1 Forces of  NATURE Forces of NATURE Editors World Bank Juliana Castaño-Isaza Simone Lee Saurabh Dani Authors UCSC, IH Cantabria, and TNC Assessment and Economic Valuation Michael W. Beck of Coastal Protection Services Siddharth Narayan Iñigo J. Losada Provided by Mangroves in Jamaica Antonio Espejo Hermosa Saul Torres Ortega Sheila Abad Herrero UWI Arpita Mandal Rose-Ann Smith Taneisha Edwards Robert Kinlocke Simon Mitchell Mona Webber Camilo Trench Patrice Francis Adrian Spence Peter E.T. Edwards Forces of  NATURE Assessment and Economic Valuation of Coastal Protection Services Provided by Mangroves in Jamaica Forces of NATURE © 2019 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / International Development Association or The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202- 473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and RIGHTS AND PERMISSIONS conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World The material in this work is subject to Assessment and Economic Valuation Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, of Coastal Protection Services or the governments they represent. this work may be reproduced, in whole or Provided by Mangroves in Jamaica The World Bank does not guarantee in part, for non-commercial purposes as the accuracy of the data included in long as full attribution to this work is given. this work. The boundaries, colours, denominations, and other information SUGGESTED CITATION shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank. 2019. “Forces of Nature: World Bank concerning the legal status Assessment and Economic Valuation of any territory or the endorsement of Coastal Protection Services or acceptance of such boundaries. Provided by Mangroves in Jamaica”. Forces of  NATURE Acknowledgments Dr. Michael W. Beck (UCSC and TNC), Dr. Siddharth Narayan, (UCSC), Dr. Iñigo GOVERNMENT OF JAMAICA LEADERSHIP AND CONTRIBUTION for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU). In addition, J. Losada (IHC), Dr. Antonio it would like to recognize the The “Forces of Nature: Assess- SLCUR), Valerie Hickey and natural resources led by Espejo Hermosa (IHC), Dr. During the development of contributions made by the IKI ment and Economic Valuation (Practice Manager, SLCEN), Juliana Castaño-Isaza (Senior Saul Torres Ortega (IHC), “Forces of Nature: Assessment Resilient Island and Ecosys- of Coastal Protection Services Werner Kornexl (Sr Natural Consultant in Disaster Risk & and Sheila Abad Herrero and Economic Valuation of tem-based Adaptation projects, Provided by Mangroves in Resources Mgmt. Spec, Natural Resources Manage- (IHC). The extended team Coastal Protection Services and the Kingfisher Foundation. Jamaica”, is the result of a SEAE2), Garo Batmanian ment, SLCUR) who provided for this study was comprised Provided by Mangroves in The team would like to World Bank analytical support (Lead Environment Specialist, overall leadership, and Simone of Donna Blake (TNC), Dr. Jamaica”, invaluable support recognize the support provided funded by the Program on SENGL), Saurabh Dani Lee (Local Consultant, Steve Schill (TNC), and and leadership were provided by Cecilia De Santis (WB), Forests (PROFOR), which (Task Team Leader DVRP SLCUR), who coordinated Laura Flessner (TNC). by Andrea Donaldson, An- Marcela Nandllely González started in 2017 at the request and Senior DRM Specialist, this effort at the local level and thony McKenzie, Ainsworth (WB), Michelle Palmer (WB), of the Government of Jamaica SLCUR), Vanessa Velasco provided invaluable technical The University of the West Carroll, Monique Curtis, Montserrat Acosta-Morel through the National Envi- Bernal (co-Task Team Leader inputs. Saurabh Dani (Task Indies (UWI) Mona campus Gabrielle-Jae Watson, and (TNC), Natainia Lumen ronment and Planning Agency DVRP and Urban Develop- Team Leader DVRP and Sr. in Kingston Jamaica Kellie Gough, from the (TNC), and Amitabh Sharma. (NEPA), and the Office of ment Specialist, SLCUR), DRM Specialist, SLCUR) developed the technical study National Environment and The development of this Disaster Preparedness and Roland Bradshaw (Senior provided overall supervision “Local Scale Assessments on Planning Agency (NEPA); study benefited greatly from Emergency Management DRM Specialist, SLCUR), and ensured alignment with Mangrove Ecosystems Status and and Anna-Kay Spaulding, technical guidance and dis- (ODPEM). Numerous entities Eric Dickson (Senior Urban the Jamaica Disaster Vulner- their Role in Coastal Resilience”, and Michele Edwards from cussions with the Christopher and professionals interested and DRM Specialist, SAFU2), ability Reduction Project. and the “Mangroves Monitoring the Office of Disaster Pre- Perry and Louisa Evans in the subject participated Glenn-Marie Lange (Senior The complete method- and Evaluation Manual- paredness and Emergency (University of Exeter), the and an important group of Environmental Economist, ologies, data collection and Jamaica”. The UWI Mona Management (ODPEM). Caribbean Coastal Area Man- collaborators made possible SENGL), Sylvia Michele analytics were led by a team team was formed by Dr. Arpita Technical contributions were agement Foundation (CCAM), the materialization of this Diez (Senior Environmental of specialists that produced Mandal, Dr. Rose-Ann Smith, also provided by the Technical and the Montego Bay Marine study. This analytical work Specialist, SLCEN), Brenden four technical studies, Dr. Taneisha Edwards, Dr. Working Group comprised of Park Trust (MBMPT). is linked to the World Bank Jongman (DRM Specialist, which were used for the Robert Kinlocke, Dr. Simon Stacey-Anne Preston ( Jamaica Special thanks are Jamaica Disaster Vulnerability SAFU2), Alvina Elisabeth elaboration of this report. Mitchell from the Department Social Investment Fund), extended to all the research Reduction Project (DVRP). Erman (Economist, GFDRR), These technical institutions of Geography and Geology; Le-Anne Roper (Planning assistants, and undergrad- The team especially wishes and Laura Ivers (Senior Com- and lead authors included: Dr. Mona Webber, Camilo Institute of Jamaica), Johanna uate and graduate students to thank the Program on For- munications Officer, SENGL). Trench, and Patrice Francis, Richards (Water Resources from UWI MONA that ests (PROFOR) for financing The University of from the Centre for Marine Authority), and Howard were involved in the data this product, and for the guid- LEADING AUTHORS California Santa Cruz Science; and Dr. Adrian Prendergast and Krystal Lyn collection and analytics. ance and leadership provided (UCSC), the Environmental Spence from the International (National Works Agency). Finally, the team would by World Bank staff including AND EDITORS Hydraulics Institute (IH Centre for Environmental and like to express gratitude to Tahseen Sayed (Caribbean The “Forces of Nature: Assess- Cantabria), and The Nuclear Sciences (ICENS). ADDITIONAL SUPPORT Andrés Barragán, Mateo Country Director, LCC3C), ment and Economic Valuation of Nature Conservancy (TNC) Zúñiga, Guillermo Torres, Ozan Sevimli ( Jamaica Coastal Protection Services Pro- developed the technical study Dr. Peter E.T. Edwards, The team would like to Diego Cobos, Felipe Caro, Country Manager, LCC3C), vided by Mangroves in Jamai- “The Flood Protection Benefits developed the technical acknowledge additional support and Sebastián Calderón from Sameh Naguib Wahba (Global ca”, was coordinated by a group and Restoration Costs for study “Valuation of Selected provided by the International PuntoAparte., for translating Director, SURDR), Ming of World Bank specialists Mangroves in Jamaica”. Lead Ecosystem Service Co-Benefits Climate Initiative (IKI) and complex scientific data into clear Zhang (Practice Manager, in disaster risk management authors of this study included Beyond Coastal Protection”. the German Federal Ministry illustrations and infographics. 4 5 Forces of  NATURE Message from the National Environment and Planning Agency of Jamaica FIGURE 1 This World Bank study Caribbean funded by the Program on population living in coastal zone. Forests (PROFOR) recognizes the importance of coastal ecosystems and highlights the contribution of mangrove forests to coastal resilience and reduction of vulnerability in the context of climate change impacts. This is particularly important to the Caribbean and Small Island Nations (SIDS) like ourselves, in which the majority of industries and 70% some 70% of the population are located well within the boundaries of what could be considered the coastal zone. The competing interest of conservation vis a vis development, and the need for removal/clearance of these value of coastal resources This Report will provide coastal resources in instances, in terms of disaster risk further quantitative have been challenging for reduction is proving to be measures to inform government regulators and critical at this time, in light the decision-making natural resources managers. of the Country’s National processes and Accounting for the ecological Vision 2030 objectives. Government Policy. 6 © Simone Lee 7 Forces of  NATURE About the Project TECHNICAL CONTRIBUTORS 44 females 62 Jamaicans Jamaica Social (51%) (72%) Investment Fund Stacey-Anne Preston, Environment Officer  Water Resources Authority © Juliana Johanna Richards, Water Castaño- Isaza TOTAL TOTAL Resources Engineer  SITE LEVEL 86 people 86 people National Works Agency ASSESSMENTS UWI Students  Howard Prendergast, Senior University of West Civil Engineer  Ecology and Geology Indies MONA Campus Krystal Lyn, Environmental 3 postgraduate students  Project Lead: Dr. Arpita Engineer  Mandal (Dept. of Geography 4 undergraduate students  and Geology)  4 Research Scientists  FIGURE 2 FIGURE 3 NATIONAL LEVEL Ecology (Dept. of Life Sciences 3 research assistants  Female percentage. Jamaican percentage. ASSESSMENTS and Center for Marine Sciences): Prof. Mona Webber  Socio-Economic University of California World Bank Core Team Santa Cruz and Ms. Patrice Francis  15 undergraduate students from Juliana Castaño-Isaza GOVERNMENT OF JAMAICA IH Cantabria Mr. Camillo Trench  the disaster management class  (Technical Lead)  Dr. Michael W. Beck, 6 postgraduate students  Socio-Economic (Department Leading Entities UCSC and TNC Simone Lee (Local Gabrielle-Jae Watson, of Geography and Geology) 4 field workers  Coordinator)  Environmental Officer, Dr. Siddharth Narayan, UCSC NEPA Dr. Rose Ann Jasmine Smith  Ecosystems Management Saurabh Dani (Task Anthony McKenzie, Director Branch  Dr. Iñigo J. Losada, IHC Dr. Robert Kinlocke  DATA VISUALIZATION Team Leader DVRP) of Environmental Management Dr. Antonio Espejo Peter Edwards (Natural and Conservation Division  Kellie Gough, Planning, Geology (Dept. of Geography Puntoaparte Hermosa, IHC Monitoring, Evaluation and and Geology, and the Resources Economist)  Andrés Barragan Andrea Donaldson, Project Research Branch  Dr. Saul Torres Ortega, IHC International Center for (Manager and Editor) Manager (Agt) IWEco Environmental and Nuclear Extended team Project  ODPEM Dr. Sheila Abad Herrero  Sciences ICENS): Mateo Zúñiga (Infographics) Glenn Marie Lange (Senior Monique Curtis, Manager Michele Edwards, Senior Director Extended Team from The Dr. Taneisha Edwards  Felipe Caro (Infographics) Environmental Economist)  (Agt) Ecosystems Management for Preparedness at the Office Nature Conservancy Guillermo Torres (Illustrator) Prof. Simon Mitchell Alvina Elisabeth Erman Branch  of Disaster Preparedness and Donna Blake  Diego Cobos (Illustrator) (Economist)  Emergency Management  Dr. Adrian Spence  Ainsworth Carroll, Director, Dr. Steve Schill Sebastián Calderón (Illustrator) Roland Bradshaw (Senior Planning Projects Monitoring Anna-Kay Spaulding, Editorial Support: DRM Specialist) and Evaluation Division  Planning Analyst  Laura Flessner  Amitabh Sharma Iván Cortés (Illustrator) 8 9 Forces of  NATURE Original Content and Further Reading This report presents the results generated in four studies conducted under the PROFOR The studies contain the (www.nepa.gov.jm), and grant “Assessment and methodologies, full set of the World Bank’s website Economic Valuation results, and specific references, (documents.worldbank.org). of Coastal Protection and can be downloaded at The following reports were Services Provided by the National Environment produced by the next agencies Mangroves in Jamaica”. Protection Agency’s website and lead authors: “The Flood Protection “Local Scale Assessments “Valuation of Selected Benefits and Restoration on Mangrove Ecosystems Ecosystem Service Co- Costs for Mangroves Status and their Role Benefits Beyond Coastal in Jamaica” in Coastal Resilience”, Protection” Developed by The University and the “Mangroves Developed by Dr. Peter E.T. of California Santa Cruz Monitoring and Evaluation Edwards. (UCSC), the Environmental Manual- Jamaica” Hydraulic Institute of Developed by the University Cantabria (IHC), and The of West Indies MONA Nature Conservancy (TNC). Campus (Kingston, Jamaica). Lead authors included: Dr. Lead authors included: Dr. Michael W. Beck (UCSC- Arpita Mandal, Dr. Rose-Ann In addition to these reports, the TNC), Dr. Siddharth Narayan Smith, Dr. Taneisha Edwards, University of California Santa Cruz (UCSC), Dr. Iñigo J. Losada Dr. Robert Kinlocke, Dr. Simon (UCSC), the Environmental Hydraulic (IHC), Dr. Antonio Espejo Mitchell (Department of Institute of Cantabria (IHC), and Hermosa (IHC), and Dr. Saul Geography and Geology); Dr. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) Torres Ortega (IHC). Mona Webber, Camilo Trench, produced the following online tool: and Patrice Francis (Centre for Marine Science); and Dr. Adrian Spence (International Centre for Environmental and Nuclear Sciences). maps.coastalresilience.org/jamaica 10 © Simone Lee 11 Forces of  NATURE Contents 1 2 3 4 5 6 Local Scale References, The Flood Protection Assessments Mangrove Benefits Limitations Acronyms, List of Executive Mangroves Benefits and on Mangrove Introduction Beyond Flood and Figures, Glossary Summary in Jamaica Restoration Costs for Ecosystems Status Risk Reduction Conclusions and References for Mangroves in Jamaica and their Role in Futher Reading Coastal Resilience Page 14 Page 24 Page 36 Page 48 Page 70 Page 142 Page 162 Page 172 Forces of  NATURE Executive FIGURE 4 Change in Mangrove Extent in Jamaica from 2005 (baseline GOJ Summary data) to 2013 (TNC data). Gain Source: Loss GOJ-TNC. Saint Hanover James Trelawny Saint Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary Valuation of Coastal Protection Portland Services Provided by Man- Saint Elizabeth Saint groves in Jamaica’ is an impor- INTRODUCTION Catherine tant product that supports the Clarendon Saint Manchester Andrew GOJ’s ‘National Development Jamaica, like many Small Plan Vision 2030’, through ef- Island Developing States Saint forts to secure a healthy natural Thomas (SIDS) is at high risk environment, reduce hazard Kingston risk and adapt to climate from coastal hazards due to its exposure change. This product is linked to tropical storms, to the ongoing World Bank high levels of coastal termed Nature-Based Solutions have been lost in Jamaica over recognized the value of these Jamaica Disaster Vulnerability development, vulnerable or Ecosystem-based Disaster the past two decades (1996 - habitats to humans, and is Reduction Project (DVRP), coastal communities, Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) 2016). However more than 70% moving towards active plans and will also provide value to degradation of coastal - is becoming an increasingly carbon sequestration, ecot- of these lost mangrove areas and measures to conserve and Jamaica’s Resilience Agenda. ecosystems and the popular and beneficial approach ourism and water purification. could be potentially restorable. protect Jamaica’s remaining predicted impacts of to Disaster Risk Management It is important to be able to Currently mangroves in Jamaica mangroves through becoming This product examined climate change. (DRM). Mangrove coastlines quantify the economic benefits are threatened by extraction signatories to important the current status and offer a first line of defense, of mangroves, to better value (for timber, small-scale farm- conventions, establishing risks of mangrove For example, Hurricane Ivan acting as natural barriers, and conserve these ecosystems, ing and fishing uses), coastal protected areas, developing habitats in Jamaica, in 2004 caused over US$0.5 mitigating flooding by reducing and mitigate the impacts of squeeze from developments, several national plans or identified and assessed billion in damages, i.e., nearly wave energy and slowing down climate events. human sources of pollution, guidelines, and international ecosystem services 6% of national Gross Domestic storm surges, and providing In 2013, there was 9,800 changes in land use leading partnerships supporting the - especially coastal Product (GDP). Utilizing stabilization of soils and hectares of mangrove in Jamai- to clearing and land degra- conservation or sustainable protection - and mangroves or other natural mudflats. They also provide ca, mostly on the south coast. dation, and climate change. use of coastal resources. looked at the costs and ecosystems to mitigate, prevent, numerous other co-benefits Limited data suggests that more However, the Government This analytical product, the benefits of mangrove or buffer against disasters - such as fisheries maintenance, than 770 hectares of mangroves of Jamaica (GOJ) has ‘Assessment and Economic conservation. 14 15 Forces of  NATURE The Flood Protection Benefits FIGURE 5 Mangrove benefits of Mangroves in Jamaica are most apparent for higher intensity storm events. Source: UCSC-IHC-TNC. National level from mangrove forests can be The costs of mangrove assessments on the significantly higher in more restoration vary greatly due US$2.4 billion coastal protection populated areas. For example, to many different factors, but provided by mangroves in in Hunts Bay, the average an- in the wider Caribbean range More than US$2,500 Jamaica was carried out nual value exceeds US$5,000 from about US$14,000 to per hectare protected by a team from University per hectare per year, which US$45,000 per hectare. Recent annually. in assets of California Santa Cruz translates to avoided damages mangrove restoration projects (UCSC), IH Cantabria, of more than US$30 million in Jamaica had an average cost protected and The Nature in a 1 in 100-year storm. In of US$63,000 and US$250,000 US$386 Conservancy (TNC). general, mangroves reduce per hectare, which included the million flooding extents and heights very high cost of barriers for in assets solid waste management that protected At present, coastal flooding across all storm frequencies, from storms in Jamaica is but are particularly important other regional estimates did estimated to result in US$136.4 for the areas of Black River, not. Mangrove restoration in 1h ect 1 in 1 in are million in damages every year, Falmouth and the parish of Jamaica, and globally, is much 100-year 500-year in the presence of mangroves. Westmoreland. In other sites cheaper than coastal protection event event If these mangroves were lost, where mangroves are more structures. In Jamaica, limited the expected damages from coast aligned, the reduction of data indicate that sea-dykes and flooding would increase to the flood height is less evident, levees to protect the Kingston $169 million annually. Thus, with an average reduction of Harbour can cost over US$11 22,000 people mangrove forests in Jamaica about 0.5 to 1 meter for the million per kilometer. protected provide over US$32.7 million 50-year return period. Mangroves in this area protect Old Harbour in annual flood reduction Damages over built capital some US$3.5 million in built benefits to built-capital (more can be separated into different stock every year. Results show than US$2,500 per hectare per year). This represents a stock categories - residential, industrial and service. The Bay that during Hurricane Dean (2007), mangroves were able 770,000 nearly 24% annual reduction in annual protection offered by to reduce water levels around flood risk. The loss of Jamaica’s mangroves translates into a CASE STUDY 0.3 and 0.6 meters. This mangroves would further result protection of US$16.6 million apparently small contribution in a 10% increase in the total over residential stock (50% of For Old Harbour Bay, the was responsible for Mitchell number of people flooded total stock protected), US$4.5 benefits from mangrove pres- Town remaining safe against people protected every year. Mangrove benefits million over industrial facilities ence is most evident during the storm surge thanks to are most apparent for higher (14% of total stock protected) more intense tropical cyclone the protective role of the intensity storms events. and US$11.4 million events and are less apparent mangroves, otherwise, a 1 meter The risk reduction benefits protection over services stock during smaller wave-driven water layer would have covered against tropical cyclones (35% of total stock). flood events. the streets of the village. 16 17 Forces of  NATURE Site Level Three sites - Bogue Lagoon In all communities man- the lowest red mangrove lateral erosion was more (Montego Bay, St. James), Salt Marsh groves were seen to be most density is the healthiest forest, predominant at Portland (Falmouth, Trelawny), and Portland important for their shoreline indicating a mature forest Cottage, possibly as a result Ecosystem Cottage (Portland Bight, Clarendon) protection services, and least with little or no disturbance. of recent hurricanes. This – were assessed by a team from the important for timber ser- Only Salt Marsh had all three may result in higher disaster UWI Mona for ecological, physical vices. In Bogue Lagoon and mangrove species represented. risks to coastal communities. Services and socio-economic factors. And Salt Marsh, the community The physical properties Comparisons at all 3 sites Dr. Peter Edwards conducted the mostly reported a decrease in of the mangroves can be indicate that more wind economic valuation. mangroves (due to clearing considered to be unique for was attenuated for largest of trees), whilst in Portland each study area - for example trunk diameters in red Cottage most respondents the textural composition of mangroves and most density saw an increase (due to among the substrate after the removal of trees. In some sites the tree SITE DESCRIPTIONS other things, restoration of all organic components density was considered to activities). In all sites respond- was different for each site. be most important. No clear 1 2 3 ents showed a willingness Geological studies imply pattern was derived for the to participate in restoration tectonically driven subsidence relationship between prop root activities. Fishing was an has occurred recently or is densities and wave attenuation. important activity for Portland still occurring. Elevation It was felt that Bogue Cottage and less so for Salt results suggest that the Lagoon should offer the Marsh, and Bogue Lagoon. forests are keeping pace greatest protective services with the subsidence and followed by Salt Marsh, rise in sea level. Subsidence with Portland Cottage Site seems to be playing an important role within the mangroves offering the least. Bogue Lagoon offers the BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE Comparisons sites and coupled with sea most ecosystem service in level rise will increase the protection of the coastline Some broad vulnerability of communities as it protects critical Bogue Lagoon has mixed Salt Marsh is a low-lying The Portland Cottage com- associations between and infrastructure associated road infrastructure and land-use dominated by coastal town in northern munity is located along the sites and assessments with these systems. Bogue contributes to the viability of commercial and industrial Jamaica that has moderately island’s southern coastline and can be made. Only red Lagoon was identified as mainstream and alternative activities. The area was found low levels of social and is characterized by the highest mangrove parameters the most stable and resilient tourism industries. Portland to have low sensitivity to economic blight. Although levels of social and economic as well as fish eggs and forest system. Due to the Cottage has the least critical coastal flooding. exposed to numerous coastal blight in the study. The area larvae were found to vary sedimentation patterns infrastructure and connection hazards, it has had relatively is highly exposed to the significantly between the at Salt Marsh this forest to mainstream tourism, but little devastation. effects of coastal inundation. three sites. fringe is considered suspect the population here are most 2 Portland Cottage’s adaptive to increased risk from over at risk and vulnerable so it 1 capacity can be considered The changes support the the- sedimentation, however it could be argued that the low. The majority of respond- ory that the Portland Cottage is not as degraded as the greatest protection to life Jamaica ents in all three communities forest is affected by distur- Portland Cottage site. Lateral and livelihood is offered at have not implemented any bance, and so the forest would (horizontal) accretion was Portland Cottage and cost to 3 measures to reduce future be in a state of regeneration. greater at Bogue Lagoon the government in the event flooding event impacts. Bogue Lagoon, while having and Salt Marsh, but of serious disasters. 18 19 Forces of  NATURE Ecosystem Services Beyond Coastal Protection US$180 million 3.7 million 13.7 million Tonnes of C Tonnes of CO2 Sequestered equivalent FIGURE 6 Annual Carbon sequestration 1h values for the estimated total ec tar e mangrove area in Jamaica. Note: These estimates are based on a value of US$48 per tonne of Carbon. 9,715 Blue hectares of mangroves The estimates indicate that Carbon Using global estimates, the value of annual stocks at these three sites there is significant carbon seques- the economic contributions from these sites are relatively On average, mangroves contain sequestration for tration economic value. UWI’s Using a global estimate modest in comparison to other 3 to 4 times the mass of carbon Jamaica is US$179.9 estimates of soil carbon stock of US$213 per hectare systems. However, these are typically found in boreal, temperate, or upland tropical million with Net Present Values (NPV) calculated for each location showed high- er averages for carbon stock Nearshore per year for mixed species fisheries, the comparatively small areas and thus limited in their ability to forests. Results from the site studies show a significant positive relationship between for a 100 year time span, showing estimated values for keeping when compared to the global average. It should be noted that carbon value estimates Fisheries estimated annual economic contribution of mangroves for contribute more significantly to fishers’ incomes. There are also potential economic benefits white or red mangroves and carbon sequestered at are influenced by the choice Mangroves are particularly ef- Portland Cottage, from the development of a total vegetative carbon, and a US$17.8 billion. of discount rate and represent fective as nursery grounds for Bogue Lagoon and Salt local-based, high-end recrea- smaller positive relationship the avoided costs to society juveniles of species that later Marsh was US$54,145, tional fishery focused on catch between black mangroves and The site-specific results con- of not releasing this stored move offshore or to adjacent US$14,101 and and release based on species total vegetative carbon. firm that based on the carbon carbon to the atmosphere. habitats such as coral reefs. US$5,218 respectively. associated with mangroves. 