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ISBN: 978-1-7341533-1-6 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION Toward Sustainable Mobility UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS.....................................................................................................................................VII FOREWORD.....................................................................................................................................................1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...................................................................................................................................2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................3 1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................4 1.1.  The goal of rural access....................................................................................................................................... 4 2.  THE STATE OF PLAY................................................................................................................8 3.  LEGAL AND REGULATORY AGREEMENTS............................................................................12 4.  CATALOGUE OF MEASURES.................................................................................................13 4.1.  Regulatory and Institutional toolbox................................................................................................................15 4.2.  Engineering and Technology toolbox.............................................................................................................16 4.3.  Economic and Finance toolbox........................................................................................................................19 4.4.  Communications toolbox..................................................................................................................................22 5.  THE COUNTRY EXPERIENCES..............................................................................................23 6.  THE GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION...................................................................................27 7.  SCALE OF THE CHALLENGE..................................................................................................32 ANNEX A. RURAL ACCESS TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS...................................................................35 ANNEX B. COUNTRY GOOD PRACTICE EXAMPLES................................................................................36 ANNEX C. LIST OF POLICY MEASURES......................................................................................................54 List of Figures Figure 1.1: Cost and Complexity of Rural Access Interventions............................................................................. 7 Figure 2.1: Rural Access Index versus log GDP Per Capita..................................................................................... 8 Figure 2.2: Under-Five Mortality Rate versus Rural Access Index........................................................................... 8 Figure 2.3: Rural Access Index by regions of the World.......................................................................................... 9 v Figure 2.4: Scatterplot of Rural Access Index vis-à-vis GDP per capita by Country ..........................................10 Figure 6.2: Global Roadmap: Interventions by Country Group...........................................................................31 List of Tables Table 2.1: Attributes of Four Country Groups for Rural Access............................................................................10 Table 4.1:. Summary of Catalogue of Measures.....................................................................................................13 Table 5.1: Summary of Country Experience Based on Case Examples...............................................................23 Table 6.1: Overview of Global Roadmap of Action................................................................................................27 Table I.1: Policy Measures with Description ...........................................................................................................54 vi UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY LIST OF ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank AFCAP Africa Community Access Partnership BMZ German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development CBOs Community Based Organizations CCB County Communications Bureau CNY Chinese yuan CO2 Carbon dioxide DBTI Dar Teknohama Business Incubator DFID United Kingdom’s Department for International Development DOR Director of Roads DOT Department of Transport EIRR Economic Internal Rate of Return ETB Ethiopian Birr (local currency) GDP Gross Domestic Product GIZ German Development Agency (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit) GMR Global Mobility for All GTP Growth and Transformation plan HVRR Higher Volume Rural Roads ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IMT Intermediate Means of Transport IMT Intermediate Means of Transport IsDB Islamic Development Bank ISO International Organization for Standardization ITS intelligent transportation system KZN-DOT Kwa Zulu Natal Department of Transport LCA Life Cycle Analysis LIC Low Income Countries LVRR Low Volume Rural Roads vii MIC Middle-Income Countries MORD Ministry of Rural Development MSD Medical Store Department NDOs Non-Government Organization NRRDA National Rural Roads Development Agency NRRP National Rural Roads Program PDR Lao People’s Democratic Republic PIARC World Road Association (Permanent International Association of Road Congresses) PMGSY Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (India’s National Road Programme) PPPs Public Private Partnership RAI Rural Access Index RAMS Road Asset Management System ReCAP Research for Community Access Partnership SDGs Sustainable development goals SMS Short Message Service SRRDA State Rural Roads Development Agency SSATP Sub Saharan Africa Transport Policy Programme SuM4All Sustainable Mobility for All TCRA Tanzania Communication Regulatory Authority TNC Transport Network Company UAS Unmanned Aircraft System viii UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY FOREWORD S ustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) is an um- The consensus on what sustainable mobility meant set brella platform that brings together 55 public us on our next task to establish the imperative for ac- and private organizations and companies with a tion. The Global Mobility Report 2017 benchmarked shared ambition to transform the future of mobility. Its countries’ performances on mobility relative to four unique value lies in bringing key influential actors to policy goals. The findings of that report were alarm- work together. It serves as the principal platform for ing: not a single country in the world—developed or international cooperation on sustainable mobility, a developing—has achieved sustainable mobility. center of excellence, and a repository of policy, knowl- edge and resource on sustainable mobility. Its mission With evidence at hand, SuM4All embarked on a ma- is to play a leading role in the ongoing transformation jor drive in 2018 to develop a comprehensive poli- of the global mobility system, and support countries cy framework to assist decision makers in cities and in their transition towards sustainable mobility. countries as well as practitioners at development banks to identify gaps, necessary steps, and appro- Established in 2017, SuM4All’s first task at hand was priate instruments to attain the Sustainable Develop- to find common ground on what countries wanted to ment Goals, and improve the sustainability of their achieve. We all agreed that transport was a key con- transport sector. tributor to economic development and core to peo- ple’s quality of life. We also agreed that the transport We are pleased to share the outcomes of these efforts that we have is not the transport that we want—con- that embody the collective knowledge of all its mem- gestion in cities, segregation among rural and urban bers and more than 180 experts, and feedback from communities, carbon emissions, air and noise pol- more than 50 public decision makers and 25 large lution, and traffic mishaps that are symptomatic of a private corporations. The Global Roadmap of Action systemic problem with mobility. We set our ambition builds on six policy papers, including this Universal high for the mobility of the future: we need an equita- Rural Access paper, whose content is made accessi- ble, efficient, safe and green mobility. ble and usable to all in a web-based tool for decision making. Sustainable Mobility for All Steering Committee (On behalf of our 55 Member organizations) July 2019, Washington, D.C. 1 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT T his Universal Rural Access Paper was prepared (Executive Director and Coordinator East and South- by the working group led by Ms. Elizabeth Jones ern Africa, International Forum for Rural Transport and (Senior Transport Adviser, UK Department for Development), Mr. Mark Rubarenzy (Head of Research International Development (co-chair)) and Mr. Jasper and Development , Uganda National Roads Authori- Cook (Chief Technical Adviser, Research for Commu- ty), Ms. Marie-Helene Vanderpool (Manager (External nity Access Partnership (ReCAP) (co-chair)). Mr. Tyrrell Relations), International Road Transport Union), Mr. Duncan (Transport consultant) and Mr. Joseph Haule Patrick Mallejacq (Secretary General, World Road As- (Transport consultant and Tanzania Road Fund Board sociation (PIARC)), Ms. Kajsa Strom (Technical Advisor, Chair) are co-authors of this paper. Inputs were re- Strategic Partnerships, PIARC), Mr. Karl Peet (Research ceived from members of the SuM4All working group Director, Partnership on Sustainable, Low Carbon on universal rural access: Mr. Wei Liu (Sustainable De- Transport), Dr Annabel Bradbury (Deputy Team Lead- velopment Officer, UN Department of Economic and er (Transport Services), ReCAP), Ms. Lisa Conibear Social Affairs (UN DESA) (former co-chair)), Ms. Julie (Business Manager, Shell Foundation), Ms. Emma Powell (Sustainable Development Officer, UN DESA Stephenson (Business Development Advisor, Shell (former co-chair)), with inputs from Ms. Irena Zubcevic Foundation), Mr. Haldane Dodd (Air Transport Action (Chief, Office of Intergovernmental Support and Co- Group), Mr. John Hine (Consultant (transport plan- ordination for Sustainable Development, UN DESA), ning)), Mr. Paul Starkey (Consultant (rural transport), Mr. Simon Ellis (Lead Transport Specialist, World Mr. Stephen Vincent (Consultant), Mr. Robin Workman Bank), Ms. Shokraneh Minovi (Sustainable Mobility For (Principal International Consultant, Transport Research All Secretariat, World Bank), Mr. David Salter (Senior Laboratory), Mr. Mike Pinard (Managing Director, In- Natural Resources and Agriculture Specialist, Asian fraAfrica (Pty) Ltd), and Mr. Robert Petts (Director, In- Development Bank), Mr. Salim Refas (Lead Global tech Associates). Transport, Islamic Development Bank (IsDB)), Mr. Kha- lid Abdelrahman Alansary (Senior Rural Infrastructure Finally, the team would like to acknowledge the finan- Development Specialist, IsDB), Mr. Tyrone Toole (Chief cial support of the World Bank and the German Fed- Consultant (Sustainable Infrastructure Management, eral Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Develop- Australian Road Research Board), Mr. Peter Njenga ment (BMZ) to the production of this paper. 2 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY O ne billion people in the world do not have ac- cess by 2030 is ambitious and challenging but cess to transport, with the majority living in ru- achievable. In many developing countries, it will ral Africa. In line with the United Nations (UN) entail providing access for more than half the rural Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), rural access population which may take 10 to 20 years to im- should be affordable to vulnerable populations and plement. Illustrative calculations for the MICs es- equitable, of good quality, reliable, sustainable and timate that it may cost more than $100 per head resilient. of population served to achieve universal access using higher volume rural roads, but only $5 to SDG target 9.1 aims at achieving universal rural ac- $10 per head served using basic access and mo- cess by 2030 with indicators that relate to transport in- torcycle trails. At this lower level of costs, it may frastructure (9.1.1) and transport services (9.1.2). The be possible for even the poorest countries to ap- UN has adopted two indicators for the SDG target 9.1; proach universal rural access by 2030. the proportion of the rural population who live within 2 kilometers of an all-season road (the SDG indicator §§ All countries can progress toward universal and 9.1.1 also known as Rural Access Index), and the vol- inclusive access. Those with lower financial and umes of passenger and freight by mode of transport technical capacity may initially give priority to ba- (SDG indicator 9.1.2). sic access or motorcycle trails. Those with higher capacity may prioritize low volume rural roads Index values show differences among countries rang- and higher volume rural roads. When a lower ing from 5 to 99 percent. Countries with a lower index cost access type is provided initially, it can later faced constraints because of geography, climate or be upgraded when justified by traffic growth. Im- demography (e.g. low population density), and limita- provements in rural access make it more attractive tions in financial, technical and institutional capacity. for transport operators to provide bus and freight Countries with a higher index had fewer constraints services and attract further improvements in ser- (e.g., high-income countries). vice availability and quality. §§ Substantial capacity building is needed to pro- This paper finds that: vide the skills required to implement the program §§ Governments of low-income countries (LIC) and and maintain the assets (e.g., technical leadership medium-income countries (MIC), with support within central government, program planning and from development partners, will have to meet implementation by local government, and skills all or most of the investment costs, with assur- training for contractors and communities). ances from their local governments and commu- §§ Waterborne transport facilities such as providing nities to commit firmly to contributing to future small piers and safe landing places is especially maintenance. Such costs and assurances relate relevant in remote coastal, lakeside and island to procurement, technical support, finance and communities, and in remote inland areas served communications. To finance the large investments by rivers. On the other hand, air transport is not a needed, countries should establish a dedicated core rural transport issue, although it is acknowl- source of financing (e.g., fuel tax). edged that in specific countries (e.g., Papua New §§ The policy goal of achieving universal rural ac- Guinea and Brazil) it may have considerable sig- nificance. 3 1.  INTRODUCTION I mprovement of access is one of the four goals set needed to arrive at an internationally agreed defini- by the global Sustainable Mobility for All (SuM4All) tion of access that will include waterborne transport initiative, aimed at ensuring the sustainability of the and aviation services that are playing a valuable role transport sector and helping countries move along of transporting people and goods in remote areas.1 the path to achieving the SDGs. Universal rural ac- cess is embodied in SDG target 9.1: “Develop qual- The key elements of the rural access goal are that: ity, reliable, sustainable, and resilient infrastructure, §§ Access should be provided for all people. including regional and trans-border infrastructure, to support economic development and human well-be- §§ Access should be affordable and equitable. ing, with a focus on affordable and equitable access §§ Infrastructure should support economic develop- for all.” In presenting its parallel vision of SuM4All, the ment and human well-being. Global Mobility Report (GMR) refers to the global ob- §§ Infrastructure should be quality, reliable, sustain- jective of achieving universal access: to ensure equi- able, and resilient. table access to economic and social opportunities for all by 2030. Affordable and equitable rural access takes into ac- Access connects people and communities to jobs, count the needs of various income groups, including schools, and health care, and enables the delivery of the poor; those in vulnerable situations, including goods and services to rural and urban areas. It de- women, children, persons with disabilities, and older pends upon the availability and usability of transport persons; and people living in various geographic lo- infrastructure and services. Universal access can be cations. It also aims to reduce transport barriers faced broadly defined as the ability for any member of so- by such groups, notably women and girls. By referring ciety to reach a wide range of opportunities through to infrastructure supporting economic development a mode of transport, and for goods to be transported and human well-being, it identifies the importance between a wide range of origins and destinations. This of providing access to jobs and productive opportu- attaches value to everyone’s individual travel needs nities, and access to markets and basic services such and aims to provide everyone with at least some basic as health and education. By mentioning quality, reli- level of access, leaving no one behind, and paving the able, sustainable and resilient infrastructure, the tar- way for meeting the mobility needs of all. get points to the need for rural access infrastructure and services to be well designed, built, managed and 1.1.  The goal of rural access maintained, with in-built climate resilience. In the case of rural access, infrastructure encompasses The two principal indicators related to SDG target 9.1 various standards of rural roads and tracks, and also are SDG 9.1.1: proportion of the rural population who includes inland waterborne transport; services cover a live within 2 km of an all-season road; and SDG 9.1.2: variety of modes, including motorized modes such as passenger and freight volumes, by mode of transport. motor vehicles and motorcycles, and non-motorized Indicator SDG 9.1.1 is also referred to as the rural ac- modes such as animal-drawn carts, bicycles, and head cess index (RAI). When the RAI was originally devel- loading. The GMR also acknowledges that work is still oped, it was recognized that 2 km was a compromise. 4 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY For some rural population members, such as the dis- possible to obtain reliable rural traffic data at low cost. abled or those carrying heavy loads, 2 km may be too far to walk to reach transport services. In many remote The GMR suggests several possible supporting indica- settings, such as the hills of rural Nepal or remote tors that would be useful for measuring various dimen- areas of rural Africa, people may be accustomed to sions of rural access but that currently lack methodol- walking for considerably longer than 2 km.2 A different ogies or data. For infrastructure, these include (i) the access would need to be derived to measure access proportion of rural roads in “good and fair condition,” by other modes, such as waterborne transport. (ii) the percentage of markets accessible by all-season roads, and (iii) the percentage of national government Based on the original RAI data, the GMR estimated that budget spent on low volume rural transport infrastruc- more than 1 billion people, or one-third of the glob- ture. For rural transport services these include (i) the al rural population, lacked access to all-season roads ratio of national to local passenger transport fares, (ii) and transport services in 2006.3 In Africa, the total was the percentage of household monthly expenditure 450 million people, more than 70 percent of the con- spent on transport, (iii) the percentage of the rural tinent’s rural population. Most of the world’s poor live population with at least daily transport service (using in rural areas isolated by distance, terrain and poverty Living Standards Surveys), and (iv) the percentage of from employment and economic opportunities, mar- households that make one motorized trip per month. kets, and healthcare and education facilities. The RAI refers to land transport by road. This is appropriate in In examining how countries can achieve universal ru- the large majority of rural access settings where land ral access by 2030, it is useful to consider four main transport by road is the predominant means of access. types of rural access, each of which has a role to play It is not clear how the RAI should be applied if access depending on needs and resource availability. They is provided by other modes such as waterborne trans- also provide a basis for upgrading rural access in stag- port particularly in extremely remote or geographical- es, using a less costly approach when traffic is low, and ly challenging regions where the use of waterborne investing in upgrading when traffic is higher. The rural transport or small aircraft will prove beneficial to rural access types and their characteristics are: populations. §§ Basic access While the two principal indicators are well defined, §§ Motorcycle trails both suffer from problems of limited data availability. §§ Low-volume rural roads In the case of SDG 9.1.1, the RAI was originally de- veloped using one-off country-level household sur- §§ Higher-volume rural roads veys and other sources, that have generally not been updated since. In the case of SDG 9.1.2, while rural These are discussed here and summarized in Annex A. traffic is a very relevant indicator, it is generally not Basic access investments commonly take the form of collected by countries. It is hoped that new methods spot improvements to overcome problems at specific of data collection will in the future help to overcome locations on existing un-engineered roads and tracks, the present lack of data for the principal indicators. to make them passable in all seasons. Such roads and Through its Research for Community Access Partner­ track use in situ soils or rocks as a running surface and ship (ReCAP), the United Kingdom’s Department for carry relatively low traffic volumes—fewer than 50 mo- International Development (DFID) has been explor­ ing torcycles and bicycles per day. The benefits of all-sea- development of a new RAI methodology uses geo- son basic access on an all- season basis are often high, spatial technique and satellite imagery.4 Based on ini- while the costs of improvement are relatively low and tial piloting in northern Nigeria, this approach shows maintenance requirements are modest.5 Among the some promise, but some technical issues need to be main impediments to be overcome are watercourse resolved before it could be used more widely. Simi- crossings and steep alignments. Provision of simple larly, new methods of carrying out traffic counts are stone drifts and culverts can provide solutions in areas being developed using mobile phone data, satellite prone to flooding. In mountainous regions and where imagery and drones, and these may in future make it 5 there are rivers to cross, the provision of low-cost trail available materials can offer a proven alternative that bridges—usable by pedestrians, bicycles, motorcycles may be more appropriate and sustainable in particu- and livestock—can improve safety and save time. For lar circumstances. people living near rivers, lakes or coastlines, the con- struction of a simple vessel landing facility can pro- Higher volume rural roads (HVRR) are a further op- vide all-season access using vessel services. tion, offering a relatively high quality and capacity of service for busier sections of the rural road net- Motorcycle trails offer faster point-to-point, all-sea- work—100–500 motor vehicles per day—and attract- son access by motorcycle. They are used in countries ing further increases in private passenger and freight where the initial stages of motorization have seen rap- services. HVRR may be needed in areas with large id growth in motorcycle ownership and the prolifer- populations, or where agricultural production has ex- ation of privately- operated motorcycle taxi services panded to include the increased production of high- (50–100 motorcycles per day). This has been seen er-value perishable crops. Generally, work involves in Southeast Asian countries since the 1970s and in constructing a fully-engineered road with a bitumen some African and Latin American countries over the sealed surface or, where required, a more durable past two decades. Trails can be developed at fairly low pavement such as concrete.6 This is relatively costly. cost, using existing earthen tracks where passable, to- If surfaced, the roads require significant routine and gether with engineering improvements such as small periodic maintenance. If built using concrete, the con- bridges and narrow paved running strips. Connecting struction cost is substantially more but maintenance remote rural villages by motorcycle trails can be trans- requirements are less. formational: motorized transport becomes widely available for the first time, providing improved access In choosing between basic access, motorcycle trails, to markets, medical and educational facilities, and LVRR and HVRR to serve a particular route, a first con- making it easier for service-providers to reach villag- sideration should be to determine what level of im- es. Although tariffs for motorcycle taxi services can be provement is sufficient to address the needs of the dif- high, and there are traffic safety issues, the speed and ferent users. This should focus especially on economic convenience of motorcycle taxis are attractive to many uses—such as for agriculture, employment, health, users, until such time that regular services using motor education and rural development—while also consid- vehicles and buses become available. ering access to the rural population for public and private service providers. A fundamental principle is Low volume rural roads (LVRR) are an option to con- that the level of improvement should aim to be fit for sider when motor vehicle traffic is somewhat higher purpose. A second consideration is the overall avail- (50–200 motor vehicles per day). Compared with ba- ability of finance for construction and maintenance sic access and motorcycle trails, LVRR provide a high- of rural access infrastructure. If financing is abundant, er quality and capacity of service, which encourages more rural access needs can be met using LVRR and more private operators to offer passenger and freight HVRR, subject to each investment being economical- services. A wider roadway and other limited engineer- ly justified. If funding is scarce, as is more often the ing improvements are needed to provide a more uni- case, it is better to channel more of the investment form surface, raise safe driving speeds, and provide into basic access or motorcycle trails (if motorcycle drainage to ensure all-season access and avoid dam- taxis are widely used) since this is the least-cost way age from water penetration. LVRR are still generally of achieving the overall rural access goal, and to limit constructed using earth or gravel, although climatic investments in LVRR and HVRR to those where traffic and terrain environment considerations may require conditions indicate an urgent need for upgrading. sealed or paved options. They are more costly than basic access improvements, and introduce significant It is also useful to look at rural access improvement requirements for routine and periodic maintenance. as an evolving, sequential, longer-term process. Pro- Recent research in Africa and Asia has shown that con- viding basic access or motorcycle trails enables peo- ventional bitumen sealing is not always cost-effective, ple to expand their economic activities and increase and that other low-cost paving options using locally their incomes. This leads to higher traffic levels, and 6 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY perspective has several advantages. Basic access be- Figure 1.1: Cost and Complexity of Rural Access comes an initial priority, supporting an equitable, fast- Interventions track approach to achieving universal basic access. The risk of investing prematurely in more costly types of infrastructure is mitigated. Also, once investment in LVRR or HVRR becomes justified, the local economy has expanded, so more resources are available for meeting the costs of future maintenance (Figure 1.1). In many cases, urban access is enhanced when access to and from major transport nodes, such as seaport or airport, are duly considered. Without the need to con- struct many hundreds of miles of road, a small air strip with services to larger regional centers or cities can provide a remotely located population with access to healthcare and other services in a cost-effective way. Airports and seaports serve as cargo and passenger processing and distribution points between air trans- Source: Authors port and other modes. They impact urban access as multimodal connectivity is required to ensure efficient eventually to a need to further improve transport access to/from the airport. The interrelationship with quality and efficiency to compete in larger and higher other modes is critical for air transport to be efficient value markets (e.g. fruit and vegetables), which may for the end user and in leveraging full economic bene- initially justify upgrading to LVRR and, if this process fits and impacts they have on cities and countries. continues, may eventually justify HVRR. The process ENDNOTES 1 Aviation services include the use of drone technology that have proved to be valuable in providing rural towns and villages with access to emergency aid, commercial goods and medical supplies. 