1 767I Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank October 1993 ESP Discussion Paper Series No. 13 Science and Techology Education in Taiwan (China) Kin Bing Wu |he ESP Discussion Paper Series serves esan hle sysaem of record keepng, refirmec, and resrie:l for die preum of she ucadon awnd Socal Po&cy Deparwam's work progrs. The ws ecprsmd here ar wose of e aushors ad shoU now be aibused so Xe World Bank or ts Boawd of Ezcudve Direcon or dte coiries dwy rWprn=ew Abstract This paper finds that Taiwan's current economic success is the result of a long history of trial and error with development. Several lessons can be drawn from it. First, an integrated approach is beneficial in pursuing macroeconomic, education, and S&T policies in order to provide the enabling environment for growth. Second, the role of government is critical in charting the course for development. Third, paying attention to quality and equity has resulted in efficiency gains. The most important lesson is that investments in basic education with a strong emphasis on scientific literacy is the pre-requisite for building the technological capability. If such investments are successful, each subsequent phase will have to be supported by mathematically and scientifically oriented secondary and higher education, and in research and development. Currcy Equivalent Currency Unit = NT$ 1961: US$1.00 = NT$40.00 1971: US$1.00 = NT$40.00 1981: US$1.00 = NTS37.79 1986: US$1.00 = NT$35.45 1991: US$1.00 = NT$25.75 Fisal Year July 1 - June 30 School Year August 1 - July 31 Acronyms and Abbreviations CEPD - Council for Economic Planning and Development CNLTD - Council on National Long-Term Development of Science and Technology GDP - Gross Domestic Product GNP - Gross National Product IERC - Industrial Economic Research Center ITRI - Industrial Technology Research Institute NIE - Newly Industrialized Economies NYC - National Youth Commission MDD - Manpower Planning Committee MOC - Ministry of Communication MOD - Ministry of Defense MOE - Ministry of Education MOEA - Ministry of Economic Affairs MOF - Ministry of Finance MPH - Ministry of Public Health MOT - Ministry of Transportation NSC - National Science Council PRC - People's Republic of China R&D - Research and Development ROC - Republic of China S&T - Science and Technology STIC - Science and Technology Information Center STICNET - Science and Technology Information Center Network Taiwan - Taiwan (China) USAID - United States Agency for International Development Table of Contents Foreword ............................................................ iv Executive Summary ..................................................... vi 1. The Historical and Economic Context ................................. . 1 1.1 The Historical Context . ............................................ 1 1.2 Stages of Economic Development ...................................... 4 2. Educational Development ................................................ 10 2.1 The Commitment to Education ....................................... 10 2.2 Expansion of Basic Education .......... ............................... 14 2.3 Vocational Education . ............................................. 18 2.4 Expansion of Tertiary Education ....................................... 20 2.5 Overseas Education . ............................................... 23 3. Science and Technology Policy .............................................. 26 3.1 Science and Technology Planning ...................................... 26 3.2 Science and Technology Policy and Research Establishment ..................... 28 3.3 Strategies to develop Science and Technology in the Ten-Year Plan (1986-95) ... ....... 30 3.4 Research and Development Performance .................................. 37 4. Conclusion .......................................................... 39 References ........................................................... 107 i Tables 1. Economic, Education, and S&T Policies During Various Stages of Development .... ........ 28 2. S&T Development Strategies .................................................. 31 Figures 1. The Education System....12 1. Th Euctin ysem ................................................................. 1 2. Public Education Expenditure by Level of Government, 1976-92 ........................ 13 3. The Ration of Education Expendituresto GNP, 1960-1990 ............................. 14 4. Number of Students at all Levels, 1950-90 ......................................... 15 5. Number of Senior Secondary Schools, 1970-90 ...................................... 17 6. Number of Vocational Schools, 1950-90 .......................................... 19 7. Enrollment in Tertiary Education, 1950-90 ........................................ 21 Annexes Vital Statistics. Economic Indicators, and Emplovment Statistics 1.1 Vital Statistics, 1952-91 ....................................................... 41 1.2 General Economic Indicators, 1981-91 ........................................... 42 1.3 Origins of Gross Domestic Product 1991 .......................................... 43 1.4 Principal Exports 1992 ....................................................... 44 1.5 Main Destinations of Exports 1992 .............................................. 45 1.6 Employed Persons by Industry, Occupation, and Educational Attainment, 1981-91 .... ....... 46 Educational Attainment and Enrollment Statistics 2.1 Illiteracy Rates in Population 15 Years of Age and Over, 1967-91 ....................... 48 2.2 Enrollment Ratios By Level, 1952-1990 ........................................... 49 2.3 Number of Institutions, Teachers, and Pupils by Level, 1952-91 ......................... 50 2.4 Percentage of Graduates Enrolled in the Next Higher Level of Education, 1952-90 .... ....... 51 2.5 Average Number of Students Per Class ............................................ 52 2.6 Student-to-teacher Ratios 1990-91 ............................................... 53 2.7 Number of Junior Colleges, Universities and Colleges, Teaching Staff, and Students, 1952-91 ... 54 2.8 Enrollment in All Higher Education Institutions by Discipline, 1952-90 ................... 55 2.9 Enrollment in Higher Education by Level and Discipline, 1981-90 ....................... 56 2.10 Graduates from Higher Education by Level and Discipline, 1981-91 ...................... 57 2.11 Degrees Granted in Science and Engineering, 1976-90 ................................ 58 2.12 Students Who Left for Overseas Studies, 1950-88 ..................................... 59 2.13 Students Returned from Abroad, 1952-90 ......................................... 60 Teachers 3.1 Enrollment in Teacher Education at All Levels, 1976-91 .62 3.2 Educational Attainment of Teachers at All Levels, 1976-91 .63 3.3 Monthly Salaries and Allowance of Teachers in Public Institutions 1991 .64 3.4 Welfare Benefits for Primary and Secondary Teachers & Administrative Staff, 1989-90 .65 Curriculum 4.1 Teaching Subjects and Weekly Allocation of Time and Primary and Junior High U Schools, 1991 ........................................................ 67 4.2 Teaching Subjects and Weekly Teaching Hours in Senior High Schools, 1991 .... ........... 68 Expenditures 5.1 Net Revenues and Expenditures of All Levels of Government by Source, 1955-90 .70 5.2 Total Expenditures on Education .71 53 Composition of Public Expenditures on Education by Level 1950-91 .72 5.4 Total Education Expenditure Per Student by Level 1976-90 .73 5.5 Recurrent Educational Expenditure Per Students by Public and Private Institution, 1976-90 74 5.6 Total Research and Development Expenditures, 1980-90 .75 5.7 Academic Research Projects and Grants by Type of Research, 1980-92 .76 5.8 The Input Resources of Strategic Technology, 1989 .77 Science and Technology Indicators 6.1 Research and Development Manpower, 1980-90 .................................. 79 6.2 Researchers' Academic Qualification, 1979-89 ................................ 80 63 Advanced Studies for Researchers, 1970-91 .................................. 81 6.4 Research and Development Output Indicators, 1987-90 ............................ 82 6.5 Number of S&T Refereed Papers, 1981-90 ....................................... 83 6.6 Published Papers by Institution .84 6.7 Eight Regional Instrument Centers .85 International Comparison 7.1 R&D Expenditure as Percentage of GNP in Selected Countries (Percentage) .87 7.2 Research and Development Expenditures by Source of Funds, Type of Work, and Sector of Performance in Selected Countries, 1989 .88 73 Scientists and Engineers Engaged in R&D Per 10,000 Workers in Selected Countries, 1970-90 .89 7.4 R&D Expenditures and Manpower by Industry, 1989 .90 7.5 Annual Growth Rates in Natural Science and Engineering Degrees Granted in Selected Countries, 1975-88 .91 7.6 Research Papers in Science and Social Science Published in Major International Journals, 1985 and 1988 .92 7.7 U.S. Immigrant Scientists and Engineers by Country of Orign, 1988 .93 7.8 U. S. Patents Granted by Nationalty of Inventor, 1963-90 .94 Strate2ic Science and Technology Research Areas 8.1 Strategic Academic Research Areas .96 8.2 Strategic Industrial Technology Areas .101 8.3 Strategic Communications Areas .103 8.4 Strategic Agricultural Areas .104 8.5 Strategic Medical and Health Areas .106 iii Foreword This case study on Taiwan (China) is one of a series of papers on science and technology education in three newly industrialized economies of East Asia - South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. The reason for initiating this series of studies is based on the assumption that the acceleration in technological progress, sooner or later, will erode developing countries' comparative advantage in labor-intensive, low-cost manufacturing, and that their development prospects will hinge on the level of skills of their workforce and their capability to select, use, adapt, and develop technology appropriate to changing circumstances. That technological capability is embodied in people, not machinery. The development of this capability fundamentally depends on the capacity of the school system to raise the level of scientific literacy so that more informed decisions will be made in the areas of nutrition, health, family planning, environment, agriculture, and industry. Furthermore, with a large pool of students interested in and having a strong background in science, higher education institutions can train a large number of technical personnel to work in industry, and a critical mass of scientists to generate new knowledge and to improve on products. This requires long-term investments in mathematics and science education at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, in addition to development of the research infrastructure. For low- and middle-income countries, investments in science and technology education pose a real dilemma. Supply-driven investments may produce graduate unemployment if there is insufficient demand in the economy, thereby amounting to a waste of scarce resources. On the other hand, it takes at least two decades to produce a generation of reliable, high-calibre scientists and engineers, so today's labor market signals may fail to convey the consequences of insufficient analytic skills in future labor markets shaped by technological advance. Quality is essential in science and technology; there is no short cut. Only investments targeted to quality improvement can be expected to be cost-effective. While it is costly to invest in science and technology education, the opportunity cost will be even higher if serious efforts are not undertaken now. Countries without the technological capability are less likely to be able to respond to opportunities for development in the future; they simply do not possess the structure capable of receiving and transforming new knowledge into new processes and new products. Case studies of countries that have invested heavily in science and technology education as well as those that have not can illuminate the risks and opportunities involved. South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong have enjoyed fast and sustained economic growth over the last three decades. Between 1965 and 1990, the annual average GNP growth rate was 7.1 percent in South Korea and 6.2 percent in Hong Kong, compared with 4.1 percent in Japan and 1.7 percent in the U.S.A. The annual average GNP growth rate for Taiwan between 1953 and 1990 was 8.8 percent. South Korea and Taiwan realized early on that their national security and economic growth depend heavily on the slklls of their workforce and their technological capability. Therefore, they universalized basic education and invested heavily in science and engineering education. With an increasingly large pool of well trained scientists and engineers, they were able to continue to broaden their industrial base, keep abreast with technological change, and move into the manufacturing of more complex and higher value added products. Hong Kong, in contrast, has restricted the expansion of higher education until recently, and lacks a broad base of technical manpower to steer industry from labor intensive mranufacturing to high technology development. By the late 1980s, it had lost its manufacturing base; however, because of its special geopolitical situation, it is able to continue to prosper as a financial and commercial center. Studying the interaction among education, science and technology, and the economy in these countries may contribute to the understanding of their future investment decisions conceming education and science, as well as suggesting lessons for other countries. iv This case study on Taiwan parallels case studies for Hong Kong and South Korea. It examines how education, science, and technology policies have been shaped to support macroeconomic policies in Taiwan. It discusses Taiwan's strategies to develop science and technology, and assesses the impact of Taiwan's heavy investments in science and engineering education on development. It concludes with lessons for other developing countries. Erik Thulstrup and Lauritz Holm-Nielsen Senior Science and Technology Specialists Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank v Executive Summary This paper is one of a series on science and technology (S&T) education in three newly industrialized economies (NIEs) in East Asia - South Korea, Taiwan (China), and Hong Kong. It examines Taiwan's economic, education, and S&T policy framework, with the aim of drawing lessons from its experience. Aspects of the historical and geopolitical context that provided Taiwan's irpetus for modernization and created an enabling environment were unique and irreplicable. However, the macroeconoric and S&T policies that have facilitated rapid, equitable growth do have instructive values for other developing countries. Economic achievement and policies. Taiwan, with a population of nearly 21 million, is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. GNP in 1991 was 24 times that of 1952, at constant prices of 1986. The annual per capita GNP increased by 5 percent in the 1950s, 6 percent in the 1960s, 8 percent in the 1970s, and 7 percent in the 1980s, reaching US$8,815 in 1991. Taiwan has enjoyed budgetary surpluses since 1964 and uninterrupted trade surpluses since 1976. In the decades after the Second World War, Taiwan's economic development went through four stages: (i) agricultural promotion and import substitution in the 1950s; (ii) export promotion in the 1960s; (iii) industrial consolidation in the 1970s; and (iv) high technology development and overseas promotion in the 1980s and 1990s. The government considers economic development as the key to sustaining its political viability. The Council for Economic Planning and Development under the Executive Yuan (the Cabinet) has played a crucial role in setting priorities and charting the course of economic development in response to changing international climate. Government intervention has taken the form of using fiscal, monetary, and trade policies to induce domestic savings, to keep inflation low, to promote key industries, to induce foreign investments, and to regulate imports. Intervention also has taken the form of building infrastructure, providing information about the world market to domestic firms, investing in education, and building up research and development infrastructure. The government also operates key energy and heavy industries, a science-based industrial park, harbor facilities, and a world trade center, all of which were judged to require a concentration of resources and expertise the private sector was unable to muster at the time. Education and S&T Rolicies. Meanwhile, macroeconomic and industrial policies were complemented by education and S&T policies to develop human resources and the indigenous technological capability. The Manpower Planning Department of the Council for Economic Planning and Development in consultation with the Ministry of Education has played a key role in advising the Executive Yuan in the formulation of education policy. The key advisory bodies in the formulation of S&T policies are the National Security Council, the S&T Advisory Board, the National Science Council, the Applied Technology Research and Development Board, the Agricultural Development Council, the Atomic Energy Council, and Academia Sinica. Education and S&T development went through stages in synchronization with economic development. During the 1950s, government resources concentrated on expanding primary education and teacher training capacity, raising the gross enrollment ratio in primary schools from 84 in 1952 to 96 in 1960. During this period, Taiwan depended heavily on imported technology and foreign technical assistance. In 1959, the first Plan for National Long-term Development of Science was promulgated, and the prototype of the National Science Council (NSC) was established to supervise the implementation of the plan. Having universalized primary education, the next stage was expansion of junior secondary education. While public resources were concentrated on providing quality basic education, private resources were mobilized to finance and provide senior secondary education, vocational education, and junior colleges. In 1968, nine years of basic education (primary and junior secondary) were made free and compulsory. In the same year, the 12-Year vi S&T Development Plan was announced, emphasizing science education, technical skill development, and R&D promotion. The NSC was founded to coordinate and supervise the implementation of the plan. In the 1970s, senior vocational education andjunior colleges were greatly expanded to meet the increasing demand for technical skills during the phase of industrial construction. In 1972, the S&T Information Center was established to link up with the global communication network in order to access information on the latest S&T development. In 1978, the First National S&T Conference was convened to develop a long range national policy and to determine ways and means to implement it. The 1980s was a period of transition into high technology industry development and intemational business investment. Education policy emphasized expansion of universities and colleges, increase in enrollment in science and engineering, continuous upgrading of knowledge of faculty members and researchers through pursuing advanced studies and participating in international conferences, and recruitment of overseas Chinese experts to guide and direct R&D. The 1980s also saw increasing public investments in building up the R&D infrastructure. In 1980, the S&T Act was enacted to provide the legal framework for public and private efforts, the S&T Advisory Board with international experts set up, the Hsin-Chu Science-Based Industrial Park established to attract foreign and domestic investment in high technology industry. Throughout the decade, national laboratories and precision instrument centers were established in universities to strengthen R&D. The Second and Third National S&T Conferences were convened in 1982 and 1986, respectively, to review progress and to identify strategic R&D areas for future development. The strategic R&D areas have been extended from energy, materials science, information science, and production automation in the late 1970s to electro-optics, biotechnology, hepatitis control, and food technology in the late 1980s. The strategies to develop S&T in the Ten-Year Plan (1986-95) are: (i) to broaden the R&D capability by increasing R&D funding, recruiting high-level S&T personnel from abroad, training researchers, and improving the research environment; (ii) to improve the efficiency of R&D by strengthening program evaluation, increasing coordination among government agencies, academic institutions, and industry, and identifying strategic R&D areas; (iii) to encourage private industry participation; (iv) to develop high technology industry; (v) to promote international cooperation; and (vi) to strengthen science education and to raise the public's knowledge of S&T. Impact on development. As a result of Taiwan's macroeconomic, education, and S&T policies, the structure of its economy has been transformed dramatically. In 1952, agriculture accounted for 32 percent of the Gross Domestic Product, industry for 20 percent, and services for 48 percent. By 1990, agriculture declined to 4 percent, while industries grew to 34 percent, and services to 53 percent. In 1952, 56 percent of the employment was in agriculture, 17 percent in industry, and 27 percent in services. By 1990, employment in agriculture declined to 13 percent, and that in industry rose to 41 percent, and that in services to 46 percent. In 1992, of the major exports, machinery and transport equipment accounted for 36.4 percent, textiles and clothing for 14.5 percent, basic metals and metal manufactures for 8 percent, plastics and rubber articles for 6.7 percent, footwear for 5.3 percent, vehicles, aircraft and ships for 5.2 percent, and toys and games for 4 percent. Of the major imports, machinery and transport equipment accounted for 31 percent, basic metals for 12 percent, chemicals for 10 percent, transport equipment for 8.3 percent, crude petroleum for 4.3 percent, plastics and plastic products for 2.6 percent, and foods and beverages for 2 percent. The benefits of economic growth have been distributed fairly evenly. In 1968, households with income at the top 20 percent earned 5.3 times more than households with income at the lowest 20 percent. This ratio was much more equitable than many countries. In 1980, the ratio of the top 20 percent's income to the lowest 20 percent was reduced to 4.2, although the gap has widened to 5 in 1989 due to rapid economic growth that enriched some more rapidly than others. vii Lessons learned. Taiwan's current economic success is the result of a long history of trial and error with development. Several lessons can be drawn from it. First, an integrated approach is beneficial in pursuing macroeconomic, education, and S&T policies in order to provide the enabling environment for growthL The vision of what the country would like to have achieved has been the guiding light for intermediate objectives and strategies. Second, the role of govermment is critical in setting priorities, allocating resources among and within sectors to capture the synergy of a coordinated approach, and using a mix of public and private resources to achieve the best results under conditions of constraints. At each stage, the appropriate level of educated manpower was trained to meet the sill requirements of the economy. A broad based foundation in basic education was built first, while a few elite schools, higher education institutions, and research institutes were developed to provide leadership in the subsequent upgrading of the base. Public resources have been used to provide basic education, train teachers, and develop key schools, universities, and research institutes, while private resources have been mobilized to finance vocational, senior secondary, and tertiary education. Third, great attention has been paid to quality and equity even during the early periods. For example, the quality of teachers and textbooks was the best the country could provide, and entire cohorts of students were moved through the education system with minimal dropouts. Paying attention to quality and equity has resulted in efficiency gains. Overall, educational development in Taiwan has met all three major criteria of equity, quality, and efficiency. Fourth, great attention has been paid to mathematics and science education which have become an integnrl part of education in the way the classics used to be. With this foundation, it is relatively easy to improve undergraduate and postgraduate education, to establish the R&D infrastructure, to generate a workforce that industries can quickly equip with specific technical skills, and to build a national consensus for S&T development. Fifth, public investment in R&D infrastructure is just as important as that in physical and educational infrastructure. For example, the setting up of the S&T information center, national laboratories, and precision instrument centers links domestic institutions with the global communication network, enables universities and industries to share resources in R&D, and also trains a new generation of S&T personnel. The S&T capability will be deepened as a result, and the economy wil benefit from it. If there is a single most important lesson to be learned from Taiwan's experience, it is that investments in basic education with a strong emphasis on scientific literacy is the pre-requisite for building the technological capability. If such investments are successful, each subsequent phase wil have to be supported by mathematically and scientifically oriented secondary and higher education, and in research and development. vii 1. The Historical and Economic Context Taiwan (China), with a population of 21 million, is one of the fastest growing economies of the world. GNP in 1991 was some 24 times that of 1952, at constant prices of 1986.' GNP grew in real terms at an average annual rate of 8 percent in the 1950s, 9 percent in the 1960s, 10 percent in the 1970s, and 8 percent in the 1980s, reaching US$180.3 billion in 1991. The annual per capita GNP increased by 5 percent in the 1950s, 6 percent in the 1960s, 8 percent in the 1970s, and 7 percent in the 1980s, reaching US$8,815 in 1991.2 Taiwan has enjoyed budgetary surpluses since 1964 and uninterrupted trade surpluses since 1976. This impressive economic performance has inspired many studies to examine its secret of success. (Annexes 1.1, 1.2, and 5.1). To address the question of whether Taiwan's experience has any instructive value for other developing countries, it is necessary to distinguish between what is unique and irreplicable in a broader historical context and what is the direct result of policy decisions and, therefore, can be emulated. This paper considers that the many adverse political and diplomatic situations the government in Taiwan has faced, as well as the enormous advantages it has enjoyed, are unique. The adversities include defeat by the Communists in Mainland China in 1949, and increasing diplomatic isolation in the world community from 1972 until recently. The advantages include (i) its leaders having learned important lessons from their past experience of governing China; (ii) building a new society in Taiwan with financial and human capital from the Mainland on a foundation left by Japanese colonial mle; and (iii) alliance with the United States from the 1940s to late 1970s which assured Taiwan's political viability and access to American aid, technology, and market. This paper contends that while these geopolitical and pre-existing conditions make Taiwan's experience unique and irreplicable, the role of the government in setting macroeconomic and sectoral policies to overcome the adverse circumstances, do have instructive value to other countries. This paper attempts to contribute to the explanation of Taiwan's economic miracle by focusing on how education policy, with particular reference to science and technology education, has been shaped to support macroeconomic policies. Chapter one will provide the context of understanding these policies as products of past experiences. To do so requires an account of the events that shaped the vision and strengthened the political will. 1.1. The Historical Context The roots of the imuetus for modernization (mid-19th entur to early 20th centur). Insofar as Taiwan is part of China, the impetus for modernization had its roots in the middle of the 19th century as a result of China's encounter with Western military power and technology? Beginning with the First Anglo-Chinese War of 1839-40 (better known as the Opium War), China under the imperial Qing dynasty had been unable to defend its sovereignty against foreign encroachment. In order to strengthen itself, the Qing govermment began to modernize defense, send students overseas, and build industries and communication systems. These 'Taiwan Statistical Data Book, Council for Economic Planning and Development, p.23. 