & COST (KATHMANDU) TARIFF & COST (KATHMANDU)
limited. Sanitation-practices reforms are
being promoted by the government and Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.17 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.08
local and international non-governmental Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.47 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.24
organizations (NGOs), but information Adjusted (US$/m3)
on government programs is limited. Operational Expenditure, Water
0.17 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.18 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.17
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 10.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 36.30
Water Quality
86.84
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 51
PAKISTAN
POPULATION 212,215,030 | GDP PER CAPITA US$1,482
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 2.9
Although electricity access in Pakistan Rural (%) 54.14 T&D Losses (%) 17.1
is in-line with regional averages, the
average interruption duration and Total (%) 70.79 System Average Interruption
99.0
frequency values are much higher. Duration (hours)
This is apparent from frequent power TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
outages due to load-shedding. The 90.0
Frequency (# per year)
government plans to add more capacity Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.12
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
and diversify the energy sector by Average Operational Cost of 54.5
0.05 (MTCO2)
commissioning more hydropower Generation (US$/KWh)
plants, with the support of China under Renewables (%) 31.43
Levelized Cost of Energy
the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor –
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 113
(CPEC) program.
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 39.9 Road Quality (1–7) 3.9
Pakistan has fair road-quality indicators,
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
but rural accessibility is only 39.9 people per year)
14.3
percent. Low accessibility shows high
scope for improvement for the rural CO2 Emissions (road transport)
52.6
(MTCO2)
population. Pakistan’s major road-
expansion projects are financed by
China’s CPEC and BRI programs.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 51.26 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 59.87
Piped water and sewerage access are low,
Piped Water, Rural (%) 15.25 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 5.37
even in urban areas. Pakistan’s sanitation
quality is also poor, as evidenced by a Piped Water, Total (%) 28.37 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 25.23
high DALY rate and low wastewater
treatment. Water services, even in the TARIFF & COST (KARACHI) TARIFF & COST (KARACHI)
larger cities, are intermittent.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.08 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.01
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.27 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.03
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 2.79
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.43 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.15
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 10.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 44.00
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
52 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
POPULATION 8,606,316 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,730
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 81.03 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Papua New Guinea’s (PNG’s) low rural Rural (%) 50.42 T&D Losses (%) –
electricity access is a key challenge.
PNG is working with multiple agen- Total (%) 54.43 System Average Interruption
940.0
cies, including the World Bank and Duration (hours)
the Asian Development Bank (ADB) TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
to build energy-sector capacity. PNG’s 500.0
Frequency (# per year)
high interruption duration and fre- Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) –
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
quency indicates significant limitations Average Operational Cost of –
0.10-0.12 (MTCO2)
in T&D networks. Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 34.53
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 66
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 11.7 Road Quality (1–7) –
PNG’s below-average rural accessibility
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
indicates limited connectivity. Poor road people per year)
14.2
conditions and a paved-roads rate of only
3.5 percent exacerbate high traffic-death CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
(MTCO2)
rates.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 55.43 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 23.30
Piped water and sewerage access are low,
Piped Water, Rural (%) 12.80 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 1.0
particularly in rural areas. Moreover, ur-
ban NRW is very high. Sanitation quality Piped Water, Total (%) 18.38 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 3.92
is also poor, as evidenced by a high DALY
rate and low wastewater treatment and TARIFF & COST (PORT MORESBY) TARIFF & COST (PORT MORESBY)
connection.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.43 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.20
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.51 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.24
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.90 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 33.22
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.64 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
1.06
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 10.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 55.55
Water Quality
99.88
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 53
PHILIPPINES
POPULATION 106,651,922 | GDP PER CAPITA US$3,103
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 96.40 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.2
Although access is widespread, and Rural (%) 90.02 T&D Losses (%) 9.1
losses are low, energy consumption per
capita is also very low. This implies that Total (%) 93.00 System Average Interruption
3.6
generation capacity is inadequate to Duration (hours)
meet rapidly increasing demand. Access TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
in rural areas increased significantly in 2.2
Frequency (# per year)
2016, due to the government’s strategic Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.17
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
rural-electrification program. Average Operational Cost of 63.1
– (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 25.41
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.12
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 37
ROAD TRANSPORT
Road-quality surveys show that the
quality of road infrastructure is perceived ACCESS QUALITY
as very poor. Manila, in particular,
Rural Accessibility (%) 64.1 Road Quality (1–7) 3.5
is challenged by heavy congestion.
Although surface conditions have Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
12.3
improved, more than one in four roads people per year)
has a poor surface condition, largely CO2 Emissions (road transport)
30.0
attributable to underinvestment and lack (MTCO2)
of maintenance, especially in rural areas.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 46.81 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 5.72
Quality data from 25 utilities in
Piped Water, Rural (%) 34.26 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 3.04
the IBNET database (2009) shows
reasonable coverage (38 percent of the Piped Water, Total (%) 40.12 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 4.29
urban population) across Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao. Overall, however, the TARIFF & COST (MANILA) TARIFF & COST (MANILA)
country has limited access to water and
sanitation, compared to regional averages. Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.71 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Moreover, the quality of water supplied, Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 1.80 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
and the levels of wastewater treatment are –
Adjusted (US$/m3)
very poor. Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.20 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 63.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 4.1
Non-Revenue Water (%) 25.33
Water Quality
–
(% passing chlorine test)
54 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
SAMOA
POPULATION 196,130 | GDP PER CAPITA US$4,183
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
The electricity sector performs very Rural (%) 96.08 T&D Losses (%) –
well compared to other countries in
the region in terms of access, but tariff Total (%) 96.80 System Average Interruption
35.9
and quality information is limited. Duration (hours)
Government investments are underway TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
to increase solar-energy sourcing. Rural 15.8
Frequency (# per year)
electrification has also seen recent Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) –
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
improvement. Average Operational Cost of –
– (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 30.35
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 34
ROAD TRANSPORT
Targeted investments have increased the ACCESS QUALITY
climate resilience of road infrastructure. Rural Accessibility (%) 31.6 Road Quality (1–7) –
Enhanced Road Access Projects,
supported by both the World Bank and Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
11.3
AusAid, have contributed. In the last people per year)
decade, Samoa has also implemented CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
significant traffic-related regulatory (MTCO2)
changes—most notably switching the
vehicle driving side.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 90.07 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) <1.0
Despite high rates of piped-water access,
Piped Water, Rural (%) 83.73 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
Samoa has the second-highest NRW in
the region. This may be a contributing Piped Water, Total (%) 84.90 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) <1.0
factor to high costs, in addition to
high input costs. There has been slow TARIFF & COST (APIA) TARIFF & COST (APIA)
improvement to the very low rates of
piped-wastewater access. Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.30 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 1.35
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.46 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
2.11
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.27 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.67
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) –
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) –
Non-Revenue Water (%) 50.84
Water Quality
98.84
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 55
SINGAPORE
POPULATION 5,638,676 | GDP PER CAPITA US$64,582
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 6.9
Singapore enjoys full coverage and Rural (%) 100.00 T&D Losses (%) 1.8
reliable supply of electricity across
the island state. Transmission and Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
0.1
distribution losses and service Duration (hours)
interruptions are minimal. TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
0.1
Frequency (# per year)
Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.16
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost of 20.7
0.12 (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 1.82
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 26
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) – Road Quality (1–7) 6.4
Although data is unavailable for the
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
RAI (because the city-state is urban), people per year)
2.8
Singapore has widespread access to
a high-quality roads system, with CO2 Emissions (road transport)
6.7
(MTCO2)
progressive technologies for safety and
traffic control.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) >99.0
Water and sanitation coverage are total
Piped Water, Rural (%) – Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) –
in Singapore. Singapore’s urban water
strategy is well known for its progressive Piped Water, Total (%) >99.0 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) >99.0
approach to water security, conservation,
and use of advanced technologies, TARIFF & COST TARIFF & COST
including water reuse. The corporatized
water and wastewater utility operates at Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
1.25 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.61
a near-total cost recovery level and has Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 1.46 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
the lowest non-revenue water recorded in 0.71
Adjusted (US$/m3)
the region. Operational Expenditure, Water
– Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.22 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 100.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 100.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 5.00
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
56 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
SOLOMON ISLANDS
POPULATION 652,858 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,138
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 73.77 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Despite its small population and Rural (%) 59.59 T&D Losses (%) –
middle-low-income status, the Solomon
Islands suffer from limited supply Total (%) 62.90 System Average Interruption
3.1
and high electricity tariffs. Although Duration (hours)
urban access has improved significantly, TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
there is a need to increase access. Data 1.5
Frequency (# per year)
for most of the quality indicators are Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.89
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
lacking. Average Operational Cost of –
0.26 (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 2.26
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 53
ROAD TRANSPORT
Roads in the Solomon Islands are
scarcely paved and extremely vulnerable
to climate change impacts. With the
country ranked among the ten countries
with the highest vulnerability and
ACCESS QUALITY
exposure to natural disaster risks, the Rural Accessibility (%) 9.3 Road Quality (1–7) –
road infrastructure is vulnerable to
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
serious damage. This is compounded by people per year)
17.4
the lack of routine maintenance. Further,
the mountainous terrain presents an CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
(MTCO2)
additional construction challenge. This
has prompted increased technical support
from development agencies on design
and implementation readiness of the
government’s priority transport projects
as well as on enhancing resilience to
weather hazards and climate change.