2 Roberts, Peter, K. C. Shyam, and C. Rastogi. 2006. Rural Access Index: A Key Development Indicator. Transport Papers TP-10. World Bank: Washington, DC. 3 Starkey, P. and Hine, J. 2014. Poverty and Sustainable Transport: How Transport Affects Poor People with Policy Implications for Poverty Reduction. ODI: London. 4 World Bank. 2016. Measuring Rural Access: Using New Technologies. World Bank: Washington, DC. 5 Spot improvements along the “first mile” between farm and produce collection point can have a major beneficial impact by reducing transport costs and damage to produce. Studies indicate that backloading is the predominant means of “first mile” transport in Kenya and Tanzania, but the unit cost of backloading is 16 times the cost of using a truck in Kenya and 23 times in Tanzania. Njenga, P., Willi- lo, S. and Hine, J. 2015. Overcoming the First Mile—Lessons from Farmers in Kenya and Tanzania. World Road Association Presentation. Seoul. 6 Design standards should be adjusted in line with projected traffic. For example, a HVRR to serve 400 vehicles per day should provide a higher level of service than one to serve 200 vehicles per day 7 2.  THE STATE OF PLAY T here is currently very limited country level data A comparison of original RAI estimates with those pro- available for the rural access indicators within duced a decade later by the pilot and other studies the SDG framework and the additional indica- suggests that in Asia rural access has improved, but tors proposed by the GMR. This makes it difficult to in Africa there has been little overall improvement.7 In identify trends in rural access at thecountry, regional, Asia, the past decade saw a series of large-scale ru- and global levels. Most countries do not yet collect ral access programs being implemented, including RAI data, although there is a DFID-UKAID funded ini- in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Nepal, and tiative currently aiming to improve this situation. The Vietnam. These were often on a large scale. For ex- limited existing data is mostly derived from the orig- ample, India’s National Rural Roads Program (Pradhan inal surveys conducted by the World Bank and other Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, PMGSY) has completed development partners around the time of first pro- more than 550,000 km of all- season rural roads since posing the RAI, supplemented by a recent pilot study it began in 2000. In Africa, many countries established that used satellite imaging technologies to collect RAI rural access programs, but because of financial, insti- data in eight countries together with some additional tutional, and other constraints, few reached the scale country data recovered on an ad hoc basis. For each needed to deliver major improvements. A notable of the other main and supporting indicators, there is exception has been Ethiopia which, since 2010, has currently no data available. Figure 2.2: Under-Five Mortality Rate versus Rural Access Figure 2.1: Rural Access Index versus log GDP Per Capita Index Under-five mortality rate Under-five Vs Rural mortality rateAccess Index Vs Rural Access Index log GDP per logcapita Vs Rural GDP per Access capita Index Vs Rural Access Index 160 160 14 14 140 140 R = 0.446 R = 0.446 12 12 Deaths per 1,000 live births (2017) Deaths per 1,000 live births (2017) 120 120 log GDP per capita (2018) 10 log GDP per capita (2018) 10 100 100 8 8 80 80 6 6 60 60 R = 0.4518 R = 0.4518 4 4 40 40 20 2 2 20 0 0 0 0 0% 10% 20% 0% 30% 10% 40% 20% 50% 40% 70% 30% 60% 60% 90% 50% 80% 80% 90% 100% 0% 70% 100% 20% 0% 40% 20% 60% 40% 80% 60% 100% 80% 100% Rural Access Index Rural (1999 Access - 2004) Index (1999 - 2004) Rural Access Index Rural (1999-2004) Access Index (1999-2004) Source: World Bank raw data and analysis Source: World Bank raw data and analysis 8 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY built 56,000 km of rural roads under the Universal Ru- performance between countries (Figure 2.2). Im- ral Road Access Program, 29,000 km under the Pro- proved access enables people to make increased use ductive Safety Nets Project, and 7,000 km under other of health services and to quickly obtain medical assis- programs. tance at times of emergency. Analysis of an expanded dataset of original RAI sur- Figure 2.3 shows the distribution of Rural Access In- veys for 62 countries in six regions indicates that the dex (RAI) in developed and developing countries, and RAI is positively correlated with per capita GDP, but in six regions of the world for developing countries with large differences in country performance. Better only. The line in the box shows the median of the vari- access improves the competitiveness of agriculture able. The width of the box on either side of the me- and other rural economic activities,8 while higher GDP dian shows the “spread” of one quartile of the obser- generates increased public revenues that can be used vations. The “Whiskers” show where the more spread to finance access improvements (Figure 2.1). out observations lie (two quartiles). Individual dots show observations which are outlying extreme values The GMR referred to the significant role rural access beyond the quartiles. For example, the median for Eu- plays in reducing multiple dimensions of poverty, rope and Central Asia is about 76%. The values within including by increasing school enrollment rates for one quartile range from about 66% to 81% (the Box) boys and girls and disadvantaged groups. In Ethio- and the broader values range from about 55% to 97% pia, proximity to a road in good condition reduces the (the Whiskers). There exists an outlying extreme value likelihood of being chronically poor by 36 percent9. at about 31%. Also, better rural transport access is associated with lower morbidity and mortality rates and better health Developed countries were found to have a higher me- and poverty outcomes. Based on the expanded orig- dian RAI than developing countries. There were also inal RAI dataset for 62 countries, there is an inverse clear differences between regions in the median of correlation between rural access and the under- five the RAI and in the variability (spread) of RAI among mortality rate, again with substantial differences in countries within a region. Ranked by median, the re- Figure 2.3: Rural Access Index by regions of the World Rural Access Index Rural Access Index Percentage, 1999–2004 Developing Countries, Percentage, 1999–2004 100% 100% 90% 90% 80% 80% 70% 70% 60% 60% 50% 50% 40% 40% 30% 30% 20% 20% 10% 10% 0% 0% Developed Countries East Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia Developing Countries Latin America & Caribbean Middle East & North Africa South Asia Sub-Saharan Africa Source: World Bank raw data and analysis Rapid Transit per Resident Ratio 9 Rapid Transit per Resident Ratio Km per million, 2018 Developing Countries, km per million, 2018 100 50 90 45 gions, from lowest to highest, would be: Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America & Caribbean, South Asia, Middle Figure 2.4: Scatterplot of Rural Access Index vis-à-vis GDP East & North Africa, Europe & Central Asia and East per capita by Country Asia & Pacific. Grou Group D Group C Group B Group A In Figure 2.4, data on Rural Access Index is plotted IRL 80 80 against GDP per capita and used to compare coun- BRN GDP per capita (US$ Thousands, PPP), 2017 GDP per capita (US$ Thousands, PPP), 2017 ARE KWT tries on Universal Rural Access. Countries are divided into four groups (A to D) based on distance to best NOR USA 60 60 performance. SAU ISL NLD AUT DNK SWEDEU BEL FIN Group D represents countries that, compared with BHR FRA GBR JPN 40 OMN NZLISR ITA MLT 40 their peers, have made the least progress; Group C ESP KOR SVN CYP CZE EST PRT LTU represents those that have made less progress; Group TUR KAZ BHS TTOPOL MYS GRC HUN RUS LVA HRVROU B represents those that have made more progress; GNQ MUS PAN CHL URY 20 MEX IRN BLR LBY ARG BGR 20 and Group A represents countries that have made THA GAB BRAIRQ DOM DZA TKM AZE SRBBWA SUR MKD COL CRI BRB CHN GRD ZAF ALBMNG PER TUN BTN PRY BIH LBNLCALKA IDN most progress. It may be noted that each country NAM UKR ECU EGY FJIJOR GEO DMA ARM JAM VCT MMRNIC MARAGO BOL GTM GUY HND NGA UZB COG CIV SLV IND MDA LAO PAK WSMBLZ PHL VNM CPVTON TLS group includes countries from most or all regions. SDN ZMBCMR YEM TCD MLIBDI TZA GIN BFA AFG ETH TGO MOZ MDG SEN HTI COD MRT BENNER MWI KEN NPL RWA UGA GNB GHA PNG LSO ZWE COM SLE LBR KGZ TJKVUT SLB GMB KHM STPBGD FSM - - 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 0 Based on review of published studies of rural access Rural Access Index, 1999–2004 provision, a simple set of attributes has been identified to characterize the four country groups. This makes it Source: World Bank raw data and analysis possible for the actions proposed within the rural ac- Group D Group C Group B Group A G cess roadmap to be tailored to the circumstances of have made relatively good progress IRL expanding ru- each group. 80 BRN 80 GDP per capita (US$ Thousands, PPP), 2017 GDP per capita (US$ Thousands, PPP), 2017 ral access. TheyARE tend to have KWT fewer geographical, Group D countries typically have experienced great climatic, and demographic difficulties. CHE With moder- difficulty in expanding rural access. Often, they have ate-to-good 60 institutional, technical, NORand financing USA ca- 60 ISL geographical, climatic, or demographic character- pacity, they are SAU able to prepare and implement DNK NLD AUT SWEDEU rural BELAUS istics, together with underlying weaknesses in insti- access programs of suitable BHR scaleFIN GBR and FRA quality and tutional, technical, and financing capacity, that make raise necessary 40 financing OMN KOR from domestic ESP JPN ITA ISR MLT CZEsources NZL and 40 SVN it harder to expand rural access. Group C countries development partners. Group MYS A countries POL PRT EST LTU have SVKCYP made GRC HUN have performed better than Group D but have made good progress andTUR are now ROU CHL PAN within HRV KAZreach RUSLVA of universal URY only limited progress in expanding rural access. They rural access. 20 They IRN DOM MEXARG fewer haveAZE CRI THA geographical, BGR MNE BRB BLR climatic, 20 DZA BRA MKDSUR SRB face similar types of difficulties, but these are less se- and demographic EGY IDN difficulties, TUN ECU PER FJI GEO MNG VCTand have a strong ca- ARM pacity to prepare, PHLGTM SLV BOL LAO GUY BLZ and financeUKR implement, VNM rural access vere than for Group D countries. Group B countries MMR KHM HND KGZ TJKSLB WSM VUT FSM HTI - programs - (Table 2.1). 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 2.0 Table 2.1: Attributes of Four Country Groups for Rural Access Workers in Transport Sector Who Are Female, 2014–2017 Group D: Group C: Group B: Group A: Attribute Least progress Less progress More progress Most progress Distance from RAI target Very high High Moderate Low Geographical, climatic, or demographic difficultya High Moderate Moderate Low to moderate Institutional and technical capacity Low Low to moderate Moderate to high High Financing capacity Low Low to moderate Moderate to high High a For example, hilly terrain, heavy rainfall, large terrain, low population density. Source: Authors 10 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY ENDNOTES 7 Due to the limitations in the existing RAI data, it is used in this paper for illustrative purposes only. 8 In developing countries, 40 percent of food losses occur post-harvest, including degradation and spillage from poor transport condi- tions. World Bank 2017. Enabling the Business of Agriculture 2017. Washington, DC: World Bank. 9 Dercon, S., et al. 2008. The Impact of Agricultural Extension and Roads on Poverty and Consumption Growth in Fifteen Ethiopian Villag- es. IFPRI Discussion Paper 00840 11 3.  LEGAL AND REGULATORY AGREEMENTS W hile rural access is critical for inclusive de- Vientiane Declaration on Sustainable Rural Trans- velopment and poverty reduction, it has re- port. This voluntary declaration was adopted by rep- ceived comparatively little attention in inter- resentatives of 23 member countries and 14 observer national agreements and commitments on transport. countries at the 10th Regional Environmentally Sus- It is currently addressed by two such agreements, tainable Transport Forum in Asia, convened by the UN namely the Ashgabat Statement10 and the Vientiane Centre for Regional Development on 14–16 March Declaration on Sustainable Rural Transport11 2017 in Vientiane, Lao PDR. Participants expressed their commitment to (i) inclusive, affordable, accessi- Ashgabat Statement. This was endorsed by more ble and sustainable rural transport infrastructure and than 50 member countries attending the first-ever services, (ii) climate-adaptive rural infrastructure, (iii) UN Secretary- General’s Global Conference on Sus- environmentally sustainable and low- carbon rural tainable Transport held in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan in transport, (iv) transport contributing to integrated ru- November 201612. It referred to the integrated and ral development, (v) efficient rural access, rural-urban cross-cutting nature of sustainable transport solutions connectivity and sustainable freight movement, (vi) and the multiple roles of transport in supporting the national strategies and policy frameworks to improve SDGs, including leaving no one behind, securing rural transport connectivity, (vii) rural transport safety, prosperity, enabling access to services, and protect- (viii) environmental and social impact assessment, (ix) ing the environment. With regard to rural access, take-up of innovative approaches to improving ru- countries reaffirmed their commitment to: ral access, and (x) capacity building and technology transfer. “support efforts to provide communities in rural areas in developing countries with access to major roads, The Ashgabat Statement and the Vientiane Declara- rail lines, and public transport options that enable tion on Sustainable Rural Transport provide a useful access to economic and social activities and oppor- outline of the role of rural access in sustainable de- tunities in cities and towns and that unleash produc- velopment and identify some of the most important tivity and competitiveness of rural entrepreneurs and challenges for achieving universal rural access. Being smallholder farmers.” voluntary and nonbinding in nature, they have no le- gal force and do not establish commitments to take follow-up actions. ENDNOTES 10 Ashgabat Statement. 2016. Ashgabat Statement on Commitments and Policy Recommendations of the Global Sustainable Transport Conference. Global Sustainable Transport Conference, 26–27 November 2016. Ashgabat. 11 Vientiane Declaration, 2017. Vientiane Declaration on Sustainable Rural Transport towards Achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. 10th Regional Environmentally Sustainable Transport Forum in Asia, 14–16 March 2017. Vientiane. 12 See also: General assembly resolution 70/197 and website: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/Global-Sustainable- Trans- port-Conference-2016. 12 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 4.  CATALOGUE OF MEASURES W hile individual investments in rural access The GMR also discusses synergies and trade-offs be- are not technically complex, a great many tween universal rural access and the other SuM4All investments are needed at relatively remote goals of efficiency, safety, and green mobility. High- locations to realize an overall improvement in rural er efficiency can increase capacity and lower costs, access. When countries have been successful in ex- thereby increasing access. Higher accessibility can panding rural access, this has generally been based lead to benefits by increasing job density and mar- on having suitable policies and programs and imple- ket competition. However, increased access can also menting them consistently in different parts of the lead to traffic growth and road capacity bottlenecks country over many years (for example, 1–2 decades). and can result in transport being provided in sparsely To guide these investments and attract participation populated areas where it may not be financially via- from stakeholders, the overall aim and approach need ble. With respect to safety, increased vehicular travel to be defined by a rural access policy, and a nation- can lead to more crashes, fatalities and injuries if road al rural access program needs to be established to safety awareness and systems are not improved. With set standards, procedures, implementation arrange- respect to green mobility, increased use of motorized ments, and accountabilities. The catalogue of mea- transport can lead to additional environmental exter- sures that countries can take to improve rural access is nalities (Table 4.1). summarized in Table 4.1. Table 4.1:. Summary of Catalogue of Measures Toolbox/ Synergies or Trade- Offs with Other Goals Action subject Urban Efficiency Safe Green Gender Policy-maker and lawyer toolbox Establish a comprehensive and pragmatic policy that targets universal u u u u u rural access within a defined time frame, preferably by 2030 Adopt a multi-tiered, multi-modal approach that supports both early attainment of universal rural access and further upgrading to higher u Rural access access tiers based on affordability and feasibility policy Obtain prior commitments from stakeholders on planning, financing, and performing maintenance—to mitigate past problems of unsustainability from lack of maintenance Include measures to expand and improve transport services and rural u u u u logistics Establish a national program to implement the policy through a Institutional stakeholder partnership involving central and local governments, u u u u u and governance communities, and the private sector 13 Provide capacity building to assist stakeholders to perform their roles in u Capacity the program building Countries with large programs to establish materials testing and u research capacity Engineering toolbox Establish technical standards for each of the multiple tiers of rural access, Technical ensuring protection against water penetration, screening for climate u u u u standards vulnerability, use of local materials and resources where feasible, and incorporation of traffic safety Establish reliable approaches to asset management, with communities performing routine maintenance where feasible and contractors Maintenance u u performing periodic maintenance selected using a RAMS, and implement measures to control axle loads Procure contractors on a competitive basis, using packaging of batches of projects to attract sufficient numbers of bids by capable contractors Contracting Prepare procurement rules, procedures, standard bidding documents and contract documents for the program, supported by an u e-procurement platform Feasibility, Recruit qualified consulting firms to perform the tasks of preparing design, feasibility reports and engineering designs, and supervising civil works supervision and Establish a pool of independent experts to undertake technical and quality financial audits of projects to support quality assurance, value-for-money assurance and anti-corruption Economist toolbox Establish a set of project selection criteria and disseminate these widely u Project among rural communities with a view to attracting their participation selection and Use participatory planning methods to help communities propose rural u interventions access network planning In selecting and planning groups of projects to serve a geographical u area, give attention to ensuring the efficiency of the future rural networks Require rural access projects to meet an economic viability threshold based on cost-effectiveness comparison for basic access and small u Economic motorcycle trails projects, and estimation of the EIRR for large scale analysis of motorcycle trails projects, LVRR and HVRR projects Allow a modest proportion of rural road projects (e.g. 15 percent) to use a lower EIRR threshold if high need and economic potential can be demonstrated EIRR=economic internal rate of return, HVRR=higher volume rural road, LVRR=low volume rural road, RAMS=road asset management system Source: Authors. 14 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 4.1.  Regulatory and Institutional toolbox Institutional and governance arrangements. The government should establish a national program to Rural access policy and program. The government implement the policy via a stakeholder partnership in- should establish a rural access policy and program volving central and local governments, communities, that targets universal rural access within a defined and the private sector. The central government should time frame, preferably by 2030. The objective may be provide or facilitate the majority of the investment fi- expressed in various ways, such as raising the propor- nance, but local government and communities should tion of the population within a specified distance of an provide matching contributions, both cash and in- all-season road, or providing a defined level of infra- kind13. In return for receiving program funding, local structure needed for various sizes of settlements. The governments and communities should implement the objective should take into account the level of invest- program in accordance with agreed principles, prac- ment financing expected to be available and should tices, and procedures. These should include planning be sufficiently ambitious to bring about a major im- and investment selection, technical standards, im- provement in rural access within the timeframe. plementation modalities, responsibilities for mainte- nance, regulation of transport services, approaches The policy should adopt a multi-tiered, multi-modal to providing access to vulnerable groups, governance approach that supports both early attainment of uni- and administrative procedures, and reporting and versal rural access, and further upgrading to higher monitoring. access tiers based on affordability and feasibility. If rural access is low, or if financing and implementa- Recognizing that it is costly to construct and maintain tion capacity are constrained, an initial focus on basic rural access infrastructure, the program should re- access, or low-cost motorcycle trails, will be the fast- quire careful planning, selection, and sequencing of est, least costly, and most equitable way of achieving rural access projects with a view to quickly achieving universal rural access. Even if constraints are less, the substantial progress toward the objective of universal policy may still focus on basic access or motorcycle basic access, and prioritizing investments expected to trails until universal rural access is achieved, while also bring significant net socio-economic benefits. This will investing in rural roads, depending on needs and fea- help the areas served to advance economically, make sibility. The policy should include measures to expand it more affordable for them to meet the costs of future and improve transport services and rural logistics. This maintenance, and generate additional government should encompass service quality, frequency, efficien- tax revenues that make it possible to extend rural ac- cy, affordability, and safety, taking into account the cess to additional areas in the future. needs of users, including poor and vulnerable groups. A central government ministry—such as the ministry for Lack of maintenance has been one of the most seri- rural development or transport—should lead the pro- ous shortcomings of past rural road programs in many cess of establishing the program and should consult countries. It leads to unsustainability—from deteriora- with stakeholders; coordinate with other government tion in the quality of service, reduced benefits, and agencies with transport-related responsibilities and the shortened economic life of rural access assets. To needs; formulate the objectives, approach, financing, avoid repeating these past problems, the program implementation arrangements, oversight, and report- should require local governments and communities ing; and initiate program implementation. The rele- receiving support for rural access improvements to vant minister should obtain political support and act enter into firm commitments to plan, finance, and ex- as national champion for the program. A Road Agen- ecute routine and periodic maintenance. Also, they cy operating at an arm’s length of the ministry—staffed should face sanctions—such as suspension of new with qualified engineers and other specialists—should construction financing—if they fail to meet the com- guide technical aspects of the program, oversee im- mitments. Local sources of maintenance financing plementation, provide technical advice to local gov- may include earmarked local taxes (for example, crop ernment counterparts, and design and implement ca- cess), local government budget allocations, and com- pacity building programs. The central ministry should munity cash and in-kind contributions. prepare a detailed set of guidelines for stakeholders, 15 to ensure a consistent approach across the country. Capacity building activities should be generally con- The guidelines should include all elements of the pro- ducted through existing national or regional institu- gram design and implementation. tions such as engineering institutes and universities, training centers for road sector professionals and Local governments should be responsible for imple- technical staff, and local government and rural devel- menting the program in their areas, working closely opment training organizations. with communities. They should establish an agency operating at an arm’s length of the local government All countries with large rural access programs will to lead implementation activities14, which include ru- need to progressively build capacity in materials ral access network planning, project selection, plan- testing and research to establish databases of local ning and executing maintenance, arranging mainte- materials and how they may be used in construction. nance financing commitments, procuring contractors Many countries could significantly reduce rural access and supervision services, regulating transport service costs by making greater use of local materials, either providers, liaising with communities, and arranging through appropriately modified designs or by their further capacity building activities. Field-based proj- mechanical or chemical stabilization—but few coun- ect implementation units should be established, with tries have enough domestic capacity in construction day-to-day responsibility for implementation of civil materials testing and research. Countries may initially works. Local governments should also coordinate the make use of simple testing kits and seek support from rural access program with other rural development regional entities (such as ReCAP). Another option is programs, including other transport and infrastruc- to outsource the materials testing and research to the ture programs, agriculture development, enterprise private sector. development, health and education provision, and programs for disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. 