2Economic DeveloDment 1992. Council for Economic Planning and Development, p. 3. 3For China's recent history, see John K. Fairbank, Edwin 0. Reischauer, and Albert M. Craig. East Asia. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1973; The Cambridge History of China, Vols. II and III, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980; Immanuel C. Y. Hsu, The rise of Modern China, New York: Oxford University Press, 1983. 1 efforts, known as the Self-strengthening Movement (1860-1895), helped build up a pool of human and material resources essential for the development in the 20th century. The movement, however, remained limited in goal and scope - it aimed at reviving China through acquisition of Western technology without pursuing the necessary educational, political and economic reforms. It was only after China's defeat in 1895 by Japan, which started modernizing the ame time,4 that the policymakers began to see the interconnection between technological, education, political and economic changes. The Late Qing Reform introduced in 1902 a modern school system which was modeled on the Japanese system. Modern subjects such as geography, history, mathematics, and science were taught, and girls were admitted. The educational reform itself generated momentum for social change. Many young Chinese began to learn modern ideas, and an unprecedented number of students went to the United States, Europe, and Japan. In the 1900s, about 20,000 students were studying abroad in any given year. New ideas spread rapidly among overseas students. They provided the leadership of the Revolution of 1911, which overthrew the Qing dynasty and established a republic, and the New Culture Movement of 1916-1919, which was an intellectual revolution. To forge a new culture for the new age, the modern-trained intelligentsia introduced Western political thoughts such as liberalism, democracy, communism, and nationalism, as well as new values such as scientific thining and gender equality. Internationally renowned scholars, such as Bertrand Russell and John Dewey, were invited to lecture in China; they left a lasting impact on a generation of intelligentsia. One outgrowth of the New Culture Movement was the development of a national consensus on the need to eradicate illiteracy as a means to rejuvenate China. The vernacular language was adopted to replace classical writing in order to promote literacy. The intelligentsia also began to take a keen interest in rurd education and adult literacy education. The Movement made a lasting impact on China's scientific development by elevating and Ropularizin2 science as an intellectual orientation for the future, a method of inquiry into the physical world and human societies, and a body of knowledge that can imnprove the material conditions of life. 'Science and Democracy' were promoted as the key values to rejuvenate Chinese culture by Hu Shi,W one of the most influential leaders and educators. Many of the leaders and supporters of the Movement joined the Nationalist Party, which was founded by Dr. Sun Yet-sen, father of the Revolution of 1911. Some of them eventually shaped the policies towards education and science and technology in Taiwan. 4Japan responded to foreign encroachment in the mid-19th century immediately and vigorously by carrying out fundamental changes. It started political reform after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, and had an elected national assembly and a constitution by 1890. It also instituted financial and banking reforms to support industrialization. To gain first hand knowledge of the West and to acquire new knowledge, Japan sent students to Europe and the United States. To reduce costs, Japan also employed foreigners to teach in Japan, and established a translation bureau to make Western knowledge widely available to the people. Japan sent more students abroad and translated more books than China. Furthermore, the translated books were not confined to science and technology as was the case in China during the Self-strengthening period. They included such subjects as economics, social and political science and history. In this way, the Japanese gained a much broader understanding of the West than did the Chinese in the 19th century. By the 1900s, China sent students to Japan to acquire modem knowledge and Japanese translations of westem books were translated into Chinese. Equally farsighted was Japan's educational reform. Realizing that the whole nation had to be educated for every citizen to be able to contribute to modernization, basic education of sixteen months were made compulsory for both boys and girls in 1872. Compulsory education was extended to three years in 1880, and then to six years in 1907. In 1900, government primary schools were made free of charge. Universities were established in the 1880s. 5Hu Shi founded Academia Sinica, which has become the premier scientific research institute. 2 Lessons from the Naniing Decade (1928-37). After the Revolution of 1911, China was fragmented and ruled by warlords. It was unified by the Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek in 1928. The Nationalists built a coalition of urban industrialists, the professionals, landowners, and the military, and governed China from Nanjing for ten years until the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937. The Nanjing decade (1928-1937) provided valuable experience of governing on which the post-1949 govermment in Taiwan drew. Among the achievements were the reorganization of the banking system and introduction of a uniform currency throughout the country, the expansion of railways, roads and air routes, and the development of light industries. In addition, the government reorganized and expanded the school system, centralizing administration along the line of the French educational system. In foreign policy, new agreements were negotiated with foreign powers for the return of tariff autonomy to China and foreign concessions in some treaty ports. A large modern army was built up with German assistance. The Nationalist government, however, had a number of major failings which were to cost it the support of the people. The greatest failing was the neglect of the countryside where 80 percent of China's population resided. Chiang relied heavily on military solutions to many economic and social problems. Throughout the Nanjing Decade, extermination campaigns were conducted against the Communists while the Japanese occupation of Manchuria since 1931 was ignored. Meanwhile, to finance its military built-up, the govermment became heavily in debt and had huge budgetary deficits. The Japanese invasion of China in 1937 dramatically changed the balance of power in China. The Nationalists and Communists forged a united front, and the United States became the aly of China. After the end of the Second World War, a civil war broke out between the Nationalists and the Communists (1946-49). Although the United States provided massive support to the Nationalists in the form of arms and ammunition, air transport, and economic aid, the Nationalists lost much popular support through inefficiency, corruption, and runaway inflation. As the Communists established the People's Republic of China in 1949, more than 1.5 million people under Chiang Kai-shek fled to the island of Taiwan which had a population of six million. Certain characteristics of the Nationalist government's policies in Taiwan reflect attempts to correct past mistakes. These characteristics are: (i) fiscal conservatism; (ii) attention to rural development and income distribution; (iii) emphasis on education as a means to transform society; and (iv) promotion of S&T as a means to strengthen defense, support economic development, and improve welfare. The government continued to exercise tight control of society, take an interventionist approach, and exploit its linkage with the US for both defence and economic purposes. As a result of these policies, Taiwan has been able to attain redistribution with growth, accumulate a huge foreign exchange reserve, develop the indigenous S&T capability, and maintain its political viability in spite of the increasing diplomatic isolation. Initial conditions in Taiwan. Taiwan was inhabited in the 19th century by aborigines and Chinese peasants and fishermen who had migrated from Fujian province. However, the island was ceded to Japan by the Qing Government after its defeat at the first Sino-Japanese War (1894-5). The island was returned to Chinese sovereignty at the end of the Second World War. Japan used Taiwan as a hinterland to supply agricultural products as well as to support its political ambitions in Asia. To develop agriculture, the Japanese established agricultural research stations, farmers' associations, and large-scale irrigation projects, as well as railroads, highways, and hydroelectric power plants. They also established sugar, jute, pineapple, and various food processing industries. To support its military operations in Asia, steel mills and shipyards were founded. Ironically, Japan's exploitation of Taiwan left the island with a relatively high level of development. After the Nationalist Government reclaimed Taiwan, it nationalized all Japanese assets in Taiwan. Such enterprises amounted to more than 50 percent of the total industrial production in 1952. 3 Another Japanese legacy was the establishment of an education system in Taiwan due to its need to provide schooling for Japanese children and to harness the local workforce. Two systems of schools were established - Japanese schools which was government-financed and where Japanese language and culture were taught, and Chinese schools which were provided by local communities. The literacy rate increased from 1 percent in 1900 to 30 percent by the mid-1940s. However, from junior high school on, most of the students were Japanese. Japan also established three normal colleges and a university, which were only open to Japanese. Chinese were admitted only to study medicine in order to improve public health. A small number of Taiwanese went to Japan to study. The exposure of Taiwanese to Japanese language and culture proved to be useful for cultural and economic ties between the two countries in the post-war period. Another condition favorable for post-war development was the large-scale migration of an educated and wealthy elite from the Mainland during 1949-51. Many of the 1.5 million immigrants were managers, entrepreneurs, engineers, scientists, government officials, academics, and teachers. They filled the positions left vacant by Japanese administrators, managers, engineers, and technicians. Wealthy industrialists from Shanghai and Shantung re-established their textile and food processing industries. In sum, developments in agriculture, infrastructure, and the education system during Japanese colonial rule provided the foundation for the Nationalist government to build on. The migration of educated and wealthy elite provided both the human and physical capital critical for future development. The alliance with the United States (1945-79 . Because the post-war United States foreign policy was to contain communism, it provided massive aid to the Nationalist Government between 1949 and 1965. About US$4.1 billion of American economic and military aid was provided between 1949 and 1968. Of this amount, 41 percent was direct economic aid and 58 percent was military assistance. Between 1951 and 1965, 21.5 percent of US aid was spent on agricultural development, 15.2 percent on industry, 37.2 percent on infrastructure, and 30 percent on himan resource development. During this period, 83 percent of all aid was in grant, and 11 percent was in soft loans repayable in New Taiwan dollars; only 6 percent was in loans repayable in US dollars at an interest rate of 3.5 percent or less.' The American aid provided the resources that enabled the Nationalist govermment to strengthen its defense and to stabilize its economy. In 1954-55, defence accounted for 64 percent of net government spending. Between 1951 and 1965, American subsidies on strategic imports such as fertilizers and petroleum financed nearly 80 percent of Taiwan's trade deficit. American technical assistance also facilitated the transfer of technical skills and technology in every sector - agricultural development, infrastructure, education, health and public administration. US influence was felt in land reform and economic policy. US aid helped develop the conditions favorable for private sector development. 'Neil Jacoby, U.S. Aid to Taiwan: A Study of Foreign Aid. Self-HeIn. and DeveloRment. New York: Praeger, 1966, p. 262 and 266. 4 1. 2 Stages of Economic Development The government considers economic development as the key to sustaing its political viability. The Council for Economic Planning and Development under the Executive Yuan (Cabinet)' has been playing a crucial role in setting priorities and charting the course of economic development in response to changing international climate. The government has used fiscal, monetary, and trade policies to induce domestic savings,8 to keep inflation low, to promote key industries, to induce foreign investments, and to regulate imports. The government also has invested in education, developed the technological capability, built infrastructure, and provided information about the world market to domestic firms. The government also. has operated key energy and heavy industries, science based industrial park, harbor facilities, and a world trade center, all of which were judged to require a concentration of resources and expertise the private sector has been unable to muster at the time. In the decades after the Second World War, Taiwan's economic development went through four stages: (i) agricultural promotion and import substitution in the 1950s; (ii) export promotion in the 1960s; (iii) industrial consolidation in the 1970s; and (iv) high technology development and overseas promotion in the 1980s and 1990s. The structure of the economy was transformed dramatically. In 1952, agriculture accounted for 32 percent of the Gross Domestic Product, industry for 20 percent, and services for 48 percent. By 1990, agriculture declined to 4 percent, while industries grew to 34 percent, and services to 53 percent.9 In 1952, 56 percent of the employment was in agriculture, 17 percent in industry, and 27 percent in services. By 1990, employment in agriculture declined to 13 percent, in industry rose to 41 percent, and in services to 46 percent.10 Meanwhile, this transformation has been attained with equity. In 1968, households with income at the top 20% earned 5.3 times more than households with income at the lowest 20 percent. This ratio was much more equitable than manuy countries. In 1980, the ratio of the top 20 percent's income to the lowest 20 percent was reduced to 4.2, although the gap has widened to 5 in 1989 due to rapid economic growth that enriched some more rapidly than others. The following sections discusses the strategies of economic development at various stages. 'The govermment comprises five branches: the Executive Yuan, the Legislative Yuan, the Judicial Yuan, the Control Yuan, and the Examination Yuan. The Executive Yuan is the Cabinet, which is responsible for formulating policy and overseeing administration of the country. The Judicial Yuan is the judiciary, which administers the court system. The Control Yuan deals with security matters, censure, and aduit, and has the power of inpeachment. The Examnination Yuan is responsibile for the public sector personnel, civil service examinations, and pay policy. The elected arms of government are the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan, and the Control Yuan. The role of the National Assembly is to elect the president and the vice president and to amend the constitutions. It meets only once every six years. The Legislative Yuan is the parliament; however, it was dominated by the Executive branch before 1987. The Constitution was promulgated in China in 1946, and the delegates elected in the 1947 national elections in China remained in their seats in Taiwan, representing mainland constituencies. The local population were represented only in the Provincial Assembly. The Constitution was effectively replaced by martial law between 1949 and 1987. Since lifting of the martial law in 1987, opposition parties were permitted to contest openly in elections. In 1990 and 1991, major constitutional changes have allowed the local population elect delegates to the elected bodies. See Republic of China Yearbook 1991-92, p. 75-123, and The Economist. Taiwan: Country Profile 1993-94. 'In 1989 gross national savings were estimated at 142.4 percent of gross domestic capital formation and 31.3 percent of the GNP. 'Taiwan Statistical Data Book. 1991, p. 41. °albid, p. 16. 5 Agricultural development and import substitution industrialization (1949-50s). To correct its past mistake of neglecting the rural sector, one of the govermment's first acts in Taiwan was to redistribute land from large landowners to small farmers. An estimated 13 percent of Taiwan's GNP was redistributed under the Land to the Tiller Act in 1952. The redistribution reduced the income gap between the rich and poor and provided incentives for growth in the agricultural sector. The policy was complemented by agricultural extensive services to improve cultivation methods, development of extensive irrigation, and widespread use of artificial fertilizers. Agricultural growth provided the inputs to the food processing industry, and the exports to earn foreign exchange. The foreign exchange, in turn, were used to import machinery, equipment and industrial raw materials. As farm income increased, the rural sector became a growing market for domestic manufactures. Rural savings thus financed industrial development, which, in turn, generated jobs for surplus farm workers. Large landowners were compensated with commodities certificates and stock in public enterprises that were to be privatized, such as Taiwan Cement, Taiwan Paper and Pulp, Taiwan Agriculture and Forestry, and Taiwan Industry and Mining. This compensation method encouraged domestic investment, and enabled former landowners to turn their stock into capital with which to start new, nonagricultural enterprises. These new entrepreneurs became Taiwan's first industrialists. The early years emphasized rebuilding of strategically important industries that had been destroyed during the war, such as food products, fertilizer production, textiles and power generation. The need to conserve foreign exchange to import strategically important materials and capital goods, and to develop domestic industry led to the adoption of an import substitution strategy. Through import controls, tariffs, and multiple exchange rates, the government provided the necessary incentives and protection for the development of local industry, while conserving foreign exchange. Light industries such as textiles and apparel, plastic products, wood and paper products and electrical appliances developed rapidly. These labor intensive industries provided employment for unskilled farm laborers. This strategy made consumers bear the direct and indirect cost of import duties, while protected domestic producers from foreign competition. Exnort promotion (1960s-72). It soon became clear that export promotion was the only way to go for a small island economy to sustain a high rate of economic growth and to earn more foreign exchange. While the govermment continued to use high tariffs, import controls, and restriction on new registration to protect domestic industries like chemical fertilizers, basic metals, it targeted plastics, synthetic fibers, consumer electronics and home appliances for exports. The government commissioned an American consulting firm to identify industries for it to target for development. Exports were promoted through the following measures: (a) the abolition of the multiple exchange rate system, and liberalization of foreign exchange allocation; (b) encouragement of savings in order to build up investment capital by paying high interest rates in public sector banks on savings deposits; (c) liberalization of enterprise ownership restrictions and granting tax credits to enterprises backed by foreign capital and in selected industries in order to provide investment incentives; (d) giving export firms low interest loans in public sector banks at 40 percent below commercial interest rates, and giving export industries rebate of customs duties and exemptions from sales and stamp taxes; and (e) establishing export processing zones. In the early 1970s, relatively high-value added industries such as precision machinery, electronic, electrical machinery, optical equipment and plastics were given priority in the export processing zones. The export promotion strategy was timed perfectly to take advantage of the openness of the global economy at the time. Meanwhile, American involvement in Vietnam resulted in large contracts for Taiwanese firms. Exports as a share of GNP rose dramatically, and the structure of exports had changed from agricultural to industrial products. Industrial Consolidation (1973-80). The early 1970s was full of diplomatic and economic crises for Taiwan. In 1971, the United Nations recognized the People's Republic of China (PRC), and Japan also severed its diplomatic ties with Taiwan. Direct foreign investment in Taiwan plummeted as international confidence in its future viability 6 declined. At the same time, the rapid industrial development of the 1960s had strained the transportation, electricity and communications systems, while Taiwan's exports faced increasing competition from South Korea, Hong Kong and Southeast Asia. To compound the problems, the 1973 oil crisis led to a trade deficit of US$1.3 billion, and slowed GNP growth to only 1.2 percent. To meet these challenges, the Sixth Four-Year Economic Development Plan (1972-76) emphasized economic self-reliance and focussed on infrastructual improvements, industrial upgrading, and secondary import substitution. The government developed capital-intensive heavy and petrochemical industries to produce raw materials and intermediates (such as iron, steel bars, machine tools and electrical machinery) for the export industries. To decrease its reliance on imported petroleum from the Middle East, the govemnment diversified the types of energy generating station and of foreign energy sources. It made arrangement with politically stable countries for the supply of oil as well as other sources of energy. It also sought to develop nuclear power in Taiwan. In 1974, the government started the 'Ten National Construction Projects' - six infrastructural projects, three petrochemical industry projects, and a nuclear power plant. The massive public investments significantly upgraded the communication, transportation, and power systems, as well as the steel, shipbuilding and petrochemical industries. By 1989, 9 percent of energy was generated by hydroelectric power, 56 percent by thermal sources, and 35 percent by nuclear power. Since 1976, Taiwan had enjoyed a trade surplus. The new economic growth cushioned the shock of the United States' recognition of the PRC in 1979, and of its membership in the IMF and the World Bank being replaced by the PRC in 1981, and enabled Taiwan to use its trading links with the world to overcome its diplomatic isolation. Hieh technologv development and overseas investment (1980s to date). The 1980s was a decade of rapid economic development in Taiwan. Its diplomatic isolation pressed home the need for self-reliance and to diversify its export markets in order to reduce its dependency on the US maket. With the East Asian region emerging as an economic power and China opening up, Taiwan exports at once faced keen competition and found incredible investment opportunities and markets in the region. Economic development can be divided into two phases: before 1987, when the foundation for accelerated export growth was laid, and after 1987 when Taiwan citizens were allowed to invest overseas. The Eighth Four-Year Economic Development Plan (1982-86) targeted electronic and information industries and machinery for development because they are technology intensive, produce high-value added, have relatively low capital and energy costs, emit low levels of pollution, and can be used to create linkages with the world market. CXomputer products dominated the govemment's list of strategic industries. In 1983, the government introduced the National Science and Technology Development Program to strengthen the training of scientists and engineers, and to recruit overseas Chinese with skills and experience in high technology areas. It increased funding for R&D, and built up the public research infrastructure. Strategic industries were provided low interest loans, the right to retain earnings of up to 200 % of paid-up capital, and the right to defer the start of a five year income tax holiday for up to four years. The Hsinchu Science Based Industrial Park, which was opened in 1980, is located near two universities, research institutes and laboratories to support high technology industry. Manufacturers in the park are given a five year tax holiday, import duty exemption, certain financial and foreign exchange freedoms, and tax incentives for allocating a specific percentage of their sales revenue to R&D. In addition, the government built more harbor facilities and nuclear power plants. As a result of these efforts, Taiwan has become a major producer of television sets, personal computers, computer monitors, radios, tape recorder, and calculators. Exports grew by 237 percent between 1981 and 1991, and imports by 197 percent. The trade surplus rose to $22 billion in 1986, although the increase in imports subsequently reduced it to $13.3 billion in 1991. Foreign exchange reserve soared to US$82.4 billion in 1991, equivalent to more than a year's imports. 