20 21 Forces of  NATURE Conclusions Jamaica faces substantial flood risk The Report also presents important from coastal storms and mangroves data on benefits beyond coastal provide considerable flood risk protection such as fisheries reduction benefits. Annually, the provision, carbon sequestration, average of Jamaica’s mangrove erosion control, and ecotourism forests for flood risk reduction to which can have significant the nation’s built capital is more implications on poverty reduction. than US$2,500 per hectare. During the 1 in 500-years storm, mangrove It has presented its results in economic forests protect 177,000 people, and terms which allows it to be utilized on nearly US$2.4 billion or 50% of the important decision-making platforms. total affected population and built Incorporating ecosystem services and capital. This translates to economic benefits can assist DRM and climate benefits of more than US$186 resilience strategies, through e.g. the million per hectare of mangroves. re/insurance sector, or incorporating environmental degradation in risk This Report supports the growing models. The Report can be used by interest within the development agenda public agencies to inform hazard to include nature-based solutions mitigation, disaster recovery, and for disaster risk management (DRM), resilience financing funding decisions, and provides vital information for and to incorporate mangrove discussions on adaptation, insurance, conservation and restoration activities hazard mitigation and disaster as part of build-back-better strategies. recovery decisions. It has advanced existing knowledge on current health Finally, this effort funded by the status of Jamaican mangroves, Program on Forests (PROFOR) through improved understanding on how the World Bank was able to involve © Shutterstock the loss of mangroves can increase sixty-two Jamaicans (two thirds of the coastal flood risk, and has identified total project workforce), ranging from Limitations broad scale data for analyses was obtained from secondary sources and previous related were used for carbon and fisheries values which restricts the accuracy of the results. potential risk reduction measures. This Report shows that mangroves offer significant benefits for flood government officials, to professors, and university students. This has important repercussions on capacity building at The availability and quality of studies. The site-specific The study was able to generate risk reduction and overall coastal the local scale, as the country is now data was a common limitation studies generated accurate, a number of important data resilience, and identifies key areas more capable of replicating this effort, throughout all studies. Where detailed data but was limited gaps that can be addressed affected by floods for where mangrove and to explore new opportunities current, high resolution data in scale and length of study. in future studies to improve management (including restoration) in which coastal ecosystems can was not available, estimates or Global economic estimates analyses of this nature. may yield the greatest returns. help reduce climate risks. 22 23 Forces of  NATURE 1 Introduction Coastal hazards Mangroves 1 2 3 4 5 6 and risk in Jamaica for Coastal as a SIDS Resilience Page 26 Page 32 24 25 Forces of  NATURE Coastal hazards Approximately 70% of Jamaica’s population lives in coastal areas, and about 56% of its economic and risk in Jamaica assets such as airports, harbours and tourism infrastructure are Flooding in Jamaica located on the coast2. as a SIDS is dependent on location and storm characteristics Hanover Is less extensive in Saint the north, than in bays James Trelawny Saint on the south (due to Ann Saint topography) Westmoreland Mary FIGURE 7 Location of critical facilities and potential impact of a 1 in 100-year event. Saint Portland Elizabeth Manchester Saint Saint Catherine Andrew Infrastructure Clarendon Fire stations Health centers Saint Thomas Hospitals Police stations Agricultural land Kingston Flood Height (m) in a 1 in 100-year 0 1 2 3 4 5 event with mangroves Jamaica – like much of the Small Island Devel- The risk is higher where the flood plains and oping States (SIDS) of the Caribbean region coastal areas are the sites of major developments Small floods below Maximum flood – is at high risk from coastal hazards due to its and infrastructure (cities, towns, airports and 0.5 m are expected heights for a 1 in 50- exposure to tropical storms, high levels of coastal seaports). The last 10-15 years has shown an in- to occur throughout year storm can go up development, vulnerable coastal communities crease in the demand for coastal space in Jamaica, the Jamaican to 1.5 m in the most and the predicted impacts of climate change. thus showing continued growth regardless of the coastline. exposed areas of Hurricane and storm related hazards account for vulnerability to coastal natural hazards such as the country. some 75% of natural hazards in the Caribbean1. hurricanes and storm surges. 26 27 Forces of  NATURE Alle n 19 80 1944 012 Hanover Saint dy 2 James Trelawny San Saint Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary Gilbert 1988 Saint Andrew Portland Saint Catherine Saint Elizabeth Manchester Saint Thomas 190 3 FIGURE 8 Clarendon Kingston Hurricanes that have affected Jamaica, 1988-2011. Source: UCSC-IHC-TNC. Flood reported 1691-2009 Some of the recent examples of hurricane-as- Between 1988 and 2011, 11 major Ch arli sociated flooding in the Caribbean were in the storms made landfall in Jamaica, e1 951 years of 2016 and 2017 with 2017 recording causing significant damages to the highest impact ones. In 2016, Hurricane people and property. Matthew caused significant flood and wind Assessments on the impacts of select hurricane damage to Haiti, while in 2017 Hurricanes Some notable examples include collapse events between 1980 and 2007 revealed max- Irma and Maria -both category 5 - caused of bridges in Yallahs (St. Thomas), Kintyre imum storm surge heights of 3-6 m for areas devastating impact in Puerto Rico, Dominica, (Kingston and St. Andrew), Port Maria (St. in Kingston, and a run up range of 50-1,000 m US Virgin Islands, St. Thomas and Croix, St. Mary), flooding from riverine and storm islandwide5. Additionally, for the period 1971- Maarten. In 2017, insured losses from coastal surge in coastal towns such as Port Maria and 2003 the coastline of Negril showed a 16 cm storms3 reached an all-time high with greatest Annotto Bay (St. Mary), Montego Bay (St. retreat as compared to the 7 cm shoreline retreat impacts and damages across the Caribbean James), Negril (Westmoreland), coastline of St. proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on and southeast USA4. Thomas and sections of the island’s south coast. Climate Change (IPCC)6. 28 Dean 2007 Ivan 2004 29 Forces of  NATURE The impacts of coastal hazards can be devastating to coastal SIDS economies and economic outlook with significant challenges for disaster recovery and redevelopment. The risk of loss due to tropical cyclones, storm surge and floods is growing as the exposure of economic assets increases and the health of coastal ecosystems degrades7. Some reported figures for the In Jamaica, Hurricane exposed and potential losses impact of coastal hazards on Ivan (2004) accounts of coastal GDP projected to economies include: for the highest damage exceed 27%. Furthermore, and loss amounting to the study also reveals that the © Simone Lee Hydrometeorological over US$0.5 billion in inundation risk in Jamaica events in Latin America damages10. from storm surges will cover and the Caribbean 37% of the coastal wetlands, accounted for US$31.8 The vulnerability of coastal which are already squeezed Predicted impacts billion or 54% of the communities is expected between the sea and the of climate change to total losses from to rise with the predicted urban developments. Jamaica13 natural hazards for the trends and impacts of climate All of these will period 1970 to 19998. change. Similar to other have a direct impact on SEA LEVEL RISE regional SIDS, the impacts infrastructure, homes, and In 1998, Hurricane of climate change will affect livelihoods including the Range from 0.18-1.4m Gilbert caused damages Jamaica’s water supply, loss of beaches, mangroves, by 2100 relative to 1980- in St. Lucia exceeding biodiversity and coastal and breeding grounds for 1999 levels. 365% of the island’s GDP. In 2004, the losses environments11. According fish and other marine life. TEMPERATURE HURRICANES to the World Bank study Continued increase in Jamaica’s north coast to caused by Hurricane (2009), “Sea Level Rise and extreme events will result Warming trend with be 0.43 to 0.67 m, by the Intensity of hurricanes Ivan in Grenada were Storm Surges: A Comparative in degradation of coastal the months of June end of the century with a still increases despite more than twice the Analysis of Impacts on ecosystem thus increasing the to August showing maximum rise of 1.05m decreases in frequency. nation’s GDP. Developing Countries”, the vulnerability of communities the maximum high for the south coast. Since 2004, Jamaica has impact of sea level rise and in these areas. This has temperatures. An increase in the experienced 10 major intensified storm surges resounding economic A 0.5 to 3m projected number of hurricanes hurricanes, including in Latin America and the implications that are likely An increase in the rise would lead to a and tropical storms Hurricanes Irma and Caribbean will be highest to be observed at the local frequency of very hot 30-100% loss in beach which have hit or pass Maria in 2017, that have in Jamaica – noting an and national scale, affecting days and nights with area with the maximum Jamaica in the time span caused over US$2 increase of 57% - with 29% local communities, fisheries, a decrease in the cold being at Hope Bay in 2000-2012 as compared billion in losses8. of the coastal population tourism, and other sectors12. days and nights. Portland. to the 1900-2000. 30 31 Forces of  NATURE Mangroves for Coastal Mangrove coastlines offer a first line of defense as a transition Resilience zone from marine to terrestrial environments, C playing a vital role in coastal resilience16. They do this through17: G Mangroves are tropical and sub-tropical plants that live in A Acting as a coastal intertidal zones, which sediment trap, are typically low-oxygen, slow moving waters and are also sites B Acting as natural of sediment accumulation14. Provisioning ecosystem purifiers of the water Mangrove forests and their services C Acting as natural associated aquatic environment barriers and help provide a range of regulating 1 Fisheries production; A F mitigate flooding and supporting, provisioning 2 Aquaculture by reducing wave and cultural ecosystem services, production energy and slowing many of which relate to coastal B down storm surges hazards and risks15. 3 Pharmaceutical generation; D Supporting, Supporting and regulating 4 Coastal protection. preserving and services balancing the ecosystem by 1 Habitat for juvenile Cultural services D releasing key fish that are 1 Recreation and nutrients important both as E Being a nursery tourism; essential components 2 Educational ground and habitat of coral reef and for species other ecosystems opportunities; and are important F Acting as a refuge 3 Aesthetic and commercial species ground for aquatic cultural values 2 Carbon sequestration species during hurricanes and E 3 Climate regulation Whilst providing numerous storm events. important ecosystem services, 4 Shoreline this Report placed emphasis G They also provide stabilization water on their protection, food exploitable filtration and provisioning (fishery) and resources, food pollution regulation. carbon sequestration services. and timber 32 © Shutterstock 33 Forces of  NATURE Some key elements of associated with in coastal flooding during are major constraints in global hurricanes), leading to a higher their defense are18: cyclones, typhoons or storms and hurricanes. For earth system models used for number of deaths and injuries, hurricanes. example, in Belize mangroves climate predictions, accurate as well as increased property have been shown to act as determination of carbon stocks and economic losses. Utilizing 1 This is most effective for low buffers for coastal erosion and baseline emissions in mangroves or other natural lying areas. A narrow man- and thus provide protection natural and managed forests ecosystems to mitigate, prevent, grove belt will still reduce wind for approximately 40% of (and other land-use types) is of or buffer against disasters - speed, the impact of waves on the Belize population19. In high priority. termed Nature Based Solutions top of the surge and flooding Florida, a reduction in wave The economic value of (NBS) or Ecosystem-based © impact to some degree. Man- height of 80% resulted in the benefits of mangroves, Disaster Risk Reduction Simone © Lee Simone grove forests can reduce storm 800% more protection to particularly flood reduction, (Eco-DRR) - is becoming Lee surges by 26-76%. Peak water associated coastal areas20. becomes evident in situations an increasingly popular and The dense roots and level height can be decreased In addition to their where coastal people and beneficial approach to Disaster stems of a mangrove by 4.2 to 9.4 cm on average direct effects on water levels, property sheltered by these Risk Reduction (DRR). It forest provide a drag across multiple mangrove healthy mangrove forests ecosystems experience is important to note that ecosystems including man- resistance that is forest patches. Mangroves on have the capacity to build reduced flood damages during mangroves are not standalone grove forests continue to be strongly related to wave Florida’s coastline reduced land elevation and keep storms. These risk reduction solutions for coastal protection, lost and degraded. Often, the reduction. inland flooding due to the pace with sea-level rise21. As benefits of mangrove forests but in combination with hard loss of these habitats is greatest storm surge from hurricane ecosystem-based adaptation have been demonstrated in engineering and other risk around large populations, i.e., On average, mangrove forests Wilma by up to 70%. measures, healthy mangrove several places around the reduction measures can be the places were the impacts can attenuate incoming wave forests provide the unique world23. Importantly, the value effective in reducing damage to of coastal degradation are heights by more than 30% advantage of self-maintenance of this risk mitigation service coastal towns and cities. greatest, and where the most and in some cases, almost in this respect, unlike tradi- can be rigorously quantified to Understanding mangrove people stand to benefit from completely. A reduction in 3 tional structures such as levees estimate the economic bene- ecosystems, their health and coastal ecosystems. Globally, wind speed is also related to which will require costly fits of actions to conserve and/ likely future at the national mangrove forests have seen mangrove presence. upgrades to maintain current or restore coastal ecosystems and site-specific scale is very area losses of about 35% to standards of protection22. that act as natural defenses. important, and therefore 50% since original global Mangrove forests are also For example, across the becomes critical for under- recordings in the early 1980s26. 2 among the most carbon-rich Philippines mangroves protect standing and modelling their Their annual loss rate is about © Simone ecosystems globally due over 613,000 people from response and their roles in 2% from natural forces such Lee The dense roots of to the gradual accretion of flooding and avoid damages climate change adaptation on as hurricanes and associated mangroves help to bind organic matter through an of US$1 billion annually24. the coastlines that they occupy. winds, and anthropogenic and build soils. imbalance in the rates of The predicted impacts of It is important that effective forces such as coastal develop- input, degradation, and losses climate change are important reconstruction and better ment and aquaculture27. The © Simone The above-ground roots slow from export. On average, the to consider both with respect to protection of coastal ecosys- loss of mangroves and coral Lee down water flows, encourage organic-rich soils of mangrove the impact on mangroves, and tems be undertaken if coastal reefs will result in the loss of A wide mangrove belt, deposition of sediments and forests contain carbon stocks the role that mangroves play communities are to fully their ecosystem services, and ideally thousands of reduce erosion. that may be 2 to 3 times in mitigating climate change. recover from the disaster, and specific to coastal flooding, will meters across, can be higher than those of most The predictions are anticipated be protected in the future25. result in an increase in flood effective in reducing These protection services are terrestrial forest. Since the to result in an increase in the Despite these benefits damages to communities that the flooding impacts translated into benefits to size and changes in the Soil frequency, intensity and mag- to coastal communities’ are otherwise protected by from storm surges people, in terms of reductions Organic Carbon (SOC) pool nitude of natural disasters (like economies and welfare, coastal these ecosystems. 34 35 Forces of  NATURE 2 Mangroves in Jamaica Historical Socio Economic Project The Jamaican 1 2 3 4 5 6 Changes and Linkages to Significance Context Mangrove Status Mangroves to Jamaica Page 38 Page 42 Page 44 Page 46 36 37 Forces of  NATURE The Jamaican Impacts to mangroves range Mangrove forests have Shoreline hardening from direct extraction uses played an important using artificial structures to those that indirectly affect historical and traditional and developing Context them from other activities. role in many Jamaican coastlines with hard For Jamaica in particular: coastal communities barriers can increase with services such as the vulnerability of timber supplies for mangroves to sea-level Oblong leaves Jamaica, being a tropical These forests are typified by a low diversity covered in salt construction, daily-use rise by preventing island has its wetlands largely of species with the black mangrove species and artisanal products, landward mangrove comprised of mangrove forests, dominating. An area of approximately small-scale farming, migration – a process the majority (82%) of which can 7,000 hectares located in the Black River firewood (charcoal) and commonly known as be found in southern parishes Lower Morass, represents the largest subsistence fishing in ‘coastal squeeze’29. with the highest distribution in mangrove dominated freshwater ecosystem White canals and rivers. As a flowers the parish of St. Elizabeth. in Jamaica and the Caribbean. result, these forests are threatened in some areas Rounded Lima-bean due to over-exploitation leaves, distinct glands FIGURE 9 Red Shiny pointed Pale yellow shaped of resources28. leaves propagules Mangrove Mangrove flowers species found Rhizophora Small terminal in Jamaica. mangle clusters of Pencil shaped Black white flowers propagules Mangrove Avicennia germinans White Mangrove Laguncularia racemosa 38 39 Forces of  NATURE Pollution from human activity, FIGURE 10 such as outfalls from waste-water Species related to treatment plant or waste from mangrove forests. construction activities can cause already stressed mangrove habitats to either degrade further or be completely lost, and negatively Green impact their ability to recover heron after natural stressors such as a Butorides hurricanes or drought30. virescens Changes in land use, especially clearing for development (tourism, residential and commercial), and agriculture (but not shrimp Great egret Ardea alba aquaculture). These differences also have implications for mangrove restoration potential, that is, areas lost to aquaculture are easier to restore than those lost to development such as airports. The reasons for the loss and degradation of Jamaica’s mangrove forests are multiple. The combination of current stressors means that there are present losses of mangroves in Jamaica and in other regions of the Caribbean and reduces Brown rates of 1 to 2.5mm/year this their resilience and ability pelican Pelecanus may not remain the case with to manage and recover from occidentalis accelerated sea-level rise in the combined effect of future In addition to direct human the future32. Although damage stressors, particularly those impacts, mangrove forests to mangrove is expected from climate change34. As The GOJ and the World in Jamaica and in the rest of to rise with increases in the value of these habitats Bank Program on Forests the Caribbean are expected hurricanes of higher intensity to humans, in terms of (PROFOR) have worked to be affected by climate or frequency, recent evidence coastal protection and other Jamaica (GOJ) has protected to assess and evaluate change - increases in sea-level, from hurricane-impacted critical ecosystem services is multiple mangrove sites across the economic value frequency of and/or increased mangroves in the Philippines recognized, the Government the island. The recent Nation- of coastal protection intensity of storms, temper- and elsewhere, indicates that of Jamaica is moving towards al Forest Management and provided by mangroves ature and aridity31. While these mangroves can equally active plans and measures to Conservation Plan explicitly in Jamaica, linked to mangroves in the Caribbean recover from hurricanes over conserve and protect Jamaica’s recognizes mangrove restora- their ongoing Disaster Mudskipper appear to be keeping pace time-spans of few years to a remaining mangroves. Since tion as a priority for national Vulnerability Reduction Periophthalmus with current sea-level rise couple of decades33. 2005, the Government of climate adaptation plans35. Project (DVRP). 40 41 Forces of  NATURE Historical Changes It is difficult to get an sources regarding • Covered 14,800 accurate estimate of historical changes in hectares (2005) historical changes in mangrove extents: and Mangrove • Covered 15,000 mangrove extent due • Increased from hectares (1970s) to different survey 9,700 hectares techniques, omissions of More than 770 hectares Status (1997) to 11,600 some forest areas etc. of mangroves have been hectares (2010), then lost in Jamaica over the Below statistics are decreased to 9,800 past two decades (1996 taken from different hetares (2013) to 2016), with at least 20 • Increased from 11,674 hectares lost to informal hectares (2010) to settlement since 2010. This 16,735 hectares (2012) decadal loss represents a Hanover Saint James 95% decrease since 1998, Trelawny primarily due to clearing for Saint Ann agriculture, buildings and infrastructure, and shifts Saint Westmoreland Mary to herbaceous wetlands. FIGURE 11 Portland Change in Mangrove Extent in Saint Saint Jamaica from 2005 (baseline Elizabeth Catherine GOJ data) to 2013 (TNC data). Saint Manchester Source: GOJ-TNC. Clarendon Andrew Gain Saint Thomas Loss Kingston development has contributed substantially to losses38. future restoration may be In general, there is very have mangrove extents been There is evidence of an overall However, of the seven south most feasible. In a recent limited high-quality national recorded separately36. declining trend in Jamaica’s coast parishes, five showed an global assessment, although data on the spatial extents of Additionally, though data mangroves, however losses increase in wetland coverage an estimated 770 hectares of mangroves, since mangroves on individual wetlands exist, and gains across the island are of the country residential and between 2005 and 201139. mangroves have been lost in in Jamaica are typically there is little documentation not spatially uniform, with tourism development have Assessing historic Jamaica between 1996 and classified and counted togeth- of long-term trends in the some areas seeing significant probably contributed the most mangrove loss and current 2016, more than 70% of these er with fresh-water ‘swamp’ extent, status and health of losses and other coastlines to mangrove loss whereas in mangrove extents is important mangroves could be potential- forests and only recently Jamaica’s mangroves37. witnessing gains. In the north the south, port and industrial for understanding where ly restorable40. 42 43 Forces of  NATURE Socio-Economic linkages to mangroves The contributions of Further, coastal communities mangrove ecosystems are dependent primarily on to human wellbeing agriculture and tourism and are interrelated there are several benefits of to their direct mangroves that have been ecological benefits. linked to their ecological provisions, and which are For example, their role as a ultimately important to wildlife habitat and nursery the Jamaican economy43. area including birds, shrimp, Mangroves are particularly crabs and fish supports coastal important for the sustaina- communities’ supply of seafood bility of the fishing industry, for local consumption or as providing habitat for over 220 part of a business. fish species including com- The role of mangroves mercially important fish such in shoreline protection and as snapper, grunt, parrotfish, flood prevention are critical barracuda and mackerel, and as environmental degradation also economically important affects both on the local and crustaceans such as shrimps, national level. Coastal areas, on lobsters and crab44. There account of their topography, is also much opportunity have been extensively devel- for ecotourism utilizing oped as urban centres and for mangrove forests’ structure industries, tourist resorts and and diversity for sightseeing, population. Howevert these boating, swimming, and are compromised by tropical sport fishing. Boat excursions systems such as hurricanes or into wetlands, for example, coastal flooding, with their is gaining increasing popu- vulnerability increasing due to larity as a tourist attraction climate change41. Most of the in Jamaica, and provides coastal towns in Jamaica have additional benefit to local coastal forest origins, and the communities by making use removal of these for coastal of their traditional knowledge development would increase of the areas and therefore the area’s vulnerability42. support local livelihoods45. © Juliana Castaño-Isaza 44 45 Forces of  NATURE Project Significance to Jamaica for poor and vulnerable communities (Outcome 7) The National and to improve institutional Development Plan There is a serious need for preservation of capacity to plan and respond Jamaica Vision 2030 Jamaica’s mangrove ecosystems considering to climate change events and outlines Goal 4: that majority of the country’s economy and natural disasters (Outcome 8). business is from these coastal areas. The GOJ “Jamaica has a Healthy has taken a number of steps to incorporate Natural Environment”, this into national strategies and guidelines. Outcome 13 “Sustainable Management and Use of The Climate Change Environmental and Natural Policy Framework and Resources” and Outcome Action Plan states that: 14 “Hazard Risk Reduction and Adaptation to Climate Mangrove preservation “Jamaica achieves its goals Change”. These Outcomes is well aligned, of growth and prosperity for are also well aligned with the keeping in mind Currently in Jamaica its people while meeting the United Nations Sustainable the projections of Jamaica became there are 2 core challenges of climate change as a Development Goals 13 and climate change and its a signatory to The guidelines which country with enhanced resilience 14 which targets Climate impacts as presented Convention of Wetlands are used for coastal and capacity to adapt to the Action and Life on Land. in the Third National (Ramsar Convention) on management impacts and to mitigate the Communication to the February 7, 1998. interventions and beach Guide for Developers (2010). causes in a coordinated, effective UNFCC as well as The restoration. Additionally, the National and sustainable manner”46. State of the Jamaican Jamaica currently has 4 sites Coastal Management and Climate (2017). designated as wetlands of The NRCA Guidelines for Beach Restoration Guidelines The primary aim of this international importance the Planning, Construction (2017) provides certain policy framework is to support Furthermore, the outcomes (Ramsar sites), with a total and Maintenance of Facil- guidelines on the preservation Vision 2030 by reducing the of the project will aid in surface area of 37,847 hec- ities for Enhancement and of beaches, wetlands and risks posed by climate change The World Bank Country developing policies and plans tares. The 4 Ramsar sites are Protection of Shorelines suggests a combination of to all of Jamaica’s sectors and Partnership Strategy for disaster risk reduction thus Black River Lower Morass, (Circa 1995); and the Draft soft and hard engineering development goals through (CPS) FY2014-2017 assisting Jamaica in meeting Mason River Protected Area, Guidelines for the Relocation for the restoration of beaches the Hazard Risk Reduction (Report No. 85158-JM), the Sendai Framework as well Palisadoes – Port Royal and and Restoration of Jamaica’s and coastal areas of which and Adaptation to Climate supporting Pillar III Social as feeding into The State of Portland Bight Wetlands and Coastal Resources: Corals, mangroves are one of the Change (HRRACC) thematic and Climate Resilience, which the Jamaican Environment (in Cays. Seagrasses & Mangroves, A primary ones. working group 3. seeks to increase opportunities progress). 