E2848 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Ministry of Housing and Environment Republic of Maldives Climate Change Trust Fund (CCTF) TF098441-MAL Environment Due Diligence of: Wetland Conservation & Coral Reef Monitoring Project Final Report 31st July 2011 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc i July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report TABLE OF CONTENTS Executive Summary 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 26 2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO COMPONENTS ................................................... 28 2.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation ....................................................................... 28 2.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 28 2.1.2 Objective. ........................................................................................................... 28 2.1.3 Sub-component 1.1. Community-based wetland management.......................... 29 2.1.4 Sub-component 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments. .......................................... 30 2.1.5 Sub-component 1.3 Strengthen Local Government Capacity on Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. ....................................................................................... 31 2.2 Component 2: Coral Reef Monitoring ...................................................................... 32 2.2.1 Objective. ........................................................................................................... 32 2.2.2 Sub-component 2.1 Training and Capacity Building: ....................................... 32 2.2.3 Sub-component 2.2 Monitoring of Coral Reefs. ................................................ 33 2.2.4 Sub-component 2.3 Web-enabled Coral Reef Monitoring Framework. ............ 33 2.2.5 Sub-component 2.4 Dissemination and Policy Inputs. ...................................... 33 3 APPROACH TO THE ESDD................................................................................................ 34 3.1 Overall Approach ...................................................................................................... 34 3.2 Flood Protection and Wetlands Conservation Component ...................................... 34 3.3 Approach to the EDD for the Coral Monitoring Component.................................... 35 3.4 The ESDD Team ....................................................................................................... 35 4 REVIEW OF REGULATORY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ......................... 37 4.1 Republic of Maldives Environmental Regulations ................................................... 37 4.1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 37 4.1.2 The Environment Protection and Preservation Act (4/93) ................................. 37 4.1.3 The Regulation on Environmental Liabilities (Regulation No. 2011/R-9)........ 39 4.1.4 Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2007 ...................................... 39 4.1.5 Cutting, uprooting and moving trees from one island to another, Reg/493 ....... 39 4.1.6 Regulation on Sand and Aggregate Mining ....................................................... 39 4.1.7 Regulation on Coral Mining (1990) ................................................................... 40 4.1.8 Tourism Act: Law no. 2/99. .............................................................................. 40 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc ii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 4.1.9 Other Policies which may be related to the Projects.......................................... 40 4.2 Ministry of Housing and Environment...................................................................... 41 4.2.1 Mandate of the Environmental Protection Agency ............................................ 41 4.3 Republic of Maldives Social Regulations ................................................................. 42 4.3.1 Land ................................................................................................................... 42 4.3.2 Gender ................................................................................................................ 43 4.3.3 Other Social Laws .............................................................................................. 44 4.4 World Bank Safeguard Policies ................................................................................ 46 4.4.1 Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01) ......................................................... 47 4.4.2 Other World Bank Safeguard Policies ............................................................... 47 4.4.3 Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) .......................................................................... 48 4.4.4 Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12). ........................................................... 48 4.4.5 Resettlement Policy Framework ........................................................................ 48 5 HYDROLOGICAL AND WATER LEVEL STUDY FUVAHMULAH ............................. 53 5.1 General hydrological situation and pathways ........................................................... 53 5.2 Topographic Surveys and Contour Maps .................................................................. 53 5.3 Hydrological interactions .......................................................................................... 54 5.3.1 Rainfall ............................................................................................................... 54 5.3.2 The contribution to flooding from rainfall ......................................................... 56 5.3.3 Groundwater ...................................................................................................... 57 5.3.4 Roof Water Conservation .................................................................................. 58 5.3.5 Effects of Tidal Fluctuations on Water Levels .................................................. 59 5.3.6 Sea Level Rise................................................................................................... 60 5.4 Results of hydrological modelling ............................................................................ 60 5.5 Proposed physical interventions to address problems ............................................... 61 5.6 Proposed community based management measures for drainage and wetlands ....... 62 5.7 Removal of alien aquatic weeds ................................................................................ 63 5.8 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of project activities. ............................................................................................................................... 63 6 HYDROLOGICAL AND WATER LEVEL STUDY HITHADHOO.................................. 65 6.1 General hydrological situation and pathways ........................................................... 65 6.2 Topographic Surveys and Contour Maps .................................................................. 66 6.3 Hydrological interactions .......................................................................................... 66 6.3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 66 6.3.2 Rainfall ............................................................................................................... 67 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc iii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 6.3.3 Sea Level Rise.................................................................................................... 68 6.3.4 Groundwater ...................................................................................................... 68 6.3.5 Effect of Tidal Fluctuations ............................................................................... 69 6.3.6 Ma‟a-Fehele-Aari kilhi Wetland System ........................................................... 70 6.3.7 Eidhigali/Koattey kilhis ..................................................................................... 72 6.3.8 Reclaimed Northern Wetlands ........................................................................... 73 6.3.9 East-Central Reclaimed Wetlands & Link Road ............................................... 73 6.4 Results of hydrological modelling ............................................................................ 73 6.5 Proposed physical interventions to address problems ............................................... 74 6.6 Proposed community based management measures for drainage and wetlands ....... 75 6.7 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of project activities. ............................................................................................................................... 75 7 EDD FUVAHMULAH .......................................................................................................... 77 7.1 Review of baseline conditions................................................................................... 77 7.1.1 Description of the Island and Wetland System .................................................. 77 7.1.2 The wetland drainage system ............................................................................. 78 7.1.3 Protected Area Status. ........................................................................................ 79 7.1.4 Vegetation of the Wetlands ................................................................................ 81 7.1.5 Fauna of the Wetlands ....................................................................................... 82 7.2 Infrastructure Projects. .............................................................................................. 83 7.2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 83 7.2.2 Fuvahmulah Airport ........................................................................................... 83 7.2.3 Water Supply and Sewerage Project .................................................................. 84 7.2.4 Road Systems in the Wetlands ........................................................................... 84 7.3 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of Project activities. ............................................................................................................................... 85 7.3.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation ................................................................ 85 7.4 Preliminary recommendation on mitigation requirements ........................................ 89 8 EDD HITHADHOO .............................................................................................................. 90 8.1 Review of baseline conditions................................................................................... 90 8.1.1 Geography .......................................................................................................... 90 8.1.2 The wetland drainage system ............................................................................. 91 8.1.3 Flora of the Wetlands ......................................................................................... 91 8.1.4 Fauna of the Wetlands ....................................................................................... 93 8.2 Infrastructure Projects ............................................................................................... 94 8.2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 94 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc iv July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 8.2.2 Addu Link Road ................................................................................................. 94 8.2.3 Convention Centre ............................................................................................. 94 8.2.4 Paving of Roads on Hithadhoo, Addu City ....................................................... 95 8.2.5 Road Development Adjacent to Maa Kulhi ....................................................... 95 8.2.6 Sewerage Project. ............................................................................................... 95 8.3 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of Component activities. ............................................................................................................................... 96 8.3.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation ................................................................ 96 8.4 Preliminary recommendation on mitigation requirements ...................................... 100 9 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK .................................................101 9.1 Wetlands Conservation Component (Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo) ....................... 101 9.1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 101 9.1.2 Potential Impacts .............................................................................................. 101 9.1.3 EMP Structure.................................................................................................. 102 9.1.4 Screening.......................................................................................................... 103 9.1.5 National Level Screening ................................................................................. 103 9.1.6 Project Level Screening ................................................................................... 103 9.1.7 Negative List .................................................................................................... 106 9.1.8 Environmental / Social Guidelines .................................................................. 106 9.1.9 ToRs for IEE / EIA .......................................................................................... 110 9.1.10 Institutional Arrangements............................................................................... 110 9.1.11 Monitoring & Supervision ............................................................................... 111 9.1.12 Training ............................................................................................................ 113 10 ESDD FOR CORAL REEF MONITORING COMPONENT ........................................... 113 10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 113 10.2 Identification of Potential Adverse Environmental Impacts ................................... 114 10.3 Review of Published Mitigation Measures ............................................................. 115 10.3.1 ReefCheck: Best Diving Practices ................................................................... 115 10.3.2 Earthdive Code of Responsible Diving............................................................ 116 10.3.3 ESDD Mitigation Guidelines ........................................................................... 118 10.4 Maldives Recreational Diving Regulations............................................................. 119 10.4.1 Diver Qualifications ......................................................................................... 120 10.4.2 Diving Guidelines ............................................................................................ 125 10.5 Recommendation for the training of diving monitors ............................................. 128 10.6 Recommendations for the supervision of coral monitoring .................................... 128 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc v July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report FUVAHMULAH MEETINGS ................................................................................................132 15TH-21ST JUNE 2011 ................................................................................................................132 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................132 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................132 1. NEED "WAKE-UP" CALL RE IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS. .................................132 2. WARD COUNCILS ARE MEETING WITH EPA ON 16 JUNE TO DISCUSS BOUNDARIES OF WETLANDS. ............................................................................................132 3. SOLID WASTE IS A MAJOR ISSUE. ...............................................................................132 4. VEGETABLE PRODUCE FROM FUVAHMULAH: ONLY MANGO, TARO ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT; NEITHER IS LABOUR INTENSIVE. ...........................132 5. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IS NOT TRANSLATED INTO ACTION. .............132 6. FLOODING: THE ROADS ARE NOW HIGH AFTER THE ADDITION OF CORAL- BASED AGGREGATE. SEDIMENT FROM ROAD DRAINAGE ENTERS AND AFFECTS TARO FIELDS, SO RESIDENTS HAVE BLOCKED SOME ROAD DRAINS....................132 7. HERITAGE INFO: SEE BELL'S MONOGRAPH. ...........................................................132 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................133 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................133 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................136 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................138 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................138 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................140 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................140 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc vi July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................141 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................141 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................142 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................142 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................144 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................144 1. MRS MAJEED IS AN EX-HEADMISTRESS WITH INTERNATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS, AND AN AMBITION TO MOVE FROM TEACHING TO PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT IN THE JUSTICE SYSTEM. ..............................................144 2. THERE ARE 4 PRIMARY SCHOOLS ON THE ISLAND, GRADES 1-6 .....................144 3. 1 (ADDITIONAL) DOES GRADES 1-7............................................................................144 4. THERE IS 1 HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL, GRADES 8-12. ..................................144 5. GIRLS DO BETTER THAN BOYS IN PRIMARY SCHOOL; THIS IS REVERSED IN SECONDARY SCHOOL, DUE TO CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS AND PRESSURES. ...144 6. ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES ARE "PART OF THE CURRICULUM" BUT, LIKE EVERYTHING ELSE, COULD BE IMPROVED WITH MORE RESOURCES (E.G. "COMPUTERS"). .......................................................................................................................144 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................145 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................145 1. HEALTH DATA DISAGGREGATED TO WARD LEVEL ARE NOT AVAILABLE - SHE WILL TRY TO GET THESE FROM THE HOSPITAL. ..........................................................145 2. A RECENT SURVEY FOUND "TOXOPLASMA" TO BE WIDESPREAD ON THE ISLAND. (PRESUMABLY THIS IS TOXOPLASMOSIS, SPREAD THROUGH CAT FAECES ON ROOFTOPS INTO THE DRINKING WATER).................................................145 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc vii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................146 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................146 1. ABDULLA IS IMPLEMENTING A PROTECTED AREA DEMARCATION EXERCISE AROUND BOTH WETLANDS ON FUVAHMULAH FOR THE EPA. ................................146 2. THE BOUNDARY TO BE DEMARCATED FOLLOWS / IS THE INNER SIDE OF THE "INNER RING ROADS" SHOWN ON THE OFFICIAL LAND USE PLAN. ......................146 3. THE DEMARCATION IS BEING CARRIED OUT WITH LOCAL COUNCILLORS. 146 4. THE PA INCLUDES TARO FIELDS; THE EPA IS GPS'ING THE BORDER OF THE TARO FIELDS WITH A HIGH ACCURACY GPS (TRIMBLE, CM ACCURACY), ACCOMPANIED BY LOCAL COUNCILLORS. ....................................................................146 5. PROTECTED AREA BOUNDARIES COULD BE DEMARCATED BY LIVE FENCES, E.G. MEHELA TREES. ...............................................................................................................146 6. ENVIRONMENTAL FINES CAN BE ASSESSED UP TO RF 100 MILLION UNDER THE ENV. LIABILITIES AND COMPENSATION REGULATIONS. ..................................146 7. PROTECTED AREA ZONATION IS PERMISSIBLE UNDER THE ENV. PROTECTION AND PRESERVATION ACT - THIS IS JUST A VERY SHORT FRAMEWORK ACT. .................................................................................................................146 8. EPA'S PROTECTED AREA ZONING OF THE TWO WETLANDS HAS BEEN CHANGED TO REFLECT THE FINDINGS OF FIELDWORK, SPECIFICALLY A CHANGE IN LOCATION OF THE (THEORETICAL) IUCN CAT. 1 STRICTLY PROTECTED CORES. ..............................................................................................................146 9. AGRICULTURAL LAND IS ALLOCATED FREE, ON AN ANNUAL RENEWABLE BASIS (HENCE NO TREE CROPS ALLOWED). ..................................................................146 10. TARO LAND IS GOVERNMENT LAND, BUT IS HERITABLE. .................................146 11. IF GOVERNMENT. COMPULSORILY ACQUIRES LAND, COMPENSATION IS PAID FOR ASSETS SUCH AS BUILDINGS, TREES AND CROPS, BUT NOT FOR THE LAND. 146 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc viii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 12. COMP. FOR A COCONUT TREE IS UP TO RF 500. COMP. FOR A TARO PLANT IS UP TO RF 30. 146 13. COMP. FOR LAND IS BY LAND-FOR-LAND. ..............................................................146 14. LAND CAN BE CONVERTED TO PRIVATE LAND FOR A FEE.................................146 15. LAND CAN BE SOLD BY PAYING THE FEE, AND THEN A TAX ON THE SALE VALUE. 146 16. THE LOCAL COUNCIL HAS A VALUATION COMMITTEE. .....................................146 22ND-29TH JUNE 2011 ...............................................................................................................148 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................148 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................148 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................149 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................149  THE DIRECTORATE IS PART OF THE MINISTRY OF HEALTH, NOT THE COUNCIL. 149  MOSQUITO CONTROL IS BEST DONE BY HABITAT MANAGEMENT, NOT FOGGING. 149  SEPTIC TANKS ARE A MAJOR PROBLEM - IDEAL FOR MOSQUITOES...............149  THE DIRECTORATE CONCENTRATES ON AWARENESS AND CONTROL. .........149  DENGUE IS "ENDEMIC". .................................................................................................149  HEALTH STATISTICS ARE WITH THE HOSPITAL: (CONTACT: HUSAIN DASHID, HOSPITAL DIRECTOR) OR CONTACT THE CENTRE FOR DISEASE CONTROL IN MALE'. 149  THERE WILL BE A HEALTH WEBSITE 'BY NEXT MONTH'. ....................................149 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc ix July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS (STI) AWARENESS IS QUITE HIGH AMONGST RESIDENTS. RECORD OF MEETING ...........................................................149  RECORD OF MEETING .................................................................................................150 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................150 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................151 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................151 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................152 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................152 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................154 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................154 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................156 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................156 RECORD OF MEETING ........................................................................................................157 MAIN POINTS ..........................................................................................................................157 11 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE OCEAN-GROUNDWATER-WETLAND SYSTEM 159 12 AMPLITUDE ATTENUATION AND PHASE LAG INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TIDES AND WATER LEVELS IN THE GROUNDWATER AND FREE WATER SURFACE IN THE WETLANDS. ................................................................................................................160 12.1 Conceptual Model ................................................................................................... 160 12.2 Water Level Data Loggers ...................................................................................... 160 12.3 Deployment of Data Loggers .................................................................................. 161 12.3.1 Hithadhoo ......................................................................................................... 161 12.3.2 Fuvahmulah...................................................................................................... 161 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc x July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 12.4 Hithadhoo: Field measurements of kilhi water level changes in response to tidal height changes .................................................................................................................... 163 12.4.1 Eidhigali Kilhi .................................................................................................. 163 12.4.2 Maa Kilhi ......................................................................................................... 164 12.5 Fuvahmulah: Field measurements of kilhi water level changes in response to tidal height changes .................................................................................................................... 165 12.5.1 Dhadimagu Kilhi .............................................................................................. 165 12.5.2 Bandaara Kilhi ................................................................................................. 166 13 INTRODUCTION ...............................................................................................................198 14 SEA LEVEL CHANGE .......................................................................................................198 15 VARIABILITY OF ESTIMATED MEAN SEA LEVEL ...................................................199 16 CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................200 17 PATTERN OF RAINFALL PRIOR TO THE FLOODING EVENT .................................203 18 OBSERVATION OF THE FLOODING..............................................................................203 19 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 211 20 CATEGORY 1A: STRICT NATURE RESERVE.............................................................. 211 20.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 211 20.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 211 20.3 Distinguishing Features ........................................................................................... 211 21 CATEGORY IV - HABITAT SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREA....................................212 21.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 212 21.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 212 21.3 Distinguishing Features ........................................................................................... 212 21.4 Approaches to Management .................................................................................... 212 22 CATEGORY III - NATURAL MONUMENT OR FEATURE...........................................213 22.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 213 22.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 213 22.3 Distinguishing Features ........................................................................................... 213 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xi July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 22.4 Role in the landscape/seascape ............................................................................... 214 23 BARRINGTONIA ASIATICA: KINBI [BARRINGTONIA] ..............................................216 24 CALOPHYLLUM INOHYLLUM: FUNA [ALEXANDER LAURELWOOD TREE] .....216 25 CARICA PAPAYA: FALHO [PAPAYA] ...............................................................................216 26 CERIOPS TAGAL: KARAMANA [YELLOW MANGROVE] ........................................217 27 COCOS NUCIFERA: RUH, [COCONUT] ........................................................................217 28 COLOCASIA ESCULENTA: OLHU ALA, [TARO] ..........................................................218 29 CYPERUS POLYSTACHYOS SYN. PYCREUS POLYSTACHYOS. ...................................218 30 GUETTARDA SPECIOSA: UNI [NIT PITCHIA] ..............................................................219 31 HERNANDIA PELTATA: KANDHU [JACK IN THE BOX] ............................................219 32 HIBISCUS TILIACEUS: DHIGGA/HAU, [SEA HIBISCUS]. .........................................219 33 IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE: [BEACH MORNING GLORY] ............................................220 34 IPOMOEA AQUATIC: KANKUN [WATER SPINACH] .................................................220 35 LUMNITZERA RACEMOSA: BUREVI [BLACK MANGROVE]...................................220 36 MANGIFERA INDICA: MANGO [MANGO]. ..................................................................220 37 MORINDA CITRIFOLIA: AHI [INDIAN MULBERRY] .................................................221 38 MUSA SP: DHONKEYO, [BANANA]. ............................................................................221 39 PANDANUS TECTORIS BOA-KASHIKEYU, [THATCH SCREW PINE] .....................221 40 PEMPHIS ACIDULA: KUREDHI [PEMPHIS] ................................................................222 41 PISTIA STRATIOTES: [WATER LETTUCE] ....................................................................222 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 42 PSIDIUM GUAJAVA: FEYRU, [GUAVA] ........................................................................222 43 RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA: RAN‟DOO [ASIATIC MANGROVE] .........................223 44 SCAEVOLA TACCADA: MAGOO, [SEA LETTUCE]......................................................223 45 SYZYGIUM CUMINI: DHAN‟BU, [JAMBOLAN] ..........................................................224 46 THESPESIA POPULNEA: HIRUN‟DHU [TULIP TREE] ...............................................224 47 TERMINALIA CATAPPA: MIDHILI GAS [COUNTRY ALMOND] ...............................224 Appendices Appendix 1 Diary and Records of Meetings Appendix 2 Conceptual Model of Wetland Hydraulics and Measurements of Tide – Kilhi-Tide Interactions Appendix 3 Details of Constructed Drains Appendix 4 Mean Sea Level Variation Appendix 5 Description of the Hithadhoo Flood 29th June 2011 Appendix 6 IUCN Classification of Protected Areas Appendix 7 Flora of the Wetlands Appendix 8 Fauna of the Wetlands Appendix 9 Results of Houshold Surveys Appendix 10 Schedule E of the Maldives EIA Regulations, 2007 Appendix 11 Paricipating Diver Indemnity Form Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xiii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Executive Summary 1. Introduction The Government of Maldives (GoM) is receiving support from the World Bank-managed Climate Change Trust Fund (CCTF), for the period January 2010 to December 2012, to deal with adaptation to, and mitigation of, climate change. The CCTF supports initiatives to strengthen knowledge and leadership in the government, build adaptive capacity through pilot programmes, develop renewable energy through low-carbon options and improve policy and institutional capacities in both public and private sectors related to adaptation and mitigation. A project having two components, Wetland Conservation and Coral Reef Monitoring (WCCM), has been proposed by the GoM for financing as part of the CCTF. At the project preparation stage, it was considered that parts of the WCCM project could „trigger‟ the World Bank safeguard policies concerning Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) and Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12). The purpose of the present Environmental & Social Due Diligence (ESDD) study, therefore, was to ensure that the project will comply with the relevant requirements of both the GoM and the World Bank. It also provides support for optimisation of the environmental and social management of the two components. 2. Project Description The main aim of the WCCM project is to contribute to the climate change adaptation capacity of the Republic of Maldives in the context of wetland and coral reef management. More specifically, the project has two development objectives: to strengthen institutional capacity for planning and demonstration of community based wetland management, and to implement a coral reef monitoring system. These objectives will be met by the two components of the project (21st July 2011 version), and their activities, as follows: Component 1: Wetland Conservation Sub-component 1.1. Community-based Wetland Management. The main activities included under this sub-component are: Development and Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plans (CBWMPs). Pilot projects on ecotourism on Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo. Documentation of Best Practices in Community-based Wetland Management. Sub-component 1.2. Technical support and demonstrative implementation for drainage management and rain water harvesting. The main activities under this sub-component are as follows: Drainage management: Geo-hydrological assessment; Participatory planning; Demonstrative implementation. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xiv July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Rainwater harvesting: Assessment of rainwater harvesting models; Participatory planning; Demonstrative implementation; Capacity building for water harvesting. Sub-component 1.3 Strengthening of Local Government Capacity for Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. The main activity of this sub-component is the development and delivery of a training module for local councils on climate change adaptation, using a „training of trainers‟ approach. Component 2: Coral Reef Monitoring Sub-component 2.1 Training and Capacity Building The main activities in this sub-component are as follows: Development and delivery of training modules and materials Specialised training on technical aspects relevant to coral reef monitoring Sub-component 2.2 Monitoring of Coral Reefs. The key activities in this sub-component are as follows: Field monitoring using coral reef monitoring protocols Remote sensing monitoring and decision tools for climate change risk assessment Subcomponent 2.3 Web-enabled Coral Reef Monitoring Framework. The key activity in this sub-component is the web-enabling of coral reef monitoring data and decision tools. Sub-component 2.4 Dissemination and Policy Inputs. The key activities of this sub-component are as follows: Experience exchange workshops Preparation of best practice / policy notes Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xv July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Component 3: Project Management The objective of this component is to conduct the various project management, monitoring and progress reporting functions that project implementation entails. The Ministry of Housing and Environment (MoHE) will have overall responsibility for project implementation, for which it will expand the existing Project Management Unit (PMU) of the Maldives Environmental Management Project (MEMP). MoHE will execute the project through the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for the wetlands component and the Marine Research Centre (MRC) for the coral component. The PMU will recruit a Project Manager, a Wetlands Technical Co-ordinator and a Coral Reef Monitoring Co-ordinator for routine management. In addition, there will be project management staff posted to the islands of Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo to guide and oversee the activities of the wetland component. The project will also support a part-time Resort Liaison Officer at MRC. 3. ESDD Objectives & Activities Given the „triggering‟ of two World Bank „safeguard policies‟, the objective of the ESDD was to ensure that the project will comply with the relevant requirements of both the Bank and the GoM. It also provides Environmental Management Frameworks to ensure the proper environmental and social management of the two components. In addition, topographical and hydrological studies have been carried out on the islands of Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo, to create a better understanding of the hydrological balance in the two islands. The field studies in the two islands, which were conducted during two weeks in June 2011, included:  A topographical survey  A survey of water levels in open water bodies and wells.  A sea level survey using fixed tide gauges.  Several consultations with the atoll and island councils, and other stakeholders.  A questionnaire socio-economic survey involving some 700 respondents. These have enabled the ESDD team to provide initial guidance on the hydrological constraints and opportunities for management of the wetlands, including the issue of flooding. The perceptions of communities and their uses of the wetlands have also been documented, along with some perspective on the prospects for wetland related ecotourism development. For the coral monitoring component, consultations were undertaken with the resort divers who will take responsibility for the monitoring work, and international guidelines on environmental protection and safety within diving were reviewed for their suitability. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xvi July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 4. Summary of Policy, Regulations and WB Policies Triggered National - The Maldives regulatory and institutional framework has been reviewed in relation to environmental and other issues that may arise during implementation of the project. The main instrument of relevance is the 1993 Environment Protection & Preservation Act. Whilst this is a minimalist law, it does provide the entrée for subsidiary legislation and regulations, the most important of which are the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2007, the application of which has been explored in detail within the ESDD. Other relevant regulations relate to the cutting of trees, the quarrying of coral rock, the mining of sand, etc. The subsequent establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has provided the opportunity to enforce such legislation. Other instruments which will be relevant to individual sub-components are the Tourism Act, 1999, the National Solid Waste Management Policy, 2008, and the Agriculture Development Master Plan. Concerning wetlands themselves, a National Wetlands Management Strategy & Action Plan was prepared in 2003, but it has not been completed / implemented. The proposed project therefore provides the opportunity to lead the way in putting the strategy and plan into action. World Bank – As indicated in the table below, three Bank „safeguard policies‟ have been triggered by this Category B project. Conduct of the present ESDD satisfies the requirements of OP/BP 4.01. Concerning OP/BP 4.04, an Environmental Management Framework (EMF) has been prepared, including mitigation guidelines to ensure that any interventions considered within the project will not cause conversion or degradation of the wetlands, or adverse social implications arising therefrom. Application of the Environmental Guidelines for the coral monitoring component will also avoid OP/BP 4.04 being compromised. For OP/BP 4.12, the EMF includes provisions that will avoid the need for any resettlement. However, a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) has been developed as a contingency in case any displacement issues do arise during implementation. W B Safeguard Policies Triggered by the WCCM Yes No Project Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01) √ Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) √ Pest Management (OP 4.09) √ Physical Cultural Resources (OP/BP 4.11) √ Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12) √ Indigenous Peoples (OP/BP 4.10) √ Forests (OP/BP 4.36) √ Safety of Dams (OP/BP 4.37) √ Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xvii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Projects in Disputed Areas (OP/BP 7.60) √ Projects on International Waterways (OP/BP 7.50) √ 5. Summary of Preliminary Impact Assessments The proposed activities within the project were reviewed in order to make a preliminary assessment of their likely effects. The effects are discussed in detail within the EDD; the table below summarises the result of the assessments, with the effects of the activities on the environment and community rated as „positive‟, „neutral‟ or „negative‟. Note that activities may be beneficial (e.g. training), but may be recorded as having no physical effect on the environment or community (i.e. „Neutral‟). Project Components and Sub-components Result Component 1: Wetland Conservation (Fuvahmulah & Hithadhoo) Sub-component 1.1. Community-based Wetland Management. (a) Development and Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plans (CBWMPs). (i) Demarcation of wetland areas & mapping resource use in wetland Positive areas (ii) Sensitization & awareness-building for key stakeholders Neutral (iii) Participatory development & approval of CBWMPs Neutral (iv)Prevention of reclamation, dumping, contamination, etc. Positive (v) Implementation of one plan on each wetland island Positive (b) Pilot projects on ecotourism on Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo. (i) Development of basic ecotourism infrastructure Positive & Negative (ii) Training of local community nature guides Positive Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xviii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Project Components and Sub-components Result (c) Documentation of best practice in community-based wetland management Positive Sub-component 1.2. Technical support and demonstrative implementation for drainage management and rain water harvesting. (a) Drainage management: Geo-hydrological assessment; Participatory Positive planning; Demonstrative implementation. (b) Rainwater harvesting: Assessment of rainwater harvesting models; Positive Participatory planning; Demonstrative implementation; Capacity building for water harvesting. Sub-component 1.3 Strengthening of Local Government Capacity for Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. (a) Development and delivery of a training module for local councils on Neutral climate change adaptation, using a „training of trainers‟ approach. Component 2: Coral Reef Monitoring Sub-component 2.1 Training and Capacity Building (a) Development and delivery of training modules and materials Neutral (b) Specialised training on technical aspects relevant to coral reef monitoring Positive Sub-component 2.2 Monitoring of Coral Reefs. The key activities in this sub-component are as follows: Field monitoring using coral reef monitoring protocols Positive & Negative Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xix July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Project Components and Sub-components Result Remote sensing monitoring and decision tools for climate change risk Neutral assessment Subcomponent 2.3 Web-enabled Coral Reef Monitoring Framework. (a) Web-enabling of coral reef monitoring data and decision tools. Neutral Sub-component 2.4 Dissemination and Policy Inputs. (a) Experience exchange workshops Neutral (b) Preparation of best practice / policy notes Neutral In addition to the preliminary assessments, comments have been made within the EDD which may assist the implementation of the project. The highlights of those comments are summarised below.  Wetland issues: Wetlands are an uncommon habitat in the Maldives, and the open water bodies found on both Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo are rare. Wetlands provide many ecosystem services and contribute to livelihoods, mainly through agriculture. On Hithadhoo, the Eidhigali wetland has already been designated a protected area, and on Fuvahmulah the two wetland areas of Dhadimagu and Bandaara are in the final stages of protected area designation. On both islands, the wetlands are under threat from ongoing processes of pollution by waste, eutrophication, reclamation and conversion. Unless wetland protection and management is instituted soon, the wetlands will rapidly degrade and disappear. The social assessment has indicated that „community-based‟ wetland management would be difficult on both islands. The management of formal protected areas is a government responsibility and will require resources to support the framework for future local (council) management, and for the raising of awareness, etc., needed to change the behaviours of local residents / wetland users. It is recommended that the component should focus on developing a comprehensive but practical management plan for the Eidighali Kilhi and Koattey protected area on Hithadhoo, including obtaining formal commitment to and financing of the management plan, and initiating physical actions under it within the project timeframe. The ESDD has analysed natural resource management practices in both islands, has identified a range of important issues, and has made a series of recommendations for the future management and conservation of natural resources at community and local government level. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xx July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  Tourism issues: The Maldives are famous for nature-based luxury tourism, which is largely restricted to resort islands. The concept of ecotourism is different, and in the case of wetlands as an ecotourism resource base, bird-watching is usually the sole interest, unless the wetland is also associated with other attractive habitats or landscapes. On Fuvahmulah it is difficult to see that there is realistic potential for wetland-based tourism from off-island, even if/when the airport is completed. Given the paucity of birdlife, the wetlands simply have little to offer the ecotourist, and the distance of Fuvahmulah from other tourism centres is an impediment for the day trips market. That said, the Councils on Fuvahmulah (Atoll and Island) have requested the development of a tourism vision or concept as part of the island‟s overall development planning. On Hithadhoo there is some potential to market the Eidhigali Kulhi and Koattey area as a nature-tourism destination, particularly given its accessibility from Gan; this would require a very significant investment in design, facilities and ongoing management, and it would suit day-visitors only in present circumstances. It is recommended that the project should include a tourism consultancy to investigate the realistic options for nature-based tourism on both islands. However, on both islands waste disposal and littering must be addressed before any tourism can develop; tourism marketing would not survive the media comments by the first visitors concerning the rubbish which is visible all over both islands, including their beaches. This will be a major task requiring the establishment of improved waste collection systems, the clean-up of existing waste, and public awareness exercises, all of which can be undertaken as part of the forthcoming project.  Flooding issues: On both islands a very large part, if not all, of the flooding is caused by road construction. The roads are raised above natural land levels and do not have adequate cross-drainage; consequently water flows off the roads into residential plots, and water that is ponded between roads cannot escape. In addition, many houses are not built with any clearance for water - the main floors are not raised above ground level much, if at all. Moreover, taro-growers complain that runoff from roads brings silt to their fields, and so they are reported to have blocked some road drains. The condition of the four constructed drains on Fuvahmulah, together with anecdotal evidence of the frequency of their use from the islanders responsible for their maintenance and management, indicates that surface water flowing into the wetlands and „overflowing‟ into to the surrounding land is not the primary cause of flooding. Were it to be so, the drains would be in regular use. Recognising all of these issues, the Atoll Council on Fuvahmulah has requested the project to include Road Drainage Design Guidelines as a deliverable of the project. Revisions to the planning system to include drainage in land use plans and building codes would also be of benefit. The retro-fitting of culverts under existing roads and other minor remedial drainage works could also be included as minor public works within the project. It is also incumbent upon the EPA to ensure that in future unwise physical development within the wetlands (roads, large buildings and other solid structures) is prevented by both the enforcement of the provisions of protected area status, and the proper application of the EIA Regulations. Sea level rise recorded at the long-term tide station on Gan is approximately 3mm/year, which is consistent with estimates made at other long-term monitoring stations. Estimates of mean sea level made over short periods of time, such as one- Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xxi July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report month, are of doubtful value. Detailed analysis of 24-years data of monthly mean sea level at Gan indicates significant month-on-month differences of as much as 135mm. (Long-term factors contributing to variation include the wet and dry monsoon seasonality and the longer term effects of El Niňo on regional atmospheric pressure.) Therefore, within the time horizon of the project, the short-term variability of sea level is of more concern than the very slow long-term increase of sea level. Surveys of householders on both islands show that flooding associated with high tides and storm surges occurs only rarely. When flooding does occur, it is actually associated with high rainfall. Direct observation of a flooding event on Hithadhoo confirmed the opinions of islanders that flooding is a result of the interruption of overground water flow by the Link Road. (In fact, the existing pump system on Hithadhoo, located in a low spot in reclaimed wetland, prevented any flooding in the surrounding area.)  Local expectations: In addition to the issues expressed above, the local councils on Fuvahmulah are very concerned about the loss of agricultural land to urban uses and about inappropriate development. They would therefore like support to develop their vision for the future of the island. On Hithadhoo, the council requires assistance in adjusting the island's land use plan to allow for wetland conservation (and new concepts of rainwater management).  Local government capacity: On both islands, local government technical and financial capacity is low, so capacity-building will be an important part of the forthcoming project, including a commitment to „technology transfer‟ by the visiting project team and officials. 6. Environmental & Social Management Frameworks An Environmental & Social Management Framework (ESMF) has been developed for the wetland conservation component of the project (both islands). The ESMF is composed of three „legs‟, as follows: The first leg relates to environmental & social (E & S) screening. There is a national requirement for the screening of proposed projects, to determine whether a project requires an IIE, an EIA or no further assessment under the EIA Regulations, 2007. Guidance is given on the ToRs for an IEE or EIA. However, it is expected that most of the sub-component interventions are likely to be too small to need screening at the national level. For component level screening, screening tables for E & S review have been developed. These ask the following questions: - What Type of Development? - What Kind of area? - How Could it Affect the Environment? - How Serious Could the Impact Be? In each case, a series of possible responses is provided in order to guide the review. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xxii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The second leg is a negative list of interventions that should not be allowed within the component, in order to prevent adverse environmental and/or social impacts. The third leg is a series of environmental / social guidelines to guide the development of interventions within the component, and thereby avoid or minimise adverse environmental and/or social impacts. The guidelines are provided under the following headings: - Management of environmental / social issues. - Management of construction sites - Management of construction solid wastes & toxic wastes - Management of land - Management of transport - Community facilities - Health & safety Application of the Wetlands ESMF will be the responsibility of the consultant team contracted to undertake the Wetlands Conservation Component. This team should include a member who takes responsibility as the Environmental Manager for the component, who would be responsible for undertaking the Environmental / Social Reviews and monitoring environmental performance. Another team member should take responsibility for Community Liaison to deal with relations with the local community and other stakeholders. The Environmental Manager will be responsible for the environmental monitoring of any construction works and their surrounding environment. In addition, any contractors involved will be responsible to conduct the monitoring of their own works, and will be required to prepare a Monitoring Plan as part of their own ESMP for approval by the Environmental Manager. The results of this monitoring must be regularly reported to the Environmental Manager. The Wetlands Technical Co-ordinator and the Environmental & Social Due Diligence Co- ordinator in the Project Management Unit (PMU) will have the responsibility to monitor the correct application of the ESMF. For the coral conservation component, the ESMF consists of environmental & safety guidelines which will be applied to the field monitoring work to avoid collateral damage to the corals or associated habitats, and to ensure the safety of the monitoring teams. The guidelines are largely abstracted from recognised material produced by international organisations. These guidelines are made up of four parts as follows: - Application of the guidance in the ReefCheck Eco-Monitoring Manual, including training for buoyancy control and use of the Liability Release Form. - Adoption of the ReefCheck Best Diving Practices - Adoption of the Earthdive Code of Responsible Diving - Additional mitigation measures prepared by the ESDD to address broader issues of environmental protection and safety. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xxiii July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report - The official Maldives Recreational Diving Regulations are also reproduced in the report. The implementation and monitoring arrangements for this ESMF will be the same as those for the wetlands conservation component. In both components, implementation of the ESMF will be included within the responsibilities of the contracted consultant team members, and will therefore not be an additional cost item for the project. 7. Consultations The formal consultation meetings listed below were undertaken by the team as part of the ESDD. The details of all the meetings, including names of participants, summary of discussions, etc,. are provided in Appendix 1. Fuvahmulah Date Location Participants Theme 15th Atoll Council Office President of Atoll KO meeting June Council 19th Atoll Council Office Atoll Council Members ESDD briefing, and feedback of June council aspirations for the project 19th Island Council Island Council Members ESDD briefing, and feedback of June Secretariat Offices council aspirations for the project 20th Waste Management Municipal Services, Waste management June Compound Southern Utilities 20th Harbour Habeeb Ibrahim (senior Island fisheries June fisherman) 20th Office Soc. for Environmental Horticulture projects June Awareness (NGO) 21st Hoadhan'du Mohamed Ahmed Island agriculture June (farmer) 21st Office Arifa Abdul Majeed Education / environment June (teacher) 21st Island Council Island Council Public Health data June Office Health Unit 21st Office MoHE & EPA reps Wetland demarcation / zoning June and wetland / agriculture issues Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xxiv July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Hithadhoo Date Location Participants Theme 22nd Addu City (atoll) Mayor of City Council ESDD briefing and Council June Council Secretariat feedback 23rd Addu City (atoll) Director of Health Health issues June Council Secretariat Directorate 23rd Addu City (atoll) Mayor of City Council „Vision Addu‟, etc. June Council Secretariat 23rd Island Office, President, Town Board Environmental issues, June Hithadhoo wetlands and ecotourism 24th Harbour Two fishermen and Island fisheries, employment June President, Town Board and flooding 25th Waste Management Southern Maldives Pvt. Waste management Centre Ltd., waste contractor June 25th Southern Hithadhoo Four farmers Agriculture June 27th Koattey Area Farmer Agriculture / horticulture / June protected area Male’ 19th MRC Resort managers & divers Coral reef monitoring June component In addition, as part of the SDD, Household Social Surveys were conducted with 335 households on Fuvahmulah, and 400 households on Hithadhoo. A stakeholder analysis was also conducted on both islands. The outputs of the SDD have contributed to a series of recommendations for the implementation of the Component. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc xxv July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 1 INTRODUCTION The Government of Maldives (GoM) is receiving support from the World Bank-managed Climate Change Trust Fund (CCTF) to deal with adaptation and mitigation of climate change for the period January 2010 to December 2012. The CCTF supports initiatives to strengthen knowledge and leadership in the government, build adaptive capacity through pilot programmes, develop renewable energy through low-carbon options and improve policy and institutional capacities in both public and private sectors related to adaptation and mitigation. It is anticipated that the supported pilot programmes will be in the areas of coastal protection, biodiversity conservation, tourism, fisheries, solid waste management and energy solutions. A project having two components, Flood Protection & Wetland Conservation, and Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems (WCCM), has been proposed by GoM for financing as part of CCTF. The details of the two components are described in two project documents provided to the ESDD team by the World Bank. The main aim of the WCCM project is to contribute to the climate change adaptation capacity in the area of wetland and coral reef management. Since the two project components are, respectively, terrestrial and marine, this project has two different development objectives. In order to take account of the time constraints placed on the project, the objectives have been defined realistically in order for them to be achievable. The objectives respectively are:  Strengthening institutional capacity and implementing demonstrable investments in participatory wetland management.  