'3544 Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank October 1993 ESP Discussion Paper Series No. 11 Equipment for Science Education Constraints and Opportunities Ales Musar The ESSP DJscuio Papr Serkas serv as en bteni system of record keeping, refcrc, and r Jr h prodcw of he Edcation wd Socil Poly Deparm's wos prograr The views presed here amr those of e atahon ond houl not be atibwed to Xe World Bank o in Board ofExective Directors or dhe com-'ries dey represnt ABSTRACT This paper, one of a series of studies on science and technology issues, aims to provide insight into the process of equipment supply for the teaching of science, particularly on the secondary level. First it discusses the possible reasons for equipment supply projects to fail. As an interesting opportunity, it describes the development and use of low-cost and/or locally produced equipment. The paper discusses advantages and limitations of low-cost and/or locally produced equipment, supply strategies, possibilities of low-cost experiments, and provides examples of existing international cooperation in this field. The case studies present examples of different approaches to science education equipment development and supply in four developing countries: the ZIM-SCI project science kits in Zimbabwe; mobile laboratory for rural schools in Sri Lanka; science centers in Colombia; and development of sophisticated equipment for senior secondary and undergraduate level in India. On the basis of the discussion and the examples from case studies, the paper also includes recommendations for education projects with teaching equipment component. To provide additional information on local development of the equipment for science education, brief summaries of the activities from 17 developing countries are added. Other appendices include a list of selected source documents for low-cost science equipment manufacture and experimentation, and a list of selected intemational journals where other informnation might' be found. I CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...........................................H I FOREWORD I........................................... m ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................... IV LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......... ........................ V EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........... ......................... 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................... 5 1. SCIENCE EDUCATION ............. ........................ 5 2. PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION ..... ........... 6 3. EQUIPMENT FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION ....................... 7 4. LOW-COST AND LOCALLY PRODUCED EQUIPMENT .... .......... 11 5. SUPPLY STRATEGIES FOR LOW-COST LOCALLY PRODUCED EQUIPMENT ............................................ 13 6. LOW-COST EXPERIMENTS .......... ....................... 16 7. DNTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ............................ 17. CASE STUDIES ............................................ 20 CASE STUDY 1: SCIENCE KITS IN ZIMBABWE ..................... 21 CASE STUDY 2: THE MENILAB IN SRI LANKA ..................... 30 CASE STUDY 3: SCIENCE CENTERS IN COLOMBIA ................ 38 CASE STUDY 4: DESIGN OF SOPHISTICATED EQUIPMENT AT LOW COST IN INDIA ............................... 43 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................. 52 APPENDIX A ACTIVITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - SELECTED EXAMPLES .... ... 56 APPENDIX B SELECTED SOURCE DOCUMENTS FOR LOW-COST SCIENCE EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURE AND EXPERIMENTATION ............... 81 APPENDIX C SELECTED JOURNALS . ........................................ 84 REFERENCES ............................................. 86 LIST OF TABLES CASE STUDY 1 Table 1 Distribution of tenders for ZIM-SCI kits by suppliers ..... .......... 24 Table 2 Costs of ZIM-SCI equipment kits in 1983 ....................... 25 Table 3 Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form I kit .......................... 25 Table 4 Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form II kit .......................... 26 Table 5 Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form III kit ............... .......... 27 Table 6 Contents of the ZM-SCI Form I resupply kit .................... 28 Table 7 Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form II resupply kit ................... 28 CASE STUDY 2 Table 8 Contents of the Minilab - permanent items ....... ............... 33 Table 9 Contents of the Minilab - perishables ......... ................. 35 Table 10 Contents of the Minmlab - glassware ........................... 36 CASE STUDY 3 Table 11 Main characteristics of the Integrated Science Center ISC) ..... ...... 40 Table 12 Costs of basic equipment for Integrated Science Center .............. 40 Table 13 Costs of additional equipment for Integrated Science Center .... ....... 41 Table 14 Costs of auxiliary equipment and installation for Integrated Science Center . 41 Table 15 Costs of the modules for social sciences ........................ 42 CASE STUDY 4 Table 16 Workshops held by Edutronics Group until February 1991 .44 Table 17 Some international conferences where the Pilot Project was presented .... 45 Table 18 Experiments developed and tested on low-cost equipment .50 APPENDIX C Table 19 Selected journals .84 FOREWORD Science education imparts a method of inquiry and a systematic way of processing knowledge about the physical world. For this reason, science education provides part of the foundation for any knowledge-based effort to improve health, nutrition, family planning, environment, agriculture, and industry. Science education has two broad purposes. The first purpose is to promote scientific literacy among citizens on matters directly affecting their own lives and the society so that they can make decisions based on information and understanding. This is essential for the sustainable development of a modern, technological society. The second purpose is to build up the technological capability by equipping the future workforce with essential science-based knowledge and skills, and by preparing students for scientific disciplines in higher education and science-related careers. Given the potential benefits, the provision of quality science education to all children will have far reaching consequence on a country's development prospect. Practical activities in science education are regarded as one of the necessary elements to promote understanding of scientific principles. To accomplish this goal, the equipment and experiments have to be carefully selected to give students a relevant experience. The understanding is enhanced if the examples are coming from the daily life of the students. Provision of relevant equipment is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for successful science teaching. Other factors discussed in this paper, such as pre-service and in-service teacher training, technical and educational suitability of equipment, distribution, maintenance, supply of consumables, etc., influence the quality of practical activities. This paper presents the opportunities of low-cost and/or locally produced equipment and experiments. It discusses advantages and limitations of this approach, and provides examples of local development and supply of the equipment for science education in four developing countries. Based on the discussion and examples, the paper gives recommendations for education projects with teaching equipment component. Finally, the paper can serve as an important source of information, since it includes in appendices brief examples from several developing countries, list of source documents on low-cost and/or locally produced equipment, list of relevant international journals, and extensive bibliography. Erik Thulstrup and Lauritz Holm-Nielsen Senior Science and Technology Specialists Education and Social Policy Department The World Bank IV ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many have shared their experiences and provided advice and information. In particular I would like to thank Alan Dock, Donald Hamilton, Donald Holsinger, Himelda Martinez, Constancia Chiappe, Ruth Montague and Anthony Somerset of the World Bank, Robert Lange of Brandeis University, and J. David Lockard and Cyril Ponnamperuma of the University of Maryland. I am very grateful to John Kingston of UNESCO, Aleksandra Komhauser of the International Centre for Chemical Studies Ljubljana, Krishna Sane of the University of Delhi, and Sylvia Ware of the American Chemical Society for valuable advice and thoughtful comments on the first draft. I would like to thank colleagues from the Education and Social Policy Department of the World Bank, Bojana Boh, Lauritz Holm-Nielsen and Kin Bing Wu, for careful reviewing of the paper. Finally, I am particularly thankful to Erik Thulstrup for providing the opportunity to write the paper, and for always finding time to discuss the possibilities for accomplishing the task and improving the work. I highly appreciate his willingness to share his knowledge and experiences, and his suggestions, comments and critique of the drafts. It has been a pleasure and a privilege to work with him. v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACEID Asian Center for Educational Innovation and Development (UNESCO) ACS American Chemical Society (USA) APEID Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovations for Development (UNESCO) BREDA Bureau Regional d'Education en Afrique (Regional Office for Education in Africa, UNESCO) CED Center for Teaching Equipment (Uruguay) CENAMEC Centro Nacional para el Mejoriamento de la Ensenanza de la Ciencia (Venezuela) CIDA Canadian Intemational Development Agency DANIDA Danish International Development Agency FUNBEC Fundacao Brasileira para o Desenvolvimento do Ensino de Ciencias (Brazil) GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fir Technische Zusammenarbeit (Germany) INISTE Intemational Network in Science and Technology Education (UNESCO) IPST Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (Thailand) IUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry KSTC Kenya Science Teachers' College LPLCE Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment (UNESCO Network) NCERT National Council of Education Research and Training (India) NIER National Institute for Education Research (Japan) NRC National Research Council (USA) OAU Organization of African Unity ODA Overseas Development Administration (United Kingdom) OREALC Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (UNESCO) PRONAMEC National Program for the Improvement of Science Education (Peru) RECSAM Regional Center for Education in Science and Mathematics (Malaysia) ROEAP Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (UNESCO) SEAMEO South-East Asian Ministers of Education Organization SIDA Swedish International Development Authority SEPU School Equipment Production Unit (Kenya) STEPU Science and Technology Equipment Production Unit (Uganda) TAPU Teaching Aids Production Unit (Botswana) UNCSTD United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Development UNDP United Nations Development Program UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund ZIM-SCI Zimbabwe Secondary School Science Project \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Scientific literacy of the population is a necessary condition for fast technological, environmentally sound development in a country. To achieve