WATER KNOWLEDGE NOTE

Groundwater Management
in Balochistan, Pakistan
A Case Study of Karez Rehabilitation
Muhammad Ashraf and Faizan ul Hasan1

Balochistan is an arid region with limited and seasonal surface water
resources. It is also home to the ancient Karez water supply system that
has long served as a buffer against droughts. About one-third of the
3,000 such systems that were believed to be in place in 1970
are still functioning. Aside from its cultural and historical
significance, the Karez system has helped transform
the agrarian landscape of the uplands, improving
socioeconomic conditions. However, recurring droughts
since the 1960s resulted in reduced recharge to
groundwater supporting the Karez systems at a time
of growing demands. To maintain their livelihoods,
farmers installed tubewells, aided by energy subsidies
from the provincial government.
The number of tubewells has increased from 5,000
to more than 40,000 during the since the 1970s.
Correspondingly, groundwater has been diminishing
at an accelerated rate, with the level in some basins
declining by more than 5 meters per year. This decline
has seriously impacted the Karez systems, many of which
have dried up. Nonetheless, the Karez system still serves as a
lifeline for the poorer members of the community as a source
of drinking, domestic, and livestock water, along with small-
scale agriculture. To safeguard water supply for the poor people of
Balochistan, there is a need to preserve and enhance the Karez systems.
Practical ways forward include identifying the Karez recharge zones,
enhancing groundwater recharge through integrated watershed management and
aquifer recharge techniques, and banning tubewells within the Karez recharge zones.
© Faizan ul Hasan.

The information in this case study was prepared as part of the South Asia Water Initiative (SAWI) technical assistance
project, “Managing Groundwater for Drought Resilience in South Asia.” SAWI is a multidonor trust fund supported by the
United Kingdom, Australia, and Norway and administered by the World Bank.
Background to by a host of names, including Afalaj (Oman, Arabian
Peninsula), Auyoun (Egypt), Foggara (North Africa),
Pakistan is an arid country with an average annual rainfall of Galleria (Spain), Kanerjing (China), Karez (Pakistan,
just 297 millimeters. Balochistan, which covers 44 percent Afghanistan, and India), Khotara (Morocco), Mambo
of the country’s land mass and has a 770-kilometer-long (Japan), and Qanat (Iran) (Martin 1982; Okazaki 1980;
coastline, is unique in its geopolitical significance. However, Oostenbaan 1983). The Karez system is a long-standing
it is also the smallest province in terms of population at and environmentally sustainable socioengineering solution
12.34 million, according to the 2017 census. Its arid but that portrays the creativity of people living in water-stressed
diverse climatic zones have contributed to a rich animal and dry areas of the world (Govindankutty 2016).
and plant biodiversity while building a definitive cultural
heritage that allowed survival in this rugged and harsh The physical components of a typical Karez system commence
landscape. The province lies in the arid climatic region with a well, known as the mother well, constructed to tap
where rainfall is low and its spatial and temporal variability groundwater upgradient from a community, often in an
is high. Moreover, annual evaporation is about 10 times alluvial fan near the base of hills or mountains. This mother
higher than rainfall. Lift irrigation, springs, and the Karez well serves as an outlet point for the upstream groundwater
are the main sources of water for agriculture and domestic that then discharges into a gently sloping subsurface,
uses (Ashraf and Majeed 2006). subhorizontal channel and flows under gravity to the village,
where it is routed through above-ground channels for
The Karez system is arguably the most interesting and oldest various uses. The horizontal shaft is constructed in sections
among gravity-fed irrigation systems, built centuries ago by that include vertical shafts (manholes) at either end, spaced
the local people. It has been reported that some of the Karez about 15 to 30 meters apart. At the time of construction,
were built in Balochistan before the arrival of the Mughals these vertical shafts are used for removing debris and later
in 1525 A.D. (Kahlown, Khalil, and Munir 1988). Ideally, serve as air vents or wells. The main purpose of the air
it provides safe and cost-free water for both irrigation and vents is to undertake operation, maintenance, and removal
domestic purposes around the clock and throughout the of accumulated debris from the underground horizontal
year (Ashraf, Majeed, and Saeed 2016). The evaporation shaft. They also provide ventilation, prevent accumulation
losses are minimal, and its underground coverage protects of gases in the underground water galleries, and allow the
against sediment deposition from windstorms. Karez fetching of water through bucket and pulley systems. The
systems are owned and managed by the community, and point where water comes out from the subsurface channel
every community member benefits from them, directly or is known as a daylight point. From there, farmers construct
indirectly. The Karez irrigation system is found in many surface channels, storage tanks, and diversion channels for
countries, including those in Asia, Africa, and the Middle agricultural, livestock, and domestic uses. A typical cross-
East, as well as the United States. These Karez are referred section of the Karez is shown in figure 1.