ACCESS ACCESS
Piped Water, Urban (%) 70.50 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 22.96
WATER &
Piped Water, Rural (%) 38.88 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 1.98
SANITATION
Piped Water, Total (%) 46.24 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 6.87
Water access, although low, has
improved, but sanitation access indicators
are missing. Levels of NRW are extremely TARIFF & COST (GUADALCANAL PROVINCE) TARIFF & COST (GUADALCANAL PROVINCE)
high, indicating deterioration of Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.37
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.75
Guadalcanal Province’s water-distribution
network. Wastewater treatment is a key Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.75 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.37
area of improvement. Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
2.08 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 503.20
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.37 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
2.61
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 30.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 59.93
Water Quality
75.23
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 57
SRI LANKA
POPULATION 21,670,000 | GDP PER CAPITA US$4,102
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.0
Sri Lanka has above-average electricity Rural (%) 96.99 T&D Losses (%) 7.0
access and a high share of renewables
for production. Sri Lanka has aimed Total (%) 97.54 System Average Interruption
4.0
at 100 percent renewable electricity Duration (hours)
generation by 2050. The cost of TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
renewable energy, in particular wind 3.0
Frequency (# per year)
and solar, has and is expected to Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.14
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
continue to drop, which is expected Average Operational Cost of 9.9
0.12 (MTCO2)
to reduce overall costs of electricity Generation (US$/KWh)
generation and tariff rates. Renewables (%) 48.48
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 100.00
ROAD TRANSPORT
With a lower percentage of paved roads, ACCESS QUALITY
Sri Lanka faces a road-quality challenge. Rural Accessibility (%) 68.7 Road Quality (1–7) 3.8
Although rural accessibility is high, the
aim should be to improve road conditions Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
14.9
and traffic safety. The World Bank is people per year)
working closely with the government on CO2 Emissions (road transport)
10.6
the Transport Connectivity and Asset (MTCO2)
Management Project to improve road
network connectivity and quality.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 73.83 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 12.59
Sri Lanka has poor sanitation-access and
Piped Water, Rural (%) 30.27 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 2.30
wastewater-treatment rates, especially in
rural areas, but its overall DALY rate is Piped Water, Total (%) 38.28 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 4.19
not as high as might be expected. Rural
access to water is also low, and high levels TARIFF & COST (COLOMBO) TARIFF & COST (COLOMBO)
of NRW in Colombo suggest a need to
improve urban networks. Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.09 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.11
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.26 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.33
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.13 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.90 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
–
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 2.5
Non-Revenue Water (%) 24.90
Water Quality
−
(% passing chlorine test)
58 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
THAILAND
POPULATION 69,428,524 | GDP PER CAPITA US$7,274
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 5.2
Thailand has a well-maintained Rural (%) 100.00 T&D Losses (%) 6.2
electricity-generation and distribution
system that provides widespread access Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
0.4
to electricity services. The government Duration (hours)
could turn its focus to reducing tariffs TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
and exploring cost-efficiency options 0.7
Frequency (# per year)
via renewable sources and technological Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.11
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
innovation. Average Operational Cost of 88.2
0.04 (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 8.54
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.08
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 30
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 46.1 Road Quality (1–7) 4.4
In terms of road quality, Thailand has
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
developed a strong infrastructure base people per year)
32.7
with fair quality. Nevertheless, rural road
access and road-traffic safety remain areas CO2 Emissions (road transport)
71.6
(MTCO2)
in need of improvement.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 86.77 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 11.91
Access to piped supply is above the
Piped Water, Rural (%) 54.33 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 5.41
regional average, but access to piped
household sanitation and sewerage- Piped Water, Total (%) 70.29 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 8.61
treatment and connection rates remain
extremely low. There is little data TARIFF & COST (BANGKOK) TARIFF & COST (BANGKOK)
available on the quality of water supplied.
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.25 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.66 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
− Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population −
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 0.62 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.18
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) <1.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) <1.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) –
Water Quality
−
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 59
TIMOR-LESTE
POPULATION 1,267,972 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,036
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
The electricity sector has seen slight Rural (%) 71.89 T&D Losses (%) –
improvement in recent years, with
respect to access. Tariff and quality Total (%) 80.38 System Average Interruption
–
data remain limited. The time needed Duration (hours)
for businesses to acquire power TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
connectivity is higher than the regional –
Frequency (# per year)
average. Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) –
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost of –
– (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 0.00
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 93
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural road accessibility is relatively low. ACCESS QUALITY
Although road-quality data is missing, Rural Accessibility (%) 46.1 Road Quality (1–7) –
high traffic death rates indicate road
condition problems. The government Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
12.7
has affirmed a clear intention to invest in people per year)
improving road connectivity and quality, CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
especially in rural areas. Damages are (MTCO2)
attributed to the poor weather resilience
of current infrastructure.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 82.67 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 18.15
There has been a notable increase in
Piped Water, Rural (%) 56.71 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 8.33
water access. The biggest challenge for
the urban water sector is improving Piped Water, Total (%) 64.55 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 11.30
efficiency. Dili’s master plan and legal
framework for billing and pricing is in TARIFF & COST (DILI) TARIFF & COST (DILI)
progress. Sanitation access remains very
low. There is little utility information Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
– Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) −
available and a high burden of diarrheal Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted – Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
disease. No wastewater tariff or utility −
Adjusted (US$/m3)
operational cost data are available. Tariffs Operational Expenditure, Water
− Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
are established, but the installation Wastewater (US$/population −
of meters and consistency of billing Operational Cost Coverage Ratio − served)
collection is low (ADB, 2015a).
Operational Expenditure, Water
−
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 5.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 6.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) −
Water Quality
−
(% passing chlorine test)
60 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
VANUATU
POPULATION 292,680 | GDP PER CAPITA US$3,124
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 92.67 Electricity Quality (1–7) –
Vanuatu’s low rural electricity access is a Rural (%) 52.74 T&D Losses (%) –
key challenge. The government’s energy
roadmap lists “100% access and 65% Total (%) 62.78 System Average Interruption
7.3
renewable based electricity generation” Duration (hours)
as key targets. TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
5.1
Frequency (# per year)
Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.61
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
Average Operational Cost of –
– (MTCO2)
Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 21.26
Levelized Cost of Energy
–
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 120
ROAD TRANSPORT
Due to the climatic and geographic
features of Vanuatu, road infrastructure
is heavily exposed to climate and natural
disasters. This is compounded by high
sensitivity of the road network to heavy
rainfall, flooding, and landslides due
ACCESS QUALITY
to poor structural characteristics and Rural Accessibility (%) – Road Quality (1–7) –
inadequate road maintenance. Close to
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
90 percent of the network is unsealed, people per year)
15.9
making it frequently impassable during
heavy rain. In addition, much of the road CO2 Emissions (road transport)
–
(MTCO2)
network is situated on the perimeter of
the islands and is extremely vulnerable
to cyclone and storm surges with even
minor sea level increases. For this reason,
a strong focus on climate resilient
transport is needed.
ACCESS ACCESS
Piped Water, Urban (%) 78.47 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 15.23
WATER &
SANITATION Piped Water, Rural (%) 37.25 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) 11.01
Piped Water, Total (%) 47.62 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) 12.07
Access to water is far below the regional
average, although water quality is rated
at 100 percent. Nevertheless, the high TARIFF & COST (PORT VILA) TARIFF & COST (PORT VILA)
diarrheal burden indicates a lack of
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.61 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) –
proper sanitation and a lack of clean
water access in rural areas. Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.63 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
–
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.59 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population –
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.28 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.59
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) –
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) –
Non-Revenue Water (%) 32.28
Water Quality
100.00
(% passing chlorine test)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 61
VIETNAM
POPULATION 95,540,395 | GDP PER CAPITA US$2,567
ACCESS QUALITY
ELECTRICITY Urban (%) 100.00 Electricity Quality (1–7) 4.3
Vietnam has attained nearly universal Rural (%) 100.00 T&D Losses (%) 9.1
access to electricity. However, rapid
growth in demand places a pressure Total (%) 100.00 System Average Interruption
2.1
on increasing capacity, quality, Duration (hours)
and efficiency of the electricity TARIFF & COST System Average Interruption
infrastructure. While average tariff rates 1.6
Frequency (# per year)
are higher than some regional peers, Avg. Tariff (US$/KWh) 0.08
CO2 Emissions (electricity)
continuous tariff reform is necessary to Average Operational Cost of 71.6
– (MTCO2)
keep up the required investment rate. Generation (US$/KWh)
Renewables (%) 36.73
Levelized Cost of Energy
0.17
(US$/KWh) Avg. Time to Connect (days) 31
ACCESS QUALITY
ROAD TRANSPORT
Rural Accessibility (%) 66.7 Road Quality (1–7) 3.2
In terms of roads quality, Vietnam falls
Traffic Deaths (# per 100,000
behind many of its regional neighbors. people per year)
26.4
With heavy usage of motorbikes and
frequent congestion, Vietnam needs CO2 Emissions (road transport)
35.8
(MTCO2)
to concentrate attention on improving
surface conditions and reducing traffic
death rates.
WATER & ACCESS ACCESS
SANITATION Piped Water, Urban (%) 81.00 Piped Sewerage, Urban (%) 1.73
Urban access is fair, but piped sanitation
Piped Water, Rural (%) 22.14 Piped Sewerage, Rural (%) <1.0
services are very limited. Wastewater
treatment and connection scores are also Piped Water, Total (%) 42.87 Piped Sewerage, Total (%) <1.0
very low, although Vietnam has a lower
burden of diarrheal disease. TARIFF & COST (HO CHI MINH CITY) TARIFF & COST (HO CHI MINH CITY)
Water Tariff (US$/m )
3
0.24 Wastewater Tariff (US$/m3) 0.02
Water Tariff, PPP-Adjusted 0.61 Wastewater Tariff, PPP-
0.06
Adjusted (US$/m3)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.23 Operational Expenditure,
and Wastewater (US$/m3)
Wastewater (US$/population 4.07
Operational Cost Coverage Ratio 1.55 served)
Operational Expenditure, Water
0.24
and Wastewater (US$/m3) QUALITY
Wastewater Treatment (%) 10.0
QUALITY
Wastewater Connection (%) 2.0
Non-Revenue Water (%) 23.79
Water Quality
95.95
(% passing chlorine test)
62 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
APPENDICES
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 63
Appendix 1: Infrastructure Data
by Sector and Dimension
ELECTRICITY ACCESS
GROUP COUNTRY ACCESS TO ELECTRICITY (% OF POPULATION)
TOTAL RURAL URBAN
Brunei Darussalam 100.00 100.00 100.00
Japan 100.00 100.00 100.00
EAP High Income Korea 100.00 100.00 100.00
New Zealand 100.00 100.00 100.00
Singapore 100.00 100.00 100.00
Cambodia 89.07 86.09 99.06
China 100.00 99.97 100.00
Indonesia 98.14 95.66 100.00
Lao PDR 93.60 90.51 99.50
Malaysia 100.00 100.00 100.00
East Asia Mongolia 85.87 55.74 99.82
Myanmar 69.81 59.92 92.55
Philippines 93.00 90.02 96.40
Thailand 100.00 100.00 100.00
Timor-Leste 80.38 71.89 100.00
Vietnam 100.00 100.00 100.00
Fiji 96.00 91.06 99.92
Papua New Guinea 54.43 50.42 81.03
Pacific Islands Samoa 96.80 96.08 100.00
Solomon Islands 62.90 59.59 73.77
Vanuatu 62.78 52.74 92.67
Afghanistan 97.70 97.09 99.50
Bangladesh 88.00 81.28 99.50
Bhutan 97.70 96.76 99.10
India 92.62 89.31 99.21
South Asia
Maldives 99.80 99.86 99.70
Nepal 95.51 94.74 98.69
Pakistan 70.79 54.14 100.00
Sri Lanka 97.54 96.99 100.00
Source: Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database, 2020 (using 2017 data). World Bank, International Energy Agency, and the
Energy Sector Management Assistance Program.