Strengthening institutional capacity for coral reef monitoring and management. The implementation period of the main project is sixteen months. Because of the short period of time available, and the pilot nature of the WCCM project, the indicators of project performance will be intermediate outcome indicators, demonstrating both the feasibility and practicability of the process being adopted, rather than final outcome indicators. The key intermediate outcome indicators for the Flood Protection and Wetland Conservation component will be:  The development of a Wetland Management Plan (WMP) for Hithadhoo‟s Eidhigali Kulhi Protected Area;  The development of WMPs for Hithadhoo‟s Southern Wetland Area, Maamendhoo Kulhi and Fehele Kulhi.  The development of WMPs for Fuvahmulah‟s Fuvahmulaku Bandara Kulhi and Dhandi Magu Kulhi.  Demonstrative implementation of the WMPs through the use of island community participation.  A report on the geo-hydrology based on a focussed technical study, and the implementation of demonstrative investments in drainage management / flood control based on options identified in the report. The key intermediate outcome indicator for the Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems component will be: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  Availability of data on coral reef monitoring from five resorts. The purpose of the Environment & Social Due Diligence (ESDD) study was to ensure that the two components will comply with the relevant environmental and social safeguard requirements of the Government of Maldives (GoM) and the World Bank. It will also provide support for optimisation of the environmental and social management of the two components. In addition, some field studies of topography and hydrology, and consideration of basic requirements for hydrological modelling, that have been carried out as part of the ESDD, will provide initial guidance to the project team in terms of hydrological constraints and opportunities on the islands of Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TWO COMPONENTS 2.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation 2.1.1 Introduction The Environment Protection Agency (EPA) has proposed a project component to assess and implement measures for control/reduction of flooding and community-based conservation of wetland habitats on the two unique islands of Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo, which are two of the larger islands identified having mangroves/wetlands, and where the problem of flooding and/or saltwater intrusion are key concerns. The two islands are at the extreme south of the Maldives; their location is shown in Figure 2.1. Figure 2.1 Location of the two islands for the Wetland Management and Flood Relief Projects 2.1.2 Objective. The primary objective of this component is to demonstrate community-based wetland management through a pilot in two islands of the Maldives. It would also provide technical support for flood mitigation and capacity building for local councils which are the custodians of local natural resources. The activities to be financed under this component are grouped under the following sub- components: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report (i). Community-based wetland management (ii). Geo-hydrological assessments (iii). Strengthening of Local Government Capacity in Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. 2.1.3 Sub-component 1.1. Community-based wetland management. This sub-component is aimed at supporting the updating/development and implementation of community-based wetland management plans (CBWMPs). It will enable the local governments to have a clear strategy for wetland management, and will help the community to obtain sustained benefits from the conservation effort. This sub-component will ensure participation of all levels of the decentralised government as well as island communities. The key outputs of this sub-component will be: (i). CBWMPs updated/developed for wetlands in Hithadhoo and Fuvahmulah; (ii). demonstrative implementation of the CBWMPs undertaken; (iii). ecotourism facilities established at select wetland sites in Hithadhoo and Fuvahmulah; (iv). the National Wetland Management Strategy and Action Plan updated. The outcomes of this sub-component would be the increased capacity of local councils and community stakeholders for planning and implementation for wetland conservation; sustained economic and ecological benefits to the local community from wetland ecotourism and a strong national strategy and action plan for wetland management. The following are the main activities included under this sub-component: (a) Development and Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plans (CBWMPs): The sub-component will support: (i) demarcation of wetland areas and mapping of existing resource use in the wetland areas (ii) development and approval of CBWMPs based on the approved land use plans, through a participatory process involving consultation with relevant stakeholders (iii) sensitisation and awareness-building activities to engage the key stakeholders in the participatory process (iv) prevention of unplanned reclamation, illegal waste dumping, contamination of surface water, unsustainable harvesting of mangroves, and other activities which are detrimental to the wetlands. Hithadhoo‟s Eidhigali Kulhi has a framework management plan – as part of a larger Addu Atoll Management Plan. This will be reviewed and updated through a participatory process. CBWMPs will be developed for Hithadhoo‟s Southern Wetland Area (comprising of Maamendhoo Kulhi and Fehele Kulhi) and for Fuvahmulah‟s Fuvahmulaku Bandara Kilhi and Dhadimagu Kilhi. The project will support the implementation of one CBWMP on each of the two islands. Examples of the activities that will be supported are: controlling solid waste disposal, creation of green belts, zoning, fencing, regulating cropping, etc. The implementation of the plans will be Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report supported both by the project funds and by a contribution from other sources (local council‟s own resources, other Government sources, etc.). This sub-component will finance the consultancies, minor civil works, training and IEC campaigns. (b) Pilot on ecotourism at Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo: This sub-component will support the development of basic infrastructure for ecotourism (nature trails, observation hides, interpretation centre, visitor convenience services, etc), training of local community nature guides, and supportive communications (IEC programmes and materials). Ecotourism has been identified as a necessary activity as it will:  provide an incentive which will help in the wetland being perceived as a useful resource that must be conserved,  generate revenue for the local councils (through user fees) which will help in its sustained maintenance,  demonstrate opportunity for land/wetland based ecotourism that will help in diversifying the tourism product in the Maldives. The sub-component will finance consultancies for design of the ecotourism package (interpretation centre, IEC materials, etc), minor civil works for development of ecotourism infrastructure, development and delivery of training programmes and a communications campaign undertaken in partnership with community-based organisations, educational institutions, media and local governments. (c) Updating the National Wetland Management Strategy and Action Plan: Based on the experience and conclusions of the above two activities, this sub-component will support updating the existing National Wetland Management Strategy and Action Plan, NWMSAP (2003, draft) through a stakeholder consultation process that includes the key stakeholders – Local Councils and NGOs. The focus of the updating would be on strengthening the NWMSAP from the perspective of community involvement through participatory planning, and sustainable benefits through improved livelihoods and ecotourism. It will finance consultancy services and dissemination workshops. 2.1.4 Sub-component 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments. This sub-component is aimed at supporting a geo-hydrological assessment of the selected islands for identifying measures to improve drainage and reduce flood incidence. Demonstrative investments on drainage management / flood control, based on the options recommended by the assessment, will also be supported. Sound technical support will help in implementing measures that mitigate floods, contribute to water security and conserve wetlands by regulating the outflow of water into the sea, and is thus significant in the context of climate change uncertainties. The key outputs of this sub-component would be a geo- hydrological assessment report which would include options for flood control, and implementation of demonstrative investments on drainage management / flood control based on options identified in the report. The outcome of this sub-component would be enhanced technical capacity for drainage management / flood control. The main activity included under this sub-component is a geo-hydrological assessment study: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The sub-component will support a technical assessment study in the selected islands for the purpose of identifying interventions to improve the drainage system. The assessment will cover all aspects relevant to the drainage/flooding of the islands including the conditions at sea, rainfall, land use, topography, salinity and hydro-geological conditions, and the hydraulic performance of the existing drainage system (including baseline information on the drainage system). The output of the assessment study will be:  a detailed assessment of the duration, land area and number of households affected by flooding  a set of comprehensive, practical recommendations for drainage management and flood control that will take into consideration both current and future drainage requirements, as a result of climate change (sea level rise, higher rainfall peaks) and urbanisation  cost-benefit justification for the recommended investments  a drainage/flood modelling tool to inform policy and planning, and training to select personnel in using the tool Furthermore, through consultations and island level workshops that have the participation of the MoHE, EPA, local councils and other key stakeholders, an Action Plan containing a set of feasible actions for implementation (with details of costing and time frame) will be identified. The Action Plan will include structural and non-structural measures to improve drainage and reduce flood incidence. Demonstrative investments in drainage management / flood control based on the Action Plan will be implemented. To summarise, this sub-component will finance consultancy services for the geo-hydrological assessment study, island level workshops and training for staff on use of the modelling tool, and minor civil works. 2.1.5 Sub-component 1.3 Strengthen Local Government Capacity on Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. This sub-component is aimed at capacity building of government officials, particularly local councillors, on mainstreaming climate change adaptation considerations into island ecosystem planning and management functions. The key output of this sub-component would be a tested training module on climate change adaptation. The key outcome of this sub- component would be enhanced capacity of local councillors for integration of climate change adaptation considerations into the local planning process. The following is the main activity that this sub-component will include: (a) Capacity building for climate change adaptation: This sub-component will support developing and delivering a training module for local councils on the theme of climate change adaptation through a cascade (training- of-trainers) approach. This would include topics on land use planning, coastal protection, flood mitigation, water resource security and ecosystem conservation. The module will focus on the role of Atoll and Island Councils in integrating climate change adaptation perspective into island level planning. This sub-component will reach all the local councils in the country (186 island councils, 19 atoll councils, 2 city councils) through existing training channels such as Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report the Strengthening Local Democracy and Governance (SLDG) project led by the Ministry of Home Affairs/Local Government Authority. The sub-component will provide value-addition on climate change adaptation to the ongoing training strategy of the Government. It will also support dissemination of lessons to be applied on community-based wetland management with local councils in other wetland islands through workshops and exposure visits. This sub-component will finance consultancy services for development and delivery of the training module, training of local councils, dissemination workshops and exposure visits. 2.2 Component 2: Coral Reef Monitoring 2.2.1 Objective. The primary objective of this component is to pilot capacity-building for tourist resorts to conduct coral reef monitoring, and to provide technical support for developing a technology platform (referred to as „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟) that will enable easy access to the data and decision support tools. The World Bank-supported Maldives Environment Management Project (MEMP) funded the development of a National Coral Reef Monitoring Framework in 2009. Fifteen scalable coral and reef fish monitoring protocols were developed, reflecting the international ReefCheck Programme which is endorsed by the Convention on Biological Diversity. The protocols allow for collection by different skill groups and subsequent integration of this information. Technical testing of 13 of the protocols was conducted in 2009. A subset of these protocols was further refined into the MEMP monitoring and evaluation framework in 2010. However, the full coral reef monitoring framework has not been further developed and implemented. This component will primarily build upon work undertaken in the MEMP on coral reef monitoring. The coral reef monitoring protocols developed under MEMP will be peer- reviewed and revised where possible to accommodate key ReefCheck, BleachWatch and other global initiative indicators. The activities to be financed under this component are grouped under the following sub- components: 2.2.2 Sub-component 2.1 Training and Capacity Building: This sub-component aims to provide training to undertake field data collection and to use „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ for data entry, analysis and decision-making. It will also build capacity in specialised areas relevant to coral reef monitoring. The key outputs of this sub-component would be a developed and tested training module for coral reef data collection, and trained resort and Government staff. The key outcome of this sub-component would be enhanced capacity for use of „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ for data entry, analysis and decision-making by key stakeholders (resort and Government staff), and enhanced technical capacity on specialised areas relevant to coral reef monitoring in Government staff. The main activities included in this sub-component are the following: (i). Development and delivery of training modules and materials (ii). Specialised training on technical aspects relevant to coral reef monitoring Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 2.2.3 Sub-component 2.2 Monitoring of Coral Reefs. This sub-component aims to undertake field data collection using the coral reef monitoring protocols in order to feed into „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟. The key output of this sub-component would be data for at least 1 time dataset for 5 resorts collected using the protocols. The key outcome of this sub-component would be sustained use of field and remote sensing data tools („the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ and „Bleaching Risk Assessment Tool‟) for data entry and analysis by key stakeholders (Government and tourist resorts). The key activities included in this sub-component are: (i). Field monitoring through use of coral reef monitoring protocols (ii). Remote sensing monitoring and decision tools for climate change risk assessment 2.2.4 Sub-component 2.3 Web-enabled Coral Reef Monitoring Framework. This sub-component is aimed at building a web-enabled system for „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟. A tested and fully functional web-enabled framework would be the key output of this sub-component. The key outcome of this sub-component would be sustained use of „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ for data entry, analysis and decision-making by key stakeholders (Government and tourist resorts). The key activity included in this sub-component is web-enabling of coral reef monitoring data and decision tools. 2.2.5 Sub-component 2.4 Dissemination and Policy Inputs. This sub-component is aimed at facilitating extension, mainstreaming and sustainability of „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ through wider dissemination of best practices in participatory coral reef monitoring and inputs for strengthening policy. The key output of this sub-component would be experience exchange workshops and preparation of best practice / policy notes. The key outcome of this sub-component would be extension of „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟ to other regions in the Maldives and its mainstreaming. The key activities included in this sub-component are: (i). Experience exchange workshops (ii). Preparation of best practice / policy notes Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 3 APPROACH TO THE ESDD 3.1 Overall Approach The Environment and Social Due Diligence (ESDD) study has been designed primarily to ensure that the two subject components will comply with the relevant environmental and social safeguard requirements of the Government of Maldives (GoM) and the World Bank. In addition to the ESDD tasks, activities were carried out to provide support for optimisation of the environmental and social management of the two projects. Some field studies of topography and hydrology, along with conceptual modelling of the hydrological function of the wetlands syatems were carried out. These latter studies provide initial guidance to the future project team in terms of hydrological interactions, constraints and opportunities on the islands of Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo. The exact activities to be conducted within the subject components are not yet known. The estimation of their likely effects and the recommendations for mitigation are therefore somewhat generic, but are focussed on the specific natural and social environments of the islands. Whilst the ESDD studies were wide-ranging, the time allowed for the studies and reporting was tightly constrained. In the circumstances, the study outputs have been somewhat limited by the timescale. In particular, it should be recognised that this study was an ESDD, so it has not been as extensive or detailed as would be expected in an Environmental & Social Impact Assessment (ESIA). The study team was conscious of the time imperative of this study, and has endeavoured to adhere to the schedule stated in the Inception Report. The table in Appendix 1 lists the activities and consultation meetings that were conducted during the study. 3.2 Flood Protection and Wetlands Conservation Component The activities listed below were undertaken for both of the wetland islands: Initial desk study followed by literature review ongoing throughout the study period (identifying, obtaining and analysing relevant secondary information and data). Briefing by MoHE and EPA 20-21 June 2011. Field visit to each of the islands: o Fuvahmulah 15-22 June 2011. o Hithadhoo 22-29 June 2011. Stakeholder consultations - identification of and meetings with primary and secondary stakeholders: local residents, atoll and island councils and councillors, council technical staff, contractors on both islands, together with concerned staff of MoHE, EPA and other government agencies in Male'. Specifically for the SDD, meetings were held on the islands with NGOs, farmers, fishermen, teachers, housewives, youth, etc. Household surveys - design and implementation of a simple household survey for the SDD focusing on wetland use, flooding, and community attitudes on both islands. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Social assessment - assessment of the potential positive and negative impacts of the likely sub-components, on the basis of the results of the surveys and the consultations. Preliminary environmental assessment – assessment of the potential positive and negative impacts of the likely sub-components, on the basis of the results of the surveys and the consultations. Review - of the relevant legislation and policies with respect to environmental protection, land acquisition, resettlement and gender, to assess their applicability to the project. Analysis and reporting - analysis of the information gathered, and preparation of the various EDD and SDD reports. 3.3 Approach to the EDD for the Coral Monitoring Component Part of this EDD was based on consultations held with potential monitoring participants. This was done both at the workshop held for resort representatives on 19th June 2011, and through existing contacts with the professional diver fraternity in the tourism sector of the Maldives. A review was also made of international best practice guidelines for dive monitoring of corals to determine which would be the most appropriate to apply to the component. All such guidelines are largely designed to address the protection of corals from damage during monitoring. So, in addition, the ESDD developed some further guidelines to address the broader environmental protection and safety issues. 3.4 The ESDD Team The team that conducted the ESDD is listed in Table 3.1 below. Table 3.1 Core Team Members of the ESDD Team Topic Position Name Environmental Impact Team Leader and EIA Specialist Dr Paul Driver Assessment (NKUK) Mr Derek Johnson EIA and Water Quality Specialist (NKUK) Coral Reef Ecology Coral Reef Specialist (Seamarc) Mr Thomas le Berre Community Consultation International Community Consultation Mr James Ramsay and Social Impact and Social Development Specialist Assessment (NKUK) Ms Marie Saleem Local Community Consultation and Social Development Specialist (Seamarc) Surveying & Hydraulic Hydraulic Engineer / Modeller (NKUK) Mr Ken Edworthy Modelling Surveyor / Hydraulic Engineer (Seamarc) Mr Thomas le Berre In addition, Seamarc provided field staff for the topographical and water level surveys in the two wetland islands. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The Consultant‟s field team was accompanied by Mr. Abdullah Mohamed from MoHE, Mr. Rifath Naeem from EPA on Fuvahmulah, and Mr Hussain Ibrahim from EPA on both Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo. Their assistance and support during the field visits is acknowledged with thanks. The team would like to thank all of the staff of the Atoll Councils and Hithadhoo Town Board for their warm welcome to their islands, and for all of the assistance provided during the execution of the field work. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 4 REVIEW OF REGULATORY AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 4.1 Republic of Maldives Environmental Regulations 4.1.1 Introduction The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water (MEEW) originally held the mandates for protection and preservation of environment. Under a reorganisation of the ministries in December 2008, the responsibility for the environment was taken over by the Ministry of Housing, Transport and the Environment (MHTE). Subsequently, in January 2011, the ministries were further reorganised, and the Ministry for Housing and Environment took responsibility for the environment. In this respect, the Ministry of Housing and Environment formulates policies, law, regulations and rules on environmental protection and conservation. The Project will be required to comply with the national environmental legislation, in particular that relating to protected areas, EIA for engineering works, compensation for loss of land and the cutting down of trees. The key aspects of the legislation are described in the following sections. 4.1.2 The Environment Protection and Preservation Act (4/93) The basic environment law, Law No.4/93 Environment Protection and Preservation Act of Maldives (EPPA) was enacted in April 1993 as an umbrella law to protect and preserve the environment of the country. The main elements of the EPPA are as follows: Introduction: 1. The natural environment and its resources are a national heritage that needs to be protected and preserved for the benefit of future generations. The protection and preservation of the country‟s land and water resources, flora and fauna as well as the beaches, reefs and lagoons and all natural habitats are important for the sustainable development of the country Environmental Guidance: 2. The concerned government authority shall provide the necessary guidelines and advise on environmental protection in accordance with the prevailing conditions and needs of the country. All concerned parties shall take due considerations of the guidelines provided by the government authorities. Environmental Protection and Conservation: 3. The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water shall be responsible for formulating policies, as well as rules and regulations regarding the environment in areas that do not already have a designated government authority already carrying out such functions. Protected Areas and Natural Reserves: 4. (a) The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] shall be responsible for identifying protected areas and natural reserves and for drawing up the necessary rules and regulations for their protection and preservation. (b) Anyone wishing to establish any such area as mentioned in (a) of this clause, as a protected area or a reserve shall register as such at the ministry of Environment, Energy Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] and abide by the rules and regulations laid by the Ministry Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): 5. (a) An impact assessment study shall be submitted to the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] before implementing any development project that may have a potential impact on the environment (b) The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] shall formulate the guidelines for EIA and shall determine the projects that need such assessment as mentioned in paragraph (a) of this clause. The Termination of Projects: 6. The Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] has the authority to terminate any project that has any undesirable impact on the environment. A project so terminated shall not receive any compensation Waste Disposal, Oil and Poisonous Substances: 7. (a) Any type of waste, oil, poisonous gases or any substance that may have harmful effect on the environment shall not be disposed within the territory of the Maldives. (b) In case where the disposal of the substance stated in paragraph (a) of this clause becomes absolutely necessary, they shall be disposed only within the areas designated for the purpose by the government. If such waster is to be incinerated, appropriate precautions shall be taken to avoid any harm to the health of the population. Hazardous/ Toxic or Nuclear Wastes: 8. Hazardous/Toxic or Nuclear Wastes that is harmful to human health and the environment shall not be disposed anywhere within the territory of the country. Permission shall be obtained from the relevant government authority at least 3 months in advance for any trans-boundary movement of such wastes through the territory of the Maldives. The Penalty for Breaking the Law and Damaging the Environment 9. (a) The penalty for minor offenses in breach of this law or any regulations made under this law, shall be a fine ranging between Rf 5.00 (five Rufiyaa) and Rf 500.00 (five hundred Rufiyaa) depending on the actual gravity of the offence. The fine shall be levied by the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] or by any other government authority designated by the ministry. (b) Except for those offenses that are stated in (a) of this clause, all major offenses, under this law shall carry a fine of not more than Rf 100,000,000.00 (one hundred million Rufiyaa) depending on the seriousness of the offense. The fine shall be levied by the Ministry of Environment, Energy and Water [now the Ministry of Housing and Environment] Compensation: 10. The government of Maldives reserves the right to claim compensation for all the damages that are caused by the activities that are detrimental to the environment. This include all the activities that area mentioned in clause 7 of this law as well as those activities that take place outside the projects that are identified here as environmentally damaging. Definition: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 11. This law: (a) The “environment� means all the living and non-living things that surround and effects the lives of human beings. (b) A “project� is any activity that is carried out with the purpose of achieving a certain social or economic objective. 4.1.3 The Regulation on Environmental Liabilities (Regulation No. 2011/R-9) The objective of this regulation is to prevent actions violating the Environmental Protection and Preservation Act 4/93 and to ensure compensations for all the damages that are caused by activities that are detrimental to the environment. The regulation sets mechanisms and standards for different types of environmental liabilities and equal standards that shall be followed by the implementing agency while implementing the regulation. According to this regulation the Government of Maldives reserves the right to claim compensation for all the activities which have breached the Environmental Protection and Preservation Act 4/93. 4.1.4 Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2007 Any requirement to carry out civil engineering works, such as construction of additional drainage channels, or changes to the operation of the existing drainage channels (the four on Fuvahmulah and the one on Hithadhoo) would need to comply with the requirements of the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulations, 2007. The requirement for and the regulations relating to the preparation of Environmental Impact Assessments are set out in the Environment Impact Regulations, 2007 which are enforced under Environment Protection and Preservation Act (Law No. 4/93). 4.1.5 Cutting, uprooting and moving trees from one island to another, Reg/493 Any removal of trees to improve the functioning of drainage channels or the construction of new channels would be required to comply with the regulations relating to the cutting down and/or removal of trees. Such projects relating to impacts on trees can only commence upon approval from Ministry of Housing and Environment. Article 8 of the regulation requires permission to be obtained if more than ten coconut palms that have grown to height of 15ft are to be removed. Article 2 (d) of the regulation also enforces replacement of the vegetation that is lost as a result of re-plantation. 4.1.6 Regulation on Sand and Aggregate Mining This regulation addresses sand mining from islands and bird nesting sand bars. Sand and aggregate mining from beaches of any island whether inhabited or uninhabited is banned for protection of the islands. Permissions for sand and aggregate mining from other areas shall be obtained from the relevant authorities. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 4.1.7 Regulation on Coral Mining (1990) This regulation is only applicable to coral mining from the „house reef‟ of islands and the atoll rim reefs. 4.1.8 Tourism Act: Law no. 2/99. Although the large part of this Law relates to the establishment and operation of Resort Islands, the section ‟On Tourist Hotels and Tourist Guesthouses‟ will be relevant. The clauses of the Act which would be applicable to the establishment of small hotels or guesthouses, the approach favoured by the islanders on Fuvahmulah, are as follows: (The clause numbers are those in the particular sections of the Act). 17. Neither a tourist hotel nor a tourist guesthouse shall be operated in the Maldives except after registering the same at the Ministry of Tourism and after obtaining a licence issued by the Ministry to operate such establishments. 18. A licence to operate a tourist hotel or a tourist guesthouse shall be issued to those establishments that satisfy the following conditions:- (a) the building and facilities are in accordance with guidelines made by the Ministry of Tourism; (b) the services determined by the Ministry of Tourism to be necessary at such an establishment are made available at the tourist hotel or tourist guesthouse; (c) the registration fee prescribed in section 21 of this Act is paid; and (d) the establishment is situated on an island determined pursuant to section 4 of this Act for the development of tourism. 19. Where the Government leases any land for development as a tourist hotel or a tourist guesthouse, such a lease shall be made in accordance with the provisions of this Act relating to the leasing of islands or land for development as tourist resorts. Furthermore, the provisions of this Act relating to tourist resorts shall also apply [equally] in respect of tourist hotels and tourist guesthouses. 20. No tourist shall be provided accommodation for payment in any establishment other than a tourist hotel or tourist guesthouse registered and licensed under this Act or a tourist resort or tourist vessel licensed under this Act. 21. Every tourist hotel or tourist guesthouse shall he registered upon payment of a registration fee of MRf 10,000 in the case of a tourist hotel and MRf 5,000 in the case of a tourist guesthouse. 4.1.9 Other Policies which may be related to the Projects  National Solid Waste Management Policy for the Republic of Maldives (2008)  Ministry of tourism regulations and circulars  Agriculture Development Master Plan, as contained in the National Development Action Plan (NDAP) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 4.2 Ministry of Housing and Environment The Project will be carried out under the auspices of the Ministry of Housing and Environment, which was established by the President under the powers granted to him by the Constitution of the Republic of Maldives. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent regulatory organisation affiliated to the Ministry of Housing and Environment and operates under the guidance of a governing board. The EPA would be the body responsible for overseeing the project, particularly in relation to impacts on the environment. 4.2.1 Mandate of the Environmental Protection Agency The mandate of the EPA is as followsi. (i). Planning and administering the protection of places and living species that are designated to be protected according to the provisions of the Environment Act (ii). Drawing up the guidelines and standards of the Environmental Impact Assessment that is required before the implementation of any project that may have an impact on the environment of the Maldives. (iii). Carrying out all tasks related to the implementation of the Maldives Environment Act. (iv). Implementing the Environmental Impact Assessment Regulation. (v). Carrying out the conservation processes deemed necessary based on data gathered regarding the erosion of islands due to natural or human activity. (vi). Drawing up the guidelines and standards for environmentally safe procedures for waste management, and monitoring to ensure that these guidelines and standards are met by those carrying out waste management. (vii). Introducing a system of valuation of the environment in order to recoup any loss to the environment, and implementing this activity. (viii). Implementing the regulations set by the Ministry for the protection of the island environment, and monitoring adherence to the regulations and legislation developed for the protection of the environment by government and private parties, and providing advice to relevant government organizations on these issues. (ix). Issuing licenses for water and sanitation services, and the management of solid waste and sewerage, and to ensure that parties issued such licenses comply with the terms of the licenses. (x). Drawing up guidelines, regulations and standards for the management of solid waste and sewerage, and ensuring that providers of water services follow these standards. (xi). Setting the standards for fee-charging by private providers of water services and providers of solid waste and sewerage disposal or destruction, issuing permits for such charges, checking on the submissions of the users of such services, and taking action to protect the interests of both sides. (xii). Carrying out scientific research and experiments, developing a knowledge base in this area, and disseminating this data to those who require it. (xiii). Researching the changes to the beaches of islands and the causes of beach erosion, and providing advice to solve these issues. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report (xiv). Obtaining data on the formation and changes to the islands of the Maldives through the use of satellite imagery and aerial photography, obtaining the data needed for the geographic information system, and providing for the dissemination of this data. (xv). Identifying the impacts of land reclamation, harbour development and reef blasting, researching ways of carrying out such activity in an environment-friendly manner, and providing the data and experience gained to relevant organizations. (xvi). Conducting research and experiments on the environmental pollution in the Maldives, and providing data and professional advice. (xvii). Conducting research on the taxonomy and habitats of living organisms, and providing data and sharing the experiences with relevant organizations. (xviii). Conducting research and experiments regarding environmentally friendly biotechnology and biosafety, and providing data and professional advice (xix). Conducting research and experiments regarding the implementation and monitoring of various projects on energy, developing a knowledge base in this area and disseminating this data to those who require it. (xx). Planning, administering and monitoring issues relating to the physical oceanography of the Maldives. (xxi). Monitoring the gases, smoke and particulates in the atmosphere, gathering and monitoring data on these issues, and making it available to relevant parties. (xxii). Conducting scientific research into the available sources of potable water in the Maldives, monitoring such data, and making it available to relevant parties. (xxiii). Conducting research to identify natural sources of energy in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of the Maldives. (xxiv). Accumulating the environmental data required for the planning of development projects, developing a knowledge base in this area, and disseminating this data to those who require it. 4.3 Republic of Maldives Social Regulations 4.3.1 Land The 2008 Constitution vests all land in the State and bans foreign ownership of land. It is understood that Government is reviewing land-related legislation to bring it into line with the constitution and current development policy. Meanwhile, matters relating to land are governed by the provisions of the Maldivian Land Act and Regulations of 2002, as subsequently amended. The Act empowers Government to allocate land for five purposes:  The construction of households and buildings for residential purposes;  For commercial use;  For social use;  For environmental protection;  For government use. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Under the Act, all Maldivian citizens who do not have a place of residence are entitled to a parcel of land for residential purposes, entitled a "state dwelling". Such parcels are issued by the respective Atoll Office and must not exceed 4,000 ft2 (372 m2). The parcel is forfeit if not developed ("settled") within five years. State dwellings are heritable and divisible, down to no smaller than 600 ft2 (56 m2). State dwellings can be privatised by purchase from the government. Conversion to non- residential purposes is possible subject to compliance with land use policy, and a permit. Sales of private land attract a 15% tax. Buildings, trees and other assets on land belong to the owner of the land or official user of the land, unless third-party ownership can be proven under Shari'ah. Land for agriculture is allocated to residents by island administrations on an annual renewable basis. The land remains government property. No rent is paid, but the plots are generally small and the system provides little security or incentive to invest in and improve the landii. It is understood that the Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MoAF) is preparing an Agricultural Land Act to address these issues, with assistance from the UN Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO). When land is required for public projects, it is understood that the legal owner or registered user is compensated on a land-for-land basis, with fixed assets being paid for at fair market price. According to a recent President‟s Office Press Release (Ref. No. 2011-374), the Cabinet has decided to establish the Maldives Land and Survey Authority. The Authority will conduct surveys and collect and update information on the most beneficial use of lands, lagoons and reefs of the Maldives, and formulate and implement cadastral survey standards. 4.3.2 Gender The 2008 Constitution bans discrimination on grounds of sex except as prescribed by Islamic Shari'ah. This sits uneasily with the Maldives' earlier commitments to international agreements including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination (CEDAW) in 1993 and the CEDAW Optional Protocol in 2006 (with reservations on Articles 7 (a) and 16). The Maldives is also signatory to a number of international instruments addressing gender equality including the Commonwealth Action Plans on Gender Equality, and is party to all major human rights treaties, with the exception of the Conventions on the Rights of Migrant Workers and their Familiesiii. A National Policy on Gender Equality was passed in 2006, and as of 2009 was being revised: the National Gender Equality Policy (draft 1) was founded on the fundamental principle of Equality for All, enshrined in the 2008 Constitution. The vision is “a just society where…., women enjoy fundamental rights and freedoms on a basis of equality of men and women….. participate in and benefit from democracy and development both in public and private life� (UNDP, 2010). A National Policy on Gender Equality of Women and Men is available from the Ministry of Gender and Family's website, in Dhivehi. The President acts as the Gender Focal Point for the National Planning Council and is dedicated to gender leadership and the implementation of gender strategies, policies and plans. Gender Focal Points have been established in all line-Ministries to co-ordinate and network leading to a coherent approach to gender mainstreaming in their respective ministries (UNDP, 2010). Formerly, the Department of Gender and Family Protection Services of the Ministry of Health and Family (MoHF) was the lead agency for gender mainstreaming and Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report promoting gender equality in national government, but it is now the Ministry of Gender and Family (MoGF). Analyses of gender issues in the Maldives are available in, for example, ADB's 2007 Gender and Development Assessmentiv (ADB, 2007), UNDP's 2010 Situational Analysis (UNDP, 2010), and FAO's factsheet on Women in Agriculture, Environment and Rural Production (FAO, undated). 4.3.3 Other Social Laws Legislation relating to human rights and labour is listed in Table 4.1 below. Table 4.1 Human Rights and Labour Law Year Name Details 1984 International Convention on the Accession 24 April 1984 Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination 1990 Prevention of Terrorism Act (Act The Act prohibits acts of terrorism, and No.10/1990) imposes severe punishment for offenders. 1991 Convention on the Rights of the Child 1991 Ratified 11 February 1991 1993 Convention on the Elimination of All Accession 1 July 1993 Forms of Discrimination Against Women 2002 Optional Protocol to the Convention on Ratified 10 May 2002 the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography 2004 Convention Against Torture and other Accession 20 April 2004 Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment Optional Protocol to the Convention on Ratified 29 December 2004 the Rights of the Child on the involvement of children in armed conflict 2006 Human Rights Commission Act (Act Established the Human Rights No. 6/2006) Commission as an independent legal entity mandated to protect, promote and sustain human rights in the Maldives, and to assist NGOs. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Year Name Details Human Rights Commission of Maldives The Human Rights Commission of the Maldives was first established on 10 December 2003 as an independent and autonomous statutory body by Decree by the President of the Republic of the Maldives. The Commission was later re-established under the Human Rights Commission's Act in 2006. The aim of the Commission is to lead the promotion and protection of Human Rights under the Maldives Constitution, Islamic Shari'ah and regional and international Human Rights Conventions ratified by the Maldives. Although the Human Rights Commission currently focuses mainly on the public sector, the Commission also works with the private sector, specifically in creating awareness on human rights issues. Optional Protocol to the International Ratified 19 September 2006 Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (OPICCPR) International Covenant on Economic, Ratified 19 September 2006 Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) Optional Protocol to the Convention on Ratified 13 March 2006 the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women Optional Protocol to the Convention Accession 22 June 2006 (founding Against Torture and Other Cruel, member) Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment 2008 Employment Act (Act No. 2/2008) Specifies the rights and duties of employers and employees. The Employment Act specifically prohibits forced labour, discrimination at the work place, and child labour. 2009 Pension Act (Act No. 8/2009) Mandates upon every employer to enroll all employees on a defined contribution pension scheme. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Year Name Details Employment Tribunal The Tribunal was established pursuant to the Employment Act with the objectives of examining and arbitrating legal matters arising in the work environment between the employer and employee and any matters ascribed to the Employment Tribunal pursuant to the Employment Act or any other Act or regulation or under any agreement, in an expeditious and simple manner. 2010 The Convention on the Rights of Ratified 1 April 2010 Persons with Disability (CRPD) Sexual Harassment Bill [under Defining sexual harassment in work development] place and assigns responsibilities for prevention of different stakeholders of such acts and sets out penalties for the offenders. other The President of Maldives Award for The Award was established to Human Resource Development in the encourage hoteliers and resort operators Tourism Industry to invest and contribute towards training and development of staff in order to demand for qualified staff within the tourism industry. Source: FJS Consulting (2010) 4.4 World Bank Safeguard Policies The World Bank has a number of Operational Policies (OPs) and Bank Procedures (BPs) concerning environmental and social issues, which together are referred to as the Bank‟s „Safeguard Policies‟. If, during the development of a project, it is considered that it is possible that a proposed project activity could be the subject of one of the safeguard policies, that policy is considered to have been „triggered‟. In the subsequent development of the project, that activity must be considered in more detail to determine whether it is actually of no concern, or adequate mitigation can be applied to address the concern, or the activity should be removed from the project (or the whole project should be dropped). The sections 4.4.1 to 4.4.4 below address those Safeguard Policies that have been triggered by the project under review, and the actions that have been taken to ensure that the requirements of those policies will be satisfied in the further development of the project. Safeguard Policies Triggered by the WCCM Project Yes No Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01) √ Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) √ Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Pest Management (OP 4.09) √ Physical Cultural Resources (OP/BP 4.11) √ Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12) √ Indigenous Peoples (OP/BP 4.10) √ Forests (OP/BP 4.36) √ Safety of Dams (OP/BP 4.37) √ Projects in Disputed Areas (OP/BP 7.60) √ Projects on International Waterways (OP/BP 7.50) √ 4.4.1 Environmental Assessment (OP/BP 4.01) At project preparation stage, any negative environmental or social impacts associated with the WCCM project were expected to be limited, i.e. they would be site-specific, few (if any) would be irreversible, and in most cases they could be readily mitigated. The project was therefore screened by the World Bank as Category B in relation to environmental assessment (EA) requirements, and the project triggers the Environmental Assessment safeguard policy (OP/BP 4.01). The purpose of conducting an environmental assessment (EA) is to identify environmental and social consequences of the proposed sub-projects or components, in order to:  Ensure the identification of potential environmental issues and social concerns early in the implementation of a proposed project to incorporate necessary safeguards in project design in order to prevent potential adverse impacts by determining appropriate mitigation and compensation measures;  Minimise risks and enhance positive impacts/benefits;  Avoid delays and extra costs which may subsequently arise due to unanticipated environmental and social problems;  Ensure that the concerns of residents and affected communities are addressed; and  Identify the potential for maximising environmental resources management and socio- economic benefits to local communities within the scope of the sub-project. The Environmental Assessment safeguard policy acknowledges that the assessment required for Category B can be narrower than the Environmental & Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) stipulated for a Category A project. The nature of the assessment will vary from project to project, and in the case of the WCCM project an Environmental & Social Due Diligence study (ESDD) was deemed to be appropriate. Conduct of the present ESDD has confirmed this to be an appropriate type and level of EA for this Category B project, and OP/BP 4.01 is therefore considered to have been satisfied for this stage of project preparation. 4.4.2 Other World Bank Safeguard Policies At the project preparation stage, it was considered that the WCCM project would also „trigger‟ the following two safeguard policies: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04)  Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12). 4.4.3 Natural Habitats (OP/BP 4.04) OP/BP 4.04 was triggered because the project area includes the Protected Area of Eidhigalhi Kilhi (lake/wetland) in Hithadhoo and the Environmentally Sensitive Areas of Maamendhoo (Maa) Kulhi in Hithadhoo and the Fuvahmulaku Bandara and Dhandi Magu Kulhis in Fuvahmulah. The main test for this safeguard policy is whether the project „will involve the significant conversion or degradation of critical natural habitats‟ (each of the terms in this phrase is defined in OP 4.04). As is made clear in the technical parts of this report, none of the interventions considered / proposed within the present ESDD study would cause such conversion or degradation. In addition, screening protocols and mitigation guidelines have been provided to ensure that any interventions considered in future within the project itself will not cause conversion or degradation of the wetlands, or adverse social implications arising therefrom. Moreover, recommendations have been made for actions that should be taken to reverse or reduce the effects of past activities that have resulted in conversion and/or degradation of parts of the wetland habitats, and for actions that will contribute to the future conservation of the protected areas. At project preparation, the coral reef monitoring component was not expected to lead to significant adverse environmental or social issues. Certain operational environmental, health and safety issues were expected to arise during the monitoring work. These have been anticipated within the ESDD study, and guidelines (based on existing international best practices) have been provided. The present report also identifies the need for basic training in precautionary practices for the co-operating professional resort divers who will be conducting the monitoring work. 4.4.4 Involuntary Resettlement (OP/BP 4.12). OP/BP 4.12 was triggered because it was considered that some of the potential investments in the wetland areas might lead to the loss of land or structures and/or the loss of access to areas of importance for livelihood support. These issues have been taken into consideration whilst conducting the ESDD, and none of the interventions that have been considered / proposed by the present study would cause such problems. Moreover, the screening protocols and mitigation guidelines referred to under OP/BP 4.04 above will ensure that any interventions considered in future within the project itself will not cause involuntary resettlement. As an „insurance‟ for this issue, an outline Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) has been provided (see section 4.4.5 below), so that if any resettlement issues should arise they can be resolved satisfactorily. 4.4.5 Resettlement Policy Framework Introduction It is not expected that people will be displaced by actions undertaken as part of the projects. Indeed, the avoidance of a need for resettlement is one of the sub-component screening criteria. However, given that the sub-components to be developed cannot be known at the ESDD stage, a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) has been provided below as an „insurance‟ that resettlement issues can be addressed in the event that they do arise during project implementation. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report This RPF is generic. The detailed social impacts of individual sub-components cannot be known until the sub-components are proposed and designed. Similarly, it is not possible to include material such as an entitlement matrix at this stage, because that would also be specific to the sub-component concerned. Broad Principles This 'framework‟ aims to outline the principles to be applied in the resettlement and rehabilitation of any project affected persons (PAPs) so that they do not suffer adverse effects from the project and they improve, or at the minimum retain, their previous standard of living, earning capacity and production levels. The resettlement actions should minimise dependency and be sustainable socially, economically and institutionally. Special attention must be paid to improvement of the living standards of any vulnerable or marginalised groups. The broad principles of the policy are as follows:  Adverse impacts on persons affected by the project should be avoided to the extent possible.  Where adverse impacts are unavoidable, the PAPs will be assisted in improving or regaining their standard of living. Vulnerable groups will be identified and assisted to improve their standard of living.  All information related to resettlement preparation and implementation will be disclosed to all concerned, and community participation will be included within planning and implementation.  Individuals losing land, house or other assets will be consulted for mitigation measures well before the required land is taken.  Persons affected by the project who do not own land or other property but who have an economic interest in it or will lose their livelihoods (e.g. tenants and squatters), will be assisted as per the broad principles of this policy.  A valuation exercise will be undertaken in advance of project implementation in order to value any land or assets that may be needed by the project, either temporarily or permanently.  A census and socio-economic survey of affected communities will also be undertaken.  PAPs who will permanently lose land or access to land should be offered alternative land if practicable, or financial compensation if not.  Any financial compensation should be at full present market replacement cost, including all legal and removal fees.  All replacement land and compensation payments should be provided before the start of any project work.  Any PAPs losing their homes will be provided with assistance with removal and ongoing rehabilitation.  If PAPs are to be resettled, the host community, if any, should be consulted in advance and, if needed, specific measures should be provided to address their concerns. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  If necessary, an entitlement framework of different categories of PAPs should be prepared and budgeted for. (However, anyone moving into the project area after a specific cut-off date will not be entitled to compensation or assistance.)  An appropriate grievance redress mechanism will be established at project level to ensure the prompt resolution of any complaints or disputes.  All activities related to the planning, implementation, and monitoring of resettlement should include the involvement of women and vulnerable groups.  All consultations with PAPs shall be documented. Consultations will continue during the implementation of resettlement and rehabilitation.  