7 The increase in trade surplus and foreign exchange reserves amounted to an increase in money supply, creating inflationary pressures. To deflate this pressure, the government no longer required citizens to surrender foreign exchange receipt to the central bank as of July 1987, and permitted them to invest overseas. The relaxation of controls, plus the higher wages, steep land prices, a strong Taiwan currency, labor shortage, and increasingly strict pollution controls, led to an explosive growth of Taiwanese investments in the United States, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, and China. Investments in the United States aim at high technology firmns to gain access to the latest technology. Investments in Southeast Asia and China are primarily in labor intensive industries, such as shoes, garments, toys, handbags and consumer electronics. These countries still enjoy duty free access to the American market under the Generalized Preference Agreement, which Taiwan lost in 1988. Taiwanese investors have tended to pool their resources together. For example, a consortium of 50 Taiwan electronic companies set up an electronics industrial park in Malaysia. Taiwan becomes the largest regional investor in Southeast Asia after Japan. In recent years, Taiwan's investments have been increasingly directed to China, totally about $10 billion by 1993. The previously tense relationship has been gradually relaxed since China's adoption of an open door policy. Increased unofficial contacts, family visits, mail, indirect trade (usually routed through Hong Kong) finally led Taiwan to lift the ban on indirect investment in China in 1990. Taiwan set up a National Unification Council and an 'unofficial' body, Strait Exchange Foundation, which is directly under the Mainland Affairs Council. In 1991, China set up its own 'non-official' Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits." Direct contacts have been made between these 'unofficial' bodies in Singapore. The improved relations led to rapid growth of Taiwanese investments in China. The bulk of Taiwan investment is in Fujian Province, just across the strait from Taiwan. Investments have been extended from labor- intensive to high technology industries like electrical and electronics industry. Taiwan is rapidly developing its China market to compensate for the fall in exports to the United State. In spite of the new wealth, Taiwan is still behind South Korea in industrial modernization partly due to its small- and medium-sized enterprises which have less resources for R&D and technological upgrading. The government's strategy for the 1990s is to continue to move upmarket into the higher value added, capital intensive, high technology industry. It supports higher wages, and uses tax and financial incentives to encourage companies to invest in automated production equipment and to purchase advanced technology. It continues to encourage foreign high technology companies to invest in Taiwan and to form joint ventures with Taiwan firms to upgrade local industry. The Six-Year National Development Plan (1991-96) aims at addressing the major constraints to growth - labor shortage, transport congestion, and environmental degradation. The govermment plans massive investments in infrastructure, which will mean large orders for foreign high technology firms, and also budget deficits to be financed by government bond issues. This will result in an increase of imports substantially over the growth of exports, thereby reducing the current account surplus to US$ 5 billion in 1996. As real incomes continue to rise, domestic private consumption, rather than exports, is expected to play a more important role in propelling growth. The target is to attain an average annual economic growth of 7 percent and to raise GNP per capita to US$14,000 by 1996, while keeping inflation down to 3.5 percent per annum. The government will also sell shares of some state firms (such as, China Steel, China Petrochemical Development Corporation, and three banks operated by the Ministry of Finance). The public sector also goes into joint venture with private companies, as in the case of developing the aerospace industry. Among the challenges of the future is the creation of larger-scale manufacturing enterprises. So far, manufacturing is dominated by small, family-run, and assembly-type of enterprises. About 91 percent of companies "The Economist. Taiwan: Country Profile 1993-94. p.7. 8 had paid up capital of less than US$370,000. Modernizing industries entail capturing the economies of scale and undertaldng significant R&D. Labor shortage is another constraint to growth. Taiwan has a labor force of 8.4 million, a labor force participation rate of 59 percent and an unemployment rate of 1.5 percent. Between 1986 and 1990, productivity growth averaged 8.1 percent, resulting from faster growth of output in capital intensive sectors such as machinery and chemicals, while it has declined in labor intensive industries, such as clothing, plastic products, and furniture. As industry has dealt with the rising labor cost by outsourcing, and illegal immigrants have filled the manual jobs in Taiwan, the unmet demand is highly skilled workers in high technology industry. To meet this need, the solution lies in education and training. 9 2. Educational Development 2.1 The Commitment to Education The tradition notion of education as a process for self-renewal and attainment of social harmony. China has a long history of formal educational activities organized by the state and by private individuals, and an abundance of printed books. This tradition has been the result of the influence of Confucianism, a philosophy that has guided the development of Chinese culture for over two thousand years. Confucianism does not ponder on the metaphysical or the superatural, but focuses on the here and now of the human condition. It considers the defining characteristics of human beings to be their ethical nature and their capability of rising above the base onto which they were born. And education is the process to cultivate the self, to attain the clarity of thinking, to strengthen the moral character, and to attain social harmony. Because of the notion of education as a process for self-renewal, to be the initiator of this process, the teacher, is a sacred calling. Confucius himself was a teacher. It is the obligation of the teacher to set an example of moral conduct, besides teaching knowledge and skills, and to give instruction without discrimination against students' background or ability. The failure of students is attributable to the negligence of the teacher. Also, because of the association of education with ethical behavior guided by clarity of thinking, literacy, as a mark of a cultivated person, has been a cherished value. The Confucian emphasis on efforts, instead of birth rights, gave rise to the adoption of meritocracy as a principle of government. Rulers were judged by their moral behavior, and officials had to earn their positions. Since the 7th century, access to government office in China has been open to those who demonstrated their intellectual capacity by passing open examinations, irrespective of their social origins. This tradition has continued to this day. Govermment officials in Taiwan are among the best educated in the world. In 1978, about half of the highest government officials had Ph.Ds in the natural sciences, and in 1990, about 60 percent of all civil servants have a college or university degree. 12 Because of the tradition of respect for teaching and learning, the teaching profession enjoys high social standing. A 1980 survey on the prestige levels of 40 occupations found that university professors ranked top along side cabinet members and supreme court justices, and that school principals and secondary school teachers ranked second, equal to legislators, medical doctors, and engineers.'3 Those who enter teaching are the dedicated and the academically able. Throughout the decades, about 25-50 percent of retuned overseas students chose employment in university. (Annex 2.9). The modern view of education and science as a means to tmnsform society. Besides its cultural tradition, China's painfil early experience with modernization gave impetus to the emphasis on education and science as a means to transform society. Dr. Sun Yet-sen's Three People's Principles - national sovereignty, democracy, and people's livelihood - which has become the principle of government, implicitly acknowledge that an educated populace is needed to revitalize China. Those who followed him shared a similar vision.14 The competition with the People's Republic of China also gave impetus to build a model Chinese society in Taiwan. '2Republic of China Yearbook 1991-92, p. 101. '3Carl Dahlman and Ousa Sananikone. 'Technology Strategy in the Economy of Taiwan: Exploiting Foreign Linkages and Investing in Local Capability." Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Preliminary Draft, 1990. '4Erwin Epstein, 'Higher Education' in Douglas Smith (eds.), The Confucian Continuum: Educational Modernization in Taiwan New York: Praeger, 1991, p. 174. 10 The educational agenda is enshrined in the constitution. Article 158 states that 'the aims of education is the development among the citizens of national characteristics, democratic spirit, traditional sense of morality, physical fitness, scientific knowledge, and the ability to earn a living." Articles 159 guarantees equal educational opportunity to all citizens, and Article 160 guarantees free and compulsory education for children between the age of six and twelve, and free textbooks for children from poor families. Article 161 calls for setting up of government scholarships to assist student of good academic performance and good conduct but lacling financial means to continue their education. Article 163 calls for the central government to provide special grant to support education in poor areas. Article 164 stipulates the percentage share of public education expenditures in central, provincial, and county or municipal governments. Article 166 requires the state to support scientific research, and Article 167 calls for the state to support private schools in good standing."5 Educational policy making and administration. Educational policy is made by the Executive Yuan advised by the Manpower Planning Department (MPD) of the Council for Economic Planning and Development (CEPD) in consultation with the Ministry of Education (MOE). This ensures that educational provision is coordinated with the needs of economic development. In higher education, the MPD devises a manpower development plan that sets limits on overall enrollment and targets certain academic programs for expansion. The current plan is to limit overall tertiary enrollment growth to 3 percent per annum, but gives science and engineering programs the greatest flexibility to expand. The MOE has authority to set enrollment quotas in every institution, and will screen applications for establishing new academic programs through a special MOE committee and an ad hoc committee in the Executive Yuan. These committees comprise manpower planning specialists, and officials responsible for higher education, science and technology, and vocational guidance and placement. - While policy is made at the highest level in the central govermnent, education is administered and financed at three levels - national, provincial or municipal, and county. The MOE has departments of primary education, secondary education, technical and vocational education, higher education, physical education, and social education (museum and cultural services). Each provincial or municipal government has a department of education, and each county government has a bureau of education. Each level operates, supervises, and finances schools and tertiary institutions under their jurisdiction. The schools are largely financed by the provincial, municipal and county governments, while the universities are financed by the central government. (Figure 1). Educational financing. The Constitution specifies that 'the central government must expend not less than 15 percent of the national budget for educational programs, scientific studies and cultural services; for each province no less than 25 percent of the total provincial budget, for each county or municipality no less than 35 percent of the total county or municipal budget'6." Because of this stipulation, the burden of financing education is shared at various levels. In 1950, the central government's spending on education fell far short of the constitution's stipulation, accounting for only 5 percent of the total public expenditures on education, while the Taiwan provincial govermment's share accounted for 58 percent and county governments' share for 38 percent. In 1990, the central government's share rose to 26 percent, while the provincial govemnment's share dropped to 22 percent, and county governments' share to 36 percent. Taipei municipal government assumed 11 percent share, and Kaohsiung municipal government 5 percent of the total education budget. This shift in financial burden between various levels of government is due to the decline of school age population and the expansion of higher education in the 1980s. (Figure 2). '5Education in the Republic of China, Ministry of Education, 1991, p. 4. 6 Republic of China Yearbook. 1991-92, p. 267. 11 OTHER (SUPPLEMENTARY) EDUCATION I UNIVER. IR. OROL. I SUPR ELEM. SCM | SE :C. COL. HI1GH SCH. $1H SPECIAL EDUCATION . I SVKNIOR J IUNIOR E LEMENTARY INkIR VCATIONA4 HIGH un. * | &TECH. JR. COL. EDUCATION MINE-YRAR COMPULSORY IOUCATIONDi.CI TCH .*.. ATON........ 0 A |~~~~IG agtEt O¢N a COL (U Ig= -UlillrL&e I IL 0 iii ~~~~w w z w N-~~~~w - 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~00A = 0 z~~~~~~~~~~ * ( 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~( NOII- I- .( O|b|Z|UX|W 31N|N| -!Il -I 2CHOOL QN I * I I-~~~~~~~~~~~~~2 LO MM Z IL -J (fl~~~~~A ~ j z G 0~~~~~~~~~~ ONEi IWI. DEPT. OF mEIaCINEi- EDUCATION ........fSCN EE PRHL" THIRD LIEVEL EDUCATION FECNDLEEL ST LEVEL EDUCATION SCOOi LEVEL EDUCATION [IEIKUCA _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ [T O N NORMAL AGII co N co I to v Y- 1 Figure 2 Education Expenditure as a % of Total Public Expenditure by Level of Government, 1976-92 Percentage R0 40 . .............. .. ................. .... . . 30 c 20 ... .... ... .... ............ ............. 0*-- 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 Year - Central +- Tipel + Kaobdiung9B Provincial N County 4* Townahip M =inzimn & Matat Source: Educational StaUaUcal ln4icators 1g92. p. 49. Taiwan's commitment to education is reflected in the rise of total public and private expenditures on education from 1.7 percent of GNP in 1951 to 5.9 percent by 1990. This places Taiwan ahead of Japan and Germany. The government has assumed the lion's share of education expenditures. In 1990, public education expenditures represented 4.9 percent of GNP, and private 1.0 percent. (Figure 3). The percentage shares of the public expenditures on primary education, junior secondary education, senior general and vocational education reached their peaks in the 1960s and the 1970s, and have decreased to 25, 14, 7.6 and 9.7 percent, respectively, by 1991. This reflects the success in lowering the fertility rate, thereby reducing the population under the age of 15 from 42 percent of the total population in 1952 to 27 percent in 1991. The percentage share of university and college education has grown steadily, reflecting growing affluence and increasing level of skill requirements in the economy. (Annexes 1.1 and 5.3) The growth of spending on education underscores changing strategies of the govermment. Increasingly, education, economic development, and social security have replaced defense" as cornerstone of political stability. Between 1955 and 1990, of net expenditures of all levels of government, education, science and culture's share grew from 14 to 20 percent, economic development's share from 10 to 25 percent, and social security's share from 6 to 17 percent. In contrast, the share for general administration and defense declined from 64 to 29 percent over the "'Defense includes the armed forces, intemal security, and policy forces. 13 |Fgure 3 The Ratio of Educational Expenditures to GNP, 1960-1990 S to GNP 7 6 _....................................................................................................... 2 ,......................................................................................... 1 .............. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..X..=.._.._ 0 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1986 1990 Year - Total - Public Private Source: Educational Statistics of ROC, p. 43. same period." (Annex 5.1). The following sections will discuss the strategy for educational development in the post-war decades. 2.2 Expansion of Basic Education Expansion of enrollment in prmarv education (195Os). In the early 1950s, about 42 percent of the population was illiterate, and the population growth rate remained well above 3 percent per annum until the mid- 1960s. The first priority was expansion of primary education. Primary education was tuition free and children from low-income families were provided free textbooks. Primary education emphasizes moral development, Chinese culture, literacy, numeracy, appreciation of science, and the ability to work in groups and contribute to the community. (Annex 4.1) '8Taiwan Statistical Data Book, 1991, p. 172. 14 The number of primary schools increased by 17 percent between 1950 and 1956, compared with only an 8 percent increase in secondary schools.'9 Up to 1959, all primary schools were public. Even in 1990, private primary schools accounted for less than 2 percent of the total. (Annex 2.3). The gross enrollment ratio in primary education grew from 84 percent in 1952 to 96 percent in 1960. Expansion of enrollment in iunior secondary education (1960s and 1970s). As the first cohort of primary school children graduated in the mid-1950s, the demand for secondary education grew. The growth in the number of secondary schools between 1955 and 1960 was a dramatic 67 percent. In 1968, the government extended free education to junior secondary education. Free and compulsory education has yet to be extended to the senior secondary level. (Figure 4 and Annexes 2.2 and 2.4). igur 4 Number of Students at All Levels, 195 0-9 0 '000 students 2 60 0 ........................................ ............... 2000 1955.1960........ 1965 .1970 .1976 1980 19 1500 Kinderg -............rt...-..-..ri.ary........ior .High .....S 1000. ........ ...... ... .... ..... .... .*.* .........- .. . . 6 0 0 ..... ........... . . ...... .. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. 1960 1965 1960 1966 1970 1976 1980 1986 1990 Kindergarten i4 Primary - Junior High ° Senior High X Vocational Jr.-° Vocational 8r.- - Junior Collegr*- University Source: Educational Statistics of ROC. p. 20-23. Junior secondary education offers mathematics, Chinese, history, biology, chemistry, physics, industrial arts/home econonmcs, and physical education. In recent years, English and computer literacy have been added to the core curriculum. Junior secondary school grduates must pass a competitive examination in order to gain admission to a senior academic secondary school or a senior vocational secondary school. (Annexes 4.1 and 4.2). '9Educational Statistics of the Republic of China. 1991. pp. 4-7. 15 The examination covers Chinese, English, modem Chinese history, geography, mathematics, and natural science. Each subject is tested for 60-80 minutes and the examination lasts for two days. Senior academic secondary schools are for students planning to continue on to academic programs in university or college. From the mid-1950s to 1984, students in senior academic secondary schools were tracked into arts and science streams. A unified, core curriculum did exist, but students in different streams took more courses in their major areas. A curriculum revision in 1984 introduced more elective courses, and upgraded natural science courses for science majors.' To finance universal junior secondary education, monies were raised from imposing a surcharge on a variety of essential commodities, from parents who can pay higher tuition, and from the Sino-Amenican fund.2' The government concentrated public financing on junior secondary schools. In 1968, only 13 out of 487 junior secondary schools were private; even in 1990, only 9 out of 691 schools were private. The case for senior secondary education was different - the government relied on the private sector to supplement public schools. For example, in 1968, 98 out of 177 senior secondary schools were private. The ratio of private to public remained about the same by 1990. (Figure 5). Teachers. teacher education and remuneration. In the early years, a major constraint to educational expansion was the lack of qualified teachers. Class size was large. In 1950, the average number of students per class was 54 in primary school, 45 injunior secondary school, 44 in senior high school, and 36 in senior secondary vocational school. It remained large by Western standards even in 1991 - 41, 44, 49, and 46, respectively. (Annex 2.5). In the 1950s, primary school teachers were trained in senior secondary normal schools, junior secondary school teachers in normal colleges, and senior secondary school teachers in university. By 1968, when enrollment in primary schools levelled off and nine years of compulsory education was implemented, primary school teachers' qualification requirement was raised. Enrollment in normal schools dwindled from some 5,000 in 1962 to 500 in 1969.= Normal schools ceased to exit in 1971, and training of primary school teachers was upgraded to junior college. The 1970s saw continuous upgrading of teacher qualification. In 1976, 88 percent of primary school teachers had had teacher education, 91 percent of junior high school teacher junior college education, 77 percent of senior high school teachers a bachelor degree, and 63 percent senior vocational high school teachers a bachelor degree. By 1991, the figures were 94, 98, 87 and 78 percent, respectively. (Annex 2.5). Great attention has been paid to the education, placement, and remuneration of teachers. All teacher training institutions were established by the govermment. While primary school teachers are required to have pre- service education at a normal junior college, secondary school teachers can enter teaching through five tracks. The first track is to enter the day program of one of three prestigious normal universities or colleges and get certified after completing a bachelor's degree and a fifth year of student teaching. Because teaching is considered a sacred calling, competition for admission to teacher education institution has been very keen. These institutions provide tuition waivers, free living accommodations, meals, as well as subsidies for books and clothing. In return, graduates must teach for a minimum of five years in a location, field, and level determined by the government. This policy has enabled the government to provide highly qualified and nationally certified teachers 2DSmith, Lessons from Afar. The Chinese High School in Modem Taiwan and Other Essays. Taipei: Pacific Cultural Foundation, 1986, p. 105-111. 2'Douglas Smith, Lessons from Afar. op. cit., p. 98. 22Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China 1992, p. 77. 16 Figure 5 Number of Senior Secondary Schools, 1970-90 1 007_ .. -,........ ..... 5 0 _................................................................................................... 0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 - Total -4- Private -*-- Public Source: Educational Statistics of ROC, p. 4-6. even to remote areas, thereby minmiuing urban and rural disparity in educational quality. An alternative route is to enter the evening programs of these normal universities and colleges, which is academically as vigorous as the day program, but is not free. On the other hand, graduates are not under any obligation to teach for the government for five years. The third route is through a regular bachelor degree program from a non-teacher training institutions, and then take postgraduate education courses at one of the three normal universities/colleges. Those who take this route usually end up teaching in private schools, not public ones. The fourth track is to attend a public university which has a department of education. The fifth track is for primary school teachers who have had junior normal college training, and has taught for five years or more to be nominated for admission to a normal university/college. This route does not require sitting the university entrance examination, and also allows for a shorter duration of study, but is available only to a very small number of people.= 23Douglas Smith, Lessons from Afar. op. cit. 1986, p. 152-157. 17 Teacher education has high standards. Teachers are assumed to need 'a combination of interrelated, cosupportive learning experiences and curricula to be fully prepared in this most important profession. "4 Pre- service secondary teacher education emphasizes general education (20 percent of coursework), specialized education (60 percent), pedagogical training (20 percent), and education foundations (integrated into other areas. In addition, in-service educational courses in order to update knowledge of teachers also has been emphasized.Y The govermment pays respect to the teaching profession and encourages the best persons to enter and renain in teaching by providing generous remuneration. Teachers' salaries are higher than many civil servants of similar qualifications. In addition, they also enjoy a number of benefits. For example, teachers are exempted from income tax - a special treatment that no other occupation in Taiwan is accorded. Unmarried teachers are given housing in dormitories, often near the school. Vacation hostel and low interest rate loans are available for personal housing. Rations for rice, edible oil, and fuel (which was important in times of scarcity), a free insurance plan, health package, a disaster relief fimd and benefits for survivors are provided for teachers. Upon retirement after a full career, teachers are entitled to a pension equal to 75 percent of their regular salary or a lump sum payment.' (Annexes 3.4 and 3.5) Student achievement. The respect for learning and the high status and professionalism of teachers have resulted in high academic achievement of students, as measured by international assessment tests and cross-cultural comparisons. For example, in mathematics and science tests administered by the Educational Testing Service to 13-year-olds in twenty countries in 1991, Taiwan students 's average science score was second only to South Korean students, and their average mathematics scores ranked top along with South Korean students?' In cross-cultural comparative studies, Taiwan's students in Grades 5 and 11 also did exceptionally well, with very small variations among students.2 2'Ibid, p. 156-157. 2sSylvia Ware. *Secondary School Science in Developing Countries: Status and Issues." PHREE/92/53, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992, and "The Education of Secondary Science Teachers in Developing Countries." PHREE192168, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992. 2*Smith, 1986, p. 158-159. zleamming Science and Learning Mathematics, The International Assessment of Educational Progress, Educational Testing Services, 1992. 2'Harold Stevenson et. al. Making the Grades in Mathematics: Elementarv School Mathematics in the United States. Taiwan. and Japan. Reston: The National Council of Teachers' of Mathematics, 1990; Stevenson. 'Education and National Development-Reflection from Taiwan's Experience.' Mimeo, 1990; 'Learning from Asian Schools." in Scientific America. Vol. 267, No. 6, December 1992, p. 70-75; *Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children: Ten Years Later." Science. Vol. 259, January 1993, p. 53-59. 18 2.3 Vocational Education Expansion of vocational education (1970s-80s). Vocational schools were established originally by the govermment to supply skilled labor for public enterprises. The vocational schools in the early days were mostly at junior secondary level. As industrialization progressed rapidly, the demand for technical skills in private industry also grew correspondingly, and so was the need for higher level and more diversified skills. In 1968 when compulsory education was extended to nine years, vocational schools at junior secondary level ceased to admit new students and were phased out two years later. However, vocational senior high schools which admitted junior secondary graduates increased rapidly, more so than general senior high schools. By 1972, vocational enrollment overtook general senior secondary enrollment. In 1990, 68 percent of senior secondary enrollment were in vocational schools, and only 32 percent in general senior secondary schools.' Enrollment in vocational schools in Taiwan is higher than that in any East Asian countries, including South Korea. In 1990, 45 percent of vocational school students majored in industry, 35 percent in commerce, 4 percent in agriculture, and 15 percent in marine products and nursing together.30 PartnershiR with private indust r. The private sector, which is more responsive to market demand, has played a significant role in the provision of vocational education. The number of private vocational schools grew from 6 percent in 1950 to 56 percent in 1970. Since 1972, private vocational schools outnumbered public schools (Figure 6). Many vocational schools are affiliated with industry, an arrangement sinilar in South Korea3'. Cooperating industries provide fully equipped workshops for students to practice their crafts under normal plant conditions. Cooperating industries also send their workers to vocational schools to strengthen their theoretical knowledge. Many vocational school graduates go directly to jobs in private industry and receive on-the-job training. For example, an electronics trainee after attending a vocational school for three years will spend 6 months in an electonic training center run by the govermment in cooperation with an enterprise. In 1982, the government established the Employment and Vocational Training Administration (EVTA) to coordinate all vocational training, examination and certification, and placement of trainees. Selected industries are required to contribute a certain percentage of their annual sales revenues to support national training. Enterprises could be reimbursed for up to 80 percent of the required contributions if they held in-service training for their employees. The govermment operates training centers in collaboration with industry. For example, in engineering, the government has two special service training programs - one for entry- and middle-level technicians, and the other for government employees in computer-related courses. The government has established comprehensive certification programs for workers in various industries (such as electronics), and held annual examinations. Workers who have passed tests at different levels will be issued certificates. In this way, they can upgrade their skills and qualifications. South Korea also has a similar examination and certification system. 