46 47 Forces of  NATURE 3 The Flood Protection Benefits and Restoration Costs for Mangroves in Jamaica Lead Authors: Saul Torres Ortega1, Inigo J. Losada1, Antonio Espejo1, Sheila Abad1, Siddharth Narayan2, Michael W. Beck 2,3 1. Environmental Institute of Hydraulics Cantabria (IH Cantabria), Santander, Spain 2. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA 3. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA, USA Coastal Protection Avoided Annual Expected Costs and Potential 1 2 3 4 5 6 Methodology Ecosystem Services Flood Risk Damages Benefits per Hectare for Mangrove Assessment to Stock of Mangroves Restoration Page 50 Page 52 Page 54 Page 56 Page 60 Page 66 48 49 Forces of  NATURE Methodology $ To value the coastal protection OFFSHORE DYNAMICS NEARSHORE DYNAMICS HABITAT IMPACTS CONSEQUENCES benefits provided by mangroves, this work follows the Expected Damage Function approach, commonly used in engineering IMPACT WITH and insurance sectors and rec- MANGROVES ommended for the assessment of coastal protection services from habitats. The protection benefits provided by mangroves are assessed as the flood damages avoided by keeping mangroves in place. The results are presented in terms of the number of people and the value of property flooded with and without mangroves. First, the offshore condi- IMPACT WITHOUT tions of water-levels and waves MANGROVES are determined using mete- orological and hydrodynamic models that analyse data on a large stochastic set of 462 tropi- cal cyclones. This stochastic set is built by extending a historical dataset of 46 tropical cyclones within a 100km radius around the coastline of Jamaica. Then, hydrodynamic models are used Offshore Nearshore Onshore to estimate how the offshore waves and water-levels for each of these 462 storm events models are then combined While these analyses do not coastal dynamics from IH population and built capital FIGURE 12 transform as they approach the with topography to calculate separately examine the effects Cantabria and for assets from (residential and industrial Expected Damage Function Approach. shoreline, and how the presence the inland flooding that occurs of coral reefs, their benefits are various sources. To calculate property) that are available in Source: Beck and Lange, 2016. (and absence) of mangroves under two scenarios: with included within the bathymetry the exposure of people and 1km2 grids. The assessment affects the distribution of total current mangrove and without datasets for these models. built capital within the uses regional depth-damage built capital based on two water levels at the coastline. mangroves (i.e., assuming This work combines coastal floodplain, the study functions to estimate flood internationally recognized The outputs from these all mangroves are lost). multiple relevant datasets for uses global datasets on damages for population and sources: HAZUS and JRC. 50 51 Forces of  NATURE Coastal Protection FIGURE 13 Mangrove benefits Ecosystem Services are most apparent for higher intensity storm events. Assessment Source: UCSC-IHC-TNC. More than US$2,500 per hectare protected US$2.4 billion annually. in assets protected US$386 million Mangrove forests in assets protected in Jamaica provide 1h ect 1 in 1 in US $32.65 Million are 100-year 500-year event event in annual flood reduction benefits 22,000 to built capital people protected Mangroves in this area protect some US$3.5 million in built stock every year. Results show that during Hurricane Dean (2007), mangroves were able 770,000 to reduce water levels around SUMMARY OF MANGROVE mangroves. If these mangroves 0.3 and 0.6 meters. This around US$2,500 per hectare COASTAL PROTECTION IN were lost, the expected per year). This represents a apparently small contribution JAMAICA damages from flooding would nearly 24% annual reduction was responsible for Mitchell increase to US$169 million in flood risk. The loss of Town remaining safe against people protected At present, coastal flooding annually. Thus, mangrove Jamaica’s mangroves would the storm surge thanks to from storms in Jamaica forests in Jamaica provide over further result in a 10% increase the protective role of the is estimated to result in US$32.6 million in annual in the total number of people mangroves, otherwise, a 1 meter US$136.4 million in damages flood reduction benefits to flooded every year, many of water layer would have covered every year, in the presence of built capital (on average whom live in poverty. the streets of the village. 52 53 Forces of  NATURE Saint WITH Saint WITHOUT Hanover James Trelawny Saint MANGROVES Hanover James Trelawny Saint MANGROVES Ann Saint Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary Westmoreland Mary Saint Portland Saint Portland Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Saint Saint Catherine Andrew Catherine Andrew 1 in 50 year Manchester 1 in 50 year Manchester return period Saint return period Saint Thomas Thomas event Kingston event Kingston FIGURE 14 National maps of the flood heights associated with 1 in 50 and 500 Saint Saint Hanover James year events (left panels) and the Hanover James Trelawny Saint differences of the mangrove- Trelawny Saint Ann Saint non-mangrove scenarios Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary (right panels). Westmoreland Mary Saint Portland Saint Portland Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Saint Saint 1 in 10 year Catherine Andrew 1 in 10 year Catherine Andrew Manchester Manchester return period Saint return period Saint event Kingston Thomas event Kingston Thomas Saint Saint Hanover James Hanover James Trelawny Trelawny Saint Saint Ann Saint Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary Westmoreland Mary Saint Portland Saint Portland Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Elizabeth Clarendon Saint Saint Saint Catherine Andrew Catherine Andrew 1 in 500 year Manchester 1 in 500 year Manchester return period Saint return period Saint Thomas Thomas event Kingston event Kingston Flood Height (m) Additional Flood Height (m) Flood Risk 0 1 2 3 4 5 scenarios indicate higher Kingston, Old Harbour Bay 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 the 1 in 500 year event, the Mangroves reduce flooding risks, and; ii) the distribution of if mangroves were lost, for the 1 effectiveness in the Black and some areas of the north protection against flooding is extents and heights across all economic benefits from man- in 50 (i.e. 2% annual chance), 1 River Bay, where the intricate coast, where mangroves extend more widespread. For such a storm frequencies. The detailed groves. The protective benefits in 100 (i.e., 1% annual chance) configuration of the channels more along the coast, the high-intensity event, areas like modelling work here allows of mangroves are shown in the and 1 in 500 (i.e., 0.2% annual and mangrove patches play reduction of the flood height the Westmoreland Parish or us to provide spatially explicit, right panels of the figure on chance) year storm events. an important role in slowing is less evident, with an average Falmouth began to experience nationwide maps at high flood heights, in terms of the Comparisons of the down the water. In other reduction of about 0.5 to 1m significant storm surge reduc- resolution of i) baseline flood flood heights that would occur mangrove and non-mangrove sites like the Morant Point, for the 1 in 50 flood event. For tion (up to 2m). 54 55 Forces of  NATURE Total Stock Damage FIGURE 16 (USD Million) Protection offered by mangroves. 180 170 DAMAGE WITHOUT MANGROVES 160 150 35% US$11.4 million Services stock protected 140 50% US$16.6 million DAMAGE WITH MANGROVES Residential stock protected 130 120 110 14% US$4.5 million Industrial facilities protected 100 Avoided Damages to Stock FIGURE 15 This means that the protection offered by mangroves (US$32.6 By reducing flood heights built capital can be separated Current flood risk and Annual million per year for all Jamaica) translates into a protection of and extents, mangroves into different stock catego- expected benefits from mangroves US$16.6 million for residential stock (50% of total stock protected), for flood risk reduction across reduce damages to people ries: residential, industrial Jamaica in terms of (averted) US$4.5 million for industrial facilities (14%) and US$11.4 million and built capital. Damages to and services. damages to property. protection for services stock (35% of total stock). 56 57 Forces of  NATURE People affected by 1200 Tropical Cyclones FIGURE 18 Total people affected per return period in PEOPLE FLOODED Jamaica (national aggregated values) with WITHOUT MANGROVES and without mangroves. 1000 FIGURE 17 People Flooded Current flood risk and Annual expected benefits from PEOPLE FLOODED WITH Annually mangroves for flood risk reduction across Jamaica in terms of (averted) people affected. MANGROVES 18.000 800 People affected (Thousands) 17.000 16.000 600 PEOPLE FLOODED WITHOUT MANGROVES People affected (Thousands) 15.000 14.000 400 PEOPLE FLOODED WITH MANGROVES 13.000 12.000 200 11.000 0 10.000 0 100 200 300 400 500 Return period (years) 58 59 Forces of  NATURE Annual Expected Benefits per Hectare of Mangroves or areas that suffer For tropical cyclones, mangroves reduce from more frequent and annual property larger surges such as damages by more than Morant Point (in the 23%, with an annual east), Kingston, Hunts value of more than Bay and Old Harbour US$32 million. Bay areas (in the south). In some places, vulnerable In the western part of Old populations (i.e. people under Harbour Bay, for example, the poverty) receive some of the flooding from a 1 in 500 year flood protection benefits storm event can exceed 5m. In from mangroves, though Hunts Bay, coastal mangroves these numbers are small due totalling 200 hectares provide to the relatively low propor- risk reduction benefits of over tions of people under poverty US$1 million/year, with an that live in coastal areas. average annual value exceeding US$5,000 per hectare per yr. The average risk In the event of a 1 in a 100 reduction benefits year storm these mangroves against tropical avoid damages of more than © Shutterstock cyclones from mangrove US$30 million, resulting in forests across Jamaica an average value of more than the changes in flooding are Surprisingly, there is less atten- bay as the wave period increas- the area directly protected by are around US$2,500 US$154,000 per hectare. contained seaward of the plant uation of the maximum water es. However, in this case there the mangroves. Even in these per hectare per yr, Most of the mangroves and Bogue Road. Mangroves levels for the 100 years return is no direct impact from the situations, mangroves offer though these values can in the Montego Bay area provide the most protection period wave conditions. This mangroves to assets or pop- other risk reduction benefits be significantly higher are around the wastewater for wave conditions below effect is due to the appearance ulation, mainly because these in terms of trapping sediments in more populated areas treatment plant and most of a 1 in 50 year return period. of resonant modes within the elements are not located in and building elevation. 60 61 Forces of  NATURE MAXIMUM WATER LEVEL WITH MANGROVES DIFFERENCE WITHOUT MANGROVES RP 5 years 3.0 m 1m Old Harbour Hs=4m Tp=10s 2.0 m Bay Case 0m Study 1.0 m For Old Harbour Bay, the benefits from mangroves are most evident during more in- 0m 3.0 m -1 m 1m tense tropical cyclone events RP 25 years which cause more flooding Hs=4m Tp=10s and damage, compared to 2.0 m smaller wave-driven flood events. According to these 0m results, most of the popula- 1.0 m tion in Old Harbour Bay is not at risk due to wave-driv- en flooding, including the 0m -1 m most vulnerable settlements 3.0 m 1m such as Portland Cottage. RP 50 years Old Harbour Bay is oriented © Shutterstock Hs=4m Tp=10s to the prevailing wave con- 2.0 m ditions (from the Southeast) 0m however, wave propagation to the mangrove areas is inter- levels are predicted between mangrove forests (i.e., more or 1.0 m rupted by shallow fringing Port Esquivel and the Old less perpendicular). reefs that produce dramatic Harbour power plant where These reductions in flood wave dissipation by breaking mangroves are not present. heights, though small, can 0m 3.0 m -1 m 1m waves. Even so, the results The average differences translate into significant RP 500 years show a clear increase of the (between mangrove and protection for people and built Hs=4m Tp=10s total water level ranging non-mangrove) are below 0.4m capital. In the Old Harbour 2.0 m between 0.8m (5 years return for the 1 in 100 year storm Bay study site mangroves period) and 1.8m (100 years event. These differences can be protect US$3.5 million in built 0m return period) in the centre largest in the inner parts of the stock every year. 1.0 m of the bay. The role of the mangrove forest as to the right mangroves is evident as water of the Salt River or leeward of levels remain under 1 m over the Great Goat island. In these 0m -1 m the forested areas (Peake, places, two combined factors Jamaica Colon and Santa Helena make the attenuation more FIGURE 19 Hs: significant wave height Bays) for wave conditions evident: the greater width of Results of the maximum water level for the 5, 25, 50 and 100 years return periods Tp: wave period in Old Harbor Bay (left panels) and differences of the overland flood heights of the RP: storm period e.g., (1 in 5 below 50 years return mangrove forests and the angle Old Harbour same simulations without mangroves. Mangrove forests are delimited by grey lines. year event). period. Maximum water at which waves approach the Bay 62 63 Forces of  NATURE 3.0 m This translates to the value FLOOD HEIGHT of the lost mangrove area 2005 between 2005 and 2013 of 2.0 m US$990 per hectares per yr accounting for an annual total of US$1.8 million of lost mangrove benefits in Old 1.0 m Harbour Bay. Conversely, this represents the potential value of restored mangroves in this region (i.e., US$990 per FLOODING WITH 0m hectares per yr). MANGROVES 3.0 m In 2007, category 4 FLOOD HEIGHT Hurricane Dean passed just 2013 south of Jamaica, bringing 0m 1.0 m 2.0 m 3.0 m 2.0 m heavy rain, high winds, huge waves and storm surge, espe- cially to the eastern and south eastern parishes of Jamaica. 1.0 m In Rocky Point and Portland Cottage, 889 houses sustained damage to varying intensity. Approximately 65% of these 0m housing units sustained major 1.0 m damage or were destroyed due DIFFERENCE BETWEEN to the storm surge. This study 2005 AND 2013 shows the places where the INCREASE IN FLOODING presence of coastal mangroves WITHOUT MANGROVES helped reduce flooding and 0m damages during Hurricane Dean. It is noteworthy that -1.0 m 0m 1.0 m despite the presence of a large mangrove forest around FIGURE 21 the Portland Cottage, flood Storm surge along the southwestern Jamaica produced by hurricane Dean heights exceeded 4m above the in August 2007 for the mangrove scenario (upper panel) and differences of -1.0 m mean sea level, and the water removing mangroves from the model setup (bottom panel). passed from West Harbour to FIGURE 20 Between 2005 and 2013, Old Harbour the Carlisle Bay. The compar- Results of the flood height comparison between 2005 and Bay lost 1,811 hectares of mangroves. This ison between both scenarios apparently small contribution protective role of the man- 2013 mangrove extents for a 50-years return period tropical degradation in mangrove cover results in an indicates that mangroves were was responsible for Mitchell groves, otherwise, a 1m water cyclone event. Top left: Flood extent for 2005 mangroves (GOJ data). Top right: Flood extent for 2005 mangroves (GOJ data). increase in flood height from 0m to 0.4m, able to reduce water levels Town remaining safe against layer would have covered the Bottom: Differences in flood height between both scenarios. reaching in some areas an exceptional 0.8m. around 0.3m and 0.6m. This the storm surge thanks to the streets of the village. 64 65 Forces of  NATURE Costs and Potential Mangrove restoration costs less than US$50,000 per hectare across the for Mangrove Caribbean region though data on costs are limited and variable. Restoration Sample restoration project costs: Saint US$14,000 US$23,000 US$32,000 US$45,000 Hanover James per hectare per hectare per hectare per hectare Trelawny Grenada Guyana Jamaica Florida Saint Ann Saint Westmoreland Mary degraded or lost mangroves, or hydrological restoration to FIGURE 22 Portland establish the right conditions Saint Mangrove restoration Elizabeth potential. Scores indicate Saint for mangrove establishment48. Catherine the likelihood of success of a Saint Increasingly, the institu- Manchester Andrew restoration project based on tions that fund and manage several environmental factors Clarendon mangrove restoration projects Saint Thomas are focusing on the returns 81-100% on investment of a project 61-80% Kingston as a means to inform where >0-60% Source: to prioritize investments in Worthington and 0% Spalding, 2019 restoration efforts. As a result, where they can potentially be Jamaica, to gain insights into mangrove restoration projects When considering mangrove restored. Based on a global whether mangrove restoration the last decade, small-scale are often focused on specific restoration, it is important assessment of mangrove could be cost-effective as a mangrove restoration projects ecosystem service benefits to assess where they can be change, which provides a more than 70% of these coastal protection measure. (totalling a few hundred such as carbon sequestration restored and whether such potential restoration score at mangroves could be potential- While the coastal resilience hectares) have been or or coastal protection. Yet, restoration can be cost-ef- the national scale for Jamaica, ly restorable. In this Study, the benefits of mangroves are well are being implemented in poor understanding of the fective. The first step in the an estimate of more than 770 modelled predictions of man- recognized, less is understood Jamaica47. Typically, these costs of mangrove restoration assessment is to understand hectares of mangroves have grove benefits was combined about the cost-effectiveness restoration projects involve can limit investments where mangroves have been been lost in Jamaica over the with information on the costs of restoring these habitats to either active planting of man- in mangrove restoration lost in the recent past and past two decades. However of mangrove restoration in provide these benefits. During grove saplings in areas with for coastal resilience. 66 67 Forces of  NATURE © Daniel Schwapp © Shutterstock Even the most expensive Mangrove restoration is also (with a 4% discount) the mangrove restoration generally cheaper per hectare average benefits per hectare The costs of mangrove 4 Costs of monitoring projects in Jamaica, than coral reef restoration for a mangrove conservation Caribbean. If not for this ex- restoration can be and maintaining and globally, are orders which range from US$640,000 or restoration project would pense, the costs of mangrove extremely variable the project post- of magnitude cheaper per hectare ( Jamaica) to exceed US$43,000 in coastal restoration would be cheaper depending on construction than large coastal more than US$1 million per protection benefits alone. in Jamaica than observed project location and protection structures. hectare in other areas across It should be noted that elsewhere in the Caribbean. 5 Restoration site conditions. the Caribbean region. this assessment only looks at technique and In Jamaica, limited data On the benefits side of coastal protection benefits and In general, some of availability of local, the analysis, it can be shown does not incorporate analysis For example, a recent indicate that sea-dykes and restoration project on the factors that can voluntary manual levees to protect the Kingston that given the application of of other ecosystem services. Palisadoes road in Kingston influence costs include: labour Harbour can cost over US$11 appropriate discount rates, The cost of avoided damages was US$250,000 per hectare, million per km. Generally, then it is highly likely that a and carbon sequestration are which is higher than the 1 Availability and 6 Need for across the Caribbean, seawalls cost benefit ratio would be typically easier to estimate, regional average. The most costs of land and hydrological and levees on the shoreline can in favour of the mangrove however the inclusion of significant cost in this resto- permitting restoration or cost up to about US$6 million restoration option. In terms additional ecosystems services ration project (>80% of total specialized per km, whereas offshore of benefits, one hectare of that may be more difficult to 2 Costs of obtaining equipment project cost) was for fencing and transporting the breakwaters are much costlier mangroves in Jamaica pro- quantify (for e.g. water quality, to keep out solid waste. This material 7 Size and economies at about US$20 million per vides on average more than forest products and erosion was necessary at this site but of scale km. These costs do not include US$2,500 per year of direct prevention) would generate a is an unusually high expense 3 Costs of designing the high expenses for repairing flood reduction benefits from higher and more accurate esti- and may not have been nec- and constructing the 8 Maintenance and damage or upgrading in re- tropical cyclones; if consid- mate of the total benefits from essary in other projects in the project monitoring activities sponse to changes in sea level. ered over a 30-year period mangrove restoration projects. 68 69 Forces of  NATURE 4 Local Scale Assessments on Mangrove Ecosystems Status and their Role in Coastal Resilience Lead Authors: Arpita Mandal1, Rose-Ann Jasmine Smith1, Taneisha Edwards1, Robert Kinlocke1, Simon Mitchell1, Camilo Trench2, Mona Webber2, Patrice Francis2, Adrian Spence3 1. Environmental Institute of Hydraulics Cantabria (IH Cantabria), Santander, Spain 2. Institute of Marine Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA, USA 3. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, MD, USA 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brief Bogue Salt Portland Broad methodology Lagoon Marsh Cottage Comparisons Page 72 Page 74 Page 94 Page 114 Page 134 70 71 Forces of  NATURE Brief methodology 2 1 Jamaica The sites for the study were selected based on consultation with NEPA, World Bank, 3 local on-the-ground organizations, as well as through field visits. Data Collected • Surface Accretion and in Each Location Soil Surface Elevation The primary • Wind Data and considerations were: ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Wave Parameters • Water Quality and • Proximity to the AT THE LOCAL LEVEL Soil Health communities • Bathymetry and shoreline • Mangrove species • Mix of sheltered site and dynamics composition and relative one that is more open to abundance (for diversity) wave energy • Mangrove Trunk SOCIO ECONOMIC • Plots where there are no major pools or channels Diameter (DBH) ASSESSMENT AT • Mangrove height and THE LOCAL LEVEL • Ease of accessibility by land canopy width was a consideration but not • Prop roots/aerial • Assessment of poverty levels a priority roots network • Mangrove habitat goods • Ecosystem services: Fisheries & value extracted The three sites selected were: production using light-traps • Current provision to collect fish larvae and of services provided 1 Bogue Lagoon in other water column fauna by mangroves Montego Bay, St. James • Perception of coastal PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT protection from mangroves 2 Salt Marsh in • Observed changes Falmouth, Trelawny • Flooding and in mangroves 3 Portland Cottage Coastal Erosion • Willingness amongst the in Portland Bight, • Sediment Sampling people to participate in Clarendon and Assessment mangrove restoration 72 © Simone Lee 73 Forces of  NATURE Bogue Lagoon Socio- Economic SOCIO-ECONOMIC Jamaica CONTEXT Bogue Lagoon is located in an urban area characterized by a mix of commercial, industrial and residential land use. Most of the respondents Structures associated with (66%) had tertiary education, these land use types line the with 46% having university mangrove community with degree. The mean length the south and south western of business operation was sections being primarily about 12 years. On average, dominated by use of land businesses had about 11 em- for residential purposes. The ployees, with the maximum eastern and north eastern sec- number of employees being tions of the mangrove forest 70. The maximum value of transition into industrial and business was close to US$2.9 commercial land use. Some 60 million, while the mean businesses were interviewed value was approximately to gather data. US$21,000. 74 75 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON FIGURE 23 has not caused severe damage implemented measures to mitigate against future impacts 36 despite its occurrence, and reported by 75% and Strategies to minimize Used sandbags this may imply relatively low 57% of respondents the effects of floods 21 Percentage of respondents Flood insurance 1 levels of sensitivity among the respectively as having businesses in Bogue Lagoon. a big impact on the mangrove forest. ADAPTIVE CAPACITY Pollutants including garbage, Mangrove AESTHETIC FISH MEDICINAL (VISUAL) HABITAT VALUE sewage and industrial affluent Value Only 36% of the APPEAL are considered to be the major Percentage of © businesses that issues facing mangrove forest. respondents Simone experienced flooding Pollution not only affects Lee 55 implemented measures mangrove growth, but also 40 to mitigate against restoration activities. Very important 25 25 6.7 25 SENSITIVITY future impacts. Some 71% of respondents Important The most commonly cited said that waste disposal (gar- Approximately 23% measure was the use of sand- bage and sewage) is having SOURCE OF SHORELINE PROTECTION SOURCE OF SOURCE OF WOOD of respondents bags, but this was deployed an adverse impact on the FOOD (FROM EROSION OR STORM WOOD (FUEL) (BUILDING MATERIAL) reported an experience by only 21% of the businesses mangrove forest. Most (60%) SURGES with flooding in the that experienced flooding. also said that deforestation community. Only one business indicated was having a very big impact 70 In relating the effects of previ- that it secured flood insurance on the mangrove forest. as a means of mitigating 31.7 31.7 ous episodes, 40% of those who 20 8.3 26.7 MANGROVE 8.3 23.3 experienced flooding stated future impact. that water entered the structure MANAGEMENT AND and in some cases (20%) was ISSUES AFFECTING RESTORATIVE EFFORTS SUPPORTING OFFSHORE WATER WILDLIFE CARBON above the level of the wall OR NEARSHORE FISHERIES QUALITY HABITAT STORE skirting. Twenty percent of MANGROVE SERVICES PRODUCTION Bogue Lagoon provides the respondents also reported Decreases in the mangrove a great opportunity that they were prevented from forest was also a noteworthy for private public going to work due to the effects observation by most respond- 63.3 partnerships involving 36.7 36.7 40 of flooding. Specific reference ents (46%) in Bogue Lagoon 30 business stakeholders. 