4.2.  Engineering and Technology toolbox Community organizations such as village committees Technical standards. Drawing upon available na- should represent communities participating in the tional and international standards and taking into ac- program and interface with local governments. They count the findings of national engineering and related should take part in preparation of the rural access net- technical research, the government unit or agency re- work plan for their areas and nominate projects to be sponsible for technical aspects of the program should implemented by the program. Where relevant, they prepare a set of technical standards and geometric may also be responsible for organizing labor-based design standards for the program. It should establish community contractors. technical standards for each of the main types of ru- ral access—basic access, motorcycle trails, LVRR, and Capacity building. The government should facilitate HVRR. These should include protection against water capacity building to assist stakeholders to perform penetration, screening for climate vulnerability, use of their roles in the program. Initially, it should conduct local materials where feasible, and incorporation of a capacity assessment of the main entities responsi- traffic safety. ble for planning, implementation, and maintenance of rural access infrastructure, and regulation of local The standards should provide a menu of technically transport services. This should identify capacity gaps and economically feasible options to safely and af- and types of capacity building activities needed. Ca- fordably serve traffic over the intended economic life pacity building support may cover subjects such as of the infrastructure, taking into account traffic char- rural access program leadership, management and acteristics, geography, and climate conditions, mate- oversight, rural network planning, community consul- rials availability and climate adaptation risks, and the tation, technical standards, rural access engineering need to limit costs to match available resources. To and construction materials, social and environmental protect against damage from water penetration, road- safeguards, construction supervision, project manage- side drainage and simple drainage structures such ment by private contractors and labor- based commu- as culverts should be provided where needed and, nity contractors, rural access asset management, and where appropriate, pavements of rural roads should methods of regulating local transport services. be sealed. 16 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY In countries that expect to make significant use of odic maintenance should preferably use a road asset labor- based methods of construction and mainte- management system (RAMS) and implement mea- nance, the government should prepare a technical sures to control axle loads. handbook describing acceptable labor-based meth- ods and procedures. All rural access assets require routine maintenance. This is preventive in nature, focusing on removing The standards should encourage use of locally avail- vegetation and obstructions from the road alignment, able materials wherever feasible. In doing so, they clearing drainage, and repairing minor defects be- should draw upon available research findings on the fore they lead to significant damage (including cam- types of locally- available materials, their physical ber preservation, water management and dispersal, properties, and methods of using such materials in pothole patching, crack filling, and repair of pave- road construction. In many cases, additional research ment edges). Since routine maintenance should be should be carried out to support the use of local- conducted regularly and frequently and the tasks are ly-available materials. generally quite simple, it can often be carried out by communities located nearby. The communities need A climate-risk screening index should be established to receive remuneration to be motivated for this role. for use by local governments to identify projects re- An option that has been used successfully in some quiring climate adaption measures to be included in settings is to engage community maintenance groups the engineering design. To guide design of adapta- through performance-based contracts (for example, tion measures, the technical standards should indicate the Dehong pilot project in China). service levels, taking into consideration the maximum number of impassable days per year. Periodic maintenance is essential for LVRR and HVRR; otherwise the assets may be depleted prematurely Road safety audits should be carried out when de- (for example, within 10 years). It is generally conduct- signing all road-based access improvements. While ed after some years of use (for example, 7 years for basic access improvements may not significantly sealed roads), when the asset condition has deterio- change the safety of pedestrians and other road us- rated and needs to be restored. In the case of HVRR, ers, it is likely that—with higher motorized traffic levels periodic maintenance involves repair of damage to and speeds—motorcycle trails, LVRR, and HVRR will the road structure and resurfacing the pavement. Pe- often introduce additional hazards. The road safety riodic maintenance is also needed for basic access in- audit should identify road safety risks along the align- frastructure and motorcycle trails, but less work is like- ment, leading to design of engineering measures to ly to be involved., Less maintenance is also required mitigate these risks (such as traffic calming measures for pavements or structures made of concrete can last and design of road shoulders for use as footpaths). for 20–40 years if properly designed, constructed and In large countries with strong in-country technical ex- appropriately maintained. pertise, the development of technical standards will Since periodic maintenance of rural roads is costly, require extensive consultation with national centers of and each road deteriorates differently—depending on technical expertise including the engineering and re- factors such as climate, topography, soil conditions, lated professions, technical institutes and universities, construction quality and materials used, and traffic contractors and consultants. In small and low-income characteristics—the timing and types of periodic main- countries, there may be less local expertise, so prepa- tenance treatment need to optimized using a RAMS. ration of technical standards may initially require ex- Drawing upon road inventory data, and surveys of ternal support. In such cases, capacity development road conditions and traffic levels for all roads in the support should be provided for engineering research. network, the RAMS prioritizes periodic maintenance Maintenance. Communities should establish reliable works within the available budget on the basis of eco- approaches to asset management and should per- nomic returns. The RAMS also estimates the budget form routine maintenance where feasible. Contractors for routine and periodic maintenance to provide a de- or road authorities responsible for performing peri- sired level of service across the network. In the case of 17 rural roads, a relatively simple form of RAMS is appro- that the procurement process is timely, efficient and priate (such as Tanzania’s District Road Management transparent, the government should prepare procure- System), one that uses objective data on road condi- ment rules, procedures, standard bidding documents tion and traffic, but limits the amount of data collec- and contract documents for the program, supported tion and simplifies the data analysis. by an e- procurement platform. Contract documents should provide for core labor standards and equal The government should establish or adapt a RAMS pay for women and men and reserve a proportion of suitable for the program, establish technical capacity construction employment for local residents and dis- to operate the RAMS at central or local government advantaged groups such as women and the poor. The level, and make available simplified tools for prepar- e-procurement platform should provide guidance on ing road inventories and conducting annual surveys how to prepare bids; information on forthcoming ten- of road condition and traffic. One option may be to ders; support the process of qualifying eligible con- outsource RAMS operation, data collection, and anal- tractors and inviting and receiving bids; announce the ysis to a firm specializing in RAMS (this approach is contract awards; track contact performance; and pro- commonly used in advanced countries). vide a repository of procurement related documents for the program. A further essential part of managing rural access as- sets is the effective control of axle overloading. This The time allowed for submission and evaluation of is especially important for surfaced rural roads. Axle bids should be less than allowed for major highway load control may require the preparation or updating construction contracts. Bid evaluation procedures of axle load regulations, together with effective ar- may allow for a modest pricing preference for com- rangements for enforcement of the regulations using munity- based contractors (5–10 percent). portable weigh scales to check axle load compliance. Feasibility, design, supervision, and quality assur- Contracting. Competitive procurement is generally ance. Local governments should generally recruit the best way to obtain value for money when under- qualified consulting firms to perform the tasks of pre- taking civil works for construction and periodic main- paring feasibility reports and engineering designs tenance of the rural access infrastructure. Labor-inten- (including the preparation of basic engineering draw- sive, community- based contractors may be suitable ings and bills-of- quantity) and supervising civil works. for performing basic access improvements and rou- Feasibility reports are required to confirm compliance tine maintenance of rural roads. with program eligibility criteria and technical and eco- nomic feasibility. Engineering design and supervision Local governments should generally be responsi- are needed to ensure that construction and mainte- ble for procuring contractors subject to obtaining nance works will meet required technical standards, prior or post- facto central government approval of to provide the technical documentation required for contracts15. Procurement packages should generally procurement of contractors, and to supervise con- group together batches of individual projects in the tractor performance. Since the rural access programs same geographical area, to provide contract sizes typically comprise a large number of relatively small capable of attracting competition among capable rural access projects, each consulting firm should cov- contractors. This will also support the administrative er batches of proposed projects within the same geo- efficiency of the program by limiting the number of graphical area. Where labor-intensive methods are contracts to be procured and administered. adopted, there will be a need for increased inputs for In some very remote areas it may be difficult to attract day- to-day supervision inputs. the most capable contractors, and local governments When formulating the rural access program, the cen- may need to use smaller contractors—including la- tral government should establish a pool of indepen- bor-intensive community contractors—and provide dent experts to undertake technical and financial them with capacity building support. audits of projects, to support quality assurance, val- With a view to encouraging competition and ensuring ue-for-money and anti-corruption. The technical audit 18 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY should physically verify that all executed works have and education). They can also provide important in- been carried out in compliance with the contract and sights into how these limitations can be overcome, in accordance with technical standards and specifica- both through infrastructure investments and by tack- tions. This requires inputs from engineers and other ling shortcomings in transport service provision and technical experts. The financial audit should examine rural logistics. Local government should also coordi- financial records and reports, verifying compliance nate with key sectors and rural development projects with procurement laws and procedures, and deter- that may depend upon or influence the use of trans- mining whether audited projects have provided val- port services by the community. If a major rural de- ue-for-money. Engineers should conduct the technical velopment project is planned, the approach to rural audits, and accountants and other financial specialists access and rural development should be closely in- should conduct the financial audits. tegrated. 4.3.  Economic and Finance toolbox In selecting and planning groups of projects to serve a geographical area, communities should ensure the Project selection and rural access network plan- efficiency of the future rural networks—with a view ning. The selection of individual projects within a to realizing the potential socioeconomic benefits rural access program should be closely aligned with of improved access while limiting both the invest- the overall objective of the national rural access pol- ment required and the size of the local network to icy, and project proposals should reflect the views be maintained. This is needed for LVRR, HVRR, and and priorities of the rural communities to be served. more comprehensive motorcycle trails projects. Ru- If there is a large gap in rural access and the policy ral access network planning should assess choices prioritizes early achievement of universal rural access, between competing eligible project proposals and greater emphasis will initially be given to small invest- project routings proposed by different communities ments in spot improvements to provide basic access, and identify how the local network will connect with followed later by increased emphasis on more costly neighboring areas and the national road network. It investments in rural access networks. should also identify the preferred sequencing of in- The government should establish a set of project se- vestments in the network. In practice, the rural access lection criteria and disseminate these widely among network plan proposals prepared by individual com- rural communities with a view to attracting their partic- munities should be consolidated into rural access ipation. Criteria may cover minimum settlement size, network plans by the next level of local government eligible types of investment in each of the main cat- (for example, a district rural access network plan), and egories of rural access improvement (including basic eventually into a national rural access network plan access, motorcycle trails, LVRR, HVRR), preferred se- approved by the central government. To support the quencing of investments (for example, initial priority network planning process, the government should for basic access improvement, precedence among prepare a manual containing the requirements for different types of roads within the network, includ- rural access network plans and the preparation and ing links to settlements, links to trunk road networks, approval process. and links to neighboring areas), an economic viability Economic analysis of projects. The government threshold, special provisions to support projects serv- should require rural access projects to meet an eco- ing very poor and vulnerable groups, safeguarding of nomic viability threshold based on: a cost-effective- environmental and social impacts, and the commit- ness comparison for basic access and small motorcy- ment required on maintenance financing. cle trails projects; and an estimation of the economic Use participatory planning methods to help commu- internal rate of return (EIRR) for large-scale motorcycle nities propose interventions. Communities know best trails projects, LVRR, and HVRR. Investments in rural how present access limitations affect their economic access need to be capable of producing favorable activities (including agricultural production and mar- socio-economic returns; otherwise, they may displace keting) and access to essential services (such as health other more productive investments and become a 19 financial burden with a higher likelihood that the as- Transport services and rural logistics. Rural trans- sets created will not be well maintained. If a proposed port encompasses a wide variety of services using project cannot meet the threshold, alternative types buses, minibuses, taxis, motorcycle taxis, trucks, pick- of improvement should be considered, or the project ups, agricultural vehicles or intermediate means of should be deferred until it can meet the economic vi- transport (IMT), animal-drawn vehicles, and bicycles; ability threshold. as well as waterborne vessel services. These may fol- low a schedule, be arranged on demand (such as mo- Ideally, a cost-benefit analysis should be used to de- torcycle taxis) or have no schedule. Rural logistics con- termine that each project meets a minimum level of cerns the efficiency of the supply chain from farm gate EIRR (for example, 8 percent). The analysis should to market, including the availability of facilities for take into account estimated investment and mainte- storage and consolidation, and systems to coordinate nance costs and economic benefits over the life of and monitor consignments and backloads. The extent the project. However, it can be difficult to quantify the that rural access infrastructure leads to improved rural socio-economic benefits of rural access projects, par- access depends on the availability, suitability, quality, ticularly for smaller investments where there is no reli- and affordability of transport services, and rural logis- able basis for projecting traffic. The type of economic tical arrangements. analysis should therefore be adjusted depending on project type. It is important to identify opportunities to improve the quality, safety, and competitiveness of private trans- For basic access—and smaller motorcycle trails proj- port services through the use of licensing, fare setting, ects that generally consist of a series of spot improve- and other regulatory measures. In each geographi- ments—it is generally not possible to prepare reliable cal area to be served by a rural access program, the ex ante cost- benefit analysis so economic analysis government should assess the adequacy of transport should be limited to a cost-effectiveness comparison services to meet the needs of the local population, of alternatives. identify the main shortcomings, and formulate regula- tory and other measures to address the shortcomings. For rural roads projects and motorcycle trails invest- This should cover both motorized and nonmotorized ments that involve construction of larger networks, modes. a cost-benefit analysis should be prepared. Because of their higher cost, a cost-benefit analysis is needed One of the problems to examine is whether fare lev- to confirm that expected returns will meet the EIRR els are inflated. In some parts of the world, competi- threshold. The estimated returns should also be con- tion is relatively effective in lowering fares or keeping sidered when prioritizing and sequencing a program fares low. However, in remote rural areas the trans- of rural roads investments. In most cases, a low-quality port services market is generally small, and can only road or track already exists, and this provides a basis support a limited number of operators. In such cases, of existing traffic that can support estimation of eco- infrastructure improvements may only lead to lower nomic benefits. For large motorcycle trail investments, transport fares if competition between operators can there will often be a basis of existing traffic data that be enhanced, or if permissible fares are reduced by can support estimation of economic benefits. the regulator. This has been a significant problem in many African countries, where fares are often several The government should allow a modest proportion times higher than for equivalent services in Asia. One (for example, 15 percent) of LVRR, HVRR, and motor- of the main explanations is that rural transport opera- cycle trail projects to use a lower EIRR threshold if high tors form cartels to share the demand while keeping need and economic potential can be demonstrated. fares high16. For some projects—especially those serving very poor and remote communities—it may be difficult to obtain Regulatory actions may include: measures to improve reliable data, or the available data on traffic and eco- service availability and competition (for example, nomic activity may lead to an underestimation of the changes in vehicle and route licensing arrangements); effect of rural access improvement. steps to enforce service quality and safety standards, 20 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY such as operator, vehicle, and driver licensing; the forms for service hailing and for other innovative ser- promotion of special emergency services to trans- vices that improve the convenience, quality, efficiency, port people to health facilities; and setting fares that and price of freight and passenger services, and to include discounts for vulnerable groups such as chil- extend credit for financing vehicles. A further option dren and the elderly. Given limitations in regulatory for improving the efficiency and competitiveness of capacity, and the difficulties of enforcing regulations transport services and rural logistics is to introduce a in remote areas, such actions need to be relatively web-based text messaging platform to create a mar- easy to carry out and enforce. Local government trans- ketplace linking rural transport service users with ser- port services regulators should periodically consult vice providers, and to help streamline the rural logis- with community representatives, such as village as- tics chain. Such platforms can, for example, automate sociations, to obtain feedback on the performance of the process of scheduling transport services, attract transport services, so that issues— including noncom- better fares as a result of increased competition, and pliance with regulatory provisions—can be known and simplify the tasks of consolidating loads and arranging addressed. storage. They could also be used to bypass inefficient transport services cartels. In some cases, the private Simple roadside produce storage facilities need to be sector is already providing such platforms (such as Lo- established to allow farmers to consolidate produce gistimo in India) but in others, the government needs before collection and reduce losses from perishability. to attract suitable companies or encourage venture Small farmers often face problems in obtaining fair re- capital to finance relevant startups or expansion proj- turns for their produce because of limitations in rural ects (for example, the Shell Foundation). logistics. Since the volume of each farmer’s produc- tion is low, farmers have little choice over who will buy There will also be instances where transport services their produce and are often unable to obtain fair pric- can be improved by extending credit for transport es. The cost of transporting small volumes of produce service operators to invest in vehicle improvements to market is high, partly because transport services and by providing communities with financial support operate at low levels of capacity utilization, and there to purchase a community vehicle or IMT. In remote are problems of empty backloads. In the absence of areas, the supply of tractors, transport vehicles, and basic roadside storage facilities to protect against IMTs is often inadequate at harvest time. weather and infestation, the condition of a farmer’s produce awaiting collection will deteriorate, leading Impact monitoring. Impact monitoring should be in- to lower prices at the time of sale. cluded in national rural access programs to improve evidence available to policymakers on the impact of Alongside planning access improvements, local rural access improvements on inclusive development governments and communities—in collaboration and poverty reduction. with agencies responsible for agriculture and rural development—should identify simple rural logistics The government should appoint a qualified socio- improvements that can be included within the rural economic research institution (such as a national access program. These may include basic access im- research institute or university) to conduct impact provements on the first mile, establishing produce monitoring for a sample of rural access projects. This collection hubs, and the provision of basic storage should use a recognized method of socioeconomic facilities to protect crops against damage while await- impact monitoring that is capable of distinguishing ing collection. They should also take steps to improve outcomes that are attributable to the program from coordination of outbound and inbound consign- those that are not (such as the “double-difference” ments with a view to improving the bargaining power method which measures impact with, without, before, of farmers and improving capacity utilization of trans- and after improvement). port services. Monitoring should cover a sample of rural access im- Encourage the private sector—including business in- provements that is representative of the program as cubators and venture capital—to invest in online plat- a whole. Indicators to be monitored may cover traffic, 21 transport fares, incomes, agricultural activities, enter- ed; and will provide channels of communication for prise development, employment, migration, educa- stakeholders to inform the central and local govern- tion, health, and other social indicators, and should ment of issues arising during implementation. be gender- disaggregated. To the extent possible, indicators should draw upon data that is already re- Politicians and decision makers need to be consulted liably collected by existing statistical surveys (na- at all stages of rural access programs, as their continu- tional census, household income, and expenditure ing support is vital. Other key stakeholders are rural surveys). These can be supplemented by other quan- communities, including poor and vulnerable groups, titative and qualitative indicators obtained through other rural transport users (such as wholesalers), trans- field research. For each rural access improvement to port service providers, the police, institutional stake- be monitored, baseline data should be obtained be- holders in the public and private sectors (including fore improvement. Post-improvement data should be national government, local government, transport collected several years after improvement, as it takes agencies, funding institutions, transport services reg- several years before the full extent of impacts can be ulators, and training organizations), vehicle suppliers observed. (freight and passenger, large and small scale, formal and informal) and suppliers of vehicle support services (manufacturers, importers and retailers, mechanics, 4.4.  