FIGURE 1. Schematic Diagram of a Typical Karez

Mother well Recharge area
Air vents (wells)

Alluvial land
Daylight point
Farm land

Alluvial aquifer
Groundwater level Rock

Impermeable layer Drawn by: Rana Asif

Source: Kahlown, Khalil, and Munir 1988.

WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 2
The Karez system was designed in a way that its command pumps even within the irrigation command areas served by
area (the cultivated area supported by the system) was Karez. Khan and Nawaz (1995) and Rahman (1981) found
developed according to the flow rate of the Karez. that this might ultimately destroy the fragile ecosystem of
This arrangement allowed for the sustainable use and Balochistan, including the age-old Karez irrigation systems.
management of groundwater and provided resilience to
the local population against recurring droughts (Khan The successful operation of a Karez system depends not
and Nawaz 1995). As recently as a few decades ago, the only on its technical and structural arrangements but also
agricultural economy in the uplands of Balochistan was on numerous social factors, including (a) opinions and
mostly dependent on the supply of Karez water. aspirations of the shareholders, (b) the nature of social
participation (cooperation and conflicts), (c) tribal values
Sociotechnical Context toward water management, (d) community leadership,
and (e) the role of government functionaries. Clear
The Karez system is an example of one of the engineering understanding of these factors can help in setting up a
and technology monuments of the classic world (Oleson feasible program for efficient operation of Karez.
2008), but unfortunately, few studies have been conducted
on it. This system can serve as a cost-effective water supply Drought in Balochistan and Its Impact on
for agricultural and domestic uses to the people living in Groundwater
the area, without using any energy. As water flows under
gravity, water supply in Karez is continuous unless the There is growing concern about the increasing frequency
horizontal tunnel is damaged or the mother well dries up and severity of drought in Pakistan, particularly because
from local groundwater level decline. a significant increase in the frequency of heat waves, an
indicator of forthcoming drought, has been reported.
Drought has been observed to occur in approximately four
Sociocultural Context
out of every 10 years (Ahmad et al. 2016). Balochistan
The establishment of Karez systems allowed nomadic tribes is among the most drought-prone regions of the country
of Balochistan to settle and grow fodder crops for their where severe droughts have been recorded in 1967–69,
livestock. Therefore, a decline in the performance of the 1971, 1973–75, 1994, 1998–2002, and 2009–15 (Ahmad
Karez strongly impacts the socioeconomic situation of its et al. 2016). There are four types of drought, and all exist
dependent community (Farooqi and Rehman 1998). The in Balochistan, leading to unsustainable exploitation of the
introduction of new technologies such as tubewells has groundwater.
brought about great change in the region, but the small
landholders and poor communities still depend on Karez Meteorological Drought
water. The kinship culture among tribes is also transferred
to Karez water rights. Karez are not only a perennial source This form of drought exists when precipitation is deficient
of water supply but also a system around which community in amount, intensity, and timing. This deficiency reduces
attitudes and their social relations revolve (Farooqi and water infiltration and effective runoff to make surface water
Rehman 1998). available and limits deep percolation, negatively affecting
groundwater recharge. Upland Balochistan is the most
The Karez-irrigated farming is threatened by a number affected area of the province for this kind of drought.
of factors: (a) lowering of water tables and mining of Rainfall has been decreasing since the 1980s, which has
groundwater resulting from indiscriminate development of contribute to the drying up of surface water resources and
deep tubewells, (b) reduction in flow because of siltation decreased flows from springs and tubewells. Figure 2 shows
of channels as a result of deferred maintenance, (c) soil a declining trend in precipitation in Quetta, the provincial
erosion affecting the mother well and the vertical shafts, capital. This situation has increased reliance on groundwater
(d) lack of skilled manpower, and (e) lack of support from and further exaggerated its exploitation.
the government regarding repair and maintenance of the
systems (Ahmad 2007; Anwaar, Chaudhry, and Ambreen Hydrological Drought
2007; GWP 2015; Jamali and Hufty 2011; Mustafa 2014;
Mustafa and Qazi 2007). As a result, most of the Karez Hydrological drought occurs from lower water availability in
are facing operational challenges, which are exacerbated by surface water bodies and is generally attributed to metrological
the emergence of tubewells and modern electric-powered droughts (Farzaneh, Eslamian, and Mirnezami 2014).
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 3
FIGURE 2. Rainfall from 1971 to 2016 in Quetta Valley
1,000

900

800
Rainfall (millimeters)

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0
71

15
0

0
0

20
19

20
19
19

19
19

20
20

20
Year

Source: Pakistan Meteorological Department, unpublished reports; UNDP 2014.

