(bpOe 8o 184 |z| World Bank Discussion Papers Africa Technical Department Series Agricultural R esearch in Southern Africa A Framework for Action Andrew Spurling Teck Y. Pee Godwin Mkamanga Christopher Nkwanyana FILE COPY Recent World Bank Discussion Papers No. 124 The New Fiscal Federalism in Brazil. Anwar Shah No. 125 Housing Reform in Socialist Economies. Bertrand Renaud No. 126 Agricultural Technology in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Workshop on Research Issues. Suzanne Gnaegy andJock R. Anderson, editors No. 127 Using Indigenous Knowledge in Agricultural Development. D. Michael Warren No. 128 Research on Irrigation and Drainage Technologies: Fifteen Years of World Bank Experience. Raed Safadi and Herve Plusquellec No. 129 Rent Control in Developing Countries. Stephen Malpezzi and Gwendolyn Bal No. 130 Patterns of Direct Foreign Investment in China. Zafar Shah Khan No. 131 A New View ofEconomic Growtl': Four Lecures. Maurice FG. 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Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the Copyright Clearance Center, 27 Congress Street, Salem, Massachusetts 01970, U.SA The complete backlist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications, which contains an alphabetical title list (with fuil ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors, and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Distribution Unit, Office of the Publisher, Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from Publications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France. ISSN: 0259-21OX Andrew Spurling is principal agriculturalist in the Agriculture Division of the Africa Technical Department of the World Bank. Teck Y. Pee is the Deputy Executive Secretary of the Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR). Godwin Mkamanga is the Director of the SADCC Regional Gene Bank in Lusaka, Zambia. Christopher Nkwanyana is the Principal Programns Officer of the Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research (SACCAR). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Agricultural research in southern Africa a framework for action / Andrew Spurling ... [et al.]. p. cm. - (World Bank discussion papers. Africal Technical Department series) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-8213-2282-6 1. Agriculture-Research-Afiica, Southern. 2. Agriculture- Research-Africa, Southem-Planning. 3. National agricultural research systems-Africa, SouthenL 4. Southern African Development Coordination Conference. I. Spurling, A. T. II. Series: World Bank discussion papers ; 184. III. Series: World Bank discussion papers. Africa Technical Department series. S542.A356A36 1992 92-35157 630'.72068-dc2O CIP Abstract Dynamic, productive and responsive agricultural research systems are critical if the rich potential of the SADCC region in Sub-Saharan Africa is to be more fully realized. The Framework for Action in Agricultural Research, which has been developed by a small task force appointed by the SACCAR and SPAAR Secretariats, identifies six principal elements of importance and makes recommendlations on how these should be incorporated in the national agricultural research systems of SADCC. The Framework concludes with a vision in the medium-term of increasingly dynamic and responsive NARSs with a clearer pattern of specialization among the different sectors (cash/export crops, intensive livestock and factor research by the private sector; staple foodcrops, extensive livestock and environmental and social concerns by the public sector; and basic and applied (under contract) research by the universities). Accelerated development of a stream of technologies for different sectors of the farming community should be possible provided that there is a coordinated effort by all the stakeholders. v Acknowledgements The authors wish to express their appreciation to all the research managers and scientists of the national and regional research teams in the SADCC countries who provided intellectual input and encouragement during the development of this Framework for Action in Agricultural Research. We also wish to thank all those from outside the region who have given us the benefit of their experience, as we developed the elements of the Framework. The authors wish to thank Dr. Moctar Toure, Executive Secretary, SPAAR and Dr. Martin Kyomo, Director, SACCAR for their close support during the development of the Framework. Thanks are due to Mmes. Bhagwanti Khushlani and Marie-Claude Verlaeten who assisted with the research and compilation of statistics for the tables in the Framework. The authors thank Mr. Bokary Guindo for his assistance in compiling and classifying the information on research activities from the SPAAR Information System (SIS) database. The authors are also most grateful to Mmes. Marie-Claude Verlaeten, Marie- Bernadette Darang and Christina Dhanaraj for their patience and skill in processing the final text. Any errors of omission or commission remain the responsibility of the authors. vi Foreword Africa is facing an economic crisis of formidable Coordination Conference (SADCC). The new proportions-one that has been exacerbated by strategic agenda was elaborated within the the nexus of rapidly increasing population, existing regional research program managed by degradation of natural resources and the the Southern African Centre for Cooperation in environment, and persistent low agricultural Agricultural Research (SACCAR). The productivity. The continent urgently needs to elements for the Framework were developed develop and adopt improved farming through an iterative process of workshops, in- technologies if it is to begin to reverse this country consultations, and literature review by a worsening crisis. Such a breakthrough will small task force appointed by the SPAAR and depend on dynamic, creative, and strong SACCAR Secretariats. national agricultural research systems. Such The Framework has been accepted by systems are, unfortunately, rare in Sub-Saharan both SPAAR and SACCAR and is being piloted Africa. for the SADCC region by Tanzania. In The Special Program for African partnership with its donor community, Tanzania Agricultural Research (SPAAR) was established will introduce new actors to its national in 1985 by a group of donors as a forum for agricultural research system including private, collaborating on programs to strengthen African academic, and international institutions. Its agricultural research systems. SPAAR's initial public sector agricultural research institutions efforts did not have the desired impact on will be given greater management autonomy. agricultural research systems. Therefore, in The focus of its research effort will be on 1990 the SPAAR membership decided to adopt carefully prioritized programs of work. a new approach based on regional frameworks SACCAR and SPAAR expect that the for action. These are related to the major eco- principles of this Framework will soon be political groupings of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) adopted by Malawi, Zambia, antd Zimbabwe. and are prepared jointly with the managers of This long-term collaborative program to the national agricultural research systems. reinvigorate agricultural research will then be This paper is the Framework for Action instituted as soon as possible in Angola, in Agricultural Research developed for the ten Botswana, Lesotho, Mozainbique, Namibia, and countries of the Southern African Development Swaziland. Ismail Serageldin Director Technical Department Africa Region vii Table Of Contents Abbreviations And Acronyms ..................................... xi Executive Summary .......................................... xiii 1. The SACCARUSPAAR Initiative ................................... 1 SADCC - Southern African Development Coordination Conference .... ....... I SACCAR - Southern African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research .... 1 SPAAR - Special Program for African Agricultural Research ............... 2 The Framework for Action .................................... 2 2. The SADCC Region and Its Natural Resources .......................... 3 Overview of the Region ...................................... 3 Overview of SADCC's Natural Resources ............................ 6 Agro-climatic Potential. 8 Land Potential. 9 Land-use. 9 Agricultural Production and Productivity .9 Demography ...... 13 Regional Food Situation in SADCC ............................. 14 Trade in Agricultural Products .................................. 14 Agricultural Growth Prospects .................................. 15 Transport . ............................................. 17 National Agricultural Policies in the SADCC Region ................... 17 SACCAR and the Agricultural Research and Training Sector .............. 17 National Agricultural Research Systems (NARSs) in the SADCC Region .... ... 17 International Agricultural Research Centers (JARCs) ................... 18 3. The Problem and the Challenge .................................. 20 The Problem . ............................................ 20 The Challenge . ............................................ 24 4. Framework for Action ........................................ 26 Introduction .............................................. 26 Elements of the Proposed Framework for Action ...................... 27 Detailed Features of the Framework for Action ....................... 28 Research Fund ........................................... 28 Enabling Environment ...................................... 29 Policy Analysis .......................................... 29 Privatization of Research .................................... 30 Enhancing the Quality of Science and Technology ..................... 30 Intensification and Diversification of Agriculture ...................... 31 Exploitation of Natural Resources ............................... 31 viii 5. The Long-Term Strategy . ....................................... 33 Introduction .................................. ........... 33 Public Sector Research and Extension Services ....................... 33 The Universities . .......................................... 33 Regional Agricultural Research and Training - SACCAR ................. 34 International Agricultural Research Centers .......................... 34 The Private Sector . ........................................ 35 6. Regional Agricultural Research ................................... 36 Introduction ............................................. 36 SACCAR Portfolio ............ ............................ 36 Projected Devolution of the SACCAR Portfolio ............ ........... 38 Proposed Structure for Regional Research Networking in Maize, Wheat and Rice ...................... . ........ 39 Donor-Funded Agricultural Research Programs and Projects in the Region .39 Human Resource Development .................................. 39 High-Value Crops and the Private Sector ............... I ........... 40 Next Steps--Implementation of the Framework ............. ........... 40 7. Expectations ............................................ 42 A Vision of Research Systems in the SADCC Region .................... 43 Annexes Annex 1: The Political Economy of Wheat Consumption and Production in Sub-Saharan Africa ............................. 44 Annex 2: Rural Community Participation in Integrated Wildlife Management and Utilization (IWMU) ....... .............. 47 Annex 3: Biotechnology: A Potential Tool for The SADCC Region .51 Annex 4: Contract Research . ..................................... 54 Annex 5: Agricultural Research Activities of SIS Focal Points in the SADCC Member Countries ........................ 56 Notes . ........................................... 57 Bibliography ............................................ 58 Boxes Box 1: Regional Agricultural Responsibilities in SADCC .................... 1 Box 2: A National Agricultural Research System ......................... 3 Box 3: Zimbabwe .......................................... 20 Box 4: Tea ............................................. 20 Box 5: Cotton ........................................... 21 Box 6: Tobacco ........... .v ................................. 22 Box 7: Malawi .......................................... 22 Box 8: Intensive Livestock Production .......... ..................... 24 Box 9: Research Software . ..................................... 26 Box 10: SACCAR Portfolio . ..................................... 37 ix Tables Table 1: Selected Socio-Economic Indicators for SADCC Member Countries, 1987 ..... 4 Table 2: Fisheries Catches ........................................ 7 Table 3: Wildlife Conservation Areas .................................. 8 Table 4: Cereal Crop Production and Productivity, 1989 ...... ............... 11 Table 5: Export Crop Production and Productivity, 1989 ...... .............. 12 Table 6: Livestock Population, 1988 .................................. 13 Table 7: Demographic Indicators, 1990 - 2010 . .......................... 14 Annex Tables Table A-1: Changes (%) in Daily Food Calories per Capita obtained from different Staples in Africa, 1961/65 to 1975/77 .............. 45 Table A-2: Major Wheat Production Environments and Production Issues in SSA .46 Maps Map 1: SACCAR/SPAAR Framework for Action in Agricultra Research Map 2: SADCC Regional Transport Routes x Abbreviations And Acronyms ADMADE Administrative Management Design for Game Management Areas AFRENA Agroforestry Research Network for Africa AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome ARRA Agricultural Research Resource Assessment ART Agricultural Research Trust BRI Biotechnology Research Institute CAMPFIRE Communal Area Management Program for Indigenous Resources CARIS Current Agricultural Research Information System CFB Commercial Farmers Bureau CIAT International Tropical Agricultural Center CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIMMYT International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center CIP International Potato Improvement Center DRC Domestic Resource Cost CTA Technical Center for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FFA Framework for Action GDP Gross Domestic Product IARC International Agricultural Research Center ICRAF International Center for Research in Agroforestry ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IDRC International Development Research Center IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute IFS International Foundation for Science IITA International Institute for Tropical Agriculture IRRI International Rice Research Institute ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research ME Maize Equivalent NARM National Agricultural Research Masterplan NARS National Agricultural Research Service NGO Non-Governmental Organization NR Natural Resources ODA Overseas Development Administration PTA Preferential Trade Area SACCAR Southern African Center for Agricultural Research SADCC Southern African Development Coordination Conference SIRDC Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Center SIS SPAAR Information System SPAAR Special Program for African Agricultural Research SSA Sub-Saharan Africa UNDP United Nations Development Program USAID United States Agency for International Development UZ University of Zimbabwe xi Executive Summary The objective of this Framework for Action nearly 90 percent of the planted area under is the development of a strategic agenda for foodcrops. Much of the area is under low- the SADCC region that will strengthen the input subsistence farming. It is desirable to National Agricultural Research Systems gradually transform this subsistence mode of (NARSs) of the member states. The task production to higher value commercial force believes that the focus of the labor-absorbing enterprises. This change framework, at this stage, must be on the will require the continuous development of research software, that is, on national a stream of technologies for different target scientists and their work environment. groups and agro-ecological zones. The food, agricultural and natural The domestic availability of the resources sector occupies a central position major staples, in the 1990-91 marketing in SADCC's economy. In the member season, was reported to be 8 percent in states where agriculture is dominant, up to excess of regional food requirements. 80 percent of the population and labor force However, its distribution between countries still depend on agriculture for their was skewed because of difficulties with livelihood; and, approximately 23 percent of intra-regional trade. Food availability the regional Gross Domestic Product (GDP) within countries is also characterized by is derived from the sector. inequities between areas and income groups. The current population of about 84 Moreover, food production is very million is growing at a rate of about 3 dependent on the weather with rnuch of crop percent per annum, which is below the production being rain-fed despite the growth rate of agricultural production (1986 potential for irrigation. The widespread and - 1989) in the majority of the SADCC persistent drought throughout the region in member states. However, many people in 1991-92 underscored the fragility of regional the region have experienced a decline or food security. stagnation in living standards since 1980. The agricultural commodities in the Significant increases in agricultural region that appear to have the most productivity will be required to improve promising prospects for growth include: food security and the quality of life. This maize, wheat, rice, oilseeds, tobacco, will need strong, responsive and sustainable cotton, fruit and vegetables, dairy products research and extension systems. and poultry, tree nuts and wildlife. The SADCC region is probably the Available statistics indicate that the richest in Sub-Saharan Africa in terms of its number of trained scientists and the total renewable natural resources of land, water, research budget have increased markedly livestock, forests, wildlife and fish. during the past decade in most SADCC Although there are significant areas member countries. While the data show that of intensive commercial agriculture, the the average research expenditure per agricultural potential of the SADCC scientist has not been lower than that in Asia countries is currently under-used, with and Latin America, output is much lower in xiii terms of quantity and quality. However, expected to provide the research software these statistics do not tell the whole story. and address critical gaps in agricultural Two-thirds of the aggregate expenditure is research in the region. It will require the outside the control of African governments, cooperation of the SADCC member states a high proportion of which is for the and the donor members of SPAAR, in operation of the Intemational Agricultural concert with the IARCs and private sector Research Centers (IARCs) and for technical research institutions, to put the following six assistance provided by extemal agencies. interactive elements in place. Information about activities funded by 1. Establish a consolidated donors in the SIS database indicates that programming and funding mechanism for most SPAAR donor members are active each NARS to ensure the adequacy of supporters of agricultural research in the financial resources for the priority programs region, but that there has been duplication of of the national agricultural research research effort and over-emphasis in some masterplans (NARM) and thereby improve areas. the enabling environment for SADCC In general, most national programs scientists. manage research programs on their major 2. Develop a capacity for policy commodities, but there is need to do more analysis within each NARS to assist on sustainability (soil fertility and governments in setting sound market- management); crop loss reduction oriented policies (production, pricing, (particularly pests and diseases); marketing, marketing, processing, utilization and trade) processing and utilization; and possibly for the NR sector. some aspects of livestock research. A more 3. Encourage private sector involvement serious problem not revealed by the in the formulation and implementation of the aggregate expenditure figures is that national and regional agricultural research insufficient money is allocated for recurrent programs. Such a pluralistic approach to expenditure, since few donors or external agricultural research will draw on the agencies make adequate provision for relative strengths of the public, private and funding of recurrent costs. The assumption academic sectors. This collaboration can be is that governments will be able to assume expected to lead to a symbiotic relationship the responsibility for recurrent funding of in the development of appropriate science non-incremental activities. This has not and technology for the region. proved to be the case. Consequently, the 4. Improve the quality of science and funds available for recurrent expenditure technology in the region through the have proven inadequate to provide African establishment of specialized regional scientists with the operating funds to technical expertise that will enable African undertake even a minimal level of research scientists to establish leadership in selected activities. The mitigation of this deficiency, scientific fields, and to participate more which is part of the disenabling environment fully in the global research agenda. in which most African scientists work, is the 5. Intensify existing farming systems in centerpiece of this proposed Framework. the arable farming areas and diversify the An assurance of sustainable recurrent commodity base with the goal of increasing funding for the operational costs of priority and sustaining the agricultural growth rate. research programs is fundamental to the 6. Assist the rural poor in the arid reinvigoration of the NARSs. and marginal areas of the region through The elements of the proposed FFA on-farm research and extension on crops in agricultural research and training are and livestock; through the application of xlv biotechnology; and through support for had already been the focus of the first effort wildlife management and utilization by the SPAAR membership to coordinate programs. donor efforts in support of agricultural The report defines the roles and research within a country was proposed as responsibilities of the major players (public the pilot country. This choice was endorsed sector research services, the regional by SPAAR and SACCAR and subsequently research institution (SACCAR), universities agreed to by the government of Tanzania. (agricultural faculties), IARCs, and the The government decided to host the first private sector) involved in agricultural Donor Coordination meeting in Dar-es- research over the short-, medium-, and long- Salaam in November, 1991 prior to a term. Donor-Government Workshop in March, SACCAR's current portfolio consists 1992 to launch the piloting of the of ten programs (including the establishment Framework through the implementation of of SACCAR), of which eight have been its recently-completed (1991) National funded and are at various stages of Research Masterplan (NARM). implementation. A further eight programs The region has the natural resources have been identified and appraised and are to realize and sustain an accelerated awaiting funding. A major long-term plan agricultural growth rate. The proposed has been developed for professional training Framework can provide the catalyst for in the food, agriculture and natural increasing and sustaining growth. But, the resources sector. A possible path for the improvements will take time. As the devolution of the present portfolio to the elements of the proposed Framework are put NARSs has been proposed by the task force. in place, it can be envisaged that the Following the technical validation of scientists in the NARSs of SADCC will the Framework by the SACCAR Board in become increasingly able, motivated and April, 1991 and its subsequent endorsement imbued with a sense of mission to respond the following month by the SPAAR more directly to the demands and challenges membership, it was agreed to pilot of the food, agriculture and natural implementation of its principles in one resources sector. SADCC member state. Tanzania, which xv 1. The SACCAR/SPAAR Initiative It may be useful at the outset to provide some background information on the Southern Box 1: Regional Agricultural African Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Responsibilities in SADCC Research (SACCAR) and the Special Program Overall coordination Zimbabwe for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR), Agricultural Research and indicate why SACCAR and SPAAR and Training Botswana decided to jointly undertake this ambitious Fisheries, Forestry and venture of preparing a Framework for Action Wildlife Malawii (FFA) in support of agricultural research in the Food Security Zimbabwe SADCC region. Livestock Production and Animal Disease SADCC - Southern African Development Control Botswana Coordination Conference Soil and Water Conservation and Land Utilization Lesotho The Heads of State and Governments of and_Land_Utilization _Lesotlio nine countries in Southern Africa decided on April 1, 1980 to launch SADCC to pursue policies aimed at economic liberation and the SACCAR - Southern African Centre for integrated development of their national Cooperation in Agricultural Research economies. At that time the SADCC member countries comprised Angola, Botswana, SACCAR was established in 1984 in Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Swaziland, Gaborone, Botswana by SADCC. The Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Namibia, objectives of SACCAR are to: which gained independence on March 21, 1990 joined SADCC on April 1, 1990, coinciding * Promote cooperation in agricultural research with the tenth anniversary of the organization. * Facilitate the exchange of information Since 1980, SADCC has built up a conceptual among the national research systems framework for regional cooperation based on * Promote the development of the human the direct involvement of member states in the resources necessary to operate the agricultural initiation and implementation of programs and research systems projects. Political consensus now largely exists * Promote coordination of SADCC in the region and a number of regional agricultural research activities. programs are under implementation. One of the productive sectors in which the Since its establishment, SACCAR has SADCC member countries decided to work received full support and cooperation from the together was food, agriculture and natural government of Botswana, the rest of the resources (hereinafter referred to as the natural SADCC member states and from cooperating resources (NR) sector). Within this sector, partners, especially Canada, the European SADCC assigned responsibilityfor coordinating Community, Germany, Norway, Sweden, the regional programs to different member states United Kingdom, the Nordic countries as a (Box 1). 