Communications toolbox fuel suppliers), civil works contractors, and engineer- Stakeholder involvement. From the earliest stages, ing consulting firms, professional associations, unions, stakeholder involvement plays a critical role in the de- and NGOs. velopment and implementation of a rural access pol- The central ministry or agency responsible for the icy and investment program. The government should program should develop a program website to dis- consult extensively with stakeholders when assessing seminate information, report progress, and support needs and formulating a rural access policy and pro- e-procurement. Initially, this can make information gram, and should establish an overall framework for available on the objective and scope of the program, continuous shareholder consultation during imple- eligibility, implementation guidelines, and supporting mentation. This will help to ensure that the policy and documents. Once implementation is underway, it can program will address the main concerns of stakehold- be used for e-procurement and continuous reporting ers; that stakeholders will have a sense of ownership implementation progress17 over the plans, commitments, and assets being creat- ENDNOTES 13 Many developing countries finance rural access construction programs through a combination of government financing and support from development partners. In some middle-income countries, the government may have the capacity to finance the majority of construction without external support. In addition to earmarking of taxes (e.g. fuel tax) and allocations from the government budget, it may have the option to issue long-term domestic bonds depending on financial market conditions. Some mineral-rich countries may also devote a portion of their mineral tax and royalty revenues to funding a rural access program. In very poor and conflict-affected countries, government revenues may be very low and rural access construction may depend on funding from development partners. 14 Creation of an executive agency can ensure a clear focus on the rural access program which can improve program effectiveness and efficiency. At central level this might take the form of a national rural roads development agency. At local government level, a provin- cial, state or district rural road development agency could be considered. 15 In some very small countries, the central government may take responsibility for procuring contractors. 16 Hine, J. 2014. Good Policies and Practices on Rural Transport in Africa: Planning Infrastructure & Services. SSATP Africa Transport Policy Program, Working Paper No. 100. World Bank: Washington, DC. 17 Some ongoing national rural access programs offer good practice examples of such program websites, notably those of India (http:// www.pmgsy.nic.in/, http://omms.nic.in/, https://pmgsytenders.gov.in/nicgep/app) and Bangladesh (http://www.lged.gov.bd/). 22 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 5.  THE COUNTRY EXPERIENCES This section presents a selection of good practice of measures. These are in Annex B. Lessons from and country examples from different regions and income features of the country examples are shown below (ta- groups. The country examples focus on aspects of ble 5.1) rural access provision highlighted in the catalogue Table 5.1: Summary of Country Experience Based on Case Examples No. Name Lesson Features 1 Prime Minister’s Rural Rural access can • India’s large rural roads program has built 555,650 km of good quality Roads Program, India be transformed by rural roads since 2000 implementing a well- • Policy objective is to connect all areas with at least 500 inhabitants (250 in designed rural roads remote areas) program for 1–2 decades, • To protect against water damage, roads include basic drainage, and most and ensuring that sound are sealed arrangements for rural road • Central government finances investment cost through fuel tax allocation, maintenance are in place state governments commit finance for maintenance • Central government rural roads agency responsible for program design, guidelines, and technical oversight; state government rural roads agencies lead implementation, generally using contractors and supervision consultants 2 Rural access using In countries where • Motorcycle trails use existing earth tracks where these are passable; motorcycle trails, motorcycle ownership and construct trail bridges, narrow sections of pavement, and basic drainage Liberia motorcycle taxi services structures to overcome obstacles and bottlenecks have grown rapidly, rural • Motorcycle taxis are self-funded by the private sector access can be quickly • Motorcycle trails and motorcycle taxis were used for rural access in some provided in the form of low- countries of Asia and Latin America; and there is now high demand in some cost motorcycle trails and African countries simple trail bridges • Motorcycle taxis do involve safety risks; but these can be mitigated through training, safety awareness, and regulation • Following an initial pilot project, the government is developing a national strategy to rapidly improve rural access using motorcycle trails 3 Labor- intensive Routine maintenance • An Asian Development Bank pilot project in China’s Yunnan province perfor- mance-based can be carried out cost- demonstrated that labor-intensive performance based routine maintenance routine mainten- ance, effectively by communities by women’s groups is effective and offers value-for-money China using performance 23 No. Name Lesson Features based methods, and the • Take-up of this approach required preparation of manuals to guide remuneration from this community contractors and their local authority clients, supply of basic work can supplement tools and safety equipment, and theoretical and practical training the incomes of poor • Payments are monthly with set deductions if specified performance households indicators are not met • Following the success of the pilot project, Yunnan provincial government increased its funding of labor-intensive performance-based routine maintenance and encouraged prefectures to adopt this approach 4 The “first mile” Improving first- mile access • With first-mile access limitations, smallholders transport tomatoes from problem, Tanzania and upgrading basic rural farm to roadside mainly by head-loading and also by motorcycle and logistics arrangements and bicycle storage facilities can reduce • The costs of first-mile transport are high, and rise further in rainy season damage to perishable crops • At the roadside, smallholders’ produce needs to be consolidated into larger and fetch better prices loads before collection by transporters and traders • Perishable produce loses value from damage during first-mile transport, delays in roadside collection and lack of roadside storage facilities; these problems also mean that smallholders cannot wait for market prices to improve before selling their produce • There is potential to raise smallholder incomes by improving first mile transport, consolidation, and storage 5 Rural Road Asset The government can • A RAMS is needed to provide reliable road condition data to support Manage- ment in mainstream use of road decision making on rural road construction and maintenance Kwa Zulu Natal, South asset management systems • South Africa’s national S’Hamba Sonke (Moving Together) program Africa (RAMS) for rural roads provides provinces and district municipalities with grants for labor- by developing a suitable intensive road maintenance of secondary and rural roads on the condition RAMS and making access to that they must adopt and implement RAMS grant schemes by regional • South Africa developed an ISO-certified RAMS that is now used by all and local authorities provinces conditional on use of RAMS • Through use of RAMS, provinces such as Kwa-Zula Natal have reframed their strategic objectives for the road network to focus on achieving a specified road network condition and to use RAMS to optimize choice of road construction and maintenance works, estimate budget requirements and continuously monitor performance 6 National Rural Roads Rural access can • More than 60 percent of Morocco’s population live in rural areas Program, Morocco be transformed by • The government decided to increase investment in all-season rural access implementing a well- in the mid-1990s, following a survey that found 82 percent of rural roads designed rural roads were in poor condition and 35 percent of communities suffered from program for 1–2 decades, difficult access and seasonal isolation and ensuring that sound • The first two phases of Morocco’s large rural roads program upgraded arrangements for rural road 27,000 km of rural roads during 1995–2012, raising rural access from 43 maintenance are in place percent to 79 percent against a target of 80 percent. A third phase is now underway 24 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY No. Name Lesson Features • There was initially a problem of lack of maintenance as the maintenance budget for classified rural roads was insufficient and there was no budget for unclassified rural roads, but government addressed these problems including by classifying of unclassified roads • Impact studies confirm that rural roads improvement contributed to lower transport costs and fares, shorter trip times, increased school enrolment and access to medical centers, and growth in traffic 7 Universal Rural Road Labor-intensive contracting • Ethiopia’s rural access program focuses on providing all-season road access Access Program can achieve good quality to all kebele (wards) (URRAP), Ethiopia improvements in rural • The program targeted building 71,523 km of rural roads to provide access access while maximizing to 15,937 kebele which would increase access from 37 percent to 80 construction related percent. By 2014, 36,203 km had been built providing access to 5,837 employment and income kebele generation • Delivery using small-scale labor-intensive contractors has increased construction-related employment and income generation but has been challenging to organize and manage and this contributed to implementation delays in the first phase of URRAP • The URRAP originally favored construction of gravel roads but is now giving increased priority to sealed-surface roads because of difficulties and costs involved in maintenance of gravel roads • Impact studies confirm that providing all-season access has a wide range of positive effects including lower transport cost (including for the “first mile”), shorter journey times, improved transport services and increased use of medical services 8 Causes and circum- Use of motorcycle taxis • In Tanzania, new motorcycle registrations rose from 45,000 in 2008 to stances of motorcycle on rural roads introduced 109,000 in 2012, and annual motorcycle deaths (on all categories of roads) crashes on low volume additional safety risks rose from 309 to 930 rural roads, Tanzania linked to driver and • Study of two rural roads found many examples of unsafe driving of passenger behavior, and motorcycle taxis design and condition of • Most motorcycle drivers had limited formal education, few obtained the road, and proximity to motorcycle driver training, and most were unlicensed pedestrians • Many drivers and passengers are too poor to afford safety equipment • Immediate measures to improve safety include training programs, police enforcement of traffic laws and regulations, behavior change programs to empower passengers, safe design of roads taking into account motorcycle use, appropriate road widths, maintenance to keep roads in safe condition, and speed bumps to be included in the engineering design of road sections passing through settlements and places of pedestrian activity 9 Safe and sustainable The role of private sector • Private company identified gap in the transport services market on Lake water transport on in providing waterborne Victoria and adopted a commercial approach for developing, financing, and Lake Victoria, East services for improving rural operating vessel services Africa access 25 No. Name Lesson Features • Innovative catamaran-based vessel design provides for fast, affordable and safe transport by Water Bus • Since introduction in 2016, services have expanded rapidly, and are now also being considered for the Uganda side of Lake Victoria. 10 Examples of Emerging apps for ride • Safe Boda is a motorcycle taxi hailing app used in Uganda that combines innovative internet hailing, freight hailing the convenience of hailing with improved safety by creating a community platforms and apps for and rural supply chain of motorcycle taxi riders, training them on road safety, equipping them with rural transport services management have safety equipment, and then connecting them with roaming passengers and logistics potential to transform rural • Uber Freight is a mobile app designed to streamline freight booking, transport and logistics particularly for small carriers and shippers that still rely heavily on manual services processes • Logistimo is an open source platform for managing rural supply chains using mobile phones. It is currently deployed in five countries—Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Myanmar, South Sudan, and Zambia—across different types of rural supply chains, including health commodities, agricultural inputs, and energy products Source: Authors 26 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 6.  THE GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION The global roadmap of action outlines a set of prior- roadmap of action highlights those that are most criti- ity measures to be taken by the four defined groups cal for each respective country group. An overview of of countries to achieve affordable and equitable rural the global roadmap is presented in Table 6.1. Details access for all. While most of the items within the cata- are then provided of actions required by each country logue of measures are relevant for all country groups, group. the global Table 6.1: Overview of Global Roadmap of Action Attribute/action Group D countries Group C countries Group B countries Group A countries Country attribute Distance from RAI target Very high High Moderate Low Geographical, climatic, High Moderate Moderate Low-to-moderate demographic difficulties Institutional, technical Low Low-to-moderate Moderate-to-high High and financing capacity Action required Priority types of rural access Basic access and Basic access and Scale up multi- tiered Hard-to-reach places, motorcycle trails motorcycle trails, rural access program and upgrade infrastructure and begin to include more strengthen maintenance services in line with needs, rural roads when maintenance system economically justified Target for SDG 9.1.1 High level of rural High level of rural High level of rural access Universal rural access in access in 10–20 years access in 10–15 years in 10 years 10 years Actions needed for asset Routine maintenance Mainly routine Routine and periodic Routine and periodic sustainability maintenance, some maintenance maintenance rural road periodic maintenance Need for development partner High High to moderate Moderate Low support 27 Source of financing Mainly development Mainly development Development Mainly government, partners with partners, government partners, government local government, and modest government core funding, local core funding, local beneficiaries contribution governments, and government and beneficiaries to beneficiaries contribute Capacity building needs High High to moderate Moderate Low Source: Authors Group D: Countries that have made least progress. from development partners will influence how quickly With difficult geographical, climatic, or demographic a high level of rural access can be achieved. conditions and weaknesses in institutional, technical, and financing capacity, this group of countries has Given the existing limitations in institutional and tech- been unable to make significant progress in improv- nical capacity, from an early stage the rural access pro- ing rural access. The roadmap for this country group gram should give attention to capacity building. This should focus on a limited set of actions to establish a will include building up the unit or agency responsible momentum of rural access improvement, with a view for program in the central ministry and familiarizing to achieving a defined high level of rural access within its staff with rural access planning and implementa- 10–20 years. tion methods. Capacity building support should also be extended to local governments, to prepare them For such countries, rural access policy should give pri- for their roles in the selection and implementation ority to investing in basic access improvements and of infrastructure improvements and the regulation of low-cost motorcycle trails (if motorcycles are common- transport services; and to contractors interested in ly used for transport services). A rural access program working on the program, including community-based focusing on basic access interventions and motorcy- contractors that would use labor-intensive construc- cle trails will bemuch simpler, faster, and less costly to tion methods. implement than one that prioritizes rural roads—rural roads are at least 10–20 times more costly and are To support implementation, the central ministry should more difficult to construct and maintain. While basic develop simple technical standards for basic access access and motorcycle trails require regular routine and motorcycle trails interventions. These should take maintenance, they have only limited requirements for into account the locally available materials that can be periodic maintenance. used in construction. A simple method of climate-risk screening should be included so that climate adap- A central government ministry should develop the tation will be addressed in engineering design when policy and program, guide technical aspects and pre- needed. The ministry should also prepare a techni- pare detailed implementation guidelines to be used cal handbook to provide practical guidance to local during implementation by local government, commu- government and community groups on how to use nities and contractors. labor-intensive contracts for construction and routine maintenance. In most Group D countries, the government will need to obtain support from development partners to pro- The central ministry should prepare a set of project se- vide technical assistance and finance most of the in- lection criteria and disseminate these widely to rural vestment costs of the program. This should potentially communities, to attract their interest in being included be attractive to development partners since the pro- for support under the program. Local governments gram will directly contribute to implementation of should use participatory planning methods to help SDG 9.1.1. The level of resources that can be obtained rural communities propose interventions. Economic 28 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY analysis of basic access and motorcycle trail propos- eration when problems arise during implementation. als should generally be confined to cost-effectiveness It should establish a program website to make infor- comparisons, although cost- benefit analysis should mation available about the program, implementation be prepared for large motorcycle trail projects. procedures, and implementation progress. The web- site may later be extended to include e- procurement Local government should engage engineering design of civil works contracts under the program. and supervision consultants to support preparation and implementation of projects. Because of limita- Group C: Countries that have made some progress. tions in local government finances, in most cases the This country group has made some limited progress costs of these services should be financed by the cen- in improving rural access. It faces similar constraints tral government or development partners. to Group D, but the constraints are less severe. Like Group D countries, the roadmap should focus on Local government should introduce routine mainte- achieving a high level of rural access within 10–15 nance of basic access infrastructure and motorcycle years. This can be achieved mainly by prioritizing basic trails on a pilot basis, with a view to determining effec- access improvements and motorcycle trails, but Group tive approaches and then scaling them up. As long as C countries should also gradually build up support for routine maintenance is carried out competently and investment in rural roads when economically justified. cost-effectively, it should be conducted preferably by community groups receiving remuneration for their In addition to the roadmap measures indicated for work. Models of performance- based routine main- Group D countries, Group C countries should begin tenance by community groups should be included in to incorporate measures for the preparation and im- the pilot testing (for example, the Dehong pilot proj- plementation of rural roads projects as part of the rural ect in China). access program. In view of the much higher cost of rural roads projects, the program should require care- The central and local governments should assess the ful planning, selection and sequencing of rural roads adequacy of transport services and rural logistics in projects. To support this work, the central ministry areas to be served by the program and identify oppor- should prepare a manual on the preparation of rural tunities to improve transport services and rural logis- road network plans, to be used by local governments tics using regulatory and other measures. This could and communities in proposing road projects that will lead to investments in infrastructure improvements, or become part of future rural road networks. Beneficia- in the basic means of transport to support the move- ry communities should also be required to make a ment of produce over the first mile: establishing sim- firm commitment to finance the costs of routine and ple storage facilities near produce collection points; periodic maintenance for all rural roads included in developing improved coordination arrangements for the program, to use RAMS, to implement measures to consolidation and collection of produce; and, in col- protect against road damage due to overloading and laboration with the private sector, introducing online to address road safety. platforms or apps to improve the convenience, qual- ity, and price of freight and passenger services (such When consultants prepare engineering designs for as service hailing and load consolidation). rural road projects, they should incorporate road safe- ty audits. The central ministry should introduce impact mon- itoring of projects within the rural access program. With the inclusion of rural roads in the program, ca- It should appoint a qualified research institution to pacity building should also include the development monitor the impacts of a sample group of projects. of road materials testing and research capacity. The central ministry should arrange for the preparation During formulation and implementation of the ru- of technical and geometric design standards for rural ral access policy and program, the government will roads. It will also need to establish a suitable RAMS need to consult extensively with stakeholders to attract for rural roads and make related data collection tools their participation and obtain their advice and coop- available. 29 For rural roads projects, cost benefit analysis should be nent in-country capacity for road materials testing and used to check that proposed projects will exceed the research. It should also conduct an assessment of the EIRR threshold. Since it can sometimes be difficult to capacity of contractors to execute an expanded ru- quantify the benefits of rural roads projects, a modest ral roads investment program and address identified proportion of projects may be allowed to use a lower limitations both by providing capacity building sup- threshold, if high need and economic potential can port for contractors and by adjusting the approach to be demonstrated. procurement of contractors and contract packaging to attract more bids from capable contractors. The min- Group B: Countries that have made more progress. istry should upgrade the program website to support Group B countries have established moderate-to-high e- procurement of contractors. To control against any levels of institutional, technical, and financing capac- risk of malpractice or corruption, the ministry should ity, and in most cases do not face significant difficul- prepare guidelines on the technical and financial au- ties due to geography, climate, or demography. They diting of rural access projects and recruit a pool of in- have already made good progress in increasing rural dependent experts to undertake audits. access, but a significant minority of the population still lack access (for example, a third). The challenge for Local governments should work with communities to these countries is to scale up their existing rural access prepare rural access network plans. These should pro- program to achieve universal access within 10 years, vide efficient solutions to the selection and sequenc- and to strengthen their approach to maintenance of ing of rural roads projects. their rural access assets so that they will remain in good condition over their intended economic lifetime. An important emphasis for Group B countries will be to put in place reliable approaches to rural road In addition to the roadmap measures indicated for maintenance. For routine maintenance the approach Group C countries, Group B countries should scale up can be similar to Group C countries, preferably using the multi- tiered approach to rural access provision, community groups working on performance-based with a view to not only achieving a high level of ac- contracts. For periodic maintenance, the government cess through basic access and motorcycle trails inter- should establish and implement a RAMS for rural ventions but also to expanding the provision of LVRR roads, or obtain this through outsourcing. It should and HVRR when economically justified. The inclusion also prepare technical manuals, standard bidding of a significant rural roads component will substantial- documents and quality assurance protocols for peri- ly raise total program costs. However, as long as the odic maintenance work. Before approving rural roads roads are well chosen, constructed, and maintained, projects, the government should first require local they should enable significant growth in rural incomes governments and beneficiaries to confirm they will ad- through expansion and upgrading of farming and here to agreed approaches to periodic maintenance other economic activities. and provide a firm commitment to meet the costs of routine and periodic maintenance. This can draw upon Since construction of rural roads is much more costly the example of India’s PMGSY program which requires than basic access and motorcycle trails, the govern- state governments to prepare a state rural roads poli- ment will have to secure a large increase in program cy encompassing maintenance and provide confirma- funding. It may do so, for example, by earmarking fuel tion that sources of financing have been secured for tax revenues to finance the program, and use this to the required levels of road maintenance. leverage additional funding from development part- ners. Group A: Countries that have made most progress. This country group has strong institutional, technical, The central ministry should expand the capacity of its and financing capacity, and is already close to achiev- unit or agency responsible for overseeing the techni- ing universal rural access. While countries may contin- cal aspects of the program. It should develop program ue to seek support from development partners, this implementation guidelines covering rural road proj- may only cover a small share of total program costs. ects, prepare technical and geometric standards for The government’s reason for involving partners may LVRR and HVRR and take steps to establish a perma- 30 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY be more about gaining access to knowledge of best may lead to opportunities for high-value agricultural practice than about obtaining additional financing. production, if advanced logistics, including cold chain The roadmap for Group A countries should focus on management, can be established to meet the prod- achieving universal rural access within 5–10 years, up- uct quality and consistency requirements of the final grading the standard of rural access infrastructure and markets. services in line with economic needs, and establishing improved systems for maintenance of rural access as- The other main emphasis for Group A countries will sets. be to upgrade their approach to routine and periodic maintenance so that it becomes a fully sustainable sys- Group A countries have much in common with Group tem, taking into account the planning, financing, and B. The further challenges for Group A countries are execution dimensions. This will require a review of the to progress from high levels of rural access to univer- existing maintenance performance and the upgrad- sal access, to continue upgrading the quality of rural ing of parts of the existing maintenance system—such access infrastructure and services, and to upgrade as routine maintenance, the RAMS, the adequacy of rural road maintenance to become a fully sustainable existing sources of annual maintenance financing, and system. the quality of periodic maintenance works conducted by contractors. A graphic example the proposed in- To achieve universal access, Group A countries will terventions by country group is in Figure 6.2. need to find solutions for the most remote and diffi- cult to serve habitations, such as those in mountainous, hilly or desert areas. They will need to examine why Figure 6.2: Global Roadmap: Interventions by some habitations have been difficult to serve, identify Country Group technical solutions for some of these cases, and make allowance for other cases to be treated on an excep- Global roadmap: interventions by country group tional basis (for example, providing a rural road even 100 though the threshold EIRR is not met). The rural access program should be retained after % population within 2 km of all season road universal access has been achieved, but its objective should be revised to target sustainable universal ac- cess with a higher quality of service. One option may be to redefine what qualifies as rural access in order to increase the density of coverage. For example, if the 50 program measures access in terms of all-season con- nections to habitations of at least a certain size, the size of qualifying habitations could be reduced by, say, 50 percent. If the program measures access based on being within 2 km of an all-season road, this distance could be reduced, say, to 1 km. Another option is to retain the existing coverage but upgrade infrastruc- 0 ture, transport services, and logistics to a higher stan- Group D Group C Group B Group A dard. Thus, when basic access and motorcycle trails have led to growth in economic activities and traffic Existing access Basic access Motorcyle trails LVRR HVRR levels, a further stage of upgrading to rural road stan- *Alongside targeting universal access, existing access to be selectively dard may be justified; growth in traffic on a LVRR may upgraded to LVRR and HVRR by group A and a lesser extent by group B later justify upgrading to HVRR; and transformation of farming activities following rural access improvement Source: Authors 31 7.  