2'Educational Statistics of the ReDublic of China. 1991, p.20-21. 3Ibid, p. XIX and XX. 3'Wu, Kin Bing, 'Science and Technology Education in South Korea." Draft, September, 1993. 19 Figure 6 Number of Vocational Schools, 1950-90 260 1 0 0 _ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . ;. .. . .. . .. . . . . 1950 1955 1960 1986 1970 1976 1980 1985 1990 - Total -4- Private Public Sourco: Educational Statistics of ROC p. 4-7. 2.4 Expansion of Tertiary Education Enrollment exoaosion (mid-1970s to 1990s). Enrollment in tertiary education has grown dramatically from some 10,000 students in 1952 to 612,000 students in 1991. Institutions have multiplied from seven (three junior colleges, three colleges, and one university) in 1950 to 121 (75 junior colleges, 25 colleges, and 21 universities) in 1990. The gross enrollment ratio of the age-group between 18 and 21 rose from 19 percent for males and 12 percent for females in 1976, to about 30 percent for both genders in 1990. (Annexes 2.2, 2.4, and 2.7 and Figure 7). Tertiary education institutions include junior colleges, colleges or technology institutes, and universities. Junior colleges teach applied sciences and train technicians. There are three types: five-year junior colleges for junior high school graduates, and two-year and three-year junior colleges for senior secondary school or vocational school graduates. Colleges or technology institutes admit junior college graduates for two years of education, and senior high school graduates for four years of study. 20 Figure 7 Enrollment in Tertiary Education, 1950-90. Thousands 350 3200 .................................. 2 50 ............................. ............... 2 00 ..................... ........ ... . I... 16 0 _.. ....................... ........................... .. . . . 1960 1955 1980 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 - Total Universities I Private Universities --s-- Total Junior College ° Private Junior Coll. Source: Educational Statistics of ROC, pp. 20-21. Universities admit senior secondary school graduates for four years of undergraduate study. Professional degrees require longer duration of study - fives years for teaching, law and architecture, six years for dentistry, and seven years for medicine. Requirements for a master's degree are 24 credits of coursework, four credits of thesis research and a written comprehensive examination. Doctorate degrees require two to six years of study, comprehensive examination, and a thesis. Junior colleges have registered the fastest growth rate. Enrollment increased from some 8,000 students in 1961 to 332,000 students in 1991. Since 1965, private junior colleges began to outnumber the public ones, and by 1991, 83 percent were private. As for colleges or technology institutes, public institutions were slightly more than private ones, accounting for 13 out of a total of 25 in 1990. (Annex 2.7). Among universities, public universities account for 13 out of 21 institutions. Universities have three roots - - some were founded during the Japanese rule,- others were originally based in the Mainland but re-established 'Examples are National Taiwan University, National Chunghsing University, and National Chengkung University. 21 in Taiwan,' while new ones also have been established in Taiwan.' A hierarchy of higher education institutions emerges. Public universities with long histories are the most prestigious. Private junior colleges have lowest standing. This hierarchy reflects differences in quality of education, and research output. For example, National Tsing Hua University and National Taiwan University are the premier institutions, with the number of published papers recorded in the US Science Citation Index far exceeding other institutions. The vast majority of those universities whose faculty members have publications in major international refereed journals are public universities. (Annex 6.6). This output indicator is often used as the proxy measure of the quality of faculty members and, hence, the quality of education provided. Ultimately, the hierarchy of institutions reflects differences in financial resources. The main source of funding in public universities is government allocation, and that in private universities is tuition fees. The recurrent education expenditure per student in public universities was three time that of private university in 1976; the differential was 4.3 times in 1990. (Annex 5.6). The govermment subsidies about 8 percent of the total budget of private institutions, but sets an upper limit on tuition and fees. The lack of adequate resources in private institutions makes them unable to compete for highly qualified teachers, and leads to overcrowding and deterioration of standards. However, a private university student pays about 33 percent more than a public university student for lower standards of instruction. Selection and allocation. Allocation of places in the higher education hierarchy is through the examination system. Since 1954, applicants to all tertiary education institutions have been required to take the Joint College Entrance Examination. The examination takes place in July every year and lasts two days, covering three compulsory subjects (Chinese, English, and the Three People's Principles) and three elective subjects (on the applicant's intended field of study). Most of the tests are in multiple choice form and essays are graded by two independent readers. The total score from the six subjects will be used for admission decisions. Each department also sets a minimum score as part of its admission requirements. Certain fields (for example, electronic engineering) and public universities are more selective than others. In the 1980s, about half of students passed the examination the first time they took it; an additional 15 percent succeeded eventually, but less than 33 percent entered the institution of choice. Those who scored low entered a junior or technical college or an evening program in university. Many students re-took the examination in order to get a higher score necessary to enter a day program in university. While on the whole Taiwan's education system has enabled entire cohorts of students to attain a relatively high level of proficiency (as measured by international comparative studies), elite schools are better able to prepare their students to compete in university entrance examination. For example, the majority of university students came from 28 prestigious senior secondary schools out of some 400.3 Students who perform best on the national examination are admitted to public universities, where tuition fee is low. However, students from affluent families tend to have an advantage over those from poor families in preparation for the examination. This results in students from poor families being more likely to enter private institutions and paying higher fees. 3aExamples are National Tsinghua University, National Chiaotung University, National Chengchi University, National Central University, Soochow University, and Fujen Catholic University. 3These include National Taiwan Normal University, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Tunghai University, Tamkang University, Chinese Culture University, Fendg-chia University, and Chung-yuan Christian University, as well as the Open university which was established in 1986. 35Erwin Epstein and Wei-fan Kuo. 'Higher Education.' in Douglas Smith (eds.) The Confucian Continuum, op. cit. p. 167-187. 22 To redress the problem, MOE appropriated US$5.4 million in 1989 to upgrade 34 high schools in rural areas in order to reduce regional disparity in high school education. It also set up scholarships in schools were relatively few students pass the Joint University Entrance Examination. The impact of these measures on equalizing the opportunity to quality higher education remains to be seen. Governance and evaluation. Higher education institutions are governed by one of three authonties: the central government, provincial government, and private. National institutions are financed by the central government treasury and supervised by MOE. Provincial institutions are approved by MOE but financed by provincial government. Private institutes are approved by MOE and required to comply with MOE regulations (such as level of tuition fees); they are otherwise administratively independent. In any case, the central government has kept a close watch over higher education. Besides setting enrollment quotas and screening applications for establishing new programs, the Minister of Education, on approval of the President of the country, appoints university presidents. MOE also has evaluated the performance of all colleges and universities since 1976. Evaluation is carried out by a commission. The general commissioner, who coordinated all commissions, and chief commissioners of all commissions are appointed by the Minister of Education. They, in turn, recommend scholars and business leaders to be part of the team. Academic departments are evaluated according to their performance on five criteria: qualification of instructors, course offerings and qualify of instruction, library holdings, quality of laboratories, and placement budget and administration. The process of evaluation begins with institutional self-rating according to the criteria of MOE. The commission members will visit the institution concerned, interview faculty members, and produce a report. Such evaluation is held every three years, but in the interim, MOE sends supervisors to determine if the institution is malcng progress to comply with the commission's recommendations for improvement. If the supervisors were not satisfied with the efforts, MOE can request for a revaluation of the institution. Through this process, MOE maintains the quality of higher education. Oualitative improvement and exDansion of Qraduate education. The government restructured key departments in colleges and universities in the 1980s, stressing the recruitment of faculty members and researchers, revision of curricula, replacement of old equipment, strengthening of science and engineering education, and expansion of graduate education. Bachelor's degrees in natural science and engineering as a percentage of the 22 year-old population grew from 2.6 in 1976 to 4.2 in 1990, compared with 4.5 in the United States, 6 in South Korea, and 6 in Japan.36 In 1991, enrollment in S&T programs accounted for 66 percent of total enrollment in junior colleges, 43 percent in undergraduate programs in universities and colleges, 63 percent in master's programs, and 73 percent in doctorate programs. (Annex 2.9). Between 1991, enrollment in master's programs grew by 2,250 percent, and that in doctorate programs by 5,850 percent. In spite of this impressive growth rate in graduate enrollment, the actual number of graduate degree conferred was actually quite small, particularly at the doctorate level because of the long duration of training and the vigor of quality control. For example, in 1991, only 47 doctorate degrees were conferred in natural science, and 165 in engineering. This shows that the expansion of doctorate education does not produce immediate results, and planning requires a long-time horizon. Another shortfall is the low participation of women in science and engineering programs, although oveall enrollment in tertiary education has achieved gender parity. In 1990, women accounted for 28 percent of natural science degree recipients, and for 9 percent in engineering, compared to 63 percent in social science.37 Given that 'United States National Science Foundation, Human Resources for Science and Engineering: The Asian Region. NSF93-303, 1993, p. 93. 37Ibid, p. 26. 23 talent is equally distributed among the sexes, the low participation of women in science and engineering amounts to a waste of resources. 2.5 Overseas Education Overseas education has been a major ways of acquiring advanced knowledge, particularly in the early days when domestic graduate education was poorly developed. More than 90,000 graduates have left Taiwan for overseas study since the 1950s, and 80 percent of them went to the United States.3 Until the late 1980s, Taiwan maintained tight control over entry and exit. Males were not allowed to leave without havmg served their military duties. Most overseas students were local university graduates who had finished two years of military duties. Very few went abroad for undergraduate studies. MOE established a system of examination for studying abroad in 1954 and a screening system since 1976. In addition to military service, passing the qualifying examination was a necessary step for the students to obtain passports and buy foreign exchange from the Bank of Taiwan. Until the 1970s, few families had to means to send their children to study abroad. Those who left not only had to pass the difficult qualifying examination, but also had to secure scholarships or assistantships from American universities or work-study. They were among the best and brightest. The reasons for pursuing graduate education overseas were many - pursuit of knowledge, lack of prospect and low salaries at home, search for new opportunity, availability of financial assistance in American universities, and family expectation. Women constituted only 13 percent of overseas students. Most of the parents of overseas students were govemment employees and teachers (50 percent); others were businessmen (16 percent), and professionals (13 percent), workers (5 percent), farmers (5 percent), and self-employed (12 percent). The majority of the overseas students majored in science and engineering. Most lived in the US for more than 6 years.' (Annex 2.11) In 1985, of all foreign students in the United States, the largest number were from Taiwan.4' Until recently, the brain drain has been a serious problem. Between 1974 and 1984, for example, about 21 percent of university graduates went abroad to study, but only one in seven returned.41 (Annex 2.12). They worked in universities, research establishments, or industry in the host country. The differentials in salaries, technology, logistical support, and professional opportunity, the opportunity to utilize the training, and the opportunity for children's education all contributed to the decision to stay in the host country. Of the United States immigrant scientists and engineers from Taiwan in 1988, 71 percent were engineers, 19 percent mathematicians and computer scientists, and 9 percent natural scientists. (Annex 7.7). The number of U.S. patents granted to inventors from Taiwan has grown rapidly, at a rate of 41 percent per annum between 1963 and 1990, way above the average U.S. patenting growth rate of 8.6 percent among foreign inventors. (Annex 7.8). 38Chang, Shirley Hsiu-chu Lin, 'Taiwan's Brain Drain: A Case Study." Master's Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, May 1988. 391bid. 'United States National Science Foundation, Foreign Citizens in US Science and Engineering: Historv. Status. and Outlook, NSF 86-304, 1986, p. 4. "4The Revublic of China Ten-Year Science and Technoloey Development Plan (1986-1995), p. 15. 24 Overseas Chinese scientists and engineers are clearly a valuable resource which can facilitate S&T development at home. The government set up the National Youth Commission (NYC), a cabinet level government office, and other organizations to recruit overseas Chinese scientists and scholars in the early 1970s. Each year, NYC advertise abroad job opportunities available in Taiwan4 and provide travel subsidies and job placement. The educational and career background of returnees are stored in a computer system since 1983. Returnees are given short-term research appointments before they find suitable employment. Natioral Science Council (NSC) provides funding for the temporary employment and MOE also has a special fund to assist universities to recruit overseas Chinese scholars. NSC and MOE have recruited more than 3,700 overseas experts, and 2,500 established scholars as visiting professors or visiting research professors. Of the permanent faculty members, 41 percent of all faculty members at 4-year academic institutions were educated abroad, of whom 28 percent in the US, 5 percent in Europe, and 8 percent in other Asian countries. One third of the returnees teach in universities; 22 percent have their own business, 16 percent work in the private sector, 11 percent in government, 10 percent in public enterprises, and 7.4 percent in research institutions. (Annex 2.12). As Taiwan's high technology industry is making great strides, the standard has also been raised. The overseas Chinese they look for are the accomplished experts, those who have demonstrated their abilities, have been in positions of responsibility, and are well connected in foreign society. Recruitment takes the form of offering competitive salaries, research allowances, and research facilities, housing allowances or loan, and free or subsidized children's schooling. NYC passed on the files of overseas Chinese scholars and professionals to domestic academic and research organizations and industries to help them identify high-level scientists and specialists. NYC also helps organize more than 20 professional societies and conduct academic conferences annually to promote exchange and cooperation. In the 1990s, recession in the United States, liberalization of travel restrictions in Taiwan, and the emergence of new employrent opportunities in Taiwan has reversed the brain drain. According to the findings of a survey of Earned Doctorates in the United States, conducted by the National Research Council, in 1991, of Taiwan's doctorate recipients from American universities, 60 percent of those in engineering, 60 percent in natural science, and 38 percent in social science have plans to stay in the host country. Those who have firm plans to stay are smaller in number - 28 percent in engineering, 37 percent in natural science, and 31 percent in social science.' This is a marked reduction from the situation a decade ago. The supply of well trained scientists and engineers is less likely to be a problem in the future. 4 NYC publishes a bulletin on job opportunities for those with masters' degrees and above, and distributes it overseas. Job information is also published in international editions of Central Daily News, Overseas Scholars Monthly, Sinorama, and NYC house journal, Bulletin of Overseas Center. See Chang, 'Taiwan's Brain Drain: A Case Study. 'Human Resources for Science and Technologv: The Asian Region, p. 130-132. 25 3. Science and Technology Policy 3.1. Science and Technology Planning Taiwan's S&T policy planning was rooted in its concern for defense and economic development, and S&T manpower planning has always been part of its S&T policy. In 1959, the first Plan for National Long-Term Development of Science was formulated by the Committee on Scientific Development under the National Security Council. The Council on National Long-Term Development of Science (CNLTD) was established to implement the plan, with the president of Academia Sinica, the highest body of academic research, served as the chairman, and the Minister of Education as the vice chairman. In 1968, a 12-Year S&T Development Plan was promulgated, emphasizing S&T education, manpower development, and R&D promotion. This plan laid the groundwork for future plans. In 1969, the CNLTD was reorganized as the National Science Council (NSC) to coordinate the implementation of the plan. By the end of the 12-Year Plan period, industrialization progressed rapidly and export trade flourished. However, Taiwan's international position was becoming more and more precarious. In 1978, the government convened the First National S&T Conference with 'the aim of developing a long-range national policy on S&T and to determine ways and means to implement such a policy."4 Scientists, industrialists, and government officials from various line ministries were invited to discuss issues and strategies. The conference identified energy, mateials science, information science, and production automation as strategic areas for education & R&D. The recommendations formed the basis of the National Plan to Strengthen Education, Training, and Recruitment of Level Science and Technology Personnel in 1979. In 1980, the Science and Technology Act was enacted, and the Hsin- Chu Science-Based Industrial Park was established to facilitate development of high technology industry. A ten- member S&T Advisory Board comprising of international experts' (including foreigners and overseas Chinese) were set up to review progress and assess future direction. This participatory approach, which mobilized and built consensus among the scientific community, private industry, and govermment agencies, marked the beginning of a new era in S&T policy planning. Whereas in the 1950s and 1960s, planning was undertaken by the govermment in consultation with only a small group of experts, the new approach captured the perspectives and experiences of many stake holders and channeled their ideas into an action plan for national development. The success of the first national S&T conference led to the second national S&T conference in 1982, which resulted in the Science and Technology Development Plan in the following year. The 1983 Plan reflected a broadening of the goals and scope of S&T development, for electro-optics, biotechnology, hepatitis control, and food technology were added as strategic R&D areas. The new interest in disease control showed that the goals were extended beyond defense and econonic development to improving welfare of the people. By the mid-1980s, the rapid growth of export of electronic and electrical appliances and machinery indicated that the earlier investment in S&T has provided good retums. These two categories accounted for about 35 percent of the total exports. However, Taiwan's six other major export commodities (textiles and clothing, footwear, toys, sports goods, furniture, wood and bamboo products) are still not technology products. Given Taiwan's heavy dependence on external trade, the global trends of protectionism and automation pointed to the need 44National Science and Technolofv Develonient, S&T Advisory Group, the Executive Yuan, 1988. Foreword. 'Among the advisors were a former Minister of Industrial R&D of France, a former president of the United State's Academy of Science, a Vice President of IBM, a former chairman of Texas Instruments, the president of Illinois Institute of Technology. Carl Dahlman and Ousa Sananikone, 'Technology Strategy in the Economy of Taiwan: Exploiting Foreign Linkages and Investing in Local Capacity.' Washington, D.C.: World Bank, Draft, 1990. 26 to develop high valued added products. The imperative of accelerating S&T development is clear: "...the results of R&D not only affect economic development, but also the quality of life and national defense, and are an indication of whether or not the cream of the nation's talent have been fully utilized...'. In 1986, the third national S&T conference was called, with some 600 scientists, industrialists, and officials participating. Subsequently, a Ten-Year Science and Technology Development Plan (1986-95) was drafted by the National Science Council and promulgated by the Executive Yuan. The goals are "...to broaden the general knowledge of science and technology and to upgrade standards; to strengthen R&D to speed up modernization of agriculture, industry and service, and to make effective use of energy and natural resources; to preserve the ecological environment, prevent natural disasters and diseases, and to enhance the people's security and health; to strengthen national defense R&D, work in concert with the defense industry and related industries to establish a self- sustaining defense system. "4 Mid-term plans were formulated within the framework of the 10-year plan, and four more strategic areas - environmental S&T, hazards mitigation, synchrotron radiation, and oceanography - were added in 1988. In 1991, the Fourth National S&T Conference was convened to access the progress and set new goals. A new six-year mid-term S&T plan was formulated, and the goals reinforced earlier commitment: (i) to impro-e the R&D environment; (ii) to raise standards for basic research; (iii) to develop standards for industrial technology; (iv) to coordinate the overall direction of scientific and technological development; and (v) integrate technology into a humane society.' The major strategies to realize the goals are: (1) to formulate an integrated long-term development plan and to identify strategic R&D areas, (2) to strengthen science education and cultivate technical manpower, (3) to utilize overseas Chinese technical manpower, (4) to introduce systematically new technologies, (5) to promote international research and technical cooperation, (6) to strengthen interdisciplinary cooperative research and R&D project management, (7) to improve the research environment, and (8) to improve public awareness and support. Throughout all stages of development, a consistently integrative approach has been adopted to ensure synchronization among economic, education, and S&T policies. (Table 1). 'The Republic of China Ten Year Science and Technology Development Plan, p. 1. 4Republic of China Yearbook 1991-92, p. 281-285. 27 Table 1. Ecnomic, Edaion, ad S&T Policies During Variou Staga of Development | Economic Policy | Education Policy J S&T Policy l 1950s Agricultual Development and Import Expansion of prmary education, and Imported technology and dependent Substitution Industrialization teacher training capacity. Moved on foreign technical asitance. The toward universal enrollment in Fist Plan for National Long-termn primary education by the end of the Development of Science in 1959. decade. Set up the prototype of the National Science Council. 1960s Export Oriented Industrialization - Expansion of junior secondary Promulgated the 12-Year S&T export of labor intensive products education. Made nine years of basic Development Plan in 1968, education (primary and junior emphasizing SAT education, econdary) frece and compulsory in manpower development, and R&D 1968. Suppored the private ector in promotion. Established the the provision and financing of senior National Science Council to seconday education, vocational coordinate implementation of the education, and junior colleges. national S&T plan. 1970s Industrial Construction - upgrading of Expansion of senior vocational Established S&T Information infrastructure, diversifying sources of education. Expansion ofjunior Center to access international energy, and building heavy and colleges. information. Frst National S&T chemnical industry Conference was convened to develop s long-range national policyy and to determine ways an means to implement it in 1978. 1980s Transition to high technology Expansion of universities and colleges. Enacted the S&T Act, set up the industry. Lift the ban on export of Massive increase of enrollment in S&T Advisoq Board comprising capital and set off a period of foreign science and engineering. interational experts, established investmen abroad. Moat investments Unprecedented number of graduates the Hain-Chu Science-Based are in Southeast Asia, China, and the went overseas for advanced studies. Industrial Parc, national United States. Greatly stimulated the Overseas Chinese achievement began laboratories, and precision development of Southeast Asia and to attract international attention. instrument centers to facilitate China. Overseas Chinese became a valuable R&D. Second (1982) and Third source of S&T manpower capable of (1 986) National S&T Conference enhancing domestic S&T development. convened to keep abreast of intemational development in S&T and to identify strategic R&D areas. Ten Year Plan (1986-95) promulgated. 