1 group and the United States of America. regional levels. The SPAAR group decided SACCAR has a portfolio of regional during its 10th Plenary Session in Brussels in agricultural research and training programs and May, 1990, that a research strategy is needed projects, of which more than half are under as a basis for consensus building and concerted implementation. The priorities for the future action. The proposed strategy should ensure include implementation of the already approved that: "Blueprint for Training;" development of a network of information exchange and scientific * All aspects of research were adequately communication, including libraries and regional covered to achieve the targeted 4 percent scientific publications for different audiences; agricultural growth for Sub-Saharan Africa. and regional programs of operational research. * The institutional arrangements for agricultural researchi were optimal. SPAAR - Special Program for African * Theoperationalandadministrativeproblems Agricultural Research presently apparent in the region were minimized. SPAAR was established in 1985 by a group of donors who decided that there was much to It was decided to develop regional strategies be gained by working together towards a for the major eco-political regions starting with common goal: the strengthening of African the Sahel and SADCC regions. The SPAAR agricultural research systems. SPAAR has two donors emphasized t]hat this initiative should not major objectives: take the form of further studies but rather 1. To strengthen African agricultural research should be developed as an operational action systems in the public and private sectors and, plan. through them, develop and test relevant technologies in support of sustainable The Framework for Action agricultural development. 2. To increase the effectiveness of donor The SACCAR and SPAAR cooperative assistance to African agricultural research effort to strengthen national agricultural systems through better coordination of existing research systems (NARSs) in the ten SADCC resources; avoidance of duplication of effort; countries was launched during a workshop in exchange of information on past, current, and Gaborone, Botswana in November, 1990. The future activities; and collaborative initiatives to foundation for this coordinated activity was to address particular problems in agricultural be the development of a strategic agenda for the research. region by a SACCAR/SPAAR Task Force, SPAAR's definition of agriculture is broad. working in close partnership with their SPAAR provides a forum for addressing issues respective member countries. The strategic relating to donor support for research on the agenda was to be framed within the context of sustainable use and development of renewable the existing SACCAR regional program which natural resources, including agriculture, is itself a component of SADCC's Strategy for agroforestry, livestock, fisheries, and associated the Food, Agricultural and Natural Resources socioeconomic, human resource, and Sector. The proposed agenda will be regularly environmental issues. The SPAAR group updated by consensus, by both governments pursues only those activities where there is and donors. This will be a long-term process, broad interest and which are not covered by requiring the creation of an "enabling other organizations. The emphasis is on environment" that will provide scientists with identifying problems and gaps in support of the necessary research tools, recurrent African agricultural research which can be resources, incentives, and motivation for high- addressed through collaborative ventures quality research. between the SPAAR members at national and 2 2. The SADCC Region and Its Natural Resources The objective of the proposed OverviewoftheRegion SACCAR/SPAAR Framework for Action (FFA) is the development of a strategic agenda The natural resources sector occupies a for the SADCC region that will enable the central position in the economic structure of the NARSs (Box 2) of the member states to SADCC region. Simple statistics tell the story. become more responsive to the technical Approximately 23 percent of SADCC's GDP is problems of their farmers. The proposed derived from agriculture (Table 1). Recent framework will strengthen and sustain the growth rates in AgGDP (1989) were mostly in NARSs and so enable them to develop the range of 1.2 - 3.7 percent, with the appropriate technologies for dissemination by exceptions being -18.9 percent (Lesotho) and the extension services. The region's farmers +5.5 percent (Tanzania). In the member states and economies will only benefit from more that are not dominated by mining, agriculture effective research systems if appropriate and contributes about 60 percent of the foreign active extension systems are available and exchange earnings and up to 80 percent of the effectively linked with research services. population and labor force are now dependent Although the task force recognizes that research on agriculture for employment and income. and extension are inextricably linked, the main The population of the region,, currently focus of this framework is on agricultural estimated at 84 million, is growing by research. The development of this strategic approximately 2 million per year and is, agenda will require the agreement and support therefore, likely to exceed 100 million by the of both the SADCC member states and SPAAR year 2000 and then double to 200 million by members. the year 2020. ' Presently, about 74 percent The implementation of this framework is of the population live in rural areas with rural- expected to help the NARSs to become urban migration increasing. The share of the increasingly able, motivated and imbued with a urban population is expected to increase from sense of mission to respond more directly to the 30 percent in 1990 to 43 percent in 2010. demands and challenges of the natural resources Increasing the productivity of agriculture is sector. The ultimate objective is to promote essential for assurance of food security, for growth and equity in the agricultural economies stimulating development and for raising the of the region. standard of living of the people in the region. Box 2: A National Agricultural Research System A National Agricultural Research System (NARS) encompasses the entire spectrum of agricultural research activities undertaken within a country by a multiplicity of organizations, including government research services in the different natural resources sectors, the universities (particularly the agricultural faculties), the international research centers, the regional research institutions, parastatal commodity and seed organizations, the private sector (including foundations financed by producers of various commodlities and research institutes) and charitable foundations. 3 Table 1: Selected Socio-Economic Indicators for SADCC Member Countries, 1987 a/ Food Self- GDP per Agricultural Total Land Cultivable sufficiency Population 1/ capita 2/ GDP 2/ Area 3/ Area 3/ 2/ (millions) (US$) (percent) (million ha) i(million ha) (percent) Angola 10.0 841 46 124.7 31.5 71 Botswana 1.1 1382 3 60.0 5.3 34 Lesotho 1.6 169 16 3.0 0.9 53 Malawi 7.9 141 37 11.9 3.3 110 Mozambique 14.6 102 50 80.2 40.5 84 Namibia 1.2 1,171 4/ 11 4/ 82.4 20.0 4/ n/a Swaziland 0.7 527 24 1.7 0.4 152 Tanzania 23.9 129 61 94.5 45.0 88 Zambia 7.2 282 12 75.3 25.0 98 Zimbabwe 9.0 582 11 39.1 3.5 65 Note: a/ 1987 was the latest year for which figures were available for all indicators. Sources: 1/ World Bank, Sub-Saharan Africa: From Crisis to Sustainable Growth, 1989. 2/ USDA, World Agriculture: Trends and Indicators, 1970-1989, 1990. 3/ H. Albrecht, Postgraduate Training in Agriculture in SADCC: Regional Cooperation in Manpower and Human Resource Development in Southern Africa", Report to the Board of SACCAR, 1990. 4/ Based on Standard Bank Report, Namibia, 1991. Achieving a marked improvement in of the region's export earnings (but 43 percent productivity will require the establishment of in Zimbabwe, 75 percent in Tanzania and 84 strong and sustainable research systems. percent in Malawi). The region is self-sufficient Considerable diversity characterizes in sugar cane. Apart from agricultural SADCC's natural resource base, the structure of commodities, significant foreign exchange its economy, its population density, its agro- earnings are realized each year from wildlife ecology and its agricultural productivity. The (e.g. Botswana, Malawi, Namibia, Tanzania, SADCC region has possibly the richest natural Zambia, Zimbabwe); forestry (e.g. Malawi, resource base in Africa, marketing virtually all Swaziland, Tanzania and Zimbabwe); and, the major internationally-traded minerals - oil, fisheries (e.g. Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, gas, uranium, diamonds, iron ore, copper, Namibia, Tanzania, and Zambia). The political chromium, coal, zinc- and many minor ones. evolution now taking place in the Republic of Mining contributes over 60 percent of the South Africa will be increasingly felt in the region's export earnings. It is also rich in its SADCC region as the regional strategy shifts renewable natural resources of land, water, from reduction of dependence on South Africa livestock, forests, wildlife and fish. The region to the incorporation of South Africa in the is a major producer of beef, cereals and economic transformation of the whole southern commercial crops. In 1989-90 and 1990-91 Africa region. (marketing years),2 the region has statistically The total land area of the ten member been self-sufficient in maize - its principal cereal countries is nearly 572 million hectares, staple. However, problems with intra-regional equivalent to 17 percent of the African trade hampered distribution within the region. continent. About 30 percent of the total land The widespread and devastating drought of area has potential for crop production, the 1991/92 has left the region with a huge deficit remaining 70 percent being forests, range land of cereal staples. Coffee, tea, groundnuts and and deserts. But the potential productivity of tobacco contribute, on average, abouit 20 percent substantial areas of the 155 million hectares 4 suitable for crop production is constrained by simultaneous introduction of market consumer soils that are old, fragile and acidic. Only about goods and off-farm wage opportunities, which 15 percent of the potential agricultural land was encouraged farm households to engage in cultivated in 1986, of which nearly 90 percent market production through wage employment was planted to food crops, and only 2 percent rather than commercial farming. However, cropped under irrigation. The livestock industry migration to wage employment in mining and is sizeable with presently over 30 million cattle industrial centers did not reduce population of which 15 percent are milking cows, 14 (human and cattle) pressures on the land, since million sheep and 15 million goats. Much most migrants retained their rural home base. poultry meat, eggs and pork is also produced The food and agriculture strategy must for home consumption and for sale in urban improve employment opportunities as well as markets. There are 12 million hectares of foodcrop and export crop production. SADCC inland waters and lakes and 900,000 tones of member states recognize the special role of fish are harvested each year from marine and women. Policies and measures are being inland fishing. One-third of the region is now developed to enhance and facilitate the under woodland and forest and 9 percent of total participation of women, not only in the chores land has been set aside for environmental of production, but in the appropriate planning management, including land under conservation and decision-making processes. and headwater catchment protection. Farming The overall GDP growth of about 3I5 systems are diverse with various combinations percent in 1989/90 was disappointingly lower of crops and livestock, varying levels of than the 4.5 percent achieved the previous year. intensification and farm sizes ranging from The overall GDP of US$23.3 billion3 showed rangeland farming through small-scale marked variability between member countries subsistence farming to large capital-intensive (Table 1) and an average GDP per capita of commercial farms in private or public about US$282 in 1987 (Table 1). The share of ownership. agriculture and natural resources in the regional Food supplies will need to grow at 4 to 5 GDP was 23.4 percent. The primary reasons percent per year in most of the countries to for the slowing down of the economic growth meet the forecast growth in population and rate were: weakening commodity prices, income - an awesome task in the light of continuing foreign exchange difficulties and, in worldwide historical experience. On average, some cases, socio-economic and security seven out of ten people are presently living in problems. With population increasing rapidly, rural areas and the number of food deficit most member states have experienced a decline households is unacceptably high. Most of the or stagnation in living standards since 1980. people will still be living in rural areas by the Four lessons flow from these disappointing year 2000, because of the stark inability of the results. First, large and continuing public and industrial and service sectors to generate private investment in agriculture is needed, to sufficient jobs. While rapid growth has taken keep up with the demands of population growth, place in the modem sectors of the region's and to ensure food security and an improved economies, production per person has stagnated quality of life. Second, increasedi attention to or declined in the smallholder agricultural enviromnental issues, including long-term sectors. The common explanations of the research on developing sustainable production underdevelopment of the indigenous sectors in systems for food and cash crops, fisheries, this region is often attributed to historical forestry and wildlife will be necessary. Third, neglect and policy discrimination or the effective agricultural research must be institutional biases that favored and continue to established and sustained in order to underpin favor large-scale, modem, urban and capital- the development of a diversified agriculture intensive production over small-scale peasant offering a wider range of income options. And farming. The major influences on agricultural fourth, policies must be evolved that stimulate production in Botswana and Lesotho were the the development of rural non-farm activities. 5 Overview of SADCC's Natural Resources region, of which approximately 0.25 million square kilometers have been set aside specially Land and Water Resources for forestry purposes. By 1981, about 7800 square kilometers of commercial plantations and Table 1 shows that Angola has the largest woodlots had been established for saw-timber, land area (1.2 million square kcilometers) pulpwood and fuelwood. Forest resources followed by Tanzania and Namibia (0.94 million provide a wide range of goods and services and 0.84 million square kcilometers including saw-logs, pulpwood, fuelwood, poles, respectively). Swaziland and Lesotho have the wood-based panels, fodder, edible fruits, smallest land surfaces (0.02 and 0.03 million medicines, honey, beeswax and protection for square kilometers respectively). Whereas the land resource. The natural forest resources Malawi and Swaziland have the highest are often over-exploited, and are generally percentage of arable land (20 percent and 10 declining in quality and quantity. The per percent respectively), Namibia and Botswana capita consumption of fuelwood in the region is have the least (0.08 percent and 2.3 percent amongst the highest in the world; deforestation, respectively). Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Malawi with consequent erosion of topsoil and have the largest percentage area of forest and decertification, is becoming a common feature; woodland (62 percent, 48 percent and 48 and insufficient attention is being given to re- percent respectively). Most countries have afforestation. Intra-regional trade in forest considerable areas of land that are neither arable products is negligible, and many manufactured nor forested; these range and wildlands have wood products are imported. great importance for livestock production, wildlife and conservation. Grasslands The water systems of the regiorn comprise eight major drainage systems (the Ruvuma, the Grasslands support grasses that are important Zambezi, the Limpopo, the Sabi, the Komati, for grazing, house-thatching, soil and water the Orange (Senqu), the Kunene and the conservation, and aesthetics; and wild herbs and Okavango rivers); and some of the largest lakes shrubs, some of which are invaluable on the African continent (Lake Malawi, medicinally and as indigenous vegetables. spanning the territories of Malawi, Mozambique Over-grazing, burning and over-exploitation are and Tanzania; Lake Benguela in Zambia and severely degrading grasslands and some species parts of Lake Tanganyika and Victoria) and are threatened with extinction. A SADCC thousands of man-made reservoirs (amongst Regional Gene Bank for plant genetic resources which the largest are Lake Kariba and Lake has been established in Lusaka, Zambia, to Cabora-Bassa on the Zambezi river). conserve plant genetic resources. The Gene The responsible use of these land and water Bank provides support to national plant genetic resources is the foundation for any development resource centers being established in each of the of the region. Conservation of the soil and its ten member states. fertility is a sine qua non for increased agricultural production and food security. The Fish Resources water resources are vital for consumption and energy- generation for urban and industrial Almost 16 percent of the SADCC region development, and also have great potential for (0.9 million square kilometers) is natural lakes, protein production from fisheries. In addition, swamps, rivers, man-made lakes and dams. their potential as a tourist attraction has not yet This is a very important freshwater fish been fully realized. resource. The region also has more than 5000 kilometers of coastline, supporting an even more Plant Resources important marine fish resource. Total fishproduction in the SADCC region is about Forest, woodland, savanna and grassland 832,000 metric tones per annum, of which cover more than 60 percent of the about 38 percent originates from marine 6 Table 2: Fisheries Catches (metric tonnes) Marine Total Aqua- % of Artisanal Industrial Total Inland Catches culture AgGDP Angola 11,735 61,604 73,339 8,000 81,339 2 4.0 Botswana 0 0 0 1,900 1,900 n/a 19.0 Lesotho 0 0 0 16 16 26 neg. Malawi 0 0 0 72,852 72,852 83 2.0 Mozambique 19,719 14,876 34,595 767 35,362 4 3.2 Namibia n/a n/a 164,158 S0 164,208 8 17.0 Swaziland 0 0 0 1 1 1 neg. Tanzania 40,609 7,166 47,775 342,700 390,475 32 5.0 Zambia 0 0 0 68,189 68,189 695 5.2 Zimnbabwe 0 0 0 17,500 17,500 1,752 3.0 Total 72,063 83,646 319,867 511,975 831,842 2,603 Source: FAO, Socio-Economic Database on African Fisheries, Fisheries Circular No. 810, December, 1988. fisheries and 62 percent from inland fisheries bio-geographical zones and plant resources. In and aquaculture (Table2). Although fish particular, the more arid savanna zone contains constitutes one of the most important animal very important populations of game animals protein sources and provides cash income to well-adapted to the often agriculturally rural people, none of the SADCC member states marginal environment. But in many areas, large has a well-developed fisheries industry based indigenous herbivores have been and are still on sound management of the resource. Lack of being replaced by less well-adapted non- trained manpower, equipment and funds, poor indigenous cattle. In this process, game is often handling and transport facilities, and inadequate seen as competing with cattle and threatening research services are the major constraints to a the livestock industry with disease. The fuller exploitation of the region's fisheries detrimental effects of cattle ranching on potential. marginal lands, such as land degradation and decertification, are ignored. Wildlife Resources However, most of the semi-arid savanna woodlands of Angola, Mozambique,Tanzania, The region's wildlife is exceptionally Zambia and Zimbabwe and the arid thorn-bush diverse. Of Africa's 84 species of larger steppe of Botswana still support significant game herbivores, for example, more than half are populations. Subsistence hunting still furnishes found in the region. Many species have direct most of the animal protein for the rural economic value; others have scientific, medical population. A recent study in eastern Zambia or ritual significance. All wild animals are showed greater contributions to household dependant upon specific habitats, and wildlife income from this source than from livestock resources are therefore best seen in terms of the production. 7 Table 3: Wildlife Conservation Areas (thousand hectares) Other Total 1mE Percatag l Total National Conservation Area der of Total Land Area Pars Area Consantio Land Area Angola 124,670 5,466 2,765 8,231 6.6 Botswana 58,173 5,737 6,197 11,934 20.5 Lesotho 3,035 7 0 7 0.2 Malawi 11,848 698 369 1,067 9.0 Mozanbique 80,159 1,590 3,810 5,400 6.7 Namibia 84,429 n/a n/a 10,133 12.0 Swaziland 1,736 0 54 54 3.1 Tanzania 94,509 3,752 9,709 13,461 14.1 Zambia 75,261 6,369 16,049 22,413 29.8 Zimbabwe 39,058 2,700 2,290 4,990 12.8 Total 572,878 26,319 41,243 77,695 11.5 Sources: International Union for Conservation of Naou, Protcted Areas Data Unit, 1986; D _pztmwt of Wildlife, Namibia, (personal communication), 1991. As increased demand for wildlife products leads only of economic importance, through tourism, to higher prices and subsistence hunting is being but have been designated by the UNESCO replaced by unlawful commercial poaching. Convention on World Cultural and Natural Unless exploitation of the wildlife resource is Heritage as sites of great scientific and controlled, it is likely to be destroyed within the educational value for the world. next few decades. Apart from its importance for human nutrition, wildlife is the backbone of Agro-climatic Potential the region's tourism industry and a rich potential source of foreign exchange Table 3 The wide diversity of agro-climates - shows that about 12 percent of the region's land ranging from dry deserts to humid forests and area is set aside as National Parks or equivalent from tropical coastal plains to temperate reserves. Wildlife-based tourism is of particular highlands - provide the base for varied economic importance as the percentage of total agricultural production patterns. The agro- area set aside for wildlife conservation climatic potential sets the pattern of land use demonstrate: Zambia-29.8 percent, and prospects for agriculture. It also influences Botswana-20.5 percent, Tanzania-14.1 public and private decisions that can, in turn, percent, Zimbabwe-12.8 percent, affect agricultural growth. Past policies have Namibia-12 percent, and Malawi-9 percent. resulted in large numbers of resource-poor Many of the conservation areas of the region - smallholders practicing subsistence agriculture like the Serengeti steppe and Ngorongoro Crater on the less productive lands of the region. This in Tanzania, Lake Malawi, the Luangwa Valley poses many difficulties for the development of in Zambia, the Gorongosa area in Mozambique sustainable agriculture. Regional research and the Okavango Delta in Botswana - are not agendas must take account of the differences in 8 agro-climatic potential in developing intensity of the farming sector. Malawi is at technologies for different farming groups. one extreme of the range with many agro- climatic zones and comparatively Igood rainfall Land Potential and soils. But, with one of the highest rural population intensities in Sub-Saharan Africa (74 The total land area with potential for crop persons per square kilometer), little more of its production is estimated at 190 million hectares, potential cultivable land can be opened to of which only 25 million hectares is currently cropping without investment in eitler irrigation cultivated. Cropping potential is limited by the or erosion protection. At the other extreme is low and unreliable rainfall, and by the Namibia with agricultural potential constrained inherently infertile, fragile and acidic soils. An by low and variable rainfall and infertile soil estimated 13 million hectares have potential for with less than 1 percent of its total land area irrigated cropping but less than 5 million under permanent cultivation. hectares are now being so used. Nearly 8 While an estimated 30 percent of the total million hectares of the land under forests are regional land area has potential for crop planted to commercial plantations, but further cultivation, only 4.3 percent was being so used production of forestry products is constrained by in 1986 with nearly 90 percent of that planted to transport difficulties and the lack of profitable cereal and non-cereal staple foodcrops. The outlets. Land classification has been carried out implications of this diversity in land use for the in several of the SADCC member states research agenda are clear; technologies must be (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Swaziland, developed for many different situations and Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe), the countries target groups, such as land-saving technologies being sub-divided into zones of agricultural for Malawi and profitable small-scale irrigation potential according to effective annual rainfall technologies for the drought-prone countries of and the probability of dry periods during the Botswana, Lesotho and Namibia. 