30 was made to significant flood area. Most of the respondents 16.7 23.3 events in 2008, 2017 and 2018. who provided reasons for this It should be noted that 21 The more recent episodes (2017 attributed it to the removal respondents were managers and 2018) did not appear to of the mangrove forest for of businesses in the Bogue be linked to coastal inundation development, particularly for area and 76% expressed their induced by storm surge activity. tourism and industrial. willingness to become involve Perceived changes in Decreased 46 Respondents also indicated in restoration activities. There mangrove forest in Bogue Same 9 only minimal levels of displace- Shoreline development was no statistically significant Lagoon for the last 10 Increased 9 ment due to flood activity. It (land reclamation) and difference between male and years (2008-2018) generally appears that flooding shoreline erosion were female respondents. Percentage of respondents Don´t know 36 76 77 Forces of  NATURE Site 1 FIGURE 24 Site 2 Percentage contribution of Total percentage each family at Site 1 and Site 2, Total percentage Bogue Lagoon. Percentage contribution Percentage contribution APOGONIDAE CLUPEIDAE ELOPIDAE ATHERINIDAE 1% 2% 1% 28% ENGRAULIDAE GERREIDAE GOBIIDAE © Shutterstock 54% GERREIDAE CLUPEIDAE ELOPIDAE 24% 1% LUTJANIDAE SCIAENIDAE UNKNOWN 27% 21% 5% 3% 5% 9% GOBIIDAE LUTJANIDAE ELEOTRIDAE ECOSYSTEM While ichthyoplankton about absolute levels of fish SERVICES abundance and species larvae abundance. Data richness varied significantly would have to be gathered Fisheries production between the 3 mangrove monthly or at least over using light-traps to areas and so could be plotted different periods of the year 14% collect fish larvae for comparison, the limited so as to accurately represent 3% 2% and other water time of the assessments could the larvae associated with column fauna. not facilitate conclusions these mangrove areas. 78 79 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON Mangrove 0.08 Mangrove species 1 0.12 species composition and Ecological Trees of red Trees of red composition mangrove by relative abundance and relative (for diversity) mangrove by m2 m2 abundance (for diversity) FIGURE 25 1 2 2 0.02 Mangrove Biometrics at Bogue Lagoon. Trees of white mangrove by m2 Site 1 Site 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Mean Mean Canopy 7.5 3.4 3.2 5.9 4.2 4.0 2.8 2.5 2.3 2.5 1.5 1.5 4.7 Canopy width 0.5 width (m) (m) Mean Mean Diameter at Diameter at 137.2 198.1 160.2 140.9 182.0 131.0 220.0 Breast Height Breast Height (mm) (mm) 88.6 81.4 89.2 52.3 49.5 64.3 33.4 Mean 11.8 12.2 Mean Height 9.9 10.6 10.7 10.4 10.05 10.4 Height 9.5 (m) 8.5 (m) 6.3 6.6 6.9 5.5 L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H Prop root and Prop root and 146 142 Pneumato- 1 2 Pneumato- 8 125 8 phore density 13 14 13 17 phore density 17 20 20 23 20 (m-2) 24 90 26 (m2) 28 27 30 35 70 Prop root 41 39 44 54 Prop root 48 47 Pneumatophore 50 50 39 Pneumatophore 25 64 21 20 64 12 64 Density Density 75 76 Low L L Low Medium M L M H L M H L M H L M H M Medium High H H High 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.2 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 80 81 Forces of  NATURE Physical BOGUE LAGOON landward of this transect or the lack thereof and what suggest either erosion as a that means for future of this Mangrove PROP ROOT/AERIAL ROOT NETWORK result of tidal processes and perennial streamflow, or root mangrove system. Biometrics Physical system death or collapse within SEDIMENT AND Similar studies concluded that the Bogue Lagoon which LITTER RETENTION, AND MANGROVE SPECIES red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) “near a water front status of the would lower the elevation. The steep seaward trend is typical ACCRETION COMPOSITION AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE is denser than the back of mangrove and may represent coastal Despite having abundant © Simone ecosystems the mangroves because the scouring on the edges by boat re-emergent stream and Lee front mangroves occupy influence of the Retirement/ (FOR DIVERSITY) lower grounds than inside and ship wakes. This is because Montego River, there was no litter and incoming sediments. the harbour is visited by large Mangroves tend and as such receive more tidal ELEVATION AND cruise ships on a regular basis. measureable vertical accretion If there is no incoming inundations and nutrients and However, the lagoon is relative- at either sites over a 3 month sedimentation over a 3 or 6 to grow in relative are therefore much healthier”. TOPOGRAPHY or 6 month period. month period then it makes the monospecific stands ly sheltered, especially by the The trees at the water’s edge presence of mangal dominated The horizon markers were system more dependent on the within a forest. The site has a would be expected to grow islands, and this may attenuate still present at each visit which mangrove trees’ ability to persist Low diversity is therefore moderately undulating higher due to the longer time some wakes. As a result, means there was no erosion by growing and expanding expected within mangrove terrain which influences spent in tidal inundation and ecosystem services are provided and that the sediment supply (especially its root systems) in ecosystems as “succession the biogeography of as such would need more in protecting this stretch of is very low at Bogue Lagoon, the given condition indefinitely and species accumulation is the mangrove species roots to breathe and become coastline which is backed by especially for the areas studied. to combat local subsidence, inhabited”. Species such as with red mangrove more stable, thereby resulting important road networks, In the absence of accretion, compaction and local sea-level white mangrove (Laguncularia occupying most in the higher density of roots. housing developments and leaf litter was observed above rise in order to maintain viabil- racemosa) has a greater ability seaward and at the A decrease in density towards commercial activities. the horizon markers and are ity. The lack of sediment supply to regulate internal osmotic lowest elevations, land was expected due to the expected to contribute to the increases the vulnerability of conditions and thus do better and white mangrove red mangrove trees at the substrates vertical accretion in this mangal system to rising in hypersaline conditions. water’s edge having a better occupying more ELEVATION CHANGE anoxic conditions. sea-level, climate variability, landward or higher opportunity to grow higher Variability in elevation change If there is no vertical increased storminess and other elevations. MANGROVE HEIGHT AND and denser because of tidal is dependent on many factors, accretion or erosion over the anthropogenic stressors. inundation. Pockets of different or no such as shallow or deep subsid- period of observation, and the All of the foregoing is CANOPY WIDTH Previous studies also saw species of trees can be found ence or uplift, sedimentation, elevation change is negative, cause for concern and will pneumatophore density in a zone based on the change hydrological influence (ground then shallow subsidence is require further studies to It has been established varying in similar manner to in elevation. and tidal water influence) and the dominant process during understand the long-term that mangrove tree the tree height and Diameter The transect at Site 1 in also bioturbation and root that period (which spanned deep and shallow subsidence, height typically at Breast Height (DBH). Bogue Lagoon had an elevation growth. The negative elevation the wet and dry season for the effect of the hydroperiod, decreases with The study concluded that this that ranged from 0.4m below change here is thought to be as Site 1 and the dry season for as well as root systems, root increasing salinity. variation was due to the fact Mean Sea Level (MSL) to a result of shallow subsidence Site 2) occurring at Bogue growth, sediment compaction Mangrove trees often expe- that tree height and DBH 0.02m above MSL. As a and water withdrawal associ- Lagoon. Questions about the and peat health in under- rience ‘normal’ salinity or is reflected the maturity of result, the transect was often ated with a change from wet ability of a mangrove system standing what is causing the lower at the water’s edge, but the trees and the older trees inundated by water and the season to dry season and not to withstand subsidence and elevation to decrease and if it hypersaline conditions often would generate higher densi- red mangrove species thrives enough timing to record root rising sea-level depends on its is permanent or operating in progress further from the sea. ties of pneumatophores. best here. The lower elevations contributions, sedimentation health, root production, leaf pulses which are reversible. 82 83 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON It has been demonstrated that of dumped limestone rocks, and Bogue is relatively sheltered and has more accretion than erosion on HORIZONTAL VARIATION nutrients can increase the size construction debris to increase the coastal extent of the mangroves, and bulk of mangrove roots, the elevation for occupation (PROGRADATION/ but they can also reduce their and is currently fenced off and and no change to the landward RETREAT) OF MANGROVE complexity and therefore their up for sale by the owner. This coverage of trees. COASTLINE anchorage and resilience; means that disturbance in the yet no adverse effects of the form of reclamation has had a The length of the coastline nutrient supply was observed. deleterious effect on adjacent FIGURE 26 that has accreted is 2.46km A smaller length of coastline mangrove stands. This dom- Spatiotemporal lateral erosion (red) or accretion and encompasses the shore- (1.04km) has undergone ino effect is demonstrated in (yellow) on the coastline from 1961 to 2017, line upon which Site 1 is long-term erosion and this previous studies, showing that where mangrove trees occupation increases migrates seaward or retreats landward. located. The total area accret- stretch contains Site 2. The area activities limited to a particular ed over a 56 year period is 1.2 eroded is 0.9 hectares at a rate plot of land can actually cause Mangrove Cover Source: UCSC. Image: NASA, ESRI. hectares and if taken over the of 161 m2 per year and is closer harm to other areas. This timespan between the image to the main road and other means that reclamation and Commercial and industrial landuse sampled analysis, accretion would be developments. The section of dumping of material in an area at a rate of 214m2 per year. It the coastline that has been to transform the usage from Mangroves (2013) should be noted that the site eroded adjacent to the parcel wetland should be prevented Accretion of the accretion has a large of land west of, and adjacent in order to secure the viability sewage treatment system to Site 2 has been interpreted of adjacent mangrove stands Erosion behind it which may enhance as reclaimed land using field and their ability to continue to its growth and stability. evidence, such as the evidence provide ecosystem services. 1 2 Sites sampled Bogue Lagoon 2 1 0 5 10 km 84 85 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON Site 1 Site 2 Outside the 4% 8% Outside the 7% mangrove wave height reduction wind speed reduction mangrove wave height reduction 33% wind speed reduction Within the Within the mangrove mangrove 36% 64% 46% 75% wind speed wave height wind speed wave height reduction reduction reduction reduction WIND, WAVE FIGURE 27 PARAMETERS AND WAVE For every 1 m distance Depicts percentage reduction in wind the event of a storm these speed, energy and wave height ATTENUATION Reduction of wind speed out- a wave travels within attenuation rates will make and offer substantial ecosys- and wave energies outside and within the mangrove at Bogue Lagoon. the red magnroves, it is At the sites at Bogue Lagoon, side the mangrove forest is as a significant mitigation, tem services in a micro-tidal Waves have been oversized for attenuated by 0.8%. wind and wave speed and a result of resistive (frictional) which would be absent where regime affected by occasional easy interpretation. therefore energies are forces, however retardation Generally, the waves are there are no mangrove trees storms. Some resistive attenuated more within the is accelerated within the gentle wind waves in this (especially red mangroves). forces from the sea-floor the mangrove’s seaward limit mangrove forest than outside. mangrove structure. sheltered setting, but in Their roots serve to reduce the retarded the waves outside including sea-grass. 86 87 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON FIGURE 29 Concentrations of major and trace elements analysed in mangrove Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 surface soils (0–30 cm) from the Bogue Lagoon locality. 3% 100% 100% Fe 1% Fe 1% K <1% K 2% Na 2% Na As 10.7 As 11.9 0% 0% Br 74.6 Br 304.5 35% 81% Cd 8.5 Cd 9.1 Co 6.4 Co 5.9 Cr 58.9 Cr 69.2 Large organic content Large organic content Sr 372.9 Sr 852.0 Zn 57.4 Zn 91.6 SUBSTRATE CONSTITUENTS AND within the ecosystem) because of their pristine condition. The FIGURE 28 Mean plant percentage removed Soil Quality the oxidation temperature does not exceed 550°C. The SOM Cr, Fe, K and Na in the soil are similar for Sites 1 and 2. Mean by handwashing together with foraminifers and Halimeda content of Bogue Lagoon Br, Sr and Zn is significantly PROPERTIES are typically found in reef percentage loss from hydrogen peroxide digestion of organic ECOSYSTEM CARBON Site 1 ranges from 3% to 31% more at Site 2 than Site 1. The difference between environments and in sea grass matter for each studied at Bogue Lagoon. BIOGEOCHEMISTRY (median 16% and mean 15%), Concentrations of Br and Na Sites 1 and 2 is as a result of beds, and are interpreted to while that of Bogue Lagoon fall outside of the global mean. variability in the substrate due have been transported into the The Soil Organic Matter Site 2 ranged from 8% to Concentrations of major to the geomorphology with a ecosystem by currents. This is provided and redistributed (SOM) and Soil Organic 73% (median 46% and mean and trace elements analysed greater amount of carbonate supported by their corroded in the system. Therefore it is Carbon (SOC) contents of 43%). The SOC concentration in mangrove surface soils material from the Chenier and fragmented appearance. imperative to evaluate further the soils varied within and pattern is identical to that (0–30cm) from the Bogue at Site 1. The coarse-grained Transport may have the sedimentation patterns. between sites. Since the of the SOM and generally Lagoon locality. carbonate component of the occurred during past storm The remaining sediment, after SOC content is a function displays considerable spatial The Bogue Lagoon sites (in sediment at Site 1, consisted events, as no evidence of fluvial plant matter removal, from of SOM, it follows that the variability. The minimum, particular Site 1) exhibited the of small molluscs, foraminifers, sediment coming in (precipita- both Sites 1 and 2 plots as silty data distribution patterns are maximum, median and mean most variable soil pH values. broken plates of Halimeda tion events) is recognised. This clay by percentage weight on identical. It is also important values for Bogue Lagoon Site This may be a function of the (green marine algae) and again points to low sedimen- a texture classification of soils, to note that the inorganic 1 and Site 2 are: 2%, 18%, 9% organic-rich nature of the soils, intraclasts (indistinguishable tation rates and vulnerability for the Bogue Lagoon in areas carbon (carbonate) content of and 9%; and 5%, 42%, 27% coupled with contributions from carbonate grains). The mol- of the mangrove, as it will where samples were collected, the soil is not resolved during and 25%, respectively. marine carbonates, calcareous luscs are interpreted as being not be able to trap sediments with one exception from Site 1 dry combustion of the samples At Bogue Lagoon the mean parent material, poor drainage autochthonous (derived from if sediment is not being that plots as a silty sand. (SOM determination) since concentrations of As, Cd, Co, and weakly buffered soils. 88 89 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON FIGURE 31 Water quality parameters determined in situ at Bogue Lagoon. Site 1 Site 1 Site 2 1,429.0 2,097.7 Na (mg/kg) Na (mg/kg) 25.0 12.4 8.0 7.0 1.7 8.4 191.2 480.4 Temperature (°C) Conductivity (MS cm-1) Total Dissolved Solids (mg L-1) Salinity Dissolved Oxygen (mg L-1) pH Mg (mg/kg) Mg (mg/kg) (g Kg-1) Site 2 46.6 162.4 K (mg/kg) K (mg/kg) 386.0 225.2 28.0 28.0 17.0 16.5 2.7 11.0 Ca (mg/kg) Ca (mg/kg) Temperature Conductivity Total Dissolved Salinity Dissolved pH (°C) (MS cm-1) Solids (mg L-1) (g Kg-1) Oxygen (mg L-1) Water Quality ELEMENTAL is about 2 for Site 1 and less ecosystem health, indicators than 1 for Site 2. These values such dissolved organic matter, The temperatures for the Bogue Lagoon sites FIGURE 30 WATER QUALITY would suggest that there is faecal coliform, phosphates averaged approximately 25°C to 28°C and appear Water quality parameters These elements are essential limited lithological control and nitrates (beyond the to be generally lower that the temperature maxima determined in situ at Bogue Lagoon. for plant growth, and can be on water chemistry. These scope of this Report) should required to drive most biochemical activities at *10,000 mg Kg-1 = 1% further divided in macronutri- results are consistent with be considered.While the data the molecular level. The salinities for the Bogues ents (K, Ca, Mg) and micro- background concentrations of presented here provide some Lagoon sites are also relatively low. nutrients (Na) as a function dissolved ionic species in local context for water quality of the quantity in which they waters free of contamination and ecosystem health, it also Results would suggest that below the threshold con- The pH of the system is are required for plant growth. from industrial processes and important to note that for a freshwater inflows (ground centration (5mg L-1) predominantly basic and is While there is no discernible atmospheric deposition. comprehensive overview of and surface) are probably necessary to sustain healthy characteristic of bicarbonate pattern in the data, the mean While the data presented water quality and ecosystem an important control on aquatic life. These values species of marine origin, but concentration of Ca appears here provide some context for health, indicators such salinity of this ecosystem. may be explained by the there may also be contribu- to be higher at Site 1 (386 mg water quality and ecosystem dissolved organic matter, fecal The Dissolved Oxygen (DO) presence of oxygen depleting tions from the dissolution of L-1), while the concentrations health, it is also important to coliform, phosphates and ni- concentrations at the Bogue source(s) (possibly of an carbonates in the underlying of Na, K, and Mg are higher note that for a comprehensive trates (beyond the scope of this Lagoon sites generally fall organic nature) at these sites. limestone bedrock. at Site 2. The Ca/Mg ratio overview of water quality and report) should be considered. 90 91 Forces of  NATURE BOGUE LAGOON FIGURE 32 Biomass Site 1 Site 2 Carbon Loss Site 1 91.6 Mg ha-1 Site 2 73.9 Mg ha-1 Aboveground Belowground 11.8 7.0 MgCO2-C ha-1y-1 (Mean) MgCO2-C ha-1y-1 (Mean) 18.3 Mg ha-1 14.8 Mg ha-1 C stock in mangrove vegetation C stock in mangrove vegetation (Mg ha-1) 51.7 (Mg ha-1) 41.7 SOIL CARBON FLUX AT BOGUE differences in the quantity and quality of DOC, and losses of SOIL CARBON The primary losses of mangroves due to natural and STOCKS AT BOGUE carbon form mangrove ecosystems are due anthropogenic forcing may play crucial roles. When considered with net Carbon Stock 1,205.7 Mg C ha-1 to tidal export and Generally, low soil flux primary productivity, this data Site 1 Site 2 mineralization by soil rates would suggest that there set may be used to provide microbiome (autotrophic is little or no SOM or SOC, insights into the whole-eco- 415.1 211.0 respiration). or soil microbial activity. However, this may also system carbon stocks. Overall, both sites appear to be 72.7 Mg C ha-1 Mg C ha-1 Mg C ha-1 These variations may be due signify that soil conditions significant carbon sinks. This in part to the transitions (temperature, aeration, area is also wet mostly, but between well aerated sandy moisture) are constraining is not always inundated by soils (of varying organic biological activity. Note also water, and is mostly colonized a. b. a. b. content) to organic-rich soils that respiration from roots by red mangrove based on the inundated by marine waters. and soil fauna (autotrophic geomorphological suitability Additionally, variation in soil respiration) may contribute to of that species to occupy areas a. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using the mean bulk density value of regional mangrove soils49 temperature at the local sites, these values. with maximum inundation. b. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using bulk density value from a pedotransfer function50 92 93 Forces of  NATURE Salt Marsh Socio- Economic Jamaica SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT Although remittance as a source of income for 5% The Salt Marsh households, it is possibly an community is located important additional source of along the island’s income for 28% of households northern coastline and is who reported that they received characterized by lower remittances in the last 6 levels of social and months. For the 78 respondents economic blight than who responded to whether the Portland Cottage. households were able to save from their last income, the Only 21% of household heads results show majority (51%) are unemployed while 19% of households said yes. Still, a have no formal education. Al- large percentage (49%) were though primary data collected unable to do so which could be was not specific to household a result of the disparity between heads, majority of respondents income and expenses. (48%) have secondary school Most of the homes (81%) education and only 7% have are owned, according to the university level education. respondents. However, in terms About 25% have less than of land tenure, 52% owned secondary education. There the land, while a notable 26% was no statistically significant were squatters. Majority of the difference between gender houses of the sample population and education level. (72%) are constructed from Primary data revealed that concrete and blocks. Addition- the main household income ally, most households had access is through self-employment to electricity. Some 79% have (45%) followed by employment water piped into their dwelling in the private sector (41%). and only 9% used pit latrines. 94 95 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH FIGURE 33 still be considered as having relatively low levels. Approx- Nature of flood impacts represented as a % of households imately 9% of the individuals percentage of the households that reported residing in the households Number experiences with flooding in the community surveyed attained tertiary level education – a proportion that closely approximates national levels of 8%. Unemployment rates approximated 16% and 8 9 1 1 1 1 8 5 may also be considered to align closely with national estimates. 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% 5.6% Reported income levels, for the month prior to the 27.8% survey, were generally low as median income was US$120. 44.4% 44.4% © Approximately 47% stated 50.0% Simone Lee that they were able to save from last month’s income and 12% indicated that they had outstanding loans. The fact that Vulnerability While several tropical storms and hurricanes have affected several of the respondents had to Coastal the island and, by extension, the Salt Marsh community, relatively favourable debt pro- files but unfavourable savings Flooding the history of devastation profiles indicates the existence of a potentially compromised appears to be less severe in adaptive capacity. About 28% of EXPOSURE Salt Marsh when compared households reported that they to Portland Cottage. Like the received remittances during the Like Portland Cottage other two locations, sections previous month and this may Destroyed/ and Bogue Lagoon, of the Salt Marsh mangrove Children Injury to Destroyed/ potentially serve to enhance could not Could not yourself/ damaged livelihood damaged Had to relocate Had to relocate Other the low-lying coastal community have been cleared attend attend work family crops and their adaptive capacity. school members equipment livestock permanently temporarily topography positions for construction of homes and (e.g. boats) the community of other infrastructure and this may result greater levels of PERCEPTION OF reported that fishing was done the respondents stated that do Salt Marsh as highly exposed to the effects hazard exposure. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES in the mangrove, mainly for not earn any other income or decrease in the mangrove of coastal inundation PROVISION domestic use and to a lesser livelihood from the mangrove. forest. A qualitative look at from storm surges and ADAPTIVE CAPACITY extent commercial sales. the reasons for these changes other environmental The survey did not reveal many Still, oysters, shell, shrimps ISSUES AFFECTING revealed that majority of the changes which may While having higher levels fisher folk. Only 14 persons and crabs are some of the other respondents (24 respondents) occur from the impacts of educational attainment (17% of the respondents) said catch extracted from the man- MANGROVE SERVICES attributed it to the cutting of hydrometeorological than Portland Cottage, the that there were fishermen, and grove. It is therefore not sur- In Salt Marsh, 46% of the down of trees particularly for hazards. Salt Marsh community could only 6 of these respondents prising that majority (95%) of respondents reported a housing development. 96 97 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH No measues 80.8 FIGURE 34 Relocation 7.7 Measures implemented to reduce Flood proof 11.5 impact of future flood events Flood 0 Percentage of respondents Other 0 Mangrove AESTHETIC (VISUAL) FISH HABITAT MEDICINAL VALUE APPEAL Value Percentage of respondents 44.7 36.5 Very important 29.4 29.4 7.1 12.9 Important SOURCE OF FOOD SHORELINE PROTECTION SOURCE OF WOOD (FUEL) SOURCE OF WOOD (FROM EROSION OR STORM (BUILDING MATERIAL) SURGES) Mangrove Biometrics at Bogue Lagoon. 58.8 31.8 25.9 25.8 24.7 20 17.6 15.3 SUPPORTING OFFSHORE WATER QUALITY WILDLIFE HABITAT CARBON STORE OR NEARSHORE FISERIES PRODUCTION © Simone Lee 57.6 38.8 24.7 30.6 24.7 25.9 10.6 MANGROVE 23.5 MANAGEMENT AND restoration activities with the are not currently involved majority (67%) expressing in mangrove restoration RESTORATIVE EFFORTS that interest, and only 25% activities. There is therefore and 8% saying ‘no’ or ‘don’t an opportunity and a need to Opportunities for know’ respectively. There was involve the community into Decreased 45.9 Private Public Observed changes in no statistically significant such activities that may not Partnership mangrove forest in Salt Same 20 relationship in looking at the only minimize the current Marsh for the last 10 Increased 14.1 Respondents in Salt Marsh data by gender. negative impacts on mangrove years (2008-2018) Don´t know 20 show a strong willingness to However, the majority forest, but also promote its Percentage of respondents become involved in mangrove of the residents (94%) growth and restoration. 