SCALE OF THE CHALLENGE T he Global Roadmap of Action presents an am- ral access types to match their technical and financial bitious but achievable agenda for universal ru- capacity. Group D and Group C countries may initially ral access. Both the scale of the challenge and prioritize basic access and motorcycle trails, which are the potential socio-economic benefits are enormous. simpler to implement, and one-tenth to one-twentieth While comprehensive current global level data on the of the cost of rural roads. Using the Morocco case as RAI is not available, it is expected that in many devel- a baseline (for illustrative purposes only), this would oping countries the achievement of SDG 9.1.1 may reduce total costs to $165–330 million, which is equiv- entail providing access for more than half the rural alent to $5–10 per head of population, or $0.15—$0.30 population. As successful country examples indicate, per head of population for every 1 percent increase in once a sound approach to rural access provision has the RAI. With costs of this lower order of magnitude, been adopted, it is likely to take 10–20 years of imple- spread over a 10–20 year implementation period, it mentation before countries begin to approach univer- should be possible for even the poorest countries to sal access. attain universal rural access. While the roadmap is global, it will be implemented Developing a clear policy commitment that moti- at country level. Countries will need to find solutions vates support and action. A national rural access pro- to the various obstacles and challenges discussed be- gram should potentially benefit a large portion of the low. rural population, and therefore be capable of attract- ing popular support and participation. To gather such Overall scope and cost. Investment costs and fi- support, the government should consult widely with nancing requirements will also be very large. If one rural communities and other stakeholders when pre- considers the example of rural roads provision in Mo- paring the program. It should also make a high-level rocco, an investment of $3.3 billion over 17 years was policy commitment to improving rural access, prefera- required to reduce the RAI from 43 percent to 79 per- bly at the head of government or at least at the senior cent. Taking into account Morocco’s population size of minister level, making it easy for rural people to un- more than 31 million people at the beginning of the derstand why and how rural access will be improved, program, this was equivalent to a total cost of slightly what level of access they can expect, and when this more than $100 per head of population, or around $3 will happen. The commitment should be credible, per head of population for every 1 percent increase in taking into account past attempts to improve rural ac- the RAI. Although the costs were high, Morocco was cess, the availability of resources and the situation in able to afford this level of expenditure and succeeded rural areas to be assisted. in attracting large-scale financing and related support from development partners. In formulating its commitment, the government should choose realistically among the multiple tiers of By providing a menu of rural access types that range rural access improvement, with a view to achieving a from simple and low cost to technically more com- high level of rural access by 2030. As indicated in the plex and higher cost—incorporating the concept of global roadmap, Group D countries should focus on upgrading from one type to another on a staged basic access and motorcycle trails, as should Group basis—the global roadmap of action contains built-in C counties which should also gradually include some mechanisms to allow countries to opt for the mix of ru- rural roads interventions when economically justified. 32 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Group B countries should commit to scaling up a mix any rural access improvement should take into ac- of intervention types, and Group A countries should count the types and locations of the crops to be pro- commit to serving hard-to-reach countries and up- duced in the future and the associated handling and grading of access types in the future, depending on storage requirements needed to secure higher prices. needs. If Group D and Group C countries choose in- Similarly, the development of the rural access network stead to prioritize rural roads, they may only be able to needs to be coordinated with the development of the achieve a small improvement in coverage. Rural roads national transport network. To support coordination, are much more complex and costly to provide, and such other sectors should be invited to take part in these country groups have tightly constrained techni- steering committees for the program at national and cal and financing capacity. local government levels. Securing financing on the scale needed. Many of Building capacity to plan and implement improve- the countries with low levels of rural access face sig- ments. From the earliest stages of a rural access nificant fiscal constraints that limit their capacity to fi- program, considerable attention should be given nance rural access investments. They should examine to building local capacity. This includes the capacity the scope for introducing an earmarked tax, such as a of the central ministry or agency to provide techni- fuel tax, to increase government funding for the rural cal leadership, guidance, and oversight for the pro- access program. Notwithstanding such efforts, they gram; the capacity of local governments to lead the will need to work closely with development partners planning and implementation of infrastructure and that can help bridge the gap in available investment services improvements; the capacity of communities financing. Since the program will be directly aligned to take part in community level planning of access with implementing the SDGs, many development improvements; the skills of private contractors to ex- partners could be receptive to providing financing ecute program works; and the organization and skills support. Among the critical requirements for attract- of community groups and local authorities to imple- ing their support will be the quality of the program, ment labor-intensive approaches to the construction its appropriateness to country circumstances, and the of basic access and motorcycle trails, and the routine level of improvement in rural access that is targeted. maintenance of rural access assets. Communications and outreach. To mobilize sup- Appropriate technology. Countries need to incor- port and participation in the rural access program, porate appropriate technologies that can improve the stakeholders need to be informed about the program performance and lower the cost of rural access pro- though communications and outreach. A successful grams. This includes research into methods of using communication strategy will create a sense of own- locally available construction materials and the devel- ership among individuals, households, communities, opment of new types of motorized and nonmotorized and institutions involved. This will require use of multi- vehicles. Where possible, countries should establish ple methods of communication and outreach, includ- a national road material testing and research unit to ing promotion by national, regional, and local political progressively build up understanding of suitable lo- leaders, meetings at the village and district levels, dis- cal materials and how these can be used and, in some semination of leaflets and related materials, the use cases, modified. In some Group D or Group C coun- of television and radio, social media, and a program tries, it may take some years before a national unit can website. Such outreach should be translated into local be established, so it would be important to develop languages. cooperation with neighboring countries that have such a unit, and to make use of regional initiatives Institutional coordination. To realize its potential im- such as ReCAP. pacts, a rural access program needs to be coordinat- ed with programs in other relevant sectors, including Future maintenance. Even when rural access im- rural development, agriculture, small and medium en- provements are successfully implemented, the bene- terprise development, poverty reduction, and health fits may be short-lived unless rural access assets are and education provision. If a community is being as- adequately maintained. Countries need to carefully sisted through an agricultural development program, plan their annual maintenance works, provide suffi- 33 cient annual funding to carry these out, and execute ment opportunities, migration may swell urban pover- maintenance works efficiently and cost-effectively. ty and unemployment and be accompanied by rising In the case of Group D and Group C countries, giv- crime and social problems. In this latter case, a country ing priority to basic access and motorcycle trails will should mitigate such problems by coordinating rural reduce the amount of maintenance needed. Com- access interventions with programs to attract invest- munity groups can be assisted to carry out routine ment and create employment in urban areas. maintenance, preferably using performance-based approaches. In the case of Group B and Group A Other possible negative effects include: increases in countries, which are expected to invest more in rural road crashes, injuries and fatalities from the higher roads, a functioning RAMS needs to be established use of motor vehicles; spread of infectious diseases and used. As indicated in the Catalogue of Actions, including HIV/AIDS, and increases in human traffick- before agreeing to finance rural roads investments in ing. Road safety should be built into rural access pro- a particular region or district, the central government grams—including road safety engineering measures should obtain a convincing maintenance commitment identified by road safety audits, driver testing, and ed- from the local authority concerned, covering RAMS, ucational programs to support safe behavior. Risks of the level and source of annual maintenance financing, HIV/AIDS and human trafficking should be examined and the approach to execution. Based on the example for each rural access improvement and, where risks of India’s PMGSY program, such commitments could are found to be significant, educational programs take the form of a regional or district level rural road should be provided to help rural residents mitigate maintenance policy to be reviewed and endorsed by the risks. the central government. Monitoring indicators. The existing lack of available Adverse effects and uncertainties. In addition to data on the RAI and other rural access monitoring in- positive effects on economic and social development, dicators is an obstacle to tracking progress at country, improvement of rural access can also have negative regional, and global levels. Ongoing efforts by ReCAP, effects. Rural access can lead to higher rural-urban mi- DFID, the World Bank and others to develop effective gration. This is more likely in rural areas that have less approaches to RAI and traffic data collection, using agricultural potential. If urban areas have abundant new technologies, are being stepped up with a view employment opportunities—as was the case for rural- to confirming a feasible new approach within the near urban migration in China over the last few decades— future (within 3 years). This can then be made avail- migration to areas with greater economic potential able to countries—together with capacity building and may be a necessary step toward raising productivity advisory support—to be introduced for tracking prog- and income levels. If there are fewer urban employ- ress in rural access improvement. 34 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY ANNEX A. RURAL ACCESS TYPES AND CHARACTERISTICS Higher volume Characteristic Basic access Motorcycle trails Low volume rural roads rural roads Type of rural Existing earth roads and Narrow earth or surfaced Earth roads, gravel Surfaced roads, paved access tracks, low-cost trail bridges, tracks, low- cost trail roads, low cost surfacing, roads, engineered bridges causeways, waterborne bridges, causeways engineered bridges or Transport landing sites, causeways Airstrips Main means of Pedestrians, bicycles, IMTs, Motorcycles, bicycles, Motor vehicles, motorcycles, Motor vehicles, motorcycles, transport served motorcycles, vessel services, pedestrians bicycles, IMTs bicycles some motor vehicles; Aircrafts Main transport Informal services Formal for air Motorcycle taxis Motorcycle taxis, private Motorcycle taxis, private service providers transport passenger and freight passenger and freight services Airservices services Typical traffic <50 motorcycles and bicycles 50–100 motorcycles 50–200 100–500 level (vehicles (for roads and tracks) per day) a Level of Routine maintenance to clear Routine maintenance to • Routine maintenance to • Routine maintenance to maintenance vegetation, unblock drainage, clear vegetation, unblock clear vegetation, unblock clear vegetation, unblock needed control erosion Maintenance of drainage, control erosion drainage, control erosion drainage, , control landing sites and airstrips • Grading (earth and erosion, repair potholes gravel) • Periodic overlay or reseal • Regravelling (gravel) of surfaced roads Type of Spot improvements to allow Spot improvements on Engineering improvements Construction of engineered improvement vehicles to pass in all seasons steep gradients weak to sections (spot) or entire road with drainage e.g. footbridge, ford, culvert, soils and water- crossings roads steep gradients, weak soils, Engineered tracks vessel landing facilities Objective of Remove blockages to achieve Faster, safer and more Use by a range of vehicle Use by all vehicle types, improvement all-season access convenient access using types, increase safe driving increase safe driving motorcycle taxis speeds, some roughness speeds, roughness reduction reduction Cost Low Low Medium High Source: Authors; Lebo and Shelling, 2004; Hine, 2014. a These typical traffic ranges provide a broad indication of the traffic level that the different rural access types may be suitable to serve. In some countries and settings, there will be exceptions where a higher or lower range should be used, for example in densely or sparsely populated or re- mote settings, or where the availability of low cost seals using local materials makes it feasible to adopt sealed pavements at lower traffic volumes. Note: IMT=intermediate means of transport. 35 ANNEX B. COUNTRY GOOD PRACTICE EXAMPLES 1. Prime Minister’s Rural Roads Program, extended to all unconnected habitations with a pop- India ulation of 1,000 or more by the year 2003, for all with a population of 500 or more by 2007, and for all with In 2000, the Government of India launched the Prime a population of 250 or more by 2007 in hilly, desert or Minister’s Rural Roads Program, known as Pradhan tribal areas as defined by India’s constitution. Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), to provide the country’s rural population with all-season road con- This approach had several advantages. First, data on nections. Since then, PMGSY has been the largest na- size of habitations is regularly collected by the gov- tional rural roads program in the world. By 2018, it had ernment and available at central, state, and local lev- completed 550,650 kilometers (km) of all-season rural els. This provided an easy and reliable way to identify roads connecting 139,671 habitations. The quality of which inhabited areas qualify in terms of population roads built has generally been good, and improved size; those that lacked an all- weather road connec- road connectivity has enabled economic and social tion were then included under PMGSY. Second, the development in the areas assisted. transparency of this approach curtailed the scope for eligibility to be manipulated (such as by corrupt of- PMGSY includes many features and approaches that ficials). Third, members of the rural population could may be of interest to other countries. This case study also verify the eligibility of their community. For areas briefly discusses five aspects: the overall policy objec- that were eligible, this created a positive expecta- tive, implementation arrangements, financing, techni- tion for residents and encouraged them to take part cal scope, and maintenance of completed roads. in planning of their all-weather road connections. Fourth, PMGSY made allowance for the needs of more Prior to 2000, India had about 2.7 million km of rural remote and disadvantaged groups, lowering the size roads, but these were generally of poor quality result- threshold for habitations in hilly, desert and tribal ar- ing from lack of investment and inadequate mainte- eas. Fifth, the use of size thresholds helped to focus nance. The government came to recognize that this investment on areas with the potential to grow eco- was holding back economic growth and poverty re- nomically and avoided the issues of high cost and low duction. Some 70 percent of the population was liv- sustainability if even smaller areas were served. ing in rural areas, but 40 percent of rural habitations lacked an all-weather road connection. Studies sug- Financing. When preparing PMGSY, the government gested that investment in rural roads would have a recognized that state and local governments lacked greater poverty reduction impact than investment in the revenue base needed to finance the investment most other sectors, including health and education. costs. It therefore committed to financing 100 percent Against this background, the government decided of investment costs, while requiring state governments to introduce a major rural roads investment program. and local councils (panchayats) to finance future main- Drawing upon Indian and international experience it tenance. An important part of this arrangement was developed a comprehensive new approach through that state level implementation would follow national PMGSY.18 guidelines, procedures, and technical standards es- tablished by the government19 Overall policy objective. The government framed its overall objective for PMGSY on the basis of communi- The government identified that PMGSY would have to ty size. All-weather rural road connections were to be upgrade a total of 738,000 km of rural roads to pro- 36 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY vide all- weather connections for more than 170,000 puter-based systems—including a system for road eligible habitations, at an estimated cost of $30 bil- planning and maintenance, e-tendering and procure- lion. This was enormous sum, even for a country as ment, and online monitoring management and ac- large as India. To finance its contribution, the govern- counting—and made these available for use at state ment allocated 50 percent of the excise duty (cess) on level21. high-speed diesel. This was expected to cover 30–40 percent of annual costs, with a further 10 percent to State governments were required to establish effec- be provided by Asian Development Bank (ADB) and tive state-level implementation arrangements. To lead the World Bank, leaving a funding gap of 50–60 per- state- level implementation, states generally estab- cent of annual costs. In general, the funding gap led to lished a state rural roads development agency (SR- implementation of PMGSY being spread over a longer RDA). The SRRDA worked closely with panchayats in period than originally planned. Program completion participatory planning of future rural roads networks, (100 percent coverage) is now scheduled for 2019, so in compliance with the PMGSY implementation guide- by completion, the total implementation period will lines. Execution of works was outsourced to private have been nearly 20 years. In the early years, state im- contractors and detailed project preparation and su- plementation capacity may often have been more of a pervision of works were often outsourced to consult- constraint than funding. In later years, as the govern- ing firms. The SRRDA model gave greater flexibility ment looked to complete the program, it was able to compared with managing implementation from with- reduce the funding gap by introducing cost sharing in a state government department, which also helped with states. By that time, the revenue base of states in attracting well-qualified staff. Outsourcing of civil had grown after years of rapid economic growth, part- works using national standard bidding documents ly attributable to the enabling effect of PMGSY roads. helped to ensure value-for-money. Another advan- tage was that the SRRDA did not require a very large Implementation arrangements. PMGSY adopted a staff and could eventually be downsized or closed centralized approach to program design and over- once PMGSY construction works came to an end. sight, while implementation responsibilities were as- signed to the state governments. The Ministry of Rural Technical scope. A distinguishing feature of PMGSY Development (MORD) had overall responsibility for was that most of the roads built were sealed and includ- the program. Since PMGSY was a priority program of ed basic drainage to protect against water damage. the Prime Minister, MORD was required to regularly Previously, it had been common to provide unsealed report progress to the Prime Minister. This raised the earth and gravel rural roads since the investment cost profile of program and helped to ensure cooperation was lower. However, it was difficult to keep unsealed at all levels. roads in good condition. In monsoon conditions they were subject to damage from water and, even in drier When PGMSY was originally being prepared, MORD conditions, they required frequent maintenance. To obtained inputs from a wide range of national experts contain the costs of providing sealed roads, PMGSY (such as Indian Road Congress) in order to develop road carriageways were limited to a 3.75-meter width, suitable technical standards and implementation ar- or 3 meters on roads with lower traffic. rangements, taking into account differences between states. In 2002, it established a dedicated agency, the Maintenance of completed roads. From the out- National Rural Roads Development Agency (NRRDA), set, the government recognized that the longer-term to provide it with technical and management support. impact of PMGSY would depend upon rural roads The NRRDA was responsible for providing technical assets being well maintained. To ensure adequate leadership, capacity building and overseeing imple- maintenance during the initial years of operation, mentation by states, including compliance with the construction contracts included a five-year defects li- national guidelines, procedures, and standards, and ability period during which the contractors remained establishing quality monitoring and audit systems20. responsible for routine maintenance. As a condition To support uniform approaches to management of for taking part in the program, states had to commit PMGSY projects, the NRRDA introduced various com- to taking responsibility for the planning, financing, 37 and execution of routine and periodic maintenance. cost, and effort; reduce people’s time for agricultural In particular, states had to make specific commitments work; and limit their access to health care and edu- on the level and source of future maintenance financ- cation. Public and private service providers—such as ing. For example, states could commit a revenue vaccination teams and suppliers of agricultural inputs source, such as an agricultural markets tax, to be used and retail goods—were discouraged by the difficulty to finance maintenance. Over the course of PMGSY of reaching remote villages. implementation, the NRRDA provided states with technical guidance and tools for maintenance plan- One way of making pedestrian journeys safer and ning, and states progressively approved state-level shorter has been to construct pedestrian trail bridges rural roads maintenance policies that formalized their over rivers. In mountainous countries like Nepal and commitment and defined their approach to ensuring Lesotho, such bridges have greatly improved rural that rural road assets were kept in good condition. access. In Nepal, 6,500 trail bridges have been built, with 350 more added each year. While the trail bridg- In conclusion, the PMGSY rural roads program has es were not originally designed for motorcycles, some extended rural access in India on an unprecedented people realized that motorcycles could also use such scale. It is perhaps the leading best-practice example infrastructure to ride along some of the pedestrian of a national rural roads program, includes many fea- trails. tures relevant to other countries, and is especially rel- evant for large middle-income countries. The past thirty years have seen huge increases in the use of motorcycles in rural areas in Africa, Asia, and Latin America24. Motorcycles are often the most com- 2. Rural access using motorcycle trails, mon vehicles on rural roads, and in some