'There is also growing season. For example, Zimbabwe's 39 much regional diversity in the land tenure million hectares of land have been classified into arrangements under which land is held, used, five "natural regions." Intensive rainfed crop transferred, ceded to, or inherited. Land tenure and livestock farming is possible in less than 2 and land-use policy issues (including grazing percent of the total area, semi-intensive in about rights) will be of increasing strategic importance 34 percent of the area and semi-extensive (more in the next twenty years as the need for extensive livestock systems and drought-resistant agricultural intensification increases and as crops) in 38 percent while 26 percent of the unused land becomes scarce. Technical, total area is low altitude with low and erratic economic and social conditions shape a diversity rainfall. A portion of the latter is used for of farming production systems with irrigated farming. I combinations of cropping and livestock systems The land-use pattern in the communally- ranging from extensive range through small owned areas of most member states is subsistence farms to large capital-intensive determined not by the natural region and commercial farms in private or public inherent land potential but by the population ownership. land-pressure. The agricultural potential is currently greatly under-exploited. Full Agricultural Production and Productivity exploitation will necessitate intensified land-use through both soil and water conservation and Foodcrops radical changes in the structure of the agricultural sector. Agricultural production is dominated by foodcrop production (Table 4). Although the Land-Use region attained a net surplus of 1.43 million metric tones maize equivalent in staple food Land-use in the SADCC countries is production during the 1989/90 marketing year, predictably as heterogeneous as the variability in productivity (Table 4) was extremely variable climate, soil types, population density and input with the resource-rich farmers in the more 9 . favored agro-ecological zones registering almost intensity of their production within acceptable ten times the yield of maize per hectare as the risk limits. smallholders in the drier and less fertile areas. Because maize is the preferred cereal staple Export crops for most people, some farmers in the drier areas are now switching from sorghum to maize. The production and yields of the principal Average maize yields range from about 2,000 export crops (Table 5) are highly variable kg/ha in the surplus countries (Zimbabwe, between both countries and producing sectors Tanzania and Zambia), through approximately (i.e large-scale commercial and smallholder). 1,000 kg/ha for the intermediate group (Malawi, For example, the average seed cotton yields Swaziland and Lesotho), to under 500 kg/ha for range between 544 kg/ha in Tanzania to 1053 the deficit group (Angola, Botswana and kglha in Zimbabwe. The comparatively higher Mozambique). Research yields in the surplus average yields of Zimbabwe are a reflection of countries are usually 6-7,000 kg/ha while the the provision to growers of a reliable supply of best commercial farmers in Zimbabwe averaged essential production inputs together with the 4,350 kg/ha in the period 1980-85. The maintenance of a well-directed research and productivity of wheat grown under irrigation on extension service. Zimbabwe effectively large commercial farms in Zambia, Swaziland refocussed its plant breeding program on cotton and Zimbabwe (average 4,529 kg/ha) is to meet the requirements of both new spinning comparatively high as is that for rice (average technologies and market quality requirements. 5,417 kg/ha) grown by resource-rich farmers in By contrast, Tanzania's cotton production has Swaziland and Zimbabwe. In contrast, in the been adversely affected by a lack of continuity same year, average wheat yields on smallholder in research, by the unreliability of input supplies farms were 988 kg/ha and rice yields were and by adverse price and marketing policies. 1,259 kg/ha. Research has to develop a stream Similar lessons can be drawn from the other of technologies that will enable resource-poor principal export crops, such as tea, coffee and smallholders to progressively increase the tobacco. Again, an urgent review of the research and extension agenda is indicated. 10 Table 4: Cereal Crop Production and Productivity, 1989 Maize Sorghum Millet Rico Wheat Barley Production (000 mt) Angola 204 - 63 18 2 - Botswana 4 50 2 - 1 Lesotho 75 28 - - 19 1 Malawi 1,510 20 11 46 2 Mozambique 330 145 1 55 S Namibia 16 - - - 5 - Swaziland 135 2 - 3 1 Tanzania 3,159 503 300 570 96 5 Zambia 1,861 37 26 13 47 2 Zimbabwe 1,931 81 141 1 274 30 Total 9,225 866 544 706 452 38 Productivity (kg/ha) Angola 291 n/a 630 1,000 800 Botswana 308 333 200 - 5,000 Lesotho 750 560 - - 633 n/a Malawi 1,188 672 624 1,787 670 - Mozambique 550 725 250 786 1,250 Namibia 480 480 506 - 1,000 Swaziland 1,688 800 - 7,500 3,250 Tanzania 1,755 979 1,000 1,683 1,574 n/a Zambia 2,303 822 675 1,039 4,857 a/a Zimbabwe 1,612 492 479 3,333 5,480 n/a Average 1,093 651 546 2,447 2,451 Sources: Various, including FAO and World Bank Agricultural Sector Survey Reports. 11 Table 5: Export Crop Production and Productivity, 1989 Seed Tobacco Tree Cotton (all types) Nuts Coffee Tea Production (metric tones) Angola 12,000 3,900 1,200 15,D0O Botswana 3 ,00 - - Lesotho - - - Malawi 29,388 86,615 225 6,807 39,059 Mozambique 30,200 2,900 45,000 8O00 6,400 Namibia 142 - - - Swaziland 30,000 300 - trace Tanzania 3 105,880 15,055 22,000 52,000 17,000 Zambia 27,780 4,300 - 1,000 500 Zimbabwe 186,546 135,205 somD 14,000 18,000 Productivity (kg/ha) Angola 1,152 987 7 ? Botswana - - - Lesotho - - - Malawi 580 965 1,198 1,016 1,039 Mozambique 474 1,074 714 500 Namibia - - Swaziland 1,333 ? Tanzania 409 708 537 465 1,063 Zambia 178 1,229 - 945 1,266 Zimbabwe 813 2,233 ? 1,ls8 3,340 Sources: Various, including FAO, USDA, 'World Bank, and national data from individual countries. Livestock of countries and milk. production is expanding through crossbreeding, particularly in Zimbabwe In 1988, almost 20 percent of the cattle and and Malawi. Poultry production is expanding. 10 percent of the sheep and goats in Sub- Sheep and goats remnain relatively neglected Saharan Africa (Table 6) were in tie SADCC except in Lesotho, Namibia and Zimbabwe. region. Traditional extensive systems of Productivity data is unreliable, but generally livestock management continue to be the norm speaking, productivity per animal remains very but some intensification is occurring. Ranching low and has substantial potential for profitable and stall feeder fattening is found in a number improvement. 12 Table 6: Uvestoec Population, 1988 ('000 head) AS Milking Cae Cows Sheep Goats Angola 4,400 n/a n/a 2,000 Botswana 2,350 290 220 1,100 Lesotho 525 80 1,440 1,130 Malawi 1,000 95 210 950 Mozambique 1,360 390 119 375 Namibia 2,050 169 6,400 2,500 Swaziland 650 153 35 320 Taznia 13,500 2,100 4,700 6,600 Zambia 2,685 270 80 42CI Zimbabwe 5,700 143 580 1,650 Total 34,220 4,390 13,784 17,045 Source: FAO Ptoduciioe Yeubook, 1989. Demography South Africa. The high proportion of women- headed households demands special efforts by Population growth forecasts for the SADCC the national research and extension services to region (Table 7) indicate that during the next develop appropriate messages for crop and twenty years, thereby the population will livestock husbandry. practically double from 84.35 million in 1990 to These population forecasts take no account 155.55 million in 2010 despite an expected of the expected morbidity and mortality caused slowing in the growth rate from 3.02 percent by AIDS which is endemic in many parts of (1990) to 2.41 percent (2010). But, although Sub-Saharan Africa. Some forecasts predict no the rural population is expected to decrease in increment in population from the year 2005, percentage terms from 70.35 percent (1990) to while others predict that the population growth 57.39 percent (2010), the rural population rates may be only marginally less than now intensity per hectare of cultivable land will be forecast. The development pattern of AIDS higher. The statistics indicate an increasing across countries is very heterogeneous. population: land intensity from the current Moreover, the disease is particularly likely to regional average of 2.95 ha/caput to 2.14 affect the economically active sector of the work ha/caput in 2010. The urban population is force (i.e. the age cohort between 15 and 64 expected to increase from nearly 20 million years). The result will be a rise in the (1990) to about 66 million in the next twenty dependency ratio - the ratio of the old and years, thereby increasing considerably the urban the young relative to workers in the more demand for food. The structure of the productive age group. A decrease in the population in a number of SADCC countries agricultural labor force is possible as rural (particularly Lesotho and Swaziland) is affected people are drawn into the urban area to fill by the many males who seek employment in vacancies. 13 Table 7: Demographic Indicators, 1990 - 2010 Population Growth Rate Rural Density ('OOOs) (%) (%) (per sq.km.) 1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010 1990 2010 Angola 10,013 18,060 2.84 2.70 71.6 53.9 8.03 14.48 Botswana 1,212 1,824 2.28 1.49 84.0 87.7 2.02 3.04 Lesotho 1,765 2,827 2.57 1.92 78.2 66.1 58.83 94.23 Malawi 8,699 17,168 3.45 3.17 80.3 64.8 73.72 145.49 Mozambiqu 15,861 28,849 3.17 2.61 75.8 55.5 19.78 35.97 C Namibia 1,345 2,327 2.95 2.25 57.3 38.9 1.63 2.82 Swaziland 790 1,443 3.16 2.52 64.4 47.5 46.47 84.88 Tanzania 26,674 51,364 3.39 2.89 71.5 55.5 28.23 54.35 Zambia 8,066 15,710 3.47 2.95 43.6 28.8 10.71 20.86 Zimbabwe 9,925 15,976 2.88 1.63 76.7 77.3 25.38 40.86 Total Average 84,350 155,548 3.02 2.41 70.3 57.6 27.48 49.70 Note: no attempt has been made to incorpoirate mortality due to AIDS in these forecasts. Source: World Demographic Estimates ancl Projections, Johns Hopkins, October 1990. Regional Food Situation in SADCC unrest. These two countries needed respectively 565,000 and 479,000 metric tones ME in The aggregate output of major staples in the commercial or food aid imports in the 1990/91 SADCC region (excluding Namibia) was marketing season. estimated at 16.36 million (1988/89), 15.55 The import needs of all deficit countries million (1989/90) and 18.5 million metric tones combined in 1990/91 amounted to 1.38 million (1990/91) maize equivalent (ME). The 1990/91 metric tones ME while the surpluses of the harvest was theoretically 8 percent above the other three countries combined amounted to aggregate food requirements of 17.15 million 2.73 million metric tones ME. Wheat and metric tones ME. But, the widespread and maize represent 69 percent of the region's staple devastating drought throughout the region in food import needs. Since no SADCC country 1991/92, which has created the need for has a wheat surplus for export, 531,000 metric considerable emergency imports of food, tones of wheat had to be secured from outside underscores the current fragility of food the region. security. Only Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe Trade in Agricultural Products achieve staple food surpluses in average rainfall years. The other six countries usually import The SADCC member states wish to expand food, either on a commercial basis or as food intra-regional trade to increase food security. aid. The production in Angola and The level of recorded intra-SADCC official Mozambique is still adversely affected by civil trade is only 4-5 percent. Constraints on 14 expanded intra-region agricultural trade include: simultaneously earn adequate m[argins to food and agricultural pricing policies; shortages maintain profitability. and official rationing of foreign exchange; The Preferential Trade Area for E,astern and overvalued exchange rates; state monopolies on Southern African States (PTA) (another regional trading; bureaucratic red tape; and established organization with eight of the ten SADCC trading patterns with former colonial powers. members among its eighteen country signatories) While SADCC has successfully enlisted is attempting to promote cooperation in trade, international support for a number of regional agriculture, customs, monetary matters, undertakings (transport and communication transport and communications among its sector projects, triangular food aid shipments member states. The goal of PTA is thle eventual within the region, etc.), it has not yet addressed creation of the Eastern and Southern African national level policy issues that impede regional Common Market by the year 1992, and an trade. The widespread presence of consumer African Common Market and an Economic subsidies and pan-seasonal and pan-territorial Community by the year 2000. prices prevent both the private sector and parastatal bodies from engaging in profit- Agricultural Growth Prospects generating trade. Official price structures for food staples such as maize do not currently A preliminary assessment of the potential allow for trade expansion without increased prospects and constraints (technical, economic, financial losses for parastatals that are already trade, land, people, etc.) that are likely to operating at substantial deficits. Such trade is influence agricultural growth in the SADCC not sustainable if source country governments region during the next twenty years, indicates consistently lose money in the form of export that the following commodities or sub-sectors subsidies and importing country governments merit special attention: lose money through consumer subsidies. 1. Food commodities. Given the forecast for Pricing policies will have to be changed before increased urbanization and evolving maize trade can become remunerative. consumption patterns, the task force feels that in Over-valued exchange rates greatly impede addition to the research on traditional cereal intra-regional trade and are among the most staples, such as maize, more research on wheat difficult constraints to overcome. Further, (Annex 1), rice, potatoes (Irish), oilseeds, fruits certain SADCC currencies are over-valued with and vegetables, dairy and poultry may be respect to one another. desirable. However, much will depend on the Information from a survey of agricultural comparative advantage of the regilon in the trading firms in five SADCC countries revealed production of one or more of these crops. that transaction costs are higher for intra- Following the initial intensification of research regional trade than for trade with the rest of the input through SACCAR/IARC programs, the world. Cumbersome regulations, a paucity of task force considers that NARS research market information, unreliable transportation, supported by appropriate technical back-stopping complicated payments procedures, and lack of from the IARCs and regional networks on confidence in the willingness of SADCC maize, sorghum, millet and grain legumes governments to facilitate trade were reported as should be sufficient to provide the required significant barriers to regional trade. appropriate technology. The potential for Perhaps most important, yield-enhancing and significant increases in intra-regional trade in cost-saving technologies must be developed and basic foodstuffs is considered slight in the adopted to assure that intra-SADCC agricultural medium term. trade becomes more competitive with extra- 2. Traditional commercial crops. The main regional import sources in the long run. There commercial crops grown in the region are will only be truly sustainable gains from trade if tobacco (several types), cotton, maize, wheat, SADCC consumers are allowed to benefit from tea, coffee, groundnuts, pyrethrum, cashew nuts lower food prices while producers and other horticultural crops. Feedlback from 15 the region and a number of recent studies fragile areas through expansion of the initiatives indicate that the region has comparative now under way in Botswana, Zambia, and advantage in several of these crops, e.g. cotton, Zimbabwe to other countries and protected areas tobacco, maize, wheat and selected horticultural will offer considerable potential for increased crops. . foreign exchange earnings, rural employment 3. High-value crops. There is an increasing and greater food security. These programs need and potential for crop diversification on would involve management of game and the smallholdings in the intensively-populated high- associated tourist trade; non-destructive potential agricultural areas of the region. There exploitation of wild honey, silkmoths, is strong domestic market demand for oilseeds mushrooms, etc.; development of rural and possible export demand for certain essential industries based on game products etc. oil crops. Some international market demand complemented by participative adaptive research would appear to exist for non-traditional export and extension programs on foodcrops for the crops, including macadamia nuts, spices arid areas. In this connection, commercial (turmeric, cardamom, etc.) and horticultural exploitation of the wild Silkmoth has commodities. In addition, the market demand commenced in Botswana and Zimbabwe, and a for cashew nuts is satisfactory. Intensified spinning mill has been established by the private research programs on these commodities will be sector in Botswana. The responsible and essential if potential growth prospects are to be productive development of these areas will realized. require a well-directed multi-disciplinary 4. Production input/factorresearch. SADCC's regional research program. agricultural performance is still highly 6. Livestock. The internal demand for livestock dependant on weather conditions with most of products, particularly meat and milk, will the farmed area being rainfed. The region has continue to expand. The beef export market enormous irrigation potential, and research into which is now served by Botswana, Namibia, irrigation technology in the various agro- Swaziland and Zimbabwe is unlikely to offer ecological zones could be expected to have a much scope for further expansion. The region high return. Unfortunately, the current capacity has been generally self-sufficient in meat, but for irrigation research in the region is limited. milk imports are increasing. Maintaining meat Fertilizer response curves for the different crops self-sufficiency in some countries will require need to be identified, with appropriate fertilizer intensifying systems of production, particularly recommendations being subsequently diffused to if growth in the economy takes place. The different client groups of the farming SADCC region has good potential to both community. Adoption of yield-improving ensure self-sufficiency and to meet these market technologies is often constrained by labor bottle- opportunities. Beef will continue to be necks in agricultural systems that are important, but supplies of meat from small predominantly manual, and returns on ruminants, pigs and poultry offer good investments in research on agricultural tools and opportunities for expansion. Smallholder milk farm implements can therefore be expected to be production has great potential and need (as high. shown in Malawi). Livestock offers significant 5. Exploitation of the natural resources of the diversification opportunities that can increase arid and marginal areas. A number of incomes of smallholders and offer new initiatives have already been started in the processing possibilities in rural and urban areas. region (Annex 2) with community management Increased research effort will be needed in of both non-consumptive and consumptive animal health (particularly on diseases associated exploitation of a few of the many wildlife with intensification), and in feeding and protection areas (Table 3). It is considered that management systems. Breeding techniques will protection of these agriculturally marginal and also play an important role. 16 Transport 6. Seek to develop their scientific, technological and manpower capabilities in order tD shift to a Ten major rail transport corridors connect science-based agriculture. the SADCC countries to the main ports of Dar- The regional strategy is designed to reinforce es-Salaam, Nacala, Beira, Maputo, Durban, the capacity of member states to feed their Port Elizabeth and Lobito (Map 2). In 1988/89, people, to provide productive employment, to these corridors carried an estimated 6.8 million reduce food dependence on international sources metric tones of international transit traffic to and and to enhance the capacity of the agricultural from the land-locked states plus about 3 million sector to speed up the economic transformation metric tones of domestic traffic. Past operating of SADCC's economies. Four long-term problems have impeded import/export flows and problems will need special focus: caused considerable economic losses to some 1. Food production-population imbalance member states. Malawi, for example has 2. Lack of jobs in rural areas experienced cumulative losses of over US$75 3. Poverty, malnutrition and household food million due to the payment of additional insecurity, and transport charges. The total annual capacity of 4. Environmental degradation. the major SADCC rail corridors is about 62 million metric tones. Rail is the dominant form SACCAR and the Agricultural Research and of corridor transport for longer distance freight. Training Sector Internal transport corridors both within and between countries are often in poor condition The overall objective of the regional strategy due to limited maintenance. The efficiency of for the sector is the strengthening of NARSs of the agricultural sector is highly dependant on member states so that they have a capacity to low cost and efficient road and rail transport for plan, manage, monitor and evaluate location- the carriage of both production inputs and specific research that can generate technologies outputs. to improve the productivity of agriculture. SACCAR is also concerned with professional National Agricultural Policies in the human resource development for the food, SADCC Region agriculture and natural resources sector. SACCAR's initial portfolio consisted of SADCC member states have agreed to adopt projects that were designed to achieve the following policies in respect of their household, national and regional food security agricultural sectors: through developing food and cash crops that 1. Pursue policies to increase staple food would increase farm incomes and provide a production and reduce imports. basis for agro-industry, job creation and export 2. Recognize that both small- and large-scale earnings. In addition to these projecl activities, farmers have an essential role to play in national SACCAR provides research and travel grants to agricultural production. regional scientists, regularly publishes a 3. Implement policies, including price policy newsletter and is assisting Zimbabwe with the reform, aimed at increasing agricultural printing of the SADCC/Zimbabwe Journal of production, and seek to increase the role of Agricultural Research. private enterprise, especially in agro-industry and marketing. National Agricultural Research Systems 4. Implement policies aimed at attracting local (NARSs) in the SADCC Region and foreign investment for agriculture. 