It is caused by a disturbance in the frequency of rainfall or Socioeconomic Drought
snowfall, which leads to a shortage in surface water, lakes,
and groundwater reservoirs. Many areas of the province have Socioeconomic drought is different from other types of
been experiencing a drought-like situation (UNDP 2014). droughts in that it determines the impacts of the other
In Balochistan, stream flow data are not as readily available droughts by widening gaps in supply and demand. The
to assess the hydrological droughts. Therefore, hydrological impacts are enormous because they affect people in terms of
drought is estimated by groundwater abstraction and loss of livelihood sources: agriculture, livestock, and related
recharge, which shows a negative balance of 0.459 billion enterprises (UNDP 2014). The drought of 1998–2002
cubic meters per annum (van Steenbergen et al. 2015; was the major cause of reducing the economic growth
table 1). from 12 percent in 1981–82 to only 2.6 percent during
1998–2002. The drought caused a loss of US$250 million
Agricultural Drought to the national revenue during 2000–02 (PDMA 2012).
During drought periods, groundwater supplies, particularly
Reduced precipitation in arid climates results in the loss from Karez, played a crucial role in providing drinking
of soil moisture, leading to agricultural drought (Hong water for human and livestock populations as well as for
et al. 2014). This drought is linked to various aspects of limited levels of agriculture.
meteorological and hydrological droughts through the
difference between actual and potential evapotranspiration, Groundwater Situation Analysis
soil moisture loss, and increases in water demand—
eventually causing further exploitation of groundwater Groundwater in Balochistan is present in both confined and
resources (UNDP 2014). The drought of 1998–2002 unconfined aquifers in all river basins and sub-basins and
was one of the worst in recent history and greatly affected generally flows from catchment boundaries to the axis of the
agriculture and livestock sectors. About 80 percent of apple valleys. Thus, it largely follows the general trend of surface
and other fruit orchards were damaged. The rangeland drainage and is found in the alluvial fans and piedmont
vegetation providing food to large numbers of livestock plains. The Water and Power Development Authority
withered, resulting in the death of thousands of domestic (WAPDA) evaluated these resources from 1976 to 1980 for
animals (Ahmad 2008). a number of basins. In 2007, Halcrow Pakistan (Pvt.) Ltd.
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 4
TABLE 1. Groundwater Balance in the River Basins of Balochistan

Average People Livestock Agriculture Total Balance
River Basin recharge (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM) (BCM)
Dasht 0.100 0.013 0.012 0.069 0.094 0.006
Gaj 0.070 0.001 0.001 0.070 0.072 –0.002
Gwadar-Ormara 0.040 0.004 0.003 0.017 0.025 0.015
Hamun-e-Lora 0.040 0.001 0.001 0.139 0.141 –0.101
Hamun-e-Mashkel 0.300 0.008 0.007 0.012 0.027 0.273
Hingol 0.200 0.005 0.007 0.156 0.168 0.032
Hub 0.080 0.001 0.001 0.086 0.088 –0.008
Kachhi Plain 0.180 0.017 0.012 0.140 0.169 0.011
Kadanal 0.030 0.000 0.005 0.110 0.115 –0.085
Kaha 0.190 0.000 0.004 0.315 0.319 –0.129
Kand 0.010 0.000 0.000 0.018 0.019 –0.009
Kunder 0.050 0.000 0.000 0.048 0.048 0.002
Mula 0.120 0.002 0.001 0.126 0.129 –0.009
Nari 0.270 0.006 0.004 0.171 0.180 0.090
Pishin Lora 0.170 0.024 0.029 0.513 0.566 –0.396
Porali 0.140 0.002 0.003 0.142 0.146 –0.006
Rakshan 0.050 0.003 0.003 0.075 0.081 –0.031
Zhob 0.160 0.002 0.001 0.267 0.270 –0.110
Balochistan 2.210 0.091 0.054 2.474 2.659 –0.459
Sources: Balochistan Irrigation Department and Re-assessment of Water Resources of Balochistan; Halcrow Pakistan reported in van
Steenbergen et al. 2015.
Note: BCM = billion cubic meters.