areas, they Liberia account for three-quarters of pedestrian and freight For villages situated away from the road network and movements. In most countries in West Africa and in navigable waterways, the access of women, men, East Africa, motorcycle taxis (known by various names, and children to markets, healthcare, and important including okadas, bodabodas, penpens) are an in- services is severely limited by the time and effort creasingly common and important means of transport required for walking and carrying goods. This "first- in rural areas. Both bicycles and motorcycles are thin, mile” constraint can be greatly reduced if affordable, linear vehicles that do not require wide roads, and motorized transport, such as motorcycles, can reach can even travel along footpaths—as people in many the villages. Motorcycles can travel along simple earth off-road villages have discovered. Just as the surge trails, and over low-cost trail bridges. Following suc- in motorcycle ownership was a spontaneous, mar- cessful pilot initiatives in Liberia,22 and building upon ket-driven process (that took many planning and reg- evidence from many countries, the Ministry of Public ulatory authorities by surprise), so the start of using Works in Liberia has been developing a strategy to motorcycles along village-access trails has often been enable all off-road villages in the country to be con- spontaneous and user led. In several Asian countries— nected to the road network through motorcycle trails including Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Vietnam—local and trail bridges.23 authorities have responded to the demand for two- wheel access to villages by providing simple trail infra- The problem of access for people in off-road villag- structure (sometimes using bricks or concrete strips) es remains serious in Liberia and many other coun- and simple bridges for use by pedestrians, bicycles, tries. Historically, people in villages located away from and motorcycles. In Liberia there have been pilot proj- roads (and waterways and rail lines) had little choice ects to assist community-based organizations (CBOs) but to walk along footpaths to reach the road network. to construct trails that can be used by motorcycles to Journeys to markets, clinics, schools, shops and gov- reach off-road villages, and the results have been en- ernment services always began with walking, some- couraging. times very long distances. All goods had to be car- ried by people or animals, and sick people also had Like many countries, Liberia is gradually rehabilitating to be carried. This could require considerable time, its existing rural road network, but the cost of rapid- 38 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY ly expanding rural roads to reach all villages is pro- rising to $2,000 when simple wooden bridges and hibitive25. As part of its development of a Multimod- culverts are included (assuming one bridge every 2 al Transport Masterplan, the Ministry of Public Works km, with local timber supplied). In 2018, in coopera- and the Ministry of Transport initiated a new strategy tion with the Bridges to Prosperity NGO, surveys will designed to complement the rural road program. be conducted to identify priority sites for trail suspen- The aim is to gradually connect all off-road villages to sion bridges suitable for pedestrians and motorcy- the road network through motorcycle trails and trail cles. Allowing for one 20 m steel truss bridge every bridges. This new category of transport infrastructure 20 km and one 70 m suspension bridge every 70 km is not an alternative to rural roads, but a means of rap- of track, brings the average price of trails with bridges idly increasing people’s basic access that adds to the to $5,000 per km. Allowing use of concrete for spot impact of rural roads, with many beneficial outcomes improvement paving of difficult sections increases the for the rural population. overall average price to $10,000 per km (assuming 1 km of concrete paving per 20 km of earth trail). The vision of the Liberia Multimodal Transport Master- plan is that, by constructing motorcycle trails and trail With the relatively low cost of connecting off-road vil- bridges, all off-road villages in Liberia can be connect- lages to the road network, and the specific benefits to ed to the expanding rural road network within a few women, children, health, agricultural marketing, and years, at an affordable price. education, several donor agencies have expressed Pilot trails have been successfully constructed in Libe- interest in supporting motorcycle trails in their geo- ria by community-based organizations (CBOs). One graphical and thematic areas of interest. This will al- project was funded by the German Development low a variety of decentralized and separately-funded Agency (GIZ) as part of its post-Ebola health program. trail-development initiatives to be coordinated and As soon as these trails were completed, motorcycle facilitated by the technical unit of Ministry of Public taxis started to serve the off-road villages, and village Works. The Ministry of Transport is implementing a access to markets and health centers increased mark- complementary motorcycle safety capacity building edly. Moreover, after motorcycle access had been initiative, supported by GIZ. provided, a water and sanitation NGO sent agents to The vision of the Liberian Multimodal Transport Mas- the targeted villages to help install clean water and terplan is that, by constructing motorcycle trails and carry out a latrine-building program. The changes trail bridges, all off-road villages in Liberia could be have been transformational. People and goods in vil- connected to the expanding rural road network within lages located more than 6 km from the road can now a few years, at an affordable price. The envisaged ben- be transported by motorcycle: these off-road villages efits for women, men, and children will be great, as now have motorcycle access to the national road net- it will be much easier to market agricultural produce work. and reach the health facility for routine and emergen- The labor-based tasks of trail clearing and simple cy health care. Similar initiatives could be adopted in shaping for drainage can be undertaken by CBO other countries, tailored to local needs, conditions, women and men, at a cost of about $1,000 per km, and perceptions. 39 Construction of trail and wooden bridges can be un- Building on an earlier technical assistance, the pilot dertaken by CBOs, supported by simple guidelines, project was approved in 2010 as an output of the appropriate training, and engineering advice. Trail Asian Development Bank (ADB)-financed Yunnan suspension bridges and truss bridges require techni- Integrated Road Network Development Project. It cal standards that are already available internationally. sought to demonstrate that labor-intensive, perfor- A small technical unit for trails and trail bridges can mance-based maintenance by women’s groups could provide advice to decentralized rural authorities re- be effective and offer value-for-money, and to provide sponsible for the implementation. technical manuals and training modules to support fu- ture upscaling. While most residents of off-road villages praise the benefits of motorcycle trails and trail bridges, it is im- The pilot project was implemented from 2012 to 2015. portant that this infrastructure option is presented as It began by assisting communities to form mainte- complementary and additional to the rural road pro- nance groups registered with the county communica- gram. tions bureau (CCB). To be considered for membership of the group, candidates needed to show interest, be Motorcycles can bring great benefits, and are aged 18–55 years, and live near the road. People with self-funded by the private sector, but they are not free leadership skills and basic literacy and numeracy were of risks and costs. Investments in appropriate training, given preference. At least 60 percent of members safety awareness, regulation and compliance should were to be female, 40 percent from ethnic minority accompany trail investments to mitigate the safety groups, and 50 percent from poor households. hazards that can be associated with motorcycle taxis. Each group initially received a half-day of theoretical 3. Labor-intensive, performance-based training on the causes of road deterioration and the routine maintenance, China roles of different types of maintenance in slowing or halting deterioration. When groups were awarded A pilot project implemented between 2011 and 2015 a maintenance contract, members received up to a in the Dehong Dai and Jingpo Ethnic Autonomous day of practical training in conducting maintenance Prefecture (“Dehong”) of China’s Yunnan Province has tasks using a range of tools. They also received man- demonstrated that poor communities can achieve agement training to help in planning, organizing, and high standards of routine maintenance of rural roads managing of work, including preparation of weekly using a labor-intensive performance-based approach. work plans, monitoring of days worked, and taking part in monthly performance-based road inspections. Situated along China’s border with Myanmar, Dehong The groups also received on-the-job training on an Prefecture has a population of 1.2 million, 42 percent ongoing basis. of whom are from ethnic minority groups. In 2010, poverty rates in Dehong were much higher than in The size and workload of each group was based on other parts of the province—with county-level pover- the idea that group members will spend half their ty rates of 31 percent in Ruili and 39 percent in Luxi, time on maintenance and half on farming and other compared with a provincial rural poverty rate of 15.2 household activities. This made it easier for communi- percent. ty members to participate, especially women. In 2010, only 27 percent of Dehong’s rural roads Through the pilot project the approach to routine (township and village roads) were in good condition. maintenance work was standardized. Three catego- This was partly due to limitations in the system of com- ries of routine maintenance were distinguished. The munity members conducting routine maintenance on first was clearing obstructions, including landslides, a voluntary basis. In practice, community members side drains, culverts, bridges and vegetation. The sec- were often too busy with farming and other activities ond was repairing minor damage to unpaved roads, to spare time for routine maintenance; and those tak- stone pavements, road shoulders, drainage system- ing part were mainly women and the poor who lacked sand retaining walls. The third was creating protec- necessary skills, tools, and motivation26. tion measures such as side drains, water bars, paved 40 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY crossings, retaining walls and planting vegetation. Ten the share of the rural population with access to an items of equipment were specified for use by mainte- all-season road reached 80 percent. nance groups—pickaxe, hoe, shovel, rake, bush knife, earth rammer, watering can, basket, wheelbarrow and The pilot project demonstrated that satisfactory lev- tractor-trailer. Five types of repair materials were spec- els of routine maintenance could be achieved within ified—gravel, paving stones, stones, cement, and bind- the province’s existing per km funding allocation for ing wire27. routine maintenance, and this offered value-for-mon- ey compared with other delivery models. As a result, The performance-based contracting model provided Yunnan Province changed its policy on use of the pro- fixed monthly payments per km maintained, subject vincial fuel tax subsidy by raising the proportion that to deductions if road performance indicators were not can be used for routine maintenance to 50 percent. It achieved. Eight performance indicators were chosen also encouraged other prefectures to adopt the per- to represent the main aspects of routine maintenance formance-based approach. needed to ensure a road would be passable in all sea- sons. These covered road surface, road shoulder, side The pilot project showed that labor-intensive road drains, culverts, bridges, vegetation, landslides and maintenance can also play an important role in sup- retaining walls. In each case, the performance indica- plementing the incomes of poor households. On av- tor specified the maximum extent of defects above erage, CCBs paid CNY2470 per km each year for rou- which deductions would apply. For example, the road tine maintenance (about $390). More than 80 percent surface performance indicator stated: “In gravel and of this was for fixed monthly payments of remunera- earthen surfaces there are no potholes larger than 30 tion to maintenance groups. The average wage was cm and no ruts or rills deeper than 5 cm, and water CNY44 per day, and workers earned up to CNY4,000 does not flow over or remain on the road. Repairs to annually. gravel surfaces have been made using suitable gravel The guide for local governments and manual for material. In stone-paved surfaces there are no loose maintenance groups28 that were produced by the stones, and newly formed holes are filled with new or pilot project are of high quality and could be readily recovered stones.” adapted for use in other countries. In addition to the fixed monthly payments, the county communications bureau provided groups with tools 4. The “first-mile” problem, Tanzania and safety equipment, accident assurance for work- The International Forum for Rural Transport and De- ers, and also met the costs of transporting materials velopment prepared a pilot study of “first mile” move- to the roadside. ments of crops from farm to market in Tanzania. This In conclusion, the use of performance-based remu- examined the movement of tomatoes in Kilolo Dis- neration was effective in motivating groups to carry trict, Iringa Region in 2015. The study was funded by out routine maintenance to a satisfactory standard. It the Africa Community Access Partnership29. also greatly simplified supervision and inspection, as First-mile transport refers to the portion of the trans- monthly inspections only needed to observe the road port logistics chain between the smallholder farm condition. The training and other support provided and the first point of commercial interface (collection group members with the additional knowledge and point, motorable road, or first market in immediate skills needed to undertake maintenance. proximity). This portion is often a critical transport bot- The pilot project was originally to maintain 650 km of tleneck for agricultural products, such as tomatoes, rural roads. However, in 2012 Dehong Prefecture is- vegetables, and fruits, that are time sensitive because sued a regulation to scale up the approach in each of of perishability or at risk of bruising and other dam- its five counties. As a result, by 2015, a total of 4,714 age when transported on rough roads and tracks. km of rural roads had been maintained by 69 village Fruit and vegetables are in high demand in the grow- maintenance groups. The share of Dehong’s rural ing urban centers of Tanzania and other African coun- roads in good condition had risen to 54 percent, and 41 tries. Many farmers would like to produce fruits and farmers in the villages, with an average of 0.4 hectares vegetables because they command high prices, are (1 acre) of each farm under tomato cultivation. Aver- suitable for smallholder farming, and have a shorter age tomato production per hectare was 7 tons per growing time (from planting to harvest) compared season. The average profit from tomato production with traditional staples and cash crops. was approximately TZS331,867 ($166) per farmer. Tomatoes are a particularly high-value commodity, Farmers were selling their tomatoes to traders from with strong demand not only in Iringa Region but also Iringa, Dar es Salaam, and Dodoma. Traders typically in the more distant markets of Dar es Salaam, Dodoma visited the area ahead of transport in order to orga- and Morogoro. Tomatoes are very time-sensitive crops nize consolidation from different farmers at collec- that need to be transported to market soon after har- tion points along the main road. The farm gate pric- vest because of their perishability. Their fragility also es for tomatoes are highly variable, with seasonality means that the manner in which they are transported and availability of transport being key factors. During can lead to squashing and bruising, which reduces peak harvest periods (July to November), the price of the price they can fetch. a 60-kilogram (kg) bag can be as low as TZS4,000 ($2) while in periods of scarcity (March to June) it rises to A key factor affecting the profitability of growing high- TZS10,000–25,000 ($5–12.5). value products such as tomatoes is the reliability of transport services linking farmers to markets. Small- The price of tomatoes rises as they proceed along the holder farmers produce low volumes that need to be transport logistics chain from farm gate to intermedi- consolidated before transportation. Consolidation ate and major markets. Prices in major markets can be also requires communication and coordination with 250 percent higher than at farm gate. traders who collect the produce from roadside collec- tion points and transport them to markets. Few farmers own means of transport. Seventy-seven percent of farmers reported they did not own any, There is an emerging structure to the way transport while 19 percent own a bicycle, 2 percent own a mo- service for smallholder agriculture is organized. Typ- torcycle, and 2 percent own a pickup truck or small ically, this involves several transport segments with car. Transport from farm to roadside is mainly by head individual characteristics and costs. The primary trans- loading (89 percent), bicycle (7 percent), and motorcy- port segment is from the farm to collection or con- cle (4 percent). Transport problems are mainly experi- solidation points, typically found at the key junctions enced during the rainy season, when parts of the road of motorable, low- volume roads. Key actors in the become impassable or can only be accessed with dif- transport system are the farmers who use their own ficulty. The average distance from farm to roadside is (household) means of transport, such as headloading 1–2 km in the dry season, but as much as 4 km in the or backloading, animal carts, bicycles, and sometimes rainy season. This is because the villages of Isoliwaya motorcycles. The intermediate transport segment is and Luwiva cannot be reached by motorized transport from the primary collection points to an intermediate in the rainy season, and their nearest consolidation traders’ market. Key actors in this segment are trans- point becomes the village of Itimbo. porters and traders, including better-off farmers who may also act as traders. The final segment is from the The average transport cost per ton-km on normal days intermediate traders’ market to the big urban markets, was TZS10,000 ($5) for head loading and TZS6,700 using the main arterial road networks. Key actors here ($3.35) for using motorcycles. When first mile road are also transporters and traders. conditions are difficult, such as on rainy days, the ton- km cost of head loading rises 50 percent, to TZS15,300 The first-mile study covered Kilolo District’s eight to- ($7.65) and the cost of using motorcycles rises 20 per- mato growing villages, namely Ibohola, Ihimbo, Isoli- cent, to TZS15,300 ($7.65). waya, Itimbo, Iwonde, Luwiva, Mlandege and Ndiwi- ri. There is only one tomato season each year. In the Typically, perishable products are produced in high- 2014–15 season, there were 127 smallholder tomato land areas, where road maintenance is difficult and expensive because of rainfall and terrain. First-mile 42 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY transport issues affect many perishable and fragile poverty, unemployment, and deprivation. The provin- products. When transport is poor and storage facili- cial road network consists of 32,609 km, comprising ties are unavailable, farmers have no bargaining pow- 13,175 km of main roads, 11,715 km of district roads er with traders. and 7,719 km of local roads30. Most district and rural roads are graveled, and are managed either by Kwa- In conclusion, consolidation of small volumes of Zulu-Natal Department of Transport (KZN-DOT) or goods is important for the movement of agricultural the 10 district municipalities. The estimated current produce in rural areas (also for freight such as farm replacement cost of these road assets is over R100 inputs, stock for shops, and household goods). First- billion ($8 billion). mile transport using motorcycles, together with coor- dination of farmers and traders using mobile phones, Before DOT can allocate S’Hamba Sonke Programme can be very useful to support consolidation and the grants for road maintenance, it requires provinces early shipment of loads. There is considerable poten- to provide information on the exact length of these tial to raise farmers’ incomes if produce can be con- roads, the value of the road infrastructure, and its solidated and loaded onto a truck close to the harvest condition. This reflects the aim of the grant program location and taken directly to market. Further research to ensure efficient and effective investment in rural funded by DFID-UKAID is being undertaken in Tanza- roads through the development and use of RAMS. To nia (and Kenya) on the key issues relevant to improv- support the program, KZN-DOT assisted district mu- ing First Mile access. nicipalities to set up and operate the RAMS, includ- ing collection of detailed data on road km, value, and 5. Rural Road Asset Management in Kwa condition of road assets such as pavements, bridges, Zulu Natal, South Africa drainage structures, guardrails, and sidewalks. South Africa’s Department of Transport (DOT) intro- In 2013, all South African provinces adopted an im- duced the S’Hamba Sonke (Moving Together) Pro- proved, domestically-produced RAMS that is ISO gramme to provide grants for labor-intensive road 55000 certified. The RAMS has nine parts, covering maintenance of secondary roads and rural roads, general and organization, inventory data, asset valu- while requiring participating provinces and district ation, usage and condition data, indices, situational municipalities to implement and maintain road as- analysis, needs determination, asset management set management systems (RAMS) to support deci- plans and the feedback loop. It can produce a variety sion-making on road construction and maintenance. of asset management plans. For example, it can iden- Taking the case of Kwa-Zulu Natal, one of South Af- tify service delivery needs and gaps, and estimate an rica’s nine provinces, the programme has successful- approved multiyear budget for the most cost-effective ly extended the use of RAMS for managing the rural method of delivering these. It can also provide a busi- roads network. ness case for the most feasible options, including pro- jections of full life-cycle-costs, funding sources, and The S’Hamba Sonke Programme was introduced in risk assessment31. 2011, following a Road Construction and Mainte- nance Summit hosted by DOT in 2010 that had drawn KZN-DOT’s strategic objective for maintenance is “to attention to the lack of reliable road condition data to maintain the provincial road network in a sustainable support decision making. KwaZulu-Natal joined the manner so that [not more than] 10 percent of the road programme in 2011, with a view to obtaining grants network is in a poor to very poor condition, to ensure for labor-intensive rural road maintenance and com- the safety of road users and the retention of network mitted to introducing RAMS for managing the rural asset value.” Through use of the RAMS, KZN-DOT is road network. now able to continuously update the length, condi- tion, and asset value of the rural road network and to KwaZulu-Natal is South Africa’s second most popu- plan future road construction and maintenance works lous province, with a population of about 10.6 million in line with policy objectives. In its annual perfor- people. It is predominantly rural, with high levels of mance reporting it also reports on the proportion of 43 the network in poor or very poor condition, the level cent were paved and 64 percent were unpaved. Both of annual maintenance funding received as a propor- paved and unpaved roads had a 4-meter (m) carriage- tion of the funding needed, and the annual outputs of way with two 1m shoulders. As a result of NRRP1, rural road rehabilitation, resealing and patching32. access increased from 43 percent in 1995 to 54 per- cent in 2005. Conditional road maintenance grants that require re- cipients to have a functioning RAMS are a good prac- In 2002, a further DOR study identified an additional tice that could be useful in other developing coun- 48,200 km of rural roads in need of upgrading. The tries. Using a RAMS adapted to local requirements, study also developed an accessibility index that was and having provincial authorities provide technical useful for identifying areas with greatest access needs, support and guidance to rural municipalities on the to be prioritized for future rural roads investment. use of RAMS, can help to ensure system sustainability. Drawing upon this study and the results of NRRP1, the government decided to proceed with a further 6. National Rural Roads Program, Morocco program and, as part of the 2020 Rural Development Strategy, included a goal of raising rural access to Over the past two decades, the Government of Mo- all-weather roads to 80 percent by 2015. rocco, with support from development partners, has implemented a large-scale rural roads program that In 2005, the government launched the Second Na- has significantly increased rural access. tional Rural Roads Program (NRRP2). The program was implemented by the Directorate of Roads in part- More than 60 percent of Morocco’s poor live in rural nership with regional, provincial, and rural councils, areas, where lack of all-weather roads reduces their which were expected to contribute toward the cost of access to economic opportunities and social services the program. This partly reflected an increased focus such as health and education. on upgrading unclassified roads. Until the mid-1990s, the government was building At completion in 2012, NRRP2 had upgraded a fur- less than 300 km of rural roads per annum. However, ther 15,500 km of rural roads, raising rural access a study by the Directorate of Roads (DOR) identified to 79 percent in 2012. The NRRP2 roads comprised a need to upgrade 38,000 km of rural access roads. 