it, science education must be available to all. The main role of science education in primary and secondary schools will be to produce informed citizens, rather than new scientists. The prevalent opinion among science educators and scientists is that practical work in science education increases comprehension of scientific principles and their application in the real world. Modem teaching methods in particular emphasize 'learning by doing' and hands- on approaches. For practical work in science teaching, some specialized equipment and facilities are needed, which in many developing countries are rarely available. Large investments have been made to improve the situation, but their effect has been in many cases far less than expected. More than 100 World Bank projects have included specific science education equipment components for schools, but more than half of these were not successful. The main reasons, listed in no particular order, are: 1 - technical unsuitability of the equipment, 2 - educational unsuitability of the equipment, 3 - faults in the procurement procedures, 4 - high cost of the equipment, J - lack of teacher and technician training, 6 - lack of incentives to use the equipment, 7 - faults in the distribution, 8 - inadequate supply of consumable materials, and 9 - inadequate maintenance, repair and replenishment. Low-cost and/or locally produced equipment might provide an opportunity to change the situation. Its main benefits, as seen by many educators, are: 1 - lower cost, 2 - easier maintenance and repair, 3 - better availability of spare parts, 4 - higher relevance to the curriculum, 5 - higher local content, 6 - contributions to self-reliance, and 7 - flexible adaptation for new topics in the curriculum. In addition, lower cost experiments with equal or even higher educational value may often be developed. Small-scale chemistry, for example, is a way to reduce the amounts needed of 2 expensive chemicals in the school experimentation. At the same time it can support environmental protection by producing less laboratory waste. There are different approaches to the supply of locally produced equipment in different countries. Possible types of production are: 1 - production by teachers and students, 2 - establishment of central production units in the country, 3 - central development and assembly of equipment and kits, 4 - decentralized development and production, and 5 - a combined approach (probably the most frequent). There are many examples of international coordination and assistance in equipment development and supply. Some examples of bilateral, regional and international cooperation are presented in the study. The role of UNESCO is particularly significant. Four case studies show examples of different approaches towards science education equipment development and supply. All four were introduced in developing countries, use to a large extent local or locally available materials, and - even more important - are based on local knowledge. Case Study 1 presents development of science kits for primary and lower secondary education in Zimbabwe. What makes them particularly valuable is that they were developed together with complete teaching units, including textbooks and teacher's guides. Individual items are bought by tender and assembled to kits at the ZIM-SCI (Zimbabwe Secondary School Science Project) warehouse. To resupply consumables, special resupply kits were developed, while single items also could be bought by schools. The ZIM-SCI project started at the early 1980s. It promoted basic knowledge in science during the period when the secondary enrollment rate increased over ten times (1979-1989), and the number of secondary schools even more. Although a large share of teachers were inadequately educated, examination results of the students were quite satisfactory. The project has been commended by many educators (but also criticized by some), and it has served as an example and inspiration in other countries. However, it has encountered some problems in recent years. Minilab, developed in Sri Lanka (Case Study 2), is a self-sufficient unit that can function as a science laboratory, and can accommodate a class of forty students. It is not dependent on water and electricity supplies, since it has its own water container with a pump, and solar-powered rechargeable batteries. It also contains three alternative heating sources. This makes it particularly appropriate for rural secondary schools. Minilab's attractions are its size (it can fit into existing classrooms) and relatively low price. It is produced by a company based in Sri Lanka, but many items are imported, mostly from the East Asian region. The project has received support from authorities in Sri Lanka since 1989. Over 1,500 secondary schools in Sri Lanka (out of 6,000) already have Minilabs installed. Teacher training for 3 Minilab use is provided. Since Minilab is a relatively new design, thorough evaluations of its use and educational effectiveness have not been available. The Third World Foundation, based in Washington, is planning to promote manufacture and use of Minilab world-wide. Multitaller de Materiales Didacticos at Universidad del Valle in Colombia has already for a long time been involved in development of low-cost equipment. Its design of science centers for secondary schools is described in Case Study 3. Each basic center is intended to provide laboratory science education for students from about ten schools in its 3-6 laboratories. Students would regularly spend a whole day in the center. Part of the equipment is produced by Multitaller and the rest is bought domestically or imported. The cost of an Integrated Science Center (Type 1) is estimated to about $65,000 (as of January 1993). A Center can be upgraded to Integrated Educational Resource Center with addition of modules for social sciences and arts, at a cost of about $132,000. The Center approach is assessed to be feasible if there are enough schools in the vicinity, otherwise the students' transportation costs might become prohibitive. Again, no thorough educational evaluations have been available. Case Study 4 presents development of low-cost, sophisticated equipment for higher levels of education (up to the university level), and possibly also for other uses, for example in industry and hospitals. The Edutronics Group at the University of Delhi, India, started to develop equipment in 1979 in a UNESCO-IUPAC (International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry) pilot project. Many pieces of equipment in different versions (to suit different requirements) have been developed. They include pH meters, conductometers, colorimeters, polarimeters, electrodes, etc. All the apparatus include inexpensive electronic components, available on the local market, and Indian know-how. The knowledge has been disseminated in several national and international workshops, and thousands pieces of equipment have been built. The performance of the equipment has been thoroughly tested in India and abroad, and found to be adequate. Experiments were designed together with the equipment. The Edutronics Group is expanding its work to other areas, such as reduction of the costs of chemicals, introduction of microprocessor based instruments into students' laboratory work, desk-top publishing, production of videotapes, and cooperation in international distance education projects. The initiator and group leader, Professor K.V. Sane, has recently become coordinator of the new UNESCO network for Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment (LPLCE). The four case studies illustrate different approaches to local development of equipment for science education. Selected examples of equipment design and supply in some developing countries are presented in Appendix A. They also show the need to coordinate actions (from careful selection of equipment in accordance with the curriculum to the organization of teacher training), if the equipment is to be used effectively. A list of source documents (books, guides and manuals) for low-cost science equipment manufacture and experimentation is 4 included in Appendix B. Some journals in which equipment designs are described by individual authors (mostly teachers, educators and scientists) are listed in Appendix C. In order to improve the effectiveness of science education equipment supply projects, it is recommended that: 1. Relevance of the equipment to the curriculum is improved by involving local curriculum experts in production of equipment lists. Try to avoid buying from manufacturers' catalogs. Rely on local resources as far as possible. 2. Local development of equipment designs is supported in accordance with the curriculum and, when feasible, also local production of the equipment. Locally produced equipment has a number of additional benefits, described in the study. 3. Supply of spare parts and repair services are ensured for a longer period (more than five years) as the supplier's responsibility, e.g. as a separate clause in the equipment provision contract. 4. Supply of consumable materials is ensured for a longer period (more than five years) with funds allocated for that purpose. Buying in bulk and repackaging for schools could be a part of the strategy and may decrease the costs significantly. 5. Flexible distribution schemes are used. Apart from the standard sets every school is getting, allocate funds for schools with special needs. 6. Pre-service teacher training in use and maintenance of equipment which is supplied to schools is provided. Future teachers should also develop basic managerial skills in selection and acquisition of the equipment, spare parts and materials. 7. In-service teacher training in use and maintenance of equipment is provided (including technician training). Involve equipment and experiments designers in the training. 8. Training courses for teachers in using locally available materials and manufacturing simple equipment are organized. Much can be achieved with very small funding. Publication of source books and manuals can be a part of the action. 