(reported in van Steenbergen et al. 2015) reassessed the tremendous increase in the drilling of tubewells. The
groundwater resources of 14 of 18 basins. The total annual number of tubewells has increased from 5,000 in 1985 to
potential was estimated to be 1,071 million cubic meters more than 40,000 by 2014 (figure 3) and has had a drastic
per year, out of which 604 million cubic meters had already impact on the functioning of Karez.
been utilized. Table 2 provides details of the groundwater
development potential in various river basins. The Pishin- A high subsidy on the operational costs is the main cause
Lora Basin, consisting of districts Mastung, Pishin, Quetta, behind expansion of privately owned tubewells in the
and part of Kalat, forms the main deficit area, where the province. As a result, extensive groundwater abstraction,
abstraction of groundwater exceeds the recharge (table 2). followed by inefficient use of the pumped water, has led
to declining water tables by as much as 5 meters per year
The Mangochar, Pishin, and Quetta sub-basins are the in some areas. Because prevailing drought conditions are
areas where groundwater abstraction rates are alarmingly pushing farmers to pump more water for their survival,
high. The Nari basin, in the districts of Loralai and Ziarat, the groundwater balance in most of the basins is showing a
is also in deficit, with no further groundwater potential negative budget (table 1), which is a serious issue in the era of
left for exploitation. The Qila Saifullah sub-basin is an area growing water demand in almost all sectors. Indiscriminate
with enough groundwater; however, recent commissioning installation of tubewells has been a major reason for the
of many tubewells has led water tables to decline in drying up and abandonment of Karez. The percentage of
this basin. Because of favorable climatic conditions, the total area irrigated by Karez decreased from 43 percent
improved communication networks, and the introduction in 1971 to 11 percent in 2005 to 3.7 percent in 2015
of electricity with subsidized flat rates, there has been a (figure 4; Government of Pakistan 2016). Figure 4 shows
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 5
that the major focus of the government has been on A situation of prolonged droughts followed by
developing canal infrastructure with little or no focus on overexploitation of groundwater has impacted
Karez. Still, these Karez are major sources of domestic and conventional irrigation resources drastically. Ahmad
drinking water. (2007) reported that of 1,328 Karez in Balochistan, 270
were nonfunctional and many others were only partially
functional in 2015 (table 3).
TABLE 2. Annual Groundwater Development
Potential in River Basins Political Economy of Groundwater
A major reason behind the sharp increase in tubewells is
Available Remaining that the government provided flat-rate tariffs on electricity
No. River basin potential (MCM) potential (MCM)
for tubewell operation from July 2001. During 2015–16,
1 Hamun-e-Lora 34 17 the subsidy provided by federal and provincial governments
2 Kachhi 38 26 on electricity was on the order of PKR28 billion (UNDP,
3 Nari 26 0 2016) or US$280 million.2 According to the Agricultural
4 Pishin Lora 130 0
Statistics of Pakistan in 2014–15, there were 30,387 private
electric tubewells in Balochistan. Therefore, the subsidy per
5 Porali 149 75
tubewell comes to about PKR0.92 million (US$ 9,200)
6 Hub 119 60
per year. Most of the large farmers own more than one
7 Windar Nai 11 6 tubewell. Only a small fraction (less than 0.3 percent) of
8 Zhob 112 9 the population receives direct benefits from this subsidy
9 Dasht 46 37 (Ashraf and Sheikh 2017). A tariff was proposed for the
10 Rakhshan 24 20 electric-driven tubewells in the draft Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) Policy 2006 by removing
Hamun-
11 e-Mashkel 61 56 the flat rate of electricity. However, the Provincial Cabinet
12 Hingol 265 132
approved the IWRM policy for all the policy thrust areas
except “electric tariff for the tubewells,” highlighting
13 Gaj 34 16
that political decisions strongly affect the groundwater
14 Mula 23 14 economy. Moreover, the advent of renewable energy has
Total 1,071 467 promoted solar-powered tubewells all over the country.
Note: MCM = million cubic meters. The government of Balochistan is also promoting these