5. Give high priority to strengthening Each SADCC member state has a NARS, agricultural institutions, particularly extension, the size and complexity varying considerably research, marketing, credit and input supply. from country to country. The base of each 17 NARS is the government research service systems, assisted by ISNAR. The other conducting research into agricultural (crop and SADCC countries are also engaged in this livestock), forestry, fisheries and wildlife review and prioritization process. The total problems. Public sector research in Angola, number of professional scientists in SADCC was Mozambique and Namibia is currently about 1250 in 1989.6i comparatively small; it is much stronger in In addition to the core funding provided by Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The donors to the IARCs for undertaking scientists in the university system are generally agricultural research, considerable resources well-qualified for research but their efforts are have been invested by donor organizations in normally directed at topics of personal interest direct support of agricultural research networks and are constrained by severe limitations of both (at present there are about 40) and activities in time and recurrent resources. The greater the SADCC region, as well as through research participation of the universities in the national carried out in the universities and research agricultural research agenda is an important institutions of donor countries for the benefit of objective of the Framework. the region. As the future regional strategy is All member states, except Namibia, now developed, it is important that the national have agricultural faculties. Malawi has masterplans take into account all of the research producer-financed research foundations for activities now being funded by different donors tobacco and tea; Zimbabwe for tobacco, pigs and implemented by the public, university and and tea (share in the Malawi institute); while the private sectors. commercial sugar cane companies (Malawi, The retention and continuity levels of Mozambique, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia and professionals in the public sector departments of Zimbabwe) finance their own research agricultural research is low and a general programs. Plant breeding and selection of malaise of low morale and lack of motivation is annual crops is undertaken by national and also widespread. Amongst the many reasons for international commercial seed companies in this serious situation is the poor state of the Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe. In Zimbabwe, "enabling environment" in which the scientists the Agricultural Research Trust (ART) financed work - particularly as compared to their peers by the commercial farmers has established a working in either the private sector research research farm. The Commercial Farmers foundations/institutes or in commercial firms or Bureau (CFB) of Zambia is proposing to set up in the universities. The unreliability and a similar research farm. The major agricultural insufficiency of operating expenses for a countries in SADCC have various permutations satisfactory and full program of work, the of National or Agricultural Research Councils comparatively low salaries and unavailability of that are concerned with coordination of research non-salary benefits, the generally poor quality of efforts (usually only in crops and livestock). personnel management and spasmodic The mandates, membership, financing opportunities for regular job-related in-service arrangements and levels of activity vary greatly training inter alia contribute to the current lack from one country to another. Further pluralism of interest amongst many of the public sector is added to the research effort in some countries scientists. by such charitable foundations as the Rockefeller Foundation. SADCC' is thus International Agricultural Research Centers fortunate in having a multiplicity of actors who (ARCs) complement one another in the research sub- sector. The IARCs have been active in eastern and Three of the SADCC countries (Malawi, southern Africa since the early 1970s. Initial Tanzania and Zambia) have developed activities were on a bilateral basis until the masterplans and prioritized their research CGIAR adopted a regional mode of organization agendas. Zimbabwe, Botswana and Lesotho in the mid-1970s. Since the advent of SADCC, have now reviewed their national research the IARCs have gradually reorganized their 18 programs in congruence with the new political research management training is executed by grouping. Most of the activities under CIAT, ISNAR. ICRAF, which moved into location- CIMMYT, ICRISAT and IITA have been or are specific research through their Agroforestry being consolidated within SACCAR's regional Research Network for Africa (AFRENA) in program. These IARCs act as Executing 1987, plan and implement their network under Agencies for SACCAR projects in their relevant the SACCAR regional umbrella. areas of expertise. The SACCAR program in 19 3. The Problem and the Challenge The Problem Box 4: Tea Each member state of SADCC has a National The development of vegetative Agricultural Research System (NARS) that is propagation techniques for tea by the supported to varying degrees by the reseah team at the Tea Research international (IARCs) and regional (SACCAR) Found at the Tea Malawi, research systems and by many active research Foundation (RF), based in Malawi,d networks. Available statistics indicate that the made possible the rapid l number of trained scientists and the total multplication and distributon of research budget (national plus extemal selected high yielding clonal material contributions) have increased markedly during with good processing characteristics the past decade in most SADCC member for the region. This, together with countries. The figures on the average research other innovations, has put the TRF in expenditure per scientist for countries in the the forefront of international tea region (and Africa generally) compare research. favorably with those in Asia and Latin America. However, although the output of African NARSs generally compares unfavorably with their counterparts elsewhere Before going to the reasons or causes for in terms of quality, quantity and productivity, the lackluster performance of African NARSs, there have been several success stories (see it should be pointed out that the statistics on the Boxes 3 to 8). Why have the NARSs in Africa funding of African agricultural research do not not performed better? tell the whole story. The statistics have been part of the problem. They can and have been used to present a particular point of view or even, at times, to obfuscate. T h e Box 3: Zimbabwe general malaise in the NARSs has several root The development of the dent hybrid causes, chief of which is the low priority maize variety, SR52, followed a long accorded by national governments to sustained breeding program by a small agricultural research. This has been group of breeders between 1932 and exacerbated by the debt crisis that has beset 1960. The variety eventually released many governments in the region. One was so suited to the needs of farmers inevitable result is the lack of sustainable that its subsequent wide-scale adoption in funding for agricultural research by national the region required no special extension governments, which on average provide about program. Yields achieved by a third of the total reported agricultural commercial farmers were amongst the research expenditure in Africa. Two-thirds of highest in the world. the aggregate expenditure is outside the control or purview of African governments. These funds are used by the IARCs for their operations in Africa and for the implementation 20 of donor-funded programs/projects - a large and services are needed to encourage their part of which is in the form of technical profitable development. assistance (TA). The chronic uncertainty of For sustainable agricultural growth in the funding from national sources along with the region, some necessary preconditions are that conflicting priorities, stringent conditionalities the technologies made available to the farming and short lending horizons of external donors community fit their needs and that priority is have created a work environment for national given to the development of appropriate land- scientists that is antithetical to productive and use technologies. The research agenda must be high-quality scientific research. demand-driven-not the demand of someone The main source of the region's agricultural outside the production sector (perhaps a donor) growth has come from crop production. but the demand of the producers and their Despite their latent potential, the other NR sub- market. Africa needs results from its sectors in the SADCC region (i.e. livestock, agricultural research service that will fuel and fisheries, forestry and wildlife) have so far sustain an accelerated growth rate of played a subordinate role. This is because agricultural production and utilization. In other government policies, and funding, have words, the focus should increasingly be on consistently favored rainfed crop development, research and development (R&D) rather than particularly maize. As an example, Zambia's research per se. Research has been defined as record 20 percent increase in agricultural "original investigation directed to the discovery production in 1988 was propelled by a real 90 of new scientific knowledge," while percent growth in maize production. Given the development is defined as "techniical activity region's self-sufficiency in maize for human concerned with non-routine problems and livestock consumption in a normal year and encountered in translating research findings into limited export prospects for maize, more products and processes."7 Regular in-service attention should now be directed to the training of national scientists, both lby scientists region's well-endowed natural resources. from within and outside the region, must These can provide considerable potential for become an integral part of the research agenda. future economic growth through commodity This will enable national scientists to regularly diversification. Supportivegovermnentpolicies upgrade their skills and knowledge base. A sine qua non for addressing the problems of low productivity and sustainability in the region's NR sector must be the development of Box 5: Cotton SADCC's human capital in science and There have been a number of advances technology. While there has been a significant in cotton technology that have enabled increase in the numbers of professional the farmers and the industry of several agricultural research staff during the past ten member states to maintain their years, little has been done to provide incentives comparative advantage. The and to make the work environment more development of pest scouting routines conducive to the application of their skills and has minimized the need for pesticide use the production of appropriate technology. It to the benefit of both the producers and should be said unequivocally that while most the environment. The recent cotton SADCC scientists are as competent and breeding program in Zimbabwe has led motivated to carry out a research function as to the development of high-yielding anybody else in the world, the environment in varieties with fiber characteristics suited which they now work does not encourage to the new spinning technologies used by productive or creative work. The obstacles that the cotton industry. they face, apart from low salaries include l________________________________ insufficiency and discontinuity of (a) non-salary recurrent budgets; (b) reliable liibrary and 21 allocation should, in fact, be of the order of 35 Box 6: Tobacco percent for salaries, 55 percent for operating Private sector research funded by the Experience now suggests that the tobacco industries of Zimbabwe, Malawi budgetexpenses and 10 percent for maintenance and Zambia have enabled these SADCC of the research structure. member states to maintain their Experienced, efficient and motivated comparative advantage in the production management is critical to a productive and of flue-cured and burley tobacco. This healthy NARS. Unfortunately, few research has involved the development of both managers can devote enough time to run their appropriate varieties and cultu-al and institution and manage its research program. curing practices. Much of their time is now taken up in attending to the requirements of govermment and donors (in respect of finance, recruitment, priorities and conditionalities) and meeting visitors. information services; (c) clear career paths While some donors and IARCs have provided and incentives; and, (d) experienced and NARSs with opportunities for training in effective research management. research management, they have not helped to Research is a long-term endeavo.r. It takes create a work environment where the managers time before returns are realized and therefore can put into practice the skills they have just research does not usually feature high on the learnt. Since funds are scarce and will likely "pecking order" for increased budget continue to be so, management must be given allocations. Also, many governments are all assistance to do a good job. Unless the obliged to provide employment to all work environment for high-echelon research graduating nationals with the inevitable result managerial positions such as the Director of of even smaller proportions of already limited Agricultural Research is improved, there is budgets being available for non-salary recurrent little prospect of reversing the trend of research costs. In general, donors are quite willing to directors taking early retirement or resigning fund capital improvements, external training before they have built any effective leadership. and expatriate technical assistance but are Can the unsatisfactory output of the NARSs reluctant, sometimes prohibited, from providing be attributed to ithe possibility that their funds for operating (recurrent) ccsts unless research program priorities may have been the these are incremental. Hence, while the wrong ones? This will become clearer when structure, system and national research team Research Masterplans that outline priorities for gets larger, there is no corresponding increase research are developed for all the SADCC in recurrent resources. The result is a further member states. These plans are usually reduction of already meager operating funds prepared by government research services per scientist. The large number ancl high cost of expatriate scientists in the region has not generally been cost-effective. Their presence Box 7: Malawi has probably delayed the training and The breeding and selection of the enhancement of the national human resource groundnut variety, Chalimbana, enabled base. New (incremental) research activities smallholder farmrers to gain a significant tend to be adequately financed, albeit for market share of the confectionery shorter than desirable periods, but the core of groundnut market in the United the on-going research program (the principal Kingdom. A, regional SACCAR food and export crops and livestock) is program, being executed by an ICRISAT frequently underfunded. In some countries, up team based in Malawi, is building on to 90 percent of the recurrent cost budget is this foundation. absorbed by salaries leaving only 10 percent for operating expenses and maintenance. Experience now suggests that the budget 22 under conditionalities from donors (most information more accessible, the system will oftenthe World Bank). Since not all the remain inadequate unless national scientists can donors necessarily agree with the priorities be provided with full texts of the documents established in these master plans, they that they need. Apart from bibliographic frequently establish and fund their own pet databases, project databases of on-going and projects and priorities. This has led to the planned agricultural research programs/projects present dispersed and piecemeal effort in are needed. Access to computerized project support of NARSs - with usually insufficient information databases (e.g. the SIS and CARIS) operating finance to maintain and sustain the will enable the research scientist, research non-externally funded program. management and government to keep abreast of There is apparently little or no culture of what research is currently being undertaken or accountability built into the public research planned. service. This may account for the fact that The present annual growth rate of commercial agricultural producers prefer to agricultural production in the SA]DCC region deal with the private sector. Professional or does not provide an acceptable level of food peer review of research work is now rarely security, let alone a sufficient margin for agro- undertaken in the public sector. There is based industrialization. While the mean presently little motivation and incentive for calorific and protein intake per capita for all the scientists to do rigorous and useful work since SADCC countries, except Mozambique, they will receive neither recognition nor reward appears to meet sufficiency standards, its for their work. It can be fairly said that the distribution amongst income groups, and absence of regular monitoring and evaluation between gender and age groups within the procedures with key indicators may have household is inequitable. Food security is also contributed to the current malaise of the public adversely affected by the lack of purchasing research services. power and access to land. In most of the Some of the countries in the region now SADCC member states, growth in agriculture possess the necessary research "hardware", i.e. will have to reach and be sustained at a level of infrastructure, buildings and equipment, to at least 4 percent a year. pursue an active research program. In fact, Sustained production will require continuing some countries now face an embarrassment of to accord high priority to the conservation of riches, with many more research stations and soil (structure and fertility), water, forests, associated laboratory equipment, research farms grasslands, wildlife and fisheries. While three and their equipment, vehicles, etc. than they of the SADCC member states have now can satisfactorily maintain. As a result, the developed masterplans for their public capital resource of the research system is being agricultural research programs, these have steadily depleted. Farm operations and largely excluded the private sector and NGO experiments are often delayed or carried out initiatives in the NR sector. Soime SADCC inefficiently. Scientific staff are unable to keep member states (particularly Malawi, Swaziland, abreast of new advances. Zambia and Zimbabwe) have encouraged the An effective library retrieval and development of private sector research that has information service is essential for good provided substantial benefits to their cash crop research. Such a service is indispensable to producers. A more pluralistic approach in scientists who wish to publish their research other conmmodiiies and in other countries could results in an internationally refereed journal. pay handsome dividends. Realization of the The opportunity to publish in such journals potential of the diverse natural resciurces sector provides an important incentive for quality of the SADCC region will require both more work and enables national scientists to earn direct involvement of the private sector, more international recognition in their professional efficient research and extension systems and disciplines. In most countries, however, the market-oriented government policies. availability of journals and abstract series are There is, presently, little capacity for policy now in a parlous state. While the introduction analysis in the agricultural research sub-sector of CD-ROM technology has made bibliographic in most SADCC countries. The development 23 of such a capability within each member state 5. The absence of South Africa in the overall to provide government with sound advice on economic development of the southern African policy issues relating to pricing, marketing, region. trade and utilization and the policy implications of new agricultural technologies is needed to The Challenge promote both national and regional agricultural growth. Upstream linkages between the A key priority for SADCC member research system and the finance and plarining governments and their cooperating partners ministries are currently weak. Downstream must be the development of a conducive work linkages between research with the extension environment for all research personnel, service and farmers have improved, but these including national scientists, support staff and need to be institutionalized. their managers in order to restore morale, While weakening commodity prices, infuse enthusiasm and instill a sense of mission inimical government policies, foreign exchange in their work. It is critical for the success of difficulties and adverse weather patterns have NARSs that they have effective research continued and will continue to influence the leaders; a major challenge for this initiative will agricultural growth rates of individual member be the provision of enabling conditions for states, there are other major variables that will leadership to develop and flourish. Such a need redressing before the poltential for work environment will encourage them to make accelerated agricultural growth in SADCC can fuller use of their training and skills. be fully realized. These include: However, this is a long-term venture requiring 1. Civil unrest and insecurity in Angola and the full support and cooperation of all the Mozambique. parties involved (national, regional and 2. National and regional policies that adversely international). affect the terms of trade for the agricultural Any strategy for the future development of sector. the agricultural research systems of the SADCC 3. National and regional policies that limit the member states must involve the various development of intra-regional trade. research actors (the private sector, private 4. Public research and extension services that foundations, the international agricultural fail to fully respond to the felt needs and research system, the regional agricultural circumstances of their farm clientele. research system (SACCAR), universities, agricultural parastatals and the government research service) around a National Research Masterplan. Such a plan must focus on Box 8: Intensive Livestock Production priorities that will promote the growth and Research scientists in the SADCC conservation of natural resources. It must region, borrowing ideas from East detail the roles of the different players over the Africa, developed the technology during short- (less than 5 years), medium- (5-15 years) the 1960s for stall-feeding of dailry cows and long-term (15 years and beyond). It must and beef cattle. The technology identify the comparative advantage of each involved the construction of simple sheds national research system in the overall from local materials and the use of farm economic development of the SADCC region. residues and by-products for feeding. It must specify the role and responsibilities of This technology enabled farmers in the SACCAR in strengthening the national peri-urban intensively-populated areas to agricultural research systems (NARSs). It must service the urban demand for livestock clarify and detail the support required from the products while increasing their farm international agricultural research system, incomes and improving their soil fertility particularly the IARCs, in strengthening the through incorporation of high-quality NARSs. It must assist with the strengthening farmnyard manure. of external scientific linkages. It must have a mechanism to sustain the human and financial 24 resources of the various research systems over (a) removing the bias in the terms of trade the long-term. It must provide SADCC against agriculture in favor of the urban areas; scientists with the opportunities and incentives (b) optimal exploitation of foreign linkages; (c) to enhance the quality of their research. It gearing production to market requirements, must progressively diminish the need for both in terms of cost and quality; (d) external technical assistance. It must have development of efficient means of using foreign procedures for strengthening and sustaining technology; (e) development of a strong R & D upstream and downstream linkages. program - both by borrowing and creating; (f) The strategy will attempt to incorporate fostering private sector development; and, (g) pertinent lessons from the successful government's role in providing a conducive and agricultural and demographic transition in stable market-oriented economic environment. East and Southeast Asia. These will include: 25 4. Framework for ALction Introduction Box 9: Research Software The centerpiece of the Framework is the As used by the Task Force, software strengthening of the NARSs in SADCC so as to refers to all elements of the research provide the technology necessary to realize the environment (including the scientists, region's potential for agricultural growth. The recurrent resources for carrying out task force believes that the focus for the research work, salaries and non-salary Framework, at this stage, must be on the benefits, management, information research software (Box 8). The research services, training, etc.) that drives the hardware (buildings and infrastructure) is no hardware (buildings, infrastructure, longer the principal limiting factor for equipment, etc.) of the research improved technology output in the region, but institution to produce the output the research software (the scientists and their demanded by the clients (agricultural work environment) needs priority support. In producers and consumers). other words, the focus of the framework is people, both those who create the technology (scientists) and the ultimate beneficiaries (producers and consumers). The task force is of the opinion that strengthening the research Research Systems (NARSs) of the SADCC software will resuscitate the NARSs without the member states. SACCAR is a regional need for other radical reforms. organization established by SADCC to The proposed Framework for Action is built strengthen the NARSs of member states. around six major elements, each of which is SACCAR has responsibility for coordination closely interlinked and can be expected to but not for direct implementation of regional reinforce one another. The elements involve research. The SACCAR/SPAAR task force is both the institution of research and its not proposing that a superstructure of regional substance. However, the SACCAR/SPAAR research institutions be established. Instead, it task force believes that unless the major advocates that regional research activities be institutional components of the work interwoven into and thus reinforce the work of environment for agricultural research, referred the NARSs. This dloes not imply that there is to as the software for research, is addressed, no no role for specialized regional research research program of action for the region can institutions, such as the Tea Research be expected to be fully effective or sustainable. Foundation of Central Africa based in Malawi, The development and eventual implementation which now provides research services to thLe tea of the proposed Framework for Action will be producers in Malawi, Zimbabwe and Zambia a major long-term undertaking. The full and is proposing to extend its membership to commitment and cooperation of all parties two other SADCC tlea producers, Mozambique involved (governments, donors, IAR.Cs and the and Tanzania. The task force considers that private sector organizations) in this venture is there could be justification for supporting or critical to the reinvigoration of the NR research even establishing specific specialized regional effort in SADCC. research institutions, when this has the The principal objective of the Framework concurrence of the NARSs and where it is is to strengthen the National Agricultural deemed to be beneficial to the region as a 26 whole. SACCAR has the responsibility to partners, will help to ensure the adequacy of assist the NARSs in identifying research areas funding for vigorous national anid regional where they have comparative advantage to research on agreed research priorities. undertake work on behalf of other NARSs in Supervision of research outputs, together with the region. SACCAR will continue to assist regular updating of the masterplans and the NARSs with intensifying ongoing or supporting finance, will be managed by the starting up new research activities. It may respective member states with their cooperating enlist the assistance of the IARCs, other partners. Regional research could be funded by international and donor agencies in fulfilling its the NARSs from their national research funds. responsibilities. When the existing SACCAR The assurance of sufficient and stable funding regional programs that are currently being for agreed programs through a consolidated executed by the IARCs and/or donor agencies funding mechanism will be a key component in on behalf of SACCAR are devolved to the improving the work environment for SADCC NARSs, SACCAR will help to sustain them scientists and research managers. through appropriate networking arrangements, 2. A capacity for policy analysis will be organization of workshops, provision of in- developed within each NARS to provide service training, information exchange, etc. government with policy advice that will be The development of this Framework has supportive of advances in technology and so essentially been carried out from the bottom-up. contribute to the development of an enabling The main elements proposed for this environment for agricultural producers. The Framework first emerged from the views development of national policy analysis units expressed by senior representatives of the will be supported through regional networking NARSs on their priorities and concerns; by the within the member states and assisted by representatives of the IARC executing agencies; twinning with appropriate overseas institutes. by donor representatives; and, by experienced 3. The institutional base of the NARSs will be scientists from the SADCC region during a broadened to encourage the involvement of all Workshop held in Botswana in November, interested organizations in the formulation and 1990. These elements were then developed by implementation of national/regional agricultural the task force through a process of consultation research programs. A pluralistic approach to in the region with both individual scientists and agricultural research will be promoted to draw donor representatives. This process was on the relative strengths of the public and complemented by extensive reviews of a wide private sectors, including the universities, the range of pertinent reports and studies on the NGOs, the private foundations and the region. producers. This collaboration can be expected to lead to a symbiotic relationship between the Elements of the Proposed Framework public and private sectors in the development of for Action appropriate science and technology for the region. The elements of the proposed Framework 4. The quality of science and technology in the for Action in agricultural research will provide region will be improved by strengthening the research software and address critical gaps selected technical teams and their external in agricultural research in the region. It will scientific linkages. This will assist SADCC require the cooperation of the SADCC member scientists to establish leadership in selected states and the donor members of SPAAR in scientific fields. The Framework: will also concert with the IARCs and private sector encourage the academic staff of the universities research institutions to put the following six to increasingly participate in national research interactive elements in place: programs. 