1990s Drive for high technology Expansion of graduate education. Fourth National S&T Conference development and diversification of Support in-service upgrading of convened in 1991. Goals to industrial base. Emphasis on knowledge through pursuit of improve the research environnent, automation, infrastructure advanced studies. Emphasized to raise tandards for basic modernization, environmental recruitment of expenienced scientists to research, to develop standards for protection, and welfare promotion. guide and direct strategic research. indusrial technology, to coordinate the overall direction of S&T development, and to integrate technology into a humane society. 28 3.2. Science and Technology Policy and Research Establishment The key government advisory bodies on S&T policy are: (1) the National Security Council, which is the president's highest advisory board on S&T policies; (2) the S&T Advisory Board of the Executive Yuan (comprising 10 international experts); (3) the National Science Council (NSC) of the Executive Yuan; (4) Applied Technology Research and Development Board of the Executive Yuan; (5) Agricultural Development Council of the Executive Yuan; (6) Atomic Energy Council; and (7) Academia Sinica. In addition, the Ministry of Economic Affairs (MOEA), Ministry of Education (MOE), Ministry of Public Health (MPH), Ministry of Transportation (MOT), and Ministry of Communications (MOC) have their own S&T advisory boards and R&D organizations.4" Of all these line ministries, MOEA has the most elaborate system. It funds from its own budget 14 applied research institutes, and the MOEA's advisory board reviews all research proposals. The board also conducts survey of industry to evaluate what projects may be useful. MOC also has five research institutions that specialize in telecommunications, meteorology, transportation, marine and postal administration. The NSC has played a critical role in the promotion, administration, and supervisory control of the national S&T development plan. It organizes national S&T conferences, gathers S&T statistics to monitor progress, and organizes teams of experts and personnel from relevant agencies to evaluate R&D projects. It also organizes peer review committees to evaluate research proposals and award grants to projects. For example, in 1990, it granted US$77 million to universities and colleges for 3,844 research projects.49 In addition, it administers the Hsin-Chu Science-Based Industrial Park, which is the equivalent of the United States' 'Silicon Valley' in California, and was established in 1980 to accelerate high technology investment, technology transfer, R&D consortia, and university- industry collaboration. The NSC also facilitates the cultivation and recruitment of S&T manpower, organizes awards for contribution to S&T, and disseminates S&T information to the public. Furthermore, it establishes and administers national laboratories, regional instrument centers, precision instruments development center, S&T information center, and international cooperation. In 1991, 50 percent of NSC budget was spent on funding research, 25 percent on recruiting and upgrading S&T personnel, 16 percent on purchase and maintenance of equipment, 3.3 percent on international cooperation.5 One of the most important public services the NSC provides is the establishment and operation of the S&T Information Center (STIC). Since its establishment in 1972, STIC has been providing researchers with expeditious and updated S&T information essential to R&D work. The STIC has a nationwide information network (known as STICNET) with academic research institutes and large enterprises. Major on-line, international information retrieval services are available.5" Also, the STIC publishes many joumals and monographs to provide the most 'The Ministry of Defense has played a critical role in determining defense S&T policy, and also has its own research institutes. However, they are separate from the rest. The Plan for the Development of Defense Sciences and Technology was promulgated separately. Defense S&T will not be part of this study. "Revublic of China Yearbook 1991-92, p. 282. 'National Science Council Prospectus, 1992, p. 4. 5"Accessible through STICNET are international databases such as COMPENDEX, INSPEC, CASEARCH, NTIS, BIOSIS PREVIEWS, ERIC, and the entire text of the US government's reports on S&T research projects on 50,000 microfiches and other publications. Other on-line, international informational retrieval services are DIALOG, ORBIT, BRS, JOIS, ECHO, and SIN INTERNAIIONAL. STIC maintains information exchange with 29 up-to-date reference information. (Annex 6.8). In order to ensure the full utilization of resources by the largest number of end-users and to strengthen basic research, NSC established national laboratories and regional instrument centers which are located in and managed by universities and Academia Sinica. (Annex 6.9) NSC's Precision Instrument Development Center maintains the instruments, trains technical personnel, and facilitates various kinds of technology transfer. Major research institutes under Academia Sinica include the Institute of Biomedical Science, Institute of Atomic & Molecular Science, Institute of Molecular Biology, Institute of Aeronautics and Aerospace, Institute of Applied Mechanics, Micro-electronics & Information S&T Research Center, and Materials Science Center. Applied research is conducted in industrial research institutes and large, private enterprises. Since 98 percent of firms are small or medium sized, family-owned business, they lack the technical and financial resources to conduct R&D. Therefore, public research institutes plays a significant role in assessing, adapting, and upgrading technology. Major public research institutes are Textile Research Center, Metal Industries Development Center, and the Industrial Technology Research Institute (TR). ITRI, established in the early 1980s, has played a particularly significant role making the bridge between academia and industry, in compensating for small firms' lack of R&D capacity, and in dissemination and commercialization of research results. It has seven laboratories: Union Chemical Laboratory, Mechanical Industrial Research Laboratories, Electronic Research and Service Organization, Energy and Mining Research/Service Organization, Materials Research Laboratory, Center for Measurement Standards, and Electro-Optics and Peripheral Development Center. In addition, it has established the Industrial Economics Research Center (IERC) to collect and analyze information on domestic and foreign industries, technologies, products and markets. IERC also evaluates ITRI's research programs to provide directions for future work. Some of the notable achievements are the development of IMB-compatible computers by 20 companies under the sponsorship of ITRI, and the development of notebook computers by 47 companies in partnership with TR.52 3.3. Strategies to develop Science and Technology in the Ten-Year Plan (1986-95) In the mid-1980s, when the ambitious ten-year plan was launched, the obstacles to the development of science and technology are inadequate R&D manpower in terms of quality and quantity, insufficient R&D funds, inefficient use of funds, and inadequate backup and coordination. To overcome these obstacles, the strategies are: (1) to broaden the R&D capability by increasing R&D funding, recruiting high-level S&T personnel from abroad, traimng researchers, and improving the research environment; (2) to improve the efficiency of R&D by strengthening program evaluation, increasing coordination among govermment agencies, academic institutions, and industry, and identifying strategic R&D areas; (3) to encourage private industry participation; (4) to develop high technology industry; (5) to promote international cooperation; and (6) to strengthen science education and raise the public's knowledge of S&T. (Table 2). over a hundred libraries, information centers, and research institutes in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa, and maintains membership in six international organizations (ASIS, IFLA, FID, ALA, ASDIC, and NFAIS). Republic of China Yearbook 1991-92, p. 283. 52Human Resources for Science and Technolo2y: The Asian Rerion. p. 32. 30 Table 2. S&T Development Strategies To strengthen Incrcase R&D funding S&T base Recnrit researchen Improve domnstic graduate training Strengthen research To increase efficiency Increase coordination among govermnent, academia, and industry Identify strategic R&D areas Improve S&T administration Strengthen program evaluation To encourage private sector Provide tax incentives for privatc investment in R&D participation Initat target-oriented research projects and invite private sector participation. Set up S&T Resources and Industries Integrated Communities to develop high-tech indust Encourage technology transfer Strengthen R&D assistance and guidance. Promote cooperation between schools and industry Protect intcllectual property Government procures from domestic industry Industrial S&T information To promote international Improve supportive measures by changing personnel, accounting, and auditing systems. cooperation Strengthcn organizations and increas funding. Encourage international exchange of scholar and researchers. Ask agencies stationed abroad to collect S&T development infornation. Cooperation with overseas Chinese. Join research projects with foreign institutions. To develop high technology Attract formign high technology companies by simpfifying procedures & providing tax incentives. industry Provide information to domestic firns to invest in foreign high technology companies. Promote joint ventures in high risk projects. Further develop the Hsinchu Science-based Industria Park. Support the rII to develop high technology projects and technical know-how. To strengthen science education Emphasis mathematics and science education. at the school level Support research on science education. Support assessment to monitor learning outcomes. To broaden the public's Upgrade S&T content of mass media. knowledge of and support for S&T Expand popular scientific and technological activities 31 (1) To broaden the R&D capability Increase overall R&D expenditures. R&D expenditure and manpower targets are derived from the long- term economic development goals. In 1986, the overall R&D expenditures was only 1 percent of the GNP, lower than the 2-3 percent common in industrialized counties, and 1.8 percent in South Korea. (Annex 7.1) In fact, the R&D expenditure of $639 million was less than that of big American and Japanese companies such as General Motor and Toyota. The 10-Year Plan called for an increase to two percent of GNP in 1995, comparable to an annual average growth rate of 15.3 percent. The growth in R&D expenditures is to be faster than the growth in R&D personnel, so that funding per researchers will double within the plan period. In 1990, R&D expenditures reached $2.9 billion, or 1.7 percent of the GNP. Recruit S&T Personnel. One of the major constraints to development of S&T is the shortage of high-level scientists. For example, in 1985, only 12 percent of researchers held the doctorate degree, 22 percent the master's degree, and 21 percent the bachelor's degree. (Annex 6.2). As the vast majority of researchers had such low levels of academic training and qualifications, it would be difficult to build up the S&T capability rapidly. The short-term strategy to overcome this weakness is to intensify recruitment from overseas. The long-term strategy is to train most of the needed personnel locally. The largest pool of senior scientists are overseas Chinese, working primarily in North American universities, industry, and government research establishments. Many of them went from Mainland China or Taiwan to study in North America, and stayed behind to pursue a career in the host country. They embodied a wealth of experience that can enhance Taiwan's S&T development. Recruitment of overseas Chinese, however, has not been easy partly because of political differences, and partly because of the lack of working opportunities for family members, disruption of schooling of children, lower pay, less attractive research environment, and Taiwan's previous ban on dual nationality. To overcome these concerns, the government lifted the ban in the late 1980s, and cultivates ties by inviting them to give lectures and attend conferences in Taiwan. Three special positions have been created to induce overseas Chinese to work in Taiwan: (i) special chairs for the appointment of internationally known scientists who are invited to direct and guide research urgently needed by the country; (ii) visiting research professorships for the appointment of professors employed in foreign universities, but are invited to direct and guide research and teach in new fields on a short term basis; and (iii) visiting specialist position for the appointment of technological specialists who are invited to share their expertise towards the solution of problems of an urgent nature and to train science students in the fields of immediate need. In 1989, 11 special chairs, over 100 visiting research professions, and 52 visiting specialists were appointed.53 In addition, recruitment of lower level technical persons and S&T administrators is also critical. In the past, technicians tend to be hired by contract, without entidement to any benefits. To attract and retain talents, rules are changed to make them eligible for official appointment, and retirement and health insurance benefits. Better on-the- job training is provided. The promotion system is improved to encourage career development and training. Performance evaluation system is set up. All related foreign and domestic work experiences will be considered favorably. Person with S&T background are to be selected for S&T related administrative work. Train researchers. The National Plan for Strengthening the Education, Training and Recruitment of High- Level Science and Technical Personnel of 1983 has provided the general framework for the government in implementing its S&T manpower policy. Between 1952 and 1990, enrollment in humanities fell from 19 percent to 7 percent, while that in engineering increased from 26 percent to 32 percent, and that in medicine from 3 percent to 8 percent. (Annex 2.8). The proportion of students in science and engineering is slightly higher than that in South Korea and the former West Germany, and significantly higher than in Japan, the US, and Hong Kong. (Annexes 2.9 and 2.10). 53National Science Council Review 1989-90, p. 16. 32 In spite of the progress, given the ambitious S&T development plan, the supply of researchers has not been able to keep up with demand. Additional efforts have to be made to raise both quantity and quality. The number of researchers are to increase from 12 researchers for every 10,000 workers in 1986 to 20 by 1995. In absolute number it will be an increase from 25,000 to 43,000, or an annual growth rate of 6.2 percent. This target has been exceeded in 1990. The number of researchers totalled some 46,000, or 20 per 10,000 workers. The strategy to improve quality is to increase the number of researchers with postgraduate training. The aim is to have 15 percent of researchers holding the doctorate degree and 35 percent the master's degree by 1994. The statistics of 1989 show progress in this direction. (Annex 6.2). Besides intensifying recruitment from overseas, it is equally important to update and upgrade the knowledge and skills of all S&T personnel. The strategy is to provide opportunity for researchers to take leave with full salary in order to pursue advanced studies at home or abroad. The government also provides subsidies for travel. As a result, there has been a marked increase in the number of researchers pursuing advanced studies in recent years. (Annex 6.3). Those who work in government and private enterprises are also encouraged to further their study at home and abroad. Seminars, study sessions, or training classes are organized to provide opportunities for on-the-job training. In the long run, it is imperative to expand and improve domestic graduate education. This necessitates addressing the issues of students, teachers, and curriculum. The intake rate of science and engineering students is raised, and graduate student scholarships are increased. Students are encouraged to take up two majors or select a secondary major in basic sciences in order to make them highly adaptable in the future. The target is to have an instructor-to-graduate-student ratio of six to one in order to give each student ample attention. This has proven to be quite a challenge when enrollment in graduate programs is expanding rapidly but the supply of instructor is constrained. Overseas recruitment has not been fast enough to match the rate of intake of graduate students. In 1991, the average student to teacher ratio was 10:1 in public universities and 23:1 in private universities, and the average class size was 23 in master's programs, and 14 in doctorate programs. (Annexes 2.4 and 2.5). To assure the quality of graduate education, an evaluation system is established for graduate school faculty members and special prizes are given to outstanding researchers. Curricula are regularly revised and updated. Laboratories for science and engineering are improved. The equipment maintenance budget has been raised from 7 to 10 percent to of the total expenditures. Researchers are encouraged to form inter-disciplinary research groups in order to capture the synergy of work across fields and make the research environment more attractive. A reasonable administrative assistance and technical assistance system is set up to enable instructors to concentrate on teaching. Junior college technical education is also to be improved. Instructors are encouraged to participate in on- the-job training programs, and colleges are encouraged to hire experience experts in private enterprises and research institute. A special office is established to take charge of development, design, and revision of courses and teaching materials. The government will continue to subsidize public junior colleges in the purchase of basic science equipment, and private junior colleges in the purchase of important instruments and equipment. The government will organize a consulting committee to offer necessary assistance to the junior college technical education. Improve the environment for basic research. Academic research is concentrated in Academia Sinica and universities where 85 percent of doctorate degree-holders are employed. MOE supports basic equipment and pays salaries, while NSC provides research funds. However, basic research's share of R&D expenditures accounted for only 10 percent in 1986. To spend so little on basic research where so many of the best qualified S&T personnel congregate amounts to a waste of resources. The plan is to increase allocation of fund to basic research. In 1990, 13.2 percent of R&D expenditure was allocated to universities. (Annex 5.6) 33 To improve the research environment requires the complementary investment in strengthening the R&D infrastructure. Some of these measures have already been undertaken. For example, the setting up of S&T Information Service, the regional instrument centers and precision instruments development center will benefit researchers in all institutions and fields. To support basic research in strategic areas, five new national laboratories are built in the early 1990s: (i) Synchrotron Radiation Research Center which will house high precision, high technology instruments for wide use in physics, chemistry, biology, engineering, materials science, and medicine; (ii) High Performance Computing Center, which will link all domestic high-speed computing networks in the academia and industry, enabling effective use of information, resources, and computing capacity; (iii) Sub-Micron Laboratory, which will upgrade the level of basic semiconductor R&D by combined use of electronic, information, physics, chemistry, and special materials technology; (iv) Earthquake Engineering Research Center which will raise the quality of seismologically engineered structural designs; and (v) Laboratory Animal Breeding and Research Center, which aims to produce animals of disease resistant pedigree. In all cases, these new national research laboratories will enhance the capacity to train doctorate students and other S&T personnel. (2) To Enhance R&D Efficiency Strengthen S&T project Rlanning. manaRement. and evaluation. S&T planning is divided among different government agencies. Basic research is planned by the Academia Sinica, MOE, and NSC. Applied R&D is planned by institutes under relevant govermment agencies. Strengthening systematic coordination will avoid duplication of efforts and capture the synergies of the work of various agencies. Cooperation can be done horizontally across fields such as science, engineering, medicine, agriculture, humanities and social science. It can also be done vertically, among basic research, applied research, development of technology, and production. Both long- and short-term R&D programs are to be worked out by NSC in coordination with relevant govermment agencies, and subnitted to the Executive Yuan for approval. The relevant agencies are also responsible for the annual science and technology programs, to be submitted to the Executive Yuan upon evaluation by their superior agencies and the NSC. Coordination is to be improved also in accounting, auditing, procurement, and import of S&T equipment procedures. Imnproving S&T administration personnel quality will also help improve project planning, management, and evaluation. Targe-Orented Coonerative Research. R&D topics are to be selected carefully so as to strengthen cooperation across disciplines and the linkage between upstream research, mid-stream development, and downstream production. The selection of topics is to follow certain criteria. Basic research topics should be recognized in academic circles as being able to illuminate understanding of basic principles, to solve specific problems of the country, or to cultivate young talent. Economic development research topics should help improve productivity of traditional industry, promote hi-tech industry development, and improve exploitation and utilization of energy, foods, raw materials, and water resources. Social welfare research topics should help solve problems such as environmental protection, and prevention of diseases and natural disasters. Strategic areas have been identified in basic research, industrial technology, communications, agriculture, and medical and health. (Annexes 8.1-8.5) Academia Sinica has its own five-year plan for basic research in mathematics, natural science, life science, engineering, science education, humanities and social science. NSC in consultation with Academia Sinica compiles a list of strategic research areas to be used as a guide in Target Oriented Cooperative Research. 64 percent of funding will be allocated to targeted projects, and 36 percent to others. Industrial technology development is the key to maintain Taiwan products' competitiveness. Measures to support industrial technology development are: (a) to develop S&T resources and industries integrated communities in selected localities (such as the Science-Based Industrial Park); (b) to promote integration of industrial and defense S&T; (c) to encourage the establishment of S&T consulting firms; (d) to promote standardization of industries; (e) to increase R&D funds to manufactuing industries; (f) to strengthen extension system to provide medium and small enterprises with technology or quality control services; (h) to support target-oriented research institutes; (i) to improve R&D project evaluation and review; and () to set up and industrial R&D information system. 34 In communications S&T, telecommunication and meteorology have received more R&D investment than any other. Integrated Service Digital network is a key area for development. In agriculture, the key concems are to raise agricultural technology standards, to achieve a more reasonable division and use of land, to improve product quality, value and structure, and to increase farm earnings. In medical and health, the major concem is to deal with the health problems of the population whose life expectancy has been prolonged by medical advances, to tackle contagious diseases like hepatitis and mental illness, to improve medical and health care system, to emphasize preventive medicine, to improve food sanitation in a high urbanized society, and to protect the environment. (3) To Encourage Private Industry's Participation. Of total R&D expenditures, the share of the private sector accounted for only 40 percent in 1986. This is largely due to the labor-intensive nature of most industrial products and the small size of firms. However, the aspiration to improve quality and move upmarket requires industries to invest more in R&D. The target is to increase private funding to 60 percent of overall national R&D expenditure by 1996 (Annex 5.6). The government has a three-pronged strategy to support industry. First, target-oriented research institutes and academic institutes will be charged with the development of technologies that is beyond the capability of private enterprises due to the lack of either talent or resources. For the very advanced technologies, the govermment will help import them. Second, the govemment will initiate target-oriented research projects and invite private enterprises to participate in planning and execution of them in order to facilitate transfer of technology between industry, academic and government. Third, it will set up S&T Resources and Industries Integrated Communities to develop high-tech industries. Other measures to stimulate private investment in R&D include the following: (a) Tax incentives and credit guarantee: The government revises and promotes tax incentives already exist under the 'Measures on R&D Expenditures Accounting for Production Enterprises," and broadens the applicability of 'Measures for Encouraging Private Enterprises to Develop New Industrial Products". It also sets up a R&D credit guarantee fund to provide industry with assurance funding while they apply for loans. (b) Import and transfer of technology: The government revises rules to encourage private industry to import technology, and to invest in foreign high technology cormpanies in order to facilitate transfer of technology and management methods. It also encourages multinational companies to invest in Taiwan. In addition, it enacts laws to facilitate the transfer of government assisted research results to the private sector, and to speed up information exchange between defense and industry. (c) R&D Assistance and Guidance: The government provides technology or quality assurance services to medium or small companies. It establishes an industrial S&T information system, and improve compilation of statistics and S&T information analysis to industry. (d) Cooperation between universities and industry: In establishing S&T resources and Integrated Industry Community, it selects locations close to research universities, and encourages universities to offer research services to industry, to engage in joint research, to train industrial employees, and to have their students placed in industry for practical training.54 (e) Intellectual property standards and protection. This is a necessary step in order to encourage R&D. The measures include strengthening the patent bureau by providing it with sufficient manpower to handle patent cases; revising and enforcing rules on protecting patents, trademarks, and copyrights; appointing special research institutions to assist in acquiring techniques and knowledge for the establishment of an indigenous industrial 'Linda Parker. "University-Industry Collaboration in Developed and Developing Countries." PHREE/92/64, Washington, D.C.: World Bank, 1992. 