FIGURE 3. Increasing Numbers of Tubewells in Balochistan
45
Number of tubewells (thousands)

5
0
19 –97

0 5
19 85
19 –86

19 87

88 8
19 89

19 90

19 91
19 92

19 93

94 4
19 95
19 –96

19 –98
99 99

0 0

0 1
0 2

0 3

0 4

0 6

0 7
0 8
20 –09

20 10

20 11
20 –12

20 13

20 14

5
20 –0

20 –0
20 –0

–1
19 –8

20 –0
20 –0
19 –9

20 –0
20 00

–

–
–

–
9–
–
4–

10
–

–

–
–

19 8–
–

14
12
90

13
0
86

96
91
87

92
85

97
95

6
1
93

4
2

7
89

8
3
–2

0
8

9
19

Years
Public Private Total

Source: Government of Pakistan 2016.

WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 6
FIGURE 4. Comparative Development of systems through subsidized schemes, and this may speed
Irrigation Sources up unsustainable withdrawal of groundwater resulting
from the high daylight potential of the province. This is
700
pro-poor technology and the government of Balochistan
600 has not invested in preserving traditional and indigenous
Area (thousand hectares)

heritage of the province such as the Karez irrigation system.
500
In the 2006 IWRM policy of Balochistan, management
400 of the Karez system has been neglected. In the National
300
Water Policy 2018, the Karez have not been specifically
mentioned, although considerable attention is devoted to
200 groundwater management.
100
Water Rights
0
1971–72 2005–06 2014–15 The Baloch, Pashtuns, and Brahvis are the three major
Years linguistic groups in the province, and there are various tribes
Canals Wells Tubewells Karez within these groups. Water rights vary from one group to the
Source: Agricultural Census of Pakistan 2015–16. other and are governed mostly by the customary tribal laws,

TABLE 3. Number of Karez in Balochistan

No District Total number Functional Nonfunctional
1 Ziarat 32 30 2
2 Sherani 88 78 10
3 Khuzdar 19 15 4
4 Awaran 45 40 5
5 Chagai 13 12 1
6 Washuk 10 8 2
7 Kharan 10 9 1
8 Kech 235 171 64
9 Qila Saifullah 226 165 61
10 Loralai 59 50 9
11 Zhob 65 59 6
12 Qila Abdullah 183 173 10
13 Panjgur 85 85 0
14 Pishin 68 40 28
15 Jhal Magsi 20 15 0
16 Musakhail 40 33 7
17 Kohlu 12 7 5
18 Kalat 57 31 26
19 Mastung 36 16 20
20 Sibi 13 9 4
21 Quetta 12 7 5
Total 1,328 1,053 270
Source: Adapted from Ahmad 2007.

WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 7
though sometimes they are modified according to water and implementation of various water development projects.
availability. Under such circumstances, local communities The Public Health Engineering Department is responsible
act as managers and make their own decisions. Traditionally, for the supply of water for domestic purpose. Quetta’s
there is no restriction among any of the ethnic groups on Water and Sanitation Agency (WASA) is responsible for
the use of water from any source, including tubewells for supplying water for domestic use in Quetta City, which
domestic or livestock purposes. People can fetch water for mainly comes from groundwater (deep tubewells). As per
their domestic uses but are not allowed to convey water by the WASA Groundwater Management Act of 1989, the
channels or pipes to individual households (Majeed and functions related to groundwater management are:
Qureshi 2000).
• Approve all new, extension, or rehabilitation works on
Pashtuns recognize the rights of water users along a stream the water supply, sewerage, and sanitation system in
or river for all uses. There are no such rights established the area; and
among Balochs and Brahvis in the central and coastal parts • Monitor and control water resources in the area,
of the province. For Karez development, the Pashtuns both surface and underground, and issue licenses for
recognize that whoever owns the mother well also owns the abstraction of water from such resources in the area in
water rights, and the conveyance tunnel transporting water accordance with regulations made by the authority.
must pass through the owners land. In rare cases, however,
if the tunnel must pass through another’s land, the owner of This act provides a legal authority to WASA for the
the mother well must pay compensation to the landowners. development of new groundwater sources and to issue
The Balochs and Brahvis allow construction of a Karez on licenses for abstraction of groundwater. However, it has
land owned by several people, all of whom share the Karez never been implemented in its true letter or even in spirit
water. In the Mekran coastal areas dominated by Balochs, for political and cultural reasons.
a Karez can pass through any land without compensation
as a common property. The share of water is in accordance Rehabilitation and Sustainable
with the investment made in the construction of the Karez, Management of Karez in Balochistan:
irrespective of water demand (Majeed and Qureshi 2000). A Case Study

Legal and Institutional Framework Pakistan pleaded the case to include Balochistan Karez in
the sites suitable for inscription on the World Heritage list
Balochistan is the only province of the country that has some of The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
sort of legal protection in terms of groundwater management. Organization (UNESCO) in December 2015. Such a
The government of Balochistan issued a notification in “the declaration could put peer pressure on the government and
Balochistan groundwater rights administration ordinance, other stakeholders to preserve these systems. To develop a
1978” (GOB 1978). This ordinance was framed because model site for this process, two partially notable Karez (Nau
there was no law in the province regulating the use of water Sanjidi and Sanjidi) were selected. The Karez are close to
from tubewells or open wells located within the vicinity each other and located at village Abdulzai in Quetta (map 1
of Karez. In some areas, there was a tradition that no and figure 5), which is situated 30 kilometers southwest of
well should be allowed to be dug within the distance of the city of Quetta. The landscape of the valley is mostly
250 meters of the first well of Karez in case of soft land rocky, and the hills surrounded by the valley are dry and
(alluvium) and 500 meters in case of hard land (hard rock). composed of coarse sand and gravels.
The ordinance was therefore to provide a uniform policy for
the entire province for regulating the use of groundwater, Baseline Survey
specifying that areas having groundwater resources are to be
identified and declared as designated “groundwater basins” Following site selection, a complete area profile and data
for which a law should be framed. Implementation of this about the Karez were collected through a baseline survey.
ordinance is still uncertain because there is a lack of political A questionnaire was developed to assess the socioeconomic,
commitment and the Karez do not serve the interests of the agricultural, and irrigation conditions of the beneficiary
more endowed and powerful members of the community. community. Informal, in-depth interviews with the
community elders and community members were also
The Irrigation and Power Department of Balochistan is conducted. Because the target population was small, there
mainly responsible for the planning, investigation, design, was scope to include all of them in the interview process.
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 8
MAP 1. Project Area

Saran Tangai
Approximate
Kuchlagh
KHYBER Line of Control
Que tta Te hs il AFGHANISTAN PAKHTUNKHWA
Shaikh Manda Urak Peshawar Jammu
and Kashmir
Samungli
Cantonment ISLAMABAD
Kirani
ISLAMABAD
Project CAPITAL
TERRITORY
Area Sariab

Lahore

PU NJA B
Quetta

I.R. OF CHI
BALO CH I ST A N
IRAN
INDIA

PROVINCE CAPITALS
SI NDH NATIONAL CAPITAL
PROVINCE BOUNDARIES

Karachi INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES

Arabian Sea
IBRD 44502 | JUNE 2019

Socioeconomic Condition of the Area the household, number of people employed, total members
of the household, secondary sources, and so forth.
The village is composed of 16 households with a population
of 1,000 people. By definition, a household is a place where Agriculture and Irrigation System
people live in one boundary, cook together, and eat together.
This makes the family size quite big in Balochistan—about 63 All the households are engaged in agriculture and depend
people per household. All the households in the area depend on it as their primary source of income. Annual cropping
on agriculture, and most of the male members are engaged revolves around four major crops: wheat, onion, maize, and
in farming. Some household members also have other barley. In addition to conventional cropping, large orchards
occupations such as government jobs, private business, and of grapes and apples also exist that are well-known for being
labor work. Monthly household income varies depending on of high quality. There are two main sources of irrigation:
multiple factors such as area of land owned and cultivated by Karez and tubewell.
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 9
FIGURE 5. Schematic Diagram of the Karez at Abdullah Zai Village, Quetta
Farmland
Abdulzai village N

Water channel

Existing tubewells Water channel
Unlined/lined channel Hills
Surface tank
Existing tubewells

Sanjidi Karez

Nau Sanjidi Karez

Daylight point

Air vent
Air vent
Daylight point
Drawn by: Rana Asif

Source: Author.