1. National Research Strategies (Masterplans) 5. Research on existing commodities will be developed and maintained up-to-date by each intensified through the use of improved SADCC member state, complemented by a technologies supported by regional lead centers Regional Research Plan. Program pooling, and research networks. Diversification into by governments with their cooperating commodities with agro-ecological and market 27 potential will be facilitated through research such time as the regional programs become and networking. regional lead centers (when the programs are 6. The rural poor in the arid and marginal devolved to the host NARSs). areas of the region will be assisted, thereby Should this funding mechanism cover the improving equity, through extending support cost of staff salaries as well as operating for wildlife management and utilization expenses? Should it include funds for non- programs to all appropriate areas of the region; salary benefits and rewards for scientists? by means of on-farm participative research and Should it include funds that can be used for extension programs, and through the contracting out research to the universities and exploitation of biotechnology (Annex 3). to the private sector? Should the size of the Future growth of the AgGDP and the pool be calculated on the basis of the number economy of each member state will be of scientists in the govermnent research service stimulated by having these elements in place multiplied by a coefficient (notionally along with supportive government policies. US$15,000 per scientist) plus an additional amount for contract research? How should Detailed Features of the Framework recurrent costs for agricultural research be for Action considered by donors? Is it reasonable to treat all costs associated with a long-term investment This section contains open-ended ideas and such as research as investment costs-at least suggestions, culled from a variety of sources, for a longer time-horizon than now observed by on how the elements of the Framework for most donors? There is agreement that the Action may be implemented. pooling of resources would provide benefits all round. Provision of resources could be either Research Fund "restricted" or "unrestricted" for specific parts or components of a program. Neither Is it necessary to establish a research fund governments nor donors can be expected to or consolidated funding mechanism for each provide the full capital endowments required by NARS? The lack and discontinuity of recurrent each Fund to yield an annual income stream resources for agricultural research inhibits the sufficient to meet the recurrent cost needs of timely and full implementation of the research the public sector research program. Perhaps a program. The current piecemeal and ad hoc system of rolling pledges similar to that used financing of projects by donor agencies by the CGIAR in obtaining core budget funding adversely affects the integrity of the national for the IARCs may be appropriate. There program. Moreover, since donor funding would have to be a commitment by all parties usually only covers capital and incremental (government and donor agencies) not to deviate recurrent costs, the implementation of the from the agreed pooled program of activities. program is often seriously compromilsed. For To ensure that the funding mechanism meets these and other reasons, the task force purposes the particular needs of each country, it will be that the recurrent costs of implementing the necessary to customize it. national research masterplan be provided The mechanics and governance of funding through the pooling of national and donor such a pooled program will need to be agreed support behind that plan. It also recommends to and worked out by all parties involved. that government should establish, together with However, it is certain that each consolidated all interested donors, a national research funding mechanism will have to be governed by masterplan together with, where feasible, an a Board of Trustees representing the different associated funding mechanism. ISNAR should stakeholders. The Board of Trustees will be continue to assist the NARSs with development responsible for ensuring that funding is and updating of their national research sufficient to support an agreed national research masterplans. Further, the task force suggests masterplan and that proper accounting that regional research programs under procedures are observed. Supervision of the SACCAR could be funded from contributions research activities will have to be a coordinated drawn from the individual member states, until affair, government being responsible for the 28 organization of regular meetings of the Board ambience: a pleasant and stimulating work of Trustees. environment and a package of incentives to Effective monitoring systems are essential to motivate scientists to give of their best by using the credibility and efficiency of the proposed their skills and training to the fullest extent national research masterplans and their possible. It is not sufficient to merely initiate associated funding. In each country, the programs to increase the supply anid improve monitoring system should perform three the quality of trained personnel. The enabling functions: environment within which the scientists work, 1. Accountability for the allocation and use of and the incentives to remain with the funds. organization rather than seek eimployment 2. Good management within each program, elsewhere, are critical. The present low and coordination across programs (adjustment morale, low output and poor retention of staff of implementation schedules, methodologies, in the public sector particularly reflect the and plans). insufficiency and unreliability of operating 3. Together with the findings of selected expenses for research, lack of clear career evaluations, contribute to good management paths supported by experienced personnel and forward planning of the national masterplan management and clear personnel policies. (identification of future programs and strategy Continuity of assured resources (both human choices). and financial) is essential over relaitively long Evaluations would preferably be undertaken periods (15 years and beyond) if targeted under contractual agreements with universities research results are to be achieved. The and private socio-economic research present lack of continuity in prograrm direction organizations, in cooperation with the (priorities), qualified program research staff appropriate government oversight agencies and and operating expenses has severely constrained the Board of Trustees. the effectiveness of the scientific human A detailed description of accounting, resource in the SADCC region. The task force monitoring, and evaluation systems, including considers that the establishment of consolidated clear identification of responsibilities for programming and funding mechanisms by each implementation, utilization and oversight should member state for its research effort will go a be a conditionality for the approval of research long way towards improving the enabling funding. Within this Framework, each environment for scientists and consequently program proposal should include a detailed their research output. description of key indicators, monitoring mechanisms, accounting, and evaluation plans. Policy Analysis Implementation of a monitoring system would normally be the responsibility of the senior A capacity for policy analysis is needed in manager for the program, under the purview of each country to assist government in setting the Board of Trustees. During each sound market-oriented policies (production, supervision mission, the team will evaluate the pricing, marketing, processing, utilization and results of the monitoring systems. Regular trade) for the agricultural sector, that will both audits of the funding would be undertaken each enable and encourage investment in crop and year by independent auditors, acceptable to the livestock productivity or quality improvements. Board of Trustees. Here the concern is to foster the development of an enabling environment for the agricultural producer. Is there a need to provide each Enabling Environment NARS with a capacity for policy analysis or should this be the responsibility of the Ministry What is meant by the enabling environment? of Agriculture or of the national Economic It refers to more than the work place and the Planning Unit? Given that there are currently resources (technical, human and financial) few experienced policy analysts in the region, required by scientists to do their work. It is there justification for the establishment of a includes, for want of a better word, research regional Policy Research facility? If so, can 29 this be linked with the multi-donor African that there are great discrepancies between social Capacity Building Foundation (ACBF)? What and financial cosis or benefits due to is the future role for twinning with external monopolies, monopsonies, externalities, or universities or research institutions in order to government intervention - the private sector is speed up the development of this capacity (e.g. likely to be inefficient. The existence of a University of Zimbabwe/Michigan State sizable and strong private sector is not University)? Is there a role for IFPRI? How sufficient to ensure efficient development. It should ISNAR best contribute to the building of also requires that the market environment in this capacity? which the private sector works be improved, so that those activities already carried out in the Privatization of Research private sector may be done more efficiently. To facilitate the development of a pluralistic It was the view of several country research system, it will be important for participants at the Gaborone Workshop that governments to irnprove the political and some of the research currently undertaken by economic climate (a stable macro-economic the public sector could be usefully devolved to environment, moral suasion, tax incentives, the private sector. Why privatization? Because repatriation of dividends, work permits, etc.) to it can complement the work of the public encourage the development of private sector sector, as demonstrated in practice both within initiatives. In this regard, donor agencies may and without the SADCC region (e.g. tea, be able to assist governments in identifying tobacco and seeds). It provides opportunities to external partners and help develop external spread the cost, the tasks, the risks and the scientific linkages (twinning, etc). responsibilities beyond the publitc sector Encouragement should also be given to research service. Organizations that are charitable foundations to contribute to the directly financed and therefore driven by their national research plan. clients (the farming community) are usually more responsive and accountable. This can Enhancing the Quality of Science have a demonstration effect on the public and Technology sector. Each sector has its own area of comparative strength or advantage. The public The Framework would enable scientists in sector, by virtue of its mandate, is better the university system to increasingly undertake equipped to deal with broad societal concerns research in furtherance of the National such as environmental protection, the provision Masterplan. It can be expected that this will of technology for staple food crops and for strengthen the region's scientific capacity as resource-poor farmers. The public sector must both research output and training quality also provide certain control functions, e.g. improves. Specifically, the region is expected plant importation and quarantine and to develop a capacity in biotechnology led by registration of new plant varieties which the the Crop Science Department of the University private sector cannot legitimately provide. The of Zimbabwe. While biotechnology can be private sector, being more driven by the profit expected to provide benefits for all crop and motive, is primarily concerned with developing livestock producers, the region will be technology in those areas where it cain establish supported in developing a specific and retain property rights (examples are hybrid biotechnology agenda for resource-poor seeds and tea clones) or which result in farmers. It can be expected that biotechnology increased product sales (fertilizer, plant can assist with the mnore rapid development of protection chemicals). virus-resistant crop varieties and their rapid A private sector can operate efficiently only multiplication by tissue culture. In the longer if it works within the environment of a well- term, improvements might be achieved in functioning market system, which provides rhizobial fixation of nitrogen by legume crops price signals that accurately reflect the social and by the development of some disease costs and benefits of production. If the market resistance. The task force, therefore, environment is highly distorted - in the sense recommends that a capacity for research in 30 biotechnology for resource-poor farmers be commodity base into high-value crops. To this developed within the NARSs of the SADCC end, discussions are now under way with the region. The region could benefit in at least two Tea Research Foundation for Central Africa, ways. First, smallholders in the marginal areas based in Malawi, to extend their mandate to would be able to increase their production at other perennial tree crops (including cashew minimum risk and second, a scientific capacity and macadamia nuts, and coffee) and their with a unique agenda would be established in membership to all SADCC member states. the region. The capacity of the NARSs would SACCAR will also be seeking to establish joint be strengthened through both regional ventures (e.g. perhaps with Australia for the networking and twinning arrangements with further development of the young macadamia appropriate external institutions (including the nut industries in Malawi, Swaziland, Tanzania, Free University of Amsterdam and ISNAR). Zambia and Zimbabwe) with external companies. This will ensure that experience Intensification and Diversification gained elsewhere is rapidly transferred into the of Agriculture region and that the final product meets market requirements. SADCC has a very diversified agricultural The intensification of SADCC's agriculture sector, but due to the disenabling environment will depend increasingly upon the effective use resulting from inequitable government policies of production inputs including fertilizers, farm and weak agricultural support services, it has implements and irrigation. Currently, the failed to maintain its comparative advantage human resource capacity in SADCC in these and therefore realize its production potential. fields is weak. To enhance this capacity, The capacity of the NARSs to provide SACCAR will need to develop appropriate appropriate technology for the intensification external linkages that will help strengthen the and diversification of agriculture will be capacity for factor research through networking enhanced through the proposed regional arrangements, workshops and in-service research effort. training, etc. Research on the principal foodcrops of the The task force recommends that SACCAR region (maize, sorghum, millet and grain commission "State of the Art" reviews of legumes) are now being supported by world-class technologies used in the production SACCAR/IARC programs centered in different of those commodities/factors that can accelerate member states. These concentrated research growth in the agricultural sector. efforts, led by the IARCs, which are yielding valuable results, will be progressively devolved Exploitation of Natural Resources to the NARSs with future regional support coming from appropriate networking and The arid and marginal areas of the SADCC information exchange arrangements, workshops region are extensive and, for many reasons, etc. under the auspices of SACCAR. In its pose considerable problems for increased second-generation projects, SACCAR, with the agricultural output (Annex 2). Although assistance of the IARCs, is expected to assist technology has been developed and is the NARSs with building their research constantly being improved for the main capacities in wheat, rice, potatoes (Irish), foodcrops (sorghum, millet, maize and oilseeds, fruit and vegetables, dairy and cowpea), smallholders in these areas often poultry. With effective agricultural services cannot afford to take the financial risks to adopt (research, extension, input supplies and the improved technologies, partly on account of marketing), increasing urbanization and the absence of other non-farm sources of supportive government policies, the agricultural income. Wildlife is an important economic growth rate can be expected to exceed the rate resource in SADCC that offers opportunities of population growth. for increasing employment and income. The regional research program will include Management of the wildlife in these marginal support for those NARSs with capacity to areas, involving community participation, will contribute to the greater diversification of the help to protect the environment and bio- 31 diversity. Encouraging new developments in has prepared a research project to support the Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe, which have further development of the Gonometa silkmoths been built around the active involvement of the in the wild mopane woodlands. To assist the local rural communities, can provide a sound member states in their exploitation of other basis for future utilization of these areas. natural resources, such as wildlife, the task The regional research program will force recommends that SACCAR seeks the encourage the non-consumptive exploitation of financial support of external organizations, such SADCC's valuable natural resources. SACCAR as NGOs and donor agencies. 32 5. The Long-Term Strategy Introduction dissemination of the solutions to farmers. An effective process of technology generation and This chapter will attempt to define the roles and diffusion requires strong agricultural services responsibilities of the major players involved, and effective linkages between research and directly or indirectly, in the agricultural extension and their clients - the farming research activities of the region. Since the community. While it can be expected that the Framework will require time to evolve, the NARSs in the SADCC region will increasingly roles, commitments and governance of the delegate responsibilities for some aspects of different organizations will be outlined over the their research and extension programs to the short- (less than 5 years), medium- (5-15 years) private sector, the public sector will continue to and long-term (20 years and beyond). Before retain the responsibility for providing doing so it may be useful to re-capitulate what technology for the resource-poor farmers, is meant by a NARS. As defined here, a including women, and for the conservation of national agricultural research system (NARS) natural resources. In these tasks, the NARSs encompasses the entire spectrum of agricultural will require the support of SACCAR, the research activities undertaken within a country IARCs and of donor agencies. The overall by a multiplicity of organizations, including the coordination of the national research effort public sector research service in the different should be vested in the public sector research natural resources sectors, the universities and extension services under the Ministry of (particularly the agricultural faculties), the Agriculture. These responsibilities will apply international agricultural research centers, the over the short-medium- and long-term. regional agricultural research institutions, the parastatal organizations, the private sector The Universities (including producer-financed foundations and research groups/institutes) and charitable The capacity of the universities in the foundations. region for research is considerable, although they currently play a relatively minor role in Public Sector Research and the agricultural research effort. Their main Extension Services task has been teaching with the production of increasing numbers of graduates ranking high The public sector research and extension on the political agenda. Resources (human and services serve as the corner-stone of each financial) have been insufficient to permit much NARS; they have the responsibility for research in the universities. The task force providing a wide spectrum of services (basic, believes that SADCC must provide more applied, adaptive, extension) to all components opportunities for university staff to undertake of the natural resources sector. The research research as part of the national program. The service has the major responsibility for carrying universities have comparative advantage in out the country's national agricultural research undertaking certain research tasks, many of plan and for contributing to the realization of which can involve the students. national production targets. The extension Contract research (Annex 4) provides a service has the responsibilities of both assisting promising vehicle for involving the universities research with the identification of field in agricultural research; contracts are now problems for solution and for the subsequent being awarded and financed by the public 33 sector, by donors and the private sector. 