64 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ELECTRICITY QUALITY
TRANSMISSION & QUALITY OF SUPPLY AVERAGE TIME
GROUP COUNTRY DISTRIBUTION (1-7, WORST TO CONNECT
LOSS (% OF OUTPUT) TO BEST) (DAYS)
Brunei Darussalam 6.41 5.4 25
Japan 4.31 6.7 81
EAP High Income Korea 3.35 6.4 13
New Zealand 6.54 6.5 58
Singapore 2.03 6.9 26
Cambodia 23.42 3.5 179
China 5.47 5 32
Indonesia 9.40 4.4 32
Lao PDR 12.28 4.8 87
Malaysia 5.79 5.9 24
East Asia Mongolia 14.75 4 79
Myanmar 20.49 – 70
Philippines 9.41 4.2 37
Thailand 6.11 5.2 30
Timor-Leste – – 93
Vietnam 9.29 4.3 31
Fiji – – 81
Papua New Guinea – – 66
Pacific Islands Samoa – – 34
Solomon Islands – – 53
Vanuatu – – 120
Afghanistan 33.00 – 114
Bangladesh 11.40 3.7 125
Bhutan – 5.8 61
India 19.33 4.7 53
South Asia
Maldives – – 75
Nepal 32.21 2.8 49
Pakistan 17.14 2.9 113
Sri Lanka 11.44 4 100
Sources: Electric Power Transmission & Distribution Loss: OECD/IEA, IEA Statistics, 2018 (using 2014 data);
Quality of electricity supply: World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness Index, 2017-2018; and
Average time to connect: World Bank, Doing Business, 2019.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 65
ELECTRICITY QUALITY
SYSTEM AVERAGE SYSTEM AVERAGE INTERRUPTION
INTERRUPTION DURATION FREQUENCY INDEX
GROUP COUNTRY INDEX (AVERAGE NUMBER OF
(AVERAGE HOURS PER INTERRUPTIONS PER CUSTOMER
CUSTOMER PER YEAR) PER YEAR)
Brunei Darussalam 0.4 0.3
Japan (Tokyo) 0.0 0.0
EAP High Income Korea 0.0 0.1
New Zealand 3.8 2.1
Singapore 0.1 0.1
Cambodia 20.8 15.4
China (Beijing) 0.8 0.2
Indonesia (Jakarta) 2.6 2.2
Lao PDR 4.0 22.7
Malaysia 0.5 0.5
East Asia Mongolia 62.0 15.0
Myanmar 30.3 26.4
Philippines 3.6 2.2
Thailand 0.4 0.7
Timor-Leste - -
Vietnam 2.1 1.6
Fiji 5.0 4.7
Papua New Guinea 940.0 500.0
Pacific Islands Samoa 35.9 15.8
Solomon Islands 3.1 1.5
Vanuatu 7.3 5.1
Afghanistan – –
Bangladesh – –
Bhutan 7.1 2.9
India (Delhi) 4.6 2.6
South Asia
Maldives 168.0 2.5
Nepal – –
Pakistan (Karachi) 99.0 90.0
Sri Lanka 4.0 3.0
Note: System Average Interruption Duration is the average total duration of outages over the course of a year for each customer
served, while System Average Interruption Frequency is the average number of service interruptions experienced by a customer in
a year. SAIDI and SAIFI figures are national, except for city-level figures for China (Beijing), India (Delhi), Indonesia (Jakarta), Japan
(Tokyo), and Pakistan (Karachi).
Source: World Bank, Doing Business (2019).
66 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ELECTRICITY QUALITY
RENEWABLE ELECTRICITY
TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS FROM
GENERATION
GROUP COUNTRY ELECTRICITY AND HEAT
(% TOTAL ELECTRICITY
PRODUCTION (MTCO2)
OUTPUT)
Brunei Darussalam 0.05 2.6
Japan 15.98 554.9
EAP High Income Korea 1.89 322.1
New Zealand 80.08 5.1
Singapore 1.82 20.7
Cambodia 46.42 4.1
China 26.00 4618.2
Indonesia 10.65 195.9
Lao PDR 81.00 –
Malaysia 9.96 106.9
East Asia Mongolia 7.00 12.8
Myanmar 58.85 8.1
Philippines 25.41 63.1
Thailand 8.54 88.2
Timor-Leste 0.00 –
Vietnam 36.73 71.6
Fiji 45.02 –
Papua New Guinea 34.53 –
Pacific Islands Samoa 30.35 –
Solomon Islands 2.26 –
Vanuatu 21.26 –
Afghanistan 12.67 –
Bangladesh 1.23 36.9
Bhutan 99.99 -
India 15.34 1100.4
South Asia
Maldives 1.28 –
Nepal 100 0.0
Pakistan 31.43 54.5
Sri Lanka 48.48 9.9
Sources: Renewable electricity generation: All countries except Afghanistan, China, Lao PDR, and Mongolia: OECD/IEA, IEA
Statistics, 2018 (using 2015 data); Afghanistan source: World Bank estimate, based on Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat data,
2020; China source: China Power Industry Statistics Express, 2019; Lao PDR source: Calculated by World Bank Energy Team based
on the MEM consolidated power development projects, 2020; Mongolia source: World Bank Energy team estimate, 2019: CO2
emissions: IEA Statistics, Total CO2 Emissions from Electricity and Heat Production, 2019 (using 2017 data).
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 67
ELECTRICITY TARIFFS AND COSTS
AVERAGE
AVERAGE OPERATIONAL COST LEVELIZED COST OF
GROUP COUNTRY ELECTRICITY TARIFF OF ELECTRICITY ELECTRICITY
(US$/KWH) GENERATION (US$/KWH)
(US$/KWH)
Brunei Darussalam – – –
Japan 0.25 0.05 0.08
EAP High Income Korea 0.10 0.21 0.05
New Zealand – – –
Singapore 0.16 0.12 –
Cambodia 0.19 0.08 –
China 0.10 0.05 0.04
Indonesia 0.09 0.10 0.12
Lao PDR 0.08 0.09 –
Malaysia 0.10 0.06 0.11
East Asia Mongolia 0.06 – –
Myanmar 0.06 0.07 –
Philippines 0.17 – 0.12
Thailand 0.11 0.04 0.08
Timor-Leste – – –
Vietnam 0.08 – 0.17
Fiji – 0.10 –
Papua New Guinea – 0.10-0.12 –
Pacific Islands Samoa – – –
Solomon Islands 0.89 0.26 –
Vanuatu 0.61 – –
Afghanistan 0.10 0.03 –
Bangladesh 0.08 0.07 –
Bhutan 0.04 0.08 –
India 0.09 – 0.09
South Asia
Maldives 0.31 0.30-0.40 –
Nepal 0.09 0.01 –
Pakistan 0.12 0.05 –
Sri Lanka 0.14 0.12 –
Note: Average electricity tariff for all users (US$/KWh) based on $ revenue / total KWh consumed
Sources: Average electricity tariffs: RISE database, various years, except Bhutan, and Singapore, see Appendix 4;
Operational cost of electricity generation, various sources, see Appendix 5;
Levelized cost of energy calculated by authors based on inputs from Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2017) and Lazard (2016).
68 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
WATER SUPPLY ACCESS
PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVED WATER, PIPED
GROUP COUNTRY
(% POPULATION)
TOTAL RURAL URBAN
Brunei Darussalam >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Japan 97.90 – –
EAP High Income Korea 98.79 – –
New Zealand >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Singapore >99.0 – >99.0
Cambodia 26.13 10.87 77.28
China 76.06 53.77 92.22
Indonesia 18.28 13.01 22.66
Lao PDR 49.48 32.28 82.34
Malaysia 94.54 81.20 98.88
East Asia Mongolia 25.13 4.98 34.45
Myanmar 24.55 10.50 56.85
Philippines 40.12 34.26 46.81
Thailand 70.29 54.33 86.77
Timor-Leste 64.55 56.71 82.67
Vietnam 42.87 22.14 81.00
Fiji 86.97 74.32 97.01
Papua New Guinea 18.38 12.80 55.43
Pacific Islands Samoa 84.90 83.73 90.07
Solomon Islands 46.24 38.88 70.50
Vanuatu 47.62 37.25 78.47
Afghanistan 21.67 13.76 45.10
Bangladesh 14.90 2.50 37.08
Bhutan >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
India 43.74 31.53 67.87
South Asia
Maldives 47.80 15.00 98.30
Nepal 47.40 45.51 55.31
Pakistan 28.37 15.25 51.26
Sri Lanka 38.28 30.27 73.83
Note: This measure includes access to improved, piped water sources, sources, shared and on-premises.
Sources: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data).
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 69
WATER QUALITY
QUALITY OF WATER SUPPLIED
GROUP COUNTRY NON-REVENUE WATER (%) (% SAMPLES PASSING ON
RESIDUAL CHLORINE)
Brunei Darussalam – –
Japan 2.74 –
EAP High Income Korea 16.28 –
New Zealand 23.41 n/a
Singapore 5.00 100.00
Cambodia 6.74 100.00
China 20.54 99.60
Indonesia 32.80 –
Lao PDR 29.17 –
Malaysia 34.40 –
East Asia Mongolia 14.44 100.00
Myanmar – –
Philippines 25.33 –
Thailand – –
Timor-Leste – –
Vietnam 23.79 95.95
Fiji 45.06 95.11
Papua New Guinea 55.55 99.98
Pacific Islands Samoa 50.84 98.84
Solomon Islands 59.93 75.23
Vanuatu 32.28 100.00
Afghanistan 41.24 -
Bangladesh 21.56 98.71
Bhutan 33.96 100.00
India 32.90 81.70
South Asia
Maldives – –
Nepal 36.30 86.84
Pakistan 44.00 100.00
Sri Lanka 24.90 –
Note: For Bhutan, China, India, “Quality of water supplied” refers to the percentage of water samples that meet or exceed the
specified potable water standards. For all other countries, this indicator measures the proportion of samples passing residual
chlorine tests. For Philippines, the NRW rate is an average of rates across Manila and Davao. For Singapore, the NRW value refers
to Singapore’s reported rate of ‘Unaccounted-for Water’.
Sources: Various sources and coverage at national or municipal levels, see Appendix 7.
70 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
WATER TARIFFS
TARIFF
GROUP COUNTRY (MUNICIPALITY) TARIFF (US$ PER M3)
(PPP-ADJUSTED US$ PER M3)
Brunei Darussalam
0.08 0.14
(Bandar Seri Begawan)
Japan (Tokyo) 1.03 1.08
EAP High Income
Korea (Seoul) 0.53 0.60
New Zealand (Auckland) 1.09 0.94
Singapore (Singapore) 1.25 1.46
Cambodia (Phnom Penh) 0.15 0.38
China (Shanghai) 0.28 0.50
Indonesia (Jakarta) 0.46 1.23
Lao PDR (Vientiane) 0.19 0.49
Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) 0.13 0.34
East Asia Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar) 0.33 0.91
Myanmar (Yangon) 0.02 0.10
Philippines (Manila) 0.71 1.80
Thailand (Bangkok) 0.25 0.66
Timor-Leste (Dili) – –
Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City) 0.24 0.61
Fiji (Suva) 0.08 0.12
Papua New Guinea
0.43 0.51
(Port Moresby)
Pacific Islands Samoa (Apia) 0.30 0.46
Solomon Islands
0.75 0.75
(Guadalcanal Province)
Vanuatu (Port Vila) 0.61 0.63
Afghanistan (Kabul) 0.34 1.27
Bangladesh (Dhaka) 0.12 0.29
Bhutan (Thimphu City) 0.04 0.11
India (Mumbai) 0.19 0.61
South Asia
Maldives (Male) 3.87 5.80
Nepal (Kathmandu) 0.17 0.47
Pakistan (Karachi) 0.08 0.27
Sri Lanka (Colombo) 0.09 0.26
Note: Water tariffs recorded are for the household tariff block associated with the first 15 m3 consumed in a month.