98 99 Forces of  NATURE Mangrove species SALT MARSH composition and Mangrove species relative abundance 1 0.11 composition and 1 0.15 2 0.02 Trees of red Trees of red Trees of black Ecological (for diversity) relative abundance mangrove (for diversity) mangrove by m2 mangrove by m2 by m2 1 2 FIGURE 35 2 0.07 3 0.008 Trees of black 1 Trees of white Mangrove Biometrics at Salt Marsh. mangrove by m2 2 3 mangrove by m2 Site 1 Site 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 Mean 1.4 Mean Canopy 0.5 0.8 Canopy 2.2 2.8 1.9 2.1 2.0 2.0 2.2 3.0 5.6 1.7 3.0 2.7 2.4 width width (m) 1.2 (m) 86.4 Mean 59.2 94.7 Mean Diameter at Diameter at Breast Height Breast Height (mm) 50.0 (mm) 65.2 92.5 58.7 74.0 78.0 89.8 54.5 78.7 65.5 44.3 103.8 137.8 75.8 Mean Mean Height 10.4 10.9 10.8 Height 8.9 (m) 7.1 7.5 7.6 7.8 8.9 7.7 9.5 8.5 8.1 (m) 5.7 6.0 6.9 5.1 L M H L M H L M H L M H 586 L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H Prop root and Prop root and Pneumato- 11 20 7 16 10 8 8 16 4 15 2 8 Pneumato- 19 24 23 30 42 25 19 phore density 32 36 34 33 phore density 49 379 53 51 (m-2) 67 (m-2) 287 79 Prop root 224 294 Prop root Pneumatophore 165 176 Pneumatophore 80 74 88 Density 26 8 36 Density 182 Low L L M H L M H L M H L M H L Low Medium M L M H M Medium High H H High 0.10 0.10 0.0 0.0 -0.10 -0.10 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 100 101 Forces of  NATURE Physical SALT MARSH ECOSYSTEM SERVICES FIGURE 36 Mangrove Percentage contribution of each family at Site Eleven fish families were 1 and Site 2, Salt Marsh. Biometrics ELEVATION AND identified within the Salt Marsh study location. Site 1 TOPOGRAPHY Site 1 had 2 families, MANGROVE SPECIES Atherinidae (5%) and ATHERINIDAE CLUPEIDAE COMPOSITION AND The elevation at Salt Clupeidae (95%). RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Marsh is attributed to Eleven fish families were the abundant sediment identified within the Salt (FOR DIVERSITY) © being provided by the Simone Lee Marsh study location. Site 1 Red mangrove was the dom- reef and sea grass had 2 families, Atherinidae 5% 95% inant species found within beds at this locality, (5%) and Clupeidae (95%). the Salt Marsh study location. in conjunction with Black mangrove as well as previous storm events a mean of 0.50 mm m-1 for white mangrove were also that have transported Site 1, while ranging from Site 2 identified within the study sediments inland. -1.62 to -0.92 mm m-1 with location with white mangrove a mean of-1.40 mm m-1 for Furthermore, sediments are also ATHERINIDAE BLENNIDAE CHAENOPSIDAE UNKNOWN only being present at Site 2. Site 2. The reasons for this transported by longshore drift The coastal associate species variability between Sites 1 in some sections adjacent to seaside mahoe was observed and 2 is unclear but may be Site 1, and the peninsula is also at both sites. This low diver- related to the variability of fault controlled. This transect sity is expected as mangroves the hydroperiod between 10% 7% 1% 2% was depicted by pure sandy tend to grow in relative the times of data capture. (carbonate) section seaward of monospecific stands within a the transect, and less carbonate forest preventing succession sand and mud stained sediments SEDIMENT AND LITTER and species accumulation. landward. The terrain at Site 1 RETENTION AND LABRIDAE SCARIDAE APOGONIDAE TEATRAODONTIDAE The Salt Marsh area is causes a break in the coverage a forest with intermediate ACCRETION of red mangrove at the highest structural development, that is, elevation between 23 and 28m. In the absence of vertical it has a DBH between 4.5 and As elevation changes, the trees accretion, leaf litter was 14.8 cm and the mean height that occupy the landscape observed above the horizon 58% 1% 1% 7% of the most developed trees also change. For example, red markers and is expected to was between 5.7 and 13.7 m. mangrove occupies the seaward contribute to substrate vertical extent and the areas with the accretion under anoxic condi- PROP ROOT/AERIAL lowest elevation between 30 and tions. Leaf litter for Site 1 was CLUPEIDAE ELEOTRIDAE GOBIIDAE 50m along the transect. higher ranging from 0.58 to ROOT NETWORK 1.59 g than for Site 2 which Prop root densities were ranged from 0.38 to 0.90 g. expected to decrease with ELEVATION CHANGE The variation from sites 1 and Total percentage increasing distance from the Elevation change ranged from 2 is as a result of the variations 1% 1% 11% Percentage contribution water’s edge towards land. -0.09 to 1.25 mm m-1, with with tree density and types. 102 103 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH FIGURE 37 Spatiotemporal lateral erosion (red) or accretion (yellow) on the coastline from 1961 to 2017, where mangrove trees occupation increases migrates seaward or retreats landward. Mangrove Cover Source: UCSC. Image: NASA, ESRI. Commercial and industrial landuse sampled Mangroves (2013) HORIZONTAL VARIATION Accretion (PROGRADATION/ Erosion RETREAT) OF MANGROVE Sites sampled 1 2 COASTLINE 2 Small-scale urban sprawl 1 along the road networks is seen extending from Falmouth (not shown on the map, but to the east of the sites). However, in one section mangroves have been replaced by informal and formal The total length of accreted residential settings and road coastline is more (4.7 km) The long stretch (1 km) of networks. Along the penin- than the total length of erosion in the vicinity of the sula where Site 1 is located, eroded coastline (2.5 km). junction of Rodney Street minor erosion is taking place The total area accreted is 12 and the north coast main road following from the erosion of hectares at a rate of 2.1 km2 network may be attributed the sandy bay to the west, and yr-1; whereas, the total area to marl dumping on the land is likely driven by long-shore eroded is 8.7 hectares, at a that was reclaimed. Addi- drift which is a factor in the rate of 1.6 km2 yr-1. Generally, tionally, across the bay on the formation of the peninsula. in many sections there is an landward side of the penin- Further west along the alternating pattern of erosion sula, a similar long stretch peninsula (to the west of Site and accretion which may be of erosion (0.8 km) may be 1), long-term lateral accretion explained by the behaviour linked to this reclamation is observed. Both lateral of the currents, as similar activity, due to circulation of erosion and accretion are seen patterns are often seen on material (sediment) used in 0 5 10 at Site 2. sandy coastlines. the reclamation across the bay. km 104 105 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH Site 1 Site 2 Outside the mangrove 9% 34% Outside the mangrove 12% 29% wave height wind speed reduction reduction wave height reduction wind speed reduction Within Within the 80% the mangrove mangrove 55% 66% 41% wind speed wave height wind speed wave height reduction reduction reduction reduction WIND, WAVE FIGURE 38 PARAMETERS & mangroves are as a result of conditions experienced on and may be related to higher will be possible as waves Depicts percentage reduction in frictional forces determined the days of sampling. At Site wave energies and depth at transition landward. Site ATTENUATION by the physiography and 2, mean wave height reduc- Site 2. The larger the forest 2 will therefore be able to wind and wave energies outside and within the mangrove at Salt Marsh. Reduction of wind speed and morphodynamics of the tion was higher than at Site width, the more attenuation attenuate bigger waves faster Waves have been oversized for wave energies outside of the sites and the fair-weather 1 (80% and 66% respectively) of normal and storm waves than Site 1. easy interpretation. 106 107 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH Site 1 Site 2 100% 100% 0% 0% 20% 35% Large organic content Large organic content SUBSTRATE FIGURE 39 CONSTITUENTS AND Mean plant percentage removed PROPERTIES carbonate sediments within this by handwashing together with percentage loss from hydrogen SOC percentages were much system at Salt Marsh is unclear, peroxide digestion of organic matter lower at Salt Marsh than as there is a threshold where for each studied at Salt Marsh. © Juliana compared with other locations sedimentation can pose a threat Castaño-Isaza because of the composition to mangrove sustainability. of the substrate, which was In some situations, too much The skeletal grains very sandy with an abundance sedimentation can be delete- identified are a of skeletal and non-skeletal rious to mangrove ecosystems, variety of benthic from within the mangrove foraminiferan normally living and again indicate transporta- carbonate grains. while in other instances it foraminifers, echinoid ecosystem) especially because on the underside of corals, tion when found in mangrove The texture and composition can help against a fast pace of spines, molluscs and of their pristine preservation. and when found in the shore sediments. Equally, the green at Salt Marsh is evidence of rising see level. It is not typical Halimeda plates. Other components of the environment suggest recent alga Halimeda is a charac- a very productive coral reef for mangroves to thrive in sediment (e.g., the foraminif- transport from the coral reef teristic component of both and sea-grass system. The sandy shorelines so long-term More Halimeda plates and erans Homotrema rubra, by storm activity as the red/ sea grass beds and reef envi- abundant carbonate sediment monitoring and protected molluscs were found at Site Amphistegina and Archaias) pink specimen normally ronments and demonstrates reduced the proportion of status should be considered 2 than at Site 1, whereas are thought to be alloch- bleaches to white with ex- transportation. Therefore, the roots and vegetation matter for this locality in a bid to Site 1 had more foraminifers thonous, being brought into tended exposure on the shore. high carbonate sand content within the substrate. However, reduce the potential pressures and molluscs. Some of the the mangal environment by Amphistegina and Archaias in the mangrove sediments the immediate and long-term and monitor the effects of the molluscs are taken to be currents during storm events. are typical of sandy lagoon indicates significant landward effects of these coarse-grained abundant sedimentation. being autochthonous (derived H. rubra is an encrusting deposits with sea grass beds, transport of sediment. 108 109 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 6,302.0 6,539.8 Na (mg/kg) Na (mg/kg) <1% Fe <1% Fe 1,069.4 Mg (mg/kg) 1,211.4 Mg (mg/kg) 365.3 389.3 <1% K <1% K K (mg/kg) 427.4 K (mg/kg) 506.5 Ca (mg/kg) Ca (mg/kg) 5% 3% Water Quality Na Na (mean = 59MScm-1 for Site FIGURE 41 Water quality parameters determined 1, and 56MScm-1 for Site 2). in situ at Salt Marsh. The concentrations of Total The mean temperatures As 3.6 As 3 Dissolved Solids (TDS) are a better spread of the current of the Salt Marsh Br 849.6 Br 286.2 also lower than the minimum data set. The mean pH values Cd 10.7 Cd 7.3 sites are similar to 1.2 value (500mg L-1) for brackish for both sites are strongly Co 1.0 Co those for the Portland Cr 12.9 Cr 19.1 waters. The median DO alkaline and are considered Cottage sites. Sr 1,356.6 Sr 2,877.4 concentrations are relatively elevated. This could have Zn 9.5 Zn 18.3 While the mean salinities for higher that the threshold potentially adverse impacts on both sites are indistinguishable concentration (5mgL-1). The a number of vital biotic and (~35gKg-1). Conductivity median values are considered abiotic processes not adaptable Soil Quality due in part to a strong marine FIGURE 40 values are also comparable here because they represent to these conditions. Concentrations of major and trace influence to these coastal soils. elements analysed in mangrove Similarly, the mean concentra- surface soils (0–30 cm) from the FIGURE 42 The geochemical tion of Na in the soils is greater Salt Marsh locality. Site 1 Water quality parameters determined in situ at Salt Marsh. variability observed than the global mean, but within and among within the range of the national Zn) of particular geochemical localities may be average of unpolluted soils. significance were generally On the other hand, the mean below the instrument level 31.3 59.4 104.4 35.0 4.6 11.8 due in part to a concentrations observed for of detection for all samples range of local soil Cd, Co, Cr, Fe, Sr and Zn are analysed. This would suggest Temperature Conductivity Total Dissolved Salinity Dissolved pH forming conditions. within range of national and that there is no clear litholog- (°C) (MS cm-1) Solids (mg L-1) (g Kg-1) Organics (mg L-1) global averages for unpolluted ical control or anthropogenic The elemental profile of the soils. The pH values of the Salt influence on their spatial Site 2 samples (regardless of origin) is Marsh soils are moderately distribution in these ecosys- consistently dominated by Na, basic with median values of pH tems. These results agree well K, Fe, Sr, and Br. In all cases, 8.7 and pH 8.5 for sites 1 and with the elemental profile of the mean concentration of Br 2, respectively. local waters and would suggest 29.0 56.0 33.8 34.2 4.1 14.0 is higher than that reported Critically, a number of trace that the systems are generally in for world soils and may be elements (Al, Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb, relatively good health. Temperature Conductivity Total Dissolved Salinity Dissolved pH (°C) (MS cm-1) Solids (mg L-1) (g Kg-1) Organics (mg L-1) 110 111 Forces of  NATURE SALT MARSH FIGURE 43 Biomass Carbon Site 1 45.5 Mg ha-1 Site 2 63.8 Loss Mg ha-1 Site 1 Site 2 Aboveground Belowground 11.5 13.7 9.1 Mg ha-1 12.8Mg ha-1 MgCO2-C ha y (Mean) -1 -1 MgCO2-C ha y (Mean) -1 -1 C stock in mangrove vegetation C stock in mangrove vegetation (Mg ha -1) 25.6 (Mg ha -1) 36.0 Soil Carbon page. These variations may be conditions (temperature, Flux due in part to the transitions aeration, moisture) are con- Carbon Stock between well aerated sandy straining biological activity. Soil carbon flux at soils (of varying OC content) Note also, that respiration Site 2 Site 1 the Salt Marsh sites demonstrate the largest to organic-rich soils inundated by tidal waters. Additionally, from roots and soil fauna (autotrophic respiration) may 879.0 Mg C ha-1 spatial variability. variation in soil temperature contribute to these values. at the local sites, differences in Site 2 has a higher live tree 133.8 293.2 Site 1 shows a median flux of 1.94μmolm-2s-1 and a mean the quantity and quality DOC, and losses of mangroves due carbon stock than Site 1. These differences may be due in Mg C ha -1 51.3 Mg C ha-1 Mg C ha-1 value of 3.62μmolm-2s-1, to natural and anthropogenic part to species richness. The while Site 2 exhibits a median forcing may play crucial roles. carbon stock estimates for the value of 2.28μmolm-2s-1 and a Generally, low soil flux rates Salt Marsh sites are slightly a. b. a. b. mean of 3.05μmolm-2s-1. The would suggest that there is more variable than the other median and mean carbon loss little or no SOM/SOC, or soil locations. Overall, the carbon (expressed as MgCO2-Cha- microbial activity. However, stock estimates mirrored the a. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using the mean bulk density value of regional mangrove soils49 y ) are summarized on this 1 -1 this may also signify that soil mean SOM and SOC values. b. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using bulk density value from a pedotransfer function50 112 113 Forces of  NATURE Portland Cottage Socio- Economic Jamaica SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT significant difference between Portland Cottage can male and females. be described as a poor Further, the majority of community with low household income (60%) is levels of education and obtained through self-em- employment. ployment. Of this amount, 15% stated that they had Approximately 42% of the paid employees. Remittances household heads are unem- are also a major source of ployed and 56% have no formal obtaining funds for many education. Among the issues households, with 45% of noted are high levels of adult respondents stating that they (25 years and over) and youth obtained remittances in the (14 to 24 years) unemployment, last 6 months. high levels of illiteracy and Of the 97 respondents who low levels of numeracy. Field reported on savings in the data supported low levels of household, 65% stated that education with about 40% of they were unable to save within respondents having less than the previous month suggesting secondary to high secondary that there was a possibility of education, and only 4% attain- limited income hence little or ing university level education. no savings, or it could also be a There was no statistically result of poor budgeting. 114 115 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE associated with factors such FIGURE 44 % of households many of which are located in A significant percentage of as higher levels of education Nature of flood impacts represented as a close proximity to the coast- Number houses (80%) and the land and employment, income and percentage of the households that reported line. Sections of the mangrove on which homes are built the strength of networks of experiences with flooding in the community community have been cleared (74%) are owned by residents. support in the community. In for construction of homes and Most (70%) of the homes are this regard, Portland Cottage other infrastructure and this constructed from concrete and blocks, with only 10% of the may suggest greater levels of hazard exposure. could be considered as having relatively low levels of educa- 35 38 9 31 22 4 31 6 households within the sample tional attainment with only constructed from wood only. 5% of the individuals residing 5.8 Primary data also revealed SENSITIVITY in the households surveyed 13.0 8.7 that 70% households had access attaining tertiary level 31.9 Sensitivity is primarily education – a proportion that 44.9 44.9 to electricity, but a significant 50.7 55.1 conditioned by the differences falls far below national level amount (20%) shared elec- in the location of structures estimates of 8 %. Adaptive tricity. Further it was revealed as well as the prevailing capacity is also conditioned that 24% of households used socio-economic characteristics by the high unemployment public stand pipe or private of the community. Damage rate (34%) which signifi- piped water. While 45% of assessments done by the cantly exceeds the national households had toilets in their ODPEM, after the impact average (14%). dwellings, a noteworthy per- of Hurricane Ivan in 2004, Reported income levels, for centage (41%) use pit latrines. indicate that buildings closer the month prior to the survey, to the coastline were more se- were generally low as median Vulnerability verely damaged. This suggests that risk differentiation is es- income was US$134 per month. The fact that several of Children could not Could not Injury to yourself/ Destroyed/ damaged Destroyed/ damaged Had to Had to of Coastal livelihood relocate relocate Other attend attend work family crops and sentially expressed in relation the respondents had relatively school members equipment (e.g. boats) livestock permanently temporarily to distance from the coastline Flooding and elevation. Approximately favourable debt profiles (12%) but unfavourable savings 89% of respondents reported profiles (33%) indicates the EXPOSURE an experience with flooding existence of a potentially ECOSYSTEM SERVICES while living in the community. compromised adaptive capac- PROVISIONS protected and it is illegal to Snapper, grunt and parrotfish The location and topography ity. However, it appears that fish. Majority of these fishers are primarily consumed of Portland Cottage positions ADAPTIVE CAPACITY remittances potentially play a Only 37 (36%) of the sample utilize the areas for fishing 1 to in these communities and the community as being significant role in offsetting were fishermen. Those who 3 times per week. Income from amounted to 28%, 33% and highly exposed to the effects Other dimensions of adverse economic circum- fish in the mangrove stated the sale of fish on a weekly 24% of respondents respec- of coastal inundation from vulnerability include the stances. Approximately 45% of that they fish mainly for home basis according to information tively. However, catches from storm surges and other socio-economic attributes households reported that they use, and to a lesser extent for sourced from 11 respondents the mangroves also include environmental changes which which potentially moderate received remittances during sale only in the community. ranged from US$221.06 to sprat, jack, and doctorfish. may occur from the impacts of the severity of impacts from the previous month. Addition- This speaks to the impor- US$2954.74 with an average Apart from fish, it was re- hydrometeorological hazards. coastal hazards. Many vul- ally, only 2% stated that they tance of mangroves to the of US$89. The volume of fish ported that oysters, shells and The community contains nerability studies assert that had insurance which protected livelihoods of these fishermen has also decreased according to more importantly fish bait approximately 699 dwellings, greater adaptive capacity is them from flood damage. particularly since this area is 81% of respondents. and crabs were also extracted. 116 117 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE No measues 60.4 ISSUES AFFECTING maintained, community involvement need to be a FIGURE 45 Relocartion 17.6 MANGROVE SERVICES critical part of the process. Flood proofing 15.4 Measures implemented to reduce impact of future flood events Flood Insurance 1.1 The majority of respondents Percentage of respondents Other 8.8 felt the mangroves had OPPORTUNITIES FOR increased, and this was PRIVATE PUBLIC attributed mainly to res- Mangrove AESTHETIC (VISUAL) FISH HABITAT MEDICINAL VALUE toration activities. Several PARTNERSHIP APPEAL Value respondents used keywords © Percentage of There is opportunity for Simone such as planting or replanting, Lee respondents involving the community reforestation and restoration in mangrove restoration as ma- 63.2 as the reasons behind this jority of the respondents (72%) 41.5 increase. Others noted that to increase from the seaward Very important 34.9 25.5 9.4 stated that they are willing to 17.9 persons have stopped cutting edge of the forest to the be a part of the process. Important down the trees and that the landward edge as trees to occurrence of less hurricanes Ecological the landward edge represent SOURCE OF FOOD SHORELINE PROTECTION SOURCE OF WOOD (FUEL) SOURCE OF have allowed the seeds to set- those that colonised the area (FROM EROSION OR WOOD (BUILDING tle and grow. On the contrary, first and so are usually the STORM SURGES) MATERIAL) several respondents noted a older trees. As the forest area decreased in the mangrove MANGROVE BIOMETRICS extends seaward, the newer 75.5 forest which they believed colonisers are expected to has been caused by pollution, The Portland Cottage area is be on the edge near the sea. 32.1 13.2 10.4 overfishing and drought. a forest with low structural 24.5 6.6 17 7.5 However, such comparisons development - DBH between are only valid if the landward 1.6 and 3.1cm, and mean MANGROVE height of the most developed and seaward trees belong to SUPPORTING OFFSHORE WATER QUALITY WILDLIFE HABITAT CARBON STORE MANAGEMENT AND the same species. The absence trees between 2.4 and 4.7m. OR NEARSHORE FISHERIES of pattern shown for the PRODUCTION RESTORATIVE EFFORTS The Portland Cottage white mangrove in the present location was covered by an study could be because the A noteworthy percentage of almost homogenous, dense transect did not penetrate as respondents (36%) said that stand of red mangrove trees 50 58.5 far enough inland. they are aware of restoration with infrequent occurrences 29.2 28.3 30.2 22.6 24.5 17.9 activities for the mangrove of black mangroves and white forest in Portland Cottage. mangrove trees. MANGROVE HEIGHT AND Still, the majority (64%) said Mean DBH generally CANOPY WIDTH they are unaware of these decreased towards the Observed changes in activities. This suggest the landward end of the transect The height of mangrove vege- Decreased 22.6 mangrove forest in need for improvement in for all species except the white tation typically decreases with Portland for the last 10 Same 17.9 sharing of information among mangrove which remained distance from the water’s edge years (2008-2018) Increased 46.2 the community members. In constant between the 10 along low energy coastlines but Percentage of respondents Don´t know 13.2 order to ensure restoration and 30m distance along the increases with distance along activities are effective and transect. DBH was expected high energy coastlines. 118 119 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE Mangrove species Mangrove species composition and 2 0.20 composition and 1 0.6 Mangrove relative abundance Trees of black relative abundance Trees of red (for diversity) mangrove by m2 (for diversity) mangrove by m2 Biometrics 2 FIGURE 46 1 0.39 1 3 0.01 1 2 2 0.008 3 Trees of white Trees of black Mangrove Biometrics at Trees of red mangrove by m2 mangrove by m2 mangrove by m2 Portland Cottage. Site 1 Site 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 2 Mean Mean Canopy Canopy width 1.6 2 2.2 4.0 width (m) 0.7 1 0.8 1 0.25 0.7 1 0.5 1 (m) 1.7 1.5 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.3 Mean Mean Diameter at Diameter at Breast Height Breast Height (mm) 44 (mm) 90 25 48 21 20 30 22 27 26 21 29 39.6 38.3 28.1 14 24.3 40 23.4 14 Mean Mean Height Height 4.0 4.5 4.0 3.1 3.5 4 3.4 (m) 4.8 5 3.9 4 4 3.1 4 3 3.6 4 3.2 3 2.0 (m) L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H Prop root and 657 656 Prop root and Pneumato- 2 Pneumato- 9 10 phore density 480 17 20 phore density (m-2) 23 23 23 (m-2) 370 387 385 28 36 32 32 39 Prop root 258 41 43 Prop root 52 50 168 Pneumatophore 138 123 117 62 142 Pneumatophore 68 60 69 58 Density 74 6 80 23 16 Density 79 84 Low L L Low Medium M L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H L M H M Medium High H H High 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.10 0.0 0.0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.10 -0.3 -0.20 -0.4 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 120 121 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE yield positive results for this but a gentle rise and a lower- river system which drains hin- area. Only 1 fin-fish family ing off towards the landward terlands to the north. Unlike HORIZONTAL VARIATION (Gerreidae) was identified in extent of the transect. (PROGRADATION/ the Montego Rivers at Bogue the Portland Cottage larval Towards the interior there is assessment. Gerreidae also another collapse in elevation Lagoon, and the Martha RETREAT) OF MANGROVE Brae at Salt Marsh, this river COASTLINE known as mojarra include giving rise to a basinal brings abundant siliciclastic silver jenny. This species is a feature (end of transect and The section of Portland sediments from the Central common prey/ bait fish used landward) which is inundated Cottage studied is bor- Inlier, and occasionally floods. throughout the Caribbean with water and devoid of dered by rural residential and is not considered of vegetation. These basinal accommodation largely for high commercial value. features landward of both ELEVATION CHANGE fisher folk and minor road Furthermore, while site 1 had sites and without vegetation Based on the study period of networks. Land use north of fish larvae from one species, suggest some sort of ponding 4 months, Site 1 showed a the bay transitioned to less assessment of the other site especially taking into context negative accretion (-1.03mm commercial agriculture and is yielded only large amounts with the spatio-temporal m-1), while Site 2 showed ac- now abandoned or shrub land. of crustacean (crab) larvae in studies shown later. The peat cretion of mean 1.1mm m-1. The length of the coastline the trap. collapse may be as a result of The positive elevation could with long-term accretion © stressors to the ecosystem and be attributed to root mass is smaller (3.8km) than the Physical Simone Lee the death of trees facilitating a increase and/or in combina- length of the coastal area with domino effect. tion with the hydroperiod long-term erosion (8.2km). PROP ROOT/AERIAL of the tide increasing the The area of lateral accretion Mean height showed a ROOT NETWORK ELEVATION AND SEDIMENT & LITTER elevation from pore-water seaward is 19.2 hectares at a general decline towards land. TOPOGRAPHY RETENTION AND pressure and the sedimen- rate of 3.4km2yr-1. In addition, The pattern and range of tree Representation of the high tation. Due to the positive a smaller area of 8.2 hectares heights are similar to forest prop root density category Site 1 is dominated on the ACCRETION elevation change here at landward (at Site 2) that was studies along the north coast was absent between 10 and seaward end by red man- Accretion was negative at Site 2, shallow subsidence is unvegetated in 1961 is now of Jamaica, mangrove forests in 20m; 30 and 40m; and 40 groves, but also has abundant Site 1 in Portland Cottage, playing a less significant role vegetated in 2017. The area Portland (Errol Flynn Marina), and 50m. These prop root black mangroives (with as evidenced by the