4. The promotion of training, both within and Contract research can provide a much needed outside the research programs of the various source of funds for research in the universities national agricultural research systems, in and will help to link the universities more consultation with the member state responsible closely to the needs of the agricultural sector. for coordinating manpower. It can also help to build national research 5. The promotion of effective use of research capacity in the region. agencies external to the SADCC countries. The present skewed distribution of time 6. The coordination of the work of donors in between teaching and research (perhaps 95:5) support of agricultural research and technology should be progressively improved so lthat by the generation within the region. end of the short-term the ratio is 90:10, by the 7. Identificationofregionalresearchprograms, end of the medium-term it is 75:25 and in the negotiating their funding and appointing long-term, 60:40. However, unless more executing agencies. Control of such programs money is available, this change may lead to a is vested in SACCAR, which is responsible for reduction in student numbers. monitoring and reporting on their progress and direction to SADCC through the government of Regional Agricultural Research and Botswana. Training - SACCAR SACCAR will not engage in research per se except when it relates directly to its objectives. The SADCC member states committed The task force endorses these stated themselves to share agricultural training and objectives and functions, but recommends that research facilities. In research, this would be provisions be made for the establishment of based on a collaborative regional research mechanisms to gradually devolve SACCAR system that is built on the strengths of each regional programs to the NARSs. SACCAR NARS. The regional effort would be a has a sizable and expanding portfolio of coordinated set of activities involving; a number regional programs/projects. As the small size of NARSs. The technical output of these of its Secretariat may constrain the effective research activities would be used for the benefit monitoring of this portfolio, care should be of the region. exercised in the selection of future programs. The stated objectives of SACCAR are: Priority should be given to only those activities 1. To promote cooperation in agricultural that will have potential for strengthening the research among the national agricultural NARSs. A program for devolution needs to be research systems of the member states. agreed with the executing agencies of the 2. To facilitate the exchange of information regional programs. The task force considers among the national research systems. that there will continue to be an important role 3. To promote the development of the human for SACCAR over the long-term. resources necessary to operate the agricultural research systems. International Agricultural Research Centers 4. To promote coordination of SADCC agricultural research activities. The CGIAR endorsed, during their Centers' The SADCC member states established Week in October 1990, the TAC review SACCAR to carry out the following functions, recommendations that the future responsibilities as detailed in the Memorandum of of the CGIAR should be: (a) germplasm; (b) Understanding: natural resource management; (c) policy and 1. Maintenance of up-to-date information on management; and, (d) global information. For the agricultural research, training and extension Africa, the CGIAR proposed to transform some resources in the SADCC region. of its global commodity centers to eco-regional 2. The promotion and/or publication of centers which would be research materials. closely linked to the NARSs and regional 3. The convening of workshops, seminars and systems. The eco-regional centers might be meetings on topics of regional concern. modelled on the IITA with a broadening of its 34 commodity mix; just as the research agenda of The Private Sector the ICRISAT Center at Niamey, Niger could be broadened to enable it to function as an eco- The private sector is already playing a regional center for the semi-arid tropics. relatively active and important role in the The task force believes that the changes region. Most of the research on tobacco, tea espoused by the CGIAR warrant careful and sugar cane; much of the research on examination in view of the overriding need in improved crop varieties and some of the SADCC to strengthen the NARSs. It would research on pineapples and pigs is now seem that the IARCs can best contribute to the undertaken by the private sector in SADCC. strengthening of the NARSs through the The recent proposal by the 'Commercial exchange of germplasm; provision of Farmers Bureau (CFB) in Zambia to establish networking; information exchange; and in- a Research Farm, similar to the Agricultural service training - functions which are now Research Trust research farm already operating effectively carried out by the existing global effectively in Zimbabwe, is an indication of commodity centers. increasing private sector interest in carrying out The task force endorses the views of the agricultural research. There is potential for SACCAR/RockefellerFoundation/CGIARTask extending the role of the private sector into Force on Africa Consultation, March, 1989. other commodities and products, particularly These were: cotton, oilseeds, horticulture, tree nuts (cashew 1. Introduction by the IARCs of budget line and macadamia), coffee, dairy and poultry, items for assistance to national programs based fertilizers and plant protection products. This on the needs of the client (NARSs) rather than will require government encouragement and the desires of the IARC research teams. supportive government policies. Macro- 2. That the IARCs should work on problems economic conditions in a country influence the identified by and with the NARSs. private sector through their effects on the 3. That IARC scientists should work in and production and investment climate. with the NARSs. Donors could assist governments with 4. That over the longer term, the major private sector development by identifying contribution of IARCs should be towards: relevant external partners. The vvork of the private sector should be complementary to that * joint research and publication with national of the public sector, provided that the latter is scientists willing to delegate parts of the national research * training and human resource development agenda to the private sector. At present, there * supervision of higher degrees is often wasteful duplication as the public sector • documentation and information exchange attempts to retain "hands-on" responsibility for * inculcating sound research management and the whole of the national research program. experimental techniques Over time, one can anticipate that some of the * working with the NARSs in identifying and private sector's dynamism and close linkage prioritizing research issues. with its clients will be transferred to the public All this would be in addition to basic research sector. and the supply of germplasm appropriate to the needs of national and regional agricultural research and development. 35 6. Regional Agricultural Research Introduction of effort and an evident need for rigorous review by both donors and governments to The SADCC Council of Ministers delegated ensure greater raticinalization in the future. responsibility for the regional coordination of agricultural research and training to the SACCAR Portfolio government of Botswana. Within the government, the Permanent Secretary in the The SACCAR portfolio (Box 10) contains Ministry of Agriculture is the responsible ten programs including SACCAR itself. official. He has further delegated functional Funding is being sought for eight programs responsibility to the Chief Agricultural which have been fully developed and appraised. Economist. The Chairman of the Board of Funding is also being sought for the new SACCAR is the Director of Agricultural program on professional training in the Food, Research, Botswana. SACCAR has Agriculture and Natural Resources sector. responsibility for coordinating research in the External reviews have already been carried out Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources sector on six of the SACCAR projects. They are: but is currently only involved with the Establishment of SACCAR; Phase I of the coordination of agricultural research in crops Land and Water Management Research and livestock. However, there is now a Program; Agroforestry; Sorghum and Millet transition period during which SACCAR will Improvement Program; Bean Improvement progressively assume responsibility for the Project (component of the Grain Legume coordination of research in the other NR sub- Improvement Program - GLIP); and In-Service sectors of fisheries, forestry and wildlife. It Training in Research Management. In general, should be noted that the responsibility for the results of the reviews have been positive. training is closely coordinated with the The first full year of SACCAR commenced government of Swaziland, which has the on April 1, 1985. A mid-term evaluation was responsibility for the region's Human carried out in August-September, 1988. The Resources Development. Review recommended, inter alia, that since This chapter can only provide a partial SACCAR would not have used all the funds picture of regional activities in agricultural committed by the end of the first phase research in SADCC coordinated by SACCAR. (1989/90), it should be extended until 1991/2 It has drawn on the SPAAR Information without additional financing. A review of System (SIS) for details of regional programs, Phase I was undertaken in July/August, 1991 projects, networks and small grants and the with the review panel composed of one SACCAR Progress Report, 1990/91. representative each from USAID, CIDA and SACCAR, in conjunction with the executing four from SADCC. While SACCAR did not agencies, is in the process of developing a initiate many new activities during 1990/91 in devolution pattern for each of the current order to ensure that available funds would be SACCAR programs. The information on sufficient for 1991/92, it continued to undertake regional and donor-funded activities in the SIS its core and coordinating functions during the database indicates that there is d[uplication period. 36 Box 10: SACCAR Portfolio Current and Comleted Progra (a) Land and Water Management Research Program (L&WMRP) - Phase I (b) Land and Uater Management Research Program (L&WMRP) - Phase ll (c) Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program (SMIP) - Phase I (d) Sorghumm and Millet Improvement Program (SMIP) - Phase It (e) Plant breeding in relation to the utilization of sorghum and millet for food, beverages and animal feeds - Phase I (f) Grain Legume Improvement Program (GLIP) - Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) project (g) Grain Legume Improvement Program (GLIP) - SADCC Cowpea Project - Phase I (h) Grain Legume Improvement Program (GLIP) - Groundnut (Arachis hynogoea) Project (i) Establishment of the Southern African Center for Cooperation in Agricultural Research and Training (SACCAR) - Phase I (j) In-service training in Research Management - Phase I (k) Agro-forestry research program for the savanna woodland grassland ecology - Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe (L) SADCC Crops and Forest Seeds Genebank (SRGB) (m) SADCC Maize and Wheat Improvement Network (n) Strengthening Faculties of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine in SADCC (o) Program to develop Scientific and Technical Professional Manpower for Agriculture and Natural Resources in SADCC (REPSAF) - Part I Proposed and Plarwed Programs (a) Livestock improvement in SADCC (b) Collaborative network of vegetable research and development in the SADCC region (CONVERDS) (c) Network on Farm Power and Equipment for Smaliholder and Large-scale Farming Systems in SADCC (d) BiologicaL Control of introduced pests of Maize and Cassava (e) Wool and Mohair Improvement in SADCC - Phases I (market studies) and 11 (f) Management of Black Cotton Soils (Vertisols) in SADCC (g) Improvement of Research Station Development and Management in SADCC (h) Research on the ecology and biology of Gonometa silkmoths in SADCC 37 1. Service functions (core): SACCAR the NARSs in the planning, management provides the Secretariat for the SACCAR Board and monitoring of regional programs. Most of of Governors comprising the ten Directors of the regional programs now have steering Agricultural Research, six Deans of the committees functioning on approved guidelines. Faculties of Agriculture, Forestry and Veterinary Medicine and two representatives of Projected Devolution of the the Directors of Agricultural Extension - a SACCAR Portfolio Board of 19 members including the Director of SACCAR as Secretary. The Board meets twice Since the overall objective for having a year - in April and November. The regional research projects in the SADCC November meeting is a joint meeting involving member states is the strengthening of the the Board, Team Leaders of Regional Research NARSs, it is important that regional research and Training projects and programs and programs be located at the existing national donors. SACCAR, with USAID financial research centers. This is to ensure that national support, has undertaken an initial Agricultural scientists can work closely with their Research Resource Assessment (ARRA) for counterparts in the executing agencies (IARCs nine SADCC member states. A similar study and/or donor agencies). This would also help for Namibia was commissioned in 1990/91. It to secure the complementarity of national and is proposed to update the ARRA data for all regional programs. It is important that initial countries as soon as possible. SACCAR will planning of the medium- and long-term projects also continue to undertake the following core should include a responsible phased devolution activities: possibly commencing during the inception of the second phase. The devolution chain agreed * Award research grants (12 or more per to by the Nordic donor group involves a annum) gradual phasing out over a realistic time-frame * Award travel grants (15 or more per of 20 years. The task force recommends that annum) at the project preparation phase, a path of * Publish a newsletter (4 issues) devolution should tie an integral part of the * Publish jointly with the .Zimbabwe project design. It is important that during the Department of Research and Specialist Services devolution phase, the executing agencies a SADCC/Zimbabwe Journal of Agricultural provide both scientific backstopping and Research (2 issues) funding to ensure a smooth transition. * Organize at least four one-week If the NARSs were to assume some of the workshops/seminars on subjects of regional responsibilities from the SACCAR Executing concern Agencies, they could face funding problems. * Commission at least two studies cn subjects For example, the handing over of the Sorghum of interest to the region. and Millet Program at Matopos and the Groundnut Improvement Project at Chitedze to 2. Coordination fnctions: SACCAR works Zimbabwe and Malawi, respectively, would put with its Board to identify, develop, approve and extra pressures on their national research recommend for inclusion into the SADCC budgets. It is evident from this that close program of work the regional program in coordination of all the many disparate research agricultural research and training. It is also activities is required from the outset. The core responsible, on behalf of the government of institutional element of the proposed Botswana, for overseeing regional agricultural Framework, i.e. the establishment of the research and training projects and programs. National Masterplans with supporting 3. Steering Comm iuees: Steering Committees consolidated funding could help to address for regional programs/projects are an important these and other potential funding and management tool for SACCAR. These involve coordination problerns. 38 Proposed Structure for Regional Research and the SIS database now contains about 500 Networking in Maize, Wheat and Rice references to donor-funded research activities (programs, projects, IFS small grants, and Maize is the most important staple foodcrop networks). A preliminary investigation of the in SADCC and the demand for wheat and rice information available indicates some is expected to increase significantly as the duplication. This reinforces the need for a urban population of the region increases. The comprehensive computerized database on objective of establishing networks in maize, agricultural research activities to facilitate wheat and rice would be to facilitate the information exchange among governments, acquisition and exchange of germplasm and donors, IARCs and private organizations. This information and to provide logistical support to is essential if more effective use is to be made the NARSs involved in the networks. These of the available resources. The SIS database is networks would help to improve linkages now ready to be transferred to the NARSs in between the NARSs and the IARCs (CIMMYT, the SADCC region. IITA and IRRI). The role of the IARCs in these networks would be the provision of Human Resource Development germplasm with special traits, training, and technical back-stopping. It is expected that the SACCAR has initiated a number of studies IARCs will work on regional problems that and convened several workshops to develop a have been identified by and with the NARSs. long-term strategy for the training of Funding of these networks should be professional manpower. A study, sponsored by provided by the various participants (IARCs, the Federal Republic of Germany in 1987, regional institutions and NARSs). The budget recommended a program of support for should clearly indicate the sources and developing four special M.Sc. courses in the recipients of the funding. SACCAR's role SADCC region (Animal Science alt the Banda should be that of an executing agent in the College of Agriculture, Malawi; Agricultural organization of regional seminars and Engineering and Irrigation at the Sokoine workshops, and monitoring and evaluation. University of Agriculture, Tanzania; Crop The networks should operate under the auspices Science at the University of Zambia; and, of SACCAR and not as autonomous projects Agricultural Economics at the University of run by the IARCs. There should be a team Zimbabwe). The project was started in the leader supported by a Steering Committee. The 1988/89 Academic Year with donor support core senior staff, including the team leader, provided for scholarships, equipment and should be recruited from within the region, technical assistance. Additional studies were with at least one internationally-recruited undertaken by SACCAR in collaboration with Technical Advisor. The network for maize various donors to explore further areas of and wheat could be sited in Harare, Zimbabwe, cooperation in postgraduate and undergraduate at the Crop Breeding Institute while the rice training. network could be based in any one of four A team comprising the Deans of the countries, viz. Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania Faculties of Agriculture, Forestry and or Zambia. Veterinary Medicine was then commissioned by SACCAR to synthesize the various studies and Donor-Funded Agricultural Research develop a Blueprint for Training (A Long-term Programs and Projects in the Region Strategy for Training of Professional Manpower in the SADCC Region for the Agriculture and Major, donors (Annex 5) supporting Natural Resources sector). They were assisted agricultural research in the region are: Canada, in this effort by the SPAAR Working Group on Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Education and Training. This Blueprint was Kingdom, the United States of America, FAO, approved by SACCAR and later (June, 1990) IDRC, IFAD, UNDP and the World Bank. by the sectoral Ministers of Agriiculture and Most of the 23 members of SPAAR are active Natural Resources. in agricultural research in the SADCC region 39 The number of professional and technical High-Value Crops and the Private Sector staff employed in the private and public institutions involved directly with agriculture in Effective development of the potential for SADCC was estimated at 36,000 in 1990 (the perennial, horticultural and other non- Williams report sponsored by the World Bank). traditional cash crops will depend upon the Expected demand was for an annual growth private sector which appears to have a rate of 6 percent, resulting in an estimated comparative advantage in the production of 64,000 professional and technical staff by the these crops. I'he task force therefore year 2000. Estimates indicated that the current recommends that SACCAR initiate discussions training capacities would be able to meet the with the private sector on ways of developing requirements for technicians trained to linkages with relevant external organizations. certificate and diploma levels. But, the At the same time, SACCAR should discuss region's current training capacity would be with governments the possibilities for provision unable to meet the demand for professionals of investment incentives, such as duty-free with specialized training at the bachelor's, imports of equipment and remittance of master's and doctorate level without a dividends. significant expansion of the current training The proposed extension of the Tea Research institutions. The regional program tabled to the Foundation's mandate from tea to coffee and SADCC Council of Ministers is a long-term tree nuts will require very close examination. one, requiring at least 20 years of sustained To do so, it will have to establish a close support. It would develop inter-university working relationship with producing members activities and linkages to strengthen teaching of the respective industries, as it is now doing and research, including staff and student with tea. It is important that the financing of exchange; and establish specialized degree this research continues to remain closely linked (undergraduate and post-graduate) training to the industries it serves. programs at selected regional centers of specialization. The total estimated cost for Next Steps-Implementation Phase I (1991-2000) is expected to be about of the Framework US$150 million. Programs to increase the supply, and The SACCAR Board discussed the improve the quality of trained personnel, need Framework and gave its technical validation at to be complemented by incentives and policies its Board Meeting on April 11, 1991. The which promote individual initiative and help to Framework was then presented to participants retain professional cadres and efficiency at at the Eleventh SPAAR Plenary Session in work. Research institutions in SADCC need Abidjan, Cote d'Ivoire, on May 13-14, 1991. scientists who are innovative, and whose work The SPAAR membership endorsed the can help to make existing farming more Framework for the SADCC region. It was productive. While the development of human agreed that implementation should start with resources by university training is an essential one or two countries in the region. Tanzania part of an efficient research system, this must was proposed by the representative from be matched with regular and appropriate in- Tanzania, endorsed by the Director of service training programs to ensure the SACCAR and its Board Chairman, and stimulation of ideas and enable scientists to accepted by participants at the meeting. hone and keep their skills up-to-date. The task Following the SPAAR Plenary, the SPAAR force considers that the establishment of an Secretariat was officially informed by the enabling environment should receive priority. government of Tanzania that it welcomed the A component of this enabling environment must selection of Tanzania as the first pilot country be regular in-service training. Some in SADCC. SPAAR was invited to send the "decompression" of scientific strength may be SACCARISPAAR task force to Dar-es-Salaam required to ensure that all scientists in post can in July, 1991 to help the government prepare receive sufficient recurrent resources to for the implementation of the Framework. undertake an active research program. 40 Following extensive and comprehensive SACCAR and to the member states (Ministry discussions with government officials and the of Agriculture and the Universities). This donor community, the task force assisted the information system will provide a key element government to introduce its recently completed in coordinating national and regional research Research Masterplan to the scientific and donor efforts. SPAAR, in cooperation with CTA, communities in Tanzania at a Workshop held in will provide the necessary hardware, software Dar-es-Salaam in March, 1992. The and the training to use the database. This can govermnent plans to follow this up with regular be implemented immediately. meetings with its cooperating partners and with Financing should be provided as soon as the establishment of an Agricultural Research possible to enable a detailed plan to be Fund to support research grants, contract developed for both the strengthening of research and provide incentives for scientists. research in biotechnology and for the expansion Donors are being requested to provide financial of the wildlife management areas in the region. support for the priority research programs and These plans can be developed by national for the rehabilitation of key research stations. scientists. Further support will be required The SIS database, containing information on from the SPAAR membership for 'State of the externally-funded regional and national research Art' technology reviews for important activities (programs, projects, networks, small agricultural commodities produced in the grants), could be immediately transferred to region. 