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 6.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 71
WATER COSTS
OPERATIONAL EX-
OPERATIONAL OPERATIONAL
PENDITURE, WATER &
GROUP COUNTRY EXPENDITURE, WATER COST COVERAGE
WASTEWATER
(US$/M3 WATER SOLD) RATIO
(US$/M3 WATER SOLD)
Brunei Darussalam – – –
Japan – 1.58 –
EAP High Income Korea 0.97 0.61 2.48
New Zealand 0.69 0.69 2.43
Singapore – 1.13 1.22
Cambodia 0.12 0.12 2.57
China 0.43 0.41 0.76
Indonesia – – 1.05
Lao PDR 0.33 – 0.87
Malaysia – – 1.15
East Asia Mongolia 0.56 0.36 0.84
Myanmar – – -
Philippines – – 1.20
Thailand 0.18 – 0.62
Timor-Leste – – –
Vietnam 0.24 0.23 1.55
Fiji 0.80 0.75 0.81
Papua New Guinea 1.06 0.90 1.64
Pacific Islands Samoa 0.67 - 1.27
Solomon Islands 2.61 2.08 1.37
Vanuatu 0.59 0.59 1.28
Afghanistan 0.16 - 1.01
Bangladesh 0.14 0.11 1.33
Bhutan – – 1.75
India – – 0.39
South Asia
Maldives – - –
Nepal 0.17 0.17 1.18
Pakistan 0.15 – 0.43
Sri Lanka – 0.13 0.90
Note: Unit Operational Expenditure, Water & WW (US$/m3 water sold) = total annual operational expenses / total volume of
water sold, and Unit Operational Expenditure, Water (US$/m3 water sold) = annual water service operational expenses / total
volume of water sold. Operational cost coverage is the ratio of total annual operational revenues to total annual operational
expenditures.
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 7.
72 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
SANITATION ACCESS
COUNTRY PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVED SANITATION
GROUP
(MUNICIPALITY) FACILITIES (INCLUDING SHARED) WITH PIPED SEWER CONNECTION (%)
TOTAL RURAL URBAN
Brunei Darussalam 95.29 95.60 95.20
Japan 76.45 – –
EAP High Income Korea >99.0 – –
New Zealand 83.76 – –
Singapore >99.0 – >99.0
Cambodia 14.32 3.43 50.83
China 62.18 38.50 79.36
Indonesia 11.34 13.53 9.52
Lao PDR 1.11 <1.0 1.94
Malaysia 79.18 - -
East Asia Mongolia 21.09 3.11 29.41
Myanmar <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
Philippines 4.29 3.04 5.72
Thailand 8.61 5.41 11.91
Timor-Leste 11.30 8.33 18.15
Vietnam <1.0 <1.0 1.73
Fiji – – –
Papua New Guinea 3.92 1.00 23.30
Pacific Islands Samoa <1.0 <1.0 <1.0
Solomon Islands 6.87 1.98 22.96
Vanuatu 12.07 11.01 15.23
Afghanistan 2.60 <1.0 8.14
Bangladesh 5.24 <1.0 14.36
Bhutan 5.63 1.15 12.30
India 10.56 <1.0 29.55
South Asia
Maldives 60.13 34.24 >99
Nepal 5.13 1.75 19.22
Pakistan 25.23 5.37 59.87
Sri Lanka 4.19 2.30 12.59
Source: WHO / UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene, 2019 (using 2017 data), except
Brunei (2016 data).
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 73
SANITATION ACCESS
PROPORTION OF POPULATION USING IMPROVED
GROUP COUNTRY
SANITATION FACILITIES (INCLUDING SHARED) (%)
TOTAL RURAL URBAN
Brunei Darussalam 96.33 97.34 96.03
Japan >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
EAP High Income Korea >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
New Zealand >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Singapore >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Cambodia 65.70 55.46 >99.0
China 90.74 81.96 97.11
Indonesia 85.37 76.76 92.52
Lao PDR 77.24 66.35 98.03
Malaysia >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
East Asia Mongolia 86.48 65.13 96.36
Myanmar 73.69 67.62 87.62
Philippines 91.42 88.25 95.04
Thailand >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Timor-Leste 62.60 50.32 90.95
Vietnam 87.28 82.07 96.86
Fiji >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Papua New Guinea 15.21 9.14 55.52
Pacific Islands Samoa 98.00 98.00 98.00
Solomon Islands 39.13 21.97 95.64
Vanuatu 68.61 60.88 91.60
Afghanistan 53.24 42.97 83.65
Bangladesh 70.88 64.40 82.46
Bhutan 78.30 72.14 87.48
India 72.05 61.11 93.66
South Asia
Maldives >99.0 >99.0 >99.0
Nepal 75.74 71.92 91.69
Pakistan 70.05 62.92 82.49
Sri Lanka 98.85 >99.0 97.08
Note: Access to improved sanitation includes access to improved sanitation facilities (including shared) such as latrines and
household or shared toilets connected to septic tanks or sewer connections.
Source: WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme, 2019 (using 2017 data).
74 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
SANITATION QUALITY
WASTEWATER WASTEWATER CONNECTION
GROUP COUNTRY TREATMENT RATE RATE (% OF HOUSEHOLDS
(% TREATED) CONNECTED)
Brunei Darussalam – 44.0
Japan 75.8 76.3
EAP High Income Korea 92.1 92.1
New Zealand 82.0 85.6
Singapore 100.0 100.0
Cambodia <1.0 10.0
China <1.0 56.0
Indonesia 1.0 2.5
Lao PDR <1.0 <1.0
Malaysia 61.6 31.8
East Asia Mongolia 10.0 33.0
Myanmar <1.0 <1.0
Philippines 63.0 4.1
Thailand <1.0 <1.0
Timor-Leste 5.0 6.0
Vietnam 10.0 2.0
Fiji 10.0 39.0
Papua New Guinea <1.0 10.0
Pacific Islands Samoa – –
Solomon Islands <1.0 30.0
Vanuatu – –
Afghanistan <1.0 8.0
Bangladesh <1.0 2.0
Bhutan <1.0 10.0
India 19.2 11.7
South Asia
Maldives – <1.0
Nepal <1.0 10.0
Pakistan 1.0 10.0
Sri Lanka <1.0 2.5
Notes: Wastewater treatment rate measures the percentage of collected wastewater treated; wastewater connection rate
measures the percentage connected to wastewater treatment.
Source: Yale University Environmental Performance Index (EPI), 2018 (using 2015 data).
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 75
SANITATION TARIFFS
WASTEWATER TARIFF PPP-ADJUSTED WASTEWATER
GROUP COUNTRY (MUNICIPALITY)
(US$ PER M3) TARIFF (US$ PER M3)
Brunei Darussalam
– –
(Bandar Seri Begawan)
Japan (Tokyo) 0.85 0.89
EAP High Income
Korea (Seoul) 0.29 0.33
New Zealand (Auckland) 2.32 1.93
Singapore (Singapore) 0.61 0.71
Cambodia (Phnom Penh) 0.02 0.02
China (Shanghai) 0.23 0.40
Indonesia (Jakarta) – –
Lao PDR (Vientiane) – –
Malaysia (Kuala Lumpur) 0.05 0.12
East Asia Mongolia (Ulaanbaatar) 0.17 0.48
Myanmar (Yangon) – –
Philippines (Manila) – –
Thailand (Bangkok) – –
Timor-Leste (Dili) – –
Vietnam (Ho Chi Minh City) 0.02 0.06
Fiji (Suva) 0.10 0.16
Papua New Guinea
0.20 0.24
(Port Moresby)
Pacific Islands Samoa (Apia) 1.38 1.88
Solomon Islands
0.35 0.35
(Guadalcanal Province)
Vanuatu (Port Vila) – –
Afghanistan (Kabul) – –
Bangladesh (Dhaka) 0.12 0.29
Bhutan (Thimphu City) – –
India (Mumbai) 0.05 0.17
South Asia
Maldives (Male) – –
Nepal (Kathmandu) 0.08 0.24
Pakistan (Karachi) 0.01 0.03
Sri Lanka (Colombo) 0.11 0.33
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 6.
76 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
SANITATION COSTS
OPERATIONAL EXPENDITURE, WASTEWATER
GROUP COUNTRY
(US$/POPULATION SERVED)
Brunei Darussalam –
Japan –
EAP High Income Korea 38.91
New Zealand 78.37
Singapore –
Cambodia –
China –
Indonesia –
Lao PDR –
Malaysia –
East Asia Mongolia 9.24
Myanmar –
Philippines –
Thailand –
Timor-Leste –
Vietnam 4.07
Fiji 33.07
Papua New Guinea 33.22
Pacific Islands Samoa –
Solomon Islands 503.2
Vanuatu –
Afghanistan –
Bangladesh 4.67
Bhutan –
India
South Asia
Maldives –
Nepal –
Pakistan 2.79
Sri Lanka –
Note: Operational Expenditure, Wastewater (US$/population served) = annual operational wastewater expenses / population
served.
Source: Various sources, see Appendix 7.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 77
ROAD TRANSPORT ACCESS
RURAL ROAD RURAL POPULATION DENSITY
GROUP COUNTRY
ACCESS INDEX (POPULATION PER km2)
Brunei Darussalam – –
Japan 93.30 0.02
EAP High Income Korea 90.88 0.01
New Zealand 85.07 1.85
Singapore – –
Cambodia 38.09 68.06
China 57.37 69.51
Indonesia 47.92 787.58
Lao PDR 31.46 24.27
Malaysia 50.13 106.66
East Asia Mongolia 18.87 6.90
Myanmar 38.34 60.12
Philippines 64.09 198.91
Thailand 46.06 78.90
Timor-Leste 46.08 71.64
Vietnam 66.68 197.71
Fiji – –
Papua New Guinea 11.72 134.02
Pacific Islands Samoa 31.62 57.58
Solomon Islands 9.30 135.49
Vanuatu – –
Afghanistan 20.31 0.12
Bangladesh 47.03 856.32
Bhutan 34.19 16.04
India 42.80 2857.23
South Asia
Maldives 6.52 880.81
Nepal 51.65 135.19
Pakistan 39.89 1238.31
Sri Lanka 68.72 340.20
Source: Mikou, et al, 2019, based on World Bank RAI methodology by Roberts et al, 2006.