5 INTRODUCTION 1. SCIENCE EDUCATION Social and technological changes require constant updating of the general populations' knowledge and skills. Developments in science and technology are tangible realities affecting any member of society. Science education has become so important that many consider it necessary to strengthen considerably science teaching in all educational systems and to allow scientific literacy to develop (Bar-On, 1992). It is particularly important for developing countries to develop their own capacity to evaluate, import, absorb and improve the scientific and technological knowledge that would be suitable and would contribute to their autonomous development (UNCSTD, 1979). The World Conference on Education for All, convened and sponsored by UJNESCO, UNICEF, UNDP and the World Bank, charted in March 1990 a World Declaration on Education for All. The Conference stressed the need to respond to the irnpact of scientific discoveries and technological change on the content and process of education itself: "To be truly independent, a country should be able to ensure that all its citizens are given the opportunity, starting from the earliest stages of education, to gain an understanding of science and technology and the capacity to put them to appropriate use and to develop them to meet collective needs. Although the large majority of people do not necessarily work directly with new technology, they live in societies where technological innovation increasingly perrneates almost every aspect of daily life. The need for basic scientific and technological knowledge and skills therefore becomes pervasive... A country's engagement in the development and use of new technologies has profound implications for employment and skill requirements... Sound basic literacy and numeracy skills, middle-level technical and organizational skills and, to an increasing degree, problem solving and abstract reasoning abilities will be the cornerstones of scientific and technological advance." (Haggis, 1991). Many developing countries see science education as an important and effective agent in the development of national human resources. For example, five South-East Asian countries ranked science education third in importance - right after literacy and numeracy (Hernandez, 1980). It is assumed that better understanding of science and technology leads not only to more informed decision-making in science and engineering, but also in many other areas. Environmental management, industrial development, agriculture, health, nutrition and population control are only a few examples. However, traditional investments in science education can be a heavy burden for developing countries with limited financial resources. When the impact of the investments is less or slower than anticipated there may be a backlash against science education (Ware, 1992). In this context the question of the 6 relevance of science education becomes crucial. Experts on science education observed already in 1977: "Though science may be considered to be universal, science education is not partaking as it should of the local environment, the socio-cultural background and the occupational patterns prevalent in the country." (UNESCO, 1977) The negative experiences which many developing countries have had with imported curricula show the necessity of designing the curriculum so that it promotes the socio- economic and cultural development goals of each nation. S. Ketudat (at that time Minister of Education and Culture of Thailand) remarked in 1981, when he described the situation before the educational reform: "Science was even more foreign than a foreign language. Science was abstract fact to be memorized. Science was indeedforeign." Reform of secondary level science education in Thailand started in the early seventies as a part of the broader reform of the educational system. The emphasis was "...to help the student to acquire scientific knowledge which could be applied directly to his daily life and also would show the value of conservation of natural resources and natural habitats and would induce him to observe his own local environment and way of life. The scientific skills developed could be applied to the problems of his personal life as well as to the social welfare of the community." (Ketudat, 1981) Educational reforms in developing countries are in many cases coupled with a substantial expansion of the educational system. For example, secondary enrollment ratio in years 1980- 1988 almost doubled in Ethiopia and Indonesia, tripled in Uganda, while the increase in Zimbabwe was over six times (UNESCO, 1991). The success of such reforms depends on many factors. For science education one of the important ones is provision of adequate instructional materials. 2. PRACTICAL ACITVlIIES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION According to some authors, the role and educational effectiveness of practical activities in science education are not clear. The arguments are summarized and discussed by Silvia Ware (1992). However, it was agreed on the World Conference on Education for All, that the most effective and relevant learning takes place through the process of solving problems, and that there is a fundamental need for 'doing' to be part of learning. These are the prerequisites if the learning is to be brought inio effective action (Haggis, 1991). The question of national and local relevance is again very much present in the establishment and evaluation of practical activities. There is a widespread belief that in the design of practical activities, local relevance and applicability to problem situation in the real world should be promoted together with the understanding of scientific concepts and the world of work (Badran, 1988). 7 A process of development of the objectives of science curriculum can be recognized in recent years. There is a trend of change from traditional acquisition of knowledge to scientific inquiry, problem solving and application of science. Recent curricula in some developed countries place also practical activities on a new level. Traditional approaches can be summarized as teacher demonstrations to illustrate scientific principles, combined with students' work in laboratories following 'cookbook recipes'. The 'modem' approach is characterized by inquiry and discovery methods, decision making, 'learning by doing', and 'hands-on' teaching. These approaches were first widely adopted in smaller countries (Denmark, for example), but are now fast gaining ground in larger ones (Thulstrup, 1993). An example from the USA is the ChemCom project of the American Chemical Society (ACS, 1993). A need to implement similar approaches is recognized also in some developing countries (Akinmade, 1988). Another successful way to motivate students are 'student projects'. Students carry out research appropriate for their level of understanding of science. Nevertheless, the results are in many cases quite impressive, particularly where state-wide competitions are organized. An example is "Science to the Young" in Slovenia, where competitions are organized on communal, regional and state level (Komhauser, 1984). In the USA, the National Research Council is preparing National Science Education Standards (NRC, 1993). The main intention is to assure 'science for all', meaning that every high school student should participate in at least one science course. The project has several components. One of the proposed objectives is building the inquiry skills, which includes: - formulating questions, - planning experiments, - making systematic observations, - interpreting and analyzing data, - drawing conclusions, - communicating, and - understanding of inquiry. 3. EQUIPMENT FOR SCIENCE EDUCATION The term 'equipment', as used in this report, covers all the support material for science teaching excluding textbooks, other printed materials and the usual classroom materials and facilities, such as chalk, blackboards and furniture. It may also include perishable items (e.g. glassware) and consumables (e.g. chemicals). f Practical activities at different levels of sophistication are present in the majority of school science curricula at the primary level and particularly at the lower and upper secondary levels. Practical activities usually require special facilities and equipment. Although fully equipped laboratories and sophisticated equipment are by many considered essential, it is not 8 necessarily so. It has been argued that traditional laboratory facilities are not needed at the primary level, but are desirable at least at the upper secondary level (UNESCO, 1977). In many countries, science education is suffering from a lack of appropriate facilities and supporting materials, including the equipment. Modern curricula and textbooks based on discovery learning are sometimes used, but in the absence of practical activities it is questionable if the students receive a better understanding of science then they did when books and curricula were based on lecturing and blackboard teacher demonstrations (Hakansson, 1983). To improve the situation, many national, regional and international projects have been launched, emphasizing labs and equipment. However, their success was in many cases far below the expected. The World Bank has supported secondary school science in over 100 projects; generally the equipment components were a substantial part of the total expenditures. In Bank evaluations, almost half of the outcomes were assessed to be negative. In an internal Bank review (el Hage et al., 1992) it was found that hardware was emphasized at the expense of other components, for example teacher training. Teacher training components were included in only 14 % of the projects containing the equipment components. Other Bank projects, which were successful from the equipment acquisition and distribution point of view, were found not to improve the quality of science education substantially. In some cases the equipment provided was not used at all, and it was possible to find twenty years old equipment kits still in their original packages (Somerset, 1993; Schmidt, 1983a). There are many possible reasons for equipment supply projects to fail. Some of them are listed below. 3.1. Technical unsuitability of the equipment Climatic conditions in some developing countries are very hard on equipment. High temperature and humidity cause corrosion of metallic parts and make particularly sensitive (and often expensive) electronic equipment unusable. Lack oft or unreliable water, gas, and electricity supply are sometimes not taken into account. Precision electrical instrument's tolerance for current oscillations is in many cases lower than actual oscillations in public network, resulting in breakdown of the equipment. 3.2. Educational unsuitability of the equipment The equipment is not always relevant to the curriculum. In other words, it is designed for experiments that do not suit the curriculum. Envisaged changes in the curriculum are sometimes not taken into account in connection with equipment purchase, even if they are supposed to happen in the near future. On the other hand, in practical implementations of the curriculum there is sometimes little or no time allotted for practical work. Another possibility is that the educational value of the experiments is low because they fail to demonstrate scientific concepts convincingly, or do not illustrate the connection between 9 scientific principles and the real world. The reasons might be use of unfamiliar materials, practical work following 'cookbook recipes' without real understanding of the process, or use of 'black boxes' - unexplained and unfamiliar equipment where input and output do not have any apparent connection. 3.3. Procurement procedures In many cases equipment lists are prepared by people unfamiliar with the curriculum. Lists are sometimes prepared on the basis of the suppliers' catalogs (in some cases even outdated catalogs) instead of the practical work as defined in school programs. Equipment lists are often based on out-of-date understanding of what a well-equipped science laboratory should contain. Long-range plans (more than five years) to support maintenance and replenishment are rarely included since procurement is usually considered to be a one-time operation. Suppliers' warranties which promise spare parts and service, e.g. within the first year, are often not used. 3.4. Cost of equipment Investments in equipment for all students at a given level are a heavy financial burden for a developing country. Essential follow-up procedures like teacher training in the pedagogical and technical use of the equipment, provision of maintenance, and replenishment, etc., are sometimes not accomplished because of the lack of funds. There is another risk in connection with the high cost of equipment. It is sometimes safely locked up in the school (Dalgety, 1983; GTZ, 1983) and not used at all, because the teacher is afraid that he/she or the students might break it and that he/she will have pay for it from his/her own pocket. 