If appropriate, a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) will be prepared by the proponents, including a fully itemised budget and an implementation schedule. Definitions The following definitions are used in the documents and/or can be used during the project: (i). Cut-off Date: The cut-off-date shall be the date of start of the census and socio- economic survey undertaken by the project authority. (ii). Project Affected Person: PAPs are those who stand to lose all or part of their physical and non-physical assets including homes, productive land, community resources, commercial properties; livelihood; and socio-cultural network. (iii). Project Displaced Person: A displaced person is a person who is compelled to change his/her place of residence and/or workplace or place of business, due to the project. (iv). Project Affected Family: A family whose primary place of residence or other property or source of livelihood is adversely affected by the acquisition of land for a project or involuntary displacement for any other reason (v). Family: A „family‟ is a man and woman sharing a household, along with their dependants including parents and children. (vi). Vulnerable Person: A person who is poor, physically or mentally disabled/handicapped, destitute, disadvantaged for ethnic or social reasons, an orphan, a widow, a person above sixty years of age, or a woman heading a household. (vii). Entitled Person: A person adversely affected by the project who is entitled to some kind of assistance as per the project entitlement framework (viii). Host Community: People living in or around areas to which people physically displaced by a project will be resettled who, in turn, may be affected by the resettlement. The Process Declaration of the project and its impact zone Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report As the first step in the process, the Government of Maldives or the City, Atoll or Island Council will inform the community well in advance about the project, its features and its likely adverse and positive impacts. Social Screening: Identification and Categorization of Impacts The purpose of screening is to provide an overview of the nature, scale and magnitude of the issues, in order to determine the need for conducting a Social Impact Assessment (SIA) and preparing a Resettlement Action Plan (RAP). After identifying the issues, the applicability of the Bank‟s social safeguard policies is established, along with the local regulatory requirements. Based on this screening, the boundaries and focus areas for the SIA, along with the use of specific instruments, are determined. Social Impact Assessment (SIA) The project will undertake a survey for the identification of the persons and their families likely to be affected by the project. The survey must include: Members of families who are residing, practicing any trade, occupation or vocation in the project affected area Project Affected Families who are likely to lose their house, homestead, commercial establishment, agricultural land, employment or are alienated wholly or substantially from the main source of their trade, occupation or vocation, or who will lose any other immovable property or their source of livelihood. People losing access to private property or common property resources. The survey results will be disseminated among the affected community. Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) Based on the social impact assessment survey, the project will prepare an action plan to minimise and/or mitigate the adverse impacts as identified during the survey. The draft mitigation plan in the form of a comprehensive resettlement action plan (RAP) will be again disseminated among the affected individuals / community. The feedback received from the affected groups will be incorporated to the extent possible before finalisation of the RAP. The RAP will take into account the magnitude of impacts and accordingly prepare for Bank approval a resettlement plan that is consistent with the above principles before the sub-project is accepted for Bank financing. The cost of RAP implementation will be entirely dependent upon the nature and scale of the social mitigation / compensation required for the subject sub- project. RAPs should include the following details: (i). The extent of the area to be taken for the sub-project; (ii). A list of project affected families and the likely number of persons to be displaced by impact category; (iii). The extent and nature of land and other immovable property in the affected zone, by family; (iv). A list of the names of persons whose livelihood depends on the natural resources of the project area; Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report (v). A list of persons who have lost or are likely to lose their employment or livelihood, or who have been alienated wholly and substantially from their main sources of occupation or vocation consequent upon the acquisition of land and / or structures for the project; (vi). A list of occupiers, to include tenants and informal occupiers / „squatters‟. (vii). A list of public utilities and Government buildings which are likely to be affected (viii). A comprehensive list of compensation and benefit packages which are to be provided to project affected families by impact category; (ix). Details of the extent of land available for resettling and allotting land to the project affected families; (x). Details of the basic amenities and infrastructure facilities which are to be provided for resettlement; (xi). The time schedule for shifting and resettling the displaced families; (xii). The ongoing support to be provided to resettled families, including any necessary help in re-establishing their livelihoods; (xiii). Arrangements for monitoring the resettlement process. Benefits for Project Affected Families Resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) benefits must be extended to all the Project Affected Families. The details of such benefits should be defined within an entitlement matrix. The entitlement matrix will be very much project-specific, so cannot be defined hypothetically. Given that displacement / resettlement within the WCCM project will be highly unlikely, no attempt has been made to define likely benefits at this stage. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 5 HYDROLOGICAL AND WATER LEVEL STUDY FUVAHMULAH 5.1 General hydrological situation and pathways The island of Fuvahmulah is about 5km in length and between one and 1.3km across; it occupies an area of over 5.4km2 and its long axis is aligned slightly north of NNW. The surface of the island takes the form of a very shallow bowl with two „kilhis‟1 at medial low points, making up two small linked sub-catchments. The relatively thick, highly porous unconsolidated shell and coral sands overlie cemented beach rock which forms an extensive hard platform ringing the island. The beach sands which overlie the beach rock appear, from soundings taken during the survey and recent Government soil survey drilling,v,vi to extend beneath the Dhadimagu Kilhi, the northern of the two wetlands. Beneath the southern part of the same wetland and also Bandaraa Kilhi in the southern-most wetland there are „clays‟ exceeding 1 metre depth and a high capacity aquifer covered by a soil and shallow coral sand of up to 2.5m depth – because of the peculiar topography, the groundwater level is deepest near the shore of the island. 5.2 Topographic Surveys and Contour Maps The highest point on Fuvahmulah occurs at a point on the crest of the very steep beaches which form a protective rim around the island ranging in elevation from 3-4m above MSL. The total area of the island is 540ha. The initial steep slope inwards, slackens within 100- 150m to a gentle gradient inwards towards the two water bodies, Dhadimagu Kilhi (c. 6.6 ha) in the north of the island and Bandara Kilhi (c. 6.1 ha) in the south. These two areas of surface water are linked topographically by an intervening low-lying area broadly along the east-central part of the island, which has nevertheless been built upon and is subject to flooding. A contour map of the island has been generated by combining data from two topographic surveys. A survey was carried out in year 2008 specifically for the Fuvahmulah component of the Maldives Tsunami Reconstruction Project, Development of Water Supply and Sewerage Facilities. This established four benchmarks on the island (see Table 5.1) and measured levels along roadways in support of the design of the sewer system. Table 5.1 Locations of benchmarks and levels on Fuvahmulah Name X Y Level (m) BM1 0326395 9965642 2.097 BM2 0326412 9965811 1.807 BM3 0324391 9966997 3.018 BM4 0325209 9967436 2.558 Locations are X and Y co-ordinates in UTM Zone 43 1 A „kilhi‟ is a wetland that includes a body of open water, which may be small. The water body may be fresh or brackish. In the north of the Maldives, the spelling „kulhi‟ is used. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report A specific survey was carried out for the ESDD which focussed on the wetland areas themselves which had not been surveyed as part of the sewerage project. The two data sets were cross-referenced through the benchmarks. The contour map generated from the combined data set is shown in Figure 5.1 below. Interval contours between the integer values shown in the legend are at 0.33m spacing. Figure5.1 Contour map of Fuvahmulah 5.3 Hydrological interactions 5.3.1 Rainfall The dominant features of the hydrology of Fuvahmulah are the relatively high and well distributed rainfall and the very high porosity of the strata above the water table (the unsaturated zone). Other important components of the hydrology of the island are: (i). infiltration from the wetlands directly to the aquifer, (ii). evapo-transpiration from the large areas of natural vegetation, (iii). tidal influence on groundwater and kilhi water level, and (iv). temporary storage of rainwater water on traditional unpaved roads, (v). long-term storage of water in the wetlands Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report (vi). Domestic and commercial abstraction from groundwater wells for washing and toilet flushing The record of daily rainfall over the last 5 years, from data collected by the Island Office and shown in Figure 5.2, illustrates the typical rainfall distribution for the region, with a distinct February-March dry period and a September to December high rainfall period. Figure 4.1 - Fuvahmulah Monthly Rainfall 2006-2010 500 450 400 Average Monthly Rainfall (mm) 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 J F M A M J J A S O N D 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Average Figure 5.2. Monthly Rainfall on Fuvahmulah for the period 2006 to 2010 However, the annual total rainfall data obtained from the Island Office, shown in Figure 5.3, indicates a significant but inexplicable decline over the five-year period. Data over the same period for Gan, Figure 6.3, do not show a matching decline in annual rainfall. Figure 4.2 Fuvahmulah Annual Rainfall 2006-2010 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Figure 5.3. Annual Total Rainfall on Fuvahmulah for the period 2006 to 2010 The January to March dry period, which affects central and northern Maldives more markedly, is nevertheless evident on Fuvahmulah for at least two of the last five years as Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report shown in Table 5.2. Equally clear, is the higher average rainfall for the August-December period, and the slightly higher incidence of >50mm daily rainfall events during this part of the year. 5.3.2 The contribution to flooding from rainfall Six rain days of greater than 100mm/24-hours occurred during the 5-year period, three of which were in August or September. There is a particular flood hazard when two high rainfall days occur together, as discussed below. In general, however, the data suggest a heightened probability for high rainfall during the September - December period. Table 5.2: Monthly and Annual Frequency of Rain Days of >50mm rainfall in 24 hours Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual 2006 1 2 2 2 1 3 11 2007 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 2008 1 1 1 1 2 2 8 2009 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 12 2010 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 10 Month Average 1.0 0.2 0.6 0.4 1.0 0.6 0.4 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.2 9.8 The likelihood of flooding is typically not simply related to the amount within a single rainfall event, but is rather due to two or more days of substantial rain, when the unsaturated zone of the aquifer plays an important role in the storage of water. Although of relatively small thickness, the permeable soil and underlying strata are important because of their very high total porosity (see Appendix 2). This capacity provides a substantial „buffer‟ storage which is probably capable of retaining a 50mm rainfall event and minimising the extent of flood-causing run-off. If further substantial rainfall occurs before this „buffer storage‟ can drain while the strata remain partly saturated, then the rapid onset of run-off and consequent flooding are likely. Additional and substantial space to store part of the run-off is in depressions on the unsealed island roads and is subsequently lost as evaporation. Clays, which seal the road pools, severely impede infiltration of this water back into the aquifer (see Appendix 2). New roads which are planned, and increased urbanisation on the island, will have the effect of increasing the rate and amount of run-off generated, further raising the flood hazard. Unless attention is given to proper control of drainage in the road design, the flood risk will be significantly raised. Typically, run–off from the surface of the island runs towards one of the two wetlands, impeded only by roads and the banks and tracks around cultivated areas (typically Taro around the wetlands and low-lying areas). Flood water ultimately reaching the wetlands can cause flooding for as long as it takes for the water to infiltrate into the aquifer or be drained to the ocean. It is understood that prior to the construction of the present drainage system that the wetlands were drained by means of four or five managed drainage channels, largely on the eastern side of the island. One of the main channels is at the old „landing‟ area, still visible as a low point in the level of the beach ridge. There was a further channel at some point on the south-east side for emergency drainage of flooding from Bandaara Kilhi. These channels were presumably opened and then refilled as needed, and to the extent required. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report As settlement of the lower lying areas nearer to, and also between the wetlands has progressed, so the occasional flooding events have become a more important issue. The modern concrete channel drainage systems at four points around the island, funded by the FAO and constructed in 1983, have since then served to drain the wetlands while maintaining protection from intrusion by the sea. These facilities are still in good overall condition but the various gates for intrusion prevention, and the marine discharge ends of the systems are in need of repair and/or redesign in order to function properly in the particularly challenging coastal environment. Encroachment of taro agriculture around the landward ends of the drainage channels, also threatens to impede the free flow of any flood drainage water, and efforts to control encroachment are being made by the Island Council by use of visible property boundary structures. The drainage arrangements which have been well described in the CCTF Technical Reportvii of April 2011 have been surveyed, and locations are shown in Appendix 3. To prevent seawater intrusion, in the absence of the original gates, the local people currently block the outer length of the drains with a sand plug which has to be dug out in time of need to drain flood water from the wetlands. These had clearly not been disturbed for many years judging from the maturity of the vegetation growing in the sand plugs. This indicates that flooding is not a general or frequent problem in the island, but is rather a local occurrence related to inappropriate development in or around the wetland. 5.3.3 Groundwater Groundwater has been used widely in the past when the population was low and the quality of groundwater remained good. Increasingly, however, with the increase in the population to near 12,000 and continued use of on-site sanitation, groundwater quality is impaired over large areas of the island, such that it is now only used for washing and toilet flushing. Water levels and conductivity measurements in twenty wells were made over the period 18th- 22nd June 2011. The locations of the wells are shown in Figure 5.4 and the results of the monitoring are shown in Table 5.3. Comparison of the well data for two successive dates indicates that groundwater salinity changes little in general, but the water levels in the second round of measurements are lower than the first with only one exception (probably because the visit corresponded with the heavy demand of prayer time). The background effect tending to reduce levels generally, is probably tidal as discussed below in Section 5.3.5. Although the elevated salinity encountered in some of the wells provides little guidance on groundwater contamination, there is unquestionably a significant risk of the transport of micro-organisms from the numerous septic tanks into neighbouring wells, especially where the density of settlement is high. Over fifty people have received hospital treatment for diarrhoea every month over the last three years (apart from the wide range of other infectious diseases reported during the same period). From the present population, large amounts of faecal matter (about 4 tonnes/day of solid matter and 24m3 of liquid human waste) are already being discharged into the aquifer via septic tanks from the rapidly rising population; Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure 5.4. Locations of wells monitored on Fuvahmulah during the ESDD. this suggests that proposals for the construction of a sewerage system could contribute greatly to improvement in public health. Details of the proposed sewerage scheme have not been available to comment upon, but it is recommended that early and careful attention should be paid to proposals for the disposal / re-use of the treated sludge and liquid effluent which will arise. Ideally, treated effluent should be used for groundwater recharge, in order that groundwater will not be depleted. Table 5.3: Well water level and conductivity measurements 18th-22nd June 2011 GW Depth below datum EC @25 0 Red. Level Location (see note) No Location Name Well type 18-Jun 22-Jun 18-Jun 22-Jun 18-Jun 22-Jun X Y 1 1.39 879 Valimagu Private 324534 9967602 2 0.88 1110 Hurage Private 324684 9967741 3 1.08 0.92 1169 1239 Vaifilaage Private 324626 9967879 4 1.05 0.86 773 382 Kedeyre Mosque 324919 9967716 5 1.24 0.7 1107 701 Feyromage Private 324417 9967581 6 1.72 1.34 1207 1238 Movie Disused 324570 9967164 7 1.33 1.75 602 520 Dhadimagu Faluah Mosque 323755 9967942 8 1.59 1.15 680 Plaza Private 323667 9967924 9 1.79 1.57 1450 1490 Inaabaa Mosque 323240 9968172 10 1.47 0.91 800 679 Glory Mosque 323224 9968487 11 2.06 2.045 559 554 Gan Mosque 323684 9968967 12 1.82 1.76 794 801 Noor Mosque 324260 9968581 13 2.79 2.59 1050 Abulu Mosque 324663 9968066 14 1.4 1.07 496 485 Lilly Mosque 324835 9967159 15 1.21 0.86 730 661 Feyrogan Mosque 324920 9966922 16 1.395 587 Disused (by sub-station) Mosque 325053 9966428 17 0.94 0.73 327 344 Vaasho-Veya Airport 325559 9965895 18 2.03 1.89 1245 1330 Hunaadi Mosque 326010 9966538 19 1.715 1.55 731 660 Magi (Masjidhul Halhaaarn) Mosque 325769 9966804 20 2.47 2.32 1810 1449 Hukuru Mosque 325251 9967365 Note: Locations are given as metric co-ordinates in UTM zone-43(S) 5.3.4 Roof Water Conservation Roof run-off, stored in 2.5m3 plastic tanks is used for all potable purposes by most of the population. Current storage capacity (in addition to large fresh water storages held by Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report mosques) is about 0.4m3 per capita in 1,760 tanks. There is clearly scope for much additional rainwater harvesting from the roofs of schools, offices and other public buildings, if required. Water quality in the storage tanks is maintained by the use of manually operated diversion valves which allow the initial washings of the dust, leaf fragments, bird and other small animal faeces to be diverted to normal surface recharge. Mesh screens covering the entrance to the down pipe prevent larger pieces of debris entering the water tank. 5.3.5 Effects of Tidal Fluctuations on Water Levels An indication of the tidal influence on groundwater level has been obtained from a short series of measurements at Monitoring Well No. 17 between 16th and 18th June 2011, and these indicated an amplitude of slightly more than 20cm (between 0.94 and 0.73m below ground level). This particular well is one of the twenty from which some measurements were taken to provide a snapshot of the approximate groundwater level, depth to water and quality in terms of salinity (measured as electrical conductivity). The salinity of the groundwater is influenced by depth in the aquifer and tidal forcing which may give rise to cyclic variation in salinity at a particular point. The measurements made do not indicate that that the salinity of the wetland is likely to be affected by tidal forcing. These few examples of variability illustrate the importance of understanding the significant changes in water levels connected to tidal state, and the inter-relationship between the sea and tidal fluctuation, groundwater, and the water of the wetlands. There is a lag-time in the effect of the tidal change on groundwater, together with a reduction in amplitude depending upon the tidal efficiency of the aquiferviii. The quantitative relationship between the water level in the kilhi and the adjacent open sea, the tidal efficiency of the aquifer, is complex and dependent on a number of variables which include permeability of the bed of the kilhi thickness and permeability of the aquifer. A knowledge of the closeness of the linkage between tide level and kilhi level provides information relating to the ability of the kilhi to store excess water. A pair of water level loggers was deployed at Fuvahmulah to measure changes in water level in the two kilhis in response to changes in external tide level. One logger was deployed for the whole period in the harbour, while the second logger was deployed sequentially in Dhadimagu and Bandaara kilhi. Measurements of water temperature and atmospheric pressure were also made to enable the changes in water level to be normalised for these two variables. Comparison of the amplitude and phase shift of the two curves enables the hydraulic response of the link between the external forcing function of the tide and water level in the kilhi to be evaluated. This hydraulic connection is shown in Appendix 2, together with typical amplitude and phase differences. The measured variations in water level in each kilhi, together with the corresponding variation in sea level are also shown in Appendix 2. The measured tidal range was of the order of 0.6m while that in the two kilhi was 0.03m. For each kilhi the level change between consecutive high and low tide states has been compared with the level change in the kilhi, and the attenuation of amplitude calculated as follows: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report �H Kilhi Attenuatio n  �H Tide Where: �H kilhi = change in water level in the kilhi �H tide = change in water level in the tide The phase lag is the time between tidal high or low water and the corresponding high or low water in the kilhi. The derivation of the values for Dhadimagu and Bandaara kilhi. are shown in Table 5.4. Table 5.4: Responses of water level in Dhadimagu and Bandaara kilhi to the marine tidal cycle Tide Dhadimagu Kilhi Phase Lag Tide Stage Tide dH (m) Kilhi dH (m) Attenuation Level H (m) Time Level (m) Time (hh:mm) HW 3.396 21:54 0.566 09:51 11:57 -0.59 -0.032 0.054 LW 2.806 04:48 0.534 15:15 10:27 HW 3.567 08:38 Tide Bandaara Kilhi Tide Stage Tide dH (m) Kilhi dH (m) Attenuation Phase Lag Level H (m) Time Level (m) Time HW 3.567 11:36 2.642 22:03 10:27 -0.523 -0.027 0.052 LW 3.044 17:30 2.615 03:33 10:03 0.39 0.02 0.051 HW 3.434 22:30 2.635 09:38 11:08 -0.659 -0.03 0.046 LW 2.775 05:30 2.605 14:33 5.3.6 Sea Level Rise The topography of Fuvahmulah is such that rising global sea level poses a threat to the island as a whole in the long term, and the variability of sea level can also have consequences in the short term. Higher mean sea levels would result in the water level at the seaward ends of the existing drains from the wetlands being higher than the sill of the drain, thereby reducing the hydraulic gradient and consequently the flow capacity of the drain. Similar effects will occur at any other drain pipes which are currently discharging to the sea. The current estimate for the rate of sea level rise and an analysis of the variability of short term mean sea levels at Gan is given in Appendix 4. 5.4 Results of hydrological modelling A review of the previous data together with information gathered during the field study, has provided an improved knowledge of the factors surrounding flooding of the wetlands and the actual impacts, but little indication the frequency of flood events. No past floods which could be correlated with rainfall have been documented regarding their depth, extent or drain operation. In fact, no actual records of flooding are maintained by the Island Office, and the results of discussion with local people were disappointing in that they provided no dates. This Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report again suggests that the scale and/or frequency of flooding is not as great as had been expected. The results of the household survey given in Appendix 9, provides more detail of the effect of flooding on individual households. In summary, there is no historic information or understanding of any correlation between the kilhi level, rainfall, tides or the capacity of the aquifer to absorb and transmit water. The team estimated that rainfall onto the island produces about 30,000 m3/d on average, while the daily loss of water back to the atmosphere as evapo-transpiration, is estimated to be about 20,000m3/d; the „balance‟ of the rainwater infiltrates back to the sea through the aquifer directly, or via the kilhi. (This is based on the assumption of an annual average rainfall of 2,000mm and estimated 4mm/d average evapo-transpiration.) In the reclaimed area between the kilhis, the obstruction caused by new raised tracks and taro crop boundaries has meant that any floods drain only very slowly, intensifying the impacts of the event on the local people. The characteristics of the hydrological system containing the kilhis, especially the interconnection between groundwater and surface water beneath the kilhis, is not understood well enough to produce a practically useful model. As the monitoring results given in Appendix 2 show, the tidal level affects the level of groundwater and surface level of the kilhi. With a tidal range of approximately 0.6m, the corresponding change in the kilhis was only approximately 0.03m. To understand the interconnections fully, continuous long term data are needed for groundwater and kilhis, so that it will be possible to distinguish continuous background variations from the impacts of rainfall recharge events on all ground and surface freshwater resources. Significant rainfall events are relatively rare, typically one per month, as shown in Table 5.2. Measurement of the actual response of the water level in the kilhi to such events therefore requires a significant commitment to the establishment of a long term instrumented monitoring programme. 5.5 Proposed physical interventions to address problems A copy of the land-use plan for the island is shown in Figure 5.5. This shows extensive planned development within the western and southern parts of the island together with a road system within the Bandaara Kilhi wetland and within the proposed protected area. The developments already planned involve further stages of road-building, housing, institutional and community facilities, utilities and municipal facilities, industrial and commercial areas. These will reduce the permeable areas currently contributing to infiltration and recharge of the aquifer and will increase the rate of run-off and the risk of flooding. It is critical that the detailed design of the proposed developments incorporate an integrated drainage scheme which will provide adequate drainage and maintain aquifer recharge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure 5.5: Land use plan for Fuvahmulah The only physical remedial works that can be undertaken at this point concern the existing drainage channels. These are summarised in Table 5.5 Table 5.5 Physical interventions proposed for existing drainage systems Location Activity Detail Dhadimagu Kilhi Drain maintenance Both existing Drains 2 and 3 require cleaning and refurbishment and repair/replacement of gates and repair/redesign of discharge end of drain. Bandaraa Kilhi Drain maintenance Drain 1 requires gate repair/replacement and and refurbishment cleaning. Drain 4 discharge is severely impeded by works for the airport. Proper accommodation works to maintain full drainage function is urgent, together with equally urgent consultation over final design for drainage beneath/around the runway. 5.6 Proposed community based management measures for drainage and wetlands Community based management would function through the actions of the island council taking responsibility for measures relating to drainage and wetlands which are developed within the Project. The council must be involved in the development of the measures in the Component to an extent that they take ownership of the processes. These would focus on: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  Co-ordination of plans and actions to facilitate and manage the free drainage of water between areas potentially isolated by raised tracks, field boundaries etc, to enhance drainage after flooding.  Awareness-raising measures for the population as a whole, to emphasise the importance of the emergency drainage channels for the entire population. The community should also consider organising the erection of protective fences along deep open drainage channels, and also crossing points, to reduce dangers to children. 5.7 Removal of alien aquatic weeds The presence of the floating weed Pistia stratiotes (Nile Cabbage) was noticed in Drain 4 at the point where it is culverted under the tarmac road. This alien plant is capable of spreading quickly, and could cause blockage of the drain if not removed. It could also become a pest in the wetland. The local authority has been advised the remove all Pistia from the drain, and then dry and burn it on site. This the Atoll Council and Island Councils have agreed to do (e- mail from Hassan Saeed, president of the Atoll Council dated 9th June 2011). 5.8 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of project activities. There are four activities identified within the Component relating to the hydrology of the island. The activities together with their potential for impacts are summarised in Table 5.6. Table 5.6 Project activities together with their potential for impacts 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments Potential for impact (a) Geo-hydrological assessment study (i) a detailed assessment of the duration, Nil. This will have no direct effect on the land area and number of hydraulic behaviour of the island hydrological households affected by flooding regime. (ii) a set of comprehensive, practical Nil directly. Any effects will take place through recommendations for drainage (iv) the implementation of the action plan. management and flood control that will take into consideration both current and future drainage requirements, as a result of climate change (sea level rise, higher rainfall peaks) and urbanisation and cost- benefit justification for the recommended investments (iii) drainage/flood modelling tool to Positive effect through the application of the inform policy and planning and, model to the planning and design of future training to select personnel in using infrastructure projects will result in the reduction the tool of the risk of flooding. (iv) an action plan containing a set of feasible actions for implementation Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments Potential for impact (with details of costing and time frame) Structural Positive effect through the responsive management of the four existing wetland drainage channels. Incorporation of effective surface water drainage networks into future infrastructure projects, and the retrospective correction of inadequately designed projects will result in a manageable drainage network. This would result in minimisation of the frequency of flooding and provide controlled recharge of the freshwater lens to improve sustainability of existing water resources. Immediate retrospective corrective action must be initiated in relation to the restoration of the drainage function of Drain 4 which is severely compromised as a result of the construction of the runway at the new airport. Non-Structural Positive Effect through the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) procedures for the existing wetland drains which must include an Event- Action Plan which clearly defines actions and individual responsibilities in the event of extreme rain events, extreme tides or storm surges. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 6 HYDROLOGICAL AND WATER LEVEL STUDY HITHADHOO 6.1 General hydrological situation and pathways This island is elongated and aligned approximately NNW-SSE. It is about 11km long and joined by road to Maradhoo to the south. The southern 3km of the island is very narrow and not significant hydrologically. The steep western beach forms a continuous and relatively high boundary, and to the north it curves around eastward to form a boundary between the sea and the northern kilhi, the Eidhigali/Kottay kilhi. The barrier is permeable so the Eidhigali/Kottay kilhis receive fresh inflow from inland groundwater and some sea water also, providing a brackish environment for the fish, birds and flora. The elevation of the beach on the east side is much less where much of the natural beach has been built upon, dredged away or incorporated in reclaimed land. Within the southern area of the island there are two interconnected kilhis, the upstream catchment lying to the south of the second, the Fehele kilhi to the north. Drainage of the two areas of wetland flows into Aari Kilhi, which is a constructed drainage channel into the sea on the east side. The catchments of both kilhis are partly affected by the development of roads, urban areas and a new Convention Centre which is under construction; further road building and urbanisation is planned which will encroach further onto the wetlands. Figure 6.1 shows the land use plan for Hithadhoo showing extensive development around the margins of the Maa and Fehele wetland areas. Discussions with Addu City Council revealed that the planned extensive area of flats to be constructed on the west side of the Maa Kilhi is being reduced in size. Development of individual plots has not yet begun and people who have been allocated plots are being offered plots in other parts of the island. Figure 6.1 Land use plan for Hithadhoo The geology comprises superficial but consolidated beach–rock overlain by shell and coral sand and coarser loose calcareous deposits, and these strata are also the aquifer for the fresh Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report water which forms an extensive „lens‟, the bulk of which now underlies the wider southern end of the island. 6.2 Topographic Surveys and Contour Maps The highest point on the island is about 3.5m above mean sea level, corresponding with the crest of the barrier beach which extends the full length of the northern and western coasts. The island covers an area of approximately 5.3km2, and is the second largest island area in the Maldivesix, and part of a large atoll of three major islands. The slope from the back of the beach inland is relatively gentle, declining by only one metre in a distance of typically about 300m. The general level of the eastern side of the island is at or slightly above 1.0m. The wetlands occupy the lowest areas, and the bed of the lakes are at, or about, mean sea level. Figure 6.2 – Contour map of Hithadhoo (data processing to be completed) 6.3 Hydrological interactions 6.3.1 Introduction The island can be broadly divided into three parts. The northern part which includes the Eidhigali Kilhi which is a brackish water body with a close interaction with the sea along its northern margin. The central urbanised area which includes an area of previous wetland which has been reclaimed and subsequently built on. The southern part of the island which contains the Maa-Fehele wetland and within which the Convention Centre is being constructed together with a system of roads which will effectively box-in the Maa wetland, as shown in Figure 6.3. Figure 6.3. Planned development around Maa Kilhi showing the Convention Centre and associated new roads The factors which mainly determine the flood hazard for the island are the low topography and the high daily rainfall events which occur with some frequency. The high porosity of the soils and underlying strata and the „storage‟ of excess rainfall on the island roads, helps to Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report mitigate the flood risk, but the flood control function of the wetland areas remain significant assets. From discussion with Island Office staff and local people, it is evident that there has been very little flooding in connection with the existing wetlands. Some of the plots adjacent to Aari kilhi were said to flood occasionally, and this appeared to have been attributable to the blocked or simply undersized drainage immediately downstream. 6.3.2 Rainfall The monthly rainfall regime of the island is summarised in Figure 6.4 showing data from Gan weather station. Figure 6.4 Monthly rainfall at Gan for the period 2003 to 2010 The rainfall over the last five years, shown in Figure 6.5, appears to have been characteristic of the long-term pattern when compared with data from Gan Meteorological Office for the period 1981-2010. The annual average over the period 2006-2010 is 2,179mm compared with that of 2,282mm for the longer-term, 1981-2010. Figure 6.5 Annual total rainfall at Gan for the period 2006 to 2010 Annual rainfall over the period has been relatively stable, though with unusually low February rainfall in two of the last five years. Table 6.1 summarises the 2006-2010 daily rainfall data showing the number of rain days with rainfall >50mm, only four of which exceed 100mm; two of which events were in January. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Table 6.1: Monthly and annual frequency of rain days of >50mm rainfall in 24-hours Jan Feb March April May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Annual 2006 2 2 1 1 6 2007 2 1 1 1 1 2 8 2008 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 10 2009 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 9 2010 2 1 1 1 1 2 8 Month Average 1.2 0.6 0,6 0.4 0.8 0.2 1.0 0.2 1.2 0.8 0.2 1.0 8.2 6.3.3 Sea Level Rise The topography of Hithadhoo is such that rising global sea level poses a threat to the island as a whole in the long term, and sea level variability also poses a short term threat. Higher mean sea levels would result in the water level at the seaward end of the existing Aari Kilhi drain from the wetlands becoming higher than the invert of the drain. This would severely impair the hydraulic gradient and consequently the flow capacity of the drain, resulting in a reduction of the rate at which any excess water from the wetland could leave the system. A number of drains have been constructed under the Link Road with the objective of allowing the surface run-off, which accumulates on the landward side of the road during prolonged periods of rain, to drain to the lagoon. Similar effects on reduction in flow due to the effect on the hydraulic gradient will occur at these drain pipes. The present study has calculated the rate of sea level rise to be 3.1mm/year, based on long term measurements of tide levels at Gan. An analysis of the sea level rise and the variability of short term mean sea levels at Gan is given in Appendix 4. 6.3.4 Groundwater The approach in assessing the rôle of groundwater on Hithadhoo has been to determine the depth to water, using this value as an indicator of the capacity of the soil and unsaturated zone to absorb rainfall and also to provide a profile of salinity across the island and in the vicinity of the kilhis. The very high rate of rainfall recharge of 1,200mm per year estimated in recent studiesx suggests that the rate of replenishment should be expected to maintain relatively low salinity in groundwater, by affording dilution to contaminants and maintaining the stability of a thick fresh groundwater lens. The estimated thickness of the lens in recent studies is 8mxi, and for this freshwater aquifer volume the replenishment period is estimated at about 2 years. Fourteen wells spread over Hithadhoo were monitored during the period of fieldwork. Depth to groundwater and electrical conductivity were measured on one occasion at each well. Table 6.2 identifies the wells together with the results of the measurements carried out. The number of each well shown in the table is used in Figure 6.6 to indicate the location of the individual wells. Table 6.2. Details of fourteen monitoring wells on Hithadhoo Island. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report No Location Name Location S ee Note Depth to Groundwater Electrical Conductivity X Y (m) µSiemens/cm 1 Old RAF well 2 288169 9930796 0.50 880 2 Taqua Mosque 287421 9932245 0.40 720 3 Eedigali Farm 286696 9935636 0.63 778 4 Moh'd bin Ali Mosque 286804 9933151 1.92 449 5 Sanam (H78) 286363 9934938 0.55 904 6 Shurah Mosque 286195 9934834 0.90 196 7 Old RAF well 1 288493 9930620 1.19 2050 8 West Corner (H54) 286148 9934344 1.96 1293 9 Hospital Mosque (H41) 286483 9933686 2.74 490 10 Noor Mosque 287230 9933103 0.85 410 11 Hukuru Mosque 287031 9933304 0.68 295 12 Luzen 287661 9932803 0.65 751 13 Hidaya Mosque 288007 9932395 0.77 766 14 West Side 287133 9932357 0.71 870 Average 0.77 751 Note: Co-ordinates are metric in UTM Zone 43(S) The mosque wells are good monitoring points as their style of use is regular. However, the large clear catchments around mosque wells are atypical, and samples indicate lower salinities than domestic wells which are often more clearly contaminated by on-site sanitation. The Shurah Mosque well (No. 6) was found to receive roof run-off, which explains its extremely low salinity. Wells Nos. 3, 5, 8 and 12 are domestic wells which remain of relatively low salinity except for No. 8 (West Corner) situated only 10m from the shore, but this was nevertheless of potable quality in terms of salinity. On the western side of the island where land elevation exceeds 3m, depth to water may be greater than 2m or more, as in the case of well No. 9. Over most of the island, however, depth to water is less than one metre (see Table 6.2). Figure 6.6 Location of the wells on Hithadhoo used to measure water level and conductivity. These data provide a good indication of groundwater conditions around all the wetlands. 6.3.5 Effect of Tidal Fluctuations A pair of water level loggers were deployed at Hithdhoo to measure changes in water level in the Eidhigali and Maa Kilhi in response to changes in external tide level. One logger was deployed for the whole period in the harbour, while the second logger was deployed sequentially in Eidhigali and Maa Kilhi. Measurements of water temperature and atmospheric Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report pressure were also made to enable the changes in water level to be normalised for these two variables. Comparison of the amplitude and phase shift of the two curves enables the hydraulic response of the link between the external forcing function of the tide and water level in the kilhi to be evaluated. This hydraulic connection is shown in Appendix 2 together with typical amplitude and phase differences. The measured variations in water level in each kilhi, together with the corresponding variation in sea level are also shown in Appendix 2. Tide level measurements were made over an asymmetric tidal cycle and as a result the tidal range varied between 0.2 m and 0.55m. The corresponding changes in level in the kilhis varied between 0.01m and 0.05m. For each kilhi the level change between consecutive high and low tide states has been compared with the level change in the kilhi, and the attenuation of amplitude2 calculated as follows: �H Kilhi Attenuatio n  �H Tide Where: �H kilhi = change in water level in the kilhi �H tide = change in water level in the tide The phase lag is the time between tidal high or low water and the corresponding high or low water in the kilhi. The derivation of the values for Maa and Eidhigali Kilhi are shown in Table 6.3. 6.3.6 Ma’a-Fehele-Aari kilhi Wetland System The Ma‟a kilhi is the upper part of this wetland system and although it contains only a small area of open water, 6 ha, the catchment is the largest of the three. A road has been constructed which separates Ma‟a kilhi from the downstream Fehele kilhi, and flow between them is now by means of a pair of 300mm (approx) diameter pipes which pass under the road. Fehele kilhi contains an even smaller body of open water, although the wetland stretches northward for 700m, with taro plantations encroaching around much of the marginal area. Table 6.3: Responses of water level in Maa and Eidhigali Kili to the marine tidal cycle 22 The terms „Attenuation of Amplitude‟ and „Tidal Efficiency‟ are synonymous. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Tide Maa Kilhi Phase Lag Tide Stage Tide dH (m) Kilhi dH (m) Attenuation Level H (m) Time Level (m) Time (hh:mm) LW 0.62 13:24 0.946 15:55 02:31 0.27 0.023 0.085 HW 0.89 19:12 0.969 21:07 01:55 -0.55 -0.054 0.098 LW 0.34 02:06 0.915 04:55 02:49 Tide Eidhigali Kilhi Tide Stage Tide dH (m) Kilhi dH (m) Attenuation Phase Lag Level H (m) Time Level (m) Time LW 0.63 15:24 0.599 16:00 00:36 0.2 0.013 0.065 HW 0.83 20:18 0.612 21:48 01:30 -0.51 -0.024 0.047 LW 0.32 02:54 0.588 03:36 00:42 The virtually straight watercourse, Aari kilhi, which starts from the end of Fehele kilhi, extends in a defined but not well-bounded channel eastwards along the edge of a residential area and under three footbridges. It is finally culverted beneath one N-S sand-surfaced double width road, and finally beneath the Link Road and into the sea. During the field work, all of the wetland system was visited and conductivity measurements carried out at a number of locations both before and after the heavy rainfall of the night of 28th/29th June 2011. The results of the measurements in the Maa-Fehele-Aari system together with those in the Eidighali Kilhi are shown in Table 6.4. Table 6.4 Surface water conductivity values measured in the Maa-Fehele-Aari and Eidhigali wetland systems Locations Date Maa Fehele Aari Sample Location (with map Eidhigali/Koattey Sample Location (with Kilhi Outlet Kilhi Inlet Kilhi Outlet ref. letter) Kilhi map ref. letter) 22/06/2011 4,230 Aari Kilhi discharge 23/06/2011 19,100 (g) South End 21,100 (k) S. Kilhi at causeway 24/06/2011 4,230 (c ) N Fehele Stream 3,860 (d) N Fehele Kilhi 3,320 (e) S Fehele Kilhi 1,185 1,142 (a/b) At Ma'a-Fehele bridge 25/06/2011 1,170 1,115 (a/b) At Ma'a-Fehele bridge 4,560 (f) Aari Kilhi discharge 26/06/2011 3,755 (f) Aari Kilhi discharge 27/06/2011 16,980 (g) South End 16,780 (h) S. End beach side 15,500 (i) E. Kilhi at causeway 13,200 (j) Kilhi at E 'low point' 17,250 (g) South End 28/06/2011 1,120 1,090 (a/b) At Ma'a-Fehele bridge 16,900 (g) South End 2,720 (f) Aari Kilhi discharge 14,100 (i) E. Kilhi at causeway (Heavy rain night27/28) 13,950 (k) S. Kilhi at causeway 16,250 (j) Kilhi at E 'low point' 29/06/2011 720 720 (a/b) At Ma'a-Fehele bridge 290 (f) Aari Kilhi discharge (Heavy rain night 28/29 Flooding) The locations of the measurement stations, coded by the lower case Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report letters in parentheses, are shown in Figure 6.7 Over the 2nd-28th June 2011 period of monitoring, the salinity of the discharge from Maa kilhi into Fehele kilhi was consistently in the range 1,050-1,200µS. Although the discharge into the sea from Aari kilhi at the start of the field visit, 22nd June 2011, was slightly brackish (4,230 µS/cm), the surface water flowing from upstream out of Maa kilhi into Fehele kilhi was of relatively low salinity, suggesting that the salinity was being increased during the passage of water through Fehele or Aari kilhis. During a field sampling visit to Fehele kilhi on 24th June 2011, surface water salinity measurements along the wetland indicated an increase in salinity downstream within the kilhi, also pointing to a source of salinity within the wetland. Figure 6.7 Surface water sampling locations on Hithadhoo used to measure conductivity. The effects of the first heavy rainfall event on kilhi flow was very slight, and the measurable effect of the rainfall was a reduction in the salinity of the discharge from Aari kilhi to the sea (2,720µS). The effects of the second night of heavy rain were much more marked, causing a large reduction in salinity from the Ma‟a and Fehele kilhis and a very large fall in salinity of the discharge from Aari kilhi to the sea (290µS), due in part to road drainage directly into the flooded kilhi. The distribution of recharge to the wetland system. - The very heavy rainfall overnight on June 28/29th 2011, following substantial rain on the previous night of 27/28th June, was such that the Fehele kilhi in the middle of the system, was discharging both upstream into Ma‟a kilhi and also downstream though the wetland into Aari Kilhi and out to sea. Much of this inflow to Fehele kilhi appeared to be run-off from Ghazee Magu to the west of the kilhi. The observations of the single storm event during the field investigations suggest that the existing drainage arrangements from the wetland system are already inadequate due to the present extent of urbanisation and road-building and the obstructions to free flow in the Aree Kilhi channel. 6.3.7 Eidhigali/Koattey kilhis The results of conductivity measurements carried out in the Eihigali/Kottey kilhi are shown in Table 6.4. The water is brackish and is considered to be supported mainly by a fresh groundwater inflow from the south, which becomes contaminated with salinity by long-term mixing with seawater infiltrating across the beach „barrier‟, and also as seawater flowing over the top of the beach at low points on the crest of the beach. The salinity varied between about 13,000µS and 21,000µ between 22-29th June, indicating 20-25% seawater. There was clearly considerable salinity variation from place to place and some circulation across the mid-point of the causeway between the two kilhis, possibly due to differing efficiencies of connection with the sea. No flooding problems related to the kilhi have been reported. A major problem is the mining of coral sand from the barrier beach protecting the kilhi from the sea. Very active mining and removal of the sand fraction from the core of the barrier by individuals appears to be increasing the permeability of the barrier. Reduction in the height of the coral rubble barrier also allows waves to break over the ridge. Both of these will contribute to the brackish nature of the kilhi. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 6.3.8 Reclaimed Northern Wetlands Previous small areas of wetland immediately to the south of Eidhigali kilhi, and in the northern part of the island have been reclaimed in stages over about 15 years, and much of the area has now been built upon. This area is now said to be the most flood-prone area of the island, a function of the inadequate reclaimed elevation and inadequate drainage, exacerbated locally by the „damming‟ effect of the Link Road on surface water flows towards the lagoon shore line. During the fieldwork, flooding actually occurred on 29th June 2011, following two nights of heavy rainfall on 27/28th June and 28/29th June, so the extent and nature of the inundation could be observed at first hand. See Appendix 5 for details of the flooding. 6.3.9 East-Central Reclaimed Wetlands & Link Road More regular, though not frequent, flooding is also understood to occur on the site of reclaimed wetlands in the east - central part of the island. Apart from some localised flooding within the reclaimed area, the main flooding affected areas are to the west of the Link Road for a considerable distance N-S. The immediate cause was the inadequacy of drainage beneath the road to the sea; of the few drains which were visible, one was blocked and the remaining capacity was insufficient. It seems that proper drains have not been constructed along any of the flood-prone length of the Link Road. (See Appendix 5 for a pictorial description of the flooding event.) 6.4 Results of hydrological modelling About 50% of rainfall has been estimated to become groundwater recharge so the input of 1,200mm of recharge across the island drives a rapid circulation of water through the aquifer enabling a complete replacement of stored water every two years. As discussed above, the high recharge helps to maintain good overall water quality, but the increasing population and on-site sanitation will probably challenge this situation in the near future. The hydrological cycles for both Hithadhoo and Fuvahmulah are broadly similar, except that for Hithadhoo, the system is relatively long and narrow and the thickness of the freshwater lens that can be sustained is less. Appendix 2 shows conceptual models for the Ocean-Groundwater-Wetland System applicable to both islands together with a descriptive model of amplitude attenuation and phase lag interactions between tides and water levels in the groundwater and free water surface in the wetlands. The more sparse vegetation across Hithadhoo suggests that evapo-transpiration losses would be less than those for Fuvahmulah and consequently losses through the aquifer due to infiltration through the base of the wetland will be proportionately larger. To transmit such large amounts of recharged water to the sea, the aquifer here is clearly of high permeability and/or thickness. Outflow as surface water under normal conditions would only come from the wetlands. Although there is no surface water inflow or outflow at the Eadigali/Kottay kilhi, there is a small amount of drainage from the Ma‟a-Fehele-Aari wetland. On June 22nd 2011 this was estimated to be 5l/s, and remained similar up to the 26th June 2011. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report As for Fuvamulah, the shallow „bowl‟ of the wetlands on the island is very permeable and estimates based upon a simple water balance equating rainfall volume will bear little relationship to flood levels, which will depend not simply upon the amount of rain, but its distribution in time. For this reason, any „model‟ will require detailed evaluation of the inflows and outflows, particularly the infiltration from the kilhis and water level variation due to the tides (see Appendix 2). The remaining critical variable for flood risk assessment is the continuing urbanisation and road-building, all of which are encroaching on the Ma‟a and Fehele wetlands. The capacity of the wetlands to attenuate floods is being severely reduced, while the peak flows which can be produced in the catchment will rise dramatically, so the need for greatly increased drainage capacity is urgent. The survey work carried out could be valuable information for future flood risk assessment. 6.5 Proposed physical interventions to address problems The developments already planned involving further stages of road-building and housing, both in and around the Maa and Fehele wetlands will increase the rate of run-off and the dangers of flooding. The project must address a number of issues which are summarised in Table 6.4. Location Item Ma‟a Kilhi With plans for about 60 ha of new roads and housing including the Convention Centre under construction, urgent consideration is needed: a) to plan the routing of drainage of projected new roads and housing into the kilhi, considering drainage of the eastern part of the development, eastwards into the sea b) give urgent attention to redesign and building of a much larger discharge culvert under Medhe�aari Magu into Fehele kilhi. Fehele Kilhi The additional inflow to the kilhi from upstream and any added surface water runoff from the proposed adjacent new road, via the soakaways proposed in the EIA, will have to be accommodated. This may need enlargement of the stream section through the kilhi. Aari Kilhi The cumulative high rates of flow from upstream will demand a much increased section in this kilhi to accommodate flow, including the following: a) construction of wider and stable drainage cross-section b) raising the soffit level of existing bridges over the channel c) appropriate redesign of much larger culverts under Sharafudhdheenu Magu and the Link Road Eidhigali/Koattey Implement measures to end coral / sand mining which is damaging the integrity of the beach barrier between the kilhi and the sea. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Table 6.5 Physical interventions proposed for existing Hithadhoo drainage systems 6.6 Proposed community based management measures for drainage and wetlands The understanding by the community of the need to refrain from impairing the functionality of the drainage system through encroachment on the surface water flow paths and ad hoc disposal of domestic and commercial waste in the wetland is crucial. This would be achieved through the community awareness component of the wetland management plan. It is expected that the Component will determine the civil works required to ensure full functionality of the Aree Kilhi, which will focus on the throttle points in the channel. Following upgrading of the system, the Town Board should ensure that the employees are aware of the need to keep the Aree Kilhi free of natural, domestic and commercial debris to ensure that excess water can flow to the lagoon freely. The mining of coral sand from the core coastal berm is increasing the risk of salination of the brackish Eidhigali Kilhi with consequential changes to the ecosystem. The status of the area as an existing Protected Area and the regulation with regard to mining of coral sand must be enforced through the Wetland Management Plan which is to be developed under the project. Community acceptance of the management plan will be a key element in its success, so efforts will be needed to publicise and explain its importance. 6.7 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of project activities. There are four activities identified within the Project relating to the hydrology of the Island. The activities together with their potential for impacts are summarised in Table 6.6 below. 