78 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ROAD TRANSPORT QUALITY
QUALITY OF ROAD ESTIMATED ROAD TOTAL CO2
INFRASTRUCTURE TRAFFIC DEATH EMISSIONS FROM
GROUP COUNTRY
(1–7, FROM WORST RATE (PER 100,000 ROAD TRANSPORT
TO BEST) POPULATION) (MTCO2)
Brunei Darussalam 4.9 – 1.3
Japan 6.0 4.1 184.2
EAP High Income Korea 5.7 9.8 97.9
New Zealand 4.7 7.8 14.3
Singapore 6.4 2.8 6.7
Cambodia 3.3 17.8 4.5
China 4.6 18.2 726.3
Indonesia 3.9 12.2 124.5
Lao PDR 3.2 16.6 -
Malaysia 5.5 23.6 58.9
East Asia Mongolia 3.1 16.5 1.4
Myanmar – 19.9 4.3
Philippines 3.5 12.3 30.0
Thailand 4.4 32.7 71.6
Timor-Leste – 12.7 -
Vietnam 3.2 26.4 35.8
Fiji – 9.6 –
Papua New Guinea – 14.2 –
Pacific Islands Samoa – 11.3 –
Solomon Islands – 17.4 –
Vanuatu – 15.9 –
Afghanistan – 15.1 –
Bangladesh 3.1 15.3 8.4
Bhutan – 17.4 –
India 4.4 22.6 265.7
South Asia
Maldives – 0.9 –
Nepal 2.6 15.9 4.8
Pakistan 3.9 14.3 52.6
Sri Lanka 3.8 14.9 10.6
Sources: Quality of Road Infrastructure: World Economic Forum, Global Competitiveness Report, 2018;
Road traffic death rate: WHO Global Health Repository, 2019 (using 2016 data);
CO2 emissions from road transport: IEA Statistics, Total CO2 Emissions from Road Transport, 2019 (using 2017 data).
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 79
Appendix 2:
Methodology and Sources
Infrastructure can refer to a wide array of services, including assets that accommodate social services, such as
schools, hospitals, and housing developments, as well as economic infrastructure assets that facilitate trade and
production, including energy, water, and transport. This report focuses on the provision of three key economic
infrastructure sectors: road transport; water and sewerage; and electricity.
Geographically, this report assesses the status of infrastructure services in four sub-regions. High-income regional
benchmark countries are Brunei Darussalam, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, and Korea. These benchmark
countries were selected as points of comparison due to their higher levels of income and proximity to the EAP/
SAR countries being studied. Emerging East Asian countries included in the study are Cambodia, China,
Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Thailand, Timor-Leste, and Vietnam.
South Asian countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri
Lanka. Lastly, the Pacific Islands countries included in this study are Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Samoa, the
Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu. The Pacific Islands sample includes countries in which The World Bank Group
has operational presences; however, because of significant data insufficiencies, some states were not included.
The status of infrastructure in EAP is assessed based on three aspects—access, quality, and tariffs and costs. Data
sources and indicators used for each section are detailed in the remaining appendices. Descriptive statistical
analyses are given at the regional and national levels.
Data Sources and Challenges
Data was sourced from a wide variety of sources, including public data sets; subscription data sets produced by
industry and market-research companies; and government, industry, and company utility reports. These include
statistical and geospatial data drawn from the World Bank; the Asian Development Bank; ASEAN; the United
Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP); U.S. National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) and country data sets; market intelligence for the energy and water sectors;
and open-access map data. Data on access to electricity services and water supply was the most readily available.
Data for road-transport access required geospatial modeling and advanced computational techniques to estimate
the degree of access to paved rural roads, based on open road-map data and population data. Data sources are
described in further detail in Appendices 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Compiling data for tariffs and costs of service required drawing information from numerous sources. In some
cases, data sets covered a number of countries, but with varying degrees of generalizability to the national level.
To make these variations explicit, the coverage of data sources for electricity and water and wastewater tariffs and
costs is described in detail in Appendices 4, 5, 6, and 7.
Although data was available, at least partially, on operational expenditures for electricity and water and sanitation,
data on capital expenditures was grossly insufficient. No readily comparable data sets exist to capture these
kinds of costs across countries. Moreover, capital expenditures are often not publicly and consistently reported
in financial reports or by governments. Similarly, data on road costs at the national level was unavailable, and
estimations of comparable per-kilometer road construction costs are difficult to make, due to high degrees of
variance in road quality, width, materials, and terrain.
80 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
ACCESS DATA
This study uses multiple databases to source access data for electricity, water, and sanitation. Road access data was
generated using geospatial models. The following set of indicators was used to evaluate access of the population
to essential infrastructure services:
SECTOR INDICATOR UNIT OF MEASURE EXPLANATION
Access to electricity Percentage of population (total, rural, urban) with
Electricity % of total population
(total, rural, urban) access to household electricity service.
Percentage of population (total, rural, urban) with
Access to piped water on
Water % of total population access to an improved water source via piped
premises (total, rural, urban)
water on premises.
Access to sewerage connection Percentage of population (total, rural, urban) with
Sanitation % of total population
on premises (total, rural, urban) access to piped household sewer connection.
Percentage of population (total, rural, urban) with
Access to improved sanitation
% of total population access to either household or shared improved
(Total, Rural, Urban)
sanitation.
Percentage of rural population with access (within
Road Transport Rural Access Index (RAI) %
two kilometers) to all-season roads.
Electricity access data was drawn from the World Bank Development Indicator database 2016 update. The
access data draws on country-level reporting to provide the share of the total, urban and rural populations with
access to electricity services. Electrification data are collected from industry, national surveys, and international
sources, and are maintained in the World Bank’s Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database.
Data for water and sanitation access are drawn from the 2017 update to the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation, which collects and publishes an extensive and comprehensive
global dataset on access to water and sanitation. The JMP database collects data about access to improved water
and sanitation facilities, and the share of total, urban and rural populations with access.
Definitions of “access to an improved sanitation facility” capture services that are broader than those particular
to networked infrastructure systems. They include, for example, households with a well, septic tank, or other
non-grid-based access as quality infrastructure. To further narrow the definitions to more accurately reflect the
state of infrastructure, this study also uses data from two JMP sub-indicators (“access to an improved water
source, piped on premise” and “access to improved sanitation facility, to piped sewer system”) to consider
household, grid-based access to water supply and sewerage infrastructure.
The Rural Access Index (RAI) indicators reported are drawn from work by Mikou, et al (2019). The RAI, as
defined by Roberts, et al (2006), measures the proportion of the rural population with access to all-season roads
within a walking distance of two kilometers (typically about 20 to 25 minutes’ walk). All-season roads should be
accessible throughout the year, regardless of seasonality or weather events such as intensive rainfall. Estimating
the RAI with geospatial data requires two kinds of information: the road network and population data. Mikou,
et al, generate updated RAI calculations based on data from open-access sources rather than household surveys.
Mikou, et al, utilize Open Street Map (OSM) road networks to consider road networks in each country. Because
OSM does not contain information on road quality, however, published road classification information is taken
into account to make assumptions about road seasonality. The “all-seasonality” of roads is based on the surface
type and roughness of each road. The RAI calculations take into account paved roads in good and fair condition
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 81
and unpaved roads in good condition as proxies of all-season roads. Because this data is not necessarily available
for OSM across countries, however, the authors classify roads in OSM in four categories: primary, secondary,
tertiary, and tracks. The authors calculate the RAI under the assumption that all-season roads are either: (i)
primary and secondary roads only; (ii) primary, secondary and tertiary roads; and (iii) all roads. They then
compare results to previous RAI estimates as well as the fraction of paved roads provided by the International
Roads Federation and conclude that the best proxies for all-season roads are primary and secondary roads.
The RAI is then calculated by overlaying the roads with the population layer, drawing a buffer around the
roads, and counting the number of people in the buffer (World Bank, 2016a). To estimate the populations
surrounding particular road segments, the authors utilize the WorldPop data set, which provides geocoded
population density data, and is considered the most accurate and robust population-density data set available.
The authors additionally utilize the Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project (GRUMP) dataset for urban-rural
delimitation.
The authors note several limitations to their approach. For one, WorldPop uses roads as a factor to model
population distribution, so endogeneity in the analysis could lead to overestimation of rural access. Moreover,
the “all-seasonality” of road segments must be assumed based on available data, particularly because many
low-income countries lack updated road-network data. OSM classifies roads based on function but does not
provide full information on road quality. In the analysis, the authors classify roads in OSM in four categories
(primary, secondary, tertiary, and tracks) and calculate the RAI assuming that all-season roads include primary
and secondary roads.
Rural population density captures the average population per square kilometer in rural areas of each country.
Calculations use GRUMP data for rural land area for all countries, except the Maldives.8 WorldPop is used
to source 2015 rural population data for all countries except the Maldives and New Zealand. For the latter
countries, rural population is calculated using the percentage of population that is rural, and the total population
of the country, drawing on 2015 World Bank data.
First the GRUMP data was converted to geographic information system (GIS) format-vector data. The GRUMP
dataset is in raster format, consisting of a matrix of cells (pixels) of urban extents (which could include rural
areas). The raster format was converted to polygon format using the “Raster to Polygon” tool. Thereafter, rural
areas could be extracted by using the “Select” tool. To compute the rural areas for each country, country-
boundary data in the GIS format was used along with the “Clip” tool to isolate rural regions. The areas were
then calculated using the “Calculate Geometry” tool.
The WorldPop data set was then used to compute the total rural population for each country. The WorldPop
dataset is in raster format, consisting of a matrix of cells (pixels) with estimated populations. By overlaying each
country’s rural area, the sum of the raster values was calculated using the “Zonal Statistics by Table” tool. The
rural population density was then calculated by dividing the rural population by the rural land area. The unit
is population per square kilometer.
8 Maldives’ rural land area (1995) is retrieved from World Bank data,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.TOTL.RU.K2?end=2010&locations=MV&start=1990&view=chart)
82 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
QUALITY DATA
Data on the quality of services captures measures of reliability and efficiency of infrastructure services and,
in some cases, the quality of the outputs (e.g., water quality). The following indicators were selected for the
purposes of evaluating the quality:
SECTOR INDICATOR UNIT OF MEASURE EXPLANATION
Transmission & distribution Amount of electricity produced that is lost during
%
losses transmission and distribution.
Score (1-7,
Quality of electricity Supply Perceptions of overall electricity supply.
worst to best)
Average time to connect businesses to
Time to Connect Days
electricity services.
Electric power transmission and distribution
Electric-power transmission and
Electricity % of total output losses as a percentage of output to the
distribution losses
transmission-and-distribution system.
System Average Interruption # of interruptions Average frequency (occurrence) of annual
Frequency Index (SAIFI) per year interruptions to electricity services.
System Average Interruption Average days
Average duration of interruptions to service.
Duration Index (SAIDI) per interruption
Percentage of domestic electricity production
Share of renewables %
from renewable energy sources.