41 7. Expectations The region has the natural and human resources policies, markets, production inputs, interested to realize and sustain an accelerated agricultural producers), profitab:le production will require a growth rate. The proposed Framework can stream of production technologies. It can be provide the catalyst for increasing and expected that the re-invigorated NARSs would sustaining growth and equity in the region. be better able to help farmers with their But, the improvements will take time. As the technical problems. elements of the proposed Framework are put in The development of a capacity for policy place, it can be envisaged that the scientists in analysis in the NARSs can be expected to lead the NARSs of SADCC will become to more supportive and equitable government increasingly able, motivated and imbued with a policies in the agricultural sector. This should sense of mission to respond more directly to the result not only in increased agricultural demands and challenges of the Food, production and trade, but also in greater equity Agriculture and Natural Resources Sector. in the distribution of the resulting output to the The central element of the proposed more needy and vulnerable groups - those Framework is the amelioration of the enabling living in the arid and marginal areas and the environment for SADCC scientists, thus rural and urban poor. A capacity for policy providing conditions to motivate and enable analysis could also help to promote the them to use their skills and training in the importance of science and technology within development of useful technologies. The task government. force recommends that sufficient operating The encouragement of pluralism in expenses should be assured through the agricultural research and extension can lead to establishment of appropriate funding more dynamic research and extension systems mechanisms in each country. These in the region. The sharing of responsibility for mechanisms will be used to support the agricultural research by the public sector with proposed national research masterplans. The other interested parties would enable integrity of the national research effort within government to concentrate its efforts on staple the bounds of a national research nmasterplan foodcrops, socio-economic and environmental can only be maintained if all parties issues. The private sector could then focus on (government and cooperating partners) work cash crop and factor (production inputs) closely together on the programs and priorities research. The increasing involvement of the in the plan. To make the best use of the universities in research will not only contribute limited resources available, a reformulation of to the region's output of science and the budget is desirable to ensure sufficient technology, but also to the quality of their funds for operation and maintenance. teaching. The involvement of a multiplicity of Intensification through productivity actors, each with their particular strengths and improvements in SADCC is clearl.y feasible clientele, should ensure that producers are given the wide yield disparities in the crop and better provided with the technologies they need. livestock sub-sectors. The diversity of agro- The opportunities for staff advancement within ecologies and the natural resource base in a pluralistic research system can better motilvate SADCC offers potential for the production and and stimulate scientists. development of a wide range of commodities. The extensive areas of arid and marginal While the realization of this potential demands land in the region pose a special challenge to many things (inter alia, supportive government scientists to produce or adapt technology for the 42 resource-poor farmers in these degraded and A Vision of Research Systems in the fragile environments. The task force considers SADCC Region that biotechnology has potential for contributing to the production of appropriate low-cost farm An expected scenario for the medium-term technologies. is the emergence of increasingly dynamic and The exploitation of the natural resource responsive NARSs with a clearer pattern of potential of the marginal areas would be specialization among the different sectors, i.e. assisted by the proposed support for community cash/export crops, intensive livestock and factor management programs in the protected wildlife research by the private sector including private areas. This would provide employment and research foundations; staple foodcrops, income from the non-consumptive exploitation extensive livestock and environmental and of natural resources in these fragile social concerns by the public sector; and, basic environments. The introduction of participative and applied (under contract) research by the R&D in the farming areas of these zones can universities. It can be expected that the NGOs be expected to enhance arable crop yields, and private foundations will become more improve the carrying capacity of natural active amongst resource-poor fanners in the grazing and advance the technical and practical arid and marginal areas of the region. competence of research and extension staff, and Research in the fisheries sub-sector can be farmers. expected to be more active as the industry and The establishment of the appropriate fishermen's associations are enouraged by funding mechanisms would require effective governments to participate in research monitoring and evaluation. The private sector activities. Research for the industrial forestry can provide some lessons on how to produce sub-sector can be expected to remain with the results from investments in research. The private sector, while social forestry continues to identification of key indicators linked to the be the responsibility of the public sector. The implementation of the National Masterplans international research system will be providing would introduce a much-needed element of a critical input for the development of accountability into the NARSs. The closer technology through both their established coordination by governments of all donor commodity centers and technical back-stopping investments in agricultural research, from to the developing NARSs as scientists from the information provided by computerized IARCs increasingly work alongside national databases such as the SIS, can help to minimize scientists. It can be envisaged that as the duplication and ensure more efficient use of the tempo of private sector development increases available resources. It can be expected that the in the NARSs, the recurrent financing development of more rigorous, result-oriented obligation of the donors would be steadily research management, supported by coordinated replaced by research cestuis/levies raised from long-term donor support, would have a producers. significant effect on the productivity of the NARSs. 43 Annex I - The Politicl Economy Of Wheat Consumption and Production In Sub-Sahan Afiica One of the most dramatic changes in dietary Perhaps the most revealing statistic of all is patterns during the past two-and-a-half decades that wheat consumption has been increasing in has been the increasing role of wheat as a staple SSA, even as per capita food consumption has food in developing countries. Wheat consumption been falling. While per capita cereal consumption has risen rapidly both in countries where wheat is in SSA decreased by about 10 percent during the a traditional staple (e.g. in the Middle East and last two decades, the share of wheat among all North Africa) and in countries where wheat is an cereals consumed increased from about 5 percent "introduced" food, especially in the tropical to over 10 percent. Hence, increased wheat countries lying between 230 N and 23° S latitude. consumption has come about entirely from Wheat imports to developing countries substitution for other staple foods. Table A-1 doubled during the 1970s and now accounts for shows that food calories supplied by wheat have two-thirds of world wheat trade. Even in the substituted largely for sorghum, millet, and roots 1980s when wheat imports in most developing and tubers. Rice in West Africa and maize in countries had levelled off or declined, wheat East Africa have also increased their share of imports to tropical countries have continued to food calories. increase, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). While per capita wheat consumption in Africa In tropical America, wheat has already has increased rapidly, per capita wheat production become a staple food for a large proportion of the has fallen. Wheat is a significant crop (over population, with consumption averaging about 50 25,000 ha) in only five African countries, of kg/capita/year. Average consumption in SSA is which only two, Tanzania and Zimbabwe, only 15 kg/capita, but with per capita income increased wheat production faster that averaging less than one-third that of tropical Latin consumption from 1960 to 1980 - and even America, the potential for continued increases in Tanzania and Zimbabwe have once again wheat consumption is evident. increased their import dependency during the Will SSA follow the example set by Latin 1980s. America, with wheat becoming over time the Both domestic and international actors main staple substituting for coarse grains, roots influence wheat consumption. On the domestic and tubers? What are the political and economic side, the main actors are: (a) producers, (b) implications of such a change in dietary patterns? consumers, and (c) local grain transport, storage, What policies and strategies can African countries and processing industries. The main international adopt now to slow these trends? To what extent actors are private and public agencies involved in might domestic wheat production reduce the world wheat trade. In some cases, such as in dependency on food imports and at the same time grain shipment and processing, international and contribute to economic efficiency and food domestic actors may be closely linked. security objectives? 44 Table A-1. Changes in Daily Food Calories per Capita Obtained from Different Staples in Africa, 1961/65 to 1975/77 (percent) Other Roots+ AM Region Wheat Rice Maize Cereals tubers Staples Africa Eastern and Southern 26 11 48 -58 -21 6 Western 29 30 11 -95 -5 17 Source: FAo Governments in both importing and exporting interests), and exporting interests in developed countries are key actors whose intervention in countries, such as grain exporters or milling and wheat markets consistently reinforce market shipping industries (which frequently have strong phenomena and rapidly accelerate the substitution commercial linkages with processors in importing of wheat products for traditional staples. countries). In addition, interest groups in According to Byerlee and Morris (1988), these exporting countries also succeed in dlistorting the include: (a) interventions in production of wheat policies of these countries toward wheat exports and competing food staples; (b) investments, to the developing world. These interest groups taxes and subsidies, and controls on the appear to reinforce one another in promoting marketing and processing of wheat, both domestic wheat consumption. and imported; (c) explicit consumer subsidies on Only a small proportion of Sub-Saharan wheat products; and (d) influences on consumers' Africa is classified as suitable for wheat preferences through market promotion and production. Most of the area that is suitable lies development. Governments of both importing and in Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania wvhere wheat exporting countries influence the price of production is well established. Zinmbabwe and imported wheat, for example through: (a) trade Sudan are also significant wheat producers. In all and exchange rate policies; (b) subsidies and of these countries, except Ethiopia, wheat is a credit facilities for wheat exports; (c) the non-traditional crop, and the area planted to provision of food aid (argely wheat); and (d) wheat is relatively small. In addition to these marketing and promotion policies by private and established producers, a number of countries are public agencies of exporting countries. attempting to establish a domestic wheat industry A number of influential private sector interest (e.g. Zambia, Mali, Nigeria, Madagascar, groups are also important in biasing policy Cameroon), sometimes with very large interventions toward wheat consumption and investment costs. imports. These interest groups include middle- The environments in which these wheat income urban consumers (who often are able to schemes are being established vary widely influence food policy decisions), the wheat throughout Africa, with distinct problems as processing sector (which exercises considerable summarized in Table A-2. market power in protecting its vested 45 Table A-2: Major Wheat Production Environments and Production Issues in SSA Major Wheat Production Issues Environment Example Biological Economic High elevation rainfed Kenya Appropriate genotypes Competing use of land for (71500 m) Tanzania available, but stripe other temperate cropland Malawi rust a major problem or livestock enterprises Mid- to low-elevation Madagascar Serious disease Some competition from staple rainfed (using stored Zambia problems (e.g. crops such as maize and or growing Helinthosporium) sorghum season rainfall) Mid-to-high Zimbabwe None High cost of irrigation, elevation irrigated competing use of scarce water It is very difficult to generalize about the import substitution. Morris (1988) estimated that potential for wheat production in Sub-Saharan in Zimbabwe, where wheat is grown under Africa. In some cases biological factors (e.g. the normal rainfall conditions, wheat can be lack of disease-resistant or heat-tolerant varieties) efficiently grown, with Z$ 0.28 of domestic constitute the major constraint to local resources required to save Z$ 1.00 of net foreign production, while in others economic iFactors are exchange. In Zambia, a recent (1991) World more important. Bank Agricultural Sector Strategy team concluded Available evidence on the economics of wheat that the adoption of improved technology has production in Zimbabwe and Zambia indicates enabled the efficient use of domestic resources in that the two SADCC countries have comparative the production of most commodities, including advantage in wheat production, under normal wheat, despite currency overvaluation. rainfall and irrigated conditions. 'The most Agricultural research to produce varieties with commonly used measure of comparative better heat-tolerance and disease-resistance can be advantage is the domestic resource cost (DRC). expected to slowly expand the frontiers for The DRC measures the efficiency of domestic use efficient wheat production in SADCC and other of resources in generating foreign exchange. A regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, but technological DRC of less than 1 indicates that domestic changes alone are unlikely to enable production to resources are used relatively efficiently in the keep pace with the present rate of growth in production of a commodity and, hence, its consumption. production can be expanded for export or 46 Annex 2 - Rural Community Participation in Integrated Wildlife Management And Utilization (IWMU) Rationale active involvement of local rural communities in the management and utilization of this resource The arid and marginal lands of the SADCC provide a sound base for future utilization of region pose considerable problems for increased these areas. The SACCAR/SPAAR Framework agricultural output on account of, inter alia, the for Action will endorse this development option fragility of the soil base, the unreliability of by supporting a research agenda, including rainfall, the comparatively narrow commodity wildlife, NR management and associated crop choice, a farming community which is usually production. resource-poor and, frequently, the remoteness of The achievement of food security and an the markets. Technical packages involving improved quality of life for the local communities improved varieties and fertilizers have been of these areas will be aided by the emergence and developed for foodcrops but given the element of development of rural non-farm activities. In risk in the environment for crop production and addition to IWMU, various other raral activities the low risk-threshold of the farming community, are now gathering speed in some of the wild adoption rates are generally low. Attempts to mopane and acacia woodlands of these increase production and to sustain food self- agriculturally marginal areas. These activities sufficiency frequently lead to irreparable include the collection of cocoons of the Gonometa degradation of the environment and consequent silkmoth in Botswana and Zimbabwe with loss of food security. subsequent spinning in Botswana; the collection Wildlife is an important economic resource in of wild honey in northern Zambia and Malawi; the region. If well managed, it can be utilized on and, the harvesting and marketing of wild a sustainable basis to generate revenue mushrooms in several countries. These new (particularly foreign exchange), to create initiatives in community participation in wildlife employment and to increase the productivity of management provide an instrument for rural communities. Foreign exchange earnings responsible exploitation of the considerable NR from tourism are very significant in several resource in SADCC with significant future SADCC countries, most of which are derived benefits to rural communities. This development from the game parks. In Zimbabwe, earnings option offers many opportunities for rural women from tourism rank third in importance after to spread their income sources beyond crop mining and agriculture. In the SADCC region, production and small livestock. earnings from tourism in 1987 totalled US$148 There clearly is a conflict between wildlife million. However, the potential remains mostly and tourism activities on the one hand and untapped, due to under-development, increasing settlement with associatedL small-scale misplacement of emphases in conservation efforts agriculture and extensive livestock on the other. and the attendant social problems which have There are three distinct lobbies pleading their threatened the existence of wildlife. The SADCC case, i.e wildlife, agriculture and resettlement. If region has set aside 14 percent of its total land short-term political imperatives are to be balanced area for protection, 5 percent of it as wildlife by rational long-term land-use considerations, a reserves. more definitive comparative analysis needs to be Encouraging new developments in Botswana, made of the costs and benefits of wildlife Zambia and Zimbabwe that are built around the exploitation strategies and the econoimic potential 47 and long-term effects of other options. implementation started with funding from the Community participation in wildlife management Zambian government, NORAD and WWF. and utilization as a complement to crop and Major bilateral funding was assured for five years livestock development offers a holistic approach by NORAD in October, 1988 and accelerated to the development of these areas. implementation began. The primary objective of The reality of this land-use option has already the project is to improve the standard of living of been amply demonstrated by the early successes the people of the project area through the of the five examples given in the following sustainable use of the fidi range of natural section. resources available to them. The project involves a women's program; a cooperatives program; a Background 8 works and supply unit; an evaluation unit; and a major road improvement program. LIRDP has There are currendy five of these programs developed an institutional structure that has under way in the SADCC region: enabled gradual decentralization including 1. ADMADE, I Zambia. A program initiated by establishment at the local level of a Local the Zambian Government's National Parks and Leaders' Sub-committee, providing the primary Wildlife Service in early 1988 with financial avenue for local participation and decision- assistance from the World Wildlife Fundl (WWF), making in the project area. Progressively, (USA). The program covers 74,110 square control over revenues earned in the project area kilometers or 10 percent of the country and and over decisions concerning land and resource involves twenty-five chiefs and their village use is being transferred to this group. A communities. The communities are involved in revolving fund has been established to receive the decision-making processes concerning and manage funds received from the Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Management and share Finance, from donors, and, from public revenues in the revenue gained. Progress has been raised within the project area (hunting license impressive with the generation of US$1.3 million fees, concession fees, Park entry fees, tourism gross income accrued of which US$0.7 million or levies, forestry, fishing and water license fees), 55 percent was used to manage the wildlife. service charges on agricultural credit facilities, US$0.45 million (35 percent) was disbursed to earnings from maize mills, stores etc. Earnings the local communities to meet their development from the project have been divided with 60 needs and US$0.13 million (10 percent) was used percent being retained by the project for project by government to promote tourism. The program operation and 40 percent being handed to the provides jobs for more than 500 villagers mostly Local Leaders Sub-committee for use as decided engaged as Village Scouts and general workers. by the sub-committee. Apart from the use of Most important, in a very short period of time, funds for various local purposes (clinics, attitudes towards wildlife conservation have upgrading of schools, purchase of transport etc.), changed markedly from illegal hu:nting to significant progress has been made in conservation and management. strengthening local peoples' self-confidence and 2. Luangwa Integrated Development Project, technical competence. In 1988 and 1989, a total Zambia. The LIRDP was formally initiated in of US$96,500 (40 percent of the gross revenue) May, 1986 with financial assistance from the has been made available for community projects. Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation 3. The WWF-Zambia Wetlands Project. Six (NORAD) and the WWF. The program covers percent of Zambia can be classified as wetlands about 14,000 square kilometers and a community and wildlife is a significant resource in these of over 35,000 people. An initial phase of areas. The two Core Project Areas cover program development through discussion with approximately 13,500 square kilometers sectoral departments, local representatives and comprising parts of 14 Chiefdoms and a total of potential donors established the outlines of the 160,000 people. The projects were established institutional structures to be created and the work under the Department of National Parks and programs to be implemented. These were Wildlife Service (Ministry of Tourism) and are finalized at a major workshop involving all being implemented in conjunction with potential participants in June, 1987. Low-level ADMADE. The revenue from these areas is 48 divided with 40 percent used for Wildlife industries, or of ranching crocodile or lake-based Management, 35 percent for Community activities, has hardly been tapped. Development, 15 percent for National Parks 5. Wildlife Utilization, Botswana. While Development and 10 percent for a Contingency Botswana is behind Zambia and Zimbabwe with Fund (originally meant for Tourism regard to wildlife utilization programs, positive Development). The revenue is derived from non- results are now being achieved from wildlife consumptive tourism and from game-capture and conservation. The planning process in Botswana various categories of hunting, culling and moves from the village level upwards to the cropping (consumptive). central government. Designated Wildlife 4. The CAMPFIRE '° Program in Zimbabwe. Management Areas cover 22 percent of the land Conceived in the Ministry of Natural Resources and wildlife utilization is the only land-use and Tourism, the CAMPFIRE program is permitted in these areas. The government of concerned with natural resource management only Botswana adopted a National Parks policy in on communal land. Thus, the program is 1976, which clarified the intention of government specifically designed to deal with the challenges to pursue wildlife utilization as a form of land-use posed by common ownership, usage and with potential for sufficient economic returns to management of land by disparate traditional assure its sustainability. The process of communities. This program has initially focussed development of these areas is proceeding with on wildlife resources because they have obvious each district setting its own pace of development. commercial value, are relatively easily renewable The local community makes all decisions from and are highly responsive to sustainable planning to implementation and the department utilization. However, the ultimate goal is to acts as an adviser. Some of the plans have been include other elements such as water, soil and prepared by consultants from donor-funded vegetation, in a holistic perspective on ecological projects, a recent example being that funded by preservation with development. The delegation the EEC. Recent analysis (1990) suggests that of authority from the central to the local level is implemnentation of present plans could produce a the key to the success of the CAMPFIRE four-fold increase in the economic contribution of program and common property management. the sector over the next fifteen years; the The program has been so successful since its contribution to GDP increasing from Pala 2.1 inception in the late 1970s that by 1990 there million to p 8.8 million. There is a need for an were thirteen districts with the right to directly applied research program on the key parameters implement CAMPFIRE programs. A number of relating to the efficiency of wildlilfe utilization, non-government agencies have been providing a e.g. involving studies on game enclosure complementary mix of expertise and financial technology and maintenance of sex ratios which assistance. In 1985, a research unit funded by optimize reproduction rates in addition to the on- the Ford Foundation and IDRC was set up under going work on management issues and pure the University of Zimbabwe's Centre for Applied biology. There is also an urgent need for more Social Sciences (CASS) to undertake monitoring training in the wildlife sector. and evaluation of the socio-economic implications of the CAMPFIRE approach. In the first year of Proposed Activity for SACCARJSPAAR operation of one of the areas, a net profit of US$200,000 was made from international sport- The SACCAR Secretariat will work with the hunting alone. These resources allow the Malawi-based SADCC Coordination Unit for the community to finance their own management, pay Forestry, Fisheries and Wildlife Sector to define compensation for elephant-caused crop damage, the details of a pertinent research program. The build up a revolving fund and pay direct benefits initial draft program was to be detailed by the to the community. In addition, the district has end of 1991, with start-up of imiplementation been able to crop 1500 impala and distribute scheduled for 1992. SACCAR will establish an 30,000 kilograms of meat at cost price. The appropriate network and communication system resource utilization potential with regard to non- to ensure that experiences are regularly shared consumptive wildlife tourism, or of secondary and debated amongst all SADCC countries. 