35 standards; and encouraging companies to employ patent specialists to work on the application and protection of corporate patents. (f) Government Procurement. The government wil procure S&T products from domestic industry to reduce their product development risk, and to induce further domestic R&D. The government will also contract private sector to develop new products, including defense S&T, to improve their capability. (4) Development of high technologv industrv High technology products have high return potential, but they also have short life cycles, and high demand for R&D, management, and market information. Taiwan has a complete range of basic facilities, and a highly skilled work force. But it does not have sufficient high-tech and management personnel. l[ts rules and regulations often hinder rather than support development of high technology products. The strategies to overcome the obstacles and develop high technology are as follows: (a) The government will provide further support by advertizing abroad to attract foreign high tech investments and to provide more investment information to private enterprises. It will simplify investment procedures and purchase technologies most needed by nation. (b) The government will promote joint venture in high risk projects. It encourages private groups to entrust their investments to management experts, to issue investment stocks abroad, and to invest in well-known foreign businesses to facilitate importation of management methods, S&T and capital. Increasingly it relaxes the control of foreign exchange to attract foreign high-tech investments. It also enacts legislation on trust companies to channel the public's savings into investments. (c) Further development of the Hsinchu Science-Based Industrial Park. The park has proven to be very successful in attracting high technology firms and S&T personnel. To further expand the high technology development, administration, infrastructure, housing for S&T personnel, and schools for their children are improved. Domestic and foreign funding are consolidated for joint venture projects in the park. Consulting firms are encouraged to provide training and consulting services to the management of high tech companies. Tax incentives are offered to assist high technology companies to further develop product lines and expand market share. The Science Park will be developed into a Cultural and Science City, with all the educational and S&T resources available. Furthermore, trial programs have been run to establish similar industrial parks in other regions (such as Tao Yuan, Yun Lin, Taichung, Kaohsiung, and Taipei), with local industrial councils, universities, and technical schools. The preliminary results are positive. (d) The government also increases its support to ITRI, and encourages it to turn its research results into commercial or practical applications. (5) To Promote international cooperation. To facilitate technology transfer, training, and R&D, the government supports universities, research institutes, and industry to strengthen cooperation with their counterparts in North America, Western Europe, and Asia. This is to go beyond using the connection with overseas Chinese, and to interact directly with foreign researchers and industrialists. Funding for exchange activities are increased. Researchers are encouraged to attend conference abroad, and to host international conferences in Taiwan. Supportive personnel, accounting, and auditing systems are improved to be compatible with international cooperation. Government agencies stationed aborad are asked to collect S&T development information. (6) To Strenfthen Science Education at the School Level and Broaden the Public's General Knowledge of Science and Technolo2. 36 In 1988, MOE initiated the revision of the National Curricular Standards of Elementary and Secondary Education by appointing Curricular Standards Revision Councils and Syllabus Revision Committee. The principles of 'continuity, flexibility, simplification and relevance, and democratic approach"5 are emphasized. The common features of the preliminary revised curricula at primary, junior secondary, and senior secondary levels are reduction of class time or class periods, introduction of more elective courses from junior secondary levels onward to cater for diverse interests, emphasizing the relevance of science to society, and introducing flexible scheduling to permit enrichment programs or remedial teaching. In order to increase female participation in S&T education and to raise males' consciousness about family issues, the reform proposes to make it compulsory for both boys and girls to take "S&T' and 'home economic' courses. Under the existing curriculum, boys take industrial arts, and girls take home economics. The govemment also increases funding to research on the following topics: (i) mathematics and science curricula; (ii) the application of cognitive science in science education, development of scientific concepts in students, and characteristics of gifted students-5' (iii) the use of multi-media technology and individualized instruction in improving learning; (iv) evaluation and assessment; and (v) pre-service and in-service education of mathematics and science teachers. (Annex 8.1) To raise public awareness of the importance of S&T, efforts are made to inject S&T content in the nass media, and to expand popular S&T activities. In 1988, the Information S&T Exhibition Center was opened to provide a permanent forum for public education. The objective is to raise public awareness of the daily application of information S&T. The Center holds summer school programs, and produced 6,000 sets of software which were sent to all primary, secondary, and vocational schools for educational purposes. Furthermore, the NSC has commissioned scholars to use pictures and simple, everyday language to explain important S&T areas to children and to the public. Video tapes such as on aerospace S&T have been produced to raise interest. A series entitled, "Highlights of Results of Large-scale Interdisciplinary Research Projects." has been produced to explain to the public the administration and results of long-term projects in order to solicit their support.5 3.4. Research and Development Performance Taiwan's S&T policy clearly has stimulated further expansion and improvement of higher education, particularly graduate education. Enrollment in and graduation from science and engineering fields have grown rapidly between 1981 and 1991. (Annexes 2.8-2.10). The target of increasing researchers to 20 per 10,000 workers by 1995 was reached in 1990. These S&T manpower fueled the rapid growth of the economy in the late 1980s and 1990s. In addition, the aspiration to improve quality has also been achieved as measured by some output indicators. Between 1985 and 1988, the total number of research papers published in intemational journals increased by 77 percent, although the some 1,000 papers published in 1988 remained smaller than 0.3 percent of the total papers published in the world. (Annex 7.6). These publications reflected Taiwan's strengths in engineering and solid state physics, and materials science, all of which are the strategic areas identified for investment in late 1970s, and are crucial to its development of electronics and other high technology industry. The papers in 1988 also showed that 55Proceedings of International Symposium on Science Education. June 21-22. 1991, Science Education Center, National Taiwan Normal University, p. 45. sMing-tung Wei, Report on Tracer Studies of Gifted Senior High School Students, Science Education Center, National Taiwan Normal University, 1991. 57National Science Council Review 1989-90, p. 6-7. 37 Taiwan has diversified into basic bioscience (including molecular biology and biotechnology) and on economics and management science, again meeting the new target. The institutional affiliation of the authors shows a hierarchy of research establishment. The top three were National Tsing Hua University, National Taiwan University, and Academia Sinica. National Tsing Hua University was originally founded in the Mainland at the turn of the century. It is renowned for its basic research in natural science. National Taiwan University was founded during the Japanese colonial period. Academia Sinica was the top research institute. At the same time, new institutions which were not visible in 1985, emerged as important contributors to research. This reflected both the positive impact of the policy to encourage cooperation between institutions and across fields, as well as the extension and deepening of R&D infrastructure. The latest available statistics show that the number of papers published in 1990 was some 21,000, of which nearly half were referred papers, about 25 percent conference papers, and the rest monographs. Of these papers, some 6,800 were published in foreign journals or as conference papers or monographs. This represents considerable increase over that of 1988, even though the number of researchers also has increased significantly. (Annex 6.5). Taiwan's emphasis on building up its own S&T capability is a major reason for its economic success. Some macroeconomic indicators provide support for this. Between 1970-90, employment grew by 3.3 percent and labor productivity by 5 percent. The growth in productivity was faster than that of employment. 54 percent of growth in GDP is attributable to technological improvement, in comparison with 29 percent to labor growth and 18 percent to capital growth.5' All of these trends, be that mathematics and science achievement in school, enrollment in science and engineering programs, R&D output indicators, and macroeconomic indicators, lend support to the farsightedness of the S&T policy. 'Smith, The Confucian Continuum, p. 176. 38 4. Condusion Taiwan's current economic success is the result of a century's experience of trial and error with development. Several lessons can be drawn from it. First, an integrated approach is required in pursuing broad strategic macroeconomic, education, and S&T policies in order to provide the enabling environment for growth. The vision of what the country would like to have achieved has been the guiding light for intermediate objectives and strategies. Second, the role of government is critical in setting priorities, sequencing the development process, allocating resources among and within sectors to capture the synergy of a coordinated approach, and using a mix of public and private resources to achieve the best results under conditions of constraints. At each stage, the appropriate level of educated manpower was trained to meet the skill requirements of the economy. A broad based foundation in basic education was built first, while a few elite schools, higher education institutions, and research institutes were developed to provide leadership in the subsequent upgrading of the base. Public resources have been used to provide basic education, train teachers, and develop key schools, universities, and research institutes, while private resources have been mobilized to increase the supply and diversity of institutions. Third, great attention has been paid to quality and equity even during the early periods. For example, the quality of teachers and textbooks was the best the country could provide, and entire cohorts of students moved through the education system with minimal dropouts. Paying attention to quality and equity has resulted in efficiency gains. Overall, educational development in Taiwan has met all three major criteria of equity, quality, and efficiency. Fourth, great attention has been paid to mathematics and science education in order to produce the modern citizen who is not only well versed in the nation's intellectual heritage, but is scientifically literate and technological attuned. Mathematics and science have become an integral part of education in the way the classics used to be. With this foundation, it is relatively easy to improve undergraduate and postgraduate education, to establish the R&D infrastructure, and to build a national consensus for S&T development. Fifth, public investment in R&D infrastructure is just as important as that in physical and educational infrastructure. For example, the setting up of the S&T information center, national laboratories, precision instrument centers links domestic institutions with the global communication network, enables universities and industries to share resources in R&D, and also trains a new generation of S&T personnel. The S&T capability will be deepened as a result. If there is a single most important lesson to be learned from Taiwan's experience, it is that investments in basic education with a strong emphasis on scientific literacy is the pre-requisite for building the technological capability. If such investments are successful, each subsequent phase will have to be supported by mathematically and scientifically oriented secondary and higher education, and in research and development. 39 Annex 1 Vital Statistics, Economic Indicators, and Employment Statistics 40 Annex 1.1 Vital Statistics, 1952-91 1952 1960 1970 1980 1991 Total Population (million) 8.1 10.8 14.7 17.8 20.6 Population Growth Rate 3.3 3.5 2.4 1.9 1.0 Population Under Age 15 (Percentage) 42.4 45.4 39.7 32.1 26.3 Life Expectancy at Birth - 63 67 70 75 Infant Mortality (Per 1,000 live birth) - 31.4 16.9 9.8 5.1 Maternal Mortality (Per 100,000 live birth) - 87.8 40.4 18.7 7.8 Source: Statistical Yearbook 1992, p. 32 and 121; Taiwan Statistical Data Book 1991, p. 4 and 11. 41 Annex 1.2 General Economic Indicators, 1981-91 1981 1986 1991 Economic Growth Rate (at 1986 prices) 5.8 12.6 7.3 Per Capita GNP (US$) 2,669 3,993 8,788 Exports (USS Billion) 22.6 39.8 76.2 Imports (US$ Billion) 21.2 24.2 62.9 Foreign Exchange Reserve (US$ Billion) 7.2 46.3 82.4 Gold Reserve (million fine troy ounces) 3.3 5.6 13.5 Consumer Price IMflation Rate 16.3 0.7 3.6 Manufacturing Wage Increase Rate 15.7 10.5 10.5 industrial Production Index (1986=100) 68.5 100 126.7 Agricultural Production Index (1986= 100) 89.2 100 112.7 Public Foreign Debts (UJS$ billion) 0.31 0.22 0.15 Exchange rate (NT$:US$) 37.8 35.5 25.7 Source: Statistical Yearbook 1992, p. 159, 280-281; Manpower Indicators, p. 1-2; Taiwan: The Economist Countrv Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. 42 Annex 1.3 Origins of Gross Domestic Product 1991 % of Total Agriculture, forestry, & fishing 3.5 Mining & quarrying 0.5 Manufacturing 32.9 Electricity, gas, & water 2.9 Construction 5.1 Trade, restaurants, & hotels 16.2 Transport, storage, & communications 6.4 Financial and business services 19.4 GDP include others 100.0 GDP at market prices (US$ billion) 206.3 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Country Renort 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. Components of Gross Domestic Product 1992 % of total Private consumption 55.8 Public consumption 17.5 Gross fixed investment 23.2 Stockbuilding 1.1 Exports of goods and services 44.2 Imports of goods and services -41.8 Total 100.0 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Countrv Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. 43 Annex 1.4 Principal Exports 1992 USS Billion % of total Machinery & transport equipment 29.7 36.4 Textiles & clothing 11.8 14.5 Basic metals & metal manufactures 6.5 8.0 Plastic & rubber articles 5.5 6.7 Footwear 4.3 5.3 Vehicles, aircraft & ships 4.2 5.2 Toys, games, etc. 3.3 4.0 Total includes others 81.5 100.0 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Country Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. Principal Imports 992 USS Billion % of total Machinery & transport equipment 22.4 31.1 Basic metals 8.4 11.7 Chemicals 7.1 9.9 Transport equipment 6.0 8.3 Crude petroleum 3.1 4.3 Plastic & plastic products 1.9 2.6 Food & beverages 1.5 2.0 Total include others 72.0 100.0 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Country Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. 44 Annex 1.5 Main Destinations of Exports 1992 % of Total USA 28.9 Hong Kong 18.9 Japan 10.9 Germany 4.4 Singapore 3.1 UK 2.7 Netherlands 2.7 Thailand 2.2 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Countr Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. Main Origins of Inports 1992 % of Total Japan 28.9 USA 21.9 Germany 5.4 South Korea 3.2 australia 2.9 Hong Kong 2.5 Malaysia 2.5 Singapore 2.4 Source: Taiwan: The Economist Country Report 2nd Ouarter 1993, p. 3. 45 Annex 1.6 Employed Persons by Industry, Occupation, and Educational Attainment, 1981-91 ('000) 1981 % of Total 1986 % of Total 1991 % of Total By Industry Agriculture 1,257 18.8 1,317 17.0 1,092 12.9 Industry 2,814 42.2 3,206 41.5 3,319 40.1 Mining & Quarrying 54 0.8 33 0.4 3,386 0.2 Manufacturing 2,146 32.2 2,614 33.8 2,611 30.9 Water, Elec. & Gas 29 0.4 34 0.4 37 0.4 Construction 585 8.8 525 6.8 719 8.5 Services 2,601 39.0 3,210 41.5 3,960 46.9 Cormerce 1,107 16.6 1,383 17.9 1,725 20.4 Transportation 387 5.8 407 5.3 457 5.4 Financing 153 2.3 212 2.7 360 4.3 Social & Personal 954 14.3 1,208 15.6 1,418 16.8 Total 6,672 100.0 7,733 100.0 8,438 100.0 By Occunation Professional & Technical 373 5.6 484 6.3 666 7.9 Administrative & Managerial 58 0.9 66 0.9 88 1.0 Clerical 889 13.3 1,065 13.8 1,381 16.4 Sales 859 12.9 1,040 13.4 1,268 15.0 Services 498 7.5 663 8.6 810 9.6 Agricultural 1,241 18.6 1,307 16.9 1,085 12.9 Production Process 2,753 41.3 3,108 40.2 3,141 37.2 Total 6,672 100.0 7,733 100.0 8,439 100.0 BvEducational Attainment Illiterate 435 6.5 433 5.6 265 3.2 Self-educated 190 2.8 181 2.3 120 1.4 Primaryschool 2,682 40.2 2,607 33.7 2,368 28.1 Junior High 1,281 19.2 1,540 19.9 1,707 20.2 Senior High 475 7.1 560 7.2 745 8.8 Vocational 883 13.2 1,411 18.2 1,826 21.6 JunLior College 376 5.6 548 7.1 798 9.5 University & Graduate School 350 5.3 452 5.9 609 7.2 Total 6,672 100.0 7,733 100.0 8,439 100.0 Source: Manpower Indicators, p. 9-12, and 17-18. 46 Annex 2 Educational Attainment and Enrollment Statistics 47 Annex 2.1 Illiteracy Rates in Population 15 Years of Age and Over, 1967-91 Total Male Female 1967 26 15 37 1976 15 7 23 1980 12 6 19 1985 10 4 15 1990 8 3 12 Source: Statistical Yearbook 1991, p. 225. 48 Annex 2.2 Enrollment Ratios By Level, 1952-1990 Primary Secondary Tertiary Total Male Female Total Male Female Total Male Female Gross Enrollment Ratio 1952 84 - - 29 - - 4 - - 1960 96 - - 50 - - 16 1976 100 100 100 74 78 69 16 19 12 1980 100 100 100 80 81 80 18 20 15 1985 99.4 99 100 90 89 91 23 25 21 1990 100 100 100 95 93 97 34 34 34 Net Enrollment Ratio 1976 98 97 98 66 70 62 10 11 9 1980 98 97 98 71 72 70 11 12 10 1985 96 96 96 78 78 79 14 14 13 1990 98 98 98 85 84 87 19 18 20 Sources: Statistical Yearbook 1991, p. 224; Educational Statistical Indicators 1992, p 5-6; author's own estimate of gross enrollment ratio in 1952 and 1960. 49 Annex 2.3 Number of eudtuhom, Teawhers, and Pupls by Levd, 1952-91 Institutions Teachinz Staff Enrollment ADl Institutions Public Only All Institutions Public Only Total Public Total Fenale Sub-Total Female TotWl Femele Sub-T Female PRirmry Education 1952 1,231 - 20,989 - - - 1,003,304 - - 1961 1,932 1,877 46,576 16,658 45,357 - 1,997,016 939,992 1,958,782 - 1971 2,331 2,308 60,576 26,429 59,883 25,909 2,456,615 1,189,368 2,431,235 1,172,875 1981 2,444 2,422 69,613 35,900 68,801 35,245 2,213,179 1,075,582 2,187,935 1,064,852 1991 2,495 2,473 84,304 50,R86 83,492 50,218 2,293,444 1,111,444 2,267,458 1,100,171 Secondary Education (Includes Junior Secondary and Sendor Secondary Education) 1952 128 - 6,808 - - - 139,388 - - - General - - - - 92,946 - - - Vocational - - - - - 40,092 1961 401 311 18,129 3,763 15,849 - 409,562 144,334 346,612 General 280 215 12,669 2,843 11,143 - 314,655 111,903 271,335 - Vocational 111 86 5,001 774 4,247 685 88,335 29,124 68,705 21,931 1971 934 714 48,927 17,341 42,409 15,484 1,238,291 517,376 1,050,005 442,585 General 766 638 40,715 15,136 36,954 14,042 1,038,458 429,342 955,221 399,366 Vocational 168 76 8,212 2,205 5,455 1,462 198,969 87,601 93,920 42,774 1981 1,034 814 71,099 32,731 60,511 29,241 1,627,652 780,780 1,318,704 624,148 General 838 729 57,952 28,195 52,531 26,786 1,253,333 592,075 1,165,260 553,519 Vocational 196 85 13,147 4,536 7,980 2,455 374,206 188,663 153,331 70,587 1991 1,095 872 87,226 45,563 72,027 41,963 1,870,315 929,786 1,449,887 702,500 General 883 777 69,206 38,115 61,189 38,115 1,394,463 672,972 1,267,556 616,186 Vocational 212 95 18,000 7,444 10,828 3,848 475,852 256,814 182,331 86,314 Tertiay Education 1952 8 8 1,077 - - - 10,037 - - - 1961 30 15 3,523 588 2,824 450 38,403 8,982 27,704 5,857 1971 86 31 11,471 2,586 5,980 1,214 222,505 82,074 81,774 31,243 1981 104 35 17,452 4,910 8,412 1,933 358,437 148,107 113,678 45,284 1991 123 41 29,444 9,208 12,992 3,335 612,376 282,989 176,658 72,668 Source: Statistical Yearbook 1991, pp. 208-217; Statistical Yearbook 1992, p. 73-83; Taiwan Statistical Data Book, p. 277-281. 50 Annex 2.4 Percentage of Graduates Enrolled in the Next Higher Level of Education, 1952-90 % of School-aged % of Primary School % of Junior High % of Senior High Children Enrolled Graduates Enrolled Graduates Enrolled Gnades Emoled in Primary Schools in Junior High Schools in Senior High Schools Higher Education 1952 84 35 57 26 1960 96 52 76 43 1970 98 79 83 42 1980 100 96 65 45 1990 100 100 85 49 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Book, p. 286. 51 Annex 2.5 Average Number of Students Per Class Primary Junior Senior Senior Junior Universities Master's Doctorate High High Voc. Colleges Program Program 1950 54 45 44 36 - 24 1960 53 51 45 40 38 32 6 - 1970 51 52 46 43 44 43 11 3 1980 44 47 47 45 50 46 11 5 1991 41 44 49 46 50 49 23 14 Source: Education Statistical Indicators 1992, p. 32. 52 Annex 2.6 Student-to-teacher Ratios 1990-91 Average Public Private Kindergarten 16 18 15 Primary 27 27 32 Junior High 21 21 26 Senior High 22 19 26 Sr. Vocational 21 16 30 University 15 10 23 College 11 9 14 Junior College 20 12 21 Source: Education Statistical Indicators. 1992, p. 35-37. 53 Annex 2.7 Number of Junior Colleges, Universities and Colleges, Teaching Staff, and Students, 1952-91 1952 1961 1971 1981 1991 Institutions 8 30 86 104 121 Junior Colleges - 14 73 77 75 Universities - 16 23 27 46 &Colleges Teaching Staff 1,077 3,523 11,471 17,452 29,444 Junior Colleges - 690 6,211 8,085 12,620 Universities - 2,833 5,253 9,367 16,824 &Colleges Enrollment 10,037 38,403 222,505 358,437 612,376 Junior Colleges - 8,366 119,146 192,901 332,127 Universities & Colleges - 29,524 100,455 158,181 253,462 Graduate School - 513 2,904 7,355 26,787 Graduates - 6,273 40,756 75,588 130,067* Junior Colleges - 1,345 21,203 40,827 72,867 Universities & Colleges - 4,815 18,683 32,102 49,488 Graduate School - 113 870 2,199 6,927 Source: Statistical Yearbook 1991, p. 216-217; Statistical Yearbook 1992, p. 82-83. * The number of graduates are those of 1990, because the figures for 1991 have not been published yet. 54 Annex 2.8 Enrollment in Al Higher Education Institutions by Discipline, 1952-90 | Total Humanities Education Agriculture Law Social Sciences, Enginecring Medicine Fine Arts Others Sciences & Math & . _ _ _ _ __B_ Business' Computing _ __ _ _ 1952 10037 t919 479 1231 372 1939 693 2590 325 288 201 1955 18174 2476 1051 2038 1229 4232 1129 4467 712 406 434 1960 35060 6359 1650 3049 1143 8832 3243 6958 2725 996 105 1965 85346 10422 6453 5447 1654 32751 5511 12920 7149 2649 390 1970 203473 19373 13809 11477 2844 69470 10464 49886 20689 5461 1975 289435 29051 21223 10341 3746 91897 13796 87823 21336 10,222 1980 342528 28935 20394 11960 4387 109062 15336 115186 2661 10,627 - 1985 336243 29068 18727 11139 5349 111580 25343 101467 24762 6,705 2,103 1990 462492 32822 27185 13661 6615 147855 37757 147218 37182 9,006 3,191 Percentage of Enrollment _ Total Humanities Education Agriculture Law Social Sciences, Engineering Medicine Fine Arts Others Sciences & Math & Business Computing 1952 10037 0.19 0.05 0.12 0.04 0.19 0.07 0.26 0.03 0.03 0.02 1955 18174 0.14 0.06 0.11 0.07 0.23 0.06 0.25 0.04 0.02 0.02 1960 35060 0.18 0.05 0.09 0.03 0.25 0.09 0.20 0.08 0.03 0 1965 85346 0.12 0.08 0.06 0.02 0.38 0.06 0.15 0.08 0.03 0 1970 203473 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.01 0.34 0.05 0.25 0.10 0.03 - 1975 289435 0.10 0.07 0.04 0.01 0.32 0.05 0.30 0.07 0.04 1980 342528 0.08 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.32 0.04 0.34 0.08 0.03 - 1985 336243 0.09 0.06 0.03 0.02 0.32 0.08 0.30 0.07 0.02 0.01 1990 462492 0.07 0.06 0.03 0.01 0.32 0.08 0.32 0.08 0.02 0.01 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Bool. p. 283-284. ' The disciplines have been rclassified according to UNESCO categories in 1983-84. In this table, enrollment figures after 1984 in social sciences and business also include those in mass communication, trade, transport and communication, and home conomics. Enrollment figures in engineering also include enollment tin architecturm and town planning. 55 Annex 2.9 Enroflnent in Higher Education by Level and Dsipline, 1981-90 1981 % of Total 1986 % of Total 1991 % ofTob Ph.D Total 800 100.0 2,143 100.0 5,481 100.0 Liberal Arts 464 58.0 735 34.3 1,409 25.7 S&T 336 42.0 1,408 65.7 4,072 74.3 Master's Total 6,555 100.0 11,294 100.0 21,306 100.0 Liberal Arts 3,162 48.2 4,616 40.9 7,924 37.2 S&T 3,393 51.8 6,678 59.1 13,382 62.8 Undernaduate Total 158,151 100.0 184,729 100.0 253,462 100.0 Liberal Arts 88,284 55.8 101,020 54.7 144,595 57.0 S&T 69,897 44.2 83,709 45.3 108,867 43.0 Junior CoUege Total 110,604 100.0 147,570 100.0 217,882 100.0 Liberal Arts 53,506 48.4 62,526 42.4 73,848 33.9 S&T 57,098 51.6 85,004 57.6 144,034 66.1 Source: Manpower Indicators. 1992, p. 31-32. 56 Annex 2.10 Graduates from Higher Education by Level and Discipline, 1981-91 1981 % of Total 1986 % of Total 1991 % OfTad1 Ph.D Total 64 100.0 253 100.0 518 100.0 Liberal Arts 40 62.5 94 37.2 140 27.0 S&T 24 37.5 159 62.8 378 73.0 Master's Total 1,940 100.0 4,112 100.0 6,409 100.0 Liberal Arts 862 44.4 1,364 33.2 1,808 28.2 S&T 1,078 55.6 2,748 66.8 4,601 71.8 Underm7aduate Total 32,214 100.0 39,065 100.0 49,488 100.0 Liberal Arts 19,227 59.7 22,259 57.0 28,995 58.6 S&T 12,987 40.3 16,806 43.0 20,493 41.4 Junior College Total 38,370 100.0 56,408 100.0 72,867 100.0 Liberal Arts 16,760 43.7 23,952 42.5 26,011 35.7 S&T 21,610 56.3 32,456 57.5 46,856 64.3 Source: Manpower Indicators, p. 33-34 57 Annex 2.11 Degrees Granted in Science and Engineering, 1976-90 Natural Mathematics Engineering Agriculture Social Science & Computer Science Science Bachelor's De2rees 1976 77 1,336 5,142 989 2,762 1980 1,935 1,422 6,463 977 2,906 1985 2,091 1,916 7,703 980 3,265 1990 2,481 2,818 8,950 1,234 3,174 Graduate Degees (Both Master's and Doctorate) 1976 222 84 265 142 207 1980 294 93 485 140 229 1985 370 188 1,151 204 370 1990 748 465 2,407 391 277 Doctorate Deerees 1976 2 0 8 4 7 1980 6 1 10 5 8 1985 20 4 59 15 16 1990 47 24 165 33 43 Source: Human Resources from Science and Technology: The Asian Region, United States National Science Foundation, 1993, p. 81-89. 58 Annex 2.12 Students Who Left for Overseas Studies, 190-88 Total Humanities Social Sciences Science & Technology 1950 216 43 104 69 1961 978 192 206 580 1971 2,558 436 543 1,579 1981 5,363 1,096 1,586 2,681 1988 7,122 1,454 1,954 3,714 Source: Education Statistical Indicators, p. 54. Note: Since July 1989, students studying abroad without govemment scholarship have been excluded from the government's statistics. That is why the more recent figures are not included here because the database is different. 59 Annex 2.13 Students Returned from Abroad, 1952-90 1952-61 1970 1980 1990 Total 48 407 640 2,863 Employed by. Government Agencies 12 69 71 325 Commerce & Industry 9 70 72 855 Universities & Colleges 10 215 162 691 Secondary Schools - 6 - 14 Hospitals 4 2 10 65 News Agencies 2 1 - 33 Others 11 44 325 880 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Book, p. 292. 60 Annex 3 Teachers 61 Annex 3.1 Enrollment in Teacher Education at All Levels, 1976-91 1976 1991 Index of Growth (1976= 100) Teachers' Colieges (to prepare primary school teachers) 13,565 22,319 165 Normal Universities (to prepare secondary school teachers) 13,435 10,790 80 Master's Program in education 4,138 21,306 515 Ph.D. Program in education 363 5,481 1,510 Source: Education Statistical Indicators, p. 38-39. 62 Annex 3.2 Educational Attainment of Teachers at All Levels, 1976-91 1976 1991 Prinarv % of Teachers with Teacher Education 88.2 93.7 Junior High School % of Teachers with Jr. College Education 90.9 98.1 Senior High School % of Teachers with B.A. Degree 76.8 87.1 Senior Vocational High School % of Teachers with B.A. Degree 62.6 78.4 Junior Colle2e % of Teachers with Master's Degree 13.6 55.2 h of Teachers with Ph.D. 1.6 2.4 Universities & Colleges % of Teachers with Master's Degree 24.4 29.2 % of Teachers with Ph.D. 18.4 37.6 Source: Educational Statistical Indicators, p. 34. 