Percentage of water that enters the piped
distribution for which revenues are not collected,
Non-revenue water % due to leakages, theft, non-metering, or non-
collection; represents the amount of water
“lost” in the supply system.
Water Percentage of samples passing the residual
chlorine test, which indicates whether sufficient
Water quality % chlorine remains in the water supply after
distribution, to prevent microbial contamin-
ation during transport.
Water service continuity # of hours per day Average daily hours of water service.
Percentage of collected wastewater that is
Wastewater treatment rate %
treated.
Sanitation
Percentage of households connected to a
Wastewater connection rate %
wastewater-treatment facility.
Score (1-7,
Quality of road infrastructure Perceptions of overall road quality.
worst to best)
Road Transport
# per 100,000 Number of road-traffic deaths per 100,000
Annual road-traffic death rate
people per year population per year.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 83
Data on quality of infrastructure services suffers from some general limitations. First, because it is aggregated
at the country level, data does not capture within-country variations, which can be significant. Furthermore,
publicly available data on service-quality issues is largely focused on urban areas and each country’s largest cities.
Therefore, although the indicators used in this chapter reflect the latest available information on the selected
aspects of infrastructure quality in each country, they do not provide granularity with respect to levels of quality
at the subnational level, which may vary significantly. Lastly, the quality of road infrastructure and electricity
services is survey-based and subject to sampling limitations.
Electricity infrastructure quality is captured using several indicators. Electric-power transmission and
distribution (T&D) losses are technical and non-technical losses that are not observed by households. Electric-
power transmission and distribution losses include losses in transmission between sources of supply and points
of distribution, and in the distribution to consumers, including pilferage. Thus, although not a measure of loss
perceived by consumers, it is an important indicator of efficiency within the electricity-distribution system. The
data was drawn from the World Development Indicators, which use information collected by the International
Energy Agency (IEA), which in turn is drawn from national energy agencies.
The System Average Interruption Frequency Index (SAIFI) measures the number of interruptions per customer
per year. It is calculated as a ratio between the number of customer interruptions and the number of total
customers served, measured over the course of a year. Similarly, the System Average Interruption Duration Index
(SAIDI) estimates the average length of service interruptions. SAIFI and SAIDI data are drawn from the World
Bank Doing Business report, which sources information from national regulators for the largest business city in
each economy. There are some limitations with respect to representativeness of the data, because the indicators
cover only the main business city in each economy (as well as the second-biggest city for countries with more
than 100 million residents).
Data regarding the quality of water-infrastructure services comes primarily from the International Benchmarking
Network (IBNET) database. IBNET is the world’s largest database for water and sanitation utilities’ performance,
gathering data for more than 4,000 water utilities in 130 countries. For most countries in the EAP region, the
utilities covered by the database account for approximately 75 percent (or more) of each country’s urban-service
coverage. Although IBNET is one of the most comprehensive utility data sources available for water costs and
quality, some data is outdated. In particular, IBNET data for Indonesia (2004), Malaysia (2007), Singapore
(2008), and the Philippines (2009) required additional research to bring observations up to date (see Appendix
7). It is also important to note that the representativeness of IBNET data at the country level is low in China
(3 percent). Moreover, all data in the IBNET database is self-reported by the participating utilities. These
conditions must be acknowledged in the interpretation of comparative results.
With respect to water quality, non-revenue water (NRW) is a measure of the efficiency and technical health
of the distribution network. NRW represents the water that has been produced by the utility but is “lost”
before it reaches the customer, typically due to leakage; theft through illegal connections; or unmetered legal
connections. A second indicator—the percentage of water samples that pass a residual-chlorine test—is a proxy
for the cleanliness of supplied water with respect to microbial contamination. Residual chlorine is the low level
of chlorine that remains in water after the chemical is applied to decontaminate and safeguard water against
future microbial contamination during transportation to households. Data on NRW and water quality are also
sourced from IBNET. Lastly, water-service continuity measures the average number of hours per day that a
piped water system is reliably supplying water to customers.
Sanitation quality is proxied by measures of overall system hygiene (an indicator of waste management and
84 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
wastewater-treatment quality) and wastewater treatment. First, the diarrheal disability-adjusted life years
(DALY) per 100,000 people accounts for years of life lost (due to disability or early death) because of diarrhea.
One DALY can be thought of as one lost year of “healthy” life. Therefore, a low DALY count reflects safe
water, sanitation, and hygiene conditions in the country. Data is drawn from WHO Global Health Estimates.
The diarrheal DALY does not solely capture the prevalence of the disease caused by poor sanitation access or
quality; it may also be affected by cultural or behavioral norms. Nevertheless, the indicator reflects the severity
of problems associated with the presence of human waste in the water supply and in the built environment that
lead to diarrheal incidences.
Second, the report assesses levels of wastewater treatment, drawing on Yale University’s 2018 Environmental
Performance Index report. The wastewater-treatment rate captures the percentage of wastewater collected that
receives treatment, and the wastewater connection rate captures the percentage of households connected to a
wastewater-treatment system. The variables capture five-year averages for each country. The original values used
to calculate these variables are collected from a variety of sources, including country-level statistics; OECD data;
UN Statistics Division data; secondary treatment levels from the Pinsent Masons Water Yearbook; and FAO-
AQUASTAT values. This variety of sources may limit comparability across countries.
With respect to road-transport quality, the World Economic Forum’s Global Competitiveness Report (2018)
provides national-level perceptions data on the quality of road infrastructure, with measurement from 1 to 7
(worst to best). Data was collected via an extensive survey of industry experts, who were asked, “In your country,
how is the quality (extensiveness and condition) of road infrastructure?” Additionally, some information to
provide context is available from the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia (UNESCAP) Asian
Highway Database, which records country-reported assessments of the quality of Asian Highway Network
(AHN) roads as “good,” “fair,” or “poor,” as well as from the ASEAN-Japan Transport Partnership, which
records the percentage of paved roads of the overall road network of ASEAN states. This data is self-reported
annually by member states.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 85
TARIFF AND COST DATA
Despite data limitations, this report presents information at the national and municipal levels on tariffs, costs of
production, and rates of cost recovery.
SECTOR INDICATOR UNIT OF MEASURE EXPLANATION
The average retail electricity tariff across all tariff
Average electricity tariff 2016 US$/kWh blocks and consumer types, calculated as total
collected revenues divided by total kWh sold.
Operational cost of generating Average operational cost of generating
2017 US$/kWh
electricity electricity.
Electricity
Unit cost of producing 1 kWh, calculated using
data from the energy mix for each country by
Levelized cost of energy 2016 US$/kWh source of production (e.g., solar, hydro-electric,
coal, etc.) and the unitary costs of electricity
production for each type of input.
Water tariff for consumption Water tariff for a block of monthly consumption
2016 US$/m3
block of 15m3, largest city of 15m3 for the largest city in the country.
PPP-adjusted water tariff for Water tariff for a block of monthly consumption of
2016 US$/m3,
consumption block of 15m3, 15m3 for the largest city in the country, adjusted
adjusted for PPP
largest city for purchasing power parity (PPP).
Water utilities’ operating expenditure coverage
Water ratio represents the extent to which a utility’s rev-
Operating expenditure cover- enues cover its basic operating and maintenance
Ratio score
age ratio costs. It is a measure of total annual operational
revenues divided by total annual operating
expenditure.
Operating costs of producing and distributing
Operating expenditure, com- US$/m3
water and, where applicable, collecting and
bined water and wastewater (various years)
treating wastewater.
Wastewater collection and treatment tariff for
a block of monthly consumption of 15m3 for
Road Transport Wastewater tariff 2016 US$/m3
the largest city in the country, adjusted for
purchasing power parity.
For the electricity sector, data on residential tariffs and operational costs for some countries are extracted from
the Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy (RISE) database, which is the most comprehensive World Bank
database on energy. Electricity tariffs are recorded for a benchmark subsistence electricity consumption of 30
KWh/month in 2016 US$. Average unitary operational costs provided by the RISE database are representative
of the operational costs for electricity generation in the year 2014, for the largest utility in the largest business
city of each country, and do not include the operational costs of transmission and distribution. For countries
whose tariffs and operational costs were not included in the RISE database, country-specific research was carried
out to extract relevant data from the publicly available information of the major electricity utility of the country’s
capital city. The complete list of countries covered by the RISE database, as well as by other sources, is presented
in Appendix 4.
For review of cost-recovery levels, this report draws on the average retail electricity tariffs and levelized costs
of energy (LCOE), as calculated based on inputs from Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF) (2017) and
Lazard (2016). The LCOE is internationally recognized as the closest measure to the full cost of producing
86 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
one unit of energy. The LCOE model is based on a pro-forma, project-finance schedule, which runs through
the full accounting of the project based on a set of project inputs, including capital expenses, capacity factors,
fixed operations, and management (O&M) expenses; debt ratio; and the cost of equity. For each country, the
LCOEs (in 2017 US$/KWh) for each fuel technology are considered to determine a country-wide average cost
of producing electricity (per KWh). To calculate these values, the Levelized Costs of Energy (LCOE) for Coal,
Gas, and Renewables were taken from Bloomberg New Energy Finance and Lazard. The share (%) of each
technology in the electricity mix was taken from the 2017 World Bank World Development indicators, Sources
of Electricity Production (2014 data). The LCOE calculations, weighted by technology and considering the
energy mix, are based on the following formula: LCOE_Coal * %Coal + LCOE_NGas * %NGas + LCOE_
Ren* %Ren + LCOE_Oil * %Oil. Since LCOEs are expressed in MWh, values are transformed into KWh.
The share of renewables has been further weighed, taking into account the country-specific data of electricity
generation by renewables technology from the International Energy Agency’s (IEA’s) IEA Energy Atlas. Finally,
LCOE figures are compared to the average electricity tariff, in order to estimate the extent of cost recovery for
electricity generation for the six EAP countries for which LCOE data were readily available.
Data on tariffs, operational costs, and operational-cost coverage ratios were collected separately for water and
wastewater (used as a proxy for sanitation). Unfortunately, tariff data were available only for a subset of utilities.
Because there are no reliable, up-to-date data sets available that measure average water tariffs at the national
level across countries, data are not representative of a country’s average rates. It is also important to note that
water tariffs do not necessarily immediately reveal the relative performance of utilities, because tariff rates are a
function of geography and proximity to reliable, quality water resources; tariff policy; efficiency of operations;
the geography of distribution; and the costs of inputs. Taking these limitations into account, this report compares
municipal-level tariffs in the largest cities (by population) for each country, for informational purposes.
The main sources of data are the IBNET database, supported by the World Bank since 1997, and Global Water
Intelligence (GWI), a water-market intelligence company. Water-supply tariff data are available at the municipal
level, with the latest data available from Global Water Intelligence in 2016. For countries not included in the
GWI and IBNET databases, country-specific research was conducted to extract the relevant data from reports
or websites of major water-utility companies. Water tariff and cost data also face limitations due to age and
representativeness (see Appendices 6 and 7).