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments Potential for Impact (a) Geo-hydrological assessment study (v) a detailed assessment of the duration, Nil. This will have no direct effect on the land area and number of hydraulic behaviour of the island hydrological households affected by flooding regime. (vi) a set of comprehensive, practical Nil directly. Any effects will take place through recommendations for drainage (iv) the implementation of the action plan. management and flood control that will taken into consideration both current and future drainage requirements, as a result of climate change (sea level rise, higher rainfall peaks) and urbanisation and cost- benefit justification for the recommended investments (vii) drainage/flood modelling tool to Positive effect through the application of the inform policy and planning and, model to the planning and design of future Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 1.2 Geo-hydrological assessments Potential for Impact training to select personnel in using infrastructure projects will result in the reduction the tool of the risk of flooding. (viii) an action plan containing a set of feasible actions for implementation (with details of costing and time frame) Structural Positive effect through the responsive management enlargement of the capacity of the existing Maa-Fehele-Aree drainage system. Incorporation of effective surface water drainage networks into future infrastructure projects and the retrospective correction of inadequately, already, designed projects will result in a manageable drainage network. This would result in a minimisation of the frequency of flooding and provide controlled recharge of the freshwater lens to improve sustainability of existing water resources. Immediate retrospective corrective action must be initiated in relation to the inclusion of cross drainage in the repaving works for Gahzee Magu which, with the present configuration, has the potential to create flooding conditions similar to those created by the Link Road. Suitably placed cross drains, in addition to those already retrospectively constructed, must be a high priority in the island road maintenance programme. Non-Structural Positive Effect through the Operation and Maintenance (O&M) procedures for the Maa- Fehele-Aree system, which must include an Event-Action Plan which clearly defines actions and individual responsibilities in the event of extreme rain events, extreme tides or storm surges. Table 6.6 Project activities together with their potential for impacts Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 7 EDD FUVAHMULAH 7.1 Review of baseline conditions. 7.1.1 Description of the Island and Wetland System Fuvahmulah is an island approximately 4.5 km in length and 1.2 km in width and has a total land area of 420 ha. It is an unusual island, since it is the only one which is not part of a larger atoll. It has a submerged reef, Rashikedefaro, which extends for about 3km in a SE direction from the Island. Around 300 years ago, Fuahmulah was itself a small coral atoll with an opening to the sea at the southern end at a location known as Diyarehifaando. The partially enclosed saltwater lagoon formed a natural harbour. There is evidence from the name of a part of the southern end of the present island that, at the southern end of the lagoon there was a separate small island. The blockage of the opening to the sea by large coral boulders led to the cessation of the direct inflow and outflow of sea water. As a result of rainfall, the lagoon lost its saltiness and the lagoon began to change to wetland as plants encroached on the margins and sediment of terrestrial origin started to accumulate. The formation of the present island by this process has resulted in an island concave in vertical section, with a coralline rock rim surrounding a lower lying wetland. This is unusual since most of the islands in the atolls are convex in vertical section with a coralline rock core. At the middle of the island the wetland has become divided into two parts with a road crossing between the east and west sides of the island.. The northern part is known as Dhadimaghi-Kilhi and the southern part is known as Bandaara-Kilhi. These two parts are progressively filling with sediment, both by natural process and by the development of the marginal areas, in particular taro plantations. The EIA prepared for the airport developmentxii carried out field surveys and assessments which revealed that the environment of the island system had been impacted both by natural and anthropogenic causes to varying degrees. The impact due to the tsunami on 26 th December 2004 was identified as generally not significant, based on surveys of the reef, beach, coastal and inland vegetation and general environment. Major negative anthropogenic impacts include clearance of significant areas of vegetation for farming, coastal modification by construction of the harbour and sand mining from the beach on the southern side of the island. Aerial and satellite images for the island for the years 1968, 1998 and 2004 are shown in Figure 7.1. The images show that the farming areas in south-west and north-east had been cleared prior to 1969. Some development of the roads and urban area took place in the 29 years between years 1968 and 1998 with visible road systems around each of the wetlands and expansion of the urban area between the north and south wetlands. During the six years between years 1998 and 2004 significant development took place, with a significant increase in the urban area on the west side of the island. The harbour and the paved road along the west side of the island were constructed in the year 2002, and the construction of the airport in the south west corner of the island is in progress (although construction has been halted). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Whilst there has been growth in the area of land under agriculture and urban development, the area of free surface water in the wetlands appears to have changed little over the same period of time. This indicates a slow rate of extension of the marginal shallow water rooted plants surrounding the open water. 7.1.2 The wetland drainage system The upper free water surface level in the wetland is controlled by means of a drainage system that was built in 1984 under funding by FAO. The Ministry of Housing and Environment have searched for a copy of the design report or „as built‟ drawings of the drainage channels without success. A request to the FAO for copies also proved unsuccessful. The drainage system consists of four drains from the wetlands to the sea. These are described in detail with illustrative photographs in Appendix 3. Figure 7.1. Images of Fuvahmulah for the years 1968, 1998 and 2004 Because of the shallow gradients between the level of the wetland and the sea, there is a risk that during extreme high tides and storm surges seawater could flow into the wetlands. In order to prevent this, wooden stop-logs are in place in the slots at the seaward ends of the drains to prevent intrusion of sea water. The stop-logs are not completely water tight, and in order to provide additional security the channels have been further closed off by means of piles of coral fragments and sand to the landward side of the stop-logs Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report At the seaward end of the drains the outlet structures are often completely blocked by coral rubble and sand which has been transported by wave action and longshore drift. The Island Council employs two islanders for each drain to maintain them and ensure that the stop-logs and sand are in place at times of extreme high tides or during storm surges. Based on an interview with one of the people employed to manage one of the drains, the practice is to leave the stop-logs and sand in place and only to remove them in the event of flow from the wetland towards the sea. A significant change has been imposed on the existing drainage system by the start of construction of the new airstrip on the south-west corner of the island. Prior to the start of site preparation works, the area to be occupied by the airport was farmland and dense vegetation. The area of dense vegetation contained the diffuse surface water flow system for the overflow from the southern part of the Bandaara-Kilhi. The flow from the wetland was carried by a culvert under the Naibu thunththu hingun between Dhoodighan and the northern part of the island into the diffuse system. At the coastal ridge a concrete structure gathered the water and channelled it through the coastal ridge to finally discharge into the sea. The Environmental Impact Assessment carried out for the airportxiii makes no reference to the important function of this area. Measures for the disposal of surface water run-off from the paved areas of the airport are described in the EIA, but the need to maintain the flow path between the wetland and the coastal discharge structure is not addressed. This is an issue which the EPA should address with the utmost urgency before the site preparation works are completed; culverting under the airstrip will definitely be needed. The straight-line path between the existing culvert under the road and the structure at the coastal ridge is close to the touch-down point for aircraft approaching runway one-one (incorrectly labelled as two-nine in Figure 26 of the EIA). Consequently the design of any culvert following the straight-line path under the runway must take account of the touchdown forces at maximum landing weight of aircraft which may land at the airport. The formal structures described above are at the seaward end of the drainage system and act as collectors to route excess water through the coastal ridge. Inland of these structures, water flow takes the form of shallow overland flow between hollows and ridges in the dense marginal vegetation surrounding the open water bodies. It should be noted that the Island Office has recently built concrete structures along some of the drainage channels and wetlands, not as flow management structures, but to mark the boundaries between properties and the adjacent wetland area, with the intention of controlling the use of marginal wetland areas and thereby preventing uncontrolled reclamation of the wetland. These marginal areas are the basis for an important part of the island economy, as they are composed of managed taro fields whose success is dependent on the maintenance of a free surface water level in the wetland. Significant changes in water level would adversely affect the ability of people to grow taro in the present locations. 7.1.3 Protected Area Status. The conservation values of the two wetland areas on Fuvahmulah and an area of coastal waters have been assessed by the EPA. The EPA has then assigned protected area categories based on the IUCN protected area classification scheme. The details of criteria for assignment to particular categories, and the objectives of their classification are given in detail in Appendix 6. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The two wetland areas overall have been assigned to Category IV with an inner area in each wetland, containing both open water and marginal land, assigned Category Ia. The coastal marine area has been assigned to protected area Category III. The indicative locations of the different category areas are shown in Figure 7.2 below. Figure 7.2. Indicative locations of areas to be declared as Protected Areas The Thundi area is a marine area and therefore does not form part of the wetland system. However access to and from the area would involve passing close to the boundary of the Dhandimagu Kili. Any management plan developed for the wetland should therefore take account of the proximity of the Thundi area to the wetland. The areas contained within each category are shown in Table 7.1below: Table 7.1. Areas Contained Within the IUCN Protected Area Categories Area Cat- IV Cat-III Cat-Ia Dhandimagu Kili 37.11 ha 19.19 ha Bandaara Kili 26.62 ha 7.32 ha Thundi Area 35.18 ha The proposed Protected Areas have not yet been formally gazetted under the Environmental Protection and Preservation Act of Maldives Act No. 4/1993. The necessary documentation is being prepared. During June 2011 the proposed boundaries of the core protected areas and their respective buffer zones were surveyed in detail by EPA staff. Geographical Positioning System (GPS) co-ordinates of all buildings and property boundaries adjacent to the buffer zone were recorded to enable the boundaries to be set and represented accurately on maps. It is expected that the documents will be put before the Parliament in 2011. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 7.1.4 Vegetation of the Wetlands A survey carried out to examine the potential for the development of agriculture within the two wetland areasxiv identified the most abundant flora within the wetlands. The list of those identified, which is dominated by Hau, is given in Table 7.2. below. Table 7.2 Flora Identified in the Dhandimagu and Bandaara Kilhis Scientific Name Common Name Local Name Cyperus polystachyos, Bunchy flat sedge Hau Colocasia esculenta Taro Olhu ala Musa sp Banana Dhonkeyo Syzygium cumini. Jambolan Dhan‟bu, Mangifera indica Mango An‟bu Ipomoea aquatic Water Spinach Kankun A vegetation survey carried out as part of the EIA for the airportxvincluded a sample location in the area of wetland on the west side of Naibu thunththu hingun road along the route of Drain 4. Although the area has now been reclaimed in order to construct the runway, the vegetation found was representative of that which would be associated with the edge of wetlands in other parts of Fuvahmulah. The species found at that location and their relative abundances are shown in Table 7.3. Table 7.3 .List of Flora and Coverage in the area of wetland adjacent to Drain 4 Scientific Name Common Name Local Name % Coverage Calophyllum inophyllum Alexander Laurelwood tree Funa 20 Cocos nucifera Coco nut Ruh 16 Hibiscus tiliaceus Sea Hibiscus Hau/Dhigga 14 Morinda Citrifolia Indian Mulberry Ahi 10 Guettarda speciosa Nit pitcha Uni 3 Psidium guajava Guava Feyru 3 Thespesia populnea Tulip tree/ Portia tree/ Hirudhu Bendy tree Bushes (undefined) 7 Grasses (undefined) 25 In addition, during the site investigation abundant quantities of Sea Lettuce, Scaevola taccada, were observed in the drier parts of the wetland together with screw pine, Pandanus sp. Within the wetter parts of the wetland a significant member of the flora is a fern (sp) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report which is not native to the Maldives and is thought to have been „introduced‟ at some time in the middle of the 20th Century. Standing water was present at the point at which Drain 4 passes under the Naibu thunththu hingun road. As stated in 5.7 above, large quantities of Nile Cabbage, Pistia stratiotes, were observed in this drain. Discussions with the Island Council revealed that it had been present on Fuvahmulah for at least six years and was also present in Dhandimagu Kili. This plant is an alien nuisance species which can colonise open water surfaces in a very short time. A key element of the wetland management plan should be the mapping of its occurrence together with a programme of eradication. Detailed descriptions of the species, their habitat requirements and uses by the community are given in Appendix 7. 7.1.5 Fauna of the Wetlands Avifauna The Central Asian-Indian Flyway (CAF) covers a large continental area of Eurasia between the Arctic and Indian Oceans and the associated island chains. The Flyway comprises several important migration routes of waterbirds, most of which extend from the northernmost breeding grounds in Siberia to the southernmost non-breeding, wintering, grounds in West and South Asia, the Maldives and the British Indian Ocean Territoryxvi. Figure 7.3 below shows the location of the CAF, together with the other two major flyways. The wetlands of Hithadhoo and Fuvamulah lie towards the extreme southern tip of the flyway. Figure 7.3: Location of the Central Asian Flyway There are no recorded observations of the bird species occupying the two wetland areas, and the EIA for the airport did not carry out an assessment of the terrestrial and avian fauna. Bird species that were observed on the wetlands during the field work included White Breasted Water Fowl, (Amaurornis phenicurus), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) and Little Heron (Egretta egretta). Other species which have been described for the Eidhigali Kilhi on Hithadhoo (see Section 10 of this report) may also be present or visitors to the two wetland Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report areas. The open water areas of Dhandimagu and Bandaara Kilhis are, however, smaller in area than Eidhigali Kilhi and more subject to human disturbance, and so may be less attractive to a number of the more timid species. Description of the fauna, their habits and habitat are given in Appendix 8. There are no recorded observations of the bird species occupying the two wetland areas, and the EIA for the airport did not carry out an assessment of the terrestrial and avian fauna. Bird species that were observed on the wetlands during the field work included White Breasted Water Fowl, (Amaurornis phenicurus), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea) and Little Heron (Egretta egretta). Other species which have been described for the Eidhigali Kilhi on Hithadhoo (see Section 10 of this report) may also be present or visitors to the two wetland areas. The open water areas of Dhandimagu and Bandaara Kilhis are, however, smaller in area than Eidhigali Kilhi and more subject to human disturbance, and so may be less attractive to a number of the more timid species. Description of the fauna, their habits and habitat are given in Appendix 8. 7.2 Infrastructure Projects. 7.2.1 Introduction There is extensive development activity in the southern end of the island, over and above the general expansion of the urban areas (see Section 7.1.1). An existing major project is the sheltered port constructed at the extreme southern end of the island in 2002 to provide secure cargo and passenger handling facilities which had previously not been available. Other projects are in the planning or development stage, as described below. It is important that the Component should take into account all projects planned for Fuvahmulah which have been approved and which are currently under construction when considering the management of the wetlands, and in particular, measures for the management of potential flooding. While the EIA for proposed development projects usually consider the disposal of rainwater run-off from any new impermeable surfaces which will be created as part of the development, little attention is given to the effect of the development structures on the interruption of overland flow. This is particularly important where the level of a structure exceeds the local ground level and is not parallel to the slope line. This can result in the redirection of the overland flow or, at worst, a ponding of the flow behind the structure. 7.2.2 Fuvahmulah Airport A new 1,100m runway airport is currently under construction adjacent to the port at the southern end of the island, Figure 7.2. An EIA was carried out for the projectxvii. Clearance of vegetation from the site has been completed and formation works are currently under way. The EIA proposes that the stormwater from the runway will be managed through a drainage system consisting of concrete pavements and gutters on both sides of the runway. The gutter system will be connected to underground drainage pits located on both sides of the runway at approximately 25m intervals. The individual drainage pits will be connected by underground culverts and overflow pipelines leading to the sea to carry away excess water in the event of a heavy downpour and flooding in the drainage pits. The designers will consider the possible of use of porous asphalt for runway overlay to improve drainage within the runway. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The EIA fails to identify the presence and drainage route of Drain 4 from the Bandaara wetland area, which previously crossed the airport site. Prior to the vegetation clearance and start of site formation works for the runway, excess water in the wetland would have drained westwards through a culvert beneath the Naibu thunththu hingun where it spread out into a small wetland area and flowed towards the coastal ridge where a fan shaped structure directed the flow into a concrete channel which passed through the ridge to discharge into the sea. The potential consequence of the failure to recognise the hydrological function of the low-lying part of the airport site, and the consequent failure to propose mitigation measures to redirect the flow, is the flooding of the area to the east side of the Naibu thunththu hingun. 7.2.3 Water Supply and Sewerage Project There are plans to introduce a water supply scheme and a sewerage system to the island; the project will be implemented by Southern Utilities. The details of the project, whether a gravity or vacuum collection system, the level of treatment and effluent discharge were not available for examination. A detailed EIA for the scheme must include in its scope of work an evaluation of the effects of changes in volumes of groundwater abstracted for toilet flushing and the reduction of recharge of the aquifer due to flows from the present septic tanks. 7.2.4 Road Systems in the Wetlands A road crossing the Dhadimaghi wetland in an east west direction has already been created and provides a direct link for traffic travelling between the east and west sides of the island without the need to pass through residential areas. The location of the road is shown in Figure 7.3 below. Existing Link Road Under-road Culverts Figure 7.3 Location of the Existing Road Crossing the Dhadimaghi Wetland The land-use plan indicates the presence of six culverts under the road as shown in the drawing. These were not evident when crossing the wetland by means of the road. (This will need to be investigated further within the WMCM Project itself). Three further culverts are shown on the land-use plan in the south east corner of the wetland and to the north of the inlet to Drain No 2. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The land-use plan for Bandaara shows the locations of two planned roads within the wetland. A straight road crossing the wetland north-east to south west, and an alternative partial ring road to be constructed along the east and south sides of the wetland within the existing peripheral roads. The locations of these two roads are shown in Figure 7.4. below. Proposed Link Road Alternative Inner Ring Road Under -road Culverts Figure 7.4: Location of the Proposed Road within the Bandaara Wetland Both road configurations indicate planned under-road culverts to maintain surface water hydraulic connectivity throughout the wetland. The proposed east-west cross wetland route would divide the Category IV area of the wetland into two distinct halves. Suitably designed and maintained culverts linking the two halves would maintain the hydraulic connectivity, and if appropriately sized would provide a secure bio-corridor between the two areas, particularly for amphibians, reptiles and eels. The route of the proposed inner ring road would result in a greater fragmentation of the Category IV area, with the resulting deterioration of the ecological quality of the wetland in the isolated areas. 7.3 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of Project activities. 7.3.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation 1.1 Community-based wetland management (a) Development and Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plans (CBWMPs) Dhadimaghi-Kilhi and Bandaara-Kilhi. (i) Demarcation of wetland areas and mapping of existing resource use in the wetland areas. This will entail a detailed survey of the wetland area to define habitat types and the beneficial uses which the different parts of the wetland support. The information would ideally be managed by use of a Geographic Information System (GIS) within EPA. The result of the intervention would be Positive since it would provide a quantitative baseline against which to monitor the effectiveness of implementation of management and conservation measures. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report (ii) Sensitization and awareness building activities to engage the key stakeholders in the participatory process. While the activity will increase the awareness of the stakeholders of the need for a participatory process the impact of the intervention on the environment will be Neutral unless the awareness has a vehicle, the CBWMP, through which to act and turn awareness into action. (iii) Development and approval of CBWMPs based on the approved land use plans through a participatory process involving consultation with relevant stakeholders. This is the development of an institutional instrument which defines the objectives of the Management Plan, defines the roles and responsibilities of the principal actors in the process and provides the regulatory mechanisms to enable the Management Plan to be implemented. Again the direct impact on the environment of the intervention will be Neutral. However the implementation of the individual parts of the Plan will result in impacts and these are discussed below. (iv) Prevention of unplanned reclamation, illegal waste dumping, contamination of surface water, unsustainable harvesting of mangroves and other activities which are detrimental to the wetlands. These are the tools by which the wetland area will be managed. Each one is designed to manage the external pressures on the wetland which are leading to a deterioration of the ecological quality of the wetlands themselves and enabling the prescribed beneficial uses of the wetland to be improved and maintained. The net impact of the intervention will therefore be Positive. (v) Implementation of one plan on Fuvahmulah, There are two wetland areas on Fuvahmulah, Dhanimagu-Kilhi and Bandaara-Kilhi. Separate Management Plans with their own objectives and indicators of success will need to be developed during the project. Key elements of the plans should include:  Controlling solid waste: Waste management can only be effective if tackled on an island wide basis. There is no mandatory system for the collection and disposal of all form of solid waste on Fuvahmulah and collection, treatment and disposal processes are rudimentary or absent. The achievement of a functioning solid waste management collection system which results in the waste being collected and at least stored at a restricted area will result in a Positive environmental impact. Pollution of surface and groundwater will be controlled, the termination of ad hoc burning of waste will bring about a reduction of air pollution, and the hazard to wildlife due to discarded bottles, cans and plastic bags will be eliminated. The implementation of routine waste collection will need to have a parallel programe for the collection of historic waste which has been dumped in both the urban and non-urban environments. The two programmes will result in a cleaner island which will be more visually attractive to tourists. The presence of solid waste is frequently cited by tourists as one of the factors which would deter them from visiting places.  Fencing of the protected area: This is a practicable option for controlling access to protected terrestrial, dry ground, protected areas. In an area of wetland where there is, at times, a shallow layer of surface water, and a layer of mud which may be greater than 6m in depthxviii which also has a dense flora, the erection of a boundary fence is impracticable. The alternative would be to plant a “green fence� of a clearly identifiable Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report native species along the boundary which would serve as a reminder to the community of the location of the boundary of the protected area. The impact on the environment of this intervention would be Positive since it would identify the physical boundary of the protected area and the surrounding taro fields and would act as an enforceable demarcation between land allocated for development and the protected area.  Zoning: The zoning of the wetlands, in terms of their characteristics within the IUCN Protected Areas classification scheme, has been carried out by EPA in preparation for the formalisation of the protected area status of the two wetlands. The core area of each of the wetland has been classified as Category Ia and the surrounding area as Category IV. The approximate locations of the areas are shown in Figure 6.2. The drawing shows there to be an area of wetland, which is between the edge Cat IV boundary and the existing roads around the wetland. This area contains developments and roads and is clearly under pressure. The clear delineation of the zones and the activities permitted within each zone would be defined in the Management Plan endorsed by the community resulting in the Positive benefit of maintaining the value of each of the zones. The establishment of a buffer zone around the formal boundary of the protected area is addressed in the following section, „green-belt‟.  Green belts: A green belt is a policy and land use designation used in land to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land at the interface between areas of development and, in this case a protected area. It provides a soft interface and acts as a buffer between the two adjacent land uses. In the green belt further development of housing and extension of agricultural activity would be managed within guidelines defined by the Management Plan and endorsed by the community. There would be a Positive benefit to the environment since it would provide gradation in the transition from developed to protected area thereby reducing pressure on the protected area ecosystem while maintaining community function up to the formal boundary.  Regulating cropping: The regulation of the type of crops to be grown and in which locations within the proposed Protected Area of the wetland is one component of the zoning process (see above). The Protected Area on Fuvahmulah consists of two wetland areas and the Thundi marine/coastal area. The Management Plan will define whether crops can be grown within the protected area and control the expansion of areas within the Green Belt. The range of crops which can be grown in the two areas is limited and to a large extent pre-selected by the current growers to taro based on their local knowledge of the conditions. The regulation of the crop type and total area under cultivation will result in a Positive impact on the environment. Regulated cropping may also proscribe/prohibit the use of herbicides and pesticides within the regulated cropping zone. Observation of store sheds on farmed areas on Hithadhoo revealed that herbicide and pesticide concentrates were stored haphazardly, labels were frequently not in Divehi script or in English and parts of the labels were illegible. Empty pesticide concentrate containers, without tops, were seen discarded in the undergrowth. There is clearly the need for the introduction of improved agrochemical awareness within the farming community, and this could form part of a regulated cropping plan. (b) Pilot on eco-tourism at Fuvahmulah At the present time the island community has not identified a tourist market and business plan for the Island. The President of the Atoll Council writes in his “What the Atoll Council Seeks to Achieve Through the Wetland Conservation Project� statement: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The Island community and councils believe that the island has great potential to be promoted as an ecotourism destination. However, the exact model or possible concepts that can be explored will have to be worked out. Therefore, a concept for Fuvahmulah as an ecotourism destination with special emphasis on sustainable modification of the wetland environment will be an essential outcome we see from the wetland conservation project. Hassan Saeed June 2011 See Appendix 1 for the full statement. (i). Development of basic infrastructure for ecotourism (nature trails, observation hides, interpretation centre, visitor convenience services). This specific outcome from the Component is only applicable should the business model for ecotourism be one based on nature tourism where the product being sold to the tourist is the ability to see wildlife in its natural setting within an environmentally sustainable framework. In terms of a nature tourism product, the two wetland areas on Fuvahmulah have little to offer to the dedicated bird-watcher. The wetlands are of scientific interest to the specialist. During the visit by the team, a German specialist in moths and butterflies stayed on the island for three days and observed two species of moth which had not previously been recorded for the Maldives‡. However should a marketable product be identified, Positive benefits for the environment in general would be forthcoming in the form of greater awareness among the population of the function of wetlands and if information regarding species observed and their numbers are recorded there will be a greater understanding of the value of the wetlands as a habitat. The inappropriate development of the wetland area to accommodate tourists could result in Negative impacts on the wetland as an ecosystem through visual and noise disturbance of birds, discarding of tourism related waste, drinks bottles, food wrappers etc. The tourist support facilities in terms of toilets and restaurants would increase the demand for water taken from the freshwater lens for toilet flushing, etc, which in turn would increase return flows from large septic tanks. Demand for water of potable quality for food preparation would increase demand from the harvested rain water. (ii). Training of local community nature guides The training community nature guides will improve the knowledge of the community with regard to the functioning of the wetlands and the adverse impacts of some activities on them. This will be a Positive benefit to the ecology of the wetlands since the consequences of activities not conducive to the maintenance of the ecosystem will be understood. The presence of nature guides/wardens within the protected area if nature trails are opened for visitors will be a Positive benefit for the environment since they will deter people from littering, creating a disturbance or taking away plants. ‡ The specialist was reluctant to provide the team with his name, the two unrecorded specie, or species seen since the information would pre-empt a monograph on the Butterflies and Moths of the Maldives which he was writing. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 7.4 Preliminary recommendation on mitigation requirements In Section 7.3.1 above it was noted that the inappropriate development of the wetland area to accommodate tourists could result in Negative impacts on the wetland as an ecosystem through visual and noise disturbance of birds, discarding of tourism-related waste, drinks bottles, food wrappers etc. The tourist support facilities in terms of toilets, restaurants, etc., would increase the demand for water taken from the freshwater lens for toilet flushing, which in turn would increase return flows from large septic tanks. Demand for water of potable quality for food preparation would increase demand from the harvested rain water. The negative impacts should be addressed during the conceptualization of the scope and extent of the type of tourism to be developed in the wetlands. Whether the tourism is targeted towards the international, national, atoll or island tourist, the potential for impact will be likely to be the same. Mitigation should be designed into the concept, layout and activities to be enjoyed by the tourists. These should be based around a sustainability framework which can act as a showcase for eco-friendly tourism. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 8 EDD HITHADHOO 8.1 Review of baseline conditions 8.1.1 Geography Hithadhoo is the capital island of Addu Atoll, which is the most southerly atoll of the Maldives. The town of Hithadhoo is located on the island and has a population (c. 15,000) second only to that of Malé. The island lies on the west side of the atoll and is approximately 9.5km from north to south and 2.35km across at the widest point at the extreme north. There is a total land area of approximately 490 ha. The islands of the atoll are unique in as much as they are protected from the storms and waves from the Indian Ocean by barrier reefs. There are two areas of wetland on the island. At the extreme north end of the island is the Eidhigali Kilhi which is separated into two by a narrow causeway. The central part of the causeway is occasionally partially submerged providing partial surface water flow between the two bodies. The conductivity of the water is discussed in detail in Section 6 of this report but here it is sufficient to say that during the fieldwork the water was found to be brackish with conductivities in the range 16-19,000 μS/cm, equivalent to 24%-38% seawater. At the north east corner of the island there is also a mangrove fringed lagoon, Koattey, which has a direct connection to the sea. The Eidhigali Kilhi wetland and the surrounding coastal and marine area of Corete have been declared a Protected Area under the Environment Act in 2004. The ecological significance of the area had been investigated under the Marine Areas Protected Scheme (MPAS) Project, which concluded that Eidhigali Kilhi should be gazetted (see reportxix published in 2006). The southern wetland has been divided into two by a road which connects the west and east sides of the island. The two areas are unequal in size, the smaller area to the north of the road is Fehele Kilhi and the larger area to the south is Maa Kilhi. The areas of the open water and associated wetland for the two areas are summarised in Table 9.1 below. System Component Component Area Total Area (ha) (ha) Open water 13.6 Eidhigali 27.7 Marginal wetland 14.1 Open water 0.3 Fehele 13.5 Marginal wetland 13.2 Maa Open water 1.3 81.2 pre development Marginal wetland 79.9 Maa Open water 1.3 post development 22.4 Associated wetland 21.1 (see section 10.2) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Table 9.1. Areas of open water and marginal wetland on Hithadhoo 8.1.2 The wetland drainage system The Edhigali Kilhi The Edhigali Kilhi has no engineered drainage system by which the water level in the Kilhi can be managed. The width of the coastal ridge between the ocean and the kilhi varies along the whole of the north shoreline of the island. At its widest it is approximately 50 wide but there are several narrow points where it thins to less than 10m. The process of mining sand from the beach ridge has been conducted by removing the surface layer of coral debris, taking out the sand core and filling the resulting hole with coral debris. This not only results in a lowering of the upper level of the ridge, which can then be overtopped by waves, but also results in a more permeable core. The Maa Kilhi/Fehele Kilhi System Maa Kilhi drains into Fehele Kilhi by means of a culvert under the Medhe� aari Magu consisting of two 300m diameter plastic pipes which act as a restriction to the free flow of water from the Maa Kilhi. From the Fehele Kilhi the water drains across open ground guided at some points by training/boundary demarcation walls. The shallow overland flow collects in an open channel the Aari Kilhi. The inland part of this is walled on the northern side but has a sloping earth bank on the southern side on which coconut trees are growing. Two bridges cross the channel but present no obstruction to flow towards the sea. A single pipe takes the flow under the unpaved Sharafudhdheenu Magu which discharges into a trapezoidal channel formed from hessian bags containing a sand /cement mix. On the downstream side of the crossing a small pipe discharges road run off into the channel. The channel continues in a straight line to the Link Road where it enters two pipes which pass under the road, across the narrow foreshore before discharging into the coastal lagoon. The key features of the drainage system are described using annotated photographs in Appendix 3. 8.1.3 Flora of the Wetlands The flora of the Eidhigali wetland was surveyed during the assessment of the Eidhigali- Koattey studyxx. The report includes a detailed description of the habitat types within the proposed protected area. Plant species named in the report are listed below in Table 9.2 Scientific Name Common Name Local Name Tree Species Hamadhia peltata Jack in the Box Kandhu Barringtonia asiatica Barringtonia Kibi Cocos nucifera Coconut Ruh Pandanus tectoris Wild Screw Pine Boa-kashikeyo Shrub Species Scaevola taccada Sea Lettuce Magoo Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Hibiscus tilaceus Beach Hibiscus Funa Guettarda speciosa Nit pitcha Uni Pemphis acidula Pemphis Kuredhi Calophyllum Alexander laurelwood inophyllum Funa tree Terminalia catappa Country almond Medhilli Ground Cover Stachytarpheta indica Vervain Rakima Species Ipomea pes-caprae Cats foot creeper Bodu veli veya Wedelia calandulaceae Mexican sunflower Mirihi Grass Vina Passiflora suberosa Corky stemmed passion Rangu flower Mangrove Cerops tagal see Note 1 Mangrove Karamana Lumnitzera racemosa Mangrove Burevi Rhizophora mucronata Mangrove Ran‟doo Note 1. At the time of preparation of the FAO publication Trees and shrubs of the Maldivesxxi C. tagal had only been recorded in the Maldives on Farukolhu Funadhoo island in the northern group of islands. The reporting of this species in the Airport EIA is therefore the first record of the species in the south of the Maldives. Table 9.2 Non-cultivated flora of the Eidhigalli Kilhi and surrounding area There are a number of medium size agricultural plots under cultivation. The range of crops grown on the plots are listed in Table 9.3 below. Scientific Name Common Name Local Name Zea mais Sweet corn Zuvaari Lycopersicon lycopersicon Tomato Villaathu bashi Capsicum frutescens Chilli Mirus Musa sp Banana Dhonkeyo Carica papaya Papaya Falho Table 9.3 Crop plants of the Eidhigalli Kilhi and surrounding area Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Detailed descriptions of representative species, their habitat requirements and uses by the community are given in Appendix 7. No endangered species of plant have been reported for the two wetlands. 8.1.4 Fauna of the Wetlands Hithadhoo lies towards the extreme southern end of the Central Asia-Indan Flyway (CAF) which extends northwards to northern Siberia. The location of the flyway and the adjacent East Asian-Australian Flyway is shown in Figure 7.3. The Eidhigali Kulhi and Koattey Area reportxxii states that the area is of high ecological significance, and that the area is used by a number of bird species as a feeding and resting ground. The Eastern Grey Heron (Ardea cineria rectrostris) and the endemic Maldivian Pond Heron (Ardeola graii phillipsi) can be found there, and the area is perhaps the largest breeding, feeding, nesting and roosting area for these two species in the country. The Gargeny and Whimbrel are winter visitors to the wetland from north Asia and Siberia. The apparent absence of the Little Egret from the wetland is unusual, as it would normally be resident in the wetland. A list of the birds of the Eidhigahi Kulhi was included in the IEE for the Convention Centrexxiii and is reproduced as Table 9.4 below. Table 9.4. Birds Found at Eidhigali Kulhi during the Two Monsoon Seasons (P = Season when Present) Scientific Name Common Name Dry Monsoon Wet (January- Monsoon March) (May- November) Anas querquedula Garganey P Amaurornis phenicurus White Breasted Water Fowl P P Numenius phaeopus Whimbrel P Gygis alba White Tern P P Egretta garzetta Little Egret P Acridotheres tristis Common Myna P P Butroides striatus Little Heron P P Ardea cinerea Grey Heron P P Ardeola grayii phillipsi Pond Heron P P The Mammalia are represented by the Fruit Bats which are commonly found in trees around the margin of the wetland and in the developed area. During the walkover of Maa Kilhi area a dead shrew was found. (The photograph shown in Appendix 8 is of the individual found.) Cesarini et alxxiv describe observing shrews on three occasions and consider the individual which they saw to be Crocidura nanilla, the only shrew to have been previously recorded in the Maldives. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Descriptions of representative fauna, their habits and habitat are provided in Appendix 8. 8.2 Infrastructure Projects 8.2.1 Introduction A number of major infrastructure projects have been recently completed, are underway or are about to be undertaken. These include the:  Addu Link Road  Convention Centre  Paving of Roads at Hithadhoo Addu City  Road Development Adjacent to Maa Kulhi  Sewerage Project. The impacts of such projects on the integrity of the wetlands and their potential effects on flooding have largely received only cursory attention in their respective EIAs. However, some of these projects have been the subject of Environmental Impact Assessments which contain sections relating to effects of the project on surface water run-off management, flooding and effects on the wetlands. 8.2.2 Addu Link Road The Addu Link Road is a 14-kilometre section of island road and causeway which links Hithadhoo, Maradhoo, Maradhoo-feydhoo, Feydhoo, and Gan which was constructed in 2001. On Hithadhoo the road passes along the eastern, the inner, shoreline of the island. Informal interviews with residents in the vicinity of the Link Road have commented that the higher level of the road is acting as a barrier to free drainage of surface water during heavy rains. A risk assessment study carried out by UNDPxxv concluded that the main impacts from human induced activities have come from improper land reclamation on the eastern side of the island. These include lack of consideration for island topography and the capacity of the artificial drainage system established for the Addu Link Road, which has been unable to function properly. 8.2.3 Convention Centre A Convention Centre is being constructed in the southern part of the Maa Kilhi, within the area shown on the land use plan as „future institutional‟. It is planned that the Centre will be completed in time for the SAARC Summit to be held towards the end of 2011. An Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) of the Convention Centre was carried out in January 2011xxvi. As part of the Examination a groundwater assessment was conducted to assess the ambient conditions of groundwater at the proposed project location. Long term available weather data was obtained from the weather station at Gan International Airport. The data sets were used to develop a regional model in ArcGIS to assess the vulnerable areas of the island during both monsoons, thus helping the IEE team to assess the vulnerable areas of the island for flooding. No details of the results of the modelling are presented in the IEE. The landscape design of the Centre calls for it to be surrounded by water, but no details of how this will be achieved or maintained are given in the IEE. The land use plan indicates a future Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report road to the immediate south of the Convention Centre which forms the boundary between it and the wetland. 8.2.4 Paving of Roads on Hithadhoo, Addu City The paving and improving the condition of the Ghazee Magu has always been a priority of the Government. As Addu City is preparing to host the SAARC Summit end of year 2011, it was decided to pave the Ghazee Magu and Medhe�aari Magu. The two roads had been identified for development for many years by the community of Hithadhoo and other stakeholders. An Environmental Impact Assessment for the proposed paving of the two roadsxxvii has been carried out. The design consultant submitted and presented to the Ministry two options of asphalt paving vs concrete paving blocks for the driving surface at two stakeholder meetings held in August 2010. On both occasions, having considered the pros and cons presented, the Ministry and the stakeholders decided on the option of using asphalt paved surface as the driving surface. An asphalt surface, when compared with a concrete surface, generates relatively low noise, is relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and has perceived ease of repair. The disadvantages are that is has less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become soft in hot weather and give rise to pollution, in the form of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), of soil, surface water and groundwater. The EIA indicates that the surface runoff from the road will be recharged to the aquifer through the use of soakaway pits. The design of the pits has been such as to ensure easy maintenance and to ensure recharge rates match normal rainfall intensities. The design includes an additional system to address the issue of flooding in the event of unprecedented rainfall. This feature, a dry main, would be used in the event of extended rainfall where the ground has become saturated and cannot absorb any more water. The emergency services would connect relief pumps to valve points on the main and discharge the excess water directly into the Eidhigali Kuli and Maa Kuli at either end of the Ghazee Magu. While the scheme proposed for managing runoff and preventing flooding would appear to be feasible, the fine clays generated on the side roads which would be carried onto the main road would be unlikely to be removed by standard filter media in the infiltration pots and would lead to blinding of the aquifer being recharged. 8.2.5 Road Development Adjacent to Maa Kulhi A road development project to construct two roads which will link the Convention Centre area to Medhe�aari Magu (see Section 10.2.4 for details of plans for improvements to Medhe�aari Magu). This will entail constructing two roads within the Maa Wetland thereby creating a „box‟ around the wetland. This project and the two previous projects will create a road system which will extend almost the whole length of the island and, at the time of writing, contain no structures to allow the free flow of water from the west side of the road into either the Maa Kilhi or Fehele Kilhi. It will thereby increase the risk of flooding in the area to the west of the road system. 8.2.6 Sewerage Project. It is understood that Southern Utilities are investigating the possibility of laying a sewer system on the island. The details of the type of sewer system, whether gravity or vacuum, the Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report level of treatment and route for disposal of the final treated effluent have not been determined. The latter issue is important with regard to the impact of the process on the extent of recharge of the aquifer and hence thickness and quality of the freshwater lens. 8.3 Preliminary assessment of potential environmental risks and impacts of Component activities. 8.3.1 Component 1: Wetland Conservation 1.1 Community-based wetland management (a) Development and Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plan (CBWMP) for the Maa-Fehele wetland system including updating of existing Eidighali and Kottey Management Plan. There is no formal Management Plan for the Eidighali and Kottey protected area. An environmental assessment of the Eidhigali and Koattey Area was reported in year 2006xxviii. The assessment was made up of four papers:  Socio-economic assessment of S. Hithadhoo  Marine Resource Evaluation  Vegetation survey and  Protected Area of S. Hithadhoo: Zoning as a Management Tool. In the fourth paper of the assessment a provisional zoning for HPA was suggested, which would enable the following objectives to have been met: 1. To protect the conservation values (flora and fauna) of the HPA from adverse human use 2. To protect and enhance the important habitat that support conservation values 3. Management activities that have the potential to impact on the things that are important to HPA 4. To allow for a range of recreational and commercial activities in the HPA so that they do not conflict with the above objectives 5. To identify, manage and present cultural values where appropriate 6. Monitor the progress of the protected area through regular surveys of birds, vegetation, reefs and fish 7. Involve the community in all levels of management, and 8. To manage the HPA so that it supports the preservation of the natural resource for all Addu Atoll The paper proposed that the HPA be divided into five zones, within which activities would be controlled in such a way as to achieve the eight objectives described above. The proposed zoning was not subjected to public review and comment and has not been implemented in its own right. The paper continues by recommending that the management of the HPA be carried out at community level, and identifies the process that would result in the adoption of the management plan. No recommendations for how to implement a management plan were proposed. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report These two documents contain information which could be drawn upon during implementation of the Component to assist with the development of a functional Management Plan Subsequently, a documentxxix was prepared which developed a framework for an ecosystem- based management plan for the whole of the Addu Atoll. Being a framework, it lacked the detail of how such a management plan would be implemented. The process of preparation of the WMP should follow the stages identified in the Project outline while making use, where appropriate, of the information and ideas already in the earlier frameworks. (i) Demarcation of wetland areas and mapping of existing resource use in the wetland areas. A boundary for the combined Eidhigali-Koattey protected areas is shown in the two documents referred to above. This will need to be formally converted to the co-ordinates of a line which can form the legal basis for the establishment of the boundary. This will entail a detailed survey of the area to define habitat types and the beneficial uses which the different parts of the wetland support, which would then form the basis for the internal boundaries of appropriate management zones. The information would ideally be managed by use of a Geographic Information System (GIS) within EPA or at a higher level of the NGIS under MEMP. The result of the intervention would be Positive since it would provide a quantitative baseline against which to monitor the effectiveness of implementation of management and conservation measures. (ii) Sensitization and awareness building activities to engage the key stakeholders in the participatory process. While the activity will increase the awareness of the stakeholders of the need for a participatory process the impact of the intervention on the environment will be Neutral unless the awareness has a vehicle, the CBWMP, through which to act and turn awareness into action. (iii) Development and approval of CBWMPs based on the approved land use plans through a participatory process involving consultation with relevant stakeholders. This is the development of an institutional instrument which defines the objectives of the Management Plan, defines the roles and responsibilities of the principal actors in the process, and provides the regulatory mechanisms to enable the Management Plan to be implemented. Again the direct impact on the environment of the intervention will be Neutral. However, the implementation of the individual parts of the Plan will result in impacts and these are discussed below. (iv) Prevention of unplanned reclamation, illegal waste dumping, contamination of surface water, unsustainable harvesting of mangroves and other activities which are detrimental to the wetlands. These are the tools by which the management programmes for the individual wetland systems will be implemented. Each one is designed to manage the external pressures on the wetland which are leading to a deterioration of the ecological quality of the wetlands themselves and enabling the prescribed beneficial uses of the wetland to be improved and maintained. The net impact of the intervention will therefore be Positive. (v) Implementation of one plan on Hithadhoo, Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report There are two wetland areas on Hithadhoo, the Eidhigali Kilhi and the Maa-Fehele-Aree system. Separate Management Plans with their own objectives and indicators of success will need to be developed during the project. Key elements of the plans should include:  Controlling solid waste: Waste management can only be effective if tackled on an island wide basis. There is no mandatory system for the collection and disposal of all forms of solid waste on Hithadhoo, although there is a waste sorting and storage facility at the southern end of the island. Collection, treatment and disposal processes are rudimentary or absent. The achievement of a functioning solid waste management collection system which results in the waste being collected and at least stored at a restricted area will result in a Positive environmental impact. Pollution of surface and groundwater will be controlled, control of ad hoc burning of waste will bring about a reduction of air pollution, and the hazard to wildlife due to discarded bottles, cans and plastic bags will be eliminated. The implementation of routine waste collection will need to have a parallel programme for the collection of historic waste which has been dumped in both the urban and non-urban environments. The two programmes will result in a cleaner island which will be more visually attractive to tourists. The presence of solid waste is frequently cited by tourists as one of the factors which would deter them from visiting places.  Fencing of the Protected Area: This is a practicable option for controlling access to protected terrestrial, dry ground, protected areas such as that making up the southern boundary of the Eidhigali Protected Area. The northern boundary is clearly defined by the coastline and requires no further demarcation or physical access control. An alternative to a physical fence is to plant a “green fence� of a clearly identifiable native species along the boundary which would serve as a reminder to the community of the location of the boundary of the protected area. Boundary markers could also be used, but experience from elsewhere indicates that these tend to be broken or stolen over time, and can also disappear within the vegetation. The impact on the environment of this intervention would be Positive since it would identify the physical boundary of the protected area and would act as an enforceable demarcation between land allocated for development and the protected area. Similar “green fences� would function in a similar way if used to demarcate the boundary of the Fehele Kilhi. The plans for the development of the Maa Kilhi area propose the construction of a road system which would form a clear physical marker of the boundary of the Green Area. Through appropriate design of the edge of the road adjacent to the kilhi, pedestrian and vehicle access to the wetland could be controlled.  Zoning: The preliminary demarcation of the Eidhigali Protected Area in year 2006 referred to in (i) above also proposed zoning within the Protected Area which would allow some controlled activities to be carried out. These have not yet been opened up to discussion by the community but recent observations within the area indicate that, with the clear exception of sand mining and waste disposal, what is seen on the ground is not a great variance with the suggested zones. The clear delineation of the zones and the activities permitted within each zone would be defined in the Management Plan endorsed by the community resulting in the Positive benefit of maintaining the value of each of the zones.  Green belts: A green belt is a policy and land use designation used to retain areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land at the interface between areas of development and, in this case a protected area. It provides a soft interface and acts as a buffer between the two adjacent land uses. In the green belt, further development of Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report housing and extension of agricultural activity would be managed within guidelines defined the Management Plan and endorsed by the community. This is broadly in line with the suggestions made in the Eidhigali Assessment Reportxxx which suggests the open water and its shore line as the core preservation zone with a narrow buffer zone between the core and the more extensive managed agriculture zone. There would be a Positive benefit to the environment since it would provide gradation in the transition from developed to protected area thereby reducing pressure on the core preservation area ecosystem while maintaining community function up to the formal boundary.  