8,730 km of state roads and 6,770 unclassified roads, It found that 82 percent of these roads were in poor of which 63 percent were paved and 37 percent were condition; 35 percent of communities suffered from unpaved. difficult access and seasonal isolation; 19 percent of roads were cut off for at least 30 days during rainy sea- Based on a sample of road subprojects, a completion son; 22 percent of areas were completely inaccessible reviews of NRRP2 estimated the EIRR to be 24.4 per- by vehicle; and 28 percent of roads were impassable cent, which confirmed that the program had a robust for trucks and four-wheel drive vehicles33. economic justification34. In 1995, the government launched the First National At the time of completion of NRRP2, DOR’s annual Rural Roads Program (NRRP1). Since 90 percent of the maintenance budget for classified rural roads was in- roads under NRRP1 were government roads under sufficient, and there was no maintenance budget for the responsibility of DOR, implementation was led by unclassified roads. However, the government estab- Directorate of Roads which was also to be responsible lished a tripartite commission comprising the Ministry for future maintenance. Partnership agreements were of Equipment and Transport, Ministry of Finance, and signed with provincial councils, but there was little in- Ministry of the Interior to identify sustainable solutions volvement with local authorities in road selection and to this issue. By late 2015, the government issued a no financial contribution was sought. maintenance strategy for the unclassified roads in ru- ral areas. Since then DOR conducted a road classifi- At completion in 2005, NRRP1 had upgraded 11,236 cation exercise to allow for future maintenance of the km of rural roads to all-weather standard (20 per- unclassified roads35. cent of the national road network), of which 46 per- 44 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY An ex-post impact evaluation of NRRP2 (based on a serving kebele36 (wards). Around 37 percent of kebele sample of 915 households in 84 villages) confirmed had all-season access, 20 percent had seasonal (dry that rural roads improvement had brought significant season) access, and 43 percent were impassable or improvements, including: (i) less wasted time on jour- unreachable by motorized transport in any season. neys (20 to 25 minutes per person on average); (ii) pri- More than 91 percent of rural households travelled a mary school enrolment increased by 5.8 percent, with minimum distance of 15 km to reach a health center. girls enrolment rising by 7.4 percent; (iii) the ratio of Two-thirds of the rural population was located more accessibility in the ten less-served and ten best-served than 5 km from an all-season road, with 48 million provinces rose from 0.43 in 2002 to 0.65 in 2017; (iv) people more than 2 km from an all-season road. The the quality of service of intercity passenger transport average distance to an all-season road was 11.3 km, improved on about 80 percent of upgraded roads; equivalent to more than 3.5 hours walk. During the and (v) passenger fares decreased by 26 percent and rainy season, communities are often isolated without freight costs by 15 percent. any access. Remoteness, isolation, and lack of services increases vulnerability, and constrains people’s abili- A further impact study of the NRRP1 and NRRP2 found ty to contribute to the country’s economy and devel- that (i) travel time was reduced by 27 percent; (ii) opment. It also excludes them from exposure to new transport cost reduced by 26 percent for passengers ideas and influences. and 20 percent for freight; (iii) average daily traffic in- creased by 39 percent in both rainy and dry seasons; The objective of the government’s Growth and Trans- (iv) agricultural employment rose by 24 percent; and formation Plan (GTP) is to achieve Ethiopia’s long- term (v) access to medical centers increased by 26 percent. vision of sustaining rapid and broad-based economic growth, transforming from a subsistence-based agrar- The combined cost of NRRP1 and NRRP2 was about ian economy to a modern, industrialized economy un- MD30 billion ($3.3 billion), equivalent to about derpinned by the agricultural sector. $125,000 per km. As part of the GTP, Ethiopia has been implementing Given the favorable performance of NRRP1 and the Universal Rural Roads Access Programme (UR- NRRP2, the government is planning a further large RAP) since 2010. The overall aim is to provide all ke- program of rural roads improvements that could be bele with all- season road connections. It is planned to expected to bring the country close to achieving uni- build a total of 71,523 km of rural roads, which would versal rural access. increase rural access to about 80 percent. Morocco’s experience shows how a country can pro- Under GTP I (2011–2015), the URRAP was to construct gressively expand rural road access to the point that a total of 71,523 km of rural roads to provide 15,937 universal access becomes within reach. It also confirms kebele with all-season access at an estimated cost of that rural road improvement leads to a wide range of $1.5 billion. Under GTP II (2016–2020), the govern- socio-economic benefits for communities served. ment plans to construct 90,000 km at an estimated cost of ETB 45.0 billion ($1.6 billion). The majority of 7. Universal Rural Road Access Program, investment financing was provided by the govern- Ethiopia. ment, the national road fund, and community contri- butions, with the remainder funded by development In Ethiopia, more than 75 million people gain their partners. livelihoods directly or indirectly from agriculture. Per capita income growth and food security are thus high- Implementation of the URRAP is expected to: (i) im- ly dependent on agriculture. However, agriculture has prove the access of the rural population to markets, suffered from low growth and low productivity, and social and other services by reducing transport time is vulnerable to drought and other adverse weather and cost; (ii) improve access for isolated areas and conditions. communities, enabling further implementation of other poverty reduction programs—such as sector In 2008–09, Ethiopia had about 100,384 km of roads programs in agriculture, health and education—all of 45 which require reliable transport services and all-year with initial training, basic equipment and tools; and access; (iii) improve administrative and economic in- delays in the government’s payments to contractors39. tegration of the country and facilitation of decentral- ization by linking rural communities, wereda (district), The second phase of URRAP (GTP II) was started in and kebele centers with the national economy and Amhara region in 2017 and works are in progress. community; (iv) support the decentralization process Other regions have not yet started works for the GTP II. and strengthening of public administration and plan- A survey of the Tillili–Wumbery Road, Tillili Woreda, ning, decision-making, implementation and progress Amhara Region was conducted in 2013. The road monitoring; and (v) support the private sector and serves two kebele directly, and a further two beyond small-medium enterprises that contribute to sustain- the end of the road, with a total population of approx- ability and self-reliance in the local construction in- imately 20,000. Previously it was a muddy track, pass- dustry. able only by pedestrians because of a missing bridge The approach to URRAP implementation has been near to the main market of Tillili. Under URRAP, a 6 based on conducting works through small-scale con- km road and a 9m span bridge was built. This trans- tractors using labor-intensive methods. This is intend- formed access to this hilly area. It used to take at least ed to reduce costs compared with using capital-in- an hour to travel by foot with mud up to knee level in tensive contractors and generate employment and some places. Now it takes no more than 30 minutes incomes in areas with few non- farm economic oppor- along the new gravel road. The new bridge makes tunities. it faster, easier, and safer for animal carts and motor vehicles to pass. The area now has access to wereda The DFID-funded Africa Community Access Partner- ambulance services, which have transported several ship (AFCAP) assisted URRAP by preparing low-vol- women requiring emergency childbirth assistance to ume road manuals to support program implementa- medical facilities. The area produces potatoes, gum tion37. The manuals were very useful and were widely poles, and cereals. Previously farmers had to head- disseminated to authorities, contractors, and consul- load their produce to the market at Tillili. Now they tants. However, they have not always been adhered can use animal carts. Furthermore, traders have start- to. URRAP rural roads are intended to have a 4.5m ed coming to their farms to buy produce. This has not wide carriageway but in practice a 6m carriageway only saved farmers the time and effort of transporting was implemented for nearly half of the roads, leading goods to the market but has created some competi- to higher unit road construction costs. tion among traders. Consequently, the price obtained for a quintal (100 kilograms) of potatoes, for example, URRAP was originally designed to focus mainly on has increased from ETB150 to as much as ETB200. low- volume, gravel-surfaced roads. Faced with the high level of maintenance required by gravel roads, The URRAP has achieved a major improvement in ru- and rapidly depleting gravel deposits, the govern- ral access in Ethiopia. Its focus on providing all-season ment increasingly favors more durable sealed surface access to serve all kebele has provided a clear pro- options that are easier to maintain. gram goal to work toward. Use of labor-intensive con- struction by small- scale contractors been administra- Under GTP I, implementation was slower than orig- tively demanding, and caused some initial delays, but inally planned. By 2014, about 36,203 km of rural played an important role in maximizing the generation road projects had been completed, out of a planned of construction-related employment and incomes. 45,381 km38. This provided 5,837 kebele with all-sea- The approach to construction and maintenance has son road connections, increasing rural access to 49 evolved, with sealed surfaces now preferred to grav- percent. Among the main reasons for delay were the el because of difficulties maintaining gravel roads. large number of small-scale contractors to be admin- Studies of completed roads confirm that these have istered (945 contractors, 275 consultants); the low fi- reduced transport costs and trip duration, expanded nancial and managerial capacity of small-scale enter- the availability of transport services, and improved the prises; the need to provide the small-scale enterprises prices that farmers can obtain for their produce. 46 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 8. Causes and circumstances of motorcycle equipment. In the absence of any nearby motorcy- crashes on rural roads, Tanzania cle training and licensing services, drivers’ skill levels were sometimes low. Moreover, drivers’ incomes de- In 2004, Amend, a non-governmental organization pend on the number of trips they made, so they often that works on road safety in Sub-Saharan Africa, pre- chose to drive quickly. pared a research study to determine the causes and circumstances of motorcycle crashes on low-volume The age of the 45 drivers ranged from 18 to 52 years, rural roads in Tanzania. The study was financed by the with an average of 25 years. All were male, 47 percent Africa Community Access Partnership (AFCAP)40. being married and 53 percent unmarried. Most driv- ers (73 percent) described their primary occupation as While rural road improvements can lead to significant boda boda driver. The other drivers (27 percent) were economic and social benefits, they also introduce ad- mainly farmers, small businessmen, and laborers. ditional road safety risks from higher traffic and driv- Work as a boda-boda driver is popular among young ing speeds. uneducated males. Among drivers, 5 percent had re- ceived no formal education, 58 percent had complet- In Tanzania and other African countries, the recent in- ed primary school, but only 9 percent had completed flux of affordable motorcycles has transformed rural secondary school. Some 82 percent of drivers said accessibility and mobility but has also led to a sharp that they had no driving license. Of those who said rise in motorcycle-related road traffic injuries and they had a license, only four were able to present it to deaths. During 2008–12, almost 500,000 new motor- the study team. Most (73 percent) of drivers learned to cycles were registered in Tanzania, with annual regis- ride a motorcycle from a friend or relative, and 24 per- trations rising from around 45,000 in 2008 to 109,000 cent were completely self-taught. One driver learned in 2012. Over the same period, the number of offi- to ride through a formal training course run by the Vo- cially reported motorcycle deaths on all categories of cational Education and Training Authority, but did not roads rose from 309 to 930. complete the course. The Amend research study sought to examine the The research identified many examples of unsafe driv- causes and circumstances of motorcycle crashes on ing linked to the lack of driver training and skills. These two low- volume rural roads in Tanzania and identify included: driving at speeds inappropriate for road motorcycle safety risks associated with different sur- conditions; not driving defensively; not slowing down facing techniques and materials, driver behavior, and in settlements and other areas with many pedestrians; other factors. driving erratically—including zigzagging and using the wrong side of the road; driving too close to the vehi- A total of 45 motorcycle crashes were investigated. cle in front; coasting down hills; accelerating fast and Of these, 26 (58 percent) occurred on or near the La- braking hard; failing to use the front brake; overload- wate– Kibong’oto road and 19 (42 percent) were on ing or poorly attached loads (especially risky on roads or near the Bago–Talawanda road. Nine (35 percent) with steep gradients); failing to keep both hands on of the Lawate– Kibong’oto crashes were investigated the handgrips; being easily distracted; and failing to during the dry season and 17 (65 percent) during the use protective clothing and equipment. rainy season. Eight (42 percent) of the Bago–Talawan- da road crashes area were investigated during the dry It was observed that motorcycle passengers have season and 11 (58 percent) during the rainy season. more power and control over safety than they per- haps realize. Drivers were found to ride more slowly For many people living in the vicinity of the two roads, when transporting passengers and tended to follow boda-bodas (motorcycle taxis) were often the only passengers’ requests when given. available and affordable means of motorized trans- port. However, several factors meant boda-boda driv- Fifteen contributory factors in five categories were ers and passengers did not give enough attention to identified through crash investigations. Road user safety. Because of low incomes, not all drivers and behavior factors included driver error, passenger ac- passengers could afford to buy personal protective tion, obscured driver vision, high speed, other vehicle 47 error, pedestrian error, and weight-shifting of load. road and avoid safety hazards being introduced as Factors related to road design and condition were a result of road deterioration. Seventh, where roads lack of signage, narrowness of road, obscured driv- pass through settlements and other places of pedes- er vision (road design) and road damaged or poorly trian activity—such as near schools and marketplaces— maintained. Environmental conditions included poor they should be designed to include speed humps to road conditions and obscured driver vision because control the speeds of motorcycles and other vehicles of rain. The remaining factors were vehicle failure and (informally constructed speed humps are less predict- risks from animals. able and therefore pose a safety risk for motorcyclists). The study also found that poorly maintained roads 9. Safe and sustainable water transport on can increase the risk of crashes for motorcycles and other road users, especially during the rainy season. Lake Victoria, East Africa The study found that comprehensive and sustainable Globology is a private company founded by a Scot- improvements to rural road safety in Tanzania will re- tish investor, which builds and operates affordable, quire systemic changes, but some of these will only fast, and safe catamaran passenger ferries providing be achievable when the country has reached a more island communities on Lake Victoria with access to the advanced state of socioeconomic development. Im- mainland. It has 45 staff members. Its vessels, which provements are needed in infrastructure, education, carry the Water Bus brand name, are designed and healthcare, law enforcement, and many other areas. built in Kisumu, Kenya by a team of expert engineers, boat designers, and technicians working in collabo- In the shorter term, stakeholders can take various ration with Dykstra Naval Architects, an experienced actions to improve rural road safety. First, well-re- Dutch firm of commercial vessel designers. searched and well-presented continuing training pro- grams are more appropriate platforms for promoting Globology was established in 2016 with a total invest- behavior change than making one-time visits and ment of $1.92 million financed by private equity with conveying simple messages. Second, effective po- a contribution from the Shell Foundation. It identified lice enforcement of existing traffic laws is needed to a gap in the passenger services market on Lake Vic- reinforce safety behaviors in relation to helmet wear- toria and adopted a commercial approach for devel- ing, speed limits, and drunk-driving. Third, behav- oping and operating vessel services. Shell Foundation ior-change programs aimed at motorcycle passen- provided business incubation support to prove the gers can focus on empowering them with knowledge business model and test its scalability. Globology’s and strategies to be able to choose a safe driver, and vessel services have made a notable contribution to to ask a driver to drive safely. Fourth, planners and en- improved rural access without any need for public gineers should take motorcycles into account in de- sector funding. signing road improvements and maintenance works— roads designed for safety are more forgiving of poor In the past, people travelling to and from the popu- road- user behavior. Fifth, with respect to a road’s lated islands on Lake Victoria had to rely on canoes, cross-section, the carriageway (including shoulder) motorized canoes, and motorboats known as “chop- should be wide enough to accommodate the traffic pers.” This has always been a perilous journey, made (including occasional passing of two vehicles) but not worse by the poor standard of vessels used and their so wide as to encourage excessive speeds (for exam- vulnerability in difficult weather conditions. They rare- ple, 4.3–4.5m width for roads with daily traffic below ly have safety equipment such as life jackets. This has 100 vehicles). Sixth, parallel concrete strips should be resulted in an extremely poor safety record, with more confined to straight stretches of road where motorcy- than 2,500 people drowned in Lake Victoria each year. cle drivers are able to see approaching vehicles from The existing vessels have other shortcomings. Most afar—allowing drivers time to safely pull off to the side are uncovered, offering no protection against the of the road—and should be avoided on corners and weather. Journey times are long. For example, is- at the brows of hills. Seventh, sound maintenance is landers traveling to Mbita may begin at 2am, and the needed to protect the structure and condition of the 48 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Following the success of Water Bus, Globology plans to continue expanding services in Kenya to meet the growing passenger demand. It is also in the process of raising private equity financing to expand the Water Bus fleet to six vessels. Globology is also hoping to introduce Lake Victoria services in Uganda. The successful introduction of passenger vessel ser- vices on Lake Victoria by Globology offers an example of both the role of waterborne services in improving rural access and the potential for private business to develop innovative access solutions on a commercial Source: http://www.globology.biz/ferries.html basis, without need for public investment. journey takes 5–6 hours. Some journeys take a day or 10. Role of Aviation and Drone Technology more. Also, on some trips, islanders have to sleep on the boat for close two days while waiting for the waves in Transforming Rural Mobility in order to set sail. The vessels have 2-stroke outboard Traditionally, the aviation sector has been providing a engines that emit fumes and pollute the lake area. lifeline in areas of the world with non-existent or poor The Water Bus was specifically designed to provide road infrastructure and in many other remote com- fast, affordable, and safe passenger transport on the munities and small islands whose access to the rest lake. It is a catamaran with two parallel hulls of the of the world and to essential services such as health same size that provide for maximum vessel stability. care is often only possible by air. Over 1,000 commu- An enclosed passenger compartment provides pas- nities in northern Russia are inaccessible by road and sengers with protection and comfort. It also incorpo- throughout Norway, thanks to an extensive network rates up-to-date fuel-efficient engine technology. The of regional airports and airline services, 99.5% of the inspiration for this innovative design was the catama- remote population is able to travel to Oslo and back rans that Polynesians long ago used to sail around the on the same day. Around 400,000 patients are also islands in the Pacific. transported annually on scheduled flights between their homes and hospitals. The speed and reliability The interior of the Water Bus is clean and spacious. of aviation services is perhaps most immediately ap- The seats are metallic but soft and comfortable. They parent during times of humanitarian emergency. Air are also larger than normal so, if there aren’t many services also play an essential role in assistance to re- people on board, you can sleep on the seat. There gions facing natural disasters, famine and war. They are large windows that provide ventilation and an ex- are particularly important in situations where surface cellent view of the lake. There is also a small outdoor access is constrained, and aid, search and rescue ser- deck at the back of the vessel. It operates with a crew vices and medical supplies can only be transported to of six plus a captain. target areas by air. Globology introduced Water Bus services on the Ken- Aviation as an enabler to the United Nations 2030 yan side of Lake Victoria in 2016. This was the first Agenda, is embracing innovation so that the air trans- major investment in water travel on Lake Victoria for port system, with the evolving technology and solu- more than two decades. Services have been popular tions such as Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV), includ- with customers and have expanded rapidly, with the ing drones, are able to improve the lives of people number of vessels in service rising from two in 2016 in rural areas while maintaining or increasing existing to four in 2017. Passage is very affordable, with a typi- levels of aviation safety. cal journey to or from the islands costing only Ksh.150 ($1.50). By mid-2018, the total number of passengers The Lake Victoria Challenge is an initiative that aims to was more than 740,00041. explore drones as a new mobility model for the hard- 49 to- reach, rural communities of the Lake Victoria re- ing transmitted back to health facilities in less than 6 gion. The Lake Victoria Challenge aims to improve the hours. The other impact is that there is a transfer of lives of the 30 million people who live in the world’s digital knowledge to Tanzanian youths, as well as job most densely populated rural area — the shores of the creation, and possible extension to other parts of the Lake Victoria basin, and anchor Mwanza as a gateway country. to the Lake region, its economy and services. Key chal- lenges around the lake include the rugged terrain, re- The main challenges of the project include limited moteness of habitats, and the underdeveloped trans- knowledge and experience on the new technology, port infrastructure, hence the rural island communities budget to meet the daily operational costs, limited in and around Mwanza are often only accessible by distance coverage of the drones, and their limited car- boat, which can be slow and expensive. Life-saving riage capacity in terms of volume and weight. These cargo such as blood packs, critical medication, an- challenges are partly being addressed by Internation- ti-venom, or spare parts for hospital machines often al Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized cannot reach those who need them in sufficient time. agency of the United Nations that has a leadership The high cost of transportation also means that local role in the development of guidance material for the producers have difficulty in getting their products and proper harmonization of regulations for unmanned produce to market, particularly perishable goods. aircraft systems (UAS). As part of these efforts, ICAO has formed a UAS for Humanitarian Aid and Develop- The Lake Victoria Challenge is hosted by the Republic ment Task of Tanzania, and receives support from sevral donors. Dar Teknohama Business Incubator (DTBi) partnered Force (UHAD TF). The aim of this group is to create with WingCopter to use UAVs to deliver emergen- guidance material and regulatory templates for States cy medicines to the Ukerewe island health facilities in order to harmonize best practice for such opera- (blood, anti -venom and vaccines). The Wingcopter tions and ensure they are done safely. ICAO has been UAV has a wingspan of 178 cm and a weight of 9.6 kg, continuously undertaking the development of a har- carries up to 6 kg payload and reaches a top speed of monized regulatory framework and structure for the 130 km/h with a maximum round-trip flight time of 2 safe evolution of UAS. Defining technical, operational hours with a cruising altitude of 5000 m. and legal issues to ensure safety of this emerging in- dustry remains highest priority to ICAO and its Mem- The drone takes off like a helicopter, flies like an aero- ber States. plane and lands like a helicopter at its destination. 