Water-supply tariffs for 2016 are reported for the largest cities in each country, for tariff blocks at the subsistence
level of 15m3 per month, in 2016 US$. Data on wastewater tariffs, operating costs, and operating-cost
coverage ratios (OCCRs) are gathered from the IBNET tariffs database (for wastewater tariffs) and the IBNET
benchmarking database (for water and wastewater operational costs). The OCCR represents the extent to which
a utility covers its basic operating and maintenance costs by its revenues and is a measure of total annual
operational revenues divided by total annual operating costs. Although this measure does not fully assess cost
recovery (which would require consideration of capital expenditures), it remains a valuable measure of the
extent to which operating costs are met by collected revenues. OCCR figures are the result of a weighted average
of all water utilities covered by the IBNET database for each country and can be considered representative of
the majority of the urban population.
Because the IBNET figures are based on self-reported data from water utilities, the data presented for each
country represents different numbers of utilities and population coverage for each country. Most countries have
data representing at least 60 percent of the country’s total urban population, suggesting a relatively high level of
representativeness for urban services. Those that do not are noted in Appendix 6.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 87
Appendix 3: References
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https://www.oecd.org/countries/bhutan/47177609.pdf
ADB, 2018. Mongolia: Development of Road Safety Policy and Action Plan, Volume II: Appendix 3.
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/project-documents/49139/49139-001-tacr-en_2.pdf
Bhalla, M.S. 2000. Transmission and Distribution Losses (Power). New Delhi: The Energy and
Resources Institute (TERI). http://www.teriin.org/upfiles/pub/papers/ft33.pdf.
Brovelli, M. A., M. Minghini, M. E. Molinari, and G. Zamboni. 2016. “Positional Accuracy
Assessment of The Openstreetmap Buildings Layer Through Automatic Homologous
Pairs Detection: The Method and a Case Study.” ISPRS - International Archives of the
Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences XLI-B2 (June 8): 615–20.
doi: 10.5194/isprsarchives-XLI-B2-615-2016.
Cambodia Chamber of Commerce. 2015. “Cambodia – In Depth Study on Electricity Cost and
Supplies March 2015 Final Report.”
http://www.seac-cambodia.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Cambodia-in-depth-study-on-
electricity-cost-and-supplies-Final-Report.pdf.
Chian, Koh Wee. 2014. “A New Electricity Tariff in Brunei Darussalam: Welfare Implications for
Households.” Journal of Southeast Asian Economies (JSEAE), 31 (2): 276-291.
https://muse.jhu.edu/.
EDL 2018. EDL Statistic Report 2018.
http://www.edl.com.la/ckfinder/userfiles/files/Statistic/Statistic%20Report%202018.pdf
El-Ashmawy, Khalid L. A. 2016. “Testing the Positional Accuracy of OpenStreetMap
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10.3846/20296991.2016.1160493.
Fukubayashi, Y. and M. Kimura. 2014. “Improvement of rural access roads in developing
countries with initiative for self-reliance of communities.” Soils and Foundations, 54 (1): 23-35.
Global Water Intelligence. 2017. Global Water Report. GWI Database.
GRUMP. nd. file://localhost/Retrieved from http/::sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu:data:set:grump-v1-
urban-extents.
Hsu, A. et al. 2015. “Environmental Performance Index.” New Haven, CT: Yale University.
http://www.epi.yale.edu.
Iimi, Atshushi, Farhad Ahmed, Edward Charles Anderson, Adam Stone Diehl, Laban Maiyo,
Tatiana Peralta-Quiros, and Kulwinder-Singh Rao. 2016. “New Rural Access Index : Main
Determinants and Correlation to Poverty.” Policy Research Working Papers, World Bank
Group.
88 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
International Benchmarking Network (IBNET). Benchmarking Database.
http://www.database.ib-net.org/DefaultNew.aspx.
International Benchmarking Network (IBNET). Tariff Database. http://www.tariffs.ib-net.org.
International Energy Agency, 2019. “Total CO2 Emissions from Electricity and Heat
Production.” IEA Statistics.
International Energy Agency, 2019. “Total CO2 Emissions from Road Transport.” IEA Statistics.
JICA. 2015. “The Project for the Improvement of Water Supply, Sewerage and Drainage System
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Lazard. 2016. “Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis 10.0.”
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Maynilad Water. 2017. “Customers FAQ.”
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McKinsey Global Institute. 2016. Bridging Global Infrastructure Gaps. McKinsey & Company.
http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/capital-projects-and-infrastructure/our-insights/
bridging-global-infrastructure-gaps.
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority. 2017. “Tariffs and Services, New Connections.”
https://www.mwa.co.th/ewt_news.php?nid=301.
Mikou, M., J. Rozenberg, E. Koks, C. Fox, and T. Quintos. 2019. Assessing rural accessibility and
rural roads investment needs using open source data. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/759461550242864626/Assessing-Rural-
Accessibility-and-Rural-Roads-Investment-Needs-Using-Open-Source-Data.
Nam, Kee-Yung, Maria Rowena Cham and Paulo Rodelio Halili. 2015. “Power Sector
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adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/175801/ewp-460.pdf.
OECD and International Energy Agency. 2018. IEA Statistics 2018. https://data.worldbank.
org/indicator/EG.ELC.LOSS.ZS
OpenStreetMap. 2017. OpenStreetMap Wiki. https://wiki.openstreetmap.org/wiki/Main_Page.
Palyja. 2017. “Jakarta West, New Connection Information.”
http://palyja.co.id/en/new-connection-info.
PNG Power Ltd. 2016. “Planned Outages.” http://www.pngpower.com.pg/outages/planned.
Roberts, P., Shyam KC and Cordula Rastogi. 2006. Rural Access Index: A Key Development
Indicator. Washington, DC: World Bank.
SP Group, 2020. Q1 2020 Tariff Rates explanation.
https://www.spgroup.com.sg/what-we-do/billing
Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All). 2019. http://datatopics.worldbank.org/sum4all/home.
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 89
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific. 2015. Asian Highway
Database. http://www.unescap.org/our-work/transport/asian-highway/database.
World Bank Group. 2016. Measuring rural access : Using new technologies. Washington DC:
World Bank Group.
World Bank Group. 2018. Regulatory Indicators for Sustainable Energy (RISE) Database.
http://rise.esmap.org.
World Bank. 2019. Population data. Data sourced from United Nations Population Division,
World Population Prospects: 2019 Revision; Census reports and other statistical publications
from national statistical offices; Eurostat: Demographic Statistics, United Nations Statistical
Division; Population and Vital Statistics Report (various years), U.S. Census Bureau
International Database, and Secretariat of the Pacific Community Statistics and Demography
Programme. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL
World Bank, Doing Business. 2019. Doing Business 2019, Getting Electricity.
https://www.doingbusiness.org/en/data/exploretopics/getting-electricity
World Bank national accounts data and OECD National Accounts data files. 2018.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD
World Bank, Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) database. 2020. World Bank, International
Energy Agency, and the Energy Sector Management Assistance Program.
http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/3.13#
World Economic Forum. 2018. Global Competitiveness Index, 2017-2018,
http://reports.weforum.org/global-competitiveness-index-2017-2018/competitiveness-
rankings/#series=EOSQ064
World Health Organization and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water
Supply and Sanitation. 2019. Progress on Household Drinking Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene
2000-2017.
https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/jmp-2019-full-report.pdf
World Health Organization. 2019. Road traffic deaths data by country. Global Health
Observatory data repository. https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.A997?lang=en
90 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
Appendix 4: Electricity Tariff Sources
The following is a list of sources for average electricity tariffs across all user groups (US$/KWh). Values are
calculated based on the total revenues divided by total capacity sold.
COUNTRY SOURCE/YEAR
Afghanistan RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Bangladesh RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
ADB, 2010. Bhutan: Energy Sector Evaluation Study.
Bhutan
https://www.oecd.org/countries/bhutan/47177609.pdf
Cambodia RISE database, 2017 (using 2013 data)
China RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
India RISE database, 2017 (using 2012 data)
Indonesia RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Japan RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Korea RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Lao PDR RISE database, 2017 (using 2013 data)
Malaysia RISE database, 2017 (using 2013 data)
Maldives RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Mongolia RISE database, 2017 (using 2013 data)
Myanmar RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Nepal RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Pakistan RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Philippines RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
SP Group, 2020. Q1 2020 Tariff Rates explanation.
Singapore
https://www.spgroup.com.sg/what-we-do/billing
Solomon Islands RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Sri Lanka RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Thailand RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Vanuatu RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Vietnam RISE database, 2017 (using 2014 data)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 91
Appendix 5. Operational Costs of
Electricity Generation Sources
The following is a list of sources, regions of source coverage, and specific utility sources (where applicable) for
average operational cost of electricity generation (US$/KWh). Because definitions and approaches to calculation
differ somewhat across sources, specific terms included the each source are also specified.
COUNTRY REGION UTILITY SOURCE/YEAR SOURCE COST DEFINITION
DABS Da World Bank estimate for average cost of
Average operational cost of
Afghanistan National average Afghanistan electricity generation (domestic), based on Da
electricity generation
Breshna Sherkat Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat data. 2020
National average
Bangladesh BPDB Annual Report 2016-17 (using 2016 data).
(majority
Power http://www.bpdb.gov.bd/bpdb_new/resourcefile/
Bangladesh of national Per unit generation cost
Development annualreports/annualreport_1542104191_Annual_
coverage and all
Board Report_2017-18_2.pdf
urban areas)
Unsubsidized cost of supply
Druk Green
per unit of electricity to
Power Druk Green Power Corporation, 2020.
residential consumer; recorded
Bhutan National average Corporation and https://www.drukgreen.bt/domestic-power-tariff-
generation cost includes
Bhutan Power revision-proposed/
financing cost, returns on
Corporation
equity and operational costs.
World Bank, 2017. ESMAP: Mini Grids in
Cambodia - Case Study of a Success Story.
World Bank
Cambodia National average http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ Average cost of generation
ESMAP report
en/143871512392218868/pdf/ESM-bCambodiaM
iniGridsCaseStudyConfEd-PUBLIC.pdf
Huadian Energy, 2017. 2017 Annual Report,
Estimated average cost of
http://static.sse.com.cn/disclosure/listedinfo/
generation estimate based on
China Beijing Huadian Energy announcement/c/2018-04-26/600726_2017_n.
recorded expenditures and
pdf; Comments: 6.759 LCU per 2017 USD; total
total power generation
power generation - 23.828 billion kwh
Estimated cost of generation
Fiji Electricity Authority, 2016. 2016 Annual based on total generated
Fiji Electricity
Fiji National average Report, http://efl.com.fj/wp-content/ output, generation
Authority
uploads/2017/08/fea-annual-report-2016.pdf expenditure including thermal
and IDO fuel expenditures
India – – – –
PWC, 2017. Power in Indonesia 2017 (using
2016 data). https://www.pwc.com/id/en/energy- Estimated average electricity
Indonesia National average –
utilities-mining/assets/power/power-guide-2017. supply cost
pdf
Electricity unit cost based
Institute of Energy Economics, Japan, 2017. on sum of fuel cost, FIT
Japan Tokyo – Economic and Energy Outlook of Japan through purchasing cost, and grid
FY2018. https://eneken.ieej.or.jp/data/7532.pdf stabilising cost divided by total
generation
PWC, 2016 (using 2015 data). Enhancing Financial
Sustainability of the Power Sector in Laos and
Lao PDR National average – Average cost of supply
Developing a Suitable Tariff Regime: Task 1
Report, internal communication.