Regulating cropping: The regulation of the type of crops to be grown, and in which locations within the Eidhigali Protected Area of the wetland, is one component of the zoning process (see above) which has been proposed in the form of the sustainable agriculture zone. The regulation of the crop type and total area under cultivation will result in a Positive impact on the environment. Sustainable agriculture practice could apply integrated pest management (IPM) and thereby lead to a reduction or cessation in the use of herbicides and pesticides within the zone. (b) Pilot on ecotourism at Hithadhoo At a meeting at the City Council on 23rd June 2011, the Mayor confirmed that the concept „Addu Vision‟ had been officially adopted. It had been developed with significant community consultation and presents a vision for the future development of the atoll as a whole. At the present time the island community has not identified a tourist market and business plan specifically for Hithadhoo Island. Components of ecotourism which have been suggested as topics for the project to consider include: (i). Development of basic infrastructure for ecotourism (nature trails, observation hides, interpretation centre, visitor convenience services). This specific outcome from the Project would only be applicable should the business model for ecotourism be one based on nature tourism, where the product being sold to the tourist is the ability to see wildlife in its natural setting within an environmentally sustainable framework. In terms of a nature tourism product, the Eidhigali wetland area does have some attractions for the bird watcher. Should a marketable product be identified, Positive benefits for the environment in general would be forthcoming in the form of greater awareness among the population of the function of wetlands and if information regarding species observed and their numbers are recorded there will be a greater understanding of the value of the wetlands as a habitat. The inappropriate development of the wetland area to accommodate tourists could result in Negative impacts on the wetland as an ecosystem through visual and noise disturbance of birds, discarding of tourism related waste, drinks bottles, food wrappers etc. The tourist support facilities in terms of toilets, restaurants, etc would increase the demand for water taken from the freshwater lens for toilet flushing, which in turn would increase return flows from large septic tanks. Demand for water of potable quality for food preparation would increase demand from the harvested rain water. (ii). Training of local community nature guides The training community nature guides will improve the knowledge of the community with regard to the functioning of the wetlands and the adverse impacts of some activities on them. This will be a Positive benefit to the ecology of the wetlands since the consequences of activities not conducive to the maintenance of the ecosystem will Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report be understood. The presence of nature guides/wardens within the protected area if nature trails are opened for visitors will be a Positive benefit for the environment since they will deter people from littering, creating a disturbance or taking away plants 8.4 Preliminary recommendation on mitigation requirements As outlined above, inappropriate development of the wetland area to accommodate tourists could result in Negative impacts on the wetland as an ecosystem through visual and noise disturbance of birds, discarding of tourism related waste, drinks bottles, food wrappers etc. The tourist support facilities in terms of toilets, restaurants, etc., would increase the demand for water taken from the freshwater lens for toilet flushing which in turn would increase return flows from large septic tanks. Demand for water of potable quality for food preparation would increase demand from the harvested rain water. These negative impacts should be addressed during the conceptualization of the scope and extent of the type of tourism to be developed in the wetlands. Whether the tourism is targeted towards the international, national, atoll or island tourist the potential for impact will be likely to be the same. Mitigation should be designed into the concept, layout and activities to be enjoyed by the tourists. These should be based around a sustainability framework which can act as a showcase for eco-friendly tourism. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 9 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK 9.1 Wetlands Conservation Component (Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo) 9.1.1 Introduction This component of the project has objectives which are intended to be entirely beneficial to the environment, i.e. community-based wetland management, technical support for flood mitigation, and capacity-building in wetland management for local councils. However, it is recognised that even within such a benign component, it would be possible for some activities to have adverse effects upon the environment. In the circumstances, it is recognised that an Environmental Management Framework (EMF) is needed to guide the activities within the component, in order to avoid or minimise any such negative impacts (and enhance the benefits). 9.1.2 Potential Impacts Before embarking upon the development of the EMF, it was necessary to identify the adverse impacts that could realistically be expected to result from the component activities envisaged at project development stage, in order to give an appropriate focus to the EMF. Sections 7.3 and 9.3 above provide a preliminary assessment of the potential environmental impacts and risks of the activities envisaged. As can be seen from that assessment, almost all of the activities are expected to be either positive or neutral in their effect on the environment. The sub-component activities are listed below, and those that could potentially lead to environmental harm are highlighted in bold text. 1.1. Community-based wetland management. (a) Development & Implementation of Community-based Wetland Management Plans (CBWMPs):  Demarcation of wetland areas and mapping of existing resource use in the wetland areas  Development and approval of CBWMPs based on the approved land use plans, through a participatory process involving consultation  Sensitisation and awareness-building activities to engage the key stakeholders in the participatory process  Prevention of unplanned reclamation, illegal waste dumping, contamination of surface water, unsustainable harvesting of mangroves, and other activities detrimental to the wetlands. (b) Pilot on Ecotourism at Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo:  Consultancies for design of the ecotourism package (interpretation centre, IEC materials, etc)  Minor civil works for development of ecotourism infrastructure  Development and delivery of training programmes and communications campaign (c) Updating the National Wetland Management Strategy and Action Plan: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Strengthening the NWMSAP (community involvement, participatory planning, consultancy services and dissemination workshops). 1.2 Geo-hydrological Assessments. The output of the assessment study will be:  assessment of the duration, land area and number of households affected by flooding  a set of comprehensive, practical recommendations for drainage management and flood control that will take into consideration both current and future drainage requirements, as a result of climate change (sea level rise, higher rainfall peaks) and urbanisation  cost-benefit justification for the recommended investments  a drainage/flood modelling tool to inform policy and planning, and training to select personnel in using the tool  The Action Plan will include structural and non-structural measures to improve drainage and reduce flood incidence. Demonstrative (sic) investments in drainage management / flood control (minor civil works) based on the Action Plan will be implemented. 1.3 Strengthening Local Government Capacity for Mainstreaming Climate Change Considerations. The main activity of this sub-component will be capacity-building for climate change adaptation. As can be seen from the above, the potential for causing adverse effects on the environment is limited to a small number of the project activities envisaged, mostly related to the construction of small public works, drainage and ecotourism facilities. The EMP has been developed on that basis. 9.1.3 EMP Structure The intention is to have an EMP that will be in daily use, and it therefore needs to be concise and relatively simple in structure. The content of the EMF is therefore limited to the following:  Screening Tables  Negative List  Environmental / Social Guidelines  ToRs for IEE / EIA  Institutional Arrangements  Monitoring & Supervision  Training These elements of the EMF are described below Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 9.1.4 Screening At the national level, screening is the process by which proposed developments are reviewed to determine the level of environmental assessment to which they should be subjected, which could range from none at all up to a full Environmental & Social Impact Assessment (ESIA). At the project level, screening is the process of reviewing a proposed activity against a checklist of factors to determine whether it is likely to have adverse environmental effects, and if so, what mitigation measures should be applied. The present EMF is largely concerned with the project level, but some notes are provided on national screening for completeness. 9.1.5 National Level Screening The Maldives national requirements for environmental assessment are set out in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Regulations, 2007. Part III of those regulations includes a description of the Screening Process applied to development proposals. Schedule D of the Regulations is a screening list of all development types for which full EIA is mandatory. It is not expected that any of the interventions proposed under the Wetlands Conservation Component will fall within Schedule D. Proposed developments that do not fall within Schedule D are subject to manual screening by the EPA, for which a Screening Form must be submitted providing relevant development details. Within 10 days, the EPA will decide whether the proposed development is approved, or needs further study, which may be required in the form of an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or a more detailed EIA. Unfortunately, the EIA Regulations do not specify a threshold of development size below which even screening will not be required. This means that, in theory, every development, however small, needs to be screened by the EPA. In practice, small developments are submitted to the Local Council for approval and, if appropriate, the Council may require the proposed development to be submitted to the EPA for screening. Again, it is unlikely that the Councils will require the small-scale interventions envisaged within the Wetlands Conservation Component to be screened by the EPA. However, they should be consulted at the outset, to determine whether the formal national screening process should be applied 9.1.6 Project Level Screening At the project (component) level, proposed sub-component activities need to be subjected to screening to determine whether they should be subject to an Environmental / Social Review. (This is a simple review, by the component team, of the likely implications of the activity, to determine whether it is acceptable, and if so, whether any particular mitigation measures should be applied.). The objective here is to provide a level of environmental / social review that is appropriate to the small scale of the sub-component activities, i.e. without the need to conduct an ESIA. The following screening checklists have been developed for the Wetlands Conservation Component: Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report What Type of Development? The following types of proposed sub-component activity will require Environmental / Social Review within the component:  Drainage construction or improvement (excluding maintenance)  Construction of bund walls, berms or embankments  Road, track or footpath construction  Public toilets  Effluent treatment facility  Waste clean-up activities  Waste management facility  Construction of permanent ecotourism buildings (restaurant, education/info centre, shop, etc).  Construction of waterside facilities (filled or piled landing stage, etc) What Kind of Area? Sub-component activities to be conducted within the following areas will require Environmental / Social Review within the component:  Open water bodies (fresh, brackish or marine)  Wetland margins  Mangroves  Shores  Coconut plantations  Agricultural fields Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report How Could it Affect the Environment? Proposed sub-component activities that could potentially cause the following adverse impacts, either directly or indirectly, will require Environmental / Social Review within the component:  Negative social effects  Negative economic effects  Degradation of land  Pollution of surface or ground water  Interruption of the hydrological cycle  Air pollution  Reduction of, or damage to, wildlife and habitat  Reduction of, or damage to, agriculture  Reduction of, or damage to, critical natural resources  Loss of, or damage to, cultural, religious, historic or archaeological property How Serious Could the Impact Be? Proposed sub-component activities that could potentially cause adverse / negative / harmful effects having the following characteristics, will require Environmental / Social Review within the component:  Impacts that will be of a significant extent (area)  Impacts that will be of a significant intensity (degree)  Impacts that will be of long duration  Impacts that will be irreversible  Impacts that may have cumulative or synergistic effects  Activities that will be of uncertain effect  Impacts that may be locally or nationally controversial  Potential for the contravention of laws, conventions or regulations.  Activities that will have unequal effects on the genders or on vulnerable groups Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 9.1.7 Negative List The screening tables above are intended to assist those responsible for the component to determine the acceptability of physical activities that may be proposed as sub-components during implementation of the project. However, there are some particularly damaging activities that should not even be considered within the component, as follows: Negative List The following activities will not be allowed within the Wetlands Conservation Component:  Construction of permanent buildings within the wetlands (excluding hides, etc., made of biodegradable materials).  Construction of solid roads within the wetlands (excluding boardwalks)  Construction of walls in or around wetlands which will interrupt water flow  The „tidying‟ of wetlands or mangroves by the removal of dead wood  The introduction of any species of fish or water plant to the wetlands  The use of non-native species for the formation of boundary hedges  The burning of any material (including previously dumped wastes) in the wetlands  Any sub-component that would require the demolition of a permanent house 9.1.8 Environmental / Social Guidelines Use of the screening tables above will identify proposed sub-component activities that may have adverse environmental and/or social consequences, and which therefore need careful review and possibly mitigation measures. In addition, the Negative List above identifies activities which should not be considered within the component at all. The third „leg‟ of environmental management is the application of Environmental / Social Guidelines to those sub-components that screening finds to be acceptable. They include both management guidance and possible mitigation measures, as outlined in the paragraphs below. The application of these guidelines will require appropriate judgement and balance by the component implementation team. For tasks that are relatively small and simple, it may appear to be „overkill‟ to introduce lengthy guidelines and formal training. The danger is that if such arrangements are perceived to be unnecessarily complex, the workers concerned will simply ignore them. A balance will therefore be needed that ensures protection of the environment by providing an appropriate level of engagement with the workforce. (a) Management of Environmental Issues It is recommended that the project / component should adopt an over-arching Environmental Policy. This should be developed in consultation with stakeholders at the start of the project Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report and be disseminated to all people working on the project and to project partners. This can be as simple as „Do no harm to the environment and natural resources‟, but it will be a reminder to all that even an obviously beneficial sub-project could have some harmful consequences. The component team should include one member who will take responsibility as Environmental Manager for the component. S/he would be responsible for undertaking the Environmental / Social Reviews mentioned above and monitoring environmental performance within sub-component implementation. Again, the objective is to ensure that proper screening and review is not overlooked. Similarly, a member of the team should be allocated responsibility as Community Liaison Officer to deal with relations with people who may be affected by the development, construction or operation of sub-components. A set of Environmental / Social Guidelines is provided below. These should be applied by all people working on sub-components, whether from the local community or contractors. In the case of contractors, they should be incorporated as an Environmental Management Plan (EMP) for the works, and disseminated to workers employed by the contractor. (b) Management of Construction Sites It is acknowledged that most of the physical sub-components will be small-scale activities undertaken by local communities or local contractors. Nevertheless, it is necessary to apply best practice management measures to ensure that the work will have a minimum effect on the natural environment.  Vehicles must not be washed at construction sites.  All liquid fuel and lubricant storage tanks must be „bunded‟ to retain the entire contents of the tank in the event of leakage or rupture.  Construction sites must be watered to suppress dust whenever appropriate during the dry season.  All site drainage water must be passed through a sediment trap.  Care must be taken to prevent cement laden drainage water from entering the wetlands.  Temporary toilets must be provided for construction workers.  All sewage must be treated before discharge, e.g. using septic tanks.  All effluents must comply with any national environmental standards.  All emissions (e.g. from engines, crushers, batching plants, etc) must comply with any local environmental standards.  All motor-driven generators, compressors, pumps, etc., must be properly silenced.  The running of machinery and lighting in the vicinity of housing must be limited to normal working hours.  All solid wastes must be properly disposed of (see (c) Management of construction solid wastes and toxic wastes below).  Proscribed toxic and hazardous substances must not be used or disposed of (see below).  All plant, equipment and wastes must be removed at the end of construction, and each site must be restored to its original condition.  A Code of Practice must be issued to all construction workers. This should specify required behaviour, e.g.:  No unauthorised cutting of trees or branches. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  No lighting of fires.  No hunting or fishing.  No disposal of any kind of waste into water courses  Behaviour to comply with defined local cultural and religious sensitivities.  No unauthorised entry onto private property  Recommended health protection measures (see also (f) Health and Safety below). Environmental Standards – Contractors must comply with any national environmental standards. In the absence of relevant national standards, international standards should be applied, e.g. as published in the World Bank Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook, 1997. Toxic and Hazardous Materials – Contractors must not use any substances which are internationally banned. (c) Management of construction solid wastes and toxic wastes  Waste generation is to be minimised. The treatment of waste should follow the hierarchy: Avoid > Minimise > Reuse > Recycle > Treat > Dispose.  All „domestic‟ refuse arising during construction is to be disposed of to the island‟s recognised waste disposal site. Recyclable materials (e.g. glass, cans, plastics, paper) should be separated and recovered. Vegetable waste should be composted.  Any toxic or hazardous waste must be either returned to its source, or stored and disposed of separately in consultation with EPA; this includes oil filters, batteries, empty paint cans and the packaging of toxic construction materials.  The empty containers of toxic or hazardous liquids must be punctured or crushed to avoid them being used subsequently for drinking water.  Waste lubricating oil is to be stored prior to recycling.  Vehicle batteries are to be stored prior to recycling.  Vehicle tyres are to be stored prior to recycling.  Construction generated wood, paper, glass bottles, cans, plastic and other recyclables are to be separated and recycled.  No waste is to be burnt. (d Management of Land  Topsoil must be removed and stored for future use, before any further excavation work.  In the case of temporary land take in agricultural areas, the positions of all walls, fences and hedges should be recorded, and they should be replaced at the end of construction.  All land used temporarily during construction must be restored to its pre- construction condition.  Cut and fill volumes must be planned to minimise the generation of spoil.  Spoil from excavation must only be disposed of in planned spoil disposal sites that have been approved by the EPA; specifically, excavated spoil must not be Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report dumped in wetlands or lagoons or on agricultural land. Completed spoil heaps must be profiled, covered in topsoil and grassed to maintain stability.  All excavations below ground level should be bunded to prevent water inflow or outflow.  Water pumped out of excavations should be passed through a settlement facility before disposal.  The use of heavy machinery should be minimised to avoid soil compaction.  Arrangements must be made for the halting of work and the consultation of specialists from the National Museum, in the event that any potential archaeological remains are uncovered during excavation. (e) Management of Transport  All vehicles must be in a safe and legal condition with respect to all of their systems.  All vehicles must comply with national regulations on emissions and noise.  All drivers must be properly licensed for the class of vehicle they are driving.  All vehicles must carry a fire extinguisher and first aid kit.  All construction vehicles must have upward facing exhaust pipes.  All vehicles must have audible indicators for reversing.  Public roads must be promptly cleaned if affected by material loss.  Truckloads of construction materials or spoil must be covered to prevent dust or losses.  Where public roads are to be used, an official „construction route‟ is to be defined, avoiding housing as much as possible, and this route should be marked with road signs.  Unsurfaced haul roads must be watered to suppress dust whenever appropriate during the dry season.  Vehicles must not be washed at construction sites. (f) Community Facilities  Consultation is required with neighbouring communities before the start of construction, to identify any notable features or issues of local concern.  Features that are to be protected during construction (cemeteries, mature trees, wells, etc) should be marked with brightly coloured tape.  Excavation works below ground level in the vicinity of settlements should be marked with posts and tapes for safety.  Temporary bridges or diversions must be provided wherever existing footpaths, tracks or roads are to be cut by construction works.  Temporary water supplies are to be provided where either an existing water source is to be interrupted by construction, or access to the existing supply is severed. (g) Health & Safety  All employed construction workers must be given a medical examination (including sight and hearing tests) before being accepted for employment. This Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report must be repeated annually. The results of these medical examinations must be kept by the contracting company.  All employees must be given printed information on the health implications of their work and how to avoid problems. This should incorporate advice in the field of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including HIV / AIDS.  All construction workers must be given H & S training.  All construction workers must be provided with a set of appropriate personal protective clothing and equipment (e.g. hard hat, hard boots, leather gloves, ear defenders and dust mask). Workers are required to wear appropriate protective equipment before being allowed on active construction sites.  A „permit to work‟ system is to be instituted for all work at hazardous locations, e.g. working over water or in boats.  All excavations below ground level should be marked with posts and tape.  Drinking water, toilet and washing facilities must be provided at each active site.  Each active site must be equipped with a comprehensive First Aid kit and eyewash bottle.  All construction vehicles must carry a fire extinguisher and first aid kit.  All (legal) toxic or hazardous materials (e.g. water chlorination agents) must be stored in a locked, waterproof, ventilated enclosure.  All compressed gas bottles must be stored, chained in the upright position, in a locked ventilated enclosure.  International occupational health standards must be applied to all contractors‟ workplaces. Contractors should consult the World Bank / IFC General Health and Safety Guidelines. 9.1.9 ToRs for IEE / EIA As discussed under „Screening‟ above, the initial step in sub-component implementation will be consultation with the Atoll Council (Fuvahmulah) or Island Council (Hithadhoo). If the council decides that national level screening is required, a Screening Form will have to be completed and submitted to the EPA. The EPA will then decide whether the proposed sub- component can be simply approved, or needs further study in the form of an IEE or an EIA. Schedule E of the EIA Regulations, 2007, defines the required format and contents for an IEE and an EIA (reproduced as Annex 10 of the present report). These are the general ToRs to be applied to any IEE or EIA. The proponent (in this case, either the sub-component Project Manager or the appropriate local council) is required to submit specific ToRs for the IEE or EIA to the EPA for approval. The details of that ToR will be governed by the nature of the physical project proposed. 9.1.10 Institutional Arrangements The overall institutional arrangements for implementation of the project and its components are shown in Figure 10.1 below. However, application of the wetlands EMF itself will be the responsibility of the consultant team that will be contracted to undertake the Wetlands Conservation Component. As mentioned under Management of Environmental Issues above, the consultant team should include an Environmental Manager for the component, who would be responsible for undertaking the Environmental / Social Reviews and monitoring Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report environmental performance, and a Community Liaison Officer to deal with relations with the local community and other stakeholders. The cost of applying the EMF will be included within the contract budget for implementation of this component. 9.1.11 Monitoring & Supervision The Environmental Manager for the component will be responsible for the environmental monitoring of construction works and their surrounding environment throughout the construction period. In addition, contractors will be responsible to conduct the monitoring of their own works, and will be required to prepare a Monitoring Plan as part of their EMP for approval by the Environmental Manager. The results of this monitoring must be regularly reported to the Environmental Manager. Recommended example criteria to be included in the monitoring by both the Environmental Manager and the contractors are as follows:  Regular inspection to determine compliance with the stated management measures with respect to excavation, spoil disposal, wetland protection, treatment and re-vegetation of land, etc.  Regular inspection to determine compliance with mitigation measures with respect to community facilities, disturbance, land acquisition, etc.  Regular inspection to determine compliance with defined truck routes.  Sampling and analysis of any construction site drainage water discharges.  Noise monitoring at active construction sites near to housing or noise sensitive receptors (e.g. school, hospital). A final monitoring report should be prepared at the end of construction. This will be an environmental / social audit, which will hopefully report that the construction has been completed in full compliance with the Environmental / Social Guidelines for the component. If necessary, it will identify any remaining environmental or social problems that need to be addressed before sign-off of the contractors. In addition to the above monitoring arrangements made by the consultant team and contractors, periodic monitoring will be undertaken by the PMU, EPA/MRC and project staff at island level to ensure that the WB safeguard policies continue to be satisfied during implementation of the project. This will be achieved through desk review and field visits. An independent external audit will also be conducted after the first 12 months of the project. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure 10.1 Project Institutional Arrangements Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 9.1.12 Training All contractors‟ EMPs must include defined arrangements for dissemination of the EMP within the workforce, and any staff training necessary for their effective implementation. Where contractors do not have existing environmental management staff, arrangements must be made for adequate capacity-building within the workforce to be involved. Where construction work is to be undertaken by community members, training should be provided by the Environmental Manager of the project team. That training should consist of an introductory talk, dissemination of the guidelines, and an on-site talk prior to the start of each new task within component implementation. The previous notes concerning the appropriate level of training for the task concerned should be taken into consideration. 10 ESDD FOR CORAL REEF MONITORING COMPONENT 10.1 Introduction The Marine Research Centre (MRC) will implement a pilot coral reef monitoring system in North Male‟ and South Male‟ Atolls. The component will include the following sub- components: o Training and capacity building o Monitoring of coral reefs o Web-enabled technology platform (referred to as „the Coral Reef Monitoring Framework‟) o Dissemination and policy inputs It was understood that implementation of this component would have relatively little adverse impact on the environment, and no social safeguards issues were anticipated. However, some physical impacts on corals could occur if insufficient care were taken during the monitoring work, so the component was included within the ESDD study. During development of the component, it was decided that the field monitoring would be undertaken by qualified professional resort divers, which greatly simplified the project work, in that it reduced the need for diver training and largely eliminated safety issues. However, consultations were conducted to ensure that there is awareness of the proposed component amongst appropriate stakeholders, and to record their views on the proposed monitoring work. The divers plus managers and other staff of the resorts largely make up the stakeholder group for the component, and the opportunity was taken to consult this group at the meeting held to discuss the project in Male‟ on 19th June 2011. These consultations, along with a rapid assessment to identify any potential adverse environmental and social impacts and risks associated with the proposed monitoring activities, confirmed that the component will not actually compromise any World Bank safeguard policies. The fact that some of the companies are already monitoring the coral reefs of their own resorts in a responsible manner is a very good starting point for the component. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Another objective of the ESDD for this component was to generate appropriate environmental, social and safety guidelines to be followed during the coral monitoring activities, to include measures to mitigate any likely adverse impacts. During project preparation, it was agreed that existing internationally accepted guidelines from respected institutions should be used rather than creating project specific guidelines. 10.2 Identification of Potential Adverse Environmental Impacts The reef monitoring involves activities which include travelling to the shoreline, travelling between the shore and the monitoring site by boat, travelling between the shore and the near- shore monitoring sites by swimming, and the standard underwater survey activities directly associated with identification and quantification of coral and other marine organisms. As mentioned previously, the impacts of the coral monitoring work are expected to be very limited. Nevertheless, an environmental review has been made of the fieldwork that can be expected, and a preliminary assessment has been made of the potential impacts, along with their proposed mitigation. The results are presented in Table 12.1. The guidance references are to the guidelines designed to prevent or minimize adverse impacts which are described in more detail in Section 12.3. Activity Potential Impact Mitigation Measure Guidance Reference Vehicular access to Damage to structure or Vehicles banned from MG shoreline vegetation of coast. driving on the foreshore. Pollution of shoreline - Check all fuel lines for MG with oil or fuel. leaks. - Park vehicles in off the beach. Use of boats/ Pollution of sea with oil - Use of 2-stroke outboards MG outboard engines or fuel. banned. - Outboards fuelled and fuel lines checked for leaks in advance. - Use of approved fuel containers and drip trays. - Refuelling carried out onshore. Physical damage to - Use of short-shaft engines MG coral reef with propeller guards. - Anchoring on reef banned MG, ED - Permanent mooring buoys laid. Risks to boat and dive - Carry spares, tools, etc MG personnel - Wear lifejackets (boatmen) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Activity Potential Impact Mitigation Measure Guidance Reference Monitoring of Damage to coral by - Precise buoyancy control RC, ED reefs physical contact - Minimisation of MG quantification methods requiring direct contact6 with the reef. - Use of photographic methods and lightweight equipment. Upsetting balance of - No feeding of fish. MG reef ecosystem - No food to be taken aboard ED (other than emergency food supply). Pollution of reef - Equipment count before MG and after the dive. MG, RC - All waste brought ashore. Risks to dive personnel - Appointment of an MG Environment & Safety Officer for the dive. MG, RC - Use of properly certified divers. RC = ReefCheck Best Diving Practices ED = Earthdive Code of Responsible Diving MG = ESDD Mitigation Guidelines – developed within the ESDD process. 10.3 Review of Published Mitigation Measures 10.3.1 ReefCheck: Best Diving Practices The guidance material produced by the ReefCheck Foundation was considered to be appropriate, because of the widespread use of ReefCheck for monitoring and its recognition under the Biodiversity Convention. The relevant document is „Reef Check Instruction Manual – A Guide to Reef Check Coral Reef Monitoring‟ 2006 Edition ISBN 0-9723051-1- 4. (This is also cited as the „ReefCheck Eco-Monitoring Manual‟.) The most important part of this is the instructions in training for buoyancy control, so that divers can undertake the monitoring without touching corals, without touching or disturbing the seabed, and without breaking surface. Another valuable part of this document is the Liability Release Form, which would be signed by each participant. This essentially confirms that divers involved in the coral monitoring accept all risks as their own, and will not hold the organising institution liable for any injury or loss. It would be important for the component to use an adapted version of this form in Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report order to protect the MRC, MoHE and the World Bank (as sponsors and organisers of the monitoring missions) from any future claims by participating divers. Use of the form will also avoid the need to take out life insurance for those involved in the monitoring (unless the project sponsors feel a moral obligation to provide such protection). A copy of the form can be found in Appendix 11 as an example to be tailored to the Project. The Best Diving Practices advocated by ReefCheck are listed below. A. Respect the Reef  Observe but don‟t handle marine life.  Avoid feeding reef creatures.  Use waterproof sun block.  Leave no trash behind. B. Bring home memories, not reef scrapes  Master neutral buoyancy.  Keep dive gear from dragging on the reef.  Stand and walk on sand, not on corals.  Keep fins away from the reef. C. Know and Follow Local Regulations  Respect no-fishing and no-collecting areas.  Stay within catch and size limits.  If collecting shells, make sure they are empty. D. Go Blue  Patronize reef-friendly dive shops, hotels and tourist operators especially Reef Check Certified Faciliti.  Ask what operators are doing to monitor and protect their reefs. 10.3.2 Earthdive Code of Responsible Diving The Code of Responsible Diving published by the organisation „earthdive‟ essentially carries similar messages to the ReefCheck Best Diving Practices, but it provides more detail to explain why care is needed in relation to coral conservation and safety. The Code is summarised below. A. Know your limits. Every dive is different and every diver is different. Always ensure that you dive within the limits of your training and experience, whilst taking due account of the prevailing conditions. Take the opportunity to advance and extend your skills whenever that opportunity arises. In particular, buoyancy skills can become a little rusty after any prolonged absence from the water. If you can't get pool or confined water practice before your trip, get your buoyancy control checked out by a qualified instructor on your first dive. There are many national and international dive training Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report organisations which offer a comprehensive range of courses and instructional material beyond basic skills level. Take advantage of them. B. Be aware of the marine environment and dive with care. Not surprisingly, many dive sites are located where the reefs and walls play host to the most beautiful corals, sponges and fish - fragile aquatic ecosystems. Starting with your point of entry, be aware of your surroundings: never enter the water where there are living corals, water plants or reeds. Once underwater, it only takes one unguarded moment - a careless kick with a fin, an outstretched hand, a dragging gauge or octopus - to destroy part of this fragile ecosystem. Even fin kicks too close to the reef or sand can have an adverse effect - so dive with the utmost care. Photographers in particular need to take greater care as they strive for that best-yet shot. Don't let your dive become an adverse anthropogenic impact. And remember that these rules apply just as much to 'hard' dive sites - such as wrecks, which have become the home of diverse marine life - as well as fresh-water and other sites. C. Understand and respect marine flora and fauna. A large part of the joy of diving is in learning more about the plants and animals who live in this unique underwater environment. In order to survive and thrive, many living creatures disguise themselves to look like plants and inanimate objects, or develop defence mechanisms such as stings. Some even do both. The earthdive information sheets which are attached to the earthdive Global Dive Log, provide information about indicator species for the region in which you are planning to dive. In addition, dive training organisations run marine naturalist and identification courses. The more that you learn, the more that you will see, the more that you will derive pleasure from your underwater experience - and the safer you will be for yourself, other divers and the marine environment. D. Don't interfere. First and foremost, be an observer in the underwater environment. As a general rule, look don't touch. Remember that polyps can be destroyed by even the gentlest contact. Never stand on coral even if it looks solid and robust. Always resist the temptation to feed fish and discourage others from doing so. You may interfere with their normal feeding habits, damage their health and encourage aggressive behaviour. Leave only your bubbles. E. Take only what you need. The marine environment is a valuable source of food for mankind and it is important that it remains so into the future. If you are among those divers who enjoy taking food from the sea, observe some simple rules.  Obtain any necessary permits or licences.  Comply with all relevant fish and game regulations. These are designed to protect and preserve fish stocks, the environment and other users.  Only take what you can eat. If you catch it and can't eat it, put it back. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report  Never kill for the sake of 'sport'.  Avoid spear fishing in areas populated by other divers or visitors to the area, or where you might cause collateral damage F. Observe and report. As an earthdive contributor, you will be in a unique position to monitor and report on the health, biodiversity and any obvious damage to dive sites using the earthdive Global Dive Log. In addition, we would encourage you to report anything unusual to the appropriate local marine and environmental authorities, or if this is difficult, get your dive centre to do it for you. They have a vested interest in a healthy marine environment, and will normally be more than willing to help. Always be on the lookout for physical damage, fish stock depletion, pollution and other environmental disturbances. If the dive operation itself is causing damage -say by anchoring to the reef - then let them know how you feel in no uncertain terms. 10.3.3 ESDD Mitigation Guidelines Whilst the ReefCheck and „earthdive‟ materials are relevant and have value for the proposed project, they do not address broader environmental protection and safety issues. In the circumstances, the ESDD has developed the following Environmental Guidelines for Coral Reef Monitoring: A. Vehicles Vehicles will not be available in most resorts. However, if they are, the following guidance should be followed:  Before use for a monitoring assignment, vehicles must be checked for potential leaks of lubrication oil or fuel.  Vehicles must not be driven onto the foreshore and must not be driven over any sand berm at the top of a beach. The reason for this is to both prevent pollution of the coastal environment, and to prevent any damage to the physical and biological elements of the shore which stabilise the sand and therefore minimise erosion and flooding.  During monitoring activities, vehicles must be parked well away from the shoreline, preferably on the nearest road or layby. B. Boats / Inflatables and Outboard Motors  Only 4-stroke outboard motors may be used (i.e. the use of 2-stroke motors is banned as a condition of participating in the monitoring). The use of electric outboard motors is encouraged.  Outboard motors must be filled with fuel before transport to the monitoring site, and must be checked for potential leaks of lubrication oil or fuel before reaching the shore.  Spare fuel must only be carried in metal or plastic screw-top containers approved for fuel use (and marked as such by the manufacturer), which Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report themselves must stand in a drip-tray to prevent the loss of small leaks or spillages.  Where practicable, craft should return to the shore for refuelling, which must be done with the use of a detachable spout or a funnel to avoid spillage.  The propellers of outboard motors must be within a wire or metal cage, in order to both protect divers from injury, and protect corals in the event of contact with the reef.  Boats must be equipped with drinking water, VHF, GPS, flares, torch, first-aid kit, tools, spare spark-plugs and shear-pins.  Food should normally not be taken aboard the dive boat. If food is taken for longer monitoring missions, care must be taken not to drop or discard any food or wrappers, and all unused food must be taken ashore at the end of the trip. C. Monitoring  ReefCheck and „earthdive‟ guidelines must be observed at all times.  Anchoring on reefs is forbidden. Boats must either hold station, or moor to a permanent mooring. Moorings should be established on a sandy seabed away from the reef, or on a part of the reef where risers will not affect live coral.  Permanent transects should preferably be identified only by GPS positions and photographs of notable features at start and end. If transects are to be marked, stainless steel bolts or nails should be installed in existing blocks of dead coral.  Transect lines should be deployed with extreme care. Calibrated string is preferable to steel tape measures. Likewise, if quadrats are to be used, they should be of very light construction. Alternatively, the corners of permanent quadrats can be marked.  One member of the team should be allocated the role of Environmental & Safety Officer.  The Environmental & Safety Officer should log all equipment and material taken to the dive site, and check that it has all been recovered after the monitoring assignment.  To minimise impact at the shore, the Environmental & Safety Officer should make a final check of the shore before leaving to ensure that all wastes, consumables and other materials arising from the monitoring assignment have been removed from the shore. (Time and dated photographs of the shore before and after the assignment would be good evidence that care had been taken.) 10.4 Maldives Recreational Diving Regulations In addition to the guidelines described above, which focus to a large extent on the protection of the marine environment, there are strict local regulations which relate to recreational diving in the Maldives. These broadly constitute the Health and Safety requirements that should be applied to any diving conducted as part of the coral reef monitoring component. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Some of the provisos concerning the depth of diving will not be applicable to the relatively shallow diving required for coral reef monitoring, but they are all reproduced below for completeness, as they are the official regulations. 10.4.1 Diver Qualifications Section 1: Recognized Diver Training Agencies: Minimum Certification Requirements o The minimum certification level for divers wishing to participate in diving in the Maldives is an entry level certification from a Recreational scuba Training Council ( RSTC ) associated Diver training agency or a 1 -star Confederation Mondiale Des Activities Subaquatiques (CMAS) certification from a CMAS� affiliated diver training agency. o Other diver training agency‟s entry level certificates must have as performance requirements for open water training Dives encompassing the knowledge and skills as outlined in the RSTC entry level performance requirements. o A diver is required to submit proof of his/her training by means of a diving experience by means of a logbook. o A diver who cannot submit an entry level or higher certification must be considered a trainee and may only participate in training dives according to the standard of the training programs a sponsored by the aforementioned driver training agencies, until certified as an entry level diver. o A diver who cannot submit proof of his/her dive experience by means of a log book must demonstrate to the dive instructor that he/she has mastered the skill as outlined in Section 11: Orientation Dive. Section 2: Supervision of Diving Activities o All diving activities, both land and boat based, must be supervised by Dive Centre Staff either directly or indirectly. If a Dive Centre Staff is found to be negligent in supervision, the Dive Centre Staff and the Dive Centre will be subject to appropriate action as deemed fit by the government authorities. o In order to function as a Dive Centre Staff, a person must meet all the prerequisites as mentioned under Section 10: Recognised Qualification of Dive Centre Staff. o “Direct Supervision� is defined as Dive Centre staff being physically present and in control of the diving activities and being able to personally valuate the behaviour of the divers and being capable to prevent or correct problems when they occur. o “Indirect Supervision� is Dive Centre Staff Organizing the diving activity and being available to respond correctly and timely to problems when they occur. o Prior to a dive, a dive briefing has to be given to the divers by the Dive Centre Staff. o For all diving activities a dive roster must be kept starting the drivers‟ dive time, maximum depth and remaining tank pressure after the dive. o For independent land based dive activities, a Dive Centre Staff member is required to note the time the divers enter and exit the water. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o Dive rosters are to be kept the Dive Centre Staff for reference by the Maldivian Authorities for a period of not less than one year. o Certified divers may dive with another certified diver without the immediate supervision of a Dive Master when environmental conditions are similar to the conditions in which the diver has been trained, or proof of experience of diving in more demanding conditions can be demonstrated by entries in their logbooks. o Certified divers, who do not have the skill or experience necessary to safely and comfortably dive in give environmental conditions, must dive under the immediate supervision of Dive Centre Staff. Section 3: Maximum Depth Limitations o The Maximum depth for all recreational diving in the Maldives is 30 metres. o This applies to divers training in deep diving Techniques who participate in recreational diving activities within the Maldives, tourists, Dive Centre Staff, Instructors on or off duty and all instructors and students involved in Advanced and Deep Diving Training. o The maximum depth limitation also applies without exception to diving activities on live aboard and safari boats. o Any person repeatedly and deliberately violating this regulation may be excluded from further diving. Furthermore, any Dive Centre Staff repeatedly and deliberately violating this regulation will be subjected to disciplinary measures as deemed fit the concerned Maldivian Authority. o Entry level Divers may dive to a depth of 20 metres or within the limits as set forth by standards of their certification agency, but not exceeding 20 meters. o Not until entry level divers have received training in Deep Diving techniques may they go deeper than 20 metres. o Instruction in Deep Diving techniques must be provided in compliance with the standards of the Diver Training Agencies as mentioned in Section 1: Recognised Diver Training Agencies. o The fact that an entry level diver is diving under the supervision of an instructor shall not be grounds to dive deeper than 20 metres unless the diver is trained or is receiving in Deep Diving Techniques as per standards. Section 4: Decompression Dive Limitations o Only non-decompression diving is allowed in the Maldives. This applies to everybody who participates in diving activities within the Maldives, tourists and dive Centre Staff, instructors on and off duty, also instructors and Students involved in Advanced and Deep Diving Training. This no stage decompression limitation also applies to live aboard or safari boats. No exception whatever is allowed. o Any person repeatedly and deliberately violating this regulation may be excluded from further diving. Furthermore, and Dive Centre Staff repeatedly and deliberately violating this regulation shall be subjected to disciplinary measures as deemed fit the concerned. Section 5: Dive Centre Requirements Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o All Dive Centre‟s must register with the Ministry of Tourism and obtain an operating license. o All Dive Centre‟s must be equipped with pure Oxygen and have an emergency plan ready in case of diving related accidents. The emergency plan ready in case of diving related accident. The emergency plan must include mechanisms for: a) Searching methods in case of missing divers b) Providing First Aid Care c) Transport method to the next appropriate medical facility. d) Reporting to the appropriate Authorities (Police, Coast Guard. Ministry of Tourism, etc.) o All Dive Centre Staff must familiar with his/her Emergency Plan and be able to act appropriately. o A Dive Centre must have an employed Base Leader who is responsible for the Dive Centre and who is present at the Dive Centre o a daily basis. In case the Base Leader is absent, an Assistant Bass Leader must assume responsibility for the Dive Centre. o A dive centre must have adequate equipment spare parts, equipment and course material for all course conducted. o A dive Centre must have a list of all dive services and course conducted and their rates available in writing. Section 6: Dive Centre Equipment o Dive centre‟s must provide well maintained dive equipment. o Dive cylinders must be hydrostatically tested by a facility authorized to do so by the Ministry of Tourism. o Buoyancy compensators Device (BCD‟s) must be approved for recreational diving by the manufacturer and must have a Low Pressure inflator. The BCD must be maintained according to the Manufacturer‟s instructions. o Regulators must be approved for recreational diving by the manufacturer and must be maintained according to the manufacturer‟ instructions. o Dive Centre‟s must provide Alternative Air Sources, depth and timing devices as standards rental equipment. Section 7: Standard Equipment for Divers and Instructors o During all recreation diving activities divers must be equipped with: a) Mask, Snorkel, Fins b) Regulators with submersible pressure gauge and Alternative Air Source or redundant air supply. c) Buoyancy Compensator Device (BCD) vests with oral and low pressure inflator. d) Time and depth measuring device e) The use of dive computers are highly recommended for all divers f) Emergency signalling device comprising inflatable surface balloon and whistle Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o During all night diving activities divers must be equipped with: a) Underwater torch and night signalling device b) Reflective surface marker buoy (SMB), and o In addition, all the dive instructors supervising diving activities must be equipped with; knife and emergency signalling device Section 8: Dive Boats o Dive Boats are the responsibility of the Dive Centre and the crew. o Dive Boats must have at least a crew of three, and must be dedicated to the safety of the divers and supports the divers in any way they can. o The Dive boats operated by dive centre‟s must be able to communicate to the Dive Centre‟s must be able to communicate to the Dive Centre at all times during the dive through a functioning walkie� talkie or hand phone and radio telephone or CB set. o The Dive boats must have sufficient fuel to make the prearranged dive trips and any changes there to. o In case weather conditions deteriorate while divers are under water, the crew must be proficient in recalling methods. o The Dive centre staff is responsible for the provision of a spare tank, spare diving equipment, First Aid, Oxygen Kit, Dive flag and a boat ladder that allows for comfortable exit from the water. o The Dive flag shall be clearly visible when the divers are in the water and must be lowered when the last driver has exited the water. o An operational Search Light must be onboard, in all night dives involving dive boats. Section 9: Safety Considerations o All Dive Centre‟s must have an Emergency Plan as mentioned under Section 5: Dive Centre Requirements. o The dive Centre Staff must brief the drivers prior to every dive. The Brief must include information about safety regulations, depth limits, dive site characteristics, currents, entry and exit techniques, environmental considerations and potential hazards. o After all dives, a safety stop must be made for at least 3 minutes at 5 metres. Divers must commence their safety stop with a tank pressure not less than 50 bars. A safety stop at 5 meters is recommended for all dives deeper than 9 meters. o The use of Buoyancy Compensator Device (BCD) is absolutely mandatory for all diving activities. o Solitary Diving is NOT allowed under any circumstances. o For Practical reasons the term “Diving� is used to describe recreational diving only. Commercial and military divers and other occupational divers must adhere to these regulations when participating in recreational diving activities. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o Familiarization sessions with the oxygen equipment must be provided on the dive centre for all dive staff and this training session must be held at least annually. o No exception to the Maldives recreational diving regulations are allowed unless expressly permitted in writing by the Ministry of Tourism. Section 10: Recognized Qualification of Dive Centre Staff. o In order to supervise diving activities exercise leadership in diving activities, a person must: be a Dive master (RTSC) or 4-star divers (CMAS) or equivalent as per RSTC standards, have a work permit and a Resident Permit Visa if not a Maldivian national, carry professional liability insurance and Personal accident insurance covering diving accidents and chamber treatment. o All training and certification of divers is to be done exclusively by instructor, who may be assisted by Assistant Instructors and / or Dive Masters as per standards. o In order to function as an Instructor an individual must, in addition to the above: be certified as an Instructor (RTSC) or 2 star monitor (CMAS) or equivalent as per RSTC standard; be in teaching status with the diver� training agency whose diver training program he / she chooses to teach. Strictly adhere to all the standards that apply to the diver� training program he chooses to all the standards that apply to the diver� training program he chooses to teach. o In order to function as a Base Leader or Assistant Base Leader, an individual must be a Dive Instructor. Section 11: Orientation Dive o If a diver is certified as an entry level diver or above, but cannot show proof of at least 30 dives and/or has not been diving in the last 3 months, the diver is required to make an Orientation Dive. o An Orientation Dive is NOT a test, but is dive shallow water under quiet, controlled circumstances, where the diver is given the opportunity to regain confidence in his/her skills, including but not limited to: mask clearing, regulator recovery, neutral buoyancy, ascents, descents and alternate air source breathing. Section 12: Definitions In this regulation, unless the context otherwise requires: o “diving “ means underwater recreation scuba diving o Dive Centre� means dive schools, dive bases and all other parties that provide diving services for tourists. The following are some of the abbreviations used by International Diving Associations referred to in this regulation o PADI Professional Association of Diving Instructors o NAUI National Association of Under Water Instructors o RSTC Recreational Scuba Training Council o CMAS Confederation Mondiale Des Activities Subaquatiques o SCUBA Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus o BARACUDA Baracuda International Aquanautic Club Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o VIT Verband Internationaler Tauchschulen (Association of International Diving Schools) o POSEIDON Poseidon Nemrond Internation Diving Club 10.4.2 Diving Guidelines The execution of a reef monitoring programme must be carried out in a organised and safe way to minimise the risk to the divers themselves and also the environment in which the boat access to and from the dive site, boat handling at the dive site, and the diving will take place. Planning and management of the whole activity must be thorough and in accordance with national regulations and guidelines as et out below. While the guidelines are primarily intended for the use by tourist divers staying on resorts, they provide the basis for a code of good practice for all diving. Of specific significance are Sections 13 and 14 which relate to the protection of the environment. Section 16 refers to diving for Marine Research, reef monitoring would be classified in this category. Since the activity will be carried out under the auspices of the MRC, it is assumed that permissions for diving will be provided by MRC. Section 1: Planning the Dive o It is essential to „dive the dive you plan‟. Any changes to the plan must be notified to the Dive centre who must be aware of any changes to the dive plan of the dive boat and divers. Section 2: Weather Checks o It is recommended that dive centre‟s keep aware of local weather conditions and inform divers of any special conditions at each dive site prior to the dive. Section 3: Low�Risk Conditions o Maximum depth of dive site not exceed 20m o Swell and / or wave height does not exceed 0.5m o Current is nil to slight (diver can swim against it with minimum exertion) o Underwater Visibility is greater than 4m o Dive stars and ends in full daylight Section 4: Prohibited Dives o Decompression dives o Dives deeper than 30m o Dives less than 24 hours before flying (a pressured aircraft) o Dives in restricted/no dive areas (see Section 10: Diving In Restricted Areas) Section 5: Dive Qualifications o A diver must present the following documents to the dive centre: a) Dive certification card from a recognized agency that allows the person o dive without supervision in open water. b) Log book validating open water diving experience of at 900 minutes, excluding training dives. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report c) Medical certificate dated within 12 months of diving or self�declaration stating that the person is fit to scuba dive. d) Completed diver registration form at the dive centre. e) An orientation dive may be required for persons who have not dived within the last 3 months. The dive centre may impose restrictions on a diver‟s activities on the basis of his / her logged experience. Section 6: Dive Tables and computers o Use of dive tables and dive computers are highly recommended for all divers. o Dive tables must be available at the dive base for divers to work out their dives manually. Section 7: Dive Flag o The wide transport activities around the island in the Maldives make it essential that divers mark their presence clearly. Therefore, any boat with divers operating from it must always display signals by day or night to inform other boat users. In the Maldives the daytime Signal for divers is the International Code Flag “A� (White and blue split flag) approved by the Ministry of Tourism as an indication of a submerged diver. The flag must be at least 750mm in length and 600mm in width. o Dive flag can be used anywhere where divers are diving and should always be displayed by dive boats when it has divers in the water. The use of dive is to signal any boat, jet-ski or anybody else in the vicinity that diver is underneath and hence should keep distance, or take care when approaching. Section 8: Diving from Boats o For all dives away from the dive centre, it is recommended that a person with the following qualifications and experience remains on the surface during diving operations: a. A boat driving / captains license from Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation and with significant experience. b. Dive Centre staff with adequate knowledge of the dive location or other persons approved by the Base Leader. c. First aid Certificate. d. Oxygen resuscitation and therapy certificate or PADI / DAN Oxygen Provider Course. Section 9: Cylinder Pressure Testing o Those who are professionally engaged in the filling of compressed air are forbidden to fill cylinders that have not been hydrostatic pressure tested within the last two year. Persons employed by dive centres to fill cylinders, such as compressor boys, must be made aware of these regulations. Section 10: Diving in Restricted Areas o Generally diving is fairly free in Maldives, but in the vicinity of closed national security installations diving is not permitted. These areas are not always marked on maps; hence it is recommended that divers consult the Coast Guard/Ministry of Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Defence & National Security or the Ministry of Tourism in advance, to find out about possible restrictions. o All the above stated are valid for the whole of Maldives. Other restricted areas are: a) Ports, traffic route accesses, passages and alike. Permission has to be obtained from the Maldives Ports Authority / Harbour authorities before attempting to dive in dive in designated commercial harbours and ports. b) Vicinity of areas under the Ministry of Defence & National Security and near maritime vessels. c) In the atolls where tourism is undeveloped (outside the tourism zone), except in designated dive sites. Section 11: Diving Wrecks and Underwater Artefacts o Maldives being a seafaring nation, it is expected that their will be many wrecks among the atolls. The imperative rule for wreck diving is: “Look but don‟t touch!� Those who do not observe this rule are not only damaging the underwater wrecks, but are also obstructing future wrecks diving in the Maldives. This rule applies not only to wreck diving in the Maldives. This rule applies not only to whole wrecks, but also to any separate objects found under water. o Should you discover an underwater object the correct procedure is to mark the spot and then report to the National Centre for Linguistics and Historical Research and the Ministry of Finance and Treasury. A list of wrecks is available from the Ministry of tourism. Section 12: Protection of Underwater cultural Monuments o Nothing should be taken out from the sea, and particularly this prohibition refers to cultural monuments. Please contact the National Centre for Linguistics & Historical Research and the Ministry of Finance & Treasury should you find any. o Damaging and extracting cultural monuments is prohibited, as well as taking the same abroad. Underwater archaeological researches may be performed only with permits issued by the Maldivian government authorities, and the procedure is NOT covered under these regulations. Section 13: Environment Protection o As responsible divers, reasonable care should be taken to protect the marine environment, its associated living organisms and their habitats. Divers should be briefed by the dive instructor on responsible behaviour whilst diving, such as buoyancy control, avoiding damage to corals and physical contact with marine animals. Shark feeding is NOT permitted for the divers and the dive centre staff alike. o Activities that are detrimental to marine protected areas and protected species and their habitats are prohibited under the Environment Protection & Preservation Act (Act No. 4/93) of Maldives. Marine Protected Areas are living marine aquariums. Look but don‟t touch is the message in these areas, and only permitted activities can take place. Protected areas, as their name suggests, are there to protect typical areas of the coral reef system, and its resident fish and other animals, in as near to a pristine condition as possible. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report o Permit to dive in marine protected areas may be required. Please check before you venture. Section 14: Damage Due to Anchoring o Dive boats are not allowed to anchor on dive sites. Drift boat diving is the norm in Maldives. Boat anchors destroy fish habitats especially corals and even sea� grass beds. If anchoring is required for any reason prevents reef damage by anchoring in sandy areas or using mooring buoys. Section 15: Diving in Bait Fishery Areas o Bait fishing is an important activity for the traditional pole and line tuna fishery in the Maldives. Hence, occasionally divers may encounter fisherman collecting bait. In order to reduce conflict between local fishermen, diving should be avoided in the same area whilst fishermen are engaged in bait fishing. Any such conflicts should be reported to the Ministry of tourism through the responsible dive centre as soon as possible. Dive centres should also keep divers informed of these traditional economic activities in the country. Section 16: Diving for Commercial Fishing & Marine Research o Diving for marine resources and marine research are not covered under these regulations. Permission should be obtained from the concerned government authorities before engaging in such activities. Section 17: Confiscation of Equipment o The Maldivian legislation provides the Police the right to confiscate objects unlawfully taken up as well as equipment in case where a diver has applied his or her equipment illegally. 10.5 Recommendation for the training of diving monitors The MRC will be responsible for arranging the training of divers and others who will participate in the monitoring programme. The training by contracted instructors will need to be sensitive, i.e. it will need to take into consideration that all diver participants with be certified resort divers who already have an understanding of best practice. Nevertheless, all participants should be introduced to the best practices and environmental guidelines set out above, and certified as having completed the training provided. 10.6 Recommendations for the supervision of coral monitoring The MRC will also be responsible for monitoring and supervision of the work of the participants to ensure that these best practices are properly applied. Again, this will need to be done in a sensitive manner, bearing in mind that the participants are all volunteers upon whom the project depends. The supervision will cover both the technical/scientific aspects of monitoring and also the health and safety aspects of putting divers into the water. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 1: Diary of Activities and Records of Meetings Subject page General Diary 1 Fuvahmulah Meetings 3 Hithadhoo Meetings 23 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report General Diary Date Location Activities th 12 June Mobilisation of NKUK team from UK to Malé 13th June Malé Arrival in Malé and introductory meeting with MOHE 14th June Malé Briefing and administrative procedures for island visits and fieldwork with EPA Meeting with EPA staff joining the team on the fieldwork and checking of equipment Meeting with Seamarc to discuss procedures to be used during the Topographic Surveys Meeting with MCS to discuss participants in Coral Monitoring work 15th-21st June Fuvahmulah Mobilisation of Team and EPA support members from Malé to Fuvahmulah via Gan. Introductory meeting with Fuvahmulah Atoll Council President. Discussion of local arrangements for support. Installation of the EPA Automatic Weather Station at Atoll Office. ad hoc meetings with Atoll Council and Island Council. Topographic Surveys. Fact finding tours of the wetlands, existing drainage system, urban and agricultural areas, sampling of wells throughout the island. Household Social Survey of 335 households and interviews with representatives of stakeholder groups. Wind-up meeting with Atoll Council. 19th June Malé Attendance at Coral Reef Monitoring Workshop nd th 22 -28 June Hithadhoo Mobilisation to Hithadhoo Introductory meeting with atoll City Council Mayor Introductory meeting with Town Board President Discussion of local arrangements for support. Meeting with MDSF to discuss logistical support for Topographic survey activities ad hoc meetings with Atoll Council and Island Council. Topographic Surveys Fact finding tours of the wetlands, existing drainage system, urban and agricultural areas, sampling of wells throughout the island. Conduct of Social Survey of 400 households and interviews with representatives of target groups. Wind-up meeting with City Council Mayor. Fact finding tour of areas of the island flooded following heavy rainstorm overnight 28th/29th June. 29th June Return to Malé 30th June-16th July Processing of social survey response forms. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 130 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Processing of topographic survey data. Analysis of well conductivity data. Preparation of Draft Final Report. Preparation of drawings for Final Report. 7th -10th July Hithadhoo Tidal cycle measurement of tide and water levels in Eidhigali and Maa Kilhis. 10th- 13thJuly Fuvahmulah Tidal cycle measurement of tide and water levels in Dhadimagu and Bandaara Kilhis. 13th July Submission of Draft Final Report. 17th July Demobilisation of final team member to UK. 14th-28th July Preparation of Final Report. 29th July Submission of Final Report. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 131 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Fuvahmulah Meetings 15th-21st June 2011 Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Atoll Council Date 15 June 2011 Time 1545 Location Atoll Council Office, Fuvahmulah Participants Hassan Saeed, President Study Team DJ, KE, JR Abdulla Mohamed Didi (MoHE) Refaat, Hussein Ibrahim (EPA) Main Points 1. Need "wake-up" call re importance of wetlands. 2. Ward Councils are meeting with EPA on 16 June to discuss boundaries of wetlands. 3. Solid waste is a major issue. 4. Vegetable produce from Fuvahmulah: only mango, taro economically important; neither is labour intensive. 5. Environmental education is not translated into action. 6. Flooding: the roads are now high after the addition of coral-based aggregate. Sediment from road drainage enters and affects taro fields, so residents have blocked some road drains. 7. Heritage info: see Bell's Monograph. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 132 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Atoll Council Date 19 June 2011 Time 1100 Location Atoll Council Office, Fuvahmulah Participants Hassan Saeed, President 778-8936, 777-7544 Ali Fazaad, Vice President 778-3264 Mohamed Shafeeq Adnaan 791-8703 Ibrahim Fikury Hussain 778-4015 Ali Shah 777-5109, 776-5113 Abdulla Ibrahim 778-2290 Study Team DJ, KE, JR, MS Abdulla Mohamed Didi (MoHE) Hussein Ibrahim (EPA) Main Points 1. NKUK gave a Powerpoint summary of the proposed project. 2. Major ongoing projects on the island at present are: (1) sewerage (no topographic assessment done, which is a concern) and (2) water (Southern Utilities Ltd. and Biwater International). Council's concern is that the water and sewerage projects will affect water movement on the island. If a topographic assessment is done within this project it will also aid the implementation of the other two projects. 3. How is solid waste managed on the island? There is no proper waste management centre or any landfill. Southern Utilities is mandated to manage waste and collects waste from households once a week, taking this to a designated area. There is a small area where burnable waste is piled and burnt. Plastics and other non-biodegradables are accumulating in heaps. There are no proper means of dealing with it. 4. Ideal scenario - every biodegradable component should be composted and the compost sold to farmers. Plastics and metals should be shredded and compacted and taken off the island. An incinerator should be available for disposable diapers (nappies) and hospital waste. 5. Now that local councils are elected, they have powers to charge fees for waste management. 6. Is there any final waste disposal from the island? No; Addu Atoll facilities will not take Fuvahmulah waste. 7. Need waste awareness - but also need practical waste management actions / facilities / equipment / systems. 8. The IFC (World Bank) was on the island at government‟s invitation to make a waste management plan for the country (the Waste Management Corporation in Male‟ should be able to provide more info on this). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 133 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 9. Is the community ready to develop nature tourism activities on the island? Councils and the community believe there is a large potential for tourism on the island. There needs to be more than just the basics - Council needs to know more about the environment (ecological and social setting) and also carrying capacity. The Council does not have any idea of the impact of tourism or the perceptions of residents about tourism. They need more information on eco- or nature based tourism. There are plans to introduce tourism as well in the wetlands and thundi (northern beach area) which could attract short term local and international tourists including safari boats. Council feels that Fuvahmulah can offer an environmental plus a social product because the island has several historical sites as well. 10. The President of the Council thinks the government has made a mistake of talking to the people about a City Hotel. People now have an unrealistic view of high-end tourism. He doesn‟t think it‟s the right concept for Fuvahmulah. 11. One and a Half Degree Maldives won the bid for the hotel, but is struggling to find finance. 12. With the operation of the airport it will be easier to access the island and they are hoping for more tourism, local and international once it is in operation. 13. City Hotel (less direct benefits to local people) vs Local Guest House based tourism (more direct benefits). 14. They feel that it is important to protect resources for future generations in addition to preserving them for tourists. 15. Under the Decentralisation Act, local councils have a responsibility to use their local resources to generate income for the island. 16. One Councillor: "Please train the Fire Department in emergency response to flood events"! 17. Each drain is managed by 2 local operators (men) who receive RF 250/mo from the Atoll council. 18. Note: the potentially invasive Nile Cabbage in Drain 4 (airport) has been there for "about 6 years". (This seems unlikely - it is highly invasive and would have spread much further …) 19. Information, education and consultation (IEC) are seen as the first step in wetland management. 20. IEC and waste management are key elements in wetland management. 21. The Council supplied the study team with a one page document "What the Atoll council seeks to achieve through the Wetland Conservation Project". Key desired products include:  Comprehensive assessment of the island's topography (related to water flow and drainage).  Guidelines for road design to mitigate flood damage.  An ecotourism concept for the island (i.e. nature-based tourism?): "sustainable commodification of the wetland environment".  Social marketing as first step towards community awareness and wetland management.  Assistance with IEC and capacity development concerning waste management. See the following page for the full text of the document. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 134 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report What the Atoll Council Seeks to Achieve Through the Wetland Conservation Project (Copy of document received from the Atoll Council on 19th June 2011) Wetlands and the two kilhis are an integtral part of the island’s physical geography/environment and ecosystem, one cannot exist without the other. Wetlands constitute over 30 percent of the surface area of the island, thus any furure development will have to be aligned with the conservation effort. 1. Road construction along with water and sewerage system project will alter the topography of the island and will have a direct impact on how water moves inside the island during heavy rains. It is therefore essential to have a comprehensive assessment of the island topography and possible guidelines for road design to mitigate flood damage and waterlogging of the wetland areas and taro fields. 2. The Island community and councils believe that the island has great potential to be promoted as an ecotourism destination. However, the exact model or possible concepts that can be explored will have to be worked out. Therefore, a concept for Fuvahmulah as an ecotourism destination with special emphasis on sustainable commodification of the wetland environment will be an essential outcome we see from the wetland conservation project. 3. The community has been taking the wetland for granted over the years and the public apathy towards the wetlands have increased over the last two decades. Any conservation effort should therefore begin with a social marketing/public education program to inform/educate the public of the importance of them and the role they have in sustaining life on the island. 4. One of the biggest challenges to building a civilized society and environmentally responsible citizenry on the island is the public’s attitude towards waste management. Public education and stricter administrative control is necessary in strengthening solid waste management. As waste management will have a direct bearing on the conservation efforts, assistance with public education and institutional development towards better waste management will have to be incorporated into the wetland conservation project. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 135 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Island Council (Wards) Date 19 June 2011 Time 1400 Location Island Council Secretariat Offices, Fuvahmulah Participants Hassan Saeed, President, Atoll Council Ahmed Najah Ibrahim, Pres., Dhandimagu Council 977-9767 Khalis Shareef, Pres., Dhiguvaadu Council 779-2476 Hassan Mutheeu, VP, Dhiguvaadu Council 790-7088 Ali Zaid, Councillor, Dhiguvaadu Council 779- 3474 Ahmed Shareef, Pres., Dhoodigan Council 772-5726 Jaadulla Ali, VP Dhoodigan Council 760-1756 Ibrahim Abdulla, VP, Funaadu Council 798-4399 Mohamed Ibrahim, Pres., Hoadhandu Council 779-7501 Mohamed Mustafa, Councillor, Hoadhandu 779-3615 Ahmed Mujuthada, Pres., Maadhandu Council 778-3233 Mohamed Yamin, VP, Maadhandu Council 962-1333 Ahmed Wafir Hassan, Councillor, Maadhandu 772-3540 Ali Abdulla, Pres., Male'gan Council Ahmed Abdulla, VP, Male'gan Council Mohamed Liraru, Councillor, Misque'magu Council 771-0079 Study Team DJ, KE, MS, JR Abdulla Mohamed Didi (MoHE) Refaat, Hussein Ibrahim (EPA) Main Points 1. The meeting was mainly in Dhivehi, facilitated by Marie Saleem. 2. At present the Island Council is made up of 3 Councillors from each of the 8 Wards on the island. Thus, 24 Councillors. 3. All the Councillors are men. Very few women stood for election, and none were elected. 4. Island (Ward) Councils have a wider range of duties than the Atoll council, raising the issue of inclusivity and coordination between the two levels of council in project implementation: some of the Councillors were concerned that they may not be included in the decision making process if the implementing authority was the Atoll Council. They suggested to have a Steering Committee with all wards represented to work with the PIU. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 136 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 5. The airport drain and the other drains are "all needed". 6. When asked for their views on introducing tourism to the island, one suggested making bungalows near the wetlands for local tourists. 7. They also said that there were 2 popular dive spots on the outer reef which could attract tourism. 8. Their hope is to have integrated community-based tourism on the island. 9. They stated their concern that some bird species, which were observed on the island previously, appear to have disappeared. 10. The issue of diversifying and expanding the agriculture sector was discussed and the Atoll Councillor who was present (Atoll Council President) stated that of the agricultural land that was available previously, only 30% is remaining due to the other areas being allocated for the City Hotel and the airport. 11. The Councillors would like to improve agriculture through encouragement of the community to undertake hydroponics and home gardening, and they expressed the need to educate the farmers; study of agricultural opportunities could be a project activity. 12. The issue of using agrochemicals (inorganic fertilisers and pesticides) was also raised: Councillors recognize that farmers are not aware of the caution needed when using such products, or of required pre-harvest period following spray application; they were concerned that the chemicals are ingested by humans as a result. 13. They have been trying to encourage the formation of a farmers' cooperative on the island. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 137 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Municipal Services Dept., Southern Utilities Ltd. Date 20 June 2011 Time 1000 Location Waste Management Compound, Fuvahmulah Participants Ibrahim Rasheed, Superintendent Study Team MS, JR Main Points 1. Ibrahim Rasheed is in charge of running the waste management facility on Gn. Fuvahmulah. 2. At present the operator of the facility is Southern Utilities Ltd. (SUL) but the status is temporary until the new Atoll Council tenders out the project and appoints a new contractor; thus SUL is apprehensive about investing in the facility at present as they fear the project may be awarded to another party. 3. The facility comprises a walled compound ~ 60m x 60 m with a concrete wall but no gate; there is no security - the compound is open access. 4. The compound has no electricity, lock-up store, office, or sanitation. 5. Waste is collected from households on a weekly basis for free. However, SUL would like to charge a monthly disposal fee of Rf 50 for one pick-up per week; Rf 100 for 3 times a week and Rf 300 for those who want their waste disposed on a daily basis from the households. As such, they have distributed leaflets to all households informing them of the programme but the Department has received very little response: only 50 households responded out of about 1,800 household plots on the island. 6. They are waiting to implement the fee system once the administration is in place. 7. Residents can, and do, deliver their waste directly to the compound, arriving on motorbikes, trucks and tractors with trailers. 8. Arriving mixed waste is dumped and hand-sorted. 9. The largest volume is organics, including garden waste (coconuts, palm fronds, etc.). This, including all plastic waste, is piled and eventually burnt, sending foul smoke and odour downwind. 10. Metal is separated and small items (cans) crushed in a hand-fed micro-crusher mounted on a trailer. 11. The equipment available for waste processing is very limited and they are struggling to manage the waste collected: an incinerator and a compactor are available but are too small and do not match the volumes of waste needing processing. A plastic shredder is also available but is also too small. 12. Waste has been managed to some extent for about 13 years on the island. 13. Separation of waste is not carried out at the household level and this poses some issues of segregating at the waste management site. 14. The workers have been issued with safety shoes, gloves and masks; some were wearing the shoes and gloves. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 138 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 15. The workers have undertaken waste management fund-raising days during which the SUL employees go to houses and do some 'voluntary' work for them in return for a financial contribution, and they raised Rf 21,000. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 139 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Fisherman Date 20 June 2011 Time 1600 Location Fuvahmulah Participants Habeeb Ibrahim Study Team MS, JR Mohamed Noori (key informant on island life) Main Points 1. He mainly does tuna fishing although he does go for reef fishing on the house reef at times ("house reef" is the local reef around the island). 2. His family uses the wetlands for recreation purposes. 3. They also collect firewood from the wetlands to cook and smoke the fish. 4. They have taro fields around the wetlands. They use the harvest mostly at home but sells the excess at the Male‟ local market. 5. He believes that there is a big change in the tuna fisheries as a result of global climate change: the water current system has changed and the decline in fisheries is related to that. 6. Bait for the skipjack fishery is scarce but bait for yellowfin tuna fishery (rimmas, caesionids etc.) is better. Thus most fishermen on the island go for yellowfin tuna fishing. 7. The fishermen carry out a lot of trolling. 8. He has been fishing for 40 years, since he was 18. He has 4 sons, not fishing - they are all in the police. 9. He is the Captain of his own 29 ft. boat and has 2 crew to help him. 10. He thinks that more young people are joining the fishery. 11. There are many Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) near the island and they often fish in those areas. 12. The most recent major flood the island experienced was in 1958 and even then his house was not affected (he was 5 years old at the time). 13. There used to be a lot of Dhan’bu trees about 40 years ago which were cut down for wood. He believes that the trees would have played a significant role in the natural system of the island. 14. Boats are now made from imported hardwoods and/or fibreglass; there is very limited use and availability of local woods. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 140 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Society for Environmental Awareness (NGO) Date 20 June 2011 Time 1645 Location Fuvahmulah Participants Ali Mohamed Ibrahim Assad (Ali's nephew) Study Team MS, JR Main Points 1. SEA is an Association registered with the Government of Maldives in 1994. It has a Facebook page. 2. SEA received the Green Leaf Award from the President in 1995. 3. SEA is involved in awareness campaigns focused on erosion and waste management. 4. SEA's main project at present is running a UNDP-gifted greenhouse project, where they grow honey melons in autopots. There are 2 greenhouses, 500 plants per greenhouse. SEA members spend about 2 hours per day at the greenhouses. Technical assistance was supplied from Malaysia, including greenhouse construction and initial operation of the autopot system (a form of hydroponics). SEA was given 1 year‟s worth of seedlings and materials. $80,000 was spent on the project by UNDP. 5. SEA did a lot of volunteer work to get the project in operation. There were 40 members working on the project when it started, but now this has stabilized at 16. 6. It is a very profitable project. Each member received Rf 470 from the first harvest (there were more members), and from the recent harvests each person received Rf 1295. 7. 50% of the profit from the harvest is spent on salaries (i.e. distributed to active members) and the remaining 50% is used to buy more material and for marketing. 8. Each harvest takes 55 days from seedling to harvest and there is difficulty in supplying the demand, as the 2 greenhouses do not suffice. SEA needs more houses to supply the demand. 9. There is an issue with transport of products: the first few harvests were sold to the resorts in Addu at a higher price (Rf 65/ kg) compared to recent harvests which have been sent to Male‟ for sale to resort suppliers, who pay less (Rf 45/ kg). This is due to lack of transportation for cargo between Fuvahmulah and Addu, which forces all Fuvahmulah producers to send their produce to Male‟ where it fetches lower prices and freight costs are high. 10. UNDP is now in discussion with SEA to explore the potential of adding value to mangoes by processing with simple equipment. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 141 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Farmer Date 21 June 2011 Time 1040 Location Hoadhan'du, Fuvahmulah Participants Mohamed Ahmed Study Team MS, JR Main Points 1. Mohamed Ahmed is a farmer from Hoadhan‟du who has an agricultural plot on the northern side of the island. 2. He and some friends who have adjacent plots are farming the area together. They grow a variety of crops including eggplant, cabbage, lettuce, banana, cassava, pumpkin, watermelon, chilli, tomatoes and betel leaf vines. 3. Each plot is 40 x 60 feet, which is "too small" to make a reasonable income. 4. Farmers are not allowed to grow “hard� crops (tree crops) like mangoes in the agricultural plots. The Atoll Council informed the consultants that this was due to the temporary nature of the plots which would result in a lot of conflict if the farmers were asked to move elsewhere on the island. 5. They had the same issue with bananas and there was some tension with the council, but now they are allowed to grow bananas. 6. Disease control is difficult and costly as there are only 2 suppliers are on the island and often they run out of the appropriate chemicals. Prices are rising, as well. 7. Bananas are "getting smaller" and therefore fetching lower prices per bunch (used to be RF 500/bunch, now Rf 200 or 250), and are "rotting" (new diseases? nutrient deficiencies?). 8. The plots are irrigated by groundwater pumped electrically from shallow open well, into hard plastic distribution pipes and then into overhead sprinklers. 9. Farmers "do not have any skills in composting", and he "would like training in composting". 10. Marketing is a major problem: sometimes there is "no market", so crops are lost. 11. Also, while market prices stay the same the cost of inputs to produce the crops is increasing immensely. 12. They sometimes send their crop for sale in Male‟ market. 13. The cost on electricity is increasing on the island and the farmers are finding it difficult to cope with the increasing costs. 14. There are no agricultural extension staff on the island. 15. A lot of pesticides are used on the island without proper knowledge of how to use them. Pesticides were stored in an insecure shed in a variety of small containers, ranging from the original bottles to honey jars. The containers carried Thai script, with no instructions in English or Dhivehi. Instructions Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 142 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report for use are provided by the sales agents, who scrawl notes in marker on the bottles (of the "two spoons in a bucket, apply every two weeks" variety). 16. Pesticides identified in the shed were all insecticides: - Tolfenpyrad, a pyrazole insecticide - Macthoate (dimethoate), an organophosphate insecticide - Avermectin/abamectin, a lactone-derivative insecticide 17. No safety equipment is used, and containers are not disposed of safely. 18. Island farmers "do not use herbicides". 19. There is "no beekeeping" on the island. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 143 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Teacher Date 21 June 2011 Time 1125 Location Fuvahmulah Participants Arifa Abdul Majeed Study Team MS, JR Main Points 1. Mrs Majeed is an ex-headmistress with international qualifications, and an ambition to move from teaching to personnel management in the justice system. 2. There are 4 primary schools on the island, Grades 1-6 3. 1 (additional) does Grades 1-7 4. There is 1 higher secondary school, Grades 8-12. 5. Girls do better than boys in primary school; this is reversed in secondary school, due to cultural expectations and pressures. 6. Environmental studies are "part of the curriculum" but, like everything else, could be improved with more resources (e.g. "computers"). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 144 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Island Council Public Health Unit Date 21 June 2011 Time 1440 Location Fuvahmulah Participants Nashia Abdullahafoor, Community Health Officer 790-3118 Mohamed Liraru, Ward Councillor Study Team JR Main Points 1. Health data disaggregated to ward level are not available - she will try to get these from the hospital. 2. A recent survey found "toxoplasma" to be widespread on the island. (Presumably this is toxoplasmosis, spread through cat faeces on rooftops into the drinking water). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 145 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation MoHE, EPA Date 21 June 2011 Time 2030 Location Fuvahmulah Participants Abdulla Mohamed Didi, Project Manager, Atoll Ecosystem Conservation Project (MoHE) Refaat Naeem, EPA Study Team JR, DJ Main Points 1. Abdulla is implementing a protected area demarcation exercise around both wetlands on Fuvahmulah for the EPA. 2. The boundary to be demarcated follows / is the inner side of the "inner ring roads" shown on the official Land Use Plan. 3. The demarcation is being carried out with local Councillors. 4. The PA includes taro fields; the EPA is GPS'ing the border of the taro fields with a high accuracy GPS (Trimble, cm accuracy), accompanied by local Councillors. 5. Protected area boundaries could be demarcated by live fences, e.g. mehela trees. 6. Environmental fines can be assessed up to Rf 100 million under the Env. Liabilities and Compensation Regulations. 7. Protected area zonation is permissible under the Env. Protection and Preservation Act - this is just a very short framework act. 8. EPA's protected area zoning of the two wetlands has been changed to reflect the findings of fieldwork, specifically a change in location of the (theoretical) IUCN Cat. 1 strictly protected cores. 9. Agricultural land is allocated free, on an annual renewable basis (hence no tree crops allowed). 10. Taro land is government land, but is heritable. 11. If government. compulsorily acquires land, compensation is paid for assets such as buildings, trees and crops, but not for the land. 12. Comp. for a coconut tree is up to Rf 500. Comp. for a taro plant is up to Rf 30. 13. Comp. for land is by land-for-land. 14. Land can be converted to private land for a fee. 15. Land can be sold by paying the fee, and then a tax on the sale value. 16. The local council has a valuation committee. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 146 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 147 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Hithadhoo Meetings 22nd-29th June 2011 Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation City Council Date 22 June 2011 Time 1510 Location City Council Office, Hithadhoo Participants Abdulla Sodiq, Mayor 792-4030, mayor@adducity.giv.mv sawbay@gmail.com Study Team DJ, KE, JR (NKUK) MS, Thomas Le Berre, Marie Goarin (Seamarc) Main Points  City Council (the atoll council) has 6 elected members, 1 from each electoral division of about 5000 people (these divisions also send 6 MPs to Male').  Hithadhoo has three divisions, therefore 3 councillors.  At present there are no other councils in the atoll.  All households (~2000) received plastic rainwater tanks in 2009.  Sewerage is all by septic tanks, but a major sewerage project is in the works and an EIA for this has been completed for Hithadhoo. The EIA consultants ("CDE") are on Feydoo on 22 June. The proponent is Southern Utilities Ltd.  Protected area management: formally this responsibility lies with the EPA; the EPA has delegated its responsibility to the "atoll office" (i.e. the council), but the council has no budget or staff for protected area management. A local NGO ("Maavahi") may have more information (the Mayor was a founder). NB: in 2008 "a UK consultant prepared a management plan for the area" (it has not been possible to locate this document).  Health: there is a public health unit in the council building.  Convention Centre: for details contact Brigadier Didi - his engineers are involved.  Contact in the council: Ibrahim Shinaz, 778-8783 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 148 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Health Directorate Date 23 June 2011 Time 0900 Location City Council Secretariat, Hithadhoo Participants Mohamed Saeed, Director 688-6814 saeed904@gmaill.com Study Team JR (NKUK) MS (Seamarc) Main Points  The Directorate is part of the Ministry of Health, not the council.  Mosquito control is best done by habitat management, not fogging.  Septic tanks are a major problem - ideal for mosquitoes.  The Directorate concentrates on awareness and control.  Dengue is "endemic".  Health statistics are with the hospital: (contact: Husain Dashid, hospital director) or contact the Centre for Disease Control in Male'.  There will be a health website 'by next month'.  Sexually transmitted infections (STI) awareness is quite high amongst residents. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 149 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation City Council Date 23 June 2011 Time 1000 Location City Council Office, Hithadhoo Participants Abdulla Sodiq ("Sobe"), Mayor 792-4030 Study Team DJ, KE, JR (NKUK) MS, Thomas Le Berre, Marie Goarin (Seamarc) Main Points  Vision Addu (a 2007-2015 concept document) has been officially adopted: despite being a product of the previous government it was developed with significant community consultation and is considered representative.  Traditionally there were 4 wards on Hithadhoo, now there are 3 (not the same as the electoral divisions).  The new Local Government Authority (LGA) has been formed with council representatives, NGO representatives and the public. It will determine the future of local government.  Local councils can establish regulations, but have no enforcement system (yet). Note: Island Fact Sheets were obtained from the Mayor's secretary. Key points are:  The population was 14,633 as of March 2011.  There are 1,703 households.  2,199 houses have been built.  2,100 houses have not been built (this may means that these parcels have not been allocated or developed). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 150 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Island Office Date 23 June 2011 Time 1140 Location Island Office, Hithadhoo Participants Hussain Zareer, President, Town Board 790-1818 Mohamed Youshau, Take Care 799-0207 Study Team DJ, JR (NKUK) MS (Seamarc) Main Points  White tern - "endemic".  Aari Kilhi, the outlet channel of Fehele wetland: there is a plan to widen this (to 30 ft?) and to create a walkway on the North side; this would involve land acquisition.  Parcel plan of Hithadhoo (.dwg file) shows roads and parcels covering much of both southern wetlands, but most parcels here have not been developed yet and so "could be relocated".  There is a "botanical garden" concept for the southern wetland; no further information on this subject was obtained.  A new road is planned for the West side of the southern wetland - plans available from City Council.  Solid waste is accepted as a major issue: inadequate/no equipment (crushers, incinerator); the Board recruited 20 "cleaners" 2 days ago; want to establish collection points for household waste; the Board has no budget this year for waste management!  Mosquitoes are associated with rubbish.  The Board wants to raise awareness, including re mosquitoes.  An ecotourism concept report (Developing Ecotourism for Eidhigali Kilhi and Koattey Region, Hithadhoo - Addu Atoll - A Brief Concept Note) was prepared recently; the source of the report / author unknown (Consultant: this report consists of a short text listing possible tourist activities in the protected area and artist's impressions of associated buildings over and in the water; it appears unrealistic and does not describe "ecotourism").  The Town Board is to be replaced by an elected Board or Council in about 3 months time.  The 6 councillors on the City Council will soon be uprated to 12. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 151 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Fishermen Date 24 June 2011 Time 1600 Location Dock, Hithadhoo Participants Mohamed Didi, fisherman Hassan Rasheed, fisherman Hussain Zareer, President, Town Board Fahamy, Councillor Study Team JR (NKUK) MS (Seamarc) Main Points  Fishing: bait fish are obtained from the reef east of Hithadhoo (at depth).  Since 2006, the fishery has been declining and there are increasing problems with acquiring bait. As Addu Atoll does not have many submerged reefs (Haa, Giri, Thila) there has always been a shortage of bait fish.  Bait fishing is now done with 4000W lights.  Fishermen from other atolls are using lights at night at FADs (Fish Attraction Devices), and possibly dispersing the skipjack.  When bait fish are abundant, tuna are not, and vice versa.  The price of fuel is high.  After the tsunami, aid money resulted in the construction of large fishing boats; these are expensive to run, therefore require more fishing effort and catch, which (a) requires more bait, (b) wastes unused bait, (c) depresses prices, (d) require a deeper and wider exit channel through the reef.  There are maybe 30 boats, bait fishing every day, also fishing for skipjack tuna.  Sea cucumber harvesting rules are not respected.  The lack of a harbour is a major problem; at present the harbour area is too shallow and does not have proper harbour walls, making it difficult to moor close to shore.  Flooding is due to the link road which traps water and has inadequate (too small) cross-drains.  Some households divert sewage outlets (cess-pit overflows?) into wetlands.  Aari Kilhi used to drain Fehele Kilhi naturally through mangroves, but the new drainage channel is slower and less effective.  Drainage has been affected by reclamation of the area where the Convention Centre is being built. Remaining points (below) are from Hussain and Fahamy. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 152 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report  Some young fishermen "spend their money on drugs".  There is 28% unemployment on the island, and thus many social ills.  Poor construction and dredging practices result in siltation of the reef (personally observed by Hussain, who is a diver).  A major project to construct a dock is ongoing, but has been held up due to changes in the plans: it is now proposed to reclaim an extra 200 feet. The contract is with Public Works (?), who have sub- contracted to a Sri Lankan company. Supervision is inadequate and construction is low quality; for example, gaps left between the pre-cast dock wall blocks will allow the sand fill to flow out underwater.  Flooding: everyone knows (not just thinks) that this is caused by the new link road (which was built for $9M, despite original cost estimates of $16M).  Traditional healers: some are still alive but old; they are literally dying out, with no apprentices. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 153 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Southern Maldives Pvt. Ltd. Date 25 June 2011 Time 1200 Location Waste Management Centre, Hithadhoo Participants Ali Rafeeu, Waste Management Contractor Study Team JR (NKUK) MS (Seamarc) Main Points  Large waste management compound next to main road, fenced (wire mesh). 4.9 ha, gated. Was established as a regional centre in 1990s and the facility was built under the Regional Development Project.  In 2002 it was handed over to Southern Maldives Pvt. Ltd. to manage for 10 months, after they won a bid.  Operation of the sire was tendered again, and Southern Maldives Pvt. Ltd. won again and has a 10 year contract with the Atoll (City) Council, 2004-2014.  The company invested Rf 500,000 in the site in 2004, and again in 2007.  There is one broken tractor, one worn out dozer. No compactor although this is a high priority. There is no electricity in the compound.  There is a very limited market for light metal waste.  The compound functions as a dump with waste piled high and wide.  There is some (minimal) waste separation - e.g. metals, TVs - but most waste is mixed. The "green" waste is mostly plastics and household waste.  A major part of the total volume is garden / vegetable waste - coconuts, palm fronds. Note: this should not be considered "waste".  Food waste is usually buried in backyards.  The waste collection fee is Rf 50/mo/household for weekly pick up of waste. After a slow start, now about 1,500 households are covered, including some on the other islands.  Restaurants pay Rf 600/mo for daily pick up, but some don't pay at all.  General waste is supposed to be charged as follows: Rf 20/truck load Year 1 Rf 35/truck load Year 2 Rf 70/truck load Year 3 onwards but a political decision has been made not to levy these charges except for construction waste - and also to discourage random dumping around the island. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 154 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report  Costs have increased significantly (e.g. diesel is now at Rf 17.4/l versus Rf 3.35/l some time ago), but the waste fee (Rf 50) remains constant; this is partly "political" ("give the new government a chance") and partly because the company feels that people will not be able to afford higher fees.  The fee is collected by the company, not by the council; collection of the fee runs at about 60%, "due to poverty" …(although all households have big-screen TVs and cable…)  He (the contractor) operates the waste enterprise at a loss! But the operation is cross-subsidised from other parts of the business - construction, cement block manufacture, air conditioning.  Post-tsunami aid for waste management (generator, etc.) was directed to Southern Utilities Ltd. and hasn't reached the actual operator on Hithadhoo.  There are "no" plans for government to invest in waste management on the island, but the operator considers that the Island Office should make some effort to increase residents' awareness of waste management, and should penalise waste dumpers.  The operator also considers that government should subsidise waste management, and that it will be 20 years before the community is sufficiently aware to manage waste properly on the island. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 155 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Farmers Date 25 June 2011 Time 1550 Location Southern Hithadhoo Participants Farmers (x 4) Study Team JR (NKUK) MS (Seamarc) Main Points  The farmers use land allocated recently by the council on southern Hithadhoo. Until about a year ago (or 5 years, depending on informant) the parcels were fully vegetated.  The land is at the edge of a swamp/wetland and subject to surface flooding from heavy rain: 1 hour of rain results in flooding (this is purely a result of topography - the site is a collector). This causes loss of crops, especially seedlings.  The farmers are inexperienced and crop diseases are not managed well. A variety of pesticides are used (insecticides) and are not stored or handled safely.  Labour is mostly foreign (Bangladeshi), resident on site in shacks. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 156 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Record of Meeting Organisation or Affiliation Farmer Date 27 June 2011 Time 1500 Location Koattey Area, Hithadhoo Participants Ibrahim Shareef, Farmer (entrepreneur) Study Team JR (NKUK) Guided by Mohamed Youshau (Take Care Addu) 799-0207 Main Points  Ibrahim Shareef is an agricultural entrepreneur. Unlike the farmers met on 25 June, he does not physically involve himself in the farming - this is entirely done by Bangladeshi labour resident on site.  The farm is part of a complex of large plots (~135,000 sq. ft each, >1 ha) covering several ha, all controlled by his family (himself, his brother, uncle etc.).  The land was allocated by the council 2-3 years ago, in the heart of the Koattey protected area, for farming. At that time it was covered with semi-natural vegetation.  The farms are bordered by high fences to keep out thieves; there are internal fences, shade cloth structures, a new permanent (cement block) house, and sheds for housing the Bangladeshi workers.  Crops include tomatoes, cucumbers, cabbage, peppers, etc. Also a small chicken enterprise.  Irrigation is from groundwater by electric pump.  Min. of Agriculture staff visit occasionally and provide training.  Crop protection: "the government does not have enough chemicals so I have to get them when I travel abroad". Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 157 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 2: Conceptual Models of the Wetland Hydraulics and Direct Measurements of Tide –Kilhi Water Level Interactions. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 158 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 11 CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE OCEAN-GROUNDWATER-WETLAND SYSTEM Drawing A2.1. Conceptual Model of the Ocean-Groundwater-Wetland System Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 159 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 12 AMPLITUDE ATTENUATION AND PHASE LAG INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TIDES AND WATER LEVELS IN THE GROUNDWATER AND FREE WATER SURFACE IN THE WETLANDS. 12.1 Conceptual Model Drawing A2.2 Amplitude and Phase Differences in water levels in the sea, groundwater and kilhi. 12.2 Water Level Data Loggers To record the changes of water level in kilhis and compare them with the changes in tide level, two wave and tide recorder loggers, model RBR - TWR 20503, were used concurrently. The TWR-2050 wave and tide data logger is a self- contained, submersible logger, designed to measure and record tide and wave data. Drawing A2.3 TWR-2050 wave and tide data The recording unit is small (265mm x 38mm OD), see Drawing A2.3, and can be mounted on the sea or harbour bed, fastened to an existing structure, or attached to a mooring line. 3 http://www.rbr-global.com/ Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 160 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The accuracy of the measurement is 0.05% of the full scale, that to say 5 mm for a 10 m range. The logger also measures the temperature with an accuracy of ±0.002°C to allow post processing corrections for changes of water density to be applied to the depth measurements. 12.3 Deployment of Data Loggers 12.3.1 Hithadhoo For the measurement on Hithadhoo, the tide level logger was deployed in the new port area, for a 48-hr period of time from 9th to 11th July. After synchronizing the logger to the PC clock, it was programmed to record the water level at five minute intervals based on a calculated average over a one minute period. The second logger was first deployed in the Maa Kilhi, for 24-hr from 9th to 10th July programmed to log data at the same frequency as the tide logger and with the same averaging period. The logger was then deployed in the Eidhigali Kilhi for a 24- hr period from 10th to 11th July. The locations described above are shown in Drawing A2.4. Drawing A2.4 Water Level Measurement Points on Hithadhoo In all the locations, the logger was attached with cable ties to a wooden peg or metal rod firmly driven into the sea or kilhi bed. The loggers were set up directly on the bottom when in the sea and just above the silt level when in the lakes. This precaution was taken to avoid distort of the measurements due to the presence of the silt layer. In all cases the loggers were located below the anticipated lowest water level to ensure that the logger was continuously submerged. 12.3.2 Fuvahmulah Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 161 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report For the measurements on Fuvahmulah, the same process was followed. One logger was deployed for 48-hr in the harbour to record the tide variations from 11th to 13th July. The second logger was deployed for 24-hr in the Dhadimagu Kilhi from 11th to 12th of July. It was then moved to the Bandaara Kilhi for 24- hr from 12th to 13th of July. The locations of the measurement stations are shown in Drawing A2.5 Drawing A2.5 Water Level Measurement Points on Fuvahmulah The logger in the harbour was attached to a pillar under the main jetty, while in the lakes the logger was attached to wooden pegs in the bed of the kilhi. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 162 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 12.4 Hithadhoo: Field measurements of kilhi water level changes in response to tidal height changes 12.4.1 Eidhigali Kilhi 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) 0.7 0.7 Tide Level Variation (m) 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 Eedhigali 0.3 Tides 0.3 0.2 0.2 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 00:00:00 03:00:00 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 Drawing A2.6. Relative Water Level Variations in Eidhigali Kilhi and in Tide Level 0.65 1 0.64 0.9 0.63 0.8 0.62 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) 0.7 0.61 Tide Level Variation (m) 0.6 0.6 0.59 0.5 0.58 0.4 0.57 Eedhigali Tides 0.3 0.56 0.55 0.2 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 00:00:00 03:00:00 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 Drawing A2.7. Water Level Variations in Eidhigali Kilhi and Tide Level (scaled to show phase lag and amplitude attenuation) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 163 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 12.4.2 Maa Kilhi 1 1 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) 0.7 0.7 Tide Level Variation (m) 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 Medheaari 0.3 Tide 0.3 0.2 0.2 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 00:00:00 03:00:00 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 Drawing A2.8. Relative Water Level Variations in Maa Kilhi and in Tide Level 1 1 0.99 0.9 0.98 0.8 0.97 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) 0.7 Tide Level Variation (m) 0.96 0.95 0.6 0.94 0.5 0.93 0.4 0.92 Medheaari Tide 0.3 0.91 0.9 0.2 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 00:00:00 03:00:00 06:00:00 09:00:00 12:00:00 Drawing A2.9. Water Level Variations in Maa Kilhi and Tide Level (scaled to show phase lag and amplitude attenuation) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 164 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 12.5 Fuvahmulah: Field measurements of kilhi water level changes in response to tidal height changes 12.5.1 Dhadimagu Kilhi 1.2 3.7 1 3.5 Kilhii Water Level Variation (m) 0.8 3.3 Tide Leval Variation (m) 0.6 3.1 0.4 2.9 0.2 Dhadimagi 2.7 Tides 0 2.5 12:00:00 18:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 21:00:00 15:00:00 0:00:00 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 Drawing A2.10. Relative Water Level Variations in Dhadimagu Kilhi and in Tide Level 0.6 3.7 3.5 0.58 Kilhii Water Level Variation (m) 3.3 Tide Leval Variation (m) 0.56 3.1 0.54 2.9 0.52 Dhadimagi 2.7 Tides 0.5 2.5 12:00:00 18:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 21:00:00 15:00:00 0:00:00 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 Drawing A2.11. Water Level Variations in Dhadimagu Kilhi and Tide Level (scaled to show phase lag and amplitude attenuation) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 165 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 12.5.2 Bandaara Kilhi 4 4 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.6 3.4 3.4 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) Tide Level Variation (m) 3.2 3.2 3 3 2.8 2.8 2.6 2.6 2.4 2.4 Bandaara 2.2 Tides 2.2 2 2 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 0:00:00 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 Drawing A2.12. Relative Water Level Variations in Bandaara Kilhi and in Tide Level 2.68 4.00 3.80 2.66 3.60 3.40 Kilhi Water Level Variation (m) Tide Level Variation (m) 2.64 3.20 3.00 2.62 2.80 2.60 2.60 2.40 Bandaara Tides 2.20 2.58 2.00 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 0:00:00 3:00:00 6:00:00 9:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 12:00:00 15:00:00 18:00:00 21:00:00 Drawing A2.13. Water Level Variations in Bandaara Kilhi and Tide Level (scaled to show phase lag and amplitude attenuation) Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 166 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 3 Condition of Wetland Drains July 2011 Island Drain Page Fuvahmulah 1 Bandaara Kilhi - Drain 1 2 Bandaara Kilhi - Drain 4 7 Dhadimagu Kilhi – Drain 2 13 Dhadimagu Kilhi – Drain 3 18 Hithadhoo 20 Aree Kilhi 21 Medhe�aari Magu Culvert 28 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 167 July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Fuvahmulah There are four constructed drains from the two wetlands to the sea, two located in Dhadimadu Kilhui and two in Bandaara Kulhi. They were constructed in 1984 with funding by the FAO. The two drains in each wetland are located diametrically opposite each other with one being in the vicinity of the open water. The locations of the drains are shown in Drawing A3.1 Drawing A3.1 Locations of the Drainage Channels in the Two Wetlands Drains 1, 2 and 3, while blocked with piles of coral sand in the chanels or the seaward end of the discharge structure, could be readily returned to a functioning state. The centre part of the Drain 4 system was itself a mini-wetland but thus has now been filled in as part of the site formation works for the construction of the runway for the new Fuvahmulah airport and consequenty is non-functional. The EIA for the new airport makes no mention of provision for diversion of existing flows. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Bandaara Kilhi - Drain 1 There is no civil structure at the point where the drain leaves Bandaara Kilhi but tracing back from the constructed part of the drain follows an almost direct line to the shore of the body of open water. The flow path passes through taro plantations where there is a shallow layer of water overlying the ground between the plants. Away from the taro area there are higher patches of ground where coconut and banana trees have been planted. A strip of lower, wetter, land wends its way between the higher spots. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The strip of damp ground becomes confined between „dwarf‟ containing walls which would direct any flow into the concrete collector structure. Collector structure at the head of the constructed drainage channel. There is a very small flow along one side of the collector which would appear to be made up of a mixture of water from the damp area together with waste-water from houses adjacent to the flow route. A narrow slot for an anti-surge plate can be seen on the right hand side of the picture. From the collector a trapezoidal channel, viewed here from the downstream end, the drain follows a straight line to a bridge over the main, unpaved road, which runs along the east side of the island. There is an accumulation of a few centimetres of water in the channel which also contains quantities of household rubbish. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report A view of the bridge from the upstream side showing the standing water in the channel. There are slots for an anti-surge plate as shown in the picture below. Slots for the anti-surge plate on the upstream side of the road bridge. Evidence of some patching of the concrete structure can be seem on the side wall of the channel to the upper right of the surge plate slot. Viewed from the road towards the sea, the final section of the open channel is straight and vertical sided containing some water and floating palm fronds, coconuts and garbage. Part way along the channel is a mound of coral sand/gravel. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The same channel viewed from the seaward end to show the mound of coral sand and gravel on which are growing annual herbs and a small papaya tree. The presence of such advanced vegetation indicates the long period of time since the last time the obstruction was removed. The practice is to leave the mounds in place to prevent seawater flowing inland and only to remove them when there is flow out of the wetland. The seaward end of the drain ends in a structure cut through the raised coral bench the seaward face of which is vertical and stands approximately one metre above the level of a narrow coral sand beach. A concrete structure crosses over the cut to provide the key for the channel leading to the outfall itself. The freshwater flow discharges through a rectangular cross section culvert which turns through 90° to discharge to the north parallel to the shoreline. At the time of the visit the outlet of the culvert was only partially occluded by coral pebbles. However here was a crack in the structure as can be seen clearly in the picture. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View along the shore to the north of the outfall structure showing the narrow intertidal strip and the steep coral rock step up to the road. View along the shore to the south of the outfall structure showing similar shoreline features to those to the north. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Bandaara Kilhi - Drain 4 Drain 4 begins in the edge of the wetland in an area which has been planted with taro. In the event that the open flow channel was required to carry a high flow of water the taro plants would increase friction in the channel and so impede the free flow of water away from the centre of the wetland. Downstream of the taro „field‟ a road has been constructed across the flow channel. The right hand side is the upstream side of the crossing. Both sides of the road have been built up with block-work to prevent the water flowing over the road. There appeared to be no conduits beneath the road surface to allow water to flow under the road. Downstream of the road taro is growing in the flow channel which heads west to the crossing under Naibu thunththu hingun. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View upstream from the crossing under Naibu thunththu hingun. The functional channel is considerably narrower than further upstream. The fern, an introduced invasive species, indicates the presence of damp conditions and the Pistia stratiotes in the foreground indicates standing water. View downstream from the crossing under Naibu thunththu hingun. The line of distant coconut trees indicates the coastal ridge and the white arrow indicates the location of the collector structure on the far side of what was previously the flow channel. The site formation works in progress are the preparation of the raised level for the airport runway. It was not possible to confirm the origin of the water visible in the mid ground. View toward the east of the entrance to the collector structure at the inland side of the coastal ridge. The flare in the structure is just discernable. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Mid-point of the channel showing the bridge for the old coastal pedestrian track to cross the channel. Much debris in the channel which could be easily removed. The „notch‟ which allows the channel to pass through the coastal ridge can be seen clearly. Coral rubble and coconut husks partially obstructing the channel at the bridge point. Channel down-stream of the bridge viewed towards the sea at the point in the notch in the coastal ridge. Less debris is present in the channel but there is some shallow water, in this case, sea water, at the seaward end of the channel. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View of a drain hole, one of several, made in the base of the channel to allow any standing water to drain away. It is said that a shallow layer of water used to remain in the channel which would give rise to smells and in response to complaints from local islanders these were created. Some surface, and possibly deeper, cracking of the base and side wall of the structure can be seen. Landward end of the square culvert through the terminal structure. This shows the significant reduction in flow capacity of the drain at this point. Slots for an anti surge plate can be seen. A small amount of sea water was flowing into the drain from the sea side of the structure. Seaward end of the terminal structure showing the unobstructed outflow from the drain. Significant degradation of the concrete forming the upper part of the end wall of the structure can be seen. The water in the foreground is sea water, Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View from outlet towards the sea showing the lowering of the line of the coastal ridge line opposite the structure. It was not possible to determine the shape of the cut in the ridge line which had been filled up with coral debris by wave action. Sea water was clearly flowing through the gaps in the coral rubble. View from the ridge of the terminal structure. View of the coastline to the south of the terminal structure showing the shallow beach slope, backed by the coral debris berm leading to the vegetated coastal ridge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View of the coastline to the north of the terminal structure showing the shallow beach slope, backed by a lower and then upper coral debris berm leading to a shallow linear back-beach depression and finally the vegetated coastal ridge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Dhadimagu Kilhi – Drain 2 The landward end of the system starts at the edge of a taro plantation. Shallow standing water is visible at the base of the taro stems. The flow route narrows to a depressed channel also occupied by taro plants and passes between residential plots. The plots are bounded by training walls which act as a boundary to the plot and also as a flow training wall. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The constructed part of the drain consists of two training walls which direct the flow to a culvert under the eastern coastal road. It can be seen clearly that the flow path leading to the culvert is heavily overgrown with grasses which will have a significant adverse effect on the flow capacity for the system. The square culvert under the road is a significant reduction on cross sectional area of the channel and is a major limiter on the ability of the system to carry any excess water away. Slots for an anti surge plate can be seem clearly in the picture. The culvert passes under the road to continue in an open channel between two buildings, The sides of the channel project approximately 5cm above surrounding ground level thus limiting entry of surface material into the drain. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The trapezoidal channel continues in a straight line to the terminal structure. There are large amounts of rubbish in the channel which could be easily removed. Piles of fine coral rubble and sand have been placed in the channel to provide a barrier to salt water intrusion. Two islanders are employed to remove these mounds in the event that water needs to flow in a seaward direction. The maturity and woodiness of the plants growing on these piles suggest that it is several years since the mounds were created. A square section culvert continues the drain through the coastal ridge to the outfall structure. The significant reduction in cross sectional area of culvert compared with the main channel will reduce significantly the flow capacity of the channel. There is major deterioration of the concrete along the whole of the length of this open section of the drain. There are slots for an anti surge board at his point but it is absent. The thickness of the layer of debris in the bottom of the channel can be gauged by the small amount of the slot that is visible. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View of the seaward side of the terminal outflow structure. The space excavated in front of the channel exit is completely filled with compacted coral debris. While acting as a barrier to sea water inflow it is acting as a major construction to outflow from the drain. The age of the compacted obstruction can be judged from the size and nature of the roots of the coconut tree which cross at the upper surface of the obstruction. View to the south of the terminal structure showing the high energy coral rock foreshore, the steepening coral debris berm leading to the vegetated coastal ridge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View to the north of the terminal structure showing again the high energy coral rock foreshore. The two parts of the coral debris berm, a seaward shallower gradient slope leading into the steeper back slop which then leads on to the vegetated coastal ridge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Dhadimagu Kilhi – Drain 3 Seaward end of the culvert under the eastern coastal road A shallow layer of water, approximately 4cm, covered the length of the base of the trapezoidal channel between here and the seaward end of the channel. Only small amounts of debris and rubbish were present in the channel and there were man-made no piles of sand in the channel. The complete blockage of the system at the outlet makes them unnecessary. Seaward end of the main channel passing trough through the coastal ridge. There is evidence of some maintenance and repair work having been carried out to the upper parts of the structure. The landward side of the culvert through the outfall structure. The wooden anti surge plate is in place with the downstream side completely blocked by sand and the upstream side obstructed by coral rock, sand and household rubbish. The small cross sectional size of the culvert compared with that of the main channel again shows the “built in� nature of some of the limitations of the drainage system. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report View of the outlet structure from the shore showing the complete obstruction of the by sand washing in from the adjacent beach. While acting as a very effective barrier to seawater intrusion it completely prevents flow of freshwater from the landward side. View to the north from the terminal structure showing a broken slab lower beach with a sandy upper beach leading directly to the vegetated ridge. View to the south from the terminal structure. A shallow sloping intertidal zone runs into the broken slab lower beach, a sandy upper beach leading directly to the vegetated ridge. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Hithadhoo There is only one constructed drain on Hithadhoo and this drains the Maa-Fehele wetland into the atoll lagoon on the east side of the island. It is a short section of open and engineered channel. It is named the Aree Kilhi and its location is shown in Drawing A3.2 The wetland is cut into two by the Medhe�aari Magu which has a bridge over the low point in the wetland. A piped culvert connects the two parts of the wetland under the road crossing. Drawing A3.2 Locations of the Drainage Channels in the Maa-Fehele Wetland The images of the drains were taken at different times. Where more than one image for a single location is available they have been shown together. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Aree Kilhi Foot/motor cycle crossing the Aree Kilhi at the west end of Aree Magu. There is a difference in water level between the two sides of the bridge. It was possible to determine whether the water standing on the road on the far side of the bridge was due to water flowing out of the kilhi into the road or water flowing from the road into the kilhi. [29th June 2011] Road bridge crossing the Aree Kilhi showing the water level below the bridge soffit. [24th June 2011] The same bridge following the heavy rain showing reduced distance to soffit level. [29th June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Newly constructed septic tanks adjacent to the Aree Kilhi. [24th June 2011] The same septic tanks on the morning after the rain storm. [29th June 2011] Single plank footbridge across the channel at the point where the right bank changes from a concrete structure to an earth bank. [24th June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Upstream section of the Aree Kilhi parallel to the Aree Magu. The rigt hand bank of the channel is predominantly a concrete block ground retaining wall, topped at the proximal end with corrugated metal sheet fencing. The left hand bank is sloping earth with grass cover in places above the water line and coconut palms growing along the bank. [22nd June 2011 The same section of the kilhi following the rain storm. [29th June 2011] Upstream side of the culvert under the Sharafudhdheenu Magu showing the single circular pipe together with floating rubbish. [22nd June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Wide view the same location following the period of heavy overnight rain showing the increase in water level on the upstream side. [29th June 2011] Float rubbish washed towards and trapped by the bridge following the heavy rain. [29th June 2011] Upstream end of the constructed channel showing a single pipe carrying the flow under the Sharafudhdheenu Magu in the center of the structure with a smaller diameter pipe shown in the upper right corner which carries surface water run off from the unpaved road and immediate surrounding area. [22nd June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The same location showing the water level following the period of heavy rain. The turbidity plume visible in the corner between the road bridge and the channel was is due to the run off from the umpaved Sharafudhdheenu Magu road, see next image. [29th June 2011] Square surface water drain carrying high turbidy run off from the unpaved Sharafudhdheenu Magu and from the land adjacent to the road. The structure of the drain is such that it could be easily blocked by a plastic bag or leaf from a banana plant. [29th June 2011] Constructed channel between Sharafudhdheenu Magu and the Link Road. There was little discernible flow in the channel. [22nd June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The seaward end of the trapezoidal channel enters the road crossing which consists of two plastic pipes, the combined cross sectional area of which is significantly less than that of the upstream channel resulting in a loss of flow capacity. [22nd June 2011] Detailed view of the culvert pipes and the construction of the channel. [24th June 2011] View as above taken following the period of heavy rain [29th June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The outfall consists of two plastic pipes discharging into the lagoon with a protective covering consisting of coral rock and cement. [22nd June 2011] The outfall functioning following the period of heavy rain. [29th June 2011] Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Medhe�aari Magu Culvert The upstream side of the culvert under the Medhe�aari Magu showing the two pipes. The bed of the kilhi at this point was overlain by a layer of fluid mud approximately 0.3m in thickness. The flow cross sectional area is significantly reduced through the pipes. The upstream side of the culvert under the Medhe�aari Magu following the period of heavy rain. Although the water level had risen it was still contained within the bank and below the level of the road. The downstream side of the culvert under the Medhe�aari Magu. On this side of the bridge the flow cross sectional area returns to the previous upstream area. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The downstream side of the culvert under the Medhe�aari Magu following the period of heavy rain. Although the water level had risen it was still contained within the banks Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 4: Changes in Mean Sea Level Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 13 INTRODUCTION Data were obtained from the UNESCO/IOC Sea Level Station Monitoring Facility xxxi for the long term tide level station at Gan and for comparison data for the next closest station, Male, were also obtained. The data series for Gan runs almost continuously from January 1987 to the present and for Male from April 1987 to the present. Data are available from the database for hourly, daily and monthly averages based on measurements made at 15-minute intervals. The objective was to examine the rate of mean sea level change at the two project islands and also the variability of short term estimates of mean sea level. 14 SEA LEVEL CHANGE In order to estimate the rate of change of mean sea level monthly mean sea levels were recovered from the data sets. The time series plots for the Gan stations is shown below in Figure A4.1. Figure A4.1: Monthly Mean Sea Level from 1987 to 2011 at Gan The fitting of a simple linear model to the data set for Gan reveals an upward trend in monthly mean sea level of 3.1mm/year at Gan as shown by the linear regression fit line also shown in Figure A4.1. For comparison the data set for Male has also been plotted and a linear model fitted to the data. The model indicates an upward trend in monthly mean sea level of 3.4mm/year which is in broad agreement with the estimate for Gan. The plot for Male is shown in Figure A4.2. Values for global sea level rise over the period 1992 to present are reported by the NOAA Satellite and Information Service to be 2.9 0.4mm/yearxxxii, see Figure A4.3. The rates of sea level rise estimated above are consistent with that value. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Figure A4.2: Monthly Mean Sea Level at Male for 1987 to 2011 Figure A4.3: Global Sea Level for the period 1992 to 2011 15 VARIABILITY OF ESTIMATED MEAN SEA LEVEL At both stations there is considerable inter-month variability superimposed on the underlying linear upward trend. By de-trending4 the Gan data set the variation of the monthly average sea level for the period of the data set can be extracted. This variability is shown in Figure A4.4 4 Removing the effect of the long term increase of 0.258 mm/month from the data and with a lomg term average of 1,581mm. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Figure A4.4 De-trended monthly mean sea level at Gan for 1990 to 2011 With the long term change in sea level effect removed the monthly mean sea level varies between 1,481 and 1,708mm, an absolute range of 226mm. The maximum difference between two consecutive month values is 135mm and the average 31mm. Clearly short term, monthly, measurements of sea level in order to determine mean sea levels from the point of view of establishing a datum are subject to a high risk of significant error. A datum for mean sea level can only be established from a long record of measurements to minimize the error associated with inter-month variability. The de-trended data show more clearly a seasonal pattern in the tide levels but also a suggestion of longer term variation within the data set. These patterns can be extracted by application of a CuSum model to the de-trended data in which the cumulative differences between the data series and the long term mean are exploited. The CuSum plot for the data set is shown in Figure A4.5 The plot shows quite clearly an annual cyclic variation of monthly mean sea level with average tide levels increasing during the transition from the dry monsoon to wet monsoon and average tide levels decreasing during the transition from wet to dry monsoon. A further pattern can be seen in the CuSum plot suggesting an additional, longer period of oscillation in the individual average monthly tide level. Similar oscillations exist in atmospheric pressure at Male‟ and Gan indicating large-scale atmospheric systems affecting both the stations as described in the SAARC report on Climate Variability and its Trend in Maldives xxxiii . It is generally true that this part of the Indian Ocean Figure A4.5 CuSum Plot of de-trended monthly mean sea level at Gan for 1990 to 2011 is influenced by the giant sea-saw pressure fluctuation, namely, the Southern Oscillation over the Pacific Ocean. In this connection, it is interesting to note that during the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) periods the pressure anomaly is relatively higher. Any consideration of variation in mean sea level should not only take into account the long term trend in mean sea level but also intermediate variations due to ENSO and also inter seasonal effects. 16 CONCLUSION At this point it is sufficient to say that: (i). The long term trend in change in mean sea level at Gan is approximately of 3 mm/year. This value is confirmed by a data set for a similar period obtained for Male. (ii). Intermediate term effects of the ENSO on regional pressure should be considered when assessing mean sea level variation in the Maldives as a whole. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report (iii). There is a seasonality in monthly average sea level with average tide levels increasing during the transition from the dry monsoon to wet monsoon and average tide levels decreasing during the transition from wet to dry monsoon. (iv). The variability of estimated monthly average sea level is high and differences between consecutive months can be as large as 135mm. Any bench marks established on the islands must therefore be based on values derived from long term measurements. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Draft Final Report Appendix 5: Hithadhoo Flooding Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 17 PATTERN OF RAINFALL PRIOR TO THE FLOODING EVENT Over a 72 hour period 27th -29th June 2011 a significant rain event occurred which was described by one islander as the worst for at least five years. The intense rain began between 18:00 hrs and 21:00 hrs on the evening of 28th June and continued until almost 06:00 hrs on the morning of 29 th June. Figure A5.1 shows the rainfall in each 3-hour time interval since 00:00 hrs on 27th June together with the cumulative rainfall over the period, Figure A5.1 Rainfall pattern prior to flooding event 18 OBSERVATION OF THE FLOODING Following the during the period of heavy areas of the island which were experiencing flooding were visited to assess the extent and likely causes of the flooding which had taken place. Photographs of the extent of the flooding were taken at a number of locations, the location of which are shown in Figure A5.2. The following annotated table demonstrates and describes the extent of the flooding and some of the measures used to relieve the conditions. Figure A5.2 Flooding locations described in the following text Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Location 1 Water flowing from the link road gutter causing flooding of commercial property requiring the user of a pump to remove the water. Water from road drain adjacent to the property above discharging into the lagoon. Location 2 Drain in side road adjacent to Link Road taking water from flooded road. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Discharge pipes into the lagoon from drain shown above. Location 3 Corner at northern end of Link Road. The road surface is cambered into the inside of the bend with the result that rain water flows to then low point from both direction on the road. The surrounding ground level on the inside of the bend is lower and consequently the water flows from the road onto the surrounding land. A receiving drain constructed at the low point on the inside of the bend with a pipe under road to discharge into the lagoon would be an appropriate solution at this point. Location 4 The owner of this corner plant commented that the water flowed from the road into his property and in his opinion the problem was caused by the level of the link road. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Surface water drain on the side road at the junction with the Link Road. There is a local low in the ground level on the landward side of the drain and consequently that part remains flooded after the area surrounding the drain has dried. Single pipe, partially protected discharge into the lagoon from the drain shown above. Note that the end of the pipe is submerged. Location 5 Addu City Mayor (2nd from the right) discussing the flood problem with ESDD Team members (1 st L and 1st R in the picture). The grating covers the sump into which the water from the surrounding roads drain. A submerged electrical pump pumps the water from the sump into the lagoon. This location is in a part of the island which was historically reclaimed from the wetland but flood water originates from the road surfaces rather than the adjacent wetland. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Detail of the grid covering the sump. The partial blockage of the screen with leaves and rubbish may cause a reduction in the flow through the grid depending on the rating of the pump and the speed at which water passes through the screen. The sump will require regular maintenance to remove solids washed into the sump during rain events. Location 6 Bar screened drain at the upstream end of the pumped system. Water from this drain flows by gravity into the pumped sump described above. The drain has a hard concrete rim, while the surrounding road has become eroded thus enabling of ponding to occur around the drain. Location 7 The Fire Service provide a portable pump to drain low parts of the road system. At its deepest point the water was in excess of 300mm depth. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The pumped water is discharged onto the ground on seaward side of the Link Road. From there the water gravitates into the lagoon. Damage to the flexible hoses by vehicles at the road crossing points requires constant attention. Location 8/9 A small vortex in the centre of the picture indicates the effectiveness of the activity of an islander a few minutes previously when he removed plastic bags and leaves from the drain. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The clearance of the drain allowed the rapid discharge of surface water out through the twin pipes into the lagoon. Location 10 Land reclaimed on the seaward side of the Link Road is also subject to flooding due to lack of a suitable drainage network. Location 11 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Draft Final Report Appendix 6: IUCN Categories applied to Fuvahmulah Protected Areas Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report IUCN Criteria For Protected Areas 19 INTRODUCTION IUCN protected area management categories classify protected areas according to their management objectives. The categories are recognised widely by international bodies and by many national governments as the global standard for defining and recording protected areas and as such are increasingly being incorporated into government legislation. It is appropriate therefore that the Environmental Protection Agency has based the classification of the proposed protected areas on Fuvahmulah on these well understood and accepted criteria. The characteristics the three categories of protected area proposed for Fuvahmulah are as follows: 20 CATEGORY 1A: STRICT NATURE RESERVE 20.1 Preamble Category Ia areas are strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphological features, where human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values. Such protected areas can serve as indispensable reference areas for scientific research and monitoring. 20.2 Objectives The primary objective of a Category Ia status is to conserve regionally, nationally or globally outstanding ecosystems, occurrences or aggregations of species and/or geodiversity features. These attributes will have been formed mostly or entirely by non-human forces and will be degraded or destroyed when subjected to all but very light human impact. Other objectives of assigning Category Ia status are:  To preserve ecosystems, species and geodiversity features in a state as undisturbed by recent human activity as possible;  To secure examples of the natural environment for scientific studies, environmental monitoring and education, including baseline areas from which all avoidable access is excluded;  To minimize disturbance through careful planning and implementation of research and other approved activities;  To conserve cultural and spiritual values associated with nature. 20.3 Distinguishing Features The distinguishing features of a Category 1a area are the area should generally:  Have a largely complete set of expected native species in ecologically significant densities or be capable of returning them to such densities through natural processes or time-limited interventions;  Have a full set of expected native ecosystems, largely intact with intact ecological processes, or processes capable of being restored with minimal management intervention;  Be free of significant direct intervention by modern humans that would compromise the specified conservation objectives for the area, which usually implies limiting access by people and excluding settlement;  Not require substantial and on-going intervention to achieve its conservation objectives;  Be surrounded when feasible by land uses that contribute to the achievement of the area's specified conservation objectives;  Be suitable as a baseline monitoring site for monitoring the relative impact of human activities; Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report  Be managed for relatively low visitation by humans;  Be capable of being managed to ensure minimal disturbance (especially relevant to marine environments).  The area could be of religious or spiritual significance (such as a sacred natural site) so long as biodiversity conservation is identified as a primary objective. In this case the area might contain sites that could be visited by a limited number of people engaged in faith activities consistent with the area's management objectives. 21 CATEGORY IV - HABITAT SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREA 21.1 Preamble Category IV protected areas aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority. Many category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a requirement of the category. 21.2 Objectives The primary objective of awarding a Category IV status is to maintain, conserve and restore species and habitats. Other objectives are:  To protect vegetation patterns or other biological features through traditional management approaches;  To protect fragments of habitats as components of landscape or seascape-scale conservation strategies;  To develop public education and appreciation of the species and/or habitats concerned;  To provide a means by which the urban residents may obtain regular contact with nature. 21.3 Distinguishing Features The distinguishing features of Category IV protected areas are that usually they help to protect, or restore:  Flora species of international, national or local importance;  Fauna species of international, national or local importance including resident or migratory fauna; and/or  Habitats. The size of the area varies but can often be relatively small; this is however not a distinguishing feature. Management will differ depending on need. Protection may be sufficient to maintain particular habitats and/or species. However, as Category IV protected areas often include fragments of an ecosystem, these areas may not be self-sustaining and will require regular and active management interventions to ensure the survival of specific habitats and/or to meet the requirements of particular species. 21.4 Approaches to Management A number of approaches to achieving this objective are suitable:  Protection of particular species: to protect particular target species, which will usually be under threat (e.g., one of the last remaining populations);  Protection of habitats: to maintain or restore habitats, which will often be fragments of ecosystems;  Active management to maintain target species: to maintain viable populations of particular species, which might include for example artificial habitat creation or maintenance (such as artificial reef creation), supplementary feeding or other active management systems;  Active management of natural or semi-natural ecosystems: to maintain natural or semi-natural habitats that are either too small or too profoundly altered to be self-sustaining, e.g., if natural herbivores are Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report absent they may need to be replaced by livestock or manual cutting; or if hydrology has been altered this may necessitate artificial drainage or irrigation;  Active management of culturally-defined ecosystems: to maintain cultural management systems where these have a unique associated biodiversity. Continual intervention is needed because the ecosystem has been created or at least substantially modified by management. The primary aim of management is maintenance of associated biodiversity. Active management means that the overall functioning of the ecosystem is being modified by e.g., halting natural succession, providing supplementary food or artificially creating habitats: i.e., management will often include much more than just addressing threats, such as poaching or invasive species, as these activities take place in virtually all protected areas in any category and are therefore not diagnostic. Category IV protected areas will generally be publicly accessible. Category IV protected areas frequently play a role in “plugging the gaps� in conservation strategies by protecting key species or habitats in ecosystems. They could, for instance, be used to:  Protect critically endangered populations of species that need particular management interventions to ensure their continued survival;  Protect rare or threatened habitats including fragments of habitats;  Secure stepping-stones (places for migratory species to feed and rest) or breeding sites;  Provide flexible management strategies and options in buffer zones around, or connectivity conservation corridors between, more strictly protected areas that are more acceptable to local communities and other stakeholders;  Maintain species that have become dependent on cultural landscapes where their original habitats have disappeared or been altered. 22 CATEGORY III - NATURAL MONUMENT OR FEATURE 22.1 Preamble Category III protected areas are set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value. 22.2 Objectives Primary objective of Category III status is therefore to protect specific outstanding natural features and their associated biodiversity and habitats. Other objectives of Category III status are:  To provide biodiversity protection in landscapes or seascapes that have otherwise undergone major changes;  To protect specific natural sites with spiritual and/or cultural values where these also have biodiversity values;  To conserve traditional spiritual and cultural values of the site. 22.3 Distinguishing Features The distinguishing features of Category III protected areas that they are:  Usually relatively small sites that focus on one or more prominent natural features and the associated ecology, rather than on a broader ecosystem.  Managed in much the same way as Category II. In the context of the features the use of the word natural here can refer to, most commonly, wholly natural features, but also sometimes features that have been subject to anthropogenic influenced. In the latter case these sites should also always have important associated biodiversity attributes, which should be reflected as a priority Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report in their management objectives if they are to be classified as a protected area rather than an historical or spiritual site. Category III protected areas could include:  Natural geological and geomorphological features: such as waterfalls, cliffs, craters, caves, fossil beds, sand dunes, rock forms, valleys and marine features such as sea mounts or coral formations;  Culturally-influenced natural features: such as cave dwellings and ancient tracks;  Natural-cultural sites: such as the many forms of sacred natural sites (sacred groves, springs, waterfalls, mountains, sea coves etc.) of importance to one or more faith groups;  Cultural sites with associated ecology: where protection of a cultural site also protects significant and important biodiversity, such as archaeological/historical sites that are inextricably linked to a natural area. Nature conservation attributes of Category III protected areas fall into two main types:  Biodiversity that is uniquely related to the ecological conditions associated with the natural feature – such as the spray zones of a waterfall, the ecological conditions in caves or plant species confined to cliffs.  Biodiversity that is surviving because the presence of cultural or spiritual values at the site have maintained a natural or semi-natural habitat in what is otherwise a modified ecosystem – such as some sacred natural sites or historical sites that have associated natural areas. In these cases the key criteria for inclusion as a protected area will be: (i) value of the site as a contribution to broad-scale conservation, and (ii) prioritization of biodiversity conservation within management plans. Category III has been suggested as providing a natural management approach for many sacred natural sites, such as sacred groves. Although sacred natural sites are found in all categories and can benefit from a wide range of management approaches, they may be particularly suited to management as natural monuments. 22.4 Role in the landscape/seascape Category III is really intended to protect the unusual rather than to provide logical components in a broad-scale approach to conservation, so that their role in landscape or ecoregional strategies may sometimes be opportunistic rather than planned. In other cases (e.g., cave systems) such sites may play a key ecological role identified within wider conservation plans: Important natural monuments can sometimes provide an incentive for protection and an opportunity for environmental/cultural education even in areas where other forms of protection are resisted due to population or development pressure, such as important sacred or cultural sites and in these cases category III can preserve samples of natural habitat in otherwise cultural or fragmented landscapes. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 7: Flora of the Wetlands and Adjacent Areas Much of the information regarding domestic and commercial use of the plants described in this appendix was sources from Trees and shrubs of the Maldives. RAP Publication No. 2007/12 (for details of this publication see endnote ii). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Flora of the Wetlands and Adjacent Areas Listed in alphabetical order Scientific name: Local Name [Common name] 23 BARRINGTONIA ASIATICA: KINBI [BARRINGTONIA] Abundant in the southern islands Barringtonia is large tree about 20 m tall, with crooked often leaning trunk, often buttressed with low branches. It is a typical littoral tree, forming dense growths in all types of soil even among boulders of rugged beach. In many islands of Maldives stands of Barringtonia asiatica are found behind Scaveola scrubland where soil is rich and moisture content is relatively high. Leaves are large and simple with young leaves with pinkish veins. The flowers are large and attractive and petals are small and distinctive, white or cream coloured. The flowers open in the night and attract large moths and nectar-feeding bats with their heavy scented and copious nectar. The fruit is large, four sided, lantern- shaped, about 10 to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide. Young fruit are green which turns brown when mature. Barringtonia can be grown as a windbreak, and wave barrier and shade tree. The wood was once used in Maldives for boat building when there was a scarcity of boat-building timber. Wood is sometimes used for handicrafts and also as firewood. Well pounded seeds can be applied to the body for relief from pain and swelling. Water in which flowers have been soaked overnight can be used to wash the face and eyes for relief from inflammation and discomfort resulting from reflection of sun light from white sand and sea. 24 CALOPHYLLUM INOHYLLUM: FUNA [ALEXANDER LAURELWOOD TREE] C. inohyllum is abundant in the southern islands and common in the northern islands of the Maldives. It tolerates a wide range of soils but grows best in well-drained sandy soil in coastal areas. It is a hardy species, tolerates high wind, aerosol salt spray, drought and even brief period of water logging. It is also tolerant of shallow and saline soils. It is a large- to medium-sized, slow-growing evergreen tree that generally grows 8 to 20 m in height. The bark is thick and light grey to grey in colour with alternately arranged diamond-shaped fissures and flat ridges. The leaves are stiff, shiny and oval and dark green in colour. The flowers are fragrant and show clearly s against the dark green background of the leaves. The fruit, which grows in a cluster, is a round, ping-pong ball-like stone fruit with leathery skin. It is one of the best timber trees of the Maldives and widely used in boa building. The wood is hard, durable and fine textured. It shrinks appreciably upon drying and so is difficult to work with. The seeds are roasted and made into a paste by grinding with the charcoal from the coconut husk and this paste is applied in between the plates in boats as waterproofing. The seed oil is poisonous but used to light lamps, as it lasts for a long time. The seed oil is also used in ayurvedic medicines 25 CARICA PAPAYA: FALHO [PAPAYA] C. papaya is commonly cultivated in home gardens both in the northern and the southern islands of the Maldives. It is a fast growing, woody, tree-like herb that grows up to 3 m tall and normally does not branch but if the top is cut off or injured, it produces a few branches. The trunk is straight, hallow and green or deep purple in colour with prominent leaf scars. Leaves are arranged spirally and clustered at the top of stem. Leaf stalk is about 1m long, and the leaf is divided deeply into five to nine segments. The flowers are fleshy, waxy and slightly fragrant. The fruit is a fleshy oval to nearly round or elongated club-shaped. Fruit has thin, waxy skin, which is green in colour when young, becoming light or deep yellow as it ripens. Flesh is succulent, yellow or golden-yellow or orange-red in colour, aromatic and sweet. All parts of the plant are rich in white latex. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Papaya grows well in hot places and requires light and porous soil rich in organic matter for better performance. It is also capable of growing in marl, scarified limestone and other types of poor soils. However, it is very sensitive to water stagnation and even well-grown plants would be killed by root rot in excess moisture. Papaya is normally propagated by seed. Dried seeds are dusted with fungicide to avoid damping-off, which is a common cause of loss of seeds. Rate of germination is high, if the seeds are planted as soon as they are extracted from the fruits. Papaya can also be grown from semi-hard woodcuttings, which need to be hardened off for a few days before planting. Air-layering is also practiced in a small scale to reproduce certain varieties. Ripe fruit, available throughout the year, are eaten fresh and widely used in salads. Papaya juice is prepared from peeled fruit. In the Maldives, unripe fruits are used to prepare spicy curry whereas a special dish called „falho murubb‟ is prepared by cooking young ripe fruit in sugar syrup. Fruits and leaves can be used to tenderize meat. 26 CERIOPS TAGAL: KARAMANA [YELLOW MANGROVE] C. tagal is a widespread species found on coasts from East Africa to the Indian subcontinent, through tropical Asia to Australia and the Pacific and is commonly found along the coasts throughout South-East Asiaxxxiv At the time of preparation of the FAO publication Trees and shrubs of the Maldives xxxv C. tagal had only been recorded in the Maldives on Farukolhu Funadhoo island in the northern group of islands. Its reporting in the EIA for the Fuvahmula airport would therefore be a new record for the southern Maldives. It is an evergreen tree that grows up to 40 m in height in favourable sites, but most of the trees found in the Maldives are only 4 to 10 m tall. C. tagal prefers mid- and high- tidal areas in the intertidal zone for better survival and growth. In the Maldives it grows in soft,shallow, sandy soil of coral origin and silt and clay is almost nil in the area where it grows. It can tolerate soil salinity up to 45 ppt but optimum salinity range is between 0 and 15 ppt. The bark of C. tagal yields high-quality tannin, which fetches good price in the international market. This tannin is widely used in batik to provide warm yellowish-brown colour to cotton cloth. The wood is heavy and moderately durable but in contact with ground it decays in about two years. Wood yields excellent charcoal and good firewood, but has been said to burn with too hot a flame for domestic use. No use is attributed to this tree in the Maldives. 27 COCOS NUCIFERA: RUH, [COCONUT] The coconut is the national tree of the Maldives and is considered the most important plant in the country. A coconut tree is also included in the country's national emblem or coat of arms. Coconut trees are grown on all the islands. Before modern construction methods were introduced to the Maldives, coconut leaves were used as a roofing material for many houses in the islands while coconut timber was used to build houses and boats Cocos nucifera is a large palm, growing up to 30 meters tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 meters long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long. Old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. Coconuts are generally classified into two general types: tall and dwarf. On very fertile land a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 fruits per year, but more often yields less than 30 mainly due to poor cultural practices. The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of salinity. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall (150 cm to 250 cm annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward. Coconuts also need high humidity (70–80%+) for optimum growth. The palms require warm conditions, and are intolerant of cold weather. Optimum growth is with a mean annual temperature of 27 °C, and growth is reduced below 21 °C. The various parts of the coconut have a number of culinary uses.  The nut provides oil for frying and cooking.  The white, fleshy part of the seed, the coconut meat, is edible and used fresh or dried in cooking.  Dried coconut meat can be used as an ingredient or to produce coconut milk which is frequently added to savoury dishes.  Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking and to combat malnutrition. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report  Coconut butter is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as a name by certain specialty products made out of coconut milk solids or puréed coconut meat and oil.  Coconut water is a refreshing drink which contains sugar, fibre, proteins, antioxidants, vitamins and minerals, and provides an isotonic electrolyte balance.  Coconut water can be fermented to produce coconut vinegar.  Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained by passing hot water or milk through grated coconut, which extracts the oil and aromatic compounds. The milk can be used to produce coconut oil by controlled heating and removal of the oil fraction. The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy known as Addu bondi in Maldives. It can be reduced further to yield coconut sugar also referred to as palm sugar or jaggery. Apical buds of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or heart of palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads. Newly germinated coconuts contain an edible fluff of marshmallow-like consistency called coconut sprout, produced as the endosperm nourishes the developing embryo. Other parts of the tree have a variety of different uses:  Coir, the fibre from the husk of the coconut, is used in ropes, mats, brushes, sacks, caulking for boats and as stuffing fibre for mattresses. The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of charcoal.  The leaves of the palm provide material for making roofing thatch and they can be woven into baskets and mats, and also used for cooking skewers.  Coconut trunks are used as a building material, preferred for their straightness, strength and salt resistance, and can be used for house construction. Worldwide it is increasingly being used as an ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It also has applications in furniture construction.  Coconut roots have medicinal properties being used for treatment of diarrhoea and dysentery. 28 COLOCASIA ESCULENTA: OLHU ALA, [TARO] Olhu ala, commonly known as Taro is a native plant of southeast Asia. It is a perennial plant primarily grown as a root vegetable for its edible starchy corm and as a leaf vegetable. It is considered a staple food in African, Oceanic and Asian cultures. It is believed to have been one of the earliest cultivated plants and is thought to have originated in the Indo-Malayan region. Taro can be grown in fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where watering is supplied by rainfall or by supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops that can be grown under flooded conditions. In natural conditions taro does well on deep, moist or even swampy soils where the annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm. This is possible due to the presence of air spaces in the leafstalk which permit gaseous exchange with the atmosphere by those parts of the plant which are under water. Warm and stagnant water causes basal rotting and consequently death of the starch corm. For maximum yields, the water level in taro fields should be controlled in such a way that the base of the plant is always under water. The crop attains maturity after twelve to fifteen months in wetland cultivation. The global average yield is 6.2 tones/hectare but vary according to different regions. In Asia, average yields can reach 12.6 tones/hectare. For a long time Olhu ala has been grown widely in the southern atolls of Addu, Fuvahmulah, Huvadhu and Haddhunmathi. It was considered a staple food even after rice was introduced. Now olhu ala is widely eaten all over Maldives. 29 CYPERUS POLYSTACHYOS SYN. PYCREUS POLYSTACHYOS. C. polystachyos is a terrestrial, perennial, tufted herb with fibrous roots. The stems are triangular, solid and hairy. The leaves are linear, more than 20 cm long. The yellow, red or brown, flowers are grouped together at the end of an upright stem. It flowers and fruits throughout the year and the fruit is a small nut. It is found in most parts of the world in open damp places: grassy fields, fallow rice fields, roadsides and river banks. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 30 GUETTARDA SPECIOSA: UNI [NIT PITCHIA] G. speciosa is present in all islands. It is an evergreen, medium-sized size tree that grows to about 5 to 10 m in height but is capable of reaching more than 20 m. Leaves are large, 15 to 25 cm long, 7.5 to 20 cm wide, dark green in colour and ovate in shape. The flowers are fragrant, tubular and white in colour and are sensitive to sun opening in the evening and falling before dawn. During cloudy days or in shaded places, opened flowers can be occasionally seen during daytime. The fruits are round and slightly flattened, 2.5 to 3 cm in diameter, green in colour when unripe, turning to brown at maturity. It grows in light to heavy soils but prefers well-drained medium-textured soil for better growth. It also grows well in poor soil. Its tolerance to drought, aerosol salt spray and soil salinity is high. It is not cultivated but young saplings are used to grow the tree in desired locations. The wood is white in colour, dense, heavy, hard and durable and is mainly used as poles for house construction and boat building. The branches are excellent firewood. It is also grown as ornamental tree and small poles are used to provide supports for for growing passion fruit. The latex is used to treat cut wounds and the flowers are mixed with an ayurvedic medicine namely, huvandhu byes, to treat polio and paralysis. 31 HERNANDIA PELTATA: KANDHU [JACK IN THE BOX] H. peltata, synonym H. nymphaeifolia is present on all islands. It is a medium to large tree, 10 to 12 m tall, having a trunk with slightly developed buttresses. The bark is white,grey or pale brown in colour, scaly or flaky and slightly fissured. The leaves are smooth, shiny and alternate in arrangement, 15 to 18 cm long and 8 to 10 cm wide with 15 to 25 cm long leaf stalks. The flowers are white, slightly hairy and about 1 cm across and the fruit is rounded in shape and 1.5 to 3 cm long, black in colour and enclosed in a green sphere. It grows in sandy and well-drained soil but prefers slightly wet soil and moist environment for better growth. It is saline tolerant but only moderately tolerant to aerosol salt spray. It is not normally cultivated but woody cuttings, 35 to 45 cm in height and 5 to 10 cm in diameter are used for propagation. It establishes and grows fast if proper shade is provided. The wood is not very hard and easily decays in seawater. It is sometimes used for making small implements that are used in boat operation. The wood is also used for making toys and souvenirs such as boats and ships and for small furniture. It is also used to make coffins. In the past, wood was used for large tables and big toolboxes used by carpenters. Tree trunks or large branches are used for rolling dhonis into the sea from the boatyard. The fruit are used to prepare “madhang�, a paste, which is used for caulking boats. Leaves, roots, bark and seeds are used in the preparation of a traditional medicine called „ruhglu beys‟, which is used to treat bone fractures. Flowers are used in alleviating headache. 