3.5. Teacher training In pre-service training, future teachers often get work experience with equipment they are not likely to use after graduation. They are not trained to work with the kind of equipment which is actually in use in schools, or to work with little or no equipment at all. They are seldom taught how to use and improvise with local materials. Maintenance and repair of the equipment are rarely included in pre-service teacher training. The future teachers do not develop managerial skills in selecting and acquiring equipment and consumable materials, although they in some countries are responsible for that, using the school budget. Proper in-service training is often not available when new equipment is supplied to schools. Although well-prepared manuals and teachers' guides may be supplied, they are frequently not enough to ensure efficient use of the equipment. In-service training is particularly essential when new equipment is accompanied by changes in the curriculum. 3.6. Incentives Teachers are often not motivated to put additional effort into the preparation of practical work (demonstrations and experiments). The social status of science teachers in many 10 developing countries is low, as well as their salary. They are frequently forced to take second jobs. Final examinations are reported to be very strong incentives for both teachers and students, particularly in African countries where access to universities represents a major goal for many upper secondary school students and their parents (Somerset, 1993). If the final examinations include practical work (as, for example, in Kenya), it is likely that it will be more carefillly carried out also in science teaching. 3.7. Distribution In some cases, purchased equipment has not been supplied to schools, but has been stored in a central warehouse for a very long time (Gaillard & Ouattar, 1988). Reasons may be different, ranging from bureaucratic procedures to physical inability to distribute the equipment across the country. Another kind of problem is connected with the relative inflexibility of supply and distribution schemes. It often happens that the same standard sets of new equipment are distributed to all schools, even when the existing supplies vary considerably. It might also happen that certain items are not included in the pack, because the majority of schools already have them. The result is that a number of schools will never get that particular piece of equipment, while other schools will get equipment they already have. 3.8. Supply of consumables Consumable materials (for example chemicals) represent a significant part of the total costs of science education in developing countries. They are necessary for utilization of the equipment. However, the funds for consumables are not always available. This is particularly true if they have to be imported (i.e. must be paid in foreign currency). Distribution problems occur also here, similar to the problems encountered at the distribution of equipment. Many countries are still using hazardous chemicals in secondary school classrooms. These chemicals are now no longer used in most developed countries at this level (Ware, 1993). 3.9. Maintenance, repair and replenishment Teachers and laboratory technicians (where available) are rarely trained properly in maintenance of the equipment, either in pre-service or in-service training programs (Lowe, 1983). If the equipment is in use, it will eventually break down. Teachers and laboratory technicians should be able to carry out simple repairs, but the necessary training is seldom provided. Centers for more complicated maintenance and repair are organized in some countries, but generally they are not available. A missing or broken inexpensive part may render a whole equipment kit unusable unless it is replaced. Single items for replenishment are not always in stock and available for schools to acquire. 11 4. LOW-COST AND/OR LOCALLY PRODUCED EQUIPMENT Import of school science equipment to developing countries has a series of negative side- effects. Foreign exchange is usually scarce, while the equipment is rather expensive, considering the large number of schools. This results in uneven and only partial supply of schools (Dalgety, 1983). Moreover, spare parts also have to be imported, as well as some (or almost all) consumables. If the equipment does not suit the existing curriculum, it may not be used in the teaching. If teachers' training is neglected, the equipment might not be used anyway. Even if the teacher knows what to do with the equipment, he/she might be reluctant to use it out of fear to damage expensive apparatus. In the best case he/she would use it for demonstrations, and would not allow students to work directly with it. Some schools have 'graveyards' of equipment that require minimal repairs (or only some maintenance), which the teacher or laboratory technician have not been trained to carry out (Sane, 1984). When the necessary repairs are more complex or require a spare part, centralized repair and maintenance services are often not available. In some cases equipment is not used because of lack of necessary consumables. Foreign aid in the form of equipment sometimes has negative effects. It rarely meets more than a small part of the demand, and often a developing country may have a variety of equipment received from various donor countries, each in small quantities. This makes it difficult to equip all schools evenly with uniform equipment (Hakansson, 1983). High cost and sophistication of the equipment do not necessarily mean high educational value. Commercial instruments are sometimes designed to cater for multi-purpose needs of industry and research, while an instrument often can be significantly simplified, according to the educational needs. Sophisticated equipment is not always comprehensible to students, and often not even to teachers. Many sophisticated pieces of equipment come as completely enclosed units, and their function can usually not be understood by the user. Relying on the results without any understanding how they are obtained decreases the value of the practical work. One of the approaches to overcome the problems in supply, maintenance and use of equipment for science education is development of low-cost and/or locally produced alternatives. It must be emphasized, that low-cost, simply designed equipment is not necessarily synonymous with second-rate science education. It is possible to design low-cost equipment and experiments that are relevant to students and that lead to understanding (Tobon, 1988). The main point in school science is to define the most appropriate equipment. Many types of equipment can be developed at a low cost and still retain the precision needed for school science. It is important to determine what precision range is actually needed for teaching. Too sophisticated equipment is sometimes used, producing data whose accuracy is incompatible with the other measurements taken during the experiment (Gardner et al., 1984). 12 Local production of equipment for science education, particularly at a low cost, has certain important advantages, some of which are listed below: 4.1. Cost The cost of locally produced equipment is often, but not always, lower than of imported equipment. That makes supplying a large number of schools in a country more feasible. However, every piece of equipment can not be produced in every country. For smaller countries, regional cooperation might be the answer. When calculating the cost of the equipment, some factors should be kept in mind. They are: - durability of the equipment (expected lifetime), - additional installation costs, - estimated costs of spare parts during the lifetime of the equipment, - estimated costs of consumable materials, - service costs, and - costs of teacher and technician training. It may be assumed that the equipment will be used fully during its lifetime, as long as it is kept in mind that the most expensive equipment is that which is never used. 4.2. Maintenance and repair If the equipment is simpler in design, teachers, laboratory technicians and local craftsmen are more likely to be able to carry out small repairs. Teachers would hesitate less to open or dismantle the equipment in order to maintain it, if it is made from familiar parts and materials. 4.3. Replacement It is generally much easier to acquire spare parts from a local producer. Some parts can also be made by local craftsmen, if the designs are provided, and the materials are readily available. 4.4. Relevance to the curriculum In practice, developers of low-cost equipment are often at the same time involved in curriculum design or implementation. In many cases they are employed at universities, teacher training colleges, or secondary schools and are well acquainted with the existing syllabus or the one in preparation. They tend to prepare manuals and experiments to be needed for use of the equipment. They may also organize teacher training, which is more likely to be highly relevant to the new equipment. 4.5. Higher local content Equipment made of parts and materials familiar to the students is more likely to help them to understand the underlying scientific principles. Students are able to identify applications in 13 their own environment and are better able to use them in their later life. There are numerous examples of everyday activities in rural communities, which are closely related to scientific concepts. For example, a four-part pottery distillation apparatus, which is in use in Kenyan villages to distill a local liquor (chang'aa) from sugar cane beer, was replicated in Germany for student use in school project on the preparation of aromatic oils from plants (Minssen, 1983). At the same time, teachers may feel higher motivation, when they are able to apply personal experience from different areas in their teaching (Thulstrup, 1989). 4.6. Self-reliance Local development and production of the equipment for science education are seen as a method to cultivate confidence and expertise of educators in a developing country. The dependence on local materials is another aspect of this. It may also be a way to develop new small-scale enterprises and to employ handicapped personnel and school dropouts, as is the case in India (Sane, 1984). However, it might take some time to reach adequate production quality and quantity. 4.7. Flexibility Addition of a few new pieces of equipment, or modification of existing equipment together. with some teacher training, can facilitate the introduction of new topics in science teaching. A recent example in many countries is incorporation of environmental education in school syllabi. Such additions or modifications are easier to make if the school equipment is locally produced. S. SUPPLY STRATEGIES FOR LOW-COST LOCALLY PRODUCED EQUIPMMNT As mentioned above, it is not expected that every single part would be produced in every country. Some parts are available at very low prices on the international market, for example electronic components. Some are not economical to produce in relatively small quantities. Developing a given production line might require substantial investments in infrastructure or training of workers and it might be more feasible to import those products. Often, the best selection of equipment for science education in an educational system is a blend of low-, medium- and high-cost, locally produced and imported equipment. To implement national or local production of low-cost equipment, national and local conditions should be taken into account. Some possible strategies are described in the following paragraphs (Tobon, 1988; Steward, 1983). 