92 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
COUNTRY REGION UTILITY SOURCE/YEAR SOURCE COST DEFINITION
Estimated generation cost
Tenga Nasional Berhad, 2017. TNB Annual Report based on operating costs
Tenga Nasional
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 2017. https://www.tnb.com.my/assets/annual_ (excluding transmission
Berhad
report/TNB_Annual_Report_2017.pdf and distribution costs) and
recorded KWh sold
State Electric World Bank, 2015. PID: Small Island ASPIRE
Company Supplement. http://documents.worldbank.org/ Average cost of electricity
Maldives National average
Limited curated/en/534201468263694275/pdf/SG-PRW- generation
(STELCO) PID-CP-P155126-07-24-2015-1437756406859.pdf
Mongolia – – – –
EuroCHAM Myanmar, 2018. Energy Guide
Yangon Estimate based on range of
2018. https://www.ccifrance-myanmar.org/
Myanmar Yangon Electricity Supply average costs of generation for
sites/ccifrance-myanmar.org/files/resources-
Corporation hydropower and gas
documents/energy_guide_2018.pdf
Nepal Electricity Nepal Electric Authority, 2019. 2019 Annual Estimate based on generation
Nepal National average
Authority Report. http://www.nea.org.np/annual_report operating costs and KWh sold
Pakistan Today, 2017. https://profit.pakistantoday.
Karachi Electric
com.pk/2017/11/22/induction-of-new-power- Average electricity generation
Pakistan Karachi Supply Company
plants-electricity-generation-cost-jacks-up-to- cost
Limited
24pc/
The World Bank, 2017. PNG Electrification
Project - Project Information Document.
Papua New Average electricity generation
National average PNG Power http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/
Guinea cost
en/271221492070865535/pdf/ITM00184
-P159840-04-13-2017-1492070863300.pdf
Energy Cost (paid to the
SP Group, 2020. Q1 2020 Tariff Rates explanation.
Singapore Singapore SP Group generation companies) per
https://www.spgroup.com.sg/what-we-do/billing
KWh
Solomon Islands Solomon Power, 2018. Annual Report 2018.
Solomon Estimate based on generation
Honiara Electricity http://solomonpower.com.sb/about-us/annual-
Islands cost per KWh
Authority reports/
Ceylon Electricity Board, 2018. Statistical Digest
Ceylon Electricity Estimate based on average
Sri Lanka National average 2018. https://www.ceb.lk/front_img/img_
Board (CEB) cost per unit at selling point
reports/1567487133Statistical_Digest_2018.pdf
National average Electricity
Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand,
for operator Generation Estimate based on operational
2017. Annual Report 2017. http://www.egat.
Thailand supplying 37% Authority costs of generation and fuel
co.th/en/images/annual-report/2017/egat-annual-
of nation's (includes MEA inputs for electricity generation
eng-2017.pdf
electricity and PEA)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 93
Appendix 6. Water and
Wastewater Tariff Sources
The following is a list of input sources and municipalities associated with the retail water tariffs (US$/m3) for
the consumption band of 15 m3 per month and wastewater tariffs (US$/m3)
COUNTRY MUNICIPALITY UTILITY / AUTHORITY SOURCE / YEAR
Afghan Water Supply and Sewerage World Bank estimate based on local
Afghanistan Kabul
Corporation utility data (2020)
Dhaka Water Supply and Sewerage
Bangladesh Dhaka GWI database (2017)
Authority
Bhutan Thimphu City Thimphu City Corporation GWI database (2017)
Brunei Darussalam Bandar Seri Begawan Jabatan Perkhidmatan Air GWI database (2017)
Cambodia Phnom Penh Phnom Penh Water Authority GWI database (2017)
China Shanghai Shanghai Water Supply Company GWI database (2017)
Fiji Suva Water Authority of Fiji IBNET database (2017 data)
India Mumbai Municipal Corporation of Greater Mumbai GWI database (2017)
Indonesia Jakarta Palyja GWI database (2017)
Japan Tokyo Bureau of Waterworks Tokyo GWI database (2017)
Korea Seoul Arisu GWI database (2017 )
Lao PDR Vientiane Nampapa Nakhone Luang IBNET database (2018 data)
SYABAS (water) and Indah Water (sewer-
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur GWI database (2017)
age)
Maldives Male Maldives Water and Sanitation Company IBNET database (2015 data)
Water Supply and Sewerage Authority of
Mongolia Ulaanbaatar GWI database (2017)
Ulaanbaatar
94 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
COUNTRY MUNICIPALITY UTILITY / AUTHORITY SOURCE / YEAR
Myanmar Yangon Yangon City Development Committee IBNET database (2020 data)
Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited
Nepal Kathmandu GWI database (2017)
(KUKL)
New Zealand Auckland Watercare GWI database (2017)
Karachi Water and Sewerage Board
Pakistan Karachi GWI database (2017)
(KWSB)
Papua New Guinea Port Moresby Eda Ranu Water and Sewerage Company GWI database (2017)
Maynilad Water Service Inc, Manila Water
Philippines Manila GWI database (2017)
Company
Samoa Water Authority, 2020. Wa-
ter & Wastewater Tariffs. https://
Samoa Apia Samoa Water Authority (SWA)
www.samoawaterauthority.ws/
tariffs
Singapore Singapore Public Utility Board (PUB) GWI database (2017)
Solomon Islands Guadacanal Province Solomon Islands Water Authority IBNET database (2016 data)
National Water Supply and Drainage
Sri Lanka Colombo GWI database (2017)
Board
Thailand Bangkok Metropolitan Waterworks Authority GWI database (2017)
Timor-Leste – – –
Vanuatu Port Vila Unelco Vanuatu IBNET database (2019 data)
Vietnam Ho Chi Minh City Ho Chi Minh City Water Company GWI database (2017)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 95
Appendix 7: Water Quality and
Expenditure Sources
The following is a list of sources for Non-Revenue Water (%); Quality of Water Supplied (% samples passing
on residual chlorine); Operational Expenditure, Water & Wastewater (US$/m3 water sold); Operational
Expenditure, Water (US$/m3 water sold); Operating Cost Coverage (ratio); and Operational Expenditure,
Wastewater (US$/population served).
% URBAN
# UTILITIES IB-
COUNTRY POPULATION SOURCES
NET DATABASE
COVERED BY IBNET
Afghanistan 1 21% IBNET Benchmarking database (2013 data)
Bangladesh 47 42% IBNET Benchmarking database (2017 data)
Annual Performance Report, 2017, Thimphu Thomde. http://
Bhutan n/a n/a
www.thimphucity.bt/counter/direct_download/427
Cambodia 1 66% IBNET Benchmarking database (2013 data)
China 42 3% IBNET Benchmarking database (2012 data)
Fiji 1 63% IBNET Benchmarking database (2018 data)
Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India. 2011. Ser-
vice Levels in Urban Water and Sanitation Sector Status Report,
2010-2011. National averages for non-revenue water, quality,
India n/a n/a and cost coverage.
https://smartnet.niua.org/sites/default/files/resources/SLB%20
Service%20Levels%20in%20Urban%20Water%20and%20Sanita-
tion%20%282010-11%29.pdf
Indonesia n/a n/a KPI for Indonesia Water Utilities, direct communication, 2017
Operational expenditure data source: Japan Water Works Asso-
Japan n/a n/a ciation (2016). Water Supply in Japan 2016. Tokyo, Japan. http://
www.jwwa.or.jp/jigyou/kaigai_file/2016WaterSupplyInJapan.pdf
Korea 161 100% IBNET Benchmarking database (2014 data)
Lao PDR 1 20% IBNET Benchmarking database (2016 data)
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology, and Water, 2020 (2015-
Malaysia n/a n/a 2016 data). http://www.data.gov.my/data/en_US/dataset/
non-revenue-water
Mongolia 1 48% IBNET Benchmarking database (2017 data)
IBNET Benchmarking database (2015 data); except wastewater
Nepal 26 60%
expenditure (2017 data)
96 • Infrastructure in Asia and the Pacific
% URBAN
# UTILITIES IB-
COUNTRY POPULATION SOURCES
NET DATABASE
COVERED BY IBNET
New Zealand 51 99% IBNET Benchmarking database (2018 data)
IBNET Benchmarking database (2016 data); except wastewater
Pakistan 1 9%
expenditure (2012 data)
Papua New
2 89% IBNET Benchmarking database (2018 data)
Guinea
World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, 2015. Water Supply
and Sanitation in the Philippines: Turning Finance into Services
Philippines n/a n/a for the Future. https://www.wsp.org/sites/wsp/files/publications/
WSP-Philippines-WSS-Turning-Finance-into-Service-for-the-Fu-
ture.pdf
Samoa 1 >99% IBNET Benchmarking database (2018 data)
Singapore Public Utilities Board, 2018. Annual Report
2017/2018. https://www.pub.gov.sg/Documents/annualre-
port2018.pdf; Unaccounted-for water value from Government
Singapore n/a n/a of Singapore, 2015 https://blog.data.gov.sg/hidden-data-sto-
ries-unaccounted-for-water-e5523c4c6058; Data for operational
expenditure from Public Utilities Board, 2018 https://www.pub.
gov.sg/Documents/Dom_Usave_EngChi.pdf
Solomon
1 53% IBNET Benchmarking database (2019 data)
Islands
NRW, OCCR: Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2018. Annual Report
2018. https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_doc-
uments/publications/annual_report/2018/en/7_Chapter_03.
Sri Lanka n/a n/a
pdf; Unit Operational Expenditure based on estimates from
Dharmaratna and Parasnisand, 2012. https://globalwaterforum.
org/2012/09/22/the-cost-structure-of-water-supply-in-sri-lanka/
Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (2017). “Annual Report
Thailand n/a n/a
2017.” Bangkok
Vanuatu 2 80% IBNET Benchmarking database (2018 data)
Vietnam 75 97% IBNET Benchmarking database (2015 data)
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 97
Photo Credits
Cover photo by Mariusz Kluzniak / CC BY
Pages 4–5 photo by Roy Luck / CC BY
Page 35 photo by Sergei Gussev
Pages 64–65 photo by Asian Development Bank / CC BY ND
Road Transport, Electricity, and Water & Sanitation Services • 3
June 2020