63 Annex 3.3 Monthly Salaries and Allowance of Teachers in Public Institutions 1991 (US$) Salary Scale Salary Differentials Above Primary and Secondary Teachers' Salaries (%) University and College Professor $2,407 - 2,761 180 - 250 Associate Professor $1,962 - 2,426 130 - 30 Lecturer $1,391 - 1,872 60 - 0 Assistant $1,064- 1,393 24--26 Prima and Secondar School Teacher $ 860 - 1872 Source: Education in the Republic of China 1991, p. 24. 64 Annex 3.4 Welfare Benefits for Primary and Secondary Teachers & Administrative Staff, 1989-90 % of Total Benefits Dormitory 21.9 Subsidy for building and equipping teachers' hostel 41.9 Subsidy for advanced studies, overseas trips, & publication 3.2 Retirement subsidy and comforting fund 10.4 Emergency calamity subsidy & loans 12.5 Tuition subsidy to children & loans 3.1 Subsidy for recreational activities 7.0 Total Benefits 100.0 Source: Education in the Revublic of China 1991, p. 28. 65 Annex 4 Curriculum 66 Annex 4.1 Teaching Subjects and Weekly Allocation of Time and Primary and Junior High Schools, 1991 Subjects Primary School (Weekly Minutes) Junior High School (Hours per week) Gr.1&2 Gr.2&4 Gr.5&6 Gr.7 Gr.8 Gr.9 Civics & 120 120 120 2 2 2 Ethics Health 2 Mandarin 400 400 400 Chinese 6 6 6 English 2-3 2 Mathematic 120 160 200 240 3-4 2 s Social 80 120 120 Studies History 2 2 1 Geography 2 2 1 Natural 120 160 160 3 2 2 Science Music 160 80 80 1 1 1 Fine Arts 80 120 120 1 1 1 Craft 1 1 1 Industrial 2 2 2 Arts (Boys) Home Economics (Girls) Electives 4-14 12-17 (academic, vocational) Boy scouts 1 1 1 training Group 80 80 80 2 2 2 Activities Guidance 1 1 1 Total 1160 1360 1480 1520 32-34 32-36 32-37 Source: Education in the Republic of China p. 30. 67 Annex 4.2 Teaching Subjects and Weekly Teaching Hours in Senior High Schools, 1991 Subjects Grade 10 Grade 11 Grade 12 Chinese 5 5 6 English 5 5 6 Civics/Three Principles 2 2 2 of the People History 2 2 Geography 2 2 Mathematics 5 4 Basic Science 6 Physics 3 Chemistry 3 Biology 3 Earth Science 3 Physical Education 2 2 2 Music 1 1 Fme Arts 1 1 . Industrial Arts 2 2 Home Economics 2 2 Military Training 2 2 2 (boys) Nursing (Girls) Class Meeting 1 1 1 Group Activities 1 1 1 Electives (Arts & 3-6 14-19 Science Stream) Total 37 36-39 34-39 Source: Education in Republic of China, p. 31. 68 Annex 5 Expenditures 69 Annex 5.1 Net Revenues and Expenditures of All Levels of Government by Source, 1955-90 (Percentage) 1955 1961 1971 1981 1990 Revenues Tax Revenue* 62.4 51.8 59.7 64.2 66.3 Monopoly Revenue** 13.8 16.3 11.2 7.8 4.4 Surplus of Public Enterprises 3.8 7.4 10.5 9.4 10.1 Public Bonds Issue Proceeds - 2.8 4.9 0.9 1.3 Receipts fr. Econ. Constr. Loans - - 0.8 0.8 6.1 Others 20.0 21.7 12.9 16.9 11.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Exuenditures Gen. Admin. & Defense 63.6 60.8 47.7 39.9 29.2 Education, Science & Culture 13.6 14.6 17.6 17.5 19.6 Economic Development 10.0 12.7 15.5 33.5 25.3 Social Security 6.7 6.5 10.4 11.8 17.3 Obligations 1.8 2.7 7.0 2.1 7.4 Others 3.7 2.7 1.8 1.2 1.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Revenues (NT$ BillionW 6.7 14.0 57.3 437.7 1,198.6 Expenditures (Na$ Billion) 6.7 14.0 54.8 433.2 1,155.5 Sumlus (+) or Deficit (-) .2 - .9 +2.5 +4.5 +43.1 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Book. 1991, p. 168-172. * Tax revenues include customs duties, commodity tax, income tax, salt tax, stamp tax, business tab, harbor dues, license tax, land lax, slaughter tax, household tax, house tax, amusement tax, deeds tax, feast tax. ** Monopoly revenue comes from tobacco and wine monopoly. 70 Annex 5.2 Total Expenditures on Education (Percentage) 1950 1961 1971 1981 1991 Total Education Expenditure As a % of GNP 1.7 2.5 4.6 4.5 6.6 Public 1.7 2.2 3.7 3.7 5.5 Private - 03 0.9 0.9 1.1 Public Expenditure on Education As a % of Govt. Expenditure 9.9 13.3 16.5 14.7 17.8 Capital Expen. as % of Total - - 19.2 (1976) 28.0 28.5 Recurrent Expen. as % of Total - - 80.8 (1976) 72.0 71.5 Sources: Educational Statistical Indicators 1992, p. 46; Statistical Yearbook 1991 p. 227. 71 Annex 5.3 Composition of Public Expenditres on Education by Level, 1950-91 (Percentage) 1950 1961 1971 1981 1991 Administration 3.0 0.3 2.5 10.1 9.7 Kindergarten - 1.0 0.4 1.6 2.7 Primary 32.5 38.5 25.1 25.6 24.7 Junior High 17.9 14.3 35.4 31.0 37.3 Senior High 8.2 7.6 Sr. Vocational High 8.8 9.7 Junior Colleges 15.1 13.7 27.3 8.3 6.8 Universities & Colleges _13.2 17.1 Source: Education Statistical Indicators 1992, p. 51. 72 Annex 5.4 Total Education Expenditure Per Student by Level, 1976-90 1976 Index 1990 Index N"I$ Primary=100 NT$ Primary=100 Kindergartens 2,899 79 34,788 110 Primary 3,660 100 31,623 100 Junior High 5,728 156 38,942 123 Senior High 8,860 242 66,691 210 Senior Vocational 10,480 286 78,092 247 Junior Colleges 11,645 318 67,022 212 Universities 30,734 829 190,402 602 & Colleges Source: Education Statistical Indicators. 1992, p. 54. 73 Annex 5.5 Recurrent Educational Expenditure Per Students by Public and Private Institution, 1976-90 1976 Index 1990 Index NT$ Primary=100 NT$ Primary=100 Public Institutions Primary 3,116 100 22,998 100 Junior High 4,966 159 35,919 156 Senior High 7,892 253 52,919 230 Senior Vocational High 11,307 363 71,244 309 Junior Colleges 20,873 670 78,129 340 Universities 27,051 868 146,067 635 & Colleges Private Institutions Primary 3,845 100 23,440 100 Junior High 6,829 178 38,602 165 Senior High 6,332 165 30,624 131 Senior Vocational High 5,847 152 30,880 132 Junior Colleges 7,677 200 51,832 221 Universities 9,667 251 33,818 144 & Colleges Source: Education Statistical Indicators, p. 52-53. 74 Annex 5.6 Total Research and Development Expenditures, 1980-90' 1980 1990 Total R&D Expenditures (US$ Billion) .29 2.6 R&D Expenditures as % of GNP 0.7 1.7 Government R&D Expenditures As % of Total 60.3 45.8 Recurrent Expenditures as % of Total R&D Expenditures 52.7 63.4 Private R&D Expenditures as % of business volume 0.6 0.8 (1989) R&D Expend. in State Enterprise as % of business volume 1.4 1.41 (1989) By Source of Fund % 9 Government 60.4 45.8 Private 39.6 54.2 By Type of Work Basic Research 8.4 9.9 Applied Reseach 62.4 35.8 Development 29.1 54.2 By Sector of Performance Universities 21.5 13.2 Public 4.5 1.8 Private 17.0 11.4 Nonprofit Private Research Institutes 10.8 17.3 Nonprofit 9.6 15.9 Private 1.2 1.4 Public Research Institutes 13.0 10.4 Industry 54.6 59.0 Public 34.2 6.6 Private 20.4 52.4 Sources: Indicators of Science and Technology, 1991, p. 43; Statistical Yearbook of ReDublic of China 1992, p. 102- 103. '9The R&D Expenditures do not include defense R&D expenditures. 75 Annex 5.7 Acadenic Research Projects and Grants by Type of Research, 1980-92 1980 % of Total 1992 %ofTatOl Number of Research Proiects Natural Science 150 20.8 1,176 21.0 Engineering & Applied Science 163 9.0 2,236 40.0 Biological, Medical, & Agricultural Science 335 45.9 1,514 27.1 Humanities & Social Sciences 71 10.0 538 9.6 Education - - 128 22.9 Total & Others 720 100.0 5,592 100.0 Research Grants (Millions of US$ Natural Science .97 17.2 36.5 26.2 Engineering & Applied Science 1.5 26.4 50.8 36.4 Biological, Medical, & Agricultural Science 2.4 42.1 38.9 27.9 Humanities & Social Sciences .33 5.8 10.6 7.6 Education - - 2.6 1.8 Total & Others 5.6 100.0 139.5 100.0 Source: Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China 1992, p. 105. 76 Annex 5.8 The Input Resources of Strategic Technology, 1989 Expenditure Manpower (USS Million) % of Total Researchers % of Total Information 198 36.8 3,527 30.5 Automation 38 6.3 748 6.4 Materials 145 27.0 3,300 28.5 Energy 34 6.3 697 6.0 Electro-optics 22 4.0 519 4.5 Food technology 45 8.5 1,697 14.7 Biotechnology 34 6.3 415 3.5 Hepatitis Control .7 .04 38 .3 Environmental Science 38 7.0 620 5.4 Total 538 100.0 11,561 100.0 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Book, p. 115. 77 Annex 6 Science and Technology Indicators 78 Annex 6.1 Research and Development Manpower, 1980-90 1980 1990 By Level of Skills Researchers 13,656 47,071 Technical personnel 46,071 19,511 Total 18,641 65,582 By Field of Research (%9) 1989 Natural Science 2.0 Engineering 93.4 Medicine 0.5 Agriculture 4.0 Humanities & Social Science 0.1 Total 100 Source: Science and Technologv Indicators. 1991; Statistical Yearbook 1992, p. 102. 79 Annex 6.2 Researchers' Academic Qualification, 1979489 Percentage Number of Total Doctor's Master's Bachelor's Jr. Cdlege Researchers Percentage Degree Degree Degree Gdae 1979 8,345 100.0 12.9 24.7 51.8 10.6 1985 24,600 100.0 11.7 22.2 45.8 20.3 1989 39,742 100.0 13.5 21.4 35.0 30.1 Source: Taiwan Statistical Data Book 1991, p. 115. 80 Annex 6.3 Advanced Studies for Reachers, 1970-91 1971 1981 1991 Natural Science Local - 7 4 Abroad 29 38 43 Engineering & Applied Science Local - 7 27 Abroad 40 35 76 Biology, Medicine, & Agriculture Local - 23 32 Abroad 48 73 60 Humanities & Social Sciences Local - 5 18 Abroad 22 26 80 Education Local - 1 2 Abroad - 7 13 Total Local - 43 83 Abroad 139 179 272 Source: Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China. 1992, p. 104 81 Annex 6.4 Research and Development Output Indicators, 1987-90 1987 1990 Average annual publication per researcher 0.45 0.46 Average annual publication in refereed journal per researcher 0.27 0.23 Average annual conference paper per researcher 0.18 0.19 Book per researcher 0.04 Annual applications for patent in Taiwan 18,227 19,964 Number of patents granted 5,980 11,108 Patent application per research per year 0.55 0.43 Patent granted per research per year 0.18 0.24 Tech. intensive product as % of export 24.3 29.5 (1989) Source: Indicators of Science and Technologv, 1991; Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China 1992, p. 102, 105-107. 82 Annex 6.5 Number of S&T Refereed Papers, 1981-90 Total Refereed Papers Conference Papers Monographs Journal Published Journal Published Published Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Domestic Foreign Total 1981 5,995 3,083 936 1,564 412 - - 1990 21,412 6,489 4,273 6,395 2,419 1,708 128 By Field Natural Science 2,851 678 1,084 554 371 152 12 Engineering 8,006 1,653 1,775 2,401 1,217 895 65 Medical Sciences 5,323 1,720 979 1,989 520 101 5 Agriculture 2,272 1,027 242 675 156 167 5 Humanities & 2,960 1,411 193 767 155 393 41 Social Sciences Source: Statistical Yearbook of Republic of China 1992, p. 106. 83 Annex 6.6 Published Papers by Institution Institution No. of Papers in 1987 1985 Rank National Tsing Hua University 218 1 National Taiwan University 207 2 Academia Sinica 165 3 National Cheng Kung University 91 4 National Chiao Yung University 72 5 Veteran General Hospital 70 National Central University 42 8 National Defence Medical Center 41 Chang Gung Memorial Hospital 39 7 National Yang Ming Medical College 39 Tatung Institute of Technology 37 National Sun Yat Sen University 26 6 National Taiwan University Hospital 25 National Chung Hsing University 22 9 Industrial Technology Research institute 22 National Taiwan Normal University 20 National Taiwan Institute of Technology 13 12 Tri Service General Hospital 12 Chung Yuan Christian University 11 10 Chang Gung Medical College 10 Fu Jen Catholic University 9 Chung Shan Institute of S&T 9 Kaohsiung Medical College 8 Cheng Kung University 7 National Taiwan College of Marine S&T 6 Mackay Memorial Hospital 5 Chia Nan Junior College Pharmacy 4 Chung Cheng Institute of Technology 4 Feng Chia University 4 Soochow University 4 Taipei City Psychiatric Center 4 Tamkang University 4 11 Source: Cowards and Fresne, p. 34 84 Annex 6.7 Eight Regional Instrument Centers Data established Name of the Center Cooperating Universities Areas of Specialization 1980 Hsinchu Regional Tsing Hua University Chemistry, Biology, & Instrument Center Materials Science 1981 Semiconductor Chiao Tung & Tsing Semiconductor Instrument Center Hua Universities Technology 1981 Taipei regional Taiwan University Chemistry & Biology Instrument Center 1982 Tainan Regional Cheng Kung University Mechanical Engineering Instrument Center & Materials Science 1982 Central Regional Chung Hsing University Agriculture & Biology Instrument Center 1986 Chungli Regional Central University VHF Radar and related Instrument Center Data Processing 1986 Ocean Researchers I Taiwan University Oceanology 1988 Kaohsiung Regional Sun Yat-sen University Chemistry & Materials Instrument Center Science Source: National Science Council Review 1989-90, p. 22. 85 Annex 7 International Comparison 86 Annex 7.1 R&D Expenditure as Percentage of GNP in Selected Countries (Percentage) 1970 1980 1988 Taiwan n.a. 0.7 1.7 (1990) South Korea 0.4 0.6 2.1 Japan 2.9 2.2 2.9 USA 2.6 2.3 2.8 Former West Germany 2.1 2.4 2.9 Sources: Taiwan Statistical Data Book, 1991; United States National Science Foundation International Science and Technology Data Update, 1991. 87 Annex 7.2 Research and Development Expenditures by Source of Funds, Type of Work, and Sector of Performance in Selected Countries, 1989 Taiwan S. Korea Japan USA UK France W. Germany By Source of Funds Government 47.7 17.1 16.4 25.1 20.1 33.9 29.9 Private 52.3 82.9 83.6 74.9 79.8 66.1 70.1 BY Type of Work Basic Research 10.5 15.0 12.8 14.0 20.2 3.0 19.3 Applied Research 36.2 18.2 23.9 22.7 39.9 30.6 80.7 Applied Development 53.3 66.8 63.2 63.3 40.0 66.4 R&D By Sector of Performance Universities 8.2 3.9 8.5 11.1 15.1 24.9 12.3 Public Research Institutes 15.1 8.5 12.7 13.6 15.3 14.8 14.1 Private Research Iustitutes 20.7 13.6 4.0 2.7 4.0 0.9 0.6 Industry 56.0 73.9 75.5 72.5 66.4 59.5 73.0 Source: Science and Technology Indicators; UNESCO Statistical Yearbook. 88 Annex 7.3 Scientists and Engineers Engaged in R&D Per 10,000 Workers in Selected Countries, 1970-90 1970 1980 1990 Total Number of Researchers Taiwan - 13,656 46,071 Japan 172,000 302,600 441,900 (1988) United States 543,800 651,200 949,200 (1988) Former West Germany 82,500 120,700 165,600 (1987) Number of Researchers Per 10Q000 Workers Taiwan - - 20 Japan 33.4 53.6 68.8 United States 64.1 60.0 75.9 Former West Germany 30.8 44.3 53.7 Source: United States National Science Foundation Science and Engineering Indicators 1991, p. 300-301; Taiwan Statistical Data Book 1991, p. 115. 89 Annex 7.4 R&D Expenditurs and Manpower by IndustrY, 1989 R&D Expenditures as Percentage of Sales Number of R&D Personnel Per 1.000 Workers All Industry Manufactuning All Industry Manufacturing Taiwan 0.7 0.7 22 21 South Korea 1.9 2.1 25 27 Japan 2.7 3.3 294 281 U.S.A. (1988) - 4.8 717 615 Source: Indicators of Science and Technolo2v. 1991, p. 46. 90 Annex 7.5 Annual Growth Rates in Natural Science and Engineering Degrees Granted in Selected Countries, 1975-88 Total Natural Science Engineering Taiwan 3.6 3.8 3.7 SouthKorea 11.3 11.2 11.1 Singapore 11.0 8.1 14.4 India 3.3 3.0 5.3 China 6.9 5.0 7.8 Japan 0.9 1.4 0.8 United States 2.5 1.0 5.0 Former West Germany 5.3 5.6 5.9 Source: United States National Science Foundation. Science and Eneineerinm Indicators 1991, p. 60. 91 Annex 7.6 Research Papers in Science and Social Science Published in Major International Journals, 1985 and 1988 1985 1988 % Change % of 1988 Papers World 339,544 344,379 1.4 100.0 USA 143,422 147,335 2.7 42.2 UK 32,301 31,969 -1.0 9.5 Japan 22,436 25,417 13.3 7.4 China 1,571 2,746 74.8 0.8 Taiwan 615 1,090 77.2 0.3 South Korea 416 650 56.3 0.2 Hong Kong 409 462 13.0 0.1 Singapore 244 282 15.6 0.1 Thailand 185 237 28.1 0.1 Malaysia 115 120 4.4 0.0 Philippines 81 93 14.8 0.0 Indonesia 55 62 12.7 0.0 Source: Coward and Fresne, 1990, p. 4. 92 Annex 7.7 US. Immigrant Scientists and Engineers by Country of Origin, 1988 Total Engineers Natural Mathematicians & Social Scientists Computer Scientists Scientists All countries 10,918 8,081 1,198 1,164 475 Western Europe 1,674 1,173 257 165 79 Eastern Europe 723 465 112 34 112 North & Cent. America 1,142 790 131 132 89 Near & Middle East 1,262 1,045 93 95 29 Asia 4,986 3,831 463 615 77 Hong Kong 432 330 28 70 4 India 1,246 958 161 104 23 Japan 102 70 11 17 4 China 740 566 53 110 11 The Philippines 798 676 51 60 11 South Korea 183 152 14 16 1 Taiwan 907 646 83 171 7 All Others 578 433 62 67 16 All Other Areas 1,131 777 142 123 89 Source: Science and Engineering Indicators. 1991, p. 297. 93 Annex 7.8 U. S. Patents Granted by Nationality of Inventor, 1963-90 Total 1963-76 1980 1985 1990 Total 1,902,916 924,876 61,810 71,649 89,982 U.S. Origin 1,227,516 674,289 37,351 39,549 47,195 Foreign Origin 675,400 250,587 24,459 32,100 42,787 EC 337,183 149,763 12,198 13,826 16,063 Japan 203,580 43,481 7,124 12,743 19,444 Taiwan 3,072 52 65 174 731 South Korea 807 51 8 38 224 Hong Kong 527 139 27 25 52 Source: Science and Engineering Indicators. 1991. p. 430. 94 Annex 8 Strategic Science and Technology Research Areas 95 Annex 8.1 Strategic Academic Research Areas Mathematics and Natural Mathematics Science a. Non-linear phenomena |Life Science b. Functional analysis methods and applications c. Topics related to computer science d. Stochastic models and applications Physics a. Gauge Field theory and its phenomenology b. Magnetic and superconducting properties of rare-earth-transition- metal systems c. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy and its interplay with the development of laser and synchrotron radiation light sources d. Solid surfaces by electronic and vibrational spectroscopies e. Nonlinear and phase-conjugation optics Chemistry a. New synthetic methodology development and their application in synthetic chemistry b. The application of laser and synchrotron radiation in spectroscopy and the study of chemical reactions c. New analytical methods and the automation and design of instrumentation for analytical chemistry Earth Science a. Physics and chemistry of the solid earth material b. Characteristics of Taiwan's earthquakes c. Geology and geophysics of Easterm Taiwan d. Neotectonical study in Taiwan Atmospheric Science a. East Asian monsoon circulations systems b. Taiwan regional weather systems c. Severe weather system of typhoons, cold surges and draught d. Atmospheric physics of troposphere and upper atmospheres e. Possibility of adopting various weather forecasting techniques from foreign countries Oceano2raphI a. Special physical phenomena of regional and marginal seas around Taiwan b. Development and standardization of chemical analysis of sea water; establishment of database of nearshore chemical pollution of marine environment around Taiwan. c. Sea bottom stratigraphy, sedimentology, paleomicrobiology, marine geophysics, and marine geochemistry of marginal seas around Taiwan d. Classification of marine biological systems and study of marine ecology e. Collection and system analysis of fishery data f. Ocean wave, storm surge, and sand transportation in application to ocean engineering 96 BioloQv a. Molecular and cellular biology b. Neurobiology c. Interaction of biology and environment d. Biological resources Agriculture a. Agriculture resources and maintenance of balance of ecosystem b. Genetic resources in forestry and basic research in forest by-products c. Marine fishery d. Agriculture, coastal fish farming, and prevention of disease in fishery e. Genetics, physiology, and infectious disease of domestic animals f. Biotechnology Medicine a. Hepatitis, cancer, and cardiovascular disease b. Endocrinology, metabolism, and immunology c. Pharmacology and development of new drugs form Chinese herbs and other natural resources d. Medical technology Engineering Information a. Workstation system design technology b. Artificial intelligence and expert systems c. Highspeed language, image, and graphic interfacing d. Computers network design e. Special purpose processors f. Software development tools. Automation Technology a. CAD/CAM technology and computer graphic applications b. Precision measurement technology precision manufacturing, metalworking, and non-traditional manufacture c. Mechatronic, sensors and robotics Material Technoloi a. Electronic materials: process and characteristic studies of silicon, m- V compound, and II-VI compound semiconductor naterials. b. Polymers: composites and high performance polymers, polymer processing, functional polymer, membrane, textile and dyeing c. Fine ceramics: piezoelectric ceramics, sensing elements, and ceramic packaging materials d. Metal materials: basic characteristic, structure, magnetic, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance. Chemical Engineering and Technologv a. Separation processes b. Automation of chemical processes c. Niochemical engineering applications d. Electrochemical engineering applications and its synthesis e. Catalysis and reaction engineering 97 Environmental Eneineerine a. Drinking water quality improvement b. Low-cost high-efficiency wastewater treament technology c. Air pollution control d. Sludge treatment and disposal e. Solid waste handling Electronic and Electrical Engineering a. VLSI process technology b. Computer-aided design for VLSI c. Signal processing d. Digital communication, computer network and satellite communication e. Control system and technology f. Power system and electrical machinery Photoelectronic Eneineering a. Photoelectronic materials and devices b. Optical fiber systems c. Laser systems d. Precision measurement Industrial Enaineerine and Management a. Work study b. Human factor engineering c. Quality control and reliability d. Industrial planning and production management Mechanical Engineering a. Mechanical systems and design of machine elements b. Manufacturing technology c. Solid mechanics, thermodynamics and fluid dynamics d. Power engines Civil and Hydraulic Enaineering a. Seismic risk, typhoon risk, flood control, and fire fighting technique study b. Drought on Taiwan area and reservoir sedimention c. Basement construction technique for city buildings d. Construction management and the materials of construction e. Transportation system analysis and traffic engineering f. Regional and urban planning g. Geotechnical engineering techniques Marine Eneineerint a. Vibration study on ship structures b. Pressure resistance study on ship structures c. Flow fields d. Motion characteristics of high-speed planning boats e. Ship automation 98 Energy Science a. Characteristic studies of oil, coal, natural gas, and nuclear energies b. Solar energy, wind energy, and energy from biomass c. Energy conservation Food En2ineerin2 a. Energy saving process b. New packaging materials and technology development c. Food additives d. Quality assurance technology Bioeneineerin2 a. Detection transducer b. Patient analysis system and its software c. Medical materials Science Curriculum Education a. The improvement of mathematics and science curricula b. The framework for the development of mathematics and science curriculum in elementary, secondary and higher education Student Leaming Characteristics a. The application of cognitive science in science education b. The development of the scientific concepts in students c. The characteristics of scientifically gifted students Instruction a. Models of individualized instruction b. The application of educational technology to science education Evaluation and Assessment a. Methodologies and instruments of curriculum evaluation b. Assessment of learning achievement Pre-service and In-service education of mathematics and science teachers a. Characteristics of science teachers b. In-service education of mathematics and science teachers Computer and science education a. Application of computer in mathematics and science education b. Impact of computer on mathematics and science education c. Information education in all levels of education Humanities and Studies on Traditional Culture and Historv Social Sciences a. Confucianism and China's modernization b. Chinese family studies: structure, function, and change c. Science and technology in traditional Chinese culture d. The development of education policies and educational systems in contemporary Chinese history e. Chinese language and literature d. Chinese literary criticism 99 Contemnorarv Social Problems in Taiwan a. Data bank on social change b. Developmental experience in Taiwan c. The aged d. Environmental pollution and public nuisance e. Crime f. Patent, computer, and communication law g. Industrial economics and market structure h. Industrial development and structural change i. Management in the context of Chunese culture j. Science policy and management k. Local self-govemment and election problems 1. Social stratification and social mobility m. Population problems Comnarative Studies on Chinese Culture and Westemn Culture a. Comparative studies on Chinese and Western philosophies b. Influence of Western literature on modem Chinese writers Source: Ten-Year Science and Technology Development Plan (1986-1995). 100 Annex 8.2 Strategic Industrial Technology Areas Industrial Materials a. Basic capability of metal, high polymers, fine ceramic, opto-electronic and material characterization. b. Corrosion prevention and nondestructive testing technology. c. New materials and their application such as the next generation of semi- conductors, new structural magnetic and sensor materials. d. Materials technology Information Industry a. Technologies of expert systems b. Office automation demonstration systems and computerized training tools, discrimination technologies of Chinese voice input. Information Electronics a. Designing and manufacturing capability of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. b. Data communication, artificial intelligence and high performance microcomputer peripheral devices. c. Technologies of designing, manufacturing, and application testing on computer peripheral devices. d. Development capability of key electronic components and materials. e. Quality technologies for electronic products and calibration capabilities certified by international standards agencies. Chemical Industry a. Dynamic simulation and automatic control technology for chemical processes. b. High value-added specialty chemicals and high performance polymers. c. Pollution control technologies. d. Technology of waste recovery e. New processes and catalysts for saving energy and reducing pollution. Biotechnology a. Technology of purification and composition and manufacture of biochemical substances. b. Enzymatic and fermentation technology. c. Tissue culture technology and hybridoma. d. Development and manufacture of genetic engineering products. e. Use of biotechnology to reduce environmental pollution. Energy a. Energy conservation technologies for buildings and transportation. b. Energy exploration technology. c. Controlling energy-related pollution. d. Technologies for energy regeneration. Mining a. New technology for enhancing coal utilization. b. Exploration of rare metal deposits. c. Purifying technology for domestic quartz. d. Remote sensing and mining technology. e. Geotechnology. f. Exportation of mining technologies. 101 Metal Processing a. Designing and manufacturing of computer-aided mold/dies. Technology b. Welding and automation technologies. c. Metal finishing and heat treatment technologies. d. Metal forming technologies. Mechanical Industry a. Non-conventional and ultra-precision machining technologies. Technologies b. Power machinery designing and manufacturing technologies. c. Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) systems. d. Key component parts. e. Precision measuring instrument and measuring technologies. f. Industrial machinery and automation application technologies. Optoelectronic a. Manufacturing technologies of optoelectronic materials and parts. Technologies b. Key optoelectronic technologies and their application. c. Optoelectronic technologies as applied to conventional industries. d. Optoelectronics-based area network and peripherals. Development and a. Enhancement of water resources observation facilities and establishment of Utilization of Water databases for water resources. Resources b. Promotion of water resources studies and experiments. c. Development, distribution, management, and recycling of water resources. Source: Ten-Year Science and Technoloov Development Plan (1986-1995 . 