The entire village depends on these two Karez (Nau Sanjidi shabana roz is defined as 43 hectares of land. The maximum
and Sanjidi Karez) and share water from them. A water share is five and the minimum is two, which means that the
user association (WUA) also exists in the village that is farmer will get five days’ water and two days’ water every 15
responsible for distribution, operating, and maintaining the days, respectively. However, there is no onus on the farmer
Karez system. The WUA is composed of all the shareholders, to take his share of five days or two days consecutively. If a
and the members are heads of all the households. However, farmer does not need water for the consecutive five days or
the two Karez have some distinctive physical, social, and two days, he would hand over the water control to the next
political characteristics. farmer and irrigate his land at that farmer’s turn instead.
Thus, the farmers borrow their share of water from one
The Nau Sanjidi Karez starts in the foothills of Chiltan another when it is needed and return it at their turn.
Mountain and flows to the west. It was constructed about
200 years ago. It has 50 air vents (wells) and the total A pond has been constructed at the end of the Karez, in
length is 4.1 kilometers. The distance between the last which the water is stored and used for irrigation. There are
well to the daylight point is 15.5 meters and the distance 98 hectares of land in the command area. However, this
between the daylight point and the mother well is about land is irrigated using both Karez and tubewell water, and
1 kilometer. The rest of the Karez flows in a lined open it was difficult to estimate the exact area that was being
channel, although part of the channel is still not lined. The irrigated through the Karez. There are seven tubewells
discharge was measured at the daylight and distribution installed by the community downstream of the Karez, the
points. During the physical survey, the discharge at daylight main reason for which is to tap the seepage water from the
point was recorded at 4.48 liters per second whereas at the flowing Karez. These tubewells are thus used conjunctively
distribution point, it was 2.07 liters per second. The water with the Karez to maximize the irrigation water availability.
loss between the daylight and distribution points was about Every member owns at least one tubewell, and these are
54 percent and was mainly caused by damaged channel and mostly operated when the turn for Karez water goes to the
evaporation. The water rights of this Karez are distributed tubewell owner. The tubewell water is mixed with Karez
among five households. Among these households, water water and stored in the pond. However, sometimes farmers
has been distributed into 15 shares. A basic unit for one also operate these tubewells when they need water. On-site
WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 10
measurements reveal that average depth to groundwater the mother well. The 15 shabana roz are distributed to each
level of these tubewells is 107 meters. All the tubewells were shareholder based on the area owned. The total area under
installed by using pipes with 7.6-centimeter diameters. irrigation is 306 hectares. However, the farmers use both
Submersible pumps have been used in all the tubewells. tubewell and Karez as sources of irrigation. The water from
Generally, the discharge of these tubewells is one-quarter of both the sources is stored in ponds and subsequently used
a cusec (about 7 liters per second). These tubewells are being for irrigation. All the farmers grow a minimum of three
operated on the flat rate of electricity—that is, PKR10,000 crops per year. There are 18 tubewells installed downstream
and PKR6,000 (US$100 and US$60) per tubewell per of the Karez that are owned by 15 members, and one
month in cities and rural areas, respectively. tubewell, which is currently nonfunctional, was installed by
Public Health Engineering.
Sanjidi Karez starts from the foothills of the Chiltan
Mountain and flows in the northeast of the village Abdulzai. Rehabilitation and Maintenance Work
It is believed that the Karez was constructed more than 350
years ago. The total length of the Karez is 3.8 kilometers Based on the results of the baseline survey, engineering
and the total number of air vents (wells) that contribute to structures (leaky dams, check structures, and ditches) and
the Karez is 31. The daylight point is at 8.9 meters from biological treatments (planting of shrubs) were designed
the last well and 840 meters from the mother well. The and implemented for rehabilitation and improvement on
average distance between Karez wells is about 15 meters. the selected Karez (Ashraf and Sheikh 2017). The basic
Maximum depth of wells was measured at 21 meters, and purpose of these interventions was to reduce the velocity
the minimum depth of Karez was measured at 2 meters. of rainwater runoff and thereby maximize the opportunity
The distance between the daylight point and the storage for recharge to the aquifer. Low-cost gabion structures have
pond is 3.0 kilometers. The water flows through an open been constructed using a cascade approach so that rainwater
channel, which is lined in part with stone pitching. The coming from the catchment area is harvested and no runoff
discharge was 5.4 liters per second at the daylight point water should leave the hydrological system (photos 1
and 3.7 liters per second at the distribution point. There are and 2). Rehabilitation works were carried out to minimize
several reasons for reduced discharge between the daylight water losses and to increase the conveyance efficiency of the
point and the distribution point, including sloughing in the channels.
tunnel, seepage, landsliding, and evaporation. The water
rights for this Karez system are divided into 15 equal shares The interventions started in October 2016, and by
among 16 households. These households own different 2019, only 135 millimeters of rainfall was received with
sized areas of land around the Karez but downgradient from 11 complete dry months. Despite this measurement, a

PHOTO 1. Leaky Dam Constructed Upstream of PHOTO 2. Check Dam and Ditches Constructed
the Karez (May 18, 2018) in Series (May 18, 2018)

Source: Faizan ul Hasan. Source: Faizan ul Hasan.

WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 11
TABLE 4. Discharge Improvement in collected would be 252 cubic meters per day. Therefore, a
Nau Sanjidi Karez single tubewell provides a little more than half of the total
volume of water provided by a Karez—but with large capital
Before After and operational costs. However, a Karez provides double
interventions interventions this amount of water almost free of cost. Karez should be
Location (September 2016) (October 2017) protected because they are masterpieces of engineering, part
Daylight point of the local cultural and social integrity, a buffer against
(lps) 4.48 4.8 drought, and the best hope for poor communities that
Distribution cannot afford to continue to install tubewells.
point (lps) 2.7 3.1
Note: lps = liters per second. Conclusions and Recommendations
Karez irrigation systems have been in place in Balochistan
noticeable increase has been observed in discharge at the for many centuries, with about 3,000 believed to have
daylight point of the Nau Sanjidi Karez (4.8 liters per second, been established throughout the province. These Karez
a 10 percent increase) and at the distribution point (3.1 liters systems provided enough irrigation and domestic water in
per second, a 38 percent increase) (table 4). One storage the preindustrial era. However, rapid growth in population
pond with capacity of 453 square meters is available at the and improvements in socioeconomic conditions, along
distribution point. As reported by the community, it is now with the availability of new technologies, have led farmers
filled within 24 hours. Previously, it was filled in two to to find alternate means to access groundwater, such as
three days. tubewells. The farmers started to grow crops on bigger
areas of land than ever before. They also started growing
Total investment to rehabilitate (including introduction high-water-use crops such as potatoes, onions, and apples,
of recharge techniques and repair of the main Karez and replacing wheat, barley, and maize, which require less
channels) was about PKR25 million (US$25,000). The water.
community also provided in-kind assistance to maintain
the Karez and clean the storage water tank. With this Although the Karez is a “poor man’s technology,” it reliably
small investment, free water is made available year-round provides water for the community and its livestock free of cost
to fulfill drinking water requirements of the community around the clock and throughout the year. These systems act
and its livestock, in addition to irrigating agricultural as a buffer and are resilient against droughts. Therefore, from
crops. However, some money must be spent for routine the point of view of safeguarding the poorest households
maintenance of the system, which may vary from PKR10,000 in rural Balochistan, they must be protected. One of the
to PKR30,000 per year (US$100 to US$300 per year). challenges is to develop a proper regulatory framework to
control the placement of tubewells and enforce these rules
In contrast, there are seven tubewells for which the effectively, given that subsidies provided by the government
community must pay US$5,040 per year in electricity to operate tubewells have led to their proliferation and the
charges, in addition to repair and maintenance. The cost of corresponding neglect of Karez systems. The quantity and
drilling a tubewell for a depth of 150 meters and discharge quality of water from these Karez can be improved by proper
of 7 liters per second is more than PKR1.0 million maintenance and watershed management activities in the
(US$10,000). Moreover, the government is bearing about catchment areas of the mother wells. These improvements
PKR0.987 million (US$9,870) per year per tubewell (Ashraf can make the indigenous Karez system competitive with
and Sheikh 2017). The life of these tubewells is five to seven more energy and capital-intensive alternatives.
years, after which the farmers must sometimes redrill the
tubewells to replace the pump/turbine or, in most cases, to NOTES
deepen the tubewells. For effectiveness, Nau Sanjidi Karez
is compared with an electric-driven tubewell. The total 1. Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources,
volume of water from the Karez is 415 cubic meters per day Islamabad, Pakistan.
(that is, a discharge of 4.8 liters per second), whereas for 2. US$1 @ PKR100 (Pakistani rupee) in 2017 (The State
the tubewell that is being operated 10 hours a day (with a Bank of Pakistan, http://www.sbp.org.pk/ecodata/rates
discharge of 7 liters per second), the total volume of water /war/2017/Months.asp)

WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 12
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WATER GLOBAL PRACTICE CASE STUDY | GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN 15
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