11. Innovative apps and platforms for rural The Lake Victoria Challenge project involved training of 4 Pilots, collaborating with telecommunication op- transport services and logistics erators who allowed their towers to host the commu- Over the past decade, internet platforms and apps nication antennas and TCRA (Telecom Regulator) who have been transforming the way transport services are provided the frequency to be used for pilots to com- provided, including in shipping, civil aviation, freight, municate with drones and monitor them on screens and urban passenger transport. Such technologies (M2M with sim cards). The Government parastatal are now demonstrating the potential to transform ru- Medical Stores Department (MSD) and blood bank ral transport and logistics services. Examples of ride provided the essential medical supplies. Approxi- hailing, freight hailing and rural supply chain manage- mately 6 flights are carried out per day transporting ment are briefly summarized below. the essential supplies in various parts of the lake. Safe Boda, Uganda. Boda boda drivers in Uganda The impact of the project has been significant as es- have had a reputation for reckless driving—driving on sential medicines and emergency supplies are now pedestrian sidewalks and ignoring traffic lights. They delivered in 1 hour instead of 1 to 3 days. The blood also don’t apply a standard fare: for each trip, a pas- samples/slides from health facilities are transported senger has to bargain until a fare is agreed upon. to Bugando referral hospital in 1 to 2 hours instead of 3 to 5 days; with the results of blood samples be- Safe Boda is a new hailing app for boda boda in Kam- 50 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY pala. It was conceived in 2014 as a social enterprise the app to check prices and select the loads they want. to develop a platform that would help to provide af- The service is designed to ensure that drivers receive fordable, convenient, and safe boda boda services. payment as quickly as possible. Uber makes a margin It came up with a simple yet effective solution by on the difference between the prices for shipper cus- creating a community of Boda Boda drivers, training tomers and carriers. Similar to Uber’s ride-hailing app, them on road safety standards, equipping them with the prices on Uber Freight change in accordance with safety gear such as helmets, and then connecting market conditions. From the shipper perspective, the them with roaming passengers around the city via a platform provides a “more efficient, lower-cost mod- mobile app with similarities to Uber, Grab, and other el,” especially for smaller shippers that have been un- ride hailing apps. derserved by technology. Shippers will also be able to track their loads from start to finish through the The result is a community of professional, trained, app’s built-in tracking capabilities. motorcycle taxi drivers that offers a safer experience to passengers. Safe Boda’s base fare is UGX 500 Logistimo, India. Low-resource supply chains, such ($0.13) or UGX 500 per kilometer or UGX 50 ($0.01) as rural supply chains, pose significant challenges in per minute. Currently the app only allows payment in collecting digital data from remote locations, includ- cash, but payment by debit or credit cards or mobile ing poor network connectivity and the capacity of money is soon to be introduced. The app is also pop- staff to use technology or manage inventory. ular with Boda Boda drivers and has an 85 percent year-on-year retention rate among drivers. Logistimo is an open-source platform for managing low- resource supply chains using mobile phones, With support from the Shell foundation (71 percent), based in India42. It offers a robust technology platform the Global Innovation Fund, and USAID, Safe Boda with mobile and web applications that simplify data has raised $1.8m in investment financing for further collection across the supply chain network, includ- development. In future it hopes to scale up its oper- ing the last mile, and deliver actionable analytics to ations to cover a larger share of Africa’s five million users at every level in the supply chain. The platform motorcycle taxis. enables reliable data collection over unreliable net- works, through a novel utilization of mobile Internet Uber Freight app, USA. Uber Technologies Inc. has and SMS communication channels, while also work- launched Uber Freight, a mobile app designed to ing in a fully offline mode. It supports all the major streamline freight booking, particularly for small car- supply chain capabilities including inventory man- riers and shippers that still rely heavily on manual agement, order management, inventory optimization, processes. It provides one-touch booking for drivers, workforce management, real-time dashboards, and making it easier to find freight consignments, simpli- big data analytics. fying transactions, and providing upfront pricing and quick payment for their work. It can also handle dry Along with optimizing inventory, Logistimo enables van, refrigerated truckload, short-haul, and long-haul monitoring of storage conditions (such as tempera- freight. The app can be downloaded from Google ture or moisture) by integrating data from telemetric Play. sensors with an Internet-of-Things-based infrastruc- ture and an ability to handle billions of data points. The primary market for Uber Freight is the owners and operators of small fleets that lack the freight booking Logistimo is currently deployed in five countries— technology used by larger operations. The service is Democratic Republic of Congo, India, Myanmar, South currently available across the United States. Initially, Sudan, and Zambia. It works across different types of the company focused much of its early efforts on sign- rural supply chains including health commodities, ag- ing up drivers and shippers in Texas to create a launch ricultural inputs, and energy products. There are more market in an area with dense freight movements. than 12,000 shops in its network, over 95 percent of them being below district level, with more than 15,000 Uber Freight is a tool for drivers to find and book users accessing its services through mobile phones. It loads, but it is not a dispatching service. Carriers open 51 is currently supporting one of the largest immuniza- ing. In the future, such platforms have the potential tion cold-chains in the world (in India), ensuring avail- to streamline rural transport and logistics services, ability and potency of more than 430 million doses of including through the coordination and consolida- vaccines annually. tion of loads, arranging storage, obtaining transport services on a more competitive basis, and potentially The emergence of Logistimo and similar platforms also for transacting produce sales by mobile phone. shows that internet platforms geared toward rural needs in developing countries are rapidly emerg- ENDNOTES 18 ADB. 2003. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan and Technical Assistance Grant— Rural Roads Sector I Project (India). ADB: Manila. 19 MORD. 2015. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana: Programme Guidelines. Delhihttp://pmgsy.nic.in/PMGSY_E_J_2015.pdf 20 NRRDA. 2016. Annual Report 2015/16. Delhi. 21 ADB. 2012. Completion Report. Multitranche Financing Facility India: Rural Road Sector II Investment Program (Project 1). Manila. 22 Starkey P, Hine J, Nyan B D and Ziadee T C, 2017. Liberia Rural Transport Services: Final Report. Cardno IT Transport for Ministry of Public Works and Ministry of Transport, Monrovia, Liberia. 56p 23 Cardno IT Transport, 2018. Liberia Multimodal Transport Master Plan: Final Report. Cardno IT Transport, Thame, UK for Ministry of Trans- port and Ministry of Public Works, Monrovia, Liberia. 131p. 24 Starkey P, 2016. Proceedings of International Conference on Transport and Road Research (iTRARR) held Mombasa, March 2016. 17p. Available at: http //transportconferencekenya.org/Proceedings/Starkey- Motorcycle-Issues-KRBMombasa2016-160223.pdf 25 Jenkins J T and Peters K, 2016. Rural Connectivity in Africa: Motorcycle Track Construction. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engi- neers 169 (TR6): 378-386. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/jtran.15.00080 26 ADB. 2010. Report and Recommendation of the President to the Board of Directors: Proposed Loan to the People’s Republic of China for the Yunnan Integrated Road Network Development Project. Manila. 27 ADB. 2012a. Performance-based routine maintenance of rural roads by maintenance groups: Guide for Communications Bureaus. Manila. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30090/perform ance-based-routine-maintenance-rural-roads-guide.pdf 28 ADB. 2012b. Performance-Based Routine Maintenance of Rural Roads by Maintenance Groups: Manual for Maintenance Groups. Ma- nila. https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30091/perform ance-based-routine-maintenance-rural-roads-manual.pdf 29 Njenga, P., Willilo, S. and Hine, J. 2015. First Mile Transport Challenges for Smallholder Tomato Farmers along Ihimbo-Itimbo Road, Kilolo District Tanzania Final Report. 30 KZN-DOT, 2017. Annual Performance Plan, 2017/18–2019/20. Pietermaritzburg. 31 Taute, A. and Russel, S. 2016. Road Asset Management vs Pavement Management: A New Paradigm. Presentation. 32 KZN-DOT, 2014. Service Delivery Achievements of the Department of Transport, 2009-2014. Pietermaritzburg. 33 Bejrhit, M. 2014. Improvement of Rural Access: Moroccan Experience. Routes-Roads No. 362. PIARC. Paris. 34 Independent Evaluation Group. 2017. Implementation Completion Report Review: MA-Rural Roads II (P094007). Washington, DC. 35 Islamic Development Bank. 2016. Morocco Project Implementation Assessment and Support Report. Jeddah. 36 The kebele, meaning ward or neighborhood, is the smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia. 37 AFCAP. 2013. Review of Design Standards And Maintenance Guidelines For Low Volume Roads In Ethiopia AFCAP/ETH/111 Final Report. 52 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 38 Sampson, L and Y. Asrat . 2014. Low Volume Road Research Into. Practice: The Ethiopian Experience. SARF/IRF 2014 2-4 September 2014. 39 Ethiopia Roads Department. 2016. Road Sector Development Program: 19 Years Performance Assessment. Addis Ababa 40 Bishop, T. and D. Jinadasa. 2014. Traffic Injury on Rural Roads in Tanzania: A study to determine the causes and circumstances of mo- torcycle crashes on low-volume rural roads. Final Report. AFCAP. 41 Shell Foundation. 2017. Portfolio presentation. November 2017. 42 http://www.logistimo.com/ 53 ANNEX C. LIST OF POLICY MEASURES T he list of policy measures identified in this pa- ward Sus¬tainable Mobility provides the consolidated per to achieve universal rural access has been list of measures. consoli¬dated and harmonized with the policy measures to achieve all other policy goals toward sus- The consolidated policy measures that have an impact tainable mobility. The Global Roadmap of Action to- on universal rural access in mobility are shown in the tables I.1. Table I.1: Policy Measures with Description (by toolbox and thematic area, with an impact on universal rural access) Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Toolbox: Regulatory and Institutional Thematic Area: Plans and Strategies Develop an Integrated National Transport Plan Develop and implement an integrated national transport plan to cover the four policy goals, all modes of transport, and passenger and freight traffic. Set Targets across Policy Goals Set clear targets to be achieved in the long term and in the interim for the four policy goals, aligned with an integrated sustainable mobility plan. Develop Mobility Plans at the Sub-National Develop a sustainable urban mobility plan and implement strategies at the sub- Level national level that are consistent with the integrated national sustainable transport plan. Plan for a Multi-Tiered Rural Access Approach Use a multi-tiered and multimodal approach to universal rural access in the integrated national transport plan, supporting both early attainment of universal rural access and further upgrading to higher-access tiers based on affordability and feasibility. Embed the Safe System Approach into Embed the safe system approach to road safety in all aspects of national and sub- Transport Planning national transport planning Ensure a stable regulatory and policy framework, setting a timeline sustainable mobility Provide Policy Certainty to Businesses and targets, to increase the confidence for businesses and financial investors to make long- Investors term decisions. Thematic Area: Institutional Design, Cooperation, and Coordination Coordinate Planning across Government Coordinate across agencies to ensure integrated planning and shared responsibility Agencies for results across levels of government, jurisdictions, and agencies, including but not limited to the coordination of road safety responsibilities and the coordination of response to extreme weather events. 54 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Define Roles and Accountabilities across Define government roles, responsibilities and accountabilities in the transport sector Agencies across the four policy goals, modes of transport, national and sub-national government levels, and passenger and freight transport. Establish Joint Gender Programs Across Establish joint programs with ministries and agencies responsible for gender to include Agencies transport in their work program. Thematic Area: International agreements and regulations Remove Non-Tariff Barriers for International Remove non-tariff barriers for cross-border traffic, including barriers for rail and Trade waterborne transport. Thematic Area: Regulations for Transport Services Adopt a Coherent Competition Policy Adopt a coherent competition policy for passenger and freight transport based on the principles that competitive markets are central to efficiency, and acknowledge that market failures in the transport sector require regulation. Review Legal Framework for Women's Security Review the national framework for security and safety in public spaces used to access in Transport transport, and for in-vehicle protection from harassment. Review transport regulations periodically Promote the periodic review of the regulations to allow the fast-moving mobility solutions to evolve towards a sustainable and inclusive transport system Thematic Area: Regulations for Vehicles and Vehicle Use Ensure Legal Certainty Regarding Driver Adopt standards and compliance regimes for the provision and withholding of driver Permits licenses and permits, including compliance regimes designed to prevent and reduce fatal and serious injury risk. Define and Enforce Speed Limits Define and enforce speed limits according to modal mix, road function, and protective qualities of roads. Establish More Stringent Fuel Economy Establish stricter fuel economy standards and CO2 emission standards for new motor Standards vehicles, as well as stricter fuel specifications, for example, the use of low-sulphur petroleum products. Thematic Area: Regulations for Data Collection, Share and Use Establish Data Protection Regulations Establish personal and travel data protection regulations, with processes that handle personal data with the appropriate safeguards and ensure that data are not made available to the public without explicit informed consent. Require Service Providers to Report Establish standardized data reporting requirements for all transport service providers, Standardized Data including transportation network companies (TNC), public transport operators, and bike- or car-share companies. Develop Data Repositories and Data Collection Develop centralized data repositories and establish data collection guidelines at the Guidelines national and metropolitan levels, and facilitate data access to different stakeholders (academics, private sector, etc.) while stablishing a legislative framework defining the context and purpose of its use. Require Use of Data to Support Decision Require using operational data to support decision making and regulatory oversight. Making Thematic Area: Procurement and Contracts 55 Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Prepare Public Procurement Rules and Prepare procurement rules and procedures, standard contract documents for Procedures infrastructure construction and maintenance, supported by an e-procurement platform, and harmonize those at a regional or international level to foster economies of scale. Procure Contractors on a Competitive Basis Procure contractors on a competitive basis, using packaging of batches of projects to attract multiple capable contractors. Integrate Gender in Public Procurement and Integrate gender in bidding documents for standard public procurement and public- PPPs private partnerships (PPPs) by requesting bidders to demonstrate gender experience, by setting gender-specific targets for women’s employment and entrepreneurship, for example, quotas for contracts to be awarded to women-owned and managed businesses. Establish a Pool of Technical and Financial Establish a pool of independent experts capable to undertake technical and financial Experts audits of projects. Thematic Area: Capacity Building and Human Resource Development Identify and Empower Sustainable Mobility Identify and Empower Country Champions to Help Move Forward the Sustainable Champions Mobility Agenda, for example, ministers and mayors. Build Capacity Across Levels of Government Build national and local capacity across levels of government, jurisdictions, organization, and modes, including providing training and information resources. Provide Training for Workforce in Leadership Provide training for the current and future transport workforce in leadership positions, Positions enabling well-trained staff to drive change toward sustainable mobility. Facilitate Capacity Building at the Facilitate sector specific capacity building at the international level. International Level Build Capacity for Local Path and Road Provide capacity building to assist stakeholders to perform their roles in the Maintenance maintenance of local paths and roads. Train more Women on Skills Needed in Create incentives for training more women with the skills needed in transport, for Transport example, operating heavy duty vehicles. Build Capacity on Gender-Inclusive Build capacity on accessibility planning that includes gender impacts, for example, Accessibility Planning consider access to centers of interest for women and gendered information on access to jobs and education. Train Security and Transport Staff in Gender Train security and transport stakeholders in gendered aspects of transport, especially Aspects security. Create Mentoring Programs and Professional Create programs to promote role models, mentoring and networks of transport Networks professionals, including programs targeted to women. Toolbox: Engineering and Technology Thematic Area: Technical Standards Establish Technical Standards for Transport Establish high technical standards for transport infrastructure design, for example, Infrastructure performing climate vulnerability screening, protecting roads against water penetration, and using local materials and resources when feasible. 56 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Harmonize Construction Standards along Adopt construction standards so that assets are created using accepted, up-to-date, Corridors harmonized standards and regulations, across borders, within regions and along transport corridors. Harmonize Construction Standards along Adopt construction standards so that assets are created using accepted, up-to-date, Corridors harmonized standards and regulations, across borders, within regions and along transport corridors. Recruit Qualified Firms for Project Design and Recruit qualified consulting firms for preparing feasibility reports and engineering Feasibility designs, and supervising civil works. Ensure Safe Roads Design with Lower Design Plan and design safe roads and roadsides for lower speeds, including features that calm Speeds traffic, and considering the increasing use of bicycles and pedestrian flows in urban areas. Improve Intermodal Connections in Transport Improve local access to transport hubs including bus and train stations, ports and Hubs airports. Ensure Transport Project Design Includes Include considerations for women and for people with disabilities in transport Gender Aspects infrastructure project design and planning. Set and Implement Climate Change Set climate change adaptation and resilience standards and practices, and integrate Adaptation Standards them into project design across transport infrastructure, including roads, airports, and seaports. Set Low-Noise Engineering and Traffic Set traffic management practices to reduce noise pollution, for example, speed Management Practices limitations, speed humps, traffic lights coordination and roundabouts, and low-noise road engineering and maintenance practices, for example low-noise pavement and noise barriers. Thematic Area: Asset Construction Build Rail and Maritime Transport Build infrastructure for energy- and space-efficient modes such as rail and waterborne Infrastructure transport, including high-speed rail for corridors with sufficient demand. Expand Public Transport Infrastructure Expand the public transport network adjusted to demand requirements, with an emphasis on equitable access and considering the most appropriate modes in each context, including bus, rail, demand-responsive service, cable-propelled transport and ferry transport. Build Roadside Produce Storage for Farmers Create simple roadside produce storage facilities to allow farmers to consolidate produce before collection and to reduce losses due to perishability. Expand the All-Season Road Network Expand the density of the all-season road network in rural areas. Improve First and Last Mile Access Evaluate and improve first and last mile access to major transport services in urban and Infrastructure rural areas. Thematic Area: Design and Deployment of Transport Services 57 Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Improve the Quality and Safety of Public Improve the quality and safety standards of public and private as well as formal and Transport informal public transport operations, such as service frequency, reliability, cleanliness, and safe driving practices, and implement bus lanes and other bus priority measures. Ensure Access to Transport Services in Ensure complete transport services by extending services to underserved areas and Underserved Areas populations. Develop Online Platforms for Rural Transport Introduce online platforms to create marketplaces linking rural transport service users Services with service providers for freight and passenger services. Implement ITS Solutions for Providing Implement online platforms and other ITS solutions for providing information on traffic, Transport Information routes, and transport mode options for both passengers and freight transport Conduct Accessibility Evaluation and Mapping Develop tools for measuring the accessibility of different locations and evaluation how various transport and land use changes will affect accessibility for various groups and activities, with a special attention to access for disadvantaged groups. Integrate New Mobility Solutions to Existing Support the complementarity of new shared solutions such as car-sharing, electric Transport vehicles rentals and autonomous vehicles with existing public transport networks, for instance by supporting new solutions to direct traffic to public transport stations or as a replacement after operating hours. Thematic Area: Design and Deployment of Programs Map the Full Extension of the Road Network Map the full extension of the road network and maintain the data updated, including road quality attributes. Identify Risks and Vulnerabilities to Extreme Conduct risk appraisal and impact quantification of failures and disruptions due to Weather Events extreme weather events, identifying the most vulnerable transport links. Monitor Weather Events and Develop Warning Conduct real-time monitoring of extreme weather events, developing plans to take Systems immediate actions to mitigate damage with early warnings. Ensure Adequate Post-Crash Intervention Ensure adequate post-crash intervention through efficient emergency notification, fast transport of qualified medical personnel, correct diagnosis at the scene, stabilization of the patient, prompt transport to point of treatment, quality emergency room and trauma care, and extensive rehabilitation services. Support Data Sharing Programs and Platforms Establish a framework and promote data sharing programs and platforms across different sectors to exchange data relevant for transport policy, such as data collaboratives models including the public and private sector. Thematic Area: Asset Management Develop Asset Management Standards and Develop asset management standards and plans to preserve, maintain, and manage Plans transport infrastructure and their systems over their life cycle. Establish Approaches to Feeder Road Asset Establish reliable approaches to asset management of feeder roads, with communities Management performing routine maintenance in rural paths and roads, where feasible, and contractors performing periodic maintenance, based on reliability, availability, maintainability, and safety (RAMS) approach Set Up Audits for Construction Design and Set up independent audits of asset management industries and of construction design Safety and safety to ensure the quality of assets. 58 UNIVERSAL RURAL ACCESS GLOBAL ROADMAP OF ACTION TOWARD SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Thematic Area: Safeguards Ensure Project-Induced Resettlement is Ensure that project-induced displacements are economically justified and handled with Conducted Fairly fair and dignified treatment of those affected, ensuring that safeguards are in place. Comply with Gender-Based Violence Require contractors to commit to an agreed code of conduct that should be applied Prevention Practices to employees and sub-contractors, ensuring compliance with gender-based-violence prevention and response practices. Toolbox: Economics and Finance Thematic Area: Project or Program Cycle Use a Robust Framework for Project Use a robust investment evaluation framework to prioritize the allocation of public Prioritization infrastructure funding to infrastructure projects and associated services. Establish Selection Criteria for Feeder Roads Establish a set of selection criteria for feeder road projects and disseminate these widely Projects among rural communities with a view to attracting their participation in the process. Establish Performance Monitoring and Establish performance and result monitoring and evaluation schemes to inform the Evaluation Schemes regular adjustment for projects, policies and programs, for example, the evaluation of road safety interventions and their institutional delivery. Conduct Impact Evaluation Studies Conduct impact evaluation studies to improve the evidence base available to policymakers, considering the impact of transport infrastructure projects on economic growth and employment, and considering differentiated impacts on women. Thematic Area: Allocation of Public Funds Require Projects to Meet Cost-Effectiveness Require transport projects to meet an economic viability threshold based on a cost- Thresholds benefit analysis and estimate the economic internal rate of return (EIRR), reflecting least-cost planning principles Thematic Area: Fiscal and Financial Measures Apply Innovative Solutions Financing for Asset Apply sustainable and innovative financing schemes for asset creation, including new Creation financing mechanisms, new fund management techniques, and new institutional arrangements. Set User Fees to Support Transport Adopt transport user fees to help fund transport infrastructure and allow for return on Infrastructure Funding investment, for example, toll roads. Mobilize Public and Private Capital for Mobilize public and private capital for transport finance, using PPPs to improve sector Transport Finance efficiency when appropriate, and help bridge the transport infrastructure gap. Thematic Area: Pricing for Efficiency and Inclusion Make Public Transport Fares Affordable for the Make public transport fares affordable for the poor using means testes approaches to Poor ensure cost-recovering mechanisms. Ensure Integrated Fare Payment across All Develop integrated fare payment systems across all modes of public transport, parking Modes and road charges. Thematic Area: Innovation Policy and Enhancement Support R&D to optimize the life cycle of Support the research to optimize the life cycle of batteries by improving their lifespan vehicle batteries and developing optimal cost-efficient sustainable recycling solutions 59 Policy Measure Policy Measure Description Toolbox: Communication Thematic Area: Consultation and Public Engagement Consult with Stakeholders during the Full Consult extensively with stakeholders during project formulation and establish a Project Cycle framework for continuous consultation during project implementation. Use Participatory Planning Methods Use participatory planning methods, including creation of a website, to help communities propose interventions. Ensure Women's Participation in Consultation Ensure that voices of women are upheld during pre- and post-project consultation. Processes Promote Public Discussion on New Mobility Promote public discussion with civil society about new mobility solutions to generate Solutions new ideas, innovations and tools. Ensure Neutrality on Technology related Ensure neutrality and transparency on technology related communication, taking into communication account the whole life-cycle of technologies when making technology decisions, using for instance LCA (Life Cycle Analysis) methodologies. Thematic Area: Promotion Campaigns and Public Awareness Implement Awareness and Behavior Change Implement awareness and behavior change (ABC) strategies to help shift attitudes Strategies towards sustainable modes, for example, public transport, walking and cycling, complementing other engineering, legal or economic measures. Implement Anti-Harassment Campaigns in Implement anti-harassment awareness campaigns in public transport spaces. Public Transport Raise Road Safety Awareness Ensure sustained communication of road safety as a core business for government and society, emphasize the shared responsibility for the delivery of road safety interventions, and raise awareness about the dangers of speeding. Make Information Publicly Available on Make information accessible to increase the public support to transport policies and Projects and Policies projects. Thematic Area: Knowledge Management and Dissemination of Best Practices Share Knowledge on Successes and Best Share successes and best practices with other agencies at the local, national and Practices international level, based on a well-designed knowledge transfer framework. Inform Users about New Sustainable Solutions Promote physical and online information centers aiming to reinforce the demand for sustainable mobility products, and facilitate the understanding of new technologies. 60