absence than at Site 1. Fluctuation eroded is 55 hectares of the Seville and Falmouth, which densities were expected to pneumatophores) presumably of erosion of the horizon in elevation occurs while seaward section at a rate of show an overall similar decline decrease with increasing with geomorphology being a markers. There was no leaf accretion continued to 9.8km2yr-1. Furthermore, an- in tree height towards the distance from the water’s edge controlling factor in mangrove litter because there were increase linearly with time, other 84 hectares of mangrove land. These forest areas had towards land, as red mangroves distribution. The significant no trees at the site of the as a result of change in pore forest has been lost between similar physiography (degree of typically achieve optimal drop in elevation at Site 1 RSET and in the vicinity water and shallow subsurface 1961 and 2017 landward shelter and salinity influences) growth near the water’s edge. landward corresponds to of the horizon markers. processes. Based on the state of the seaward edges of the to Portland Cottage but were an area that is devoid of Sediment supply is signif- of Site 1 compared to Site 2, mangroves at the Portland Ecosystem more exposed. All species’ can- mangrove trees and suggests icantly higher at this location it is believed that the local- Cottage locality. On a 1961 opy width decreased landward loss in elevation as a result of than all other locations and ised increased subsidence and aerial photograph, areas to the Services towards the end of transect, peat collapse contributing to is likely coming in from erosion could be in relation northwest of the study area with the exception of the black shallow subsidence. redistribution of eroded to peat collapse and absence was prime farmland. Today it mangroves which showed a Site 2 is dominated by sediments, and possibly from of mangrove trees rather than is deforested in some sections tremendous increase at 30-40m The fish nursery ecosystem red mangroves. Unlike Site 1 the redistribution of overbank other transient features of whereas other areas appear as before declining at 40 – 50m. service of mangroves did not there is no undulating profile, deposits of the Rio Minho the system. abandoned shrub land. 122 123 Forces of  NATURE The significant decline and and vertical accretion. Field become, and remain flooded FIGURE 47 dieback landward of man- reconnaissance identified dead as the peat stocks below them Spatiotemporal lateral erosion (red) or groves at and around Portland trees at Mitchell Town to the decay and collapse, then accretion (yellow) on the coastline from Cottage has been an ongoing north east of the study area. overtime the existing seaward 1961 to 2017, where mangrove trees trend probably spanning The transportation of bauxite fringes will become isolated. occupation increases migrates seaward either 5 decades or at least in and alumina may play a role, These mangrove forests at or retreats landward. the last decade. This can be or the kind of fishing and Portland Cottage are there- Mangrove Cover Source: UCSC. an ongoing long-term process transportation activities that fore offering reduced coastal Image: NASA, ESRI. rather than immediate death. occur in the bay area, but it protection ecosystem services. Commercial and industrial landuse sampled This may be linked to natural is impossible to determine events such as Hurricanes the cause of the significant Mangroves (2013) Ivan (2004) and Sandy (2013) dieback. However, if the Accretion that affected this area. Within denudated areas continue to the strands are also evidence expand, and subsequently Erosion of reduced mangrove coverage (west of and within Site 1), Sites sampled 1 2 identified as eroded and ac- cretion or increased mangrove coverage identified as lateral 1 2 0 5 10 km 124 125 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE Wind and Wave Parameters & Attenuation FIGURE 48 Waves have been oversized for Depicts percentage reduction in wind easy interpretation. and wave energies outside and within the Due to technical difficulties, mangrove at Portland Cottage. complete data for Portland Cottage Site 2 was not presented. Site 1 Site 2 Outside the 2% Outside the mangrove 11% 13% mangrove wind speed wave height reduction reduction wind speed reduction 58% Within the Within the mangrove mangrove 58% wave height reduction 68% wind speed wind speed reduction reduction 126 127 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE Site 1 Site 2 100% 100% 0% 0% 79% 90% Large organic content Large organic content Substrate expected within the system FIGURE 49 Mean plant percentage removed Constituents were not seen. This lack of skeletal grains within the by handwashing together with percentage loss from hydrogen and Properties system shows that carbonate reef and seagrass beds, and peroxide digestion of organic matter for each studied at Portland Cottage. The error bars represent Because there was no car- associated sediment produc- standard errors of the mean (SEM) bonate sandy component in tion may be low in this region, the samples, no identification or has not been distributed by of skeletal or non-skeletal currents to either of the study grains was possible. Fur- sites. Furthermore, acidic of carbonate allochems. This thermore, mangal molluscs conditions in the substrate absence warrants further and other grazing organisms could cause carbonate grains study as this could also be that could contribute to the to dissolve and this could be related to the state of these substrate upon death that are another reason for the absence mangal systems. 128 © Simone Lee 129 Forces of  NATURE PORTLAND COTTAGE FIGURE 51 Water quality parameters determined in situ at Portland Cottage. Site 1 Site 2 Site 1 Site 2 7,644.3 8,225.8 Na (mg/kg) Na (mg/kg) 2% 2% 1,005.0 Fe Fe 1,219.8 Mg (mg/kg) Mg (mg/kg) 1% K 1% K 417.7 K (mg/kg) 412.9 K (mg/kg) 500.2 587.6 Ca (mg/kg) Ca (mg/kg) 5% Na 6% Na waters. The average DO depleting source(s) (possibly in part to contributions from concentrations generally of an organic nature) at these organic species, high concen- fall below the threshold sites. The mean pH of Site 1 tration of CO2 dissolution in concentration (5mgL-1). is moderately basic (pH 9.0), water, or weakly buffered soils. As 8.7 As 11.7 These values may be explained whereas Site 2 is weakly acidic The acidic pH is similar to Br 533.9 Br 550.8 by the presence of oxygen (pH 6.8), which may be due most local mineral soils. Cd 15.2 Cd 15.7 Co 6.8 Co 6.3 Cr 23.2 Cr 29.8 FIGURE 52 Sr 187.4 Sr 129.8 Site 1 Water quality parameters determined in situ at Portland Cottage. Zn 42.4 Zn 46.4 33.2 72.3 40.7 41.9 4.4 9.0 Soil Quality Water Quality FIGURE 50 Concentrations of major and trace Temperature Conductivity Total Dissolved Salinity Dissolved pH elements analysed in mangrove (°C) (MS cm-1) Solids (mg L-1) (g Kg-1) Organics (mg L-1) ECOSYSTEM CARBON These results would surface soils (0–30 cm) from the BIOGEOCHEMISTRY suggest that enrichment Portland Cottage locality. Site 2 by evaporation is likely to be an important Soils from the Portland control on salinity. Cottage locality are predomi- and primary productivity. nantly acidic (Site 1, pH 5.6 to Salinity is an important The concentration of TDS is 28.9 62.7 37.9 38.8 2.59 6.83 7.2; and Site 2, pH 6.2 to 6.9), water quality variable as it also lower than the minimum with median values of pH 6.4. influences plant community value (500mgL-1) for brackish Temperature Conductivity Total Dissolved Salinity Dissolved pH (°C) (MS cm-1) Solids (mg L-1) (g Kg-1) Organics (mg L-1) 130 131 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 53 Biomass Site 1 Site 2 Carbon Loss Site 1 13.4 Mg ha-1 Site 2 11.4 Mg ha-1 Aboveground Belowground 8.4 MgCO2-C ha-1y-1 (Mean) 2.1 MgCO2-C ha-1y-1 (Mean) 2.7Mg ha-1 2.3 Mg ha-1 C stock in mangrove vegetation C stock in mangrove vegetation (Mg ha -1) 7.6 (Mg ha -1) 6.4 Soil Carbon Carbon Stock Flux Site 1 1,023.1 Site 2 1,012.0 Mg C ha-1 Mg C ha-1 Portland Cottage 1 and 2 yielded soil carbon stock estimates of approximately 179 Mg C ha-1 and 177 Mg 179.1 Mg C ha-1 177.0 Mg C ha-1 C ha-1, respectively. Overall, the carbon stock estimates mirrored the mean SOM and SOC values. The SOM, SOC a. b. a. b. and therefore the carbon stock estimates are a function of the © difference between inputs into, a. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using the mean bulk density value of regional mangrove soils49 Simone Lee and losses from the system. b. Stock estimates (Mg C ha-1) determined using bulk density value from a pedotransfer function50 132 133 Forces of  NATURE Broad 1 2 3 Comparisons Associations between PORTLAND COTTAGE BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH assessments 2 and/or human activity) and so infers stability. However, it is forests are keeping pace with 1 ECOLOGICAL important to note that the brief the subsidence and rise in sea the forest would be in a state COMPARISONS OF of regeneration. Comparisons sampling period is inadequate level that is occurring as a result Jamaica OVERALL FOREST AREAS between the 3 forests indicate for definite conclusions to be of climate change. Generally, that Bogue Lagoon, while drawn for water quality and Portland Cottage was identified The mangrove communities’ having the lowest red mangrove ichthyoplankton parameters. as the mangrove area providing 3 ecological features and associ- tree density, is the healthiest For example, the absence of the lowest ecosystem service Lagoon offers the most ated services can be compared forest since the red mangrove ichthyoplankton at Portland despite recording the highest ecosystem service in protection across the three locations using trees had the greatest DBH, Cottage, Site 2 is most likely accretion (at one site). The of the coastline as it protects spatially significant parameters. canopy width and tree height. due to the one-off sampling. studies determined that sub- critical road infrastructure with population here are most at Only red mangrove parameters These parameters indicate a The physical properties sidence seems to be playing an linkages within the parish of St. risk and vulnerable so it could (tree numbers, tree height, mature forest with little or no of the mangroves can be important role within the study James (the most populated and be argued that the greatest DBH, canopy width and me- disturbance. Salt Marsh ranked considered to be quite unique sites, and coupled with sea-level urban of the 3 study locations) protection to life and livelihood dium prop root density) as well second with respect to DBH, for each location. For example rise will increase the vulner- and to neighbouring parishes is offered at Portland Cottage, as ichthyoplankton were found canopy width and tree height. the textural composition of ability of communities and of Trelawny and Hanover and and cost to the government in to vary significantly between Nevertheless, only Salt Marsh the substrate after the removal infrastructure associated with contributes to the viability of the event of serious disasters. the 3 locations. The indications had all three mangrove species of all organic components these systems if proper man- mainstream and alternative Geographical, spatial and are that while having the largest represented; which could also was different for each site. agement and protection is not tourism industries. Salt Marsh temporal studies show that number of trees and prop root be an artefact of the length of Geological study of the enforced. Bogue Lagoon was would be second protecting all sites experience lengths density (for medium plots), the transect used. The ichthyo- study areas imply tectonically identified as the most stable infrastructure and livelihood of coastline undergoing both the red mangrove trees were plankton data further supports driven subsidence has occurred and resilient forest system. Due for the adjacent and dependent lateral erosion and accretion. shortest at Portland Cottage the indication of disturbance recently or is still occurring. to the sedimentation patterns at communities including the im- Lateral (horizontal) accretion with the smallest canopy and at the Portland Cottage Elevations on 5 of the study Salt Marsh this forest fringe is portant town of Falmouth and was greater at Bogue Lagoon tree width. This agrees with mangroves with Bogue Lagoon transects showed the transects considered suspect to increased road networks. The Portland and Salt Marsh, but lateral the previous indication that again having the greatest mean/ ranging between just below risk from over sedimentation, Cottage has the least critical erosion was more predominant the Portland Cottage forest is median and lowest fluctuation to just above Mean Sea Level however it is not as degraded infrastructure and connection at Portland Cottage, possibly as affected by disturbance (storms around the mean. The latter (MSL), which means that the as the south coast site. Bogue to mainstream tourism, but the a result of recent hurricanes. 134 135 Forces of  NATURE 80 FIGURE 54 FIGURE 55 Median red, black and white Median Red mangrove prop mangrove tree abundances roots (medium density) between locations. 80 between locations. 70 extremes outliers 25%-75% 25%-75% median 70 median © non-outlier range © non-outlier range 60 Simone Simone Lee Lee 60 50 50 40 40 30 30 20 20 10 0 10 RED WHITE RED BLACK WHITE RED BLACK BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE 0 COMPARISON OF STUDY seen within the sampling areas trees, fluctuated widely be- BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE LOCATIONS USING TREE at Bogue Lagoon and Portland tween the two sites sampled at ABUNDANCE cottage respectively. Portland Portland cottage (ranged from Cottage had the greatest 0 – 30 trees), while at Bogue COMPARISON OF STUDY for between forest comparisons. Abundance of adult trees abundance of red mangrove the fluctuation was between 5 LOCATIONS USING As expected, medium density was one such parameter that trees (over 50 per transect) and 15 trees (median of 10). red mangrove prop roots occurred at all locations and while Salt Marsh and Bogue Abundance of white mangrove ROOTING SYSTEMS followed a similar pattern to while red mangroves were Lagoon were similar with trees were similar at Salt Only red mangrove prop roots abundance of red trees, with could not be compared between found at all forest areas, black approximately 10 per transect. Marsh and Bogue Lagoon (2 (medium density) occurred greatest densities at Portland the forests based on low occur- and white mangroves were not Abundance of black mangrove and 2.5, respectively) with sufficient spread to allow Cottage. Pneumatophores rences within the transects. 136 137 Forces of  NATURE 12 140 8 BOGUE LAGOON BOGUE LAGOON 11 7 SALT 120 MARSH 10 BOGUE LAGOON 9 6 100 8 SALT MARSH 5 7 80 6 4 PORTLAND SALT COTTAGE 60 MARSH 5 PORTLAND 3 COTTAGE 4 PORTLAND COTTAGE 40 3 2 2 20 1 1 0 0 0 HEIGHT DBH CANOPY WIDTH COMPARISON OF SITES would be expected to be great FIGURE 56 and that forest was clearly USING TREE FEATURES the most mature/undisturbed Median red mangrove height, DBH and canopy width between locations. (HEIGHT, DBH AND of the three. By contrast, outliers CANOPY WIDTH) Portland Cottage which had 25%-75% the greatest abundance of red median Only red mangrove trees mangrove trees, had trees with non-outlier range occurred with sufficient spread lowest height and DBH. This between forests to have their supports the previous indica- measured the height/width of tree features (height, DBH tion that Portland Cottage was the prop roots to see if they and canopy width) compared. highly disturbed by storms and would likely be effective. Height of red mangrove so the trees were recovering. It was felt that overall trees was greatest at Bogue The Portland Cottage stand comparison between forests Lagoon and lowest at Portland would not be expected to offer using tree parameters (where Cottage. Bogue Lagoon also high protection. Only prop possible) indicates that Bogue had the greatest DBH and root abundance at Portland Lagoon should offer the canopy width. Therefore, Cottage could indicate greatest protective services although having the lowest possible value for protecting followed by Salt Marsh, with abundance of red mangrove land and infrastructure from Portland Cottage mangroves trees, the protective services wave action and it would being least able to protect land of the Bogue Lagoon stand have been useful to have and associated infrastructure. 138 © Simone Lee 139 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 57 FIGURE 58 60% 60% 60% 90% 90% 90% Reduction of wind Reduction of Wave speed outside and Height within R. within mangroves Mangle Roots 50% 50% 50% Outside mangrove Outside mangrove 80% 80% 80% Within mangrove Within mangrove 40% 40% 40% 70% 70% 70% 30% 30% 30% 60% 60% 60% 20% 20% 20% 50% 50% 50% 10% 10% 10% 40% 40% 40% 0% 0% 0% SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 30% 30% 30% BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE Merging The relationship is such that more wind was attenuated for Sites 1 and 2 of Bogue La- goon saw more wind speed 20% 20% 20% Ecological largest DBH in red mangroves and most density of trees. reduction within the edges of the mangrove than Portland and Physical At Portland Cottage, red Cottage, because of the larger 10% 10% 10% Data mangrove DBH is 40 and 45 DBH. At Salt Marsh DBH mm respectively for Sites 1 was similar for Sites 1 and 2, and 2. Red mangrove is more but the density was higher at 0% 0% 0% MANGROVE CANOPY/ dense at Site 2 than Site 1, Site 2 and as a result Site 2 SITE 1 BOGUE LAGOON SITE 2 SITE 2 SALT MARSH SITE 1 SITE 2 PORTLAND COTTAGE and as such saw moderate saw more reduction in wind TREE DENSITY AND WIND reduction in wind speed within speed. Although DBH of red Because wind measurements the edge of the forest seaward. mangrove trees within 0-10m were taken just within the At Bogue Lagoon there is of the transect was smaller PROP ROOT DENSITY landward from the water’s Site 2, however, wave attenu- mangroves from the seaward a considerably larger mean at Salt Marsh than Bogue edge than Sites 1. Sites 2 ation was only collected from edge at breast height, the DBH (140 mm) at Site 2 than Lagoon, the densities were AND WAVE ATTENUATION also saw greater wave energy Site 1 and was highest among best information to look Site 1 (80 mm). Furthermore, similar and the percent wind The prop root density at attenuation. The reverse is the three study areas because at would be the DBH and Site 2 had more red mangrove reduction also appeared to be Bogue Lagoon and Salt seen at Portland Cottage the prop root density at the the red mangrove density trees and saw more wind similar. Therefore tree density Marsh Sites 2 shows higher where prop root densities edge of that forest was slightly within the first 0 to 10 m. reduction than Site 1. Together is considered most important. densities within the first 10 m appear higher at Site 1 than higher than all the others. 140 141 Forces of  NATURE 5 Mangrove Benefits Beyond Flood Risk Reduction Lead Authors: Dr. Peter Edwards, Dr. Adrian Spence, Dr. Mona Weber, Camilo Trench, and Patrice Francis 1 2 3 4 5 6 Brief Blue Nearshore methodology Carbon Fisheries Page 144 Page 146 Page 154 142 143 Forces of  NATURE Brief Methodology Where feasible, this analysis incorporated site level information (social and biophysical) into the estimates of economic values. The aim is to provide complimentary social and economic information on the additional co- An examination of the of carbon, among others, SOIL ORGANIC CARBON STOCK benefits of ecosystem relevant mangrove ecosystem when necessary. services beyond service and economic valua- The site-based informa- coastal protection. tion literature will be the basis tion gathered from UWI was VEGETATION CARBON for developing the methods used in some instances to The analyses for each to be applied to the ecosystem scale up or impute estimated WHOLE ECOSYSTEM of the key ecosystems services of interest. This will values from other locations CARBON relied heavily on include but not be limited to that fit the (physical and literature and benefit approaches such as benefit socioeconomic) conditions of transfer approaches. transfer methods, social cost each of the sites. SITES 144 © Daniel Schwapp 145 Forces of  NATURE Blue maximum and minimum values FIGURE 59 FIGURE 60 mean Whole ecosystem carbon stocks. Soil organic matter content of summarizing data distribution include the quartiles mangrove surface soils (0–30 cm). median Carbon range of values that fall within the inner fences Vegetation Carbon 80% SOC stock © Simone Lee Whole Ecosystem Carbon (Mg C ha ) -1 300 252.7 60% Organic matter content 179.4 186.7 183.4 200 40% 124.3 87.3 100 20% 0% 0 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE SOIL ATMOSPHERIC are among the most threated on the REDD (reduced Site level the relationships (positive and between red mangroves and and rapidly vanishing ecosys- emissions from deforestation negative) between mangrove total vegetative carbon, com- CARBON FLUX, SOIL tems globally, with habitat loss and degradation) programs Assessments species and carbon stocks. Results indicate a significant, pared with a small to moderate (positive) correlation between CARBON STOCKS AND ABOVE GROUND rates similar or greater to those in tropical forests. designed to protect tropical forests. The purpose of moderate correlation between white mangroves and total In response to this trend, these programs is to provide MANGROVE SPECIES red and white mangroves; carbon, and black mangroves CARBON STOCKS there has been an increased market incentives to reduce COMPOSITION AND white mangroves and total and total carbon, respectively On average, mangroves contain focus on the development emissions from deforestation vegetative carbon; and a strong for the Portland Cottage forest. three to four times the mass of and implementation of mar- by, for example, encouraging CARBON positive correlation between red The relationship between black carbon typically found in boreal, ket-based mechanisms such developing countries to In order to better understand mangroves and total vegetative and white mangrove carbon temperate, or upland tropical as carbon offsets, to credit reduce deforestation in return the interlinkages between the carbon for Bogue Lagoon. It stocks was small. Similar forests. Much of this carbon mangrove conservation for for compensation from devel- ecological and physical aspects is also apparent that there is a relationships are observed for storage, however, is at risk of associated emissions reduc- oped countries committed to of the forests, we examined significant positive correlation the Salt Marsh forest. being lost, because mangroves tions. This is largely modelled emission reductions. 146 147 Forces of  NATURE Economic 10 Valuation 8 6 pH The estimates for the eco- 4 nomic value of sequestered carbon for the project study 2 sites are based on an applica- tion of the Tier 1 approach. 0 It should be noted that Tier SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 1 assessments typically come BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE with large error ranges for both above ground and soil maximum and minimum values carbon estimates. The Tier FIGURE 61 mean 1 assessment of a carbon Soil organic carbon content summarizing data distribution include the quartiles of mangrove surface soils median stock within a project area (0-30 cm). range of values that fall within the inner fences is achieved by multiplying the area of an ecosystem by the mean carbon stock for 14 that ecosystem type. The mean value of 386MgCHa-1 12 is therefore multiplied by 10 the respective site areas to © Daniel Schwapp Flux µmolm-2s-1 provide estimates of carbon 8 stock. The mangrove areas for the study sites are; The Net Present Value (NPV) 6 The basic calculations Portland Bight 254.2 hec- of annually sequestering carbon are as follows: 4 tares, Bogue 66.2 hecatres at the rate estimated above for and Salt Marsh 24.5 hectres. Mean Carbon (MgC a 100 year time frame was also 2 As part of this analysis Ha-1) * Area (Ha) = calculated. This represents the 0 we also estimate carbon Mg (or T) of Blue value over time of keeping the SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 SITE 1 SITE 2 sequestration values for the Carbon in Study Site mangrove forests intact. The BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE total estimated mangrove sensitivity analysis compares Total Potential as per the Land Use and discount rates ranging from 0% CO2 emissions per Land Cover (LULC) cat- to 10%. It should be noted that maximum and minimum values hectare (MgCO2 Ha- mean egorisation reported in the for standard infrastructure de- 1 ) = Mg C * 3.67 summarizing data distribution include the quartiles 5th National Green House velopment projects the typical median Gasses (GHG) report. This Carbon sequestration discount rate used is 3%. For range of values that fall within the inner fences FIGURE 62 mild outliers estimated area for Jamaica is value = MgC * X$/ most carbon valuation studies CO2 Flux. extreme outliers 9,715 hectares. MgC = X$ the discount rate of interest 148 149 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 63 Annual Carbon sequestration is usually set at 1 to 1.4%. of carbon sequestration as well Social Cost of Carbon (SCC) values for the estimated total mangrove area in Jamaica. US$180 Part of the controversy with discount rates is that to account as the future value of carbon over a 100 year life span. These based on these estimates. The UWI component estimated Note: These estimates are based on a value of US$48 per tonne of Carbon. million for intergenerational equity issues, discount rates for carbon estimates are based on a value of US$48 per tonne of Carbon. carbon flux, standing biomass and soil organic carbon for should be set at zero given the the 3 locations. Using the longer time frames of climate INCORPORATING SITE mean bulk density value and carbon cycling. However, from a pedotransfer function, LEVEL DATA 3.7 million 13.7 million the resulting price estimates for carbon are typically quite large The previous analysis relied estimates were shown to be higher than the global average Tonnes of C Tonnes of CO2 and as a result may have little on the global average taken of 386 MgCHa-1. The average equivalent real world policy application. from the literature. The UWI soil organic carbon stocks Sequestered It can still be instructive to team also conducted an (MgCHa-1) were 1,023.1 for show the value over these analysis of carbon stock as Portland Cottage, 1,205.7 for longer time frames for trade off outlined in the companion Bogue Lagoon and 878 for purposes. Based on the results report. We also use the Salt Marsh. These site-specific of the sensitivity analysis we lower and upper bound of averages were also used to 1h ec tar can examine the annual value CMgHa-1 to assess the actual estimate SCC. e 9,715 FIGURE 64 hectares of mangroves Site specific carbon sequestration values for m: million, b: billion mangrove study sites. m: million, b: billion PORTLAND COTTAGE BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH COMBINED SITES JAMAICA TOTAL COTTAGE Avg Soil Carbon Stock (MgCHa-1) 1023.1 1205.75 878 Area (Ha) 254.2 66.2 24.5 344.9 9,715 Area (Ha) 254.2 66.2 24.5 Tonnes C Sequestered 98,121 25,553 9,457 133,131 3.7 m Tonnes C Sequestered 260,077 79,821 21,511 Tonnes of CO2 equivalent 359,778 93,695 34,676 488,148 13.7 m Tonnes of CO2 equivalent 953,616 292,676 78,874 Estimated Price T C (Social Cost of Carbon) -1 Estimated Price T-1 C (Social Cost of Carbon) US$48 (Latin America) $4.7 m $1.2 m $453,936 $6.4 m $180 m US$48 $12.5 m $3.8 m $1.0 m Rate of time Preference Rate of time Preference 0% PRTP = $677 $66.4 m $17.3 m $6.4 m $90.1 m $2.5 b 0% PRTP = $677 $176.1 m $54.0 m $14.6 m 1% PRTP = $360 $35.3 m $9.2 m $3.4 m $47.9 m $1.3 b 1% PRTP = $360 $93.6 m $28.7 m $7.7 m 3% PRTP = $44 $4.3 m $1.1 m $416,108 $5.8 m $165.0 m 3% PRTP = $44 $11.4 m $3.5 m $946,484 150 151 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 65 Net present value (NPV) of annually sequestering carbon at various discount rates over 100 year period (SCC US$48 T-1C). $17.8 billion Discount Rate 0.0% $9.5 billion Discount Rate 1.4% © Simone Lee $5.5 billion Discount Rate 3% DISCUSSION However, when estimates carbon stocks at these 3 $3.4 billion Discount Rate Carbon of soil carbon stock for each location were used with the locations, there is significant carbon sequestration Values same SCC the value of annual economic value. Estimating 5% sequestration for Portland the economic benefits of $1.6 billion Discount Rate Bight, Bogue Lagoon and sequestering carbon forms 10% Using a global soil carbon Salt Marsh are US$12.5 the basis for the development stock average of 386 MgCHa-1 million, US$3.8 million and of carbon markets. Jamaica and a SCC of US$48 T-1 C, US$1 million respectively. The through these study sites and the value of annual seques- site-specific economic SCC more broadly other mangrove m: million, b: billion tration for Portland Cottage, values are higher than the forested areas could seek to Bogue Lagoon and Salt global average. Similarly, the partner with stakeholders Discount Rates Marsh are respectively US$4.7 NPV for a 100 year timespan to develop a blue carbon 0.0% 1.4% 3% 5% 10% million, US$1.2 million and at different discount rates market. This could be in the US$453,936. are higher than the estimates form of trading on the in- SCC= US$48 T-1C NET PRESENT VALUES (100 YEARS) using the global carbon stock ternational market (REDD+ Net Present Values average. These value estimates schemes or other private PORTLAND COTTAGE $466.3 m $248.0 m $144.2 m $89.0 m $42.8 m calculated for a 100 year are influenced by the choice markets) or possibly develop BOGUE LAGOON $121.4 m $64.6 m $37.6 m $23.2 m $11.1 m timespan show estimated of discount rate and represent an indigenous or local carbon values for keeping carbon the avoided costs to society market. This may require SALT MARSH $44.9 m $23.9 m $13.9 m $8.6 m $4.1 m sequestered ranging of not releasing this stored engaging the hotel sector, COMBINED SITES $632.6 m $336.5 m $195.7 m $120.7 m $58.1 m from US$4.1 million (Salt carbon to the atmosphere. major infrastructure develop- Marsh) to US$466 million The site-specific results ers and agriculture as part of JAMAICA TOTAL $17.8 b $9.5 b $5.5 b $3.4 b $1.6 b confirm that based on the the process. (Portland Cottage). 