49 The SACCAR/SPAAR Framework for Action social, cultural and/or traditional perceptions of will assist the gradual responsible expansion of improved environmental management; these initiatives from Botswana, Zambia and * Research to determine the economic viabilities Zimbabwe to the other SADCC countries. and biomass production potential of either Initially, this will probably involve Malawi, domestication or ranching programs of single or Namibia and Tanzania. Subsequently, following mixed wildlife species; the lessening of security problems, * In conjunction with veterinary research staff, SACCAR/SPAAR will help to support the research into wildlife/livestock diseases, development of this program in Angola and particularly modes of transmission; Mozambique. * Effects of agro-chemicals on the environment During their joint supervision missions, the in general and wildlife species in particular; and SPAAR group of donors will seek consensus on * Research into non-exploitative harvesting which donors, institutions, NGOs, charities and cycles of such indigenous resources as silk, honey private individuals can best provide the assistance and mushrooms. required. The SACCAR/SPAAR program will also Potential Value and Output support adaptive participative on-farmn research programs on foodcrops with the communities in * Protection of the natural resources of a fragile these areas, where such land- use fits within the environment with its optimum land-use; gazetted rules for the land. For instance, such a * Increase in the contribution of the wildlife program might be appropriate in association with sub-sector to the GDP; the CAMPFIRE projects in Zimbabwe. * Employment generation, especially non-farm opportunities for women; Probable Areas for Research * Diversification of income source for rural communities; The following topics were identified by the * Assistance to rural communities with Malawi-based Coordination Unit and presented at participatory development of their environment; the SACCAR Consultation on Research Priorities * Provisionof entrepreneurial opportunities; and held in Francistown, Botswana, September, 1990. * Improved food security through increased productivity of foodcrops and spread of income- * Resource Inventory Studies; sources in the arid and marginal lands. * Social science research to evaluate the 50 Annex 3 - Biotechnology: A Potential Tool for The SADCC Region Introduction opportunities offered by biotechnology. This is expected to produce the desired multiplier effect Biotechnology is a new biological tool that can on the SADCC member states. SACCAR could provide exciting opportunities for improving serve as the all-important regional coordinating agricultural yield and output. The biotechnology mechanism to promote its development, and to techniques in use range from comparatively ensure that national scientific capacity and interest simple tissue culture to the much more complex in biotechnology are sustained through genetic manipulation of biological material. The networking, both within the region and with simplest techniques can be employed in relatively external scientific partners. unsophisticated environments, while the more In Zimbabwe, the establishment of a Scientific complex ones require carefully managed and and Industrial Research and Development Centre controlled conditions. The industrial countries, (SIRDC) under the Research Council of led by their private sectors, have invested heavily Zimbabwe (RCZ) has been approved by the in the development and use of biotechnology, government of Zimbabwe. The ]RCZ plans to from which they are confident of reaping establish a Biotechnology Research' Institute (BRI) handsome dividends by the end of the century. within the proposed SIRDC to undertake plant Are these technological developments going to breeding through the use of genetic engineering further marginalize farmers, particularly and micro-propagation, animal breeding and food smallholders, in the SADCC region? This could processing technologies (including fermentation). happen, unless the region seizes the initiative to The plant breeding program will benefit the learn from developments in the industrial "orphan" commodities (cassava, sorghum and countries, and establishes a capacity to exploit the millet) grown by smallholders in the arid and potential benefits of different biotechnology marginal zones. There are also plans to include techniques for agricultural improvement in the medical biotechnology to produce vaccines for region. both people and livestock. Apart from the SIRDC, the Crop Science Department of the Capacity-Building and Application in SADCC University of Zimbabwe (UZ) started a two-year M.Sc course in Biotechnology in April, 1991, The establishment of a capacity for with an initial intake of ten students. The biotechnology applications in SADCC is program is open to students from countries in the warranted in view of the likely long (five- to ten- region. The first semester courses will cover year) gestation period between the development basic microbiology and fermentation, basic plant and commercial application of biotechnology biotechnology and recombinant DNA technology. techniques. SPAAR can assist the SADCC The second semester will include advanced member states to identify scientific/commercial courses on fermentation, enzyme technology, partners and, possibly, with financing to establish plant biotechnology, immunology and virology, a substantive biotechnology research program as and cloning technology. The course can be taken quickly as possible. The inclusion of either on campus in Zimbabwe or at an approved biotechnology as an element of the site off campus. SACCAR/SPAAR Framework for Action is The Crop Science Department of UZ, which intended to spur the region to capitalize on the has made considerable progress in the 51 development of its research and teaching capacity For the arid areas of SADCC, the exploitation of in biotechnology, has established strong technical industrial cassava crops for the production of links with the Department of Genetics at the Free butanol may offer a potential commercial crop for University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands. the resource-poor farmers in these areas; tissue Thus, in the University of Zimbabwe and the culture applications can be developed in the short- proposed SIRDC, the SADCC region has a base term but the economics of production are not yet on which to develop capacity in the science of clear. biotechnology. The Sokoine University of Agriculture, Future Program. At this stage of the game, it Tanzania has begun to develop a capacity in is important to decide on the most promising biotechnology in micro-biology. Biotechnology programs to work on, and which programs (based techniques are also being used by universities and on experience elsewhere) have the highest scientific institutions outside the SADCC region probability of providing a successful outcome in to solve technical problems important to the medium-term. It is probably desirable that SADCC's farming community. the early programs should focus on the The Faculty of Biology (Free University of manipulation of the DNA-molecule, followed by Amsterdam) has published "Biotechniology for the propagation of clean planting material from Small-Scale Farmers in Developing Countries: single-cell culture. Identification of genes for Analysis and Assessment Procedures", following viral, pest and herbicide resistance and changes in extensive fieldwork carried out in Zimbabwe, food quality (oils and fat contents of seeds) are Bolivia and Pakistan. The potential of likely to offer the best prospects for success; biotechnology for small-scale farmers was drought-tolerance is a function of many genes and discussed at a very well-attended Public Debate manipulation is not likely to be possible in the organized by the Free University in Amsterdam foreseeable future. on April 8-9, 1991. A useful agenda in biotechnology could be Regional Program created for the future benefit of resource-poor farmers in cowpea, cassava, sweet potato, potato, The development of a national capacity in millet and sorghum. The current demand for biotechnology will depend on (a) the organization virus-free seed potatoes in Zimbabwe is great. It of a critical mass of participating scientists; and should be noted that monocotyledonous plants are (b) the availability of seed money to start up the more difficult (more time-consuming) to generate work. The food processing and other agro-based from a single cell and thus, it is desirable to industries are likely sources of financial support, "crack" the problem (perhaps involving once the program comes on stream. Effective identification and transfer of a specific gene) in exploitation of complicated biotechnology maize and wheat first, since industrial support is applications will need teams of a certain critical more likely to be available for these commercial mass. One way of putting together a team is to crops. The technique, once it proves effective, involve the different private crop associations could be used for sorghum and millet. (tobacco, coffee, cotton, etc.) operating in the region. They could be asked to fund or second Lucrative Genes. A likely source of revenue one or more competent scientists to the proposed for biotechnology applications as well as patents regional biotechnology program. is from the identification and later manipulation A capacity in biotechnology is best built into of genes for nematode resistance. strong national plant breeding programs backed by the normal field testing processes and a 7issue Culture. Simple village-based tissue capacity for diagnosis of problems. The capacity- culture applications could be developed in sweet building exercise should commence with a potato, potato, and cassava for production of crop/animal problem, for which there is already disease-free (virus particularly) planting material. experience elsewhere, and for which finance is Such household-based applications, which have available on a long-term sustained basis. been developed for virus-free potato The SACCAR Secretariat should assist the multiplication, are now being used in. Vietnam. NARSs (including the universities) in developing 52 a capacity for biotechnology through the programs using biotechnology applications in provision of advice on suitable technical contacts their domestic universities and research (both within and outside the region). The institutions. The German Agency for Technical SPAAR Secretariat could assist SACCAR with Co-operation (GTZ) has expressed interest in the identification of interested donors and funding biotechnology efforts in NZambia, while technical partners. the Netherlands and Sweden are providing The United Kingdom and the Netherlands support to Zimbabwe. are already funding a number of research 53 Annex 4 - Contract Research Contract research"1 dates back: to the region at this time (1992) since salary levels are 1800s, when university professors in Germany so low and opportunities for research within the accepted external sources of funds to conduct institutional work program are so few). research. Besides providing a new source of Contract speciifications relating to research funds, additional revenues vvere often remuneration, joint venture responsibilities, generated through the sale of the inventions quality expectations, and proprietary rights to developed through contract research. research results must also be considered. In assessing the potential of African Payment for contract research is a major universities or research institutes to undertake issue, especially if contract researchers with contract research, several issues need to be similar qualifications are paid different rates. considered. They include: operational Payment for local contractors is often much mechanisms, contract specifications, reliance on lower than for their international counterparts local expertise, university potential, conflict and animosity is often the result. Since market between research/teaching/national rate consultant fees have not been established, responsibilities, conflict between African contract researchers have little client/government research priorities, and negotiating power. university/government linkages. Where a contract is to be awarded to a Operational mechanisms for contract university or research institute, it may be research in Africa are often lacking. Where prudent for the client to have a separate they exist, these mechanisms may differ from contract with the researchers undertaking the country to country and on a case-by- case basis. work. Such dual research contracts, one with It is often easier for prospective clients to make the university or research institute and another use of the international contracting network with the actual contract researchers, tend to than to negotiate under uncertainty with produce better results. The additional incentive domestic contractors. Clients contemplating to contract researchers through dual research contract research should be aware of the legal contracts makes it possible for quality research requirements in the country of Dperation. to be completed within a given time-frame.. When awarding a research contract to an Joint-venture contract research, involving institution, they should reserve the right to local African and external organizations, is a select the researchers they want. Selection of useful approach to employ as it brings together researchers should not be left to the contracting a wide range of expertise. institution. In the case studies prepared, the Proprietary rights to research results may least successful ones involved clients that could pose a potential problem. Contracts should not or did not select their own researchers. clearly specify who owns the research results Lack of operational mechanisms on contract and the rights of contract researchers or research may result in university or research institutions. institute staff accepting private contracts on top While there may be advantages in of their full-time responsibilities. Such contracting research to local experts, local contracts may compete with official work to the researchers are often handicapped by the lack detriment of their employing institutions. (This of research facilities and equipment, such as may be a particular danger in the SADCC libraries and computers. Moreover, many 54 clients prefer to use international contractors on institutes as contraat researcher. In the regional projects that require a cross-country process, contract research can help to build perspective or on projects requiring external national capacity and firther research in Africa. evaluation. Local government officials may not To get the best results from contract accept domestic contractors on political research, the following sugestions are offered: grounds, or because they resent the higher 1. A system should be developed to review salary earned by former colleagues. client research requests to ensure that they are African universities represent one of the two consistent with national research priorities. major components of NARSs in Africa. In 2. Local contractors should be included in some countries, over one-third of agricultural contracting teams to take advantage of local researchers are found in the universities. knowledge and to help develop national However, teaching requirements and lack of capacity. resources often lead to under-utilized research 3. Higher-echelon management in development capacity. organizations should encourage the use of A few universities have established research domestic contractors. institutes which depend on funds generated 4. There should be a system under which from undertaking contract research. This contract researchers who are employees of the dependency may lead to conflict of interest universities or research institutes can be between client and national research priorities. remunerated for their outside work (provided Research institutes that are highly dependent on that it does not interfere with their regular contract research may learn to "respond' to responsibilities). client requests rather than develop their own 5. Contract mechanisms need to be research priorities. systematized and legalized in African countries. Based on the experiences of a small This would include coordination of local group of informants, it appears that, with expertise and establishment of market rate proper care and planning, there is potential consultant fees. for using African universities and research 55 Annex 5 - Agricultural Research Activiies* of SIS Focal Points in the SADCC Member Countries SADCC Member Countries Focal Points AO BW LS MW MZ NA SZ TZ ZM ZW (number of activities) SPAAR Members AfDB 1 1 Australia I 1 Belgium 2 2 Canada 1 4 2 18 CEC 1 3 1 3 3 1 5 4 627 Denmark 1 1 FAO I 1 3 2 4 3 519 France 2 2 1 1 4 2 214 Germany, F.R. 2 3 2 1 5 1 519 iDRC 2 12 6 16 6 7 46 10 30135 EFAD 2 1 1 2 1 4 3 216 Italy Japan 1 1 Netherlands 1 5 7 215 Norway Rockefeller Foundation 1 1 13 Sweden 7 1 S Switzerland United Kingdom 2 2 8 1 1 13 4 839 UNDP 2 2 2 4 9 4 124 United States 7 16 9 17 7 8 16 15 10105 Winrock International I 1 1 1 15 World Bank 2 3 3 13 5 2 25 12 1075 SUBTOTAL 17 44 23 68 34 1 24 149 73 85518 IFS 1 1 14 2 2 32 8 1373 NARS-TRANS SADCC/SACCAR 2 4 2 7 2 1 1 6 6 536 International Centres IBSRAM I 1 3 2 18 ICIPE 1 1 2 15 ICRAF 1 1 1 14 ICRISAT 1 1 1 1 1 16 IFDC-Africa 1 2 3 2 210 ISNAR I 1 2 Others CIBC I 1 1 14 TOTAL 19 53 28 94 39 2 27 198 96 110666 * Activities may refer to progms, projects, small grnts, or networks, SIS, October 1990. Ao-Angola; BW-Botswana; LS-Lesotho; MW-Malawi; MZ-Mozambique; NA-Namibia; SZ-Swaziland; TZ-Tanzania; ZM-Zambia; ZW- Zimbabwe. 56 Notes 1. This takes no account of the probable 7. E. Mansfield. (1968), Indusnial negative effects on agricultural and economic Research and Technological Innovadon, pp. 6- growth of the acquired immunodeficiency 7. New York: Norton. syndrome (AIDS) virus. 8. The following abstracts were taken 2. September - August. from the proceedings of a mobile training seminar held in June 1990 in the SADCC 3. 1 billion = 100 million region on Integrated Wildlife Resource Use, edited by Professor S.S. Ajayi, FAO 4. Zimbabwe Agricultural Sector Consultant, July 1990. Memorandum, Working Paper, "Agricultural Technology and the Communal Farm Sector," 9. Administrative Management Desig for July, 1990. Game Management Areas (GMAs). 5. SADCC Policies on Food, Agriculture, 10. Communal Area Managemient Program Natural Resources and the Environment, for Indigenous Resources. SACCAR Occasional publication No. 4, 1990 revision. 11. Abstract from "Contract Research: Potential Role of the Universities and National 6. PTA Agricultural Research Network Research Institutes in Sub-Saharan Africa," Project, July 1990 and country reports. Lisa Daniels for SPAAR, September, 1989 57 Bibliography Acsadi, G.T.F., G. Johnson-Acsadi and Asian Vegetable Research and Development R.A. Bulatao (eds.). (1990), Centre. (1990), "CONVERDS: The Population Growth and Reproduction Collaborative Network for Vegetable in Sub-Saharan Africa: Technical Research and Development in the Analyses of Fertility and its Southern Africa Region." Taiwan: Consequences. A World Bank SADCC. Symposium. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Berkman, S. (1990), "Discussion Paper on Technical Assistance in Africa." Ajayi, S.S. (ed.). (1990), "Rural World Bank Office Memorandum. Community Participaition in Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Integrated Wildlife in Botswana, Zambia and Zimbabwe." 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CHAD - TtE GAMBIA N D SUDAN GUINEBAU UINEAEl Addi 0 ; ; ; > 5 C~~~OTE * \t iAb.jo . g 0J A=b SIERRA LEOE '01OREl ZT 8 ETAAFRICA ErHIOP ;; 0 0 ; fsiERRA ,/~~~~~~~REPUBUC ) slLA - Sa.T_;* ;;000tf= - 0 S4T:MEANDRtliae ZARE KN | / 00it titX 0 00 tf 0iINDIAN s5 OCEAN BURUNDI - SACCAR/SPAAR FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION Lono IN AGRICULTURAL RESE H - --- DAG .e MAURHUS - ;~~~~~~ NT VAT 0 MAt _K -J IIT NbUDAM5 i;0 Xi i;:; t SOUTH S t WAZILAND ;;t ; i ;; t i i ;; : : :: i 0 : = ;'=: : ; =!;: ;: =t:tf, :0 AFRICA v : : ; : : : 0: X v ;: i - i :: ti %t tF~LSOTHO . T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~fl B. k' :th t : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ hf ; th 1. =Ld.CEl .~~~~~~' Ard-p - ' .'h d. 1 onaeee>vrimphbepprebTeditn' lfftuieyfirh mho ep JD e no en It, onteporfd of The World Banks Gooup.oie fo, Ikge -t on tlhe hogol ofotn of Ony htooiky or ooy enorloomnntno or eonepOonon of onchkboundodnes LIBREV1-LE 620 4 1 i 20 < 3, C 3 00 s , \;4 > NIOtKNAGAEON' E WANDA sqU ' , ON~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~EY ONGO lAl3 V BRAZZAVIL,E ZAIRE Knd ~ INSH#A - ATLANTIC W Boo sto/ of moer en i n for fh -N O XdT v / i i ooero- n o TeWol Bo nod - th \hoondori8e 0W J A, -showo 2E y jd nt ontee0NAMIB0A 0 0 8 300 00 03 0 0C AN BOTSWANAt_ r - b _ _ _ _ _ _ nooforoemnent or O cL of - 7.or oooien. - -oSADCC REGIONAL : 2 - i ; 0 0 X 30 00 20 30' t RSWAN TRANSPORT ROUTES 52'f\\Xlfms I _:Onw4DMowr ; 0 \ t SOUTH 6n aH24wrE Thh~ -fap h-; be..f p rd : >\X AFPJCA r ; wCNmE of ffsd-r .nd is fo the: sE9xtA3UD5E 2 : M -fea -s of Th.eWorld f8afk : {/ .~ r Tn Fh de-rinti-s us3d zz>Z t rff AL2<2S parT of TheWoffdllb. Gro L l Cop TownB~ L ) od.A : _Lch b-unbri3- w we W-Le3 0 loo 303 3 r ooo E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 3 36>E,r 12" : ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~16 0S2- : 2 3 2 6e_A Recent World Bank Discussion Papers (continued) No. 153 Funding Mechanismsfor Higher Education: Financingfor Stability, Efficiency, and Responsiveness. Douglas Albrecht and Adrian Ziderman No. 154 Earnings, Occupational Choice, and Mobility in Segmented Labor Markets of India. Shahidur R. Khandker No. 155 Managing External Debt in Developing Countries: Proceedings of aJoint Seminar,Jeddah, May 1990. Thojmas M. Klein, editor No. 156 Developing Agricultural Extensionfor Women Farmers. Katrine A. Saito and Daphne Spurling No. 157 Awakening the Market: Viet Nam's Economic Transition. D. M. Leipziger No. 158 Wage Policy during the Transition to a Market Economy: Poland 1990-91. Fabrizio Coricelli and Ana Revenga, editors No. 159 International Trade and the Environment. Patrick Low, editor No. 160 International Migration and Intemational Trade. Sharon Stanton Russell and Michael S. Teitelbaum No. 161 Civil Service Reform and the World Bank. Barbara Nunberg andJohn Nellis No. 162 Rural Enterprise Development in China, 1986-90. Anthony J. Ody No. 163 The Balance between Public and Private Sector Activities in the Delivery of Livestock Services. Dina L. Umali, Gershon Feder, and Comelis de Haan No. 165 Fisheries Development, Fisheries Management, and Extemalities. Richard S. Johnston No. 166 The Building Blocks of Participation: Testing Bottom-up Planning. Michael M. Cemea No. 167 Seed System Development: The Appropriate Roles of the Private and Public Secors. Steven Jaffee and Jitendra Srivastava No. 168 Environmental Management and Urban Vulnerability. Alcira Kreimer and Mohan Munasinghe, editors No. 169 Common Property Resources: A Missing Dimension of Development Strategies. N. S. Jodha No. 170 A Chinese Province as a Reform Experiment: The Case of Hainan. Paul M. Cadario, Kazuko Ogawa, and Yim-Kann Wen No. 171 Issuesfor Infrastructure Management in the 1990s. Arturo Israel No. 172 Japanese National Railways Privatization Study: The Experience ofjapan and Lessonsfor Developing Countries. Koichiro Fukui No. 173 The Livestock Sector in Eastern Europe: Constraints and Opportunities. Comelis de Haan, Tjaart Schillhorn Van Veen, and Karen Brooks No. 174 Assessing Development Finance Institutions: A Public Interest Analysis. Jacob Yaron No. 175 Resource Management and Pastoral Institution Building in the West African Sahel. Nadarajah Shanmugaratnam, Trond Vedeld, Anne Mossige, and Mette Bovin No. 176 Public and Private Sector Roles in Agricultural Research: Theory and Experience. Dina L. Umali No. 177 The Regulatory Impediments to the Private Industrial Sector Development in Asia: A Comparative Study. Deena Khatkhate No. 178 China: Reforming Intergovemmental Fiscal Relations. Ramgopal Agarwala No. 179 Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Pnrvatization Study: Experience ofJapan and Lessonsfor Developing Countries. Yoshiro Takano No. 180 China's Reform Experience to Date. Peter Harrold No. 181 Combatting AIDS and Other Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Africa: A Review of the World Bank's Agendafor Acion, Jean-Louis Lamboray and A. Edward Elmendorf No. 182 Privatization Problems at Industry Level: Road Haulage in Central Europe, Esra Bennathan and Louis S. Thompson No. 183 Participatory Development and the World Bank: Potential Directionsfor Change, Bhuvan Bhatnagar and Aubrey C. Williams, editors The World Bank Special Program for African Agricultural Research (SPAAR) Headquarters Europeam Office Tokyo Office . 1818 H Street, N.W. 66, avenue d'IMna Kokusai Building Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. 75116 Par.s, France 1-1 Marunouchi 3-chome Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100,Japan /N Telephone: (202) 477-1234 Telephone: (1) 40.69.30.00 Facsimile: (202) 477-6391 Facsimile: (1) 40.69.30.66 Telephone: (3) 3214-5001 Telex: wui 64145 WORLDBANK Telex: 64C651 Facsimile: (3) 3214-3657 RCA 248423 WORLDBK Telex: 26838 Cable Address: INTBAFRAD WASHINGTONDC Southern Afirican Centre for Cooperation in Agricultural Research (SACCAR) Private Bag 00108 K 1 Gaborone Botswana Telephone: (267) 373847/8 Facsimile: (267) 375204 Telex: 2752 SACAR BD ISBN 0-8213-2282-6