102 Annex 8.3 Strategic Communications Areas Telecommunications a. Integrated services digital network. b. Network planning technologies. c. Systems planning research. d. Application software in telecommunications. e. Software for switching systems. f. Outside plant technology. g. Basic and applied research in telecommunications. h. Digital signal processing. i. Space communication technologies. l____________________ j. Undersea optical fiber cable technology. Meteorology a. Typhoon, tide, wave, and heavily rainfall forecast. b. Nowcasting systems. c. Numerical weather prediction models. d. Conmputer systems renewal. e. Objective forecast techniques of model output statistics. f. Satellite image data processing techniques. g. Work stations between meteorological organizations and departments of government. Transportation a. Second freeway in the north, central, and south regions, north-south high speed railway and round-island railway. b. Deep-water port development, round-island coastal shipping, offshore-island transportation and the integrated harbor development. c. Integrated tnnsportation system of Taiwan, and mass rapid transit in Taipei. Marine a. Durability of marine structures. Technology b. Coastal pollution. c. Establishment of oceanographic and meteorological measurement net and related data file around Taiwan. d. Dynamic behavior of soils and coastal areas of Taiwan. Postal Administration a. Improvement of postal machinery and equipment for the acceleration of automation in postal services. b. Management information system for postal services. c. Electronic mail delivery system. Source: Ten-Year Science and Technologv Development Plan (1986-1995). 103 Annex 8.4 Strategic Agricultural Areas Agriculture a. Farmland planning and utilization adjustment. b. Development of crops of high economic value. c. Development of new plant protection technologies. d. Conservation of agricultural environment and control of toxic substances. e. Development of farm machinery that meets the local meteorological and farming practice need. £ Improvement in water resources utilization, soil fertility, and use of fertilizers. g. Improvements of techniques for postharvest treatment, transportation and storage of agricultural products. Forestry a. Ecological conservation, recreation forest areas planning, cultivation of multi-purpose tree species, control of forest diseases and animal pests, and technology development for labor-intensive silviculture and harvest. b. Production and processing of composite wood, promotion of furniture manufacturing industry, and improvement of paper pulp production techniques to minimize environmental pollution hazard. c. Utilization of forestry by-products as possible sources of aromatic substances, medicines, and food to heighten their value. d. Slopeland conservation, water shed management, and natural scenery preservation. e. Promotion of reforestation and introduction of new techniques for selection cutting. Fishery a. Improvement of farming fishery system, conservation and management of fishing ground, improvement of techniques for production and release of marine seeds, and strengthening of coastal and shallow sea fisheries management. b. Development of cultural techniques for high value sea fishes, establishment of aquaculture management system, improvement of land and water resources utilization, establishment of monitoring and waming system for water quality and quality of fishery products, establishment of province-wide network for fish disease research and control. c. Establishment of remote sensing techniques for the collection of hydrographic data and assessment of fishery resources and construction of large research vessels for the exploration of distant water fishery resources. Livestock & a. Improvement of varieties of pig and poultry and establishment of nutritional Poultry standards for the latter. b. Modeling research on subtropical dairy and meat cattle. c. Pollution control on animal waste. d. Development of methods for assaying the validity of animal vaccines and chemicals for livestock and poultry. 104 Application of a. Techniques for plant breeding and propagation and for storage of seeds of Biotechnology subtropical and tropical plants. b. Production of vaccines for husbandry animals and fishes. c. Development of agricultural and animal chemicals and of disease diagnostic reagents. d. Development of techniques for animal embryo transfer and for livestock variety improvement. e. Biotechnologies applicable to food processing. Food Science and a. Formulation of overall plans for enhancing food technology development. technology b. Improvement of food safety, quality and packing, establishment of operation guidelines and issuing of good quality marks. c. Improvement in the processing of traditional Chinese food and frozen prepared food, and promotion of modem quick meals. d. Promotion of automation of food processing. e. Development of high value processed food. Source: Ten-Year Science and Technologv Development Plan (1986-1995). 105 Annex 8.5 Strategic Medical and Health Areas Diseases of Public Health a. Hepatitis and other prevalent infectious diseases including nosocomial Importance infections, drug-resistant bacteria, infectious dysentery, sexually transmitted diseases, and zoonosis. b. Hypertension, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, stroke and other health problems of the elderly. c. Cancer. d. Mental disorders. Environmental a. Health effects of pollution. Protection b. Manufacturing process of low pollution and control and treatment of water, air, soil, noise, vibration and refuse pollution. c. Monitoring of pollutants and biological testing of environmental quality. d. Investigation of natural resources and their conservation. e. Economic, social, and cultural aspects of environmental protection. Dug and Medical a. Local manufacture of pharmaceutical raw materials and products and Devices promotion of domestic pharmaceutical industry. b. Local manufacture of medical devices and development of biomedical engineering specialty. c. Development of drug evaluation system and relevant criteria for evaluation. Food Sanitation and a. Food contaminants. Nutrition b. Nutritional status of Chinese population. c. Relationship between nutrition and diseases. d. Analysis of food composition. e. Development of testing techniques for food sanitation. Toxicology a. Toxicological survey and research. b. Establishment of toxic substances database. c. Establishment of toxicological laboratory network. Blood Technology a. Development of blood component therapy and blood stratification techniques. b. Development of HLA typing techniques. c. Transfusion reaction. d. Transfusion support problem of leukemia and bone marrow transplant. e. Development of blood substitutes. Eugenics a. Development of techniques of fetal diagnosis of hereditary diseases. b. Screening and treatment of inherited diseases among newbom babies. Medical and Health Care a. Primary health care. Systems b. Hospital administration. c. Clinical laboratory quality assurance system. d. Strengthening of public health laboratory services. e. Studies on the separation of medical and pharmaceutical practices. f. Studies on health insurance system. Source: Ten-Year Science and Technoloey Developnment Plan (1986-1995). 106 References Academia Sinica. 1990. Introduction to Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences. Taipei: Academia Sinica. Altbach, Philip (eds.). 1989. Scientific Development and Hi2ber Education: The Case of Newlv Industrialized Nations. New Yor'k: Praeger. Ballantine, Jeane and Edith W. King. 1990. "The Concept of Good Teaching in Universities around the World." Paper prepared for the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA, April 16- 20. Bohi, Bojana. 1991. "Environmental Education in Asian Countries. " Asia Technical Departmental Paper Series, No. 1, World Bank, Washington, D.C. The Cambridge Historv of China, Vols. II and III, 1980. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Chang, Ping-Tung and George Chien-Chi Tsui. 1984. tMathematics In-service program in the Province of Taiwan, Republic of China: Its Development, Implementation, and Evaluation." Paper presented at the International Congress on Mathematics Education, Adelaide, Australia, August 28, 1984. Chang, Shirley Hsiu-Chu Lin. 1988. "Taiwan's Brain Drain: A Case Study." Master's Thesis, Pennsylvania State University. Chang, Tien-Jin Frank. 1986. "Taiwan Industrial Vocational Education: The Personnel Development Program. " Paper presented at the International Conference of the American Vocational Association and the International Vlocational Education and Training Association in Dallas, TX, December 5-9, 1986 _________1983. "Curriculum Development and Adaptation in Vocational Education in Taiwan, Republic of China. " Paper presented at the American Vocational Association Convention, Anaheim, CA, December 1-6, 1983. Chen, Gerald C. and Mingfa Shihi. 1989. "Vocational Education at the Crossroad: The Case of Taiwan." Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the International Vocational Education and Training Association, Orlando, Florida, December 1-5, 1989. Clark, Cal. 1989. Taiwan's Development: Implications for Contendin2 Political Economv Paradigms. New York: Greenwood Press. Coward H. Roberts. 1991la. "Performance Indicators As Tool For Research Management: The Development and Application of Bibliometric Analyses for the 1990s. " Arlington: SRI International. ________. 1991lb. "Literature-Based Indicator Techniques for Profiling Science and Technology Infrastructure in Developing Countries." The Economnics of Technology Workcing Paper No. 4, Arlington: SRI International. _________and Ronald R. Fresne. 1990. "Research Activity in the Pacific Rim Nations: Survey of A 1988 Bibliometric Database." Prepared for U.S. National Science Foundation, Arlington: SRI Inlternational. Cumnmings, William. 1993. Global Trends in Overseas Studv. The Institute of International Education, In Press. Dablman, Carl. 1990. "Building Technological Capability in Developing Countries and the Role of the World Bank." Mimeo, January. 107 and Ousa Sananikone. 1990. 'Technology Strategy in the Economy of Taiwan: Exploiting Foreign Linkages and Investing in Local Capability." Preliminary Draft. . 1991. 'Information Technology Strategies: Brazil and the East Asian Newly Industrializing Economies." Paper presented at the seminar, Brazilian Informatics in Transition: Government Policy and International Trends in the 1990s, Rio de Janeiro, August 7-9, 1991. de Bary, William Theodore et. al. 1960. Sources of Chinese Tradition. New York: Columbia University Press. ______*. The Tradition of Liberalism in China. 1983. (In Chinese translation). Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. Duo, Jeong-Feong; and Steve Chi-Yin Yuen. 1988. "A National Study of Microcomputer Use in Industrial Engineering and Management Education in Taiwan, Republic of China." Paper presented at the American Vocational Association Convention in St. Louis, MO, December 5, 1988. The Economist Intelligence Unit. Various years. Taiwan, Country Profile: Annual Survey of Political and Economic Background. 1993-94. London: The Economist. Various years. Taiwan. Country Report: Analysis of Economic and Political Trends Every Ouarter. No. 2. 1993. London: The Economist. Educational Testing Service. 1992. Learning Mathematics. The International Assessment of Educational Progress, Report No. 22-CAEP-01. . 1992. Learning Science. The International Assessment of Educational Progress. Report No. 22- CAEP-02. Eisemon, Thomas and Charles H. Davis. 1989. "Publication Strategies of Scientists in Four Peripheral Asian Scientific Communities: Some Issues and the Present Interpretation of Non-Mainstream Science." in Philip Altbach (eds.) Scientific Development and Higher Education: The Case of Newly Industrialized Nations. New York: Praeger, p. 325-376. Epstein, Erwin and Wei-Fan Kuo. 1991. "Higher Education." in Douglas Smith (eds.) The Confucian Continuum: Educational Modernization in Taiwan. New York: Praeger, p. 167-217. Evenson, R.E. and G. Ranis (eds.) 1990. Science and Technolo2v: Lessons for Development Policy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Fairbank, John K.; Edwin 0. Reischauer; and Albert M. Craig. 1973. East Asia. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Fang, Rong-Jyue and Shin-Gia Kuo. 1988. "A Study of Integrated Instruction for Flexible Manufacturing Systems." Paper presented at the American Vocational Association Convention, St. Louis, MO, December, 5, 1988. Fei, John C. H., Gustav Ranis, and Shirley W. Y. Kuo. 1979. Growth with Equity: The Taiwan Case. Published for the World Bank by Oxford University Press, New York. Flack, Bruce C. 1987. "Faculty Development Practices in Taiwan Higher Education." Report, EDRS. Gaillard, Jacques and Erik Thulstrup. 1993. 'North-South Cooperation: Contributions to Research Capacity Building." World Bank Education and Social Policy Department, Washington, D.C. Draft. 108 Government of Republic of China (Taiwan (China)). 1992. Education Statistical Indicators. Taipei: Ministry of Education. . 1991. Educational Statistics of the Republic of China. Taipei: Ministry of Education. . 1988. Education in the Republic of China. Taipei: Ministry of Education. *_______* .1990. Higher Education in the Republic of China. Taipei: Ministry of Education. . 1992. Hip-her Education Statistics. Taipei: Ministry of Education. ( t t i . 1991. Indicators of Science and Technoloev. Taipei: National Science Council, Executive Yuan. . 1992. List of Universities. Colleges and Junior Colleges in the Republic of China. Taipei: Ministry of Education. . 1992. Manvower Indicators. Taipei: Manpower Planning Department, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan. . 1988. National Science and Technologv Development. Taipei: Science and Technology Advisory Group, the Executive Yuan. . Various years. National Science Council Review. Taipei: National Science Council. . 1992. National Science Council Prospectus. Taipei: National Science Council. ( ' $ 1'J . 1991. Proceedings of International Symposium on Science Education. June 21-22. 1991. Sponsored by Ministry of Education and hosted by the Science Education Center of National Taiwan University. . 1991. Projection of the Population of the Taiwan Area. Republic of China 1990 to 2036. Taipei: Manpower Planning Department, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan. . 1988. Proiection of the Demand for and Supplv of High-Level Science and Technoloev Manpower. Prepared by the College of Engineering of National Taiwan University for the Manpower Plannin Department, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan. ( * 4 W 1 /x ' 'I . 1988 and 1990. Report on the Study of Basic Science Education in Senior Secondary Education. Prepared by the Science catin Center of National Taiwan Univeirsity for the Ministry of Education. Reports No. 1 and 2. (;22ttg % 0 X -i . 1990. Revort on the Work Experiences Survey in Taiwan Area. Republic of China. 1989. Taipei: Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting, and Statistics, Executive Yuan. . Various years. Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of China. Taipei: Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and Statistics, Executive Yuan. . Various years. Taiwan Statistical Data Book. Taipei: Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan. 109 . 1991. The Six-Year National Development Plan for Taiwan Republic of China (1991-1996). Taipei: Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan. . 1986. The Republic of China Ten Year Science and Technologv Development Plan (1986-1995). Taipei: National Science Council. . 1991. Science-Based Industrial Park Annual Report. . 1989. Technology Development. Taipei: Ministry of Economic Affairs. . 1988. Yearbook of Science and Technology. Taipei: National Science Council. . 1989. Policy To Develop High-Level Manpower. Taipei: Manpowier Planning Committee, Council for Economic Development Planning, Executive Yuan. ( v / l t1 i ) . 1989. A Study on the Improvement of Promotion System for Higher Education Faculty Members. Taipei: Development Review Committee, Executive Council. ( /E 4 , . 1990. A Study on the Classification of Academic Departments in Higher Education. Taipei: Development Review Committee, Executive Yuan. ( tt . 1e j S )-~~~~~~~~~~~~~- . 1987. A Study on the Recruitment and Remuneration Compensation of Faculty Members in Higher Education. Taipei: Development Review Committee, Executive Yuan. ( W t . 1991. Discussion Parers on Family. School. and Societv. Taipei: Development Review Committee, ExecutiveYuan. ( L f s Haggard, Stephen. 1990. Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. L___ and Steven B. Webb. 1991. "What Do We Know About the Political Economy of Policy Reform?" Draft. Hepler, Chester W. 1967. Manpower Planning for Prosperity. 1964-67. Taipei: Council for International Economic Cooperation and Development. Hoffmann, Roald. 1992. "Some Reflections on Science in the Low-Income Economies." World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE/92n1, Washington, D.C. Hsieh, H. Steve. 1989. 'University Education and Research in Taiwan.' in Philip Altbach (eds.) Scientific Development and Higher Education: The Case of Newly Industrialized Nations. New York: Praeger, p. 177-214. Hsu, Immanuel C. Y. 1983. The Rise of Modern China. New York: Oxford University Press. Hughes, Philip. 1984. "Social and Technological Interaction with Education: Redesigning Structures, Preparing personnel." Asian Programme of Educational Innovation for Development, Occasional Paper No. 13. Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 1991. "Asiapower: Poised for Technological Leadership." Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers. 110 Jacoby, Neil H. 1966. U.S. Aid to Taiwan: A Study of Foreign Aid. Self-Help. and Development. New York: Praeger. Kao, Charles H.C. 1971. Brain Drain. Taipei: Mei Ya Intemational Edition. Kao, Anthony Y.C. 1968. The Role of Land Reform in Economic Development: A Case Study of Taiwan. New York, Praeger. Katz, Martin R. 1985. 'The Buddha and the Computer: Career Guidance in Taiwan.' Princeton: Educational Testing Service, ETS-RR-85-35. Kells, H. 1992. 'Performance Indicators for Higher Education: A Critical Review with Policy Recommendations.' PHREE/92/56, World Bank, Washington, D.C. Kodama, Fumio. 1991. 'Emerging Trajectory of the Pacific Rim: Concepts, Evidences, and New Schemes.' Presented at Pacific Rim Technology Conference at the Fletcher School, tuft University, October 4-6, 1991. Kruytbosch, Carlos. 1993. "Science and Technology Indicators in Developed and Developing Countries: Availability, Quality, and Utility." World Bank Education and Social Policy Department Discussion Paper, Washington, D.C., Draft. Kamioka, Naoko. 1993. 'Vocational/Technical Secondary Education: The case of South Korea, Japan, Singapore, and Malaysia." Prepared for LA4HR, the World Bank, Washington, D.C. Kuo, Shirley W. Y. 1983. The Taiwan Economy in Transition. Boulder: Westview Press. Kung, Wen-kuang. 1986. "Taiwan Personnel Development program. The Vocational Training Program in Taiwan, Republic of China." Paper presented at the International Vocational Education and Training Association, Dallas TX, December, 1986. Lau, Lawrence I.; Dean T. Jamison; and Frederic F. Louat. 1991. "Education and Productivity in Developing Countries: An Aggregate Production Function Approach." World Bank Policy, Research, and Extemal Affairs Working Papers No. 612, Washington, D.C. Lin, Chung-Cheng. 1990. "Manpower Development Programs and Projections for Taiwan." in Intemational Conference on Technologic Manpower Policy. Februarv 20. 1990: Seminar PaMers. Seoul: Korea Institute for Economics and Technology. Lee, Lung-Sheng Steven. 1990. "A Perspective of Technology Education in Taiwan, Republic of China." Paper presented at the Intemational Technology Education Association Conference, April 2, 1990. Myers, Ramon H. (eds.) 1991. The Republic of China and the People's Renublic of China after 40 years. Stanford: Hoover Institution Press. Mansfield, Edwin. 1993. "Economic Retums from Investments in Research and Training." Prepared for the World Bank Education and Social Policy Department, Draft. Nehru, Vikram, Eric Swanson and Ashutosh Dubey. 1993. 'A New Database on Human Capital Stock: Sources, Methodology, and Results." World Bank International Economics Department Policy Research Working Paper No. 1125, Washington, D.C.. 111 Pan, Hui-Ling and H. Steve Hsieh. 1989. The Scientific Research Environment in Taiwan.' in Philip Altbach (eds.) Scientific Development and Higher Education: The Case of Newlv Industrialized Nations. New York: Praeger. Pang, Chien-Kuo. 1992. The State and Economic Transformation: The Taiwan Case. New York: Garland Publishing Company. Parker, Linda. 1992. 'Industry-University Collaboration in Developed and Developing Countries." World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE/92164, Washington, D.C. Parker, Franldin. 1986. "History of Chinese Education and Culture: Annotated Bibliography." Personal communication with Ying-Nan Chiu, Academician, Academic Sinica; Fellow, American Physical Society, USA; and Professor, Department of Chemistry, the Catholic University of America, USA. Personal communication with Pei-Chi Chang, Director of Manpower Planning Department, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Tien-Chih Yen, Senior Manpower Specialist, Council for Economic Planning and Development, Executive Yuan, Taiwan (China), and Associate Professor of National Cheng-Chi University. Personal communication with Hung-Chih Shih, Director and Professor, Division of International Programs, National Science Council, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Tai-Lin Peng, Acting Director, Environmental Planning and Management Division, Hsin-Chu Science-Based Industrial Park Administration, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Rong-Fu Hsu, Director, Division of Science Education, National Science Council, and Professor of National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Mei-Hung Chiu, Associate Professor, Graduate Institute of Science Education, National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Bing-Jyun Wang, Associate Professor, Graduate Institute of Business, National Cheng- Chi University, Taiwan (China). Personal communication with Peter Ting, General Manager, Hsin-Lin Computer Company, Taiwan (China). Psacharopoulos, George. 1993. "Returns to Investment in Education: A Global Update." Latin America and the Caribbean Policy Research Working Papers No. 1067, Washington D.C.: World Bank. Republic of China Yearbook 1991-92, Tapei: Kwang Hwa Publishing Company. Scott, Maurice FG. 1991. 'A New View of Economic Growth: Four Lectures." World Bank Discussion Papers No. 131, Washington, D.C. Schultz, T. Paul. 1988. -Education Investment and Returns." in Hollis B. Chenery and T. N. Srinivasan (eds) Handbook of Development Economics. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. 112 Simon, Denis Fred. 1991. "Globalization and Regionalization of the Pacific Rim: The Technological Dimensions.' Paper prepared for the conference entitled, "The Emerging Technological Trajectory of the Pacific Rim," Held at the Fletcher School of Law & Diplomacy, Tufts University in Medford Massachusetts, October 4-6, 1991. and Jung-Ho Kim (eds.) 1993. The Evolving Structure and Characteristics of the Global Technologv Market. Papers and Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Evolving Structure and Characteristics of the Global Technology Market, January 12-13, 1993, Seoul, Korea. Korea Institute for Industrial Economics and Trade * and Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy. Seoul: Eun Kwang. Smith, Douglas C. 1986. Academocracv: A Critical Analysis of Higher. Adult and Non-traditional Education in Contemnorarv Taiwan. _ 1986. Lessons from Afar: The Chinese High School in Modern Taiwan and Other Essays. Taipei: Pacific Cultural Foundation. _. 1991. The Confucian Continuum: Educational Modernization in Taiwan. New York: Praeger. Stevenson, Harold W.; Max Lunnmis; Shinying Lee; and James W. Stigler. 1990. Makine the Grades in Mathematics: Elementary School Mathematics in the United States. Taiwan. and Japan. Reston: The National Council of Teachers' of Mathematics. 1 1990. 'Education and National Development-Reflection from Taiwan's Experience." Mimeo. 1 1992. 'Learning from Asian Schools." Scientific America. Vol. 267, No. 6, p. 70-75. Stevenson, Harold W.; Chuansheng Chen; & Shin-Ying Lee. 1993. 'Mathematics Achievement of Chinese, Japanese, and American Children: Ten Years Later." Science. Vol. 259, p. 53-59. Sutter, Robert G. 1988. Taiwan: Entering the 21st Century. Lanham: University Press of America. Tan, Jee-Peng and Alain Mingat. 1992. Education in Asia: A ComRarative Study of Cost and Financine. World Bank Regional and Sectoral Studies. Washington, D.C. fhulstrup, Erik. 1992. "Improving the Quality of Research in Developing Country Universities." World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE/92/52, Washington, D.C. . 1992. "World Bank Lending for Science and Technology." in Society. Science and Government. Warsaw, Poland: State Committee for Scientific Research. _ 1992. 'Evaluation Report: The Bilateral Program for Enhancement of Research Capacity in Developing Countries." Copenhagen: DANIDA. _ 1993. "Science Education for Development." World Bank Education and Social Policy Discussion Paper, Washington, D.C., Draft. . 1993. 'Scientific Research for Development." World Bank Education and Social Policy Discussion Paper, Washington, D.C., Draft. Wade, Robert. 1989. 'What Can Economies Learn from East Asian Success?" in Annals of the American Academy of Political Science. p. 68-79. 113 . 1990. Goveming the Market: Economnic Theora and The Role of the Government in East Asian Industrialization. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Ware, Sylvia. 1992a. 'Secondary School Science in Developing Countries: Status and Issues.' World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE/92153, Washington, D.C. . 1992b. "The Education of Secondary Science Teachers in Developing Countries." World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE/92/68, Washington, D.C. Wei, Ming-Tung. 1991. Report on Tracer Studies of Gifted Senior High School Students. Report for the first and tb secondyear of study. Sgience Education Center, National Taiwan Normal University. ( i 4 & ft 'ias'u tzi ) Wilson, Kenneth M. 1986. 'The Relationship of GRE General Test Scores to First-Year Grades for Foreign Graduate Students: Report of a Cooperative Study." Princeton: Educational Testing Service. World Bank. Various years. World Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press. ______ The East Asian Miracle: Economic Growth and Public Policy. Policy Research Report, Discussion Draft, Washington, D.C. Wu, Kin Bing. 1992. 'Higher Education in Hong Kong: Investment in Science and Technology During the Time of Political and Economic Change." World Bank Population and Human Resources Department Education and Employment Division, PHREE192/70, Washington, D.C. 1993. "Science Education in Hong Kong." World Bank Education and Social Policy Department Background Paper Series Nr. 8, Washington, D.C. 1993. "Science and Technology Education in South Korea." World Bank Education and Social Policy Department Background Paper Series, Washington, D.C. Draft. . 1986. The Modern Transformation. 1760-1970. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. Wu, Rosalind et. al. 1986. "Academic Achievement of Republic of China students Using Old and New Mathematics and Science Curriculum." Paper presented at the Sino-Japanese Symposium on Science Education, Taipei, Taiwan, January 6-8, 1986. Wu, Wen-Hsing; Shun-Fen Chen; and Chen-Tsou Wu, 1989. "The Development of Higher Education in Taiwan." Hieher Education, Vol. 18, No. 1. UNESCO. Various years. Statistical Yearbook. Paris: UNESCO. United States National Science Board. 1991. Science and Eneineerine Indicators. Tenth Edition, Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. United States National Science Foundation. 1991. International Science and Technolofv Data Update: 1991., Special Report, NSF 91-309, Washington, D.C.: National Science Foundation. 114 1993. Human Resources for Science and Technologv: The Asian Region. Survey of Science Resources Series, NSF 93-303. . 1985. Foreign Citizens in US Science and Enzineering: History. Status, and Outlook. National Science Foundation Special Report, NSF 86-305. Yang, Shen-Keng. 1992. 'Reforms of Teacher Education Programs in Cultural Contexts." Paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Conference of the Comparative and International Education Society. Annapolis, MD, U.S.A., March 12-15, 1992. _ _ 1992. 'Time Category in the Study of Educational Reform." in Proceedings of the National Science Council. Part C: Humanities and Social Sciences. Vol. 1. No. 2, pp. 253-250. Yang, Yi-Rong. 1990. "The Impact of Industrialization on Cultural and Educational Development in Taiwan." Mimeo. 115