32 HIBISCUS TILIACEUS: DHIGGA/HAU, [SEA HIBISCUS]. Hau, commonly known as Sea Hibiscus is a common coastal plant in Southeast Asia. It can be found at elevations from sea level to 800 m in areas that receive and annual rainfall in the range 900–2,500 mm. It is commonly found growing on beaches, by rivers and in mangrove swamps. The tree is well adapted to grow in coastal environments in that it tolerates salt and waterlogging and can grow in quartz sand, coral sand, marl, limestone, and crushed basalt. It grows best in slightly acidic to alkaline soils with pH in the range of 5.0 - 8.5. H. tiliaceus can reach a height of 4–10 m, with a trunk up to 15 cm in diameter. The flowers are bright yellow with a deep red centre upon opening. Over the course of the day, the flowers deepen to orange and finally red before they fall. The branches of the tree often curve over time. The wood of H. tiliaceus has a specific gravity of 0.6 and consequently it has been used in a variety of applications, such as seacraft construction. It can also be used for firewood and for wood carvings. It has a tough bark which can be made into durable rope and for sealing cracks in boats. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report The bark and roots may be boiled to make a cooling tea to cool fevers and its young leafy shoots may be eaten as vegetables. 33 IPOMOEA PES-CAPRAE: [BEACH MORNING GLORY] I. pes-caprae, is a common pan-tropical creeping vine belonging to the family Convolvulaceae. It grows on the upper parts of beaches and endures salted air. It is one of the most common and most widely distributed salt tolerant plants. It is a primary sand stabilizer being one of the first plants to colonise the dune systems. It grows on almost all parts of the dune but is usually found on the seaward slopes sending long runners down towards the toe of the dune. The sprawling runners spread out from the woody rootstock but the large 2-lobed leaves are sparse and a dense cover on the sand is rarely achieved except in protected situations. This plant grows in association with sand spinifex grass and is a useful sand binder thriving under conditions of sand blast and salt spray 34 IPOMOEA AQUATIC: KANKUN [WATER SPINACH] Commonly known as Chinese Spinach, Swamp Cabbage Water Spinach, Water Morning Glory, Water Convolvulus; not to be confused with Nile Cabbage or Water Lettuce (see Pistia stratioites). I. aquatica is a semi-aquatic tropical plant grown as a leaf vegetable. Found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, it is not known exactly where it originated. It is confined to the tropics and subtropics zones and does not grow well when temperatures are below 23.9° C. I. aquatica is highly invasive, forming dense mats over the surface of water bodies, such as lakes, ponds, marshes, canals and ditches. It is also found in very moist soils, such as the muddy banks along streams. It spreads rapidly from plant fragments and its floating seeds allow effective colonisation of new areas. Where conditions are suitable for the plant it has displaced native plants that are important for fish and wildlife. The vines of the plant create dense impenetrable canopies over small ponds and retention basins creating stagnant water conditions that are ideal breeding environments for mosquitoes Its stems are 2–3 metres or more long, rooting at the nodes, and they are hollow and can float. The leaves vary from typically arrow-head-shaped to lanceolate, 5–15 centimetres long and 2–8 centimetres broad. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, 3–5 centimetres diameter, usually white in colour with a mauve centre. 35 LUMNITZERA RACEMOSA: BUREVI [BLACK MANGROVE] L. recemosa is a common mangrove and is found along the border of closed and open lagoons both in the northern and the southern islands. Natural regeneration is very high. It is an evergreen, medium sized, erect and much-branched tree that grows up to 10m tall but in the Maldives most of the trees are only around 4 to 6m in height. It prefers relatively less moist, well drained, sandy soil mixed with clay for better performance. It also prefers relatively higher ground level than other mangrove plants. It is a non-viviparous mangrove species and seeds are similar to terrestrial plants. It is normally propagated by nursery-raised seedlings and wildlings. The main trunk provides a hard and durable timber and in the Maldives, the timber is used for wooden house construction and sticks of lesser diameter are used for rafters on wooden roof houses. Larger wood is sometimes used in boat building. Stems are used for pushing boats in shallow water. It is considered as excellent firewood and high quality charcoal is prepared from larger stems. 36 MANGIFERA INDICA: MANGO [MANGO]. Mango trees grow up to 35–40 m tall, with a crown radius of 10 m. The trees are long-lived, with some trees said to be over 300 years old still fruiting. When growing in deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots; the tree also sends down many anchor roots, which penetrate several feet of soil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 cm long and 6–16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red and then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm long, each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 mm long, with a mild sweet smell. The fruit takes three to six months to ripen Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Both unripe and ripe fruits are eaten fresh. It is used for stewed fruit, juices,jam and jellies. It is processed into pickles, chutney, curry and dried slices. Sherbet is also made out of fruits. In the Maldives, a local variety called “aavi an‟bu�, which smells and tastes like mint, is widely eaten. Slices of green fruit with rihakuru (tuna fish paste) is also widely eaten in f the Maldives. The wood is strong, heavy and durable and can be used for boat building, carpentry, house building etc. but in the Maldives it is not used for any of these purposes since mango tree is not normally felled for timber. 37 MORINDA CITRIFOLIA: AHI [INDIAN MULBERRY] M. citrifolia is common and found mostly in wooded areas. It is an erect, evergreen, smooth shrub or small tree 3 to 10 m tall. The bark is greyish or yellow-brown, shallowly fissured and shiny. Young branches are light green in colour and four-angled. The leaves are simple, oval in shape, 20 to 45 cm long and 7 to 25 cm wide, dark green in colour, shiny and deeply veined. The flowers are small, white, numerous and fragrant. The fruit is yellowish-white in colour, fleshy, roughly cone like in shape, 3 to 10 cm long and 2 to 3 cm wide. It is soft, and gelatinous when ripe, and strong smelling. M. citrifolia grows on a wide range of soils and harsh environmental conditions, such as brackish tide pools, limestone soils or outcroppings on coral atolls. It also tolerates seasonal water logging but prefers free, well- drained soils. It grows well both in acidic and alkaline soils. Its tolerance to drought, aerosol salt spray and water and soil salinity is very high. The trees can be easily propagated by seeds and stem cuttings. Indian mulberry was previously cultivated for a reddish-purple and brown dye from the bark and roots to colour cloths. It is widely cultivated for medicinal purpose although not in the Maldives. The juice of the fruit is used in alternative medicine for a host of illness such as diabetes, high blood pressure, arthritis, and muscle aches, menstrual difficulties etc. In the Maldives, fruit is normally given to old people to alleviate illnesses resulting from senility. Leaf juice, obtained by crushing leaves or cooked leaves are applied on the swollen body parts to reduce swelling and pain. 38 MUSA SP: DHONKEYO, [BANANA]. The banana plant is the largest of herbaceous flowering plants. The plants are normally tall and fairly sturdy and are often mistaken for trees. The true stem or corm grows underground and the visible portion which carries the flower and fruit is a pseudostem that grows 6 to 7.6 m tall. Each pseudostem can produce a single bunch of bananas. After fruiting, the pseudostem dies, but offshoots may develop from the base of the plant. Many varieties of bananas are perennial. Bananas are grown in tropical regions where the average temperature exceeds 27° C and the yearly rainfall is in the range 200-250 cm. They require moist soil with good drainage and the shallow feeding roots can extend for up to 10m. 39 PANDANUS TECTORIS BOA-KASHIKEYU, [THATCH SCREW PINE] Three species of screwpine are commonly found in Maldives. Species with large and medium sizes are edible and are used in Maldivian cooking as a delicacy. P. tectorius is a tree that to grows to 4–14 m tall. The single trunk is spiny and forks at a height of 4–8 metres. It is supported by prop roots that firmly anchor the tree to the ground. Its leaves are usually 90–150 cm long and 5–7 cm wide with saw-like margins. P. tectorius is dioecious, with very different male and female flowers. Male flowers are small, fragrant, form clusters or racemes, and are short lived, lasting only a single day. Female flowers resemble pineapples.The fruit is either ovoid, ellipsoid, subglobose or globose with a diameter of 4–20 cm and a length of 8–30 cm. P. tectorius naturally grows in coastal regions, such as on mangrove margins and beaches, at elevations from sea level to 610 m. It requires 1,500–4,000 mm of annual rainfall. It is well adapted to grow in the many soil types present on coasts, including quartz sand, coral sand, and peat. It is salt and wind tolerant and favours slightly acidic to basic soils and prefers to grow in full sunlight, but grows well with 30-50% shade The fruit can be eaten raw or cooked and is a major source of food, especially in atoll environments. The fibrous nature of the fruit also serves as a natural dental floss. The tree's leaves are often used as flavouring for sweet Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report dishes, and are also said to have medicinal properties. It is also used in south asian cookery, where the leaves are used to flavour a variety of curries. Leaves can also be used to make baskets, mats, outrigger canoe sails and thatch roofs. 40 PEMPHIS ACIDULA: KUREDHI [PEMPHIS] P. acidula is abundant in the Maldives and grows along the beaches of almost all islands. It is an evergreen, much-branched, slow growing shrub or small tree 4 to 6m tall with a crooked and twisted stem. The lower branches, even though dry, are persistent and rigid, and as the trees grow very closely, they form impenetrable thickets. The bark is light grey to brown, and flaky in old trees. The leaves are oblong in shape, 0.5 to 2.2 cm long and 0.2 to 1 cm wide and hairy on both the sides. The flowers are six petalled, white or pinkish-white, 0. 7 to 1.0 cm across. The fruit is tubular about 1 cm long and 0.3 to 0.5 cm wide, densely hairy and green in young and brown when mature. It grows on a variety of soil including coastal fine sand, coastal limestone rock, coral conglomerate, limestone bedrock and outcrops of atolls. It is able to grow in places where seawater wet its roots regularly during the high tide. It is propagated by seeds, saplings and roots suckers. Seeds are not directly sown in the field and nursery- raised seedlings are used for planting out. It is one of the most favoured timbers in the Maldives.The heartwood is very hard, heavy, strong and durable and resistant to wood-boring molluscs and termites. It is used for boat building, particularly for internal beams and pegs to hold planks together. It is also favoured for carved objects such as tool handles, long knives, axes etc., chess pieces, toys and other handicrafts. It is a preferred firewood but with a very hot flame. 41 PISTIA STRATIOTES: [WATER LETTUCE]xxxvi Pistia stratiotes is a freshwater invasive weed that is found throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is a free- floating perennial of quiet water bodies. It is stoloniferous, forms colonies, and has rosettes up to 15cms across. It has long, feathery, hanging roots. The leaves are light green and velvety-hairy with many prominent longitudinal veins. Inflorescences are inconspicuous and up to 1.5cms long. Flowers are few, unisexual, and enclosed in a leaf-like spathe. P. stratiotes can inflict a severe impact on the environment and economy areas that it infests. The dense mats created by connected rosettes of the plant are the cause of the majority of problems encountered. On Fuahmulah these mats would impose their negative effects by blocking water flow channels, thereby hindering flood control efforts. Mats of P. stratiotes can also disrupt natural ecosystems. They can lead to a lower concentration of oxygen in covered waters and sediments by blocking air-water interface and root respiration. Extremely thick mats of P. stratiotes can prevent sunlight from reaching underlying water. The cumulative effect of these negative characteristics of the plant is a loss of biodiversity in invaded habitats. The mats of P. stratiotes can also provide breeding places for mosquitoes. At two locations areas, in Drain-4 and in Bandaara-kulhi the invasive species Pistia stratioides water lettuce was observed. This is a plant native to South America which is spreading round the world and is causing significant problems in water courses and open bodies of water. Reproduction is by both sexual (seeds) and vegetative (offsets) processes. The presence of this plant in the freshwater bodies of the island was raised at a meeting with the Atoll Council. Members of the Council commented that it had been present on the Island for about six years and was thought to have „escaped‟ from an aquarium. The importance of removing all traces of the plants from the wetlands, allowing the plants to dry and then burning the dried remains was stressed to the council and that regular inspections should be made to check for re-occurrence and if found removed and destroyed. 42 PSIDIUM GUAJAVA: FEYRU, [GUAVA] P. guajava is commonly cultivated in home gardens. It is a shrub or small evergreen tree that grows to a height of 10 m. However, most of the trees found in the Maldives are only around 4 to 5 m tall. It is many branched, which are crooked and spreading. Young branches are four sided and downy. The bark is smooth, mostly copper coloured or mottled green and peel off in thin flakes continuously. The leaves have short leaf stalks and are oval in shape. They are stiff, dull green to yellow green on the upper surface and leathery with conspicuous veins; aromatic when crushed. The flowers are small, about 2 cm across and single or in a cluster of two to three in the axils of the leaf are white in colour with four to five petals, which drop immediately. The fruits are round, oval Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report or pear-shaped berry and have a sweet musky odour. The fruit skin is thin, yellow and frequently blushed with pink. P. guajava is a hardy tree that grows in a wide variety of climatic and soil conditions growing well on poor soils with good drainage. It is drought resistant but less tolerant to soil salinity. It has a very shallow root system with no taproots and thus tolerance to high wind is limited. It can be propagated very easily from seeds, by air- layering, shield or patch budding on seedling rootstock, grafting and stem cuttings. Root cuttings are also used for propagation. The fruit is eaten raw and varieties differ widely in taste, flavour and seediness. Guava is used to make jam, jelly, juice and nectar and also preserved in varieties of forms. Guava is made into a paste by evaporating the pulp with sugar and eaten as sweetmeat. The wood is brown or reddish, hard, moderately strong, and durable but because of the short and crooked nature of the stem it is not widely used. Leaves and bark pieces are boiled in water used to make an extract that is used externally to treat skin diseases. 43 RHIZOPHORA MUCRONATA: RAN’DOO [ASIATIC MANGROVE] R. mucronata is classified as an occasional; found growing as pure stand or mixed with Bruguiera spp. both in the northern and southern islands. It is an evergreen, medium to tall tree that may reach 25 to 30 m height. As in the case of Rhizophora apiculata numerous, much-branched, hoop or pile-like stilt roots loop from branches and stems and provide support to trees. R. mucronata grows well in deep soft mud, which is rich in humus. It is also capable of growing well in fine sands to coarse stones and coral ramparts. In higher salinity it develops a straggling or semi-prostate habit. The stilt roots, which become smooth after removing the bark, was used in the past to make windows of traditional houses. The bark of the tree is used as a dying agent for fishing lines. The dye produced from the bark is very thick and paint like, which makes fishing lines water proof. The wood is light weight, less durable and small in size due to the short and crooked trunk. Poles are used for boat plying. Small pieces of wood are used when docking the boats for repair. In many countries very fine quality charcoal are produced from the wood. 44 SCAEVOLA TACCADA: MAGOO, [SEA LETTUCE] Scaevola taccada synonym S. sericea, occurs throughout the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It can also be found on tropical islands areas where S. taccada is displacing native coastal plants. S. taccada is a low branching, spreading bushy shrub that grows up to 3 m tall with soft-wooded and crooked main stem. Slender branches are green in colour, succulent with soft spongy pith and with clear leaf scar on the outside. Leaves are normally crowded at the tip of the branches and are fleshy, 15 to 30 cm long and 8 to 10 cm width. The flowers are white or pinkish-white in colour and fragrant and the fruit is white or purplish in colour, about 1.5 cm in diameter, soft, fleshy and tasteless. The stone is ellipsoid in shape, ribbed with corky outer layer. Previously it was used on the islands for building traditional houses being used as roofing strips and rafters. Presently, it is mainly used for firewood and the pith of large stems is used for handicrafts. It is also used in traditional medicine. Leaf juice is used to alleviate painful swellings and a few drops of juice extracted from the seeds are added to the eyes to reduce reddening. It can be one of the important components of the front row vegetation of coastal bioshield and can be multiplied for coastal stabilization. It is one of the early colonizers of the beaches of the Maldives. It grows well in sandy, calcareous, alkaline soil. It is highly tolerant to drought, aerosol salt spray and salinity. It grows well in full sun. It is not actively cultivated in the Maldives. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report 45 SYZYGIUM CUMINI: DHAN’BU, [JAMBOLAN] The Jambolan is a flowering tropical tree. It prefers to grow in full sun in soils which are dry to moist and mature trees are drought tolerant. It is fairly fast growing and can reach heights of up to 30 m and can live more than 100 years. Its dense foliage provides shade and in places it is grown just for its ornamental value. The wood is strong and is water resistant. Because of this it can be used for railway sleepers and to install motors in wells. It is sometimes used to make furniture and village dwellings though it is relatively hard to work on. The plant has medicinal propertiesxxxvii. The leaves are used against diarrhoea and fever and the fruit against diarrhoea and abdominal pains. The seed is used against diabetes and blood pressure. Bark, leaves and flowers against diabetes 46 THESPESIA POPULNEA: HIRUN’DHU [TULIP TREE] T. populnea is abundant in wooded areas and also grown as avenue and shade tree. It is a small, evergreen tree 6 to 10 m in height with short and often crooked main stem. The bark is brownish or greyish and fissured. The leaves are simple with a 5 to 10 cm long leaf stalk and a leaf blade is oval in shape, 8 to 15 cm long with pointed tip. The leaves are fleshy, shiny and turn yellow before falling. The flowers are single, large, about 4 to 7 cm long, and bell-shaped.The petals are yellow with a maroon spot at the base of each petal and the flowers open and close on the same day and flower colour changes to purplish as the day progress. The fruit is a capsule, round but flattened, grown on short stalks and clustered at the ends of the branches. Matured capsules are brown to grey and exude a bright yellow resin when cut. T. populnea grows well on nutrient poor coastal sandy soils and also on soils derived from limestone. It prefers slightly alkaline soil conditions and is highly tolerant to both soil salinity and aerosol salt spray. It is also tolerant to drought. It is easily propagated by seed and stem cuttings. It can be directly sown or seedlings can be raised in nursery. Seedlings 40 to 50 cm, which are hardened off with reduced watering and exposure to full sunlight, can be used for planting out. Stems cuttings 2 m long are normally used for propagation but smaller cuttings produce healthier trees. Initial growth is slow. Tulip tree is one of the important timber species of the Maldives. The timber is mostly pale-pink in colour and is fine grained, heavy, strong, and durable especially under water and is highly prized. Wood from mature trees is widely used in building many parts of the boat. It is a premier carving wood, because the wood can be cut to fine details. It is also used for furniture and household items. Wood from young stems and trees is less dense and more prone to rotting. The bark may be used for rope and caulking boats. 47 TERMINALIA CATAPPA: MIDHILI GAS [COUNTRY ALMOND] T. catappa is bbundant in the wooded areas and also grown around homes. It is a tall, semi-deciduous, erect, medium to large sized tree 10 to 25 m tall. The trunk is usually straight and more or less cylindrical but it may also be crooked and leaning. The bark is grey brown coloured, smooth in young trees, rough with age. In younger trees branches are almost horizontal and erect and arranged in tiers, giving the tree a pagoda like shape, which becomes less noticeable as the branches elongate and droop at the tips. Leaves are dark green above, pale below, leathery and shiny; before dropping leaf colour changes to yellow and red. The flowers are small, white or cream coloured, five lobed and arranged on long spikes. The stone-fruit is laterally compressed and oval-shaped changing from green in young to dark purplish red at full maturity. Each fruit contain a cream-coloured seed, which encloses the nut. T. catappa grows on silt, loam, clay soils but prefers neutral or slightly alkaline sand and sandy loams. It tolerates slightly saline soils and its tolerance to drought is moderate. It is adapted to salt-laden winds but tolerance to aerosol salt spray is limited. Country almond is an important timber tree in the Maldives. The timber is strong, elastic, moderately hard, smooth and lustrous. It is brown or reddish-brown in colour and medium coarse in texture. The wood is widely used in boat building, mainly for keel. It is also used for flooring and furniture. Wood is not suitable for long- term ground contact. The outer flesh of the fruit is eaten raw and the nut is eaten fresh or used as a substitute for cashew nut. The nuts are preserved by sun drying and also sold in markets. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Draft Final Report Appendix 8: Fauna of the Wetland and Adjacent Areas Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Fauna of the Wetlands and Adjacent Areas Garganey – Anas querquedula A small dabbling duck which breeds in much of Europe and western Asia. Their breeding habitat is grassland adjacent to shallow marshes and steppe lakes. It feeds on leaves and shoots, mostly while swimming with head under water. It is strictly migratory, with the entire population moving to southern Africa and Australasia in winter. Hence is presence on Eidhigalhi Kilhi in January to March. The Garganey is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. The status of the Garganey is Least Concern. White Breasted Water Fowl - Amaurornis phenicurus A water-bird of the rail and crake family Rallidae that is widely distributed across South and Southeast Asia. Their breeding habitat is marshes across south Asia from Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka to south China and Indonesia. They are mostly active at dawn and dusk and during the breeding season, just after the first rains, make loud and repetitive croaking calls. They are usually seen singly or in pairs as they forage slowly along the edge of a water body mainly on the ground but sometimes clambering up low vegetation. The tail is held up and jerked as they walk. They probe with their bill in mud or shallow water, also picking up food by sight. They mainly eat insects, small fish, aquatic invertebrates and seeds. They may sometimes feed in deeper water in the manner of a moorhen. The nesting season is mainly June to October but varies locally. They nest in a dry location on the ground in marsh vegetation. Common Myna - Acridotheres tristis The Myna is a member of family Sturnidae, (starlings and mynas) and is native to Asia. It is an omnivorous, open woodland bird with a strong territorial instinct, and has adapted extremely well to urban environments. It feeds on insects, arachnids, crustaceans, reptiles, small mammals, seeds, grain and fruits and discarded waste from human habitation. They breed through much of the year depending on the location, building their nest in a hole in a tree or wall. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report White Tern – Gygis alba The White Tern is a small seabird found across the tropical oceans of the world. It is sometimes known as the Fairy Tern although this name is potentially confusing as it is the common name of the Fairy Tern Sternula nereis. Other names for the species include Angel Tern and White Noddy. It is a small, all white tern with a long black bill, related to the noddies. It ranges widely across the Pacific and Indian Oceans and in the Maldives is only found on the southern atolls. It nests on coral islands, usually on trees where it lays its egg on bare thin branches in a small fork or depression without a nest. It also nests in some Atlantic islands where it nest on rocky ledges and on man-made structures. Like most terns it feeds on small fish which it catches by plunge diving. The White Tern is not considered threatened as it is a widespread species with several large colonies around the world. Whimbrel - Numenius phaeopus The Whimbrel is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae. It is the one of the most widespread of the curlews, breeding across much of subarctic North America, Europe and Asia as far south as Scotland. It is a migratory species wintering on coasts in Africa, South America, south Asia into Australasia and southern North America. Hence the presence of the bird in the Maldives during January to March. The species feeds by probing soft mud for small invertebrates and by picking small crabs and similar prey off the surface. Prior to migration, berries become an important part of their diet. Little Egret – Egretta garzetta The little Egret is a small white heron which a breeding distribution in wetlands in warm temperate to tropical parts of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia. In warmer locations, most birds are permanent residents. Northern populations, including many northern European birds, migrate to Africa and southern Asia. Individuals from the warm temperate populations may wander north in late summer after the breeding season, which may have assisted its current range expansion. Little Egrets eat fish, insects, amphibians, crustaceans, and reptiles. They stalk their prey in shallow water, often running with raised wings or shuffling its feet to disturb small fish. They may also stand still and wait to ambush prey. The Little Egret nests in colonies, often with other wading birds, usually on platforms of sticks in trees or shrubs or in a reedbed or bamboo grove. Globally, the Little Egret is not listed as a threatened species Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Little Heron - Butroides striatus The Little Heron also known as Mangrove Heron, Striated Heron or Green- backed Heron, is a small heron. They are mostly non-migratory and their breeding habitat is small wetlands in the Old World tropics from west Africa to Japan and Australia, and in South America. The birds stand still at the water's edge and wait to ambush prey, but are easier to see than other small heron species. They mainly eat small fish, frogs and aquatic insects. They nest in a platform of sticks which is usually built in not too high off the ground in shrubs or trees but sometimes in sheltered locations on the ground, and often near water. Widespread and generally common, the Little Heron is classified as a Species of Least Concern by the IUCN Grey Heron - Ardea cinerea The Grey Heron s a wading bird of the heron family Ardeidae, native throughout temperate Europe and Asia and also parts of Africa. It is resident in the milder south and west, but many birds retreat in winter from the ice in colder regions. It feeds in shallow water, catching fish, frogs, and insects with its long bill. Herons will also take small mammals, reptiles and occasionally warbler nestlings, plovers, young and adult snipes, takes ducklings and tern chicks and other small birds. It breeds in colonies in trees close to lakes, the seashore or other wetlands, although it will also nest in reed-beds. Pond Heron- Ardeola grayii phillipsi The Pond Heron, also known as the Indian Pond Heron or Paddybird is a small heron which breeds in southern Iran and east to India, Burma, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. They are widespread and common. The Pond Heron's feeding habitat is marshy wetlands settling along the shoreline, they are usually solitary foragers but numbers of them may sometimes feed in close proximity during the dry seasons when small wetlands have a high concentration of prey. Their primary food includes crustaceans, aquatic insects, fishes, tadpoles and sometimes leeches. Outside wetlands, herons feed on insects, including crickets, dragonflies and bees. They may also forage at garbage heaps. They nest in small colonies, often with other wading birds, usually on platforms of sticks in trees or shrubs. Most nests are built at a height of about 9 to 10 m and in large leafy trees. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Fruit Bat - Pteropus giganteus Bats of the genus Pteropus, belong to the megabat or Megachiroptera sub-order, and are the largest bats in other numerous colloquial names. They live in the tropics and subtropics of Asia, Australia, Indonesia, islands off East Africa and a number of remote oceanic islands in both the Indian and Pacific Oceans. Characteristically, flying foxes only feed on nectar, blossom, pollen, and fruit, which explains their limited tropical distribution. They do not possess echo-location, instead, smell and eyesight are very well-developed. Occasional cullings of the fruit bat take place on the islands but numbers soon recover. It is listed as a species of least concern since it occurs in a number of protected areas and there is a large population which is not declining fast enough for it to be placed in a category of greater concern 5. Shrew - Crocidura nanilla / Suncus murinus. During the walk over of Maa Kilhi area a dead shrew was found. The photograph shown here is of the individual found. During their survey of the northern atolls Cesarini et al1 describe observing shrews on three occasions and consider the individuals which they saw to be Crocidura nanilla; the only shrew to have been previously recorded in the Maldives. Although Crocidura nanilla is the only species of shrew previously recorded in the Maldives there is the possibility that, without detailed examination of the individual, that it may have been Suncus murinus1. The Asian House Shrew, Suncus murinus, or the Asian Musk Shrew, is a widespread, adaptable species of shrew found mainly in South Asia but introduced widely throughout Asia. It is a voracious animal with little resistance to starvation and is active during the day and night but only for a short period of time. This species is an insectivore and can be considered beneficial to humans because its diet consists mostly of harmful insects where it can be a biological pesticide. The house shrew is categorized as Lower Risk (subcategory Least Concerned Eel During the walk over of Maa Kilhi area a dead eel was found. The photograph shown here is of the individual found which was approximately 80cm in length, a size which may indicate that the fish was between five and ten years old. Eels are carnivores and will feed on other small fish in the kilhi. They are able to survive short periods of shallow water in the wetlands by burrowing into the soft muds in the bottom of the wetland. 5 Cesarini D. and Bernasconi L. 2010. Terrestrial Ecosystem Monitoring - North Provinces. Final Report. EPA/MEMP/IDA. Male,Republic of the Maldives, 392pp Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 9: Household Surveys, Fuvahmulah and Hithadhoo Subject page Household Survey, Fuvahmulah 1 Household Survey, Hithadhoo 14 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental & Social Due Diligence Final Report List of Tables TableA9.1 Purpose of Visiting Wetlands, Fuvahmulah ........................................................ 238 Table A9.2 Flooding during High Rainfall by Ward, Fuvahmulah ....................................... 242 Table A9.3 Household Size and Income of Respondents, Fuvahmulah ................................ 244 Table A9.4 Purpose of Visiting Wetlands, Hithadhoo .......................................................... 251 Table A9.5 Household Size and Income of Respondents, Hithadhoo ................................... 256 List of Figures Figure A9.1 Access to Wetlands by Households on Fuvahmulah ......................................... 237 Figure A9.2 Access to Wetlands by Ward, Fuvahmulah ....................................................... 237 Figure A9.3 Frequency of Use of Wetlands, Fuvahmulah .................................................... 238 Figure A9.4 Importance of Wetlands to Households, Fuvahmulah....................................... 239 Figure A9.5 Importance of Wetlands by Ward, Fuvahmulah ................................................ 239 Figure A9.6 Level of Agreement with Statements Relating to Wetlands.............................. 240 Figure A9.7 Perception of Wetlands' Potential to Generate Income from Non-Extractive Activities such as Tourism .............................................................................................. 241 Figure A9.8 Willingness of Community to Introduce International Tourism to Fuvahmulah ......................................................................................................................................... 241 Figure A9.9 Perception of Flood Impacts on Households, by Cause .................................... 242 Figure A9.10 Gender of Respondents, Fuvahmulah .............................................................. 242 Figure A9.11 Age of Respondents, Fuvahmulah ................................................................... 243 Figure A9.12 Education Level of Respondents, Fuvahmulah ............................................... 243 Figure A9.13 Access to Wetlands by Households on Hithadhoo .......................................... 250 Figure A9.14 Frequency of Use of Wetlands, Hithadhoo ..................................................... 251 Figure A9.15 Importance of Wetlands to Households, Hithadhoo ........................................ 252 Figure A9.16 Level of Agreement with Statements Relating to Wetlands, Hithadhoo ......... 253 Figure A9.17 Perception of Wetlands' Potential to Generate Income from Non-Extractive Activities such as Tourism .............................................................................................. 253 Figure A9.18 Willingness of Community to Introduce International Tourism to Hithadhoo254 Figure A9.19 Perception of Flood Impacts on Households, by Cause .................................. 254 Figure A9.20 Gender of Respondents, Hithadhoo ................................................................. 255 Figure A9.21 Age of Respondents, Hithadhoo ...................................................................... 255 Figure A9.22 Education Level of Respondents, Hithadhoo .................................................. 256 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Household Survey, Fuvahmulah Introduction: a simple household survey was conducted to obtain representative information on (i) household use of and attitudes to wetlands, and (ii) flooding. Objectives: the survey's objectives were:  To determine the type of household use of wetlands.  To determine the importance of wetlands to households.  To determine the willingness of households to change behaviour.  To determine the existence, severity and frequency of flooding.  To determine the size and socio-economic status of the respondent household. Sampling Framework: all households on the island, randomised. Sample Size and Selection: sufficient to give >95% level of confidence and <10% confidence interval, i.e. every 4th household on every street (actual survey size: 335 out of 1,191 households, i.e. 28%). Data Entry, Processing and Analysis: data were entered into a spreadsheet for simple statistical analysis. Original questionnaires have been retained. Questionnaire: the questionnaire was developed in English and translated into Dhivehi. Both versions are attached. Results: an analysis of the results is given in the following pages. The original data are held on file by the Consultant and are available on request. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 232 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 233 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 234 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 235 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 236 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Household Survey, Fuvahmulah Results and Discussion Number of respondents: 335 (28% of total households on the island, 1,191 in March 2011; information from Atoll Council). Overall level of use: 64% of households visit or use the wetlands (Dhan‟dimagu Kilhi, Bandaara Kilhi or both) while 36% of households do not (Figure A9.1). 27% of households visit both wetlands, 19% access ony Dhan‟dimagu Kilhi in the north and 18% access only Bandaara Kilhi in the south. Figure A9.1 Access to Wetlands by Households on Fuvahmulah Source wards of users: when use of wetlands is related to location, it appears that Dhan‟dimagu Kilhi is most frequented by inhabitants of Dhiguvaan‟du and Hoadhan‟du wards (Figure A9.2). These wards are closest to the wetland on either side of the system. Similarly Bandaara Kilhi is most visited by the people from the adjacent wards of Male‟gan and Miskih‟magu. However, it is also visited by inhabitants of Hoadhan‟du who live slightly further away. Figure A9.2 Access to Wetlands by Ward, Fuvahmulah Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 237 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Frequency of use: while 64% of respondents use the wetlands on the island, the frequency of use is low: of these users, 76% use or visit the wetlands once a month or less (Figure A9.3). 3% visit the wetlands daily, 14% several times a week and 7% several times a month. Frequency of visitation is related to purpose of use (see below). Figure A9.3 Frequency of Use of Wetlands, Fuvahmulah Purpose of wetland access: most respondents in the survey (202, 60%) visit the wetlands for recreational purposes such as swimming and picnicking (Table A9.1). Only 1% of survey respondents (4 households) reported obtaining an income from agricultural activities in the wetlands, 1% (4 households) use the wetlands for growing crops and 2% (6 households) reported collecting firewood for use at home. This data on agricultural use does not match visual observation which indicates widespread use of the wetlands for taro cultivation. Two households reported using the wetlands for dumping waste. Reporting of harmful practices such as dumping waste and cutting trees for firewood is low, which may either be a survey artefact or may reflect a real increase in awareness on environmental issues in recent years, especially concerning waste management and wetland conservation. TableA9.2 Purpose of Visiting Wetlands, Fuvahmulah Income Generation Home Use Other Agriculture Firewood Fishing Agriculture Firewood Fishing Dump Recreation Waste 4 0 0 4 6 0 2 202 1% - - 1% 2% - 1% 60% Note: percentages are rounded Willingness to learn new skills: respondents of three of the four households that obtain income from wetlands stated that they would like to learn new skills to earn an income. This Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 238 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report question was posed to assess the willingness of people earning income from the wetlands to give up that source of income in the event the areas they use are protected in the future. The survey results indicate that almost no households earn any income from the wetlands (1%, so pro-rata a total of about 15 households on the entire island). 75% of the income earners would like to learn new skills and participate in capacity building exercises that would allow them to turn to alternative income generating activities. Importance of wetlands to households: respondents were asked the importance of wetlands at household level. Results are shown in Figure A9.4. The wetlands are important to 78% of the households, with nearly half of the respondents expressing that they were very important. The survey showed that wetlands were important or very important mostly to residents in Dhoodigan, Male‟gan and Hoadhan‟du wards (Figure A9.5). Of the 22% who did not consider wetlands important to their households, this category was highest in the wards of Maadhan‟du and Miskih‟magu which are located between the two wetland systems. This suggests that distance to wetlands may play a role in determining the importance of wetlands to the inhabitants of Fuvahmulah (note that this is relative: all distances on the island are small). Figure A9.4 Importance of Wetlands to Households, Fuvahmulah Figure A9.5 Importance of Wetlands by Ward, Fuvahmulah Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 239 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Perceptions of Wetlands: respondents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with some focused statements related to wetland management. Overall, there was strong disagreement with negative activities or aspects and strong agreement with those statements that were positive in nature (Figure A9.6). There was strong disagreement that wetlands were a source of firewood (62%) or places for dumping waste (91%). In addition, the respondents mostly disagreed that wetlands were a source of food or potable water. Traditionally, fruits of some mangrove species were consumed as food, and water from the wetlands was used for cooking or drinking. However, there is less reliance on the wetlands for food or drinking water now with changing lifestyles and modern facilities for rainwater storage. When asked if the wetlands were important because they were beautiful, 95% of the respondents agreed while 2% disagreed with the statement. This indicates near-universal appreciation of the wetlands by residents for their aesthetic or existence value. The respondents strongly agreed (85%) that wetlands should be protected for use by future generations, a reflection of the importance of the wetlands to the community. An even larger percentage (95%) agreed that development in the wetlands should be restricted, indicating a desire to physically conserve the conserve the wetland ecosystems. Figure A9.6 Level of Agreement with Statements Relating to Wetlands When asked if wetland areas can provide the community with income generating opportunities from non-extractive activities such as tourism, 77% responded positively while 23% did not think it a feasible option (Figure A9.7). This response may be interpreted as indicating general community interest in exploring new ways to generate income without damaging the wetlands, while some respondents were realistic as to the likelihood of wetland-based tourism being feasible. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 240 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.7 Perception of Wetlands' Potential to Generate Income from Non-Extractive Activities such as Tourism When asked about their opinion on introducing international tourism to the island most respondents were enthusiastic and responded positively while 15% did not think it was a good idea (Figure A9.8). The response is most likely based on a desire for increased economic opportunity, especially employment. It also indicates the community‟s willingness to diversify livelihoods. Figure A9.8 Willingness of Community to Introduce International Tourism to Fuvahmulah Flooding: the final part of the survey was focused on flooding on the island. It appears that very few households are affected by flooding during storm surges and high tide (0.75% and 0.5% respectively: Figure A9.9). However 18% (73 households) reported flooding as a result of high rainfall. When flooding was assessed by wards, 5 of the 30 households surveyed in Maadhan‟du reported flooding during high rainfall and none in Hoadhan‟du (Table A9.3). Hoadhan‟du ward is slightly higher than the surrounding areas and Maadhan‟du is located between the island's two wetland systems. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 241 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.9 Perception of Flood Impacts on Households, by Cause Table A9.3 Flooding during High Rainfall by Ward, Fuvahmulah Dhoodigan Male'gan Hoahdan'du Dhan'dimagu Dhiguvaan'du Maadhan'du Funaadu Miskih'magu Yes 10 10 0 14 10 5 13 11 No 45 15 50 31 25 30 27 39 Characteristics of respondents: 60% of the respondents in the survey were female. This can be attributed to the fact that men are more often away from the home than women, at work on the island or on other islands, while women stay at home to take care of the household (Figure A9.10). Figure A9.10 Gender of Respondents, Fuvahmulah Figure A9.11 shows the age distribution of the respondents. Most respondents were between the ages of 15 and 35. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 242 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 30 25 20 Percentage (%) 15 10 5 0 Below 15 15-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 Over 55 Age Category Figure A9.11 Age of Respondents, Fuvahmulah The level of education of the respondents was quite high with 30% having completed secondary education and 5% with some university education (Figure A9.12). A third of the respondents had not received any formal education although most were literate and can read and write in Dhivehi. Figure A9.12 Education Level of Respondents, Fuvahmulah Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 243 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report The average household size was 8 with 2.5 children (under 18 years), 3.5 adults who live on the island and 2 adults who work off the island but contribute to the household income. The average monthly income of a household in Fuvahmulah according to this survey is Rf 11,428 (Table A9.4). Table A9.4 Household Size and Income of Respondents, Fuvahmulah Average Number of children (under 18) 2.5 Number of adults (on island) 3.5 Number of adults (off island) 2 Number of inhabitants 8 Average monthly income (Rf) 11,428 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 244 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Household Survey, Hithadhoo Introduction: a simple household survey was conducted to obtain representative information on (i) household use of and attitudes to wetlands, and (ii) flooding. Objectives: the survey's objectives were:  To determine the type of household use of wetlands.  To determine the importance of wetlands to households.  To determine the willingness of households to change behaviour.  To determine the existence, severity and frequency of flooding.  To determine the size and socio-economic status of the respondent household. Sampling Framework: all households on the island, randomised. Sample Size and Selection: sufficient to give >95% level of confidence and <10% confidence interval, i.e. every 4th household on every street (actual survey size: 400 out of 1,703 households, i.e. 23%). Data Entry, Processing and Analysis: data were entered into a spreadsheet for simple statistical analysis. Original questionnaires have been retained. Questionnaire: the questionnaire was developed in English and translated into Dhivehi. Both versions are attached. Results: an analysis of the results is given in the following pages. The original data are held on file by the Consultant and are available on request. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 245 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 246 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 247 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 248 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 249 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Household survey, Hithadhoo Results and Discussion Number of respondents: 400 (23% of total households on the island, 1,703 in March 2011; information from Atoll Council). Overall level of use: the survey showed that while 54% of the households do not visit or use the wetlands on Hithadhoo, 46% do: 18% use or visit Eidhigali Kilhi in the north, 9% Maa Kilhi, 6% Fehele Kilhi and 4% all three wetlands (Figure A9.13); smaller percentages use or visit both Eidhigali and Fehele Kilhis (4%), Eidhigali and Maa Kilhis (5%) and Fehele and Maa Kilhis (0.5%). The high proportion of households using Eidhigali Kilhi (31%) was expected since it is the largest wetland area with a wide range of resource and use values. Figure A9.13 Access to Wetlands by Households on Hithadhoo Frequency of use: although 46% of the respondents use the wetlands on the island, the frequency of use is low: 67% use or visit them only once a month or less (Figure A9.14). Only 5% visit the wetlands daily, 8% several times a week and 20% several times a month. Frequency of visitation may be related to purpose of use (see below). Purpose of wetland access: many of the respondent households (41%) visit the wetlands for recreational purposes such as swimming and picnicking (Table A9.5). Only one household reported earning an income from agricultural activities in a wetland area and two reported income from fishing; three households reported using wetland areas for growing crops, one for collecting firewood and six for catching fish to use at home. These figures appear to underestimate agricultural use, since visual observation indicates intensive use of wetland areas for taro cultivation. Additionally, fuelwood (fallen branches, palm fronds) is known to be collected from the Koattey area by expatriate catering workers since they are not provided with fuel for cooking by their employer. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 250 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.14 Frequency of Use of Wetlands, Hithadhoo Two households reported using the wetlands for dumping waste. Reporting of harmful practices such as dumping waste and cutting trees for firewood is low, which may be a survey artefact or may reflect a real increase in awareness on environmental issues in recent years, especially concerning waste management and wetland conservation. Table A9.5 Purpose of Visiting Wetlands, Hithadhoo Income generation Home Use Other Agriculture Firewood Fishing Agriculture Firewood Fishing Dump Recreation Waste 1 0 2 3 1 6 2 162 - - - 1% - 2% - 41% Willingness to learn new skills: when the respondents of the three households that earn an income from the wetlands were asked if they were willing to learn new skills to provide new sources of livelihood, two responded positively. This question was posed to assess the willingness of people earning an income from the wetlands to giving up that source of income in the event the areas they use are protected in the future. Importance of wetlands to households: respondents were asked about the importance of the wetlands at the household level. The wetlands were considered very important by about 44% of households, important by nearly 32% and not important by 24% (Figure A9.15). Clearly the majority of households on Hithadhoo (76%) value the wetlands. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 251 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.15 Importance of Wetlands to Households, Hithadhoo Perceptions of Wetlands: respondents were asked to indicate their degree of agreement with some focused statements related to wetland management. Overall, there was strong disagreement with negative activities or aspects and strong agreement with those statements that were positive in nature (Figure A9.16). There was strong disagreement that wetlands were a source of firewood (61%) and that they were appropriate places for waste dumping (92%). In addition, the respondents mostly disagreed that wetlands were a source of food or potable water. Traditionally, fruits of some mangrove species were consumed as food, and water from the wetlands was used for cooking or drinking. However, there is less reliance on the wetlands for food or drinking water now with changing lifestyles and the introduction of modern rainwater storage. Equal percentages of respondents (72%) strongly agreed that wetlands were aesthetically important and that it was important to protect them for use by future generations. Thus it is apparent that the great majority of the community appreciates the wetlands for their existence or aesthetic values. 96% agreed that development in the wetland areas should be restricted. Concerning the importance of the wetlands in protecting the island from storm waves, about 70% of the respondents agreed that they played an important role while 10% disagreed and 20% neither agreed nor disagreed. Note: Hithadhoo is relatively well protected from storm surges, at least from the southwest, due to the height of the beach on this side of the island. Nearly 70% of respondents agreed that the wetlands act as a nursery ground for reef fishes (in this case, meaning the combined Eidhigali Kilhi - Koattey area which includes mangroves and a marine component). This indicates that a large percentage of the population are aware of some of the ecological roles played by wetland ecosystems. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 252 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report 100 90 80 70 Percentage (%) 60 Disagree strongly 50 Disagree 40 Neither agree nor disagree 30 Agree 20 10 Agree strongly 0 tic ste d d er nd ns t es o en oo e at Fo av io ou wa sth pm W at ew w gr p er Ae elo m m bl ry en ro Du ta se v eg f de Po r er Nu r d elt tu lle Fu Sh ro nt Co Figure A9.16 Level of Agreement with Statements Relating to Wetlands, Hithadhoo When asked if wetland areas can provide the community with income generating opportunities from non-extractive activities such as tourism, 89% responded positively while 11% did not think it a feasible option (Figure A9.17). This reflects the community‟s eagerness to find new ways to generate income. Figure A9.17 Perception of Wetlands' Potential to Generate Income from Non-Extractive Activities such as Tourism When asked about their opinion on introducing international tourism to the island most respondents were enthusiastic and responded positively (Figure A9.18), although 4% did not think it was a good idea. The response is most likely based on a desire for increased economic opportunity, especially employment. It also indicates the community‟s willingness Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 253 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report to diversify livelihoods, and possibly some experience of economic benefits on other islands where such hotels have been built. Figure A9.18 Willingness of Community to Introduce International Tourism to Hithadhoo Flooding: the final part of the survey was focused on flooding on the island. Very few households are affected by flooding from storm surges and high tides (2%: Figure A9.19). However 41% of households reported flooding during intense rainfall (163 households). Residents universally considered the flooding to have been caused by bad engineering during construction of the Link Road: this has been built on an embankment and has inadequate cross-drainage, resulting in the trapping of surface runoff during intense rainfall events. Figure A9.19 Perception of Flood Impacts on Households, by Cause Characteristics of respondents: 61% of the respondents in the survey were female. This can be attributed to the fact that men are more often away from the home than women, working on or off the island, while women stay at home to take care of the household (Figure A9.20). Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 254 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.21 shows the age distribution of the respondents. Most were between the ages of 15 - 25 and 36 - 45. Figure A9.20 Gender of Respondents, Hithadhoo 35 30 25 20 Percent 15 10 5 0 Below 15 15-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 Over 55 Age (years) Figure A9.21 Age of Respondents, Hithadhoo The level of education of the respondents is quite high, with 33% having completed secondary education and 7% having some university education (Figure A9.22). Some 26% of the respondents had not undergone any formal education although most are literate and can read and write in Dhivehi. Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 255 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Figure A9.22 Education Level of Respondents, Hithadhoo The average household size was 9 with 3 children (under 18 years), 4 adults who live on the island and 2 adults who work off the island but contribute to the household income (Table A9.6). The average monthly income of respondent households in Hithadhoo is Rf 12,302. Table A9.6 Household Size and Income of Respondents, Hithadhoo Average Number of children (under 18) 3 Number of adults (on island) 4 Number of adults (off island) 2 Number of inhabitants 9 Average monthly income (Rf) 12,302 Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 256 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 10: EIA Regulations Schedule E Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 257 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 258 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 259 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 260 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 261 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 262 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 263 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report Environment Due Diligence of: Flood Protection / Wetland Conservation Project & Coral Reef Health Monitoring Systems Project Final Report Appendix 11: Example Diver Indemnity Form Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 264 July 2011 Environmental Due Diligence Final Report This is an example of an indemnity release form which could be tailored to the CCTF Reef Monitoring programme. 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Quadir, 2001: Climate Variability and its Trend in Maldives, SMRC Publication No. 6, SAARC Meteorological Research Centre (SMRC), Dhaka, Bangladesh. xxxiv World Agroforestry Centre, Agroforestry Tree Database. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org xxxv Trees and shrubs of the Maldives. RAP Publication No. 2007/12. Ministry of Fisheries, Agriculture and Marine Resourcres, Maldives and FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand. 2007. xxxvi The Global Invasive Species Database. http://www.issg.org/database/welcome/ xxxvii Tropiclab ® inc . http://www.tropilab.com/syzygium-jamun.html Nippon Koei UK in association with Seamarc 267 July 2011