152 153 Forces of  NATURE Nearshore Fisheries Site Level Mangrove fisheries benefits are typically derived from two key ecological mechanisms. The first, is the high level of primary productivity from the mangrove trees and from other producers in the mangrove environment that supports secondary consumers. This high level of primary produc- tivity forms the basis of food chains that support a range of commercially important species. The second is the physical structure (habitat) that they provide, creating attachment points for species that need a hard substrate species of penaeid prawn are to grow on, as well as shelter found almost exclusively in from predation and a benign mangroves. Many fish species physical environment. These are also found in mangroves two mechanisms combine to as juveniles, and studies have make mangroves particularly demonstrated the movement effective as nursery grounds for of juveniles from mangroves to juveniles of species that later coral reefs and other offshore some species use mangroves tide to feed. This highlights move offshore or to adjacent habitats. For Jamaica, studies only at certain life history the potential importance of habitats such as coral reefs. showed that over 220 species In addition to nursery services, stages - for example snapper habitat linkages in enhancing Many offshore species are of fish use mangroves to mangroves also support may live in the mangrove as fish productivity, while also found in mangroves during lay their eggs and feed. This and mackerel. Furthermore, commercial harvest of fin and juveniles before moving to making it challenging to part of their life cycle, most includes many commercial important reef cleaners such as shellfish species these include coral reefs as adults - other isolate the role of mangroves commonly as juveniles. fish such as grunt, snapper, parrotfish are highly depend- mullets, crabs, oysters and species live outside the in supporting fisheries in such Indeed, juveniles of some snook, tarpon, barracuda ent on mangroves for breeding. other estuarine species. While mangrove but enter it at high mixed habitat systems. 154 155 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 66 US$54,145 Estimating the economic Other studies have produced refuges for boats and fishing Estimated annual economic value of mangrove-associ- estimates with ranges between equipment in mangrove contribution of mangrove to small- ated fisheries is challenging, 5 to 25% contribution of lagoons and forests during scale mixed fisheries. particularly at regional or mangrove to offshore fishery. storm events is a regulating global scales. Estimation of Another study estimated a ecosystem service that Global median value per hectare per year the proportional contribution 32% contribution of the local translates to avoided costs of to commercial (or subsistence) fishery landings by mangrove, damage. Storm refuge systems fish harvest is typically very an equivalent of US$6,000 exist in many jurisdictions data limited. An additional per hectare. Yet another where special permission is US$19,573 challenge of these estimates study on the contribution granted to areas typically not is the underlying complexity of Malaysian mangroves to permitted for boat owners to US$14,101 and variability of the types of nursery areas, coastal food use mangrove safe areas. fisheries. Several studies are chains and fisheries show that US$5,097 US$5,218 limited to individual target net fisheries contribution of US$1,886 species or specific fishing mangrove forest amounted to Economic methods, and as a result US$846 per hectare per year. capture only a part of the total In the context of climate Valuation FIN FISH MIXED FISHERIES FIN FISH MIXED FISHERIES FIN FISH MIXED FISHERIES fisheries value. Estimates for change and resilience US$77* US$213* US$77* US$213* US$77* US$213* the economic contribution (ecological and human), The estimates of value per BOGUE LAGOON SALT MARSH PORTLAND COTTAGE of mangrove habitat support mangrove values for fisheries site outlined are based on a 66.2 hectares 24.5 hectares 254.2 hectares to offshore fisheries can also need to be viewed in a host review of related literature vary spatially given differences of different contexts. In many and subsequent benefit (value) per hectare per year. These mangrove-associated fishery proximity of these sites are not between quality of the habitat countries it is often the case transfer. There are studies median values are used as the values due to both local readily available. Economic in- at the seaward edge or ‘‘fringe’’ that (subsistence) inshore with broad range estimates value transfer estimates for the ecological factors, and a host of formation from fishing beaches of the mangrove forests as fisheries are more valuable of mangrove-associated Jamaican mangrove sites. social, cultural and economic may be influenced by nursery compared to further inland. as a protein source in coastal fisheries economic values These estimates show that influences. The complexity or spill-over effects and can be communities where there often in excess of US$1,000 the economic contribution of the different fishery types, used to make stronger linkages The science underpinning is no agriculture, or where per hectare per year. Based from these sites are relatively scales, and fishing methods and highlight the role that our understanding of poverty prevents the purchase on a comparison of a variety modest in comparison to other likely present at or adjacent mangroves play in supporting the role of mangroves of other protein sources. It is of studies that included a systems. However, these are to these three mangrove nearshore commercial fisheries. has grown and show therefore important to keep range of mangrove types and relatively small areas and limit sites, coupled with the lack When considering the 3 strong evidence that in mind that higher numbers fisheries, the global median their ability to contribute more of current data on fish catch study locations, in the context supports their effects in of vulnerable populations value of US$77 per hectare per significantly to fishers’ incomes. or number of fishing vessels of all fishing beaches island- enhancing coastal and engaging in low value year for (fin) fish, and US$213 As indicated previously, these meant that for this analysis it wide, there are fishing beaches cross-shelf fisheries. fisheries may have a more per hectare per year for mixed figures are based on median was not possible to develop a that may benefit from the Annual commercial fish important localized social species fisheries was used for global estimates with wide model linking the mangrove presence of mangrove stands. harvests from mangroves economic impact that higher this analysis. These median ranges. These extrapolations, ecology and juvenile fish larvae The figures below illustrate the have been valued at value commercialized catch. values are within the context especially when expressed as with observed catch. These proximity of fishing beaches from US$6,200 per km2 There are additional of a wide variation value. For simple averages, are therefore results should therefore be to each study site. The fishing in the United States to protective roles that man- example, for mixed-species highly uncertain. Such understood in this context. activity from each beach may US$60,000 per km2 in groves serve linked directly to fisheries, the values ranged global extrapolations also Fisheries landing data for be in part be supported by the Indonesia. fisheries. The provision of safe from US$17.50 to US$3,412 miss the spatial variability in beaches that may be in the mangrove forests. 156 157 Forces of  NATURE FIGURE 67 Special Fisheries Larval on mangrove fisheries products to subsidize Conservation Areas (SFCA) in Jamaica. Montego contribution their household protein requirements. At Portland Bay Point Discovery Pedro to commercial Cottage, fishers reported fisheries Bogue Islands Lagoon Bay Sandals Oracabessa Bank South- earning an average of US$93 Boscobel Bay West Cay per week from mangrove Orange Bay related fishing activity. In Hanover Saint Unfortunately, not much of addition to commercial sale Trelawny White James the larval data collected at Saint River of fish products, respondents Ann Saint these sites can be used to indicated a high level of Westmoreland Mary extrapolate the contribution East dependence on fish and Portland to fisheries. It was however other mangrove products notable that for some locations to supplement their protein Bluefields Bay commercially relevant larval intake (subsistence). Portland Saint species included snappers Sandals Clarendon Elizabeth Saint and clupeid family (which are Whitehouse Bay Manchester Catherine Saint Andrew typically used as bait fish). It DISCUSSION Galleon Galleon Saint Thomas was also noted that adult fish use the mangroves seasonally Other Potential Harbour Salt Harbour Kingston (for spawning) or diurnally (for feeding) but also stated One fisheries management mechanism employed by the Three Bays Port Mornant Harbour Lagoon there are a few commercially important adult species Benefits Fisheries Division was the such as grunts, mojarras, sea declaration of Special Fishery breams, mullets and tarpons RECREATIONAL FISHING Conservation Areas (SCFA), that are found permanently in also known as fish sanctuaries. waters abutting mangrove The implementation of low Each SFCA varies in size, stands in their presence. It Incorporating mangrove areas in Jamaica. impact types of mariculture ecosystems present, and man- should be noted that there and then used to provide activities could be an agement. This management are currently two SFCAs Site Level information on; richness, Social additional area of benefit for approach aims to protect and established at 2 of the 3 study presence of commercially vulnerable communities. It enhance the fish stock and to locations (Bogue Lagoon and Data important species and their Dependence should be noted that this is promote increased biodiversi- Portland Cottage) and a third relative abundance. The UWI not large-scale aquaculture ty in coastal and marine areas. is proposed for Salt Marsh. At the 3 study locations, biological team noted some Even in the absence of that may involve the destruc- An examination of the To date there is limited light traps were secured to major limitations with this catch data for commercially tion of existing mangrove figure above shows that data that indicates success (or red mangrove prop roots approach including short important adult species, the stands for example shrimp many of the SFCA include lack thereof ) of the SFCAs. and used to collect fish time frame for study, and the socio-economic assessment farming. Instead mangroves mangrove forests. In fact, Of those with publicly avail- larvae samples. Sampling inability to sample more than was able capture information are perfect locations for these areas were selected able data, the Oracabessa Bay was conducted during new one location at a time. Based from respondents surrounding introducing low impact based on a number of criteria SFCA has reported a 1,313% moon phases. Fish larvae on some of the limitations these locations. Residents mariculture approaches. This including the presence of a increase in fish biomass from these samples were cited above, adult fish species in Portland Cottage and may require the rejuvenation reef system and/or shallow between 2011 and 2014. identified, enumerated were not sampled. Salt Marsh depend heavily of previous Jamaican efforts 158 159 Forces of  NATURE LOW IMPACT MARICULTURE (PPCR) is looking at the potential for sustainable and The implementation low impact aquaculture of of low impact types of oysters. The fisheries PPCR mariculture activities could subcomponents have a focus be an additional area of on alternative livelihoods. Two benefit for vulnerable of which are most applicable communities. It should be to mangrove forests, namely; noted that this is not large- © Shutterstock scale aquaculture that may Promoting Community- involve the destruction of based Aquaculture existing mangrove stands – which involves the to raise oysters (Crassostrea for example shrimp farming. establishment of rhizophorae and Isognomon Instead mangroves are perfect fish farm clusters in alatus) and other bivalves. locations for introducing selected communities, These species occur naturally low impact mariculture contracting new fish in the study sites and may approaches. This may farmers and providing already be subject to some require the rejuvenation of inputs and farming level of harvest. The need to previous Jamaican efforts materials by partnering implement programs and to raise oysters (Crassostrea with aquaculture/ frameworks to ensure that rhizophorae and Isognomon processing enterprises, the fisheries sector is more alatus) and other bivalves. and providing training. resilient and adaptive to These species occur naturally This subcomponent © Juliana Castaño-Isaza climate change has been an in the study sites and may would support fisher on-going initiative of many already be subject to some folk, women and youth national economies and is level of harvest. The need to in targeted fishing DISCUSSION major breeding grounds for These ecosystems support a considered necessary for implement programs and communities to invest fish, crabs, shrimps, prawns broad range of fishing methods Jamaica. Mangrove forests are excellent locations to support frameworks to ensure that the fisheries sector is more in aquaculture. Mangrove and other commercial and non-commercial marine life and result in the exploitation of a wide range of species. alternative livelihood strate- gies. One component of the resilient and adaptive to climate change has been an Developing Coastal Mariculture/ Fisheries are no longer available. This in turn, reduces the possibilities Mangrove forests also support inshore mixed species artisanal fisheries related project from on-going initiative of many Polyculture – which Benefits of sustaining the livelihoods of fisheries conducted with limit- the Pilot Program for Climate national economies and is are commercially over 23,000 licensed fisherfolk ed equipment, on foot or from Resilience (PPCR) is looking considered necessary for viable and ecologically Jamaican wetlands and man- as well as many more who fish open boats. This type of fishing at the potential for sustainable Jamaica. Mangrove forests important with the aim groves are decreasing in many informally. is usually linked to small-scale and low impact aquaculture of are excellent locations to of increasing marine- coastal areas due to human Mangrove fisheries are commercial purposes and oysters. The fisheries PPCR support alternative livelihood based sustainable activity and this has important particularly important in devel- subsistence fisheries where the subcomponents have a focus strategies. One component of livelihoods activities implications on sustaining oping countries like Jamaica, as catch is primarily used to feed on alternative livelihoods. Two the fisheries related project that keep the Jamaica’s social and economic they provide a critical source of the fisher, family members and of which are most applicable from the Pilot Program communities’ seafaring development. For example, food and income for many who close community, with limited to mangrove forests, namely; for Climate Resilience traditions alive. the loss of mangroves means have few livelihood alternatives. market transactions. 160 161 Forces of  NATURE 6 Limitations, Conclusions and Implications Implications and 1 2 3 4 5 6 Limitations Conclusions the Way Forward Page 164 Page 166 Page 168 162 163 Forces of  NATURE Limitations numerical modelling system (ADCIRC + SWAN) was used to accurately with this data collection and analysis, for monitoring and decision-making efforts. fluctuations, long-term observation is recommended for all the RSET plots to These results are represent nearshore coastal The experience in the capture long-term trends in obtained using the wave and water levels socio-economic assessment accretion, slower accretion best available datasets and their interaction with at the local level suggests rates, and to compensate and and a high-resolution mangrove vegetation. that greater reconnaissance nullify uncertainties of the process-based model. Given the short time- work from the beginning, data and elevation change frame, and the simultaneous involving field mapping, as transient occurrences These datasets and model data collection and analyses will help in understanding such as storms, which can come with inherent lim- conducted at the local population within the have significant effects, itations in their ability to and national scales, one demarcated area for the and did not occur during represent reality. Previous limitation with the UCSC- socio-economic assessments. the collection of the data. studies by the UCSC-IHC IHC-TNC’s model was the Additional information Deeper cores should be team and others have iden- use of a uniform roughness from fisherfolks within the considered to understand tified topography as one of coefficient to represent various communities would the palaeo-sedimentology, the key datasets for accurate the effect of mangroves. be valuable to allow for drivers of sedimentation representation of coastal Based on published studies, greater understanding of and any fluctuations within flooding. The national scale constant values have been fish data and value provided these systems, in order study (UCSC-IHC-TNC) assumed throughout Jamai- to fisheries by mangroves. to understand how these obtained and used a highly ca, which roughly represent Further, interviews and mangrove stands have been accurate 6m LIDAR topog- the friction associated with focus groups may support maintained now that bulk raphy dataset for the entire these ecosystems. More household surveys especially current analysis has been country which represents detailed studies, such as the in understanding other done on surface substrate. © Simone Lee a significant improvement one conducted by UWI, in socio-economic benefits Layered analysis of cores at over previous assessments. which accurate information provided by mangrove forest the centimetre level in con- One limitation of the is available on mangrove such as ecotourism. junction with carbon dating National Land Agency day, it would be useful to get UCSC-IHC-TNC study forests (density, trunk width, The physical component can be carried out to identify benchmarks and fixed GPS readings in high swell waves was the availability of vertical structure) would of this multidisciplinary variability over time and its installation are needed for or stormy conditions when high-resolution bathym- allow modeling waves and project is complimentary influences on the systems. satellite altimetry for long- the opportunities present etry which is crucial for storm surge by calculating to the ecological and Furthermore, root growth term assessment of deep themselves. Nevertheless, estimating nearshore and the forces of drag produced socio-economic evaluations rates and contribution to sub- subsidence rates that occur remote monitoring is sug- coastal waves, and water by each single submerged and has provided a baseline strate stability was not quan- as a result of tectonic activity gested for safety reasons. levels. To overcome this, element of the tree, and no of local-level data not in tified and should be examined in the region. This will help Since the production and a freely available global longer considering an equiv- existence before. However, to further quantify shallow understanding the role and release of particulate and 1km dataset for offshore alent roughness. These data replicating this effort in subsurface activities and rate of deep tectonic subsid- dissolved organic carbon analyses was combined with have been initially collected other areas is necessary health of mangrove systems. ence at all sites, and potential (DOC represent a primary a commercially obtained in three sites, and results for better quality data, and Elevation studies need risk to coastal hazards. loss pathway, it would be 10m resolution dataset for have been presented in the decision-making. Since it is to be executed especially Although wave attenu- useful to investigate the Jamaica, for the analyses local-level report from UWI. shown that elevation change at Portland Cottage by ation was determined for hydrological controls on of nearshore and coastal In the future, it is expected can vary in mangrove soils trained surveyors relative to normal weather conditions, particulate organic carbon regions. A state-of-the-art that the NEPA will continue as a result of pore-water mean sea level. In addition, and within several hours of a (POC) and dissolved organic 164 165 Forces of  NATURE carbon (DOC) production and release, in order to pro- vide better estimates of the heavily on desktop research, literature reviews and basic value transfer approaches in Conclusions show that the loss of these mangroves has resulted in the loss not (for example, it will be difficult to restore mangroves in areas that have since been typically have easier, expe- dited permitting processes than projects on private land, blue carbon and mitigation order to provide a mixture of Jamaica faces of flood protection converted to intense urban substantially reducing these potentials of these systems. quantitative and qualitative substantial flood risk benefits of more than use such as an airport). initial costs. For restoration Further work should also information on the benefits from coastal storms $1.8 million each year. projects that primarily aim to quantify methane of mangroves beyond and mangroves provide Mangrove restoration involve mangrove planting, (CH4) emissions from coastal protection. For considerable flood risk Conversely, this represents costs are influenced labour costs and the local mangrove forest example, global estimates reduction benefits. the potential value of by factors unique to availability of volunteers to since (a) these anaerobic of per hectare carbon stock restored mangroves in this coastal and inter-tidal offset these costs can make a (oxygen deprived) systems were primarily used and Annually, the value of region at almost US$1,000 ecosystem restoration significant difference to the are likely to produce high supplemented by the more Jamaica’s mangrove per hectare per year. As we projects. overall cost of the project. concentrations of the gas, site specific results from forests for flood describe in our assessment Often, restoration projects and (b) CH4 has a global UWI. Global estimates risk reduction to the of mangrove habitat status Since these typically happen involve voluntary mangrove warming potential (GWP) were also used to estimate nation’s-built capital is across Jamaica, the loss and in the inter-tidal zone, the planting activities that are 28 times more powerful mangroves’ contribution to more than US$2,500 gain of mangrove extents is availability and price of land also combined with outreach than carbon dioxide (CO2) fisheries due to a lack of data per hectare. a mixed story. While a lot are important factors. Large- and education initiatives. albeit a short-lived GHG on fisheries landings, catch of areas like Old Harbour scale projects on government Projects involving hydrolog- (12.5 years). Additionally, per unit and sales. It was This represents a nearly 24% Bay have lost critical and owned land typically have ical restoration and sediment in order to provide better therefore difficult to make a annual reduction in flood valuable mangroves over the much lower unit costs than management can be substan- estimates of whole-ecosys- direct link between fisheries risk. The loss of Jamaica’s last decade, other areas such smaller projects on private tially more expensive due tem carbon stocks, it may catch and the potential mangroves would further as parts of Kingston have lands51. Another critical to the need for specialized be necessary to consider the beneficial role mangroves result in a 10% increase also seen valuable gains in issue is ease of permitting equipment, labour and, in contribution from downed play, particularly as nursery in the total number of mangrove extents which in for activity in offshore some cases, the purchase and wood (wood debris) in local areas for juvenile fish. people flooded every year. turn can be expected to offer and inter-tidal locations, transportation of sediment mangrove ecosystems. Finally, it is important Mangrove benefits are most valuable additional flood especially in countries from external sources. While In addition, biological to highlight that the results apparent for high intensity protection benefits. like the USA where the most projects reviewed in oxygen demand (BOD) and presented in this report, storms of 1 in 200 year modification of coastal and this study do not report chemical oxygen demand and underlying reports (see return periods. During these The restoration marine waters is governed maintenance and monitoring (COD) analyses of water “Original Content and storms, mangrove forests potential analyses are by strict regulations. While costs and efforts, this is samples should be done Further Reading” section), protect 177,000 people and based on available in some locations like Flor- nevertheless an important to complement dissolved are based on best available nearly US$2.4 billion or spatial datasets of ida the clearing of existing and significant aspect of oxygen (DO) measurements. data from secondary sources, 50% of the total affected mangrove extents for mangrove forests cannot successful mangrove restora- The economic estimation and data collected at only population and built capital. the country. happen without a permit, tion. Examples of mangrove approaches used here rely three priority sites. Further This translates to economic similarly, new activity in maintenance include clear- heavily on well-collected efforts are needed from the benefits of more than More detailed assessments coastal waters – including ing debris after hurricanes, physical and biological Government, civil society US$186 million per hectare of realistic restoration ecological restoration – also removing invasive species information that can be used organizations, academic of mangroves. potential will require refined requires permits from multi- and maintaining hydrologi- to impute economic or other sector and private sector, analyses of land-use patterns ple agencies. This process can cal flows. The costs of these benefits. However this study to improve data quality Additional analyses of across the country to identify often be time-consuming activities will depend on the was limited by data gaps and and support science-based recently lost mangroves where mangrove restoration and costly52. Larger projects scale of the project and the unavailability, instead relying decision making. in Old Harbour Bay action will be possible versus on government-owned land availability of volunteers. 166 167 Forces of  NATURE Implications those risks increase with cli- mate change. This Report has alongside common metrics of national economic accounting, These results have important implications for the considera- The results presented in this report can be used by public and the Way advanced the understanding in how to evaluate coastal risk and can inform risk reduction, development and environ- tion of nature-based solutions within adaptation, insurance, agencies to inform hazard mit- igation, disaster recovery, and Forward reduction from ecosystems, mental conservation decisions hazard mitigation and disaster resilience financing funding through the assessment of in the Jamaica. recovery decisions. The results decisions. Following hurri- There is growing awareness how loss of mangroves can To date, the great majority presented here show that canes (for example Hurricane and interest within the increase coastal flood risk, and of climate resilience financing mangroves offer significant Maria and Irma in 2017, and © development agenda in has identified potential risk efforts take into consideration benefits for flood risk Hurricane Dorian in 2019) Simone Lee nature-based solutions for reduction measures based on underlying exposure and reduction and overall coastal significant aid and support DRM, but the incorporation the conservation and restora- vulnerability assessments that resilience, and that restoring has flowed into the Caribbean The factors influencing of ecosystem benefits to DRM tion of mangrove habitats. focus on built infrastructure mangroves can be cost effec- and much of this support is the costs of coastal strategies has been relatively The social and economic and social conditions (health, tive for flood risk reduction going to build or re-build gray protection structures limited in practice. Neverthe- valuation of mangroves that has education etc.), but generally particularly when compared to infrastructure including dikes, are broadly similar less, ecosystem services can been generated in this study, ignore the natural capital, in the costs of grey infrastructure. levees and seawalls. The results to the factors for play a role in DRM strategies, can inform the policy and prac- spite of its contribution to presented here show that it can restoration projects. as multiple sectors, such tice of many Jamaican agencies, risk reduction, recovery and In addition to also make economic sense to as the re/insurance sector, businesses and organizations resilience. In addition, the informing disaster support restoration of man- Typically, coastal structures could review and update risk across development, aid, risk post disaster damage losses risk management grove with disaster recovery like seawalls and levees take management approaches by reduction and conservation and needs assessments, which and climate change funds, and to incorporate up less space than a man- incorporating natural capital sectors as they seek to identify intend to estimate the extent adaptation efforts, the mangrove conservation and grove restoration project, and eco-services to manage sustainable and cost-effective of disaster effects and impacts results presented in restoration activities as part of though the taller a structure, risks and reduce their eco- approaches for risk reduction. across all sectors and estimate this study including build-back-better strategies. the more space it generally nomic impacts. Furthermore, In addition, the ecological and the recovery needs, generally fisheries provision, In the past nature-based requires, and the costlier environmental degradation physical assessments conducted overlook damages and losses carbon sequestration, measures for coastal pro- it becomes53. Artificial leads to increased risk, but this under this study reveal the in natural ecosystems. This erosion control, and tection, such as mangrove structures can also be costly is not yet explicitly incorpo- current health status of man- situation is due to the fact wind attenuation, are restoration, were not assessed to build in terms of material, rated in risk models. Indeed, groves, and the implications in that there are few ecological essential to understand for their cost effectiveness labour and expertise; and the decline of natural capital coastal resilience. datasets related to natural the value of mangrove for risk reduction, because costly to maintain in terms in coral reefs, seagrass beds By showing the spatial capital and valuation of ecosystems in coastal rigorous values of their coastal of repairing damage or and mangroves could lead to a variation of the flood ecosystem services, as well as resilience and climate protection benefits, as well as upgrading in response to reduction in coastal protection reduction benefits provided social reliance on natural re- change mitigation. a general understanding of the changes in sea-level. Off- and marine fish production, by mangroves, these results sources, which are not usually ecosystem status were missing. shore structures such as sea comprising the livelihoods of can identify the places where gathered in a systematic way Making all this These services can now be dykes or offshore breakwa- coastal dependent communi- mangrove management may by government agencies. As information available rigorously valued to inform ters are typically costlier due ties that rely on fisheries and yield the greatest returns. By a consequence, the estimated could help build national accounting, cost-ben- to more difficult working tourism, among others55. valuing these coastal protec- damages and losses leave bridges between efit analyses and comparisons environments. The costs of Mangrove conservation tion benefits in terms used thousands of people depend- funding sources (and of different coastal protection offshore structures will also and restoration can be an by finance and development ent on natural resources for government programs) options, including natural, hy- be significantly influenced important part of the solution decision-makers (e.g. annual food and livelihoods with an and align environmental brid and built defenses. Many by the depth of water at the for reducing coastal risks expected benefits), these inadequate recovery strategy and disaster risk funders (from development installation site54. in the Jamaica, especially as results can be readily used after a natural event. management goals. banks to climate adaptation 168 169 Forces of  NATURE funds) could be compelled by assessments that show where nature-based solutions such as mangrove restoration have greater benefit-cost rations. This assessment provides much of the core material for such a benefit cost assessment across the country, and the Caribbean region. The results presented here on flood reduction benefits and costs also could be used to support national applica- tions to the Green Climate Fund, World Bank, IDB and other supporters of infrastruc- ture, disaster risk management and adaptation projects in the region. Even where these costs of restoration may seem high it is important to note that (i) the benefits of restora- tion can extend over long time © Juliana Castaño-Isaza periods, (ii) include indirect flood reduction benefits Social Investment Fund in developing nations such enhancement, that could also benefits to coastal hotels Finally, this effort funded (i.e. to especially vulnerable ( JSIF) and the Planning as Jamaica, and other SIDS. help protect built assets and and the Mexican economy. by the Program on Forests populations), and (iii) also Institute of Jamaica (PIOJ). This industry could have an local livelihoods. The value of the policy was (PROFOR) through the include many co-benefits such These results can be active role in incentivizing This work can also be used determined in part by the costs World Bank was able to as fisheries and tourism. considered in risk industry governments and planners on to inform the development of restoring benefits if the reef involve sixty-one Jamaicans Numerous programs can models, which may influence the adoption of nature-based of insurance approaches like were damaged in a storm. This (76% of the total workforce), incorporate these results insurance premiums in solutions for coastal protec- the Caribbean Oceans and study will allow testing similar ranging from government into their plans and analysis, Jamaica and the development tion that could range from Aquaculture Sustainability approaches in Jamaica. officials, to professors, and including, but not limited to, of innovative finance mech- physical investments such FaciliTy (COAST) developed This study can also have university students. This has the National Environment anisms to support mangrove as mangrove replanting, to by the World Bank and the significant implications on important repercussions and Planning Agency management. By incorporat- non-structural solutions such Caribbean Catastrophe Risk poverty reduction as the on capacity building at the (NEPA), Office of Disaster ing natural capital and ecosys- as expanding protected areas. Insurance Facility (CCRIF conservation and restoration local scale, as the country is Preparedness and Emergency tem services (co-benefits such Risk transfer options could SPC), and those being tested of mangrove habitats will more capable to replicate this Management (ODPEM), as fisheries) into disaster risk be explored such as resilience on the MesoAmerican Reef contribute to food security effort, and to explore new Water Resources Authority financing strategies, the re/ bonds that provide up-front in Mexico56 where a policy through fisheries provision, opportunities in which coastal (WRA), National Works insurance industry could also capital expenditure for has been taken out on the reef and livelihoods maintenance ecosystems can help reduce Agency (NWA), Jamaica become a driver of change solutions such as ecosystems’ based on the flood protection including tourism and fishing. climate risks. 170 171 Forces of  NATURE References Acronyms 1. Collymore (2011) 21. Spalding et al (2014) ADCIRC ADvanced CIRCulation 2. Richards (2008) 22. Hinkel et al (2014) BOD Biological Oxygen Demand JSIF Jamaica Social Investment Fund 3. Burgess et. al. (2013) 23. Losada et al (2018); Menendez et al (2018a) BMU German Federal Ministry Km Kilometre 4. Munich RE (2018) 24. Losada et al (2017) for the Environment, Nature LIDAR LIght Detection And Radar Conservation and Nuclear Safety LULC Land Use and Land Cover 5. Robinson and Khan (2011) 25. EJF (2006) CCRIF Caribbean Catastrophe m meter 6. ibid. 26. Valiela et al (2009); Feller et al (2012) Risk Insurance Facility MBMP Montego Bay Marine Park Trust 7. UNDRR (2011) 27. Valiela et al (2009) COAST Caribbean Oceans and MSL Mean Sea Level 8. Cavallo and Noy (2009) 28. Henry et al (2018) Aquaculture Sustainability FaciliTy NBS Nature Based Solutions 9. PIOJ (2004) 29. Doyle et al (2010) COD Chemical Oxygen Demand NEPA National Environment 10. Burgess et. al. (2013) 30. Mott McDonald (2017) CCAM Caribbean Coastal Area and Planning Agency Management Foundation NPV Net Present Value 11. CSGM (2017), PIOJ (2015), CARIBSAVE 31. Gilman et al (2008); Jennerjahn et CPS Country Partnership Strategy NRCA Natural Resources (2011), Nandi et al (2016), Taylor et al (2014) al (2017); Ward et al (2016) DBH Diameter at Breast Height Conservation Act 12. CSGM (2017), PIOJ (2015) 32. McKee et al (2017) DO Dissolved Oxygen NWA National Works Agency 13. GOJ (2017a) 33. Doyle and Robblee (1995); Baldwin et al DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon OC Organic Carbon 14. Hogarth (2015) (2001); Imbert (2018); Sherman et al (2001) DRM Disaster Risk Management ODPEM Office of Disaster Preparedness 15. Webber et al (2016) 34. Cortés (2019) DRR Disaster Risk Reduction and Emergency Management DVRP Disaster Vulnerability PIOJ Planning Institute of Jamaica 16. Boa (2011) 35. GOJ (2017a) Reduction Project PPCR Pilot Program for 17. Webber et al (2016) 36. NEPA (2013) Eco-DRR Ecosystem-based Disaster Climate Resilience 18. Spalding et al (2014) 37. Henry et al (2018) Risk Reduction PROFOR World Bank Program on Forests 19. ibid. 38. FAO (2005) EDF Expected Damage Function REDD+ Reduced Emissions from 20. Kennedy Space Centre (2019) 39. NEPA (2012) FAO Food and Agriculture Deforestation and Degradation 40. Worthington and Spalding (2019) Organisation of the United Nations RSET Rod SET FEMA Federal Emergency SCC Social Cost of Carbon 41. Richards (2008) Management Agency SE(M) Standard Error (of the Means) 42. Trench (2018) GDP Gross Domestic Product SFCA Special Fishery 43. Richards (2008) GHG GreenHouse Gas Conservation Areas 44. NRCA (1997) GOJ Government of Jamaica SIDS Small Island Developing States 45. NRCA (1997); Trench (2018) GWP Global Warming Potential SLR Sea Level Rise 46. GOJ (2015a); World Bank (2009) Ha Hectare SOC Soil Organic Carbon HRRACC Hazard Risk Reduction and SOM Soil Organic Matter 47. Juliana C. Isaza, Pers. Comm Adaptation to Climate Change SWAN Simulating WAves Nearshore 48. Lewis (2001); Primavera et al (2012) ICENS International Centre TDS Total Dissolved Solids 49. Adame et al. (2013) for Environmental and TNC The Nature Conservancy 50. Grigal et al. (1989) Nuclear Sciences UCSC University of California Santa Cruz 51. Lewis (2001) IH Cantabria Hydraulics Institute, UNFCCC United Nations Framework 52. Bilkovic et al (2017) University of Cantabria Convention on Climate Change IKI International Climate Initiative USD United States Dollars 53. Aerts (2018); Ward et al (2017) IPCC Intergovernmental Panel UWI The University of West Indies 54. Narayan et al (2016) on Climate Change WRA Water Resources Authority 55. Cinner et al (2013) JRC-EU Joint Research Commission WB World Bank 56. Reguero et al (2019) – European Union yr Year 172 173 Forces of  NATURE List FIGURE 22 FIGURE 33 FIGURE 54 FIGURE 14 Mangrove restoration potential. Nature of flood impacts represented Median red, black and white National maps of the flood heights as a percentage of the households mangrove tree abundances Scores indicate the likelihood of FIGURE 44 of figures associated with 1 in 50 and 500 that reported experiences with between locations. year events (left panels) and the success of a restoration project based Nature of flood impacts represented on several environmental factors flooding in the community as a percentage of the households differences of the mangrove-non- FIGURE 55 mangrove scenarios (right panels). FIGURE 34 that reported experiences with FIGURE 23 flooding in the community Median Red mangrove prop roots FIGURE 1 FIGURE 15 Strategies to minimize the effects Measures implemented to (medium density) between locations. Caribbean population of floods, Mangrove Value and reduce impact of future flood FIGURE 45 Current flood risk and Annual events, Mangrove Value and FIGURE 56 living in coastal zone expected benefits from mangroves Perceived changes in mangrove Measures implemented to forest in Bogue Lagoon for the Observed changes in mangrove reduce impact of future flood Median red mangrove height, DBH for flood risk reduction across forest in Salt Marsh for the FIGURE 2 Jamaica in terms of (averted) last 10 years (2008-2018) events, Mangrove Value and and canopy width between locations. Female percentage last 10 years (2008-2018) Observed changes in mangrove damages to property. FIGURE 57 FIGURE 24 forest in Portland for the last FIGURE 3 FIGURE 35 Reduction of wind speed FIGURE 16 Percentage contribution of 10 years (2008-2018) Jamaican percentage each family at Site 1 and Mangrove Biometrics at Salt Marsh. outside and within mangroves Protection offered by mangroves. Site 2, Bogue Lagoon. FIGURE 46 FIGURE 4 FIGURE 36 FIGURE 58 FIGURE 17 Mangrove Biometrics at Change in Mangrove Extent in FIGURE 25 Percentage contribution of Portland Cottage. Reduction of Wave Height Current flood risk and Annual each family at Site 1 and Jamaica from 2005 (baseline GOJ Mangrove Biometrics within R. Mangle Roots expected benefits from Site 2, Salt Marsh. data) to 2013 (TNC data) 150 mangroves for flood risk reduction at Bogue Lagoon. FIGURE 47 Spatiotemporal lateral erosion FIGURE 59 across Jamaica in terms of FIGURE 37 FIGURE 5 (averted) people affected. FIGURE 26 (red) or accretion (yellow) on the Whole ecosystem carbon stocks. Mangrove benefits are most apparent Spatiotemporal lateral erosion Spatiotemporal lateral erosion coastline, where mangrove trees for higher intensity storms events. FIGURE 18 (red) or accretion (yellow) on the (red) or accretion (yellow) on the occupation increases migrates FIGURE 60 coastline, where mangrove trees coastline, where mangrove trees seaward or retreats landward. Soil organic matter content of Total people affected per return occupation increases migrates FIGURE 6 period in Jamaica (national occupation increases migrates mangrove surface soils (0–30 cm). seaward or retreats landward. seaward or retreats landward. FIGURE 48 Annual Carbon sequestration aggregated values) with values for the estimated total Depicts percentage reduction in wind FIGURE 61 and without mangroves. FIGURE 38 mangrove area in Jamaica. FIGURE 27 and wave energies outside and within Soil organic carbon content of FIGURE 19 Depicts percentage reduction in wind Depicts percentage reduction in the mangrove at Portland Cottage. mangrove surface soils (0-30 cm). FIGURE 7 and wave energies outside and within wind and wave energies outside and Results of the maximum water within the mangrove at Salt Marsh. FIGURE 62 Location of critical facilities level for the 5, 25, 50 and 100 the mangrove at Bogue Lagoon. FIGURE 49 and potential impact of a years return periods in Old Harbor Mean plant percentage removed CO2 Flux. 1 in 100-year event. FIGURE 28 FIGURE 39 Bay (left panels) and differences by handwashing together with of the overland flood heights of Mean plant percentage removed Mean plant percentage removed percentage loss from hydrogen FIGURE 63 FIGURE 8 by handwashing together with by handwashing together with peroxide digestion of organic Annual Carbon sequestration the same simulations without Hurricanes that have affected percentage loss from hydrogen percentage loss from hydrogen matter for each studied at Portland values for the estimated total mangroves. Mangrove forests Jamaica, 1988-2011. peroxide digestion of organic matter peroxide digestion of organic matter Cottage. The error bars represent mangrove area in Jamaica. are delimited by grey lines. for each studied at Bogue Lagoon. for each studied at Salt Marsh. standard errors of the mean (SEM) FIGURE 9 FIGURE 20 FIGURE 64 FIGURE 29 FIGURE 40 FIGURE 50 Mangrove species found in Jamaica. Results of the flood height Site specific carbon sequestration Concentrations of major and trace Concentrations of major and Concentrations of major and trace values for mangrove study sites. comparison between 2005 and 2013 FIGURE 10 mangrove extents for a 50-years elements analysed in mangrove trace elements analysed in elements analysed in mangrove Species related to mangrove forests. surface soils (0–30 cm) from mangrove surface soils (0–30 surface soils (0–30 cm) from FIGURE 65 return period tropical cyclone event. the Bogue Lagoon locality. cm) from the Salt Marsh locality. the Portland Cottage locality. Net present value (NPV) of annually Top left: Flood extent for 2005 FIGURE 11 mangroves (GOJ data). Top right: sequestering carbon at various FIGURE 30 FIGURE 41 FIGURE 51 Change in Mangrove Extent in Flood extent for 2005 mangroves discount rates over 100 year Jamaica from 2005 (baseline (GOJ data). Bottom: Differences in Water quality parameters determined Water quality parameters Water quality parameters determined period (SCC US$48 T-1C). GOJ data) to 2013 (TNC data). flood height between both scenarios. in situ at Bogue Lagoon. determined in situ at Salt Marsh. in situ at Portland Cottage. FIGURE 66 FIGURE 12 FIGURE 21 FIGURE 31 FIGURE 42 FIGURE 52 Estimated annual economic Expected Damage Storm surge along the southwestern Water quality parameters determined Water quality parameters Water quality parameters determined contribution of mangrove to Function Approach. Jamaica produced by hurricane in situ at Bogue Lagoon. determined in situ at Salt Marsh. in situ at Portland Cottage. small-scale mixed fisheries. Dean in August 2007 for the FIGURE 13 mangrove scenario (upper panel) and FIGURE 32 FIGURE 43 FIGURE 53 FIGURE 67 Mangrove benefits are most apparent differences of removing mangroves Carbon Loss, Biomass Carbon Loss, Biomass Carbon Loss, Biomass Special Fisheries Conservation for higher intensity storms events. from the model setup (bottom panel). and Carbon Stock and Carbon Stock and Carbon Stock Areas (SCFA) in Jamaica. 174 175 Forces of  NATURE L Glossary Bioturbation the disturbance of sedimentary F Foraminifers Lateral Accretion deposit Inclined layers of sediment, deposited laterally Prop Roots Roots that extend from the thrive, it may be soil, peat, sand deposits by living organisms. members of a phylum or class rather than in horizontal main tree stem into the ground or a combination in this study of amoeboid protists charac- strata, particularly by the lateral providing support to the tree A terized by streaming granular outbuilding sediment on the T C ectoplasm for catching food and surface for example a river S other uses; and commonly an point par or in a coastal zone Adaptive Capacity Conductivity Tier 1 approach external shell (called a "test") of The social and technical skills Conductivity is the measure of the Salinity employs the gain-loss method diverse forms and materials. and strategies of individuals and ease at which an electric charge or Lithological Salinity is the measure of all described in the IPCC Guide- groups that are directed towards heat can pass through a material. branch of geology that the salts dissolved in water. lines and the default emission responding to environmental G studies rocks - their origin factors and other parameters and socioeconomic changes. Carbon Sequestration and formation and mineral Sapling provided by the IPCC Gas Flux composition and classification. Plant greater than 0.5m the process involved in carbon Anoxic flow of volatile gas emissions but less than 1.5 m high Total Dissolved Solids capture and the long-term storage is a description of the envi- from a specific location N Total dissolved solids is a measure of atmospheric carbon dioxide ronment - without oxygen. or other forms of carbon to Sedimentologist of the dissolved combined mitigate or defer global warming. GPS Net Present Values a person who studies modern content of all inorganic and Autochthonous Global positioning system the difference between the and ancient sediments such organic substances present in a formed or originating in Coastal Squeeze present value of cash inflows as gravel, sand, silt, and clay, liquid in molecular, ionized or the place where found intertidal habitat loss which arises H and the present value of cash and the processes that result in micro-granular suspended form due to the high water mark being outflows over a period of time. their formation (erosion and Allochthonous fixed by a defence and the low Homogenous weathering), transport, Transect formed elsewhere than in situ water mark migrating landwards material or system has the same Pedotransfer Function deposition and diagenesis a line or narrow area within area and hence not autochthonous in response to sea level rise. properties at every point; it is predictive functions of site along or within which points uniform without irregularities. certain soil properties using Seedling are established for collecting data B Carbon Offsets data from soil surveys. Young plant less than 0.5 m high reduction in emissions of carbon Horizon Markers Tree Bathymetry dioxide or other greenhouse gases a layer of powder, dust, glitter, P Sensitivity plant greater than 1.5 m high is the study of underwater made in order to compensate for feldspar powder, kaolinite which degree to which a system Vertical Accretion depth of lake or ocean floors. In emissions made elsewhere. Offsets is laid down on the surface of a pH will respond to a change vertical accretion deposits, which other words, bathymetry is the are measured in tonnes of carbon soil to later act as a marker, in a figure expressing the acidity in climatic conditions. accumulate when deposits from underwater equivalent to hypsom- dioxide-equivalent (CO2e). this study we use white lime or alkalinity of a solution on a rivers or coastal activity result etry or topography logarithmic scale on which 7 is Siliciclastic in a higher sediment level Carbon Flux Hydroperiod neutral, lower values are more rocks are clastic noncarbonate Benchmark the amount of carbon exchanged the number of days per year acid and higher values more sedimentary rocks that are V something that serves as a between Earth's carbon pools - the that an area of land is wet or alkaline. The pH is equal to −log10 almost exclusively silica-bearing, standard for measurements by the oceans, atmosphere, land, and the length of time that there is c, where c is the hydrogen ion either as forms of quartz or Vulnerability installer or other, in this study it living things - and is typically standing water at a location. concentration in moles per liter other silicate minerals. Extent to which changes is a steel pole, fixed by cement measured in units of gigatonnes in climatic condition may of carbon per year (GtC/yr). I Plot Spatio-temporal damage or harm a system Blue Carbon Area of a known size taking into consideration is the carbon captured by D Ichthyoplankton both space and time W the world's coastal ocean are the eggs and larvae of fish. 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Harvester Wheatsheaf, 378 pages Poeplau, C., Vos, C., Don, A (2017) Soil organic carbon SDC, Social Development Commission (2019) Portland TEEB, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity. 48 in United Nations The First Global Integrated Marine stocks are systematically overestimated by misuse of the Cottage. Accessed 3rd June 2019 http://sdc.gov.jm/ (2010). Mainstreaming the Economics of Nature: A Assessment: World Ocean Assessment I, 877-886. http:// communities/portland-cottage/ 182 183 “The Forces of Nature report demanded an exercise in graphic design and art direction that was on par with the level of information it contained. To achieve this, PuntoAparte decided to begin with a profound aesthetic reflection that gave a very specific touch to its graphic identity, and that allowed the team to turn the entire book into a statement. In the first place, for the typographic theme, PuntoAparte was inspired by a series of fonts that are characteristic of the graphic tradition of ska and reggae, musical expressions that are original to Jamaica. In the second place, PuntoAparte looked for a combination of primary and secondary colors that was inspired by the island’s popular architecture. In essence, PuntoAparte tried to explore popular Jamaican culture in search of visual codes and metaphors that allowed them to represent its cultural wealth and diverse perspective, where it’s possible to find African, British and Caribbean elements, and even some musical echoes from New Orleans.” Forces of  NATURE Assessment and Economic Valuation of Coastal Protection Services Provided by Mangroves in Jamaica World Bank Caribbean Office www.worldbank.org/caribbean Follow us on Twitter @WBCaribbean Additional Information: Juliana Castaño-Isaza E: jcastanoisaza@worldbank.org