14 5.1. Production by teachers and students To enable teachers and/or students to build the equipment, detailed designs should be distributed. They should include description of necessary parts and materials and their availability in local communities, and should be carefully chosen and tested. In some cases, training of teachers in the form of seminars, workshops or science camps (together with students) is organized. Hans Schmidt (1983b) reports that there are successful examples from various countries of the production of simple teaching aids by teachers themselves. Pilot seminars, some supported by GTZ or the Goethe Institut (Germany), have been held in Afghanistan, Bolivia, Nicaragua and Colombia. In there, teachers have produced their own teaching aids in the form of kits and carried out experiments with them. Three basic types of seminars have been held: - extended seminars, lasting 2-3 weeks; teachers learn to produce and assemble a basic kit for experiments, and how to use it for teaching; - shorter seminars, lasting 2-6 days; teachers get an introduction to the manufacture and use of teaching aids, and produce selected items; - compact seminars, lasting 1-2 days; teachers and educational administrators are informed about possibilities and limitations of manufacturing and use of self-made teaching aids. In some countries manuals are published for teachers, describing how to make simple' teaching aids and carry out experiments. Examples from Ghana, Tanzania and Venezuela are cited in Appendix A. Sometimes it is possible to produce certain pieces of equipment for science teaching in schools as a part of a teaching program. An example is production of a constant current source power supply, built in technology classes and used in chemnistry and biology laboratories at the same school in Uberlingen, Germany (Schellenberg, 1992). Some universities have workshops where they produce some teaching and research equipment in small quantities, for example at Fudan University in Shanghai, China (Cai, 1992). Many teachers and scientists in both developing and developed countries make low-cost equipment for their own use. Two examples are a simple conductivity meter (Mathis, 1992) and even gas chromatograph (Wiederholt, 1992). They often publish their designs in specialized journals. A list of selected journals is presented in Appendix C. It would be dangerous however, to rely solely on teachers to produce their own materials and equipment. Only few of them have the facilities, ability and motivation to do so (Hakansson, 1983). A variation of this strategy is supply of designs together with some critical items that teachers are not likely to fmd in their own communities. The items could be just small, but crucial parts of the equipment (lenses, for example) or small devices, such as voltmeters, amperemeters, etc. 15 5.2. Central production unit Some countries have established central units for production of teaching aids, including equipment for science education. They are often functioning as a part of the responsible Ministry (usually for education) or are non-profit organizations, and are producing equipment for the whole education system. The units usually produce a limited range of equipment, in most cases for the primary or lower secondary level. Examples are found in Ethiopia, Uganda and Kenya (the latter operates commercially). Central units may work well, but there is a danger of monopolization and, as a result, higher costs then necessary. In some countries with centrally planned economies, establishment of central production capacity can be a political issue. 5.3. Central development and assembly of equipment and kits An institution inside the country may be in charge of developing prototypes of equipment and science kits. Sometimes it includes also manufacturing of some items, while the others are bought on the domestic or international market. There are examples of institutions buying items in quantity and assembling complete science kits for distribution to schools. In the case of Zimbabwe, for example, the Curriculum Development Unit assembles science kits for the ZIM-SCI program in lower secondary schools. Items are procured by tender from domestic and foreign suppliers. Buying certain materials in stock and repackaging them in small lots may be very economical. Typical examples are electronic components and chemicals, where the difference in price for small and large quantities may be several hundred percent. 5.4. Decentralized development and production Particularly in larger countries it is beneficial if several groups take part in development of equipment for various levels of education. In almost every state in India, as well as on a central level, there exists a unit for development of science equipment for lower levels of education. There are also groups developing equipment for higher levels (including college and university), most notably the Edutronics Group at the University of Delhi (see Case Study 4). Good results can be obtained in cooperation between equipment manufacturers and curriculum and/or equipment developers. It is important to ensure that design specifications are met in detail. An example of such cooperation exists in Sri Lanka (Case Study 2). Successful cooperation between educators in\Tanzania and overseas producer of primary science kit has also been reported (Lewin & Ross, 1992). 5.5. Combined approach In most of the countries several of the above strategies are found. A general and efficient system for the design, production and distribution of school science equipment may include local development, fabrication of prototypes, evaluation and tryout, industrial design, 16 production in local small-scale manufacturing centers, acquisition of items on the local mnarket and import of some items, all related to the curiculum requirements (Lowe, 1983; Maddock, 1982; UNESCO, 1973). 6. LOW-COST EXPERIMENTS Although not a major topic of this study, development of low-cost experiments fits in the general concept of low cost and locally developed curricula and equipment. There are two possibilities for adaptation of science experiments for the school use: replacement of complex methods with simpler ones or simplification of the methods (Musar, 1992). Similar approaches are used to decrease the cost of school experimentation, for example in chemistry: - replacement of expensive chemicals with cheaper ones or with locally available materials. For example, IPTS (Thailand) has produced a detailed list of chemicals readily available from local market (Gardner et al., 1984), and turmeric (an everyday spice in India) contains curcumin, a dye which can be used as an acid/base indicator (Agarkar, 1988); - small-scale chemistry is being developed also in developed countries for several reasons, such as environmental pollution prevention Oess waste chemicals), laboratory safety (Gardner et al., 1984) and to decrease the cost of chemicals for experimentation. An example is Project Minilab in Germany, where a small-scale equipment kit has been developed for a number of standard experiments; such an equipment kit costs about $400 (Schallis, 1992); - nclusion of recycling as a part of student experiments, achieving cost benefits and environmental protection at the same time; - simplified experiments; where the main objective is to increase comprehensibility of scientific principles, but which are likely to reduce the cost of experiments; a beautiful example of a very low-cost experiment has been described, involving only a rubber band (Campbell, 1981): Stretch a rubber band and put it to your forehead or lips to check its temperature. Now relax it and check the temperature once again. It has dropped. The relaxaion is therefore an example of the rare endothermic and spontaneous processes. Usually, expensive chemicals, ammonium chloride and barium salts, have been used for demonstration of endothermic processes. 17 7. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Cooperation in design and production, as well as in exchange of information on science education equipment, exists on different levels. Some bilateral, regional and international projects and networks are described in this chapter. 7.1. Bilateral cooperation Many developed countries have governmental and non-governmental agencies and foundations for cooperation with developing countries, for example: - Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit - GTZ (Germany) together with some other German agencies (Deutsche Stiftung fur Internationale Entwicklung - DSE, Goethe Institut) is supporting development of science education equipment in India and Indonesia with funds and experts (GTZ, 1989). For example, GTZ supported workshops on the production of simple teaching aids in Afghanistan and some Latin American countries (Schmidt, 1983b). It has also launched a project for maintenance and repair of scientific equipment at African universities (GTZ, 1991). Other education projects which include science equipment components are going on, for example in Philippines (Nachtigall et al., 1988). - Swedish International Development Authority - SIDA supported the ZIM-SCI project (Case Study 1) in Zimbabwe (Dock, 1989), and was involved in the establishment of SEPU in Kenya (Bengtsson, 1983). - Overseas Development Administration - ODA (United Kingdom) supplied Junior Secondary School Science Kits to Ghana (Lewin & Ross, 1992). Other national agencies, active in provision of equipment or science kits to developing countries, include, for example, the British Council, USAID, CIDA (Canada) and Danida (Denmark). 7.2. Regional cooperation Regional networks and cooperation projects are often included in the activities of intemational organizations, notably lUNESCO. Examples of activities in Africa, Asia and Latin America are: - Africa: the Conference of African Ministers of Education, Nairobi, 1968, was convened by UNESCO and the Organization of African Unity (OAU) and attended by delegates from thirty-five countries. It recommended a problem-solving, hands-on approach in science education instead \of traditional methods based on blackboard lessons. Other conferences followed in years 1974 (Dakar) and 1976 (Lagos). In years 1978-1981 UNESCO gave support to nine regional seminars concerned with maintaining the momentum of development of school courses in science and technology (Morris, 1983). The Conference of Ministers of Education and those Responsible for Economic Planning in African Member States, Harare, 1982, reaffirmed the importance of practical work in science teaching and recommended 18 national production of equipment for science education based on local materials (UNESCO, 1982). - Asia: the South-East Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) has established a number of centers for training and development, including already in 1967 the Regional Center for Education in Science and Mathematics (RECSAM), with its headquarters in Penang, Malaysia. The Center provides training for teachers from member countries, including training in development of low-cost equipment. In 1974, the Asia and the Pacific Program of Education Innovation for Development (APEID) was established within the framework of the UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific (ROEAP). Its main task was to strengthen national capabilities to develop and implement innovations in education. To support the Program, the Asian Center for Educational Innovation and Development (ACEID) was established as part of ROEAP. Together with the National Institute for Education Research in Japan (NIER), a number of regional workshops were organized. About fifteen countries from the region participated in the exchange of experiences in design and development of low-cost equipment. Proceedings and inventories of low-cost equipment, together with designs for manufacture, were published (Morris, 1983). Workshops with regional attendance on locally produced equipment were organized at Mitchell College of Advanced Education in Australia (Fogliani, 1984; Fogliani, 1985). - Latin America: UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALC) has since 1981 published bulletins with technical file cards for manufacture of low-cost equipment (Tobon, 1988). Some of the national organizations which are particularly active in exchange of information and organization of workshops are FUNBEC in Brazil; Chilean Natural History Museum; Multitaller de Materiales Didacticos, University del Valle in Colombia; Center for the Improvement of Science Education in Costa Rica; Faculdad de Humanidades in Nicaragua; National Program for the Improvement of Science Education (PRONAMEC) and Museo Dinamico de Ciencias in Peru; Center for Teaching Equipment (CED) in Uruguay; and Centro Nacional para el Mejoriamento de la Ensenanza de la Ciencia (CENAMEC) in Venezuela (Morris, 1983). 7.3. International cooperation Several international organizations are particularly active in development and provision of science education equipment: - UNICEF has made kits available for primary science; some developing countries use them, for example Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands (Lewin & Ross, 1992). - UNESCO is the international organization with the most experience in low-cost and locally produced equipment. Activities of some of the Regional Centers are described above. In addition, UTNESCO has launched a project on low-cost locally produced equipment together with the IUPAC - Committee on Teaching of Chemistry. A pilot project for the development of equipment has been launched at the University of Delhi (Case Study 4). A number of scientists and teachers around the world are involved in 19 development of equipment and exchange of information. Workshops and seminars have been organized and proceedings published. In August 1993, Chinese Chemical Society is hosting a Low-cost Equipment Workshop in Beijing, while the International Workshop on Teaching of Environmental Chemnistry will be held in December 1993 in Delhi, India, to prepare a teaching/learning package for environmental science using the items developed under the Low-cost Project (Sane, 1993; Sane, 1984). The next World Conference on Science Education (Puerto Rico, 1994) will include a panel on low-cost equipment. One of its organizers, Professor Ram Lamda of the Inter American University, Puerto Rico, is an active member of the IJNESCO-IUPAC project. Exchange of information is achieved through INISTE (International Network in Science and Technology Education), based in UNESCO, Paris and functioning as a clearinghouse for information (Malevri, 1989). Recently, the International Network for Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment (LPLCE) has been established under the supervision of the UNESCO Regional Office in Delhi. Its headquarters are at the University of Delhi and it is coordinated by Professor K.V. Sane. Other Network Centers are in Brazil, France, Germany, Puerto Rico, Philippines and Jordan, thus covering four major languages apart from English. In 1993, the Network has launched a teacher training program in seven South-East Asian countries, and has set up a $10,000 equipment bank for supply of kits, equipment and spare parts (Sane, 1993). 20 CASE STUDIES Four case studies of science education equipment development and supply in developing countries are presented in this chapter. They were chosen to demonstrate different approaches. In all four, development of equipment was based to a large extent on local or locally available materials. It was carried out by teachers, scientists and educators, using experience from education systems of the countries in question. Reliance on imported materials and know-how was reduced to minimum. In Zimbabwe, science kits for primary and lower secondary education were developed. Science kits are common in developing countries. What makes the case of Zimbabwe exceptional is a completely local development in the situation of rapidly expanding education system. The first kits were supplied in 1981, based on equipment kits from previous distance education project. By 1987, three different kits for different levels of education, together with resupply kits, were developed. In Sri Lanka, the Minilab, functioning as a self-sufficient laboratory unit has been developed since 1985. It is not dependent on water and electricity supply, which makes it very suitable. for rural schools. After 1989, Mmnilabs were supplied to more than 1,500 secondary schools (out of 6,000) in Sri Lanka. The design was presented intemationally and is going to be promoted world-wide by The Third World Foundation. In Colombia, science centers for secondary schools were developed. A large part of the equipment is produced locally. Students from up to 10 schools are supposed to visit each center, listen to lectures and perform practical work in science. The basic center design can be upgraded with additional units for social sciences, thus increasing its utilization and motivation for the students. In India, sophisticated equipment for science education is being developed as a part of a UNESCO-IUPAC project. The equipment is based on locally available electronic components and local know-how. Designs are disseminated throughout India and intemationally. Some items are already being produced commercially, and many schools and universities are using them. Where possible, educational evaluations were included in the case studies. For the case studies of Sri Lanka and Colombia, detailed evaluations were not available. Sources of information and addresses where fiurther information on the case studies can be obtained, are provided at the end of each case study. Other selected examples of local design of equipment and its supply in seventeen developing countries, are presented in Appendix A. 21 CASE STUDY 1: SCIENCE KITS IN ZIMBABWE The development of science kits for secondary education is inseparable from the Zimbabwe Secondary School Science Project (ZIM-SCI). It is an example of parallel development of curriculum and equipment for practical activities. Soon after Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980, a political decision was made that education should be 'for all'. An expansion of the educational system resulted in effectively universal primary education and an increase in number of secondary schools from about one hundred to more than twelve hundred in four years. In January 1981, for example, 465 new rural secondary schools were opened. UNESCO World Education Report 1991 quotes an increase in gross secondary enrollment ratio from 8 % in 1980 to 51 % in 1988. Financial problems in the school system expansion appeared to be insurmountable. Provision of laboratories and standard science equipment was out of the question, but the Ministry of Education and Culture wanted science to be compulsory for all students at the secondary level. They became interested in Distance Science Teaching Unit (DIST), a project for distance education, developed from 1978 by Alan Dock and his colleagues in the Department of Curriculum Studies at the University of Zimbabwe. The distance teaching system had five basic components: - a mentor in charge of a study group, - audio cassette player, - study guide for each learner, - a basic kit of low-cost apparatus for each learner, and - consumable materials, carefully calculated to meet the needs of the unit of study. To ensure science education in the new secondary schools, the Ministry decided to use DIST. A team of eleven people under the leadership of A. Dock was put in charge. The DIST project was adapted and renamed the 'Zimbabwe Secondary School Science Project' (ZIM-SCI). The main objectives of ZIM-SCI were: - to develop low-cost, high local content science kits, thus encouraging the use of local resources, reducing the use of (scarce) foreign currency, cutting cost of teaching science and making it possible to give all children a high quality, practical and relevant science education (in effect giving rural pupils equality of opportunity); - to emphasize hands-on, student-centered teaching, developing a scientifically literate population, encouraging students to approach scientific problems critically and developing an aptitude to resolve problems; - to enable relatively unqualified science teachers to teach science competently (although the government abolished forced retirement of teachers and many had come 22 back from retirement, a large number of inadequately prepared primary school teachers and high school graduates started to teach in new secondary schools); - to provide a curriculum which makes secondary school syllabuses more appropriate to Zimbabwe, making the science part of the students' everyday experiences. The materials developed for ZIM-SCI consist of three parts: - students' study guides, integrating text, instructions for carrying out experiments and exercises to consolidate the experiences; the most important points are emphasized and the contents of each unit is summarized at the end; - teachers' guides which give detailed instructions for the teacher following the study guides; experiments are described in detail and a list of necessary materials is provided; important points, additional information for teacher, materials which should be prepared in advance and points where pupils should take written tests are clearly marked; - science kits, providing all the science apparatus needed for carrying out the experiments and practical work, described in study guides; teacher's kits allowing the teacher to carry out a limited number of more hazardous demonstrations, and apparatus too expensive for student use, were supplied. The initial task of the development team was to produce a course preparing students for the Zimbabwe Junior Certificate (ZJC) Examination, taken after first two years of secondary school (other examinations are the British 0-level after four and A-level after six years). The decision to adopt ZIM-SCI program was made in October 1980. By June 1981, first units and basic kits went out to the schools and were supplemented by additional written materials and equipment as the course evolved. By 1983, 18 complete units for Zimbabwe Junior Certificate were developed, comprising a study guide and teachers' guide for each unit, and kits for Form I (first year of secondary school) and Form II (second year of secondary school, ending with the ZJC examnination). Each kit was designed to accommodate a class of 40 students. To replace the consumable materials, resupply kits for both Form I and Form II were developed. Since it was decided in 1982 to extend ZIM-SCI to 0-level, two additional 0-level units were developed in 1983 (other units were developed later), together with an 'add-on' kit, later referred to as Form III kit. 0-level syllabus used at that time was the Associated Examining Board Science 5005, which fitted well with ZIM-SCI methodology. In 1987 it was replaced by two new syllabuses, developed jointly by the Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and the Ministry of Pryiary and Secondary Education of Zimbabwe. The syllabuses were designed to match the 0-level ZIM-SCI course and have been designated 5006 and 5007. Syllabus 5006 was designed as a compulsory core syllabus for all the students at the 0-level, and 5007 as an extended syllabus, optional for schools to offer, particularly to students who wish to continue their studies. To suit the new courses, a new 0-level kit was designed in 1987. 23 Printed materials were distributed directly from the printer to the Regional Education Officer for further distribution according to the yearly schedule. Surplus materials were stored in the ZIM-SCI Distribution Centre, established in 1982 in Cranborn, Harare, in an old warehouse. After an attempt in 1982 to commercialize assembly and distribution of equipment kits, the kits have been assembled and distributed from the ZIM-SCI Distribution Centre. Service centers for further distribution of the kits, small in-service courses, and apparatus repair were established in the regions. Three day in-service teacher training courses were organized each year and repeated in all regions. Since there was a rapid turnover of the ZIM-SCI teaching staff, the majority of the participants in the 1982 and 1983 courses had taught science for less than three years. To maintain a regular conmunuication with them, the ZIM-SCI team made weekly radio broadcasts during term timne, the Teachers Magazine Programmne. Other form of communication was a ZIM-SCI page in the Teachers Forum periodical. Examination results in 1982 for Zimbabwe Junior Certificate in Science showed that students taldng ZIM-SCI courses performed well on the average (more than 70% passed), but there was considerable difference in the success rate between schools. It was also reported that students taking ZIM-SCI 0-level course perform satisfactorily on A-level. However, students from 'conventional' schools (approximately 100 former 'white' and 'Asian' schools, relatively well equipped with laboratories and standard equipment) performed better at the examinations. The examinations mostly followed the conventional approach. The original intention to have practical part of the examinations was abandoned in 1988. In 1984 the project became a part of Curriculum Development Unit, formed at the Ministry of Education in 1981. The ZIM-SCI team was found to be understaffed in 1988, probably one reason for some problems the project encountered. Officers responsible for implementation of the project were overloaded with administrative and bureaucratic duties and had little time for curriculum development. Because of a rapid growth of the number of schools and a large turnover, many teachers were underqualified, which resulted in underutilization and less effective use of the kits. Serious problems arose in resupply of schools, particularly of consumables and in distribution. Teacher training colleges put little emphasis on teaching their students in ZIM-SCI methods. Lack of support from the administration might have been caused by the (reported) pressure from old-established schools, defending traditional teaching of science. Robson reported in 1989 that other equipment was imported, causing problems and delays in distribution to schools, and was little used by teachers. Nevertheless, the ZIM-SCI project allowed a great number of students in a rapidly expanding educational system to attend a relevant science course. Furthermore, the course is designed to give the students hands-on experience. However, this requires that the teachers are qualified to use the materials provided with the course effectively. It was an essentially 24 Zimbabwean project, although the European Community assisted financially in the beginning and the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) provided essential support for a long period. Curriculum and materials were developed in Zimbabwe using mostly local materials and encouraging local enterprises to produce parts of the equipment, tendered regularly by the Ministry. The whole approach had an important influence on other (mostly African) countries, such as Malawi, Uganda, Zambia and most notably Botswana. It has also been assessed by a World Bank team in 1990 (World Bank, 1990a), that "when well and regularly used, ZIM-SCI materials work excellently". DESCRIPTION OF THIE ZIM-SCI KITS Zimbabwe did not establish a national production facility, as in many other African countries (for example Ethiopia, Kenya and Uganda). Instead, local purchase of equipment was made whenever possible. This requires that appropriate equipment of acceptable quality at a price comparable with sources outside the country is available. The Ministry is the main purchaser of the equipment and materials for courses up to 0-level, and distributes them in kits. Schools get initial kits free of charge while resupplies and additional equipment are debited to the school's 'per capita grant' at cost (or less for expensive equipment). The Ministry publishes a tender and accepts the best offers. The items purchased can be grouped in three categories: - locally manufactured: all the labor is local, as well as the most of the materials; some components might be imported; - local imports: the items are almost totally imported, but are sourced and imported by a local company; - direct imports: the items are imported directly and are paid in foreign currency. Examples of distribution of tenders by suppliers are presented in Table 1. Table 1: Distribution of tenders for ZIM-SCI kits by suppliers Kits local manufacture local imports direct import Formn Ikits for 1983 43 % 10% 47% Forms L, and m idts for 1984 45% 46% 9 % Forms I and I kits for 1985 47% 40% 13 % New 0-level Idt for 1986 24 % 19 % 57 % Tender for new 0-level kit for 1986 was withdrawn by the Ministry since it was believed that local importers were placing excessive mark-ups on imported items. Earlier tenders showed that at least 10 local companies were involved in the production of science equipment. Comparison of local with foreign prices showed that local products often were 25 competitive, except for example glassware. Examples are given in a report to SIDA (A. Dock, 1989). The total cost of different kits, each accommodating a class of 40 students, is shown in Table 2. The figures are taken from the 1983 tender for equipment. Prices are in US$, calculated by the exchange rate in 1983: 1 US$ = 1.011 Z$. Table 2: Costs of ZIM-SCI equipment kits in 1983 Kit Cost (US$) Form I 1,119 Form II 1,176 Form III 459 Form I resupply kit 66 Form II resupply kit 59 Contents of the kits are shown in Tables 3 to 7. Table 3: Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form I kit Item Quantity Item Quantity 1 round balloons 1 x20 27 meter rules 2 2 compression balances 5 28 microscope 1 3 Basic Kits 20 29 microscope coverslips 1 box 4 plastic baths 3 30 microscope slides 1 box 5 sugar beans 2X500g 31 Mohr clips 2 6 bicycle pump 1 32 steel wool 1 package 7 bimetallic strip 1 33 retort stands 2 8 Biomounts lx 100 34 suction cups 2 9 'Cells of Plants and AnimalsN 20 Biostrips 35 syringes, 2 ml 20 10 "Life in a Pond" 20 Biostzips 36 syringes, 10 ml 20 11 "Minerals & Crystals Systems" 20 Biostrips 37 thermometers 10-110°C 20 12 'Reproduction" 20 Biostrips 38 retort triangle 1 13 Bioviewers 20 39 copper wire 1 m 14 Mazoe bottles 4 40 toothbrushes 20 15 large plastic bottles 2 41 forceps 20 16 animal cage 1 42 acetic acid 0.5 1 17 solar cell 1 43 aluminum foil 1 roll 18 rechargeable battery 1 44 ammonia solution 100 ml 19 retort clamps 2 45 ammonia dichromate 100 g 20 mutton cloth 1 roll 46 ammonium nitrate 100 9 21 glass tube 1 '47 calcium chloride 500 g 22 cotton thread 1 reel 48 candles 1x6 23 glass droppers 20 49 copper turnings 20 g 24 dynamo 1 50 copper sulfate 200 g 25 electric motor 2.4 V 1 51 filter paper 2x100 26 jam jars 4 52 gelatin powder 500 g 26 Table 3 (continued) Item Quantity Item Quantity 53 glucose 500 g 70 scissors 4 54 glycerol 100 ml 71 First Aid Packet 1 55 iodine crystals 10 g 72 potassium aluminum sulfate 200 g 56 iodine solution 100 ml 73 potassium nitrate 10 g 57 iron fillings 200 g 74 potassium permanganate 50 g 58 lead foil 100 g 75 sodium carbonate 500 g 59 lead nitrate 20 g 76 sodium chloride 1 kg 60 magnesium ribbon 25 g 77 sodium hydroxide 100 g 61 Mealie meal lxloo g 78 sodium thiosulfate 100 g 62 methylated spirit 2x5 1 79 starch _50 g 63 methylene blue 5 g 80 sugar 100 g 64 naphthalene crystals 200 g 81 toothpaste 1 tube 65 plastic bags 1 x20 82 live worms 1 jar 66 plastic straws 1x100 83 wick for burners 1 m 67 paper clips 3 boxes 84 blue soap I bar 68 elastic bands 1 box 85 gun tree seeds 69 pins 1 box 86 lockable steel cupboard 1 Table 4: Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form II kit Item Quantity _ Expendable items Quantity 1 large boiling tins 20 1 torch cells 1.5 V 1D' 120 2 "Earth's History told in Rocks" 20 Biosuips 2 cotton wool 50 g 3 'Photosynthesis" 20 Biostrips 3 yeast (live) 50 g 4 "Feeding and Decomposition' 20 Biostri 4 aluminum foil 1 roll 5 'Nervous System and Sense 20 Bioxtrip 5 umversal indicator paper 2 boxes Organ" _ booklets 6 "Transport in plants and 20 Biostrips 6 neutral bicarbonate indicator 100 ml anirals solution 7 "Rocks and Minerals of 20 Biosrips 7 Clinisticks 2 boxes Zimbabwev" 8 carbon rods 50 mm x 4 mm 40 8 Albusticks 1 box 9 blowpipes 20 9 calcium turnings 25 g 10 Light Source Kits 20 kits 10 copper (II) oxide 100 g 11 Electric Motor Kits 20 kits 11 copper (II) carbonate 100 g 12 battery tubes 20 12 iron (al) oxide 100 g 13 circuit boards and accessories 20 13 fuse wire 4 cards 14 amperemeterhvoltmeter units 20 14 3 core flex 5 m 15 PVC tubing 3 mm ID S m 15 lubricating oil 100 ml 16 PVC tubing 5 mm ID S m 16 long balloons 20 17 PVC tubing 10 mm ID 5 m 17 geranium plant 1 18 Metal and Plastic Material Kits 20 kits 18 ball bearings 5 mm 5 19 force meters 20 19 spice and vinegar chips 1 Pack 20 plastic masses (20 in pack) 20 packs 20 norolon tablets 5 21 Pulley System Kits 20 kits 21 plugs 13 amp 20 22 copper wire 20 swg 1 m 27 Table 5: Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form m kit Item Quantity Expendable items Quantity 1 additional springs for force 20 1 peanut butter 500 g meters l 2 measuring tape 20 2 ammonium nitrate fertilizer 1 kg 3 dynamic carts 20 3 single superphosphate fertilizer 1 kg 4 plastic cups 20 4 potassium chloride fertilizer 1 kg 5 perspex blocks 20 5 rennet tablets 6 6 perspex prisms 40 6 vaseline jelly I jar 7 plastic trays 20 7 grease-proof paper 1 roll 8 magnet bars 20 pairs 8 crushed coal 250 g 9 magnetic compass 20 9 plastic plant pockets (200 x 100 50 __ _ _ _ _ _ _ MM) 10 resistance coils 2 Ohm 20 10 plastic plant pockets (300 x 130 50 ___ mm) 11 resistance coils 5 Ohm 20 11 ammonia solution (5M) 100 ml 12 connector leads 20 12 sulfuric acid (5 M) 200 ml 13 copper wire 30 swg 50 g rol 13 hydrochloric acid (conc.) 100 ml 14 nails - wire 50 mm 2 packs 14 lead bromide 50 g 15 nails - steel 50 mm 1 pack 15 potassium permanganate 20 g 16 rope 4 m 16 sodium hydroxide 100 g 17 polystyrene spheres 20 sets 17 iron fillings 100 g 18 rechargeable cell 1 18 copper (m1) sulfate 100 g 19 plastic bottles 40 19 zinc (granulated) 100 g 20 Biosets Mitosis' 20 20 zinc oxide 20 g 21 Biosets 'General Biosets for 20 21 universal indicator paper 1 box ZIM-SCI" booklets 22 Biosets 'Live Cycle of a Mold" 20 22 litmus paper (red and blue) 1 box 23 Biosets "Malaria" 20 23 seed (Rapoko or Sorghum) 50 g 24 Biosets "Parasites of Man" 20 24 'stikistuf _ 1 pack 25 Biosets "Excretion" 20 26 Biosets "Bacteria" 20 27 Biosets "Meiosis' 20 _ 28 razor blades 20 29 Alloys Kits 20 kits 30 plastic sheeting 3 rn2 31 cassette machine 1 28 Table 6: Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form I resupply kit Item Item Quantity e 1 alum 250 g 18 Jiffy Juice Crystals (Orange) 2 packs 2 aluminum foil 1 roll 19 lead nitrate 20 g 3 ammonium dichromate 150 g 20 magnesium ribbon 25 g 4 ammonia solution 100 ml 21 matches (24 boxes in a pack) 2 packs 5 ammonium nitrate 100 g 22 Mealie Meal 100 g 6 round balloons 1 x20 23 methylated spirit 3 x5 1 7 blue soap 1 bar 24 methylene blue 5 g 8 burner wick 2x1 m 25 naphthalene caystals 200 g 9 candles 1x6 26 plastic bags lX100 10 copper (II) sulfate 250 g 27 potassium permanganate 100 g 11 fllter paper, D=15 cm, 1 GP lxl00 28 sodium chloride 1 kg 12 gas cylinders (disposable) 3 29 sodium hydroxide pellets 100 g 13 glucose 200 g 30 sodium thiosulfate 100 g 14 gum tree seeds 2xl g 31 sugar 100 g 15 iodine crystals 20g 32 sugarbeans 2x500g 16 iodine solution 200 ml 33 sulfur (powder) 100 g 17 iron fillings 250 g 34 toothpaste 1 tube Table 7: Contents of the ZIM-SCI Form II resupply kit Item Quantity Item Quantity 1 3 coreflex 5 m 10 copper wire, bare, 20 swg 2 m 2 Albusticks 2x100 11 coton wool 1x2O g 3 aluminum foil 1 roll 12 fuse wire card 5-10-15 A 2 cards 4 balloons 1 x20 13 geranium plant 1 5 neutral bicarbonate indicator 100 ml 14 universal indicator paper 3X0 solution _ booklets _ 6 Clinisticks 3xl00 15 iron (M) oxide 100 g 7 copper (II) carbonate - 100 g 16 lubricating oil 100 ml 8 copper (I) oxide 100 g 17 yeast (live) 50 g 9 copper (II) sulfide 50 g I 0-level science kit is designed to accommodate a class of 40 students and includes 98 non- consumable items, as well as 86 different consumables (mostly chemicals). Resupply kit includes 21 consumables, again mostly chemicals. 29 SOURCES Bajah, S.T., Lewin, K., 1991: Teaching and learning in enviromnental and agricultural science: meeting basic needs in Zimbabwe. An evaluation, German Foundation for International Development, Bonn, Germany, pp. 56-58, p. 69. Chivore, B.R.S., 1988: Curriculum Evaluation in Zimbabwe, An appraisal of case studies. Books for Africa Publishing House, Harare, Zimbabwe, 140 p. Chung. F., 1987: Education expansion, cost considerations and curriculum development in Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe Institute of Development Studies, 15 p. Dock, A.W., 1993: personal communication. Dock, A.W., 1989: Report on the ZIM-SCI programme and the supply of science equipment and materials to Zimbabwean secondary schools. Report for Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA), 39 p. and appendixes. Hungwe, KY, 1986: Innovation in Zimbabwean science education: the ZIM-SCI project. Proceedings, Conference on Education in the New Zimbabwe, Michigan State University, USA, pp. 106-115. Maravanyika, O.E., 1990: Implementing Educational Policies in Zimbabwe. World Bank Discussion Paper, Africa Technical Department Series, World Bank, Washington, D.C., 32 p. Martinez, EL, 1993: personal communication. Ministry of Primary and Secondazy Education, Ministry of Higher Education, Harare, Zimbabwe, 1988: Development of education 1986-1988, National report of Zimbabwe. 41s International Conference on Education, Geneva, Switzerland, 22 p. Robson, Mi, 1989: Case Study 2: Zimbabwe, Introducing Technology through Science Education. In: Education for Capability: the Role of Science and Technology Education, Vol. 2, World Bank/British Council, pp. 68-90. Sibanda, LK, 1990: The assessment of science practical work in Zimbabwe. In: Layton, D. (Ed.): Innovations in Science and Technology Education, Vol. m, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 153-165. UNESCO, 1989: Report on the ZIM-SCI experience and science education in Uganda. Uganda National Commission for UNESCO, Report, October 1989, 30 p. Contact for further information: Alan Dock telephone: (202) 473 56 88 The World Bank fax: (202) 473 82 39 AF6PH 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C., 20433 USA 30 CASE STUDY 2: TBE MINILAB IN SRI LANKA The Minilab is an approach to design facilities and equipment for science education without excessive costs. The Minilab Unit is a self-contained unit, independent of electricity and water supplies. That makes it particularly suitable for rural secondary schools, e.g. in Sri Lanka, which usually do not have these supplies. Together with the Minilab Kit it includes all equipment, materials and facilities required for teaching the Sri Lankan science syllabus from year 7 to 11. It is designed to perform as a conventional laboratory, but at a much lower cost. The first designs were made in 1985 by a Sri Lankan physics graduate. They followed the principles that a Minilab should: - cost much less than a conventional laboratory, but perform comparably, satisfying the requirements of the official science syllabus for the General Certificate of Education (the British 0-level), - be sufficiently small and mobile to fit into the existing classrooms, - be independent from main supplies, - be easy to produce in Sri Lanka with mainly domestic materials and equipment, and - be easy to maintain by teachers (with the help of students). The company Vidya Silpa in Wellampitiya started to manufacture Minilabs in 1988, when the Government of Sri Lanka recommended them for 0-level science education. In 1989 it attracted the attention of the President of Sri Lanka and was presented to the Parliament. Following the presentation, rural schools started receiving Minilabs on a large scale. By August 1992, 1,200 secondary schools (out of 6,000) had the Minilab; in March 1993 the number is reported to be around 1,500. The Government of Sri Lanka made a policy decision in 1992 to provide Minilabs to all schools teaching at least up to the General Certificate of Education (0-level). In 1989, the Minilab project was presented in Caracas, Venezuela, to The Third World Academy of Sciences, where many ministers of education from developing countries were present. Some of them expressed interest in the project for their own countries, and Sri Lanka decided to start training people from other countries in Minilabs. The designs will be used by other countries, but they will have to pay royalties. The training program is expected to get support from The Third World Foundalion. The Foundation is also going to launch a project for world-wide promotion of the Minilab. Other aid donor agencies (for example Technology Trust International, USA) are also offering support. The present production capacity of Vidya Silpa is over 1,000 Minilabs per year. The advertised price (November 1991) is about Rs 100,000 (-$2,000); in comparison, a 31 conventional school science laboratory in Sri Lanka was estimated to cost about Rs 1,000,000 (-$20,000). Although Minilab is centrally produced, many pieces of equipment are imported, mostly from the region, for example from China. Chemicals are not provided with the unit. Their supply is responsibility of local educational authorities. To enable teachers to use the Minilab, they are given training by young scientists (university graduates). The training includes directions for maintaining the unit. DESCRIPTION OF THE MINILAB Minilab Unit is manufactured in two parts, which may be transported by a van, and which are assembled in the school. Complete installation takes a few hours and is completed by Vidya Silpa staff. It is designed to fit into existing classrooms in rural schools, which are usually 6 meters long and 3 meters wide. The dimensions of the lower part are: length: 1880 mm, depth: 610 mm, height: 770 mm. It consists of eight drawers and two cupboards for storage of equipment. The top contains a fiberglass sink (610 mm square) serving also as drain board, and a swan neck tap. It is connected to a 25 liter water tank which is fitted at the back of the upper part, immediately above the sink. Waste water from the sink is collected in a plastic tank in the cupboard below the sink. The rest of the top is covered in laminated plastic and serves as a work area (1270 mm x 610 mm). The dimensions of the upper part are: length: 1880 mrn, depth: 120 mm, height: 610 mm. It is designed as a storage cupboard, divided laterally into two separate sections. The right hand section contains shelves for reagent bottles, a removable rack with test tubes and other frequently used glassware for chemical experiments. The periodic table of elements is fixed to the inner side of the cupboard door. The left hand section contains equipment for teaching physics: instruments for measuring mass, length, time, temperature, and electric units. 32 The Minilab provides three sources of heat: (1) gas outlet for two Bunsen bumers is fitted on the top of the sink; a low-pressure gas cylinder is supplied with the unit; (2) two glass spirit burners, standard design, for mild heating; (3) a wine spirit bumer, especially designed to produce a flame, reaching a temperature of over 1,700°C. It is similar in operation to a petrol vapor burner, used in rural areas. A pre-heater allows vaporizing of some fuel, creating only low pressure of vapors which issue through a jet in the burner tube. A low-voltage electricity is provided by a solar photovoltaic panel with the following characteristics: maximum power (typical +10%) 4.5 W voltage at max. power (typical) 8.1 V current at max. power (typical) 550 mA open circuit voltage (typical) 12.6 V open circuit current (typical) 690 mA dimensions length 347 mm depth 13 mm height 333 mm weight 1.4 kg The solar panel charges a rechargeable Nickel-Cadmium battery (5V, 5 Ah) of the wet type, made up of two parts, each consisting of two cells. The nominal voltage of a single cell is 1.25 V. The lifetime of the battery is estimated to be over 10 years. For the first five years only occasional addition of water is required. It may then be necessary to add some electrolyte (sodium hydroxide with 5% lithium hydroxide). The Minilab Unit, if used for student work, can accommodate only a group of five students. The Minilab Kit is designed as an extension, providing additional work space to accommodate up to 20 students. It consists of a table with a working surface 2440 mm x 610 mm, 10 stools and a steel cupboard (1800 nun x 450 mm x 900 nun). The cupboard can be locked and is designed for storage of larger apparatus, additional equipment for students' activities, some glassware and chemicals. All compartments of the Minilab Unit can be locked with a single key. The equipment contained in the Minilab is listed in Tables 8 to 10. 33 Table 8: Contents of the Minilab - permanent items Item Quantity 1 amperemeter, 0-5 A/ 0.1 A, analog, 2.5% accuracy, 4 mm socket terminals 1 2 air pump, bicycle, with rubber connecting hose 1 3 atomic model set (box, 24 large and 84 small spheres, 72 plastic bonds) 1 set 4 barometer, aneroid (4-piece set), range depends on school altitude (3 ranges) 1 set 5 balance, spring, 10 N/1000 g 3 6 balance, spring, 5 N/500 g 3 7 balance, single beam, 410 g/0.1 g 1 8 bell, electric, AC or DC, 2-6 V 1 9 blow pipe 6 10 bimetallic strip, aluminum/brass with wooden handle 3 11 bucket & cylinder (2-piece set), for demonstration of Archimedes principle 1 set 12 burner, Bunsen, for use with low-pressure gas 3 13 calorimeter, copper (4-piece set) 2 sets 14 calorimeter, aluminum (4-piece set) 2 sets 15 circuit board kit (board, 10 connecting strips, 3 battery and 3 bulb holders) 1 kit 16 knife switch 1 17 rheostat - variable resistor, 10 Ohm/2 A 1 18 electronics kit (62-piece set, 27 different items) Ikit 19 compass, pocket, magnetic 3 20 cork borer set (rod, 6 borers) 1 21 cork borer sharpener 1 22 cell, lead-acid, demonstration model (acid not supplied) 1 23 stop clock (minse) 2 24 cutter, glass, diamond tipped 1 25 dissecting set: scissors, straight, pointed 1 26 dissecting set: scissors, blunt end 1 27 dissecting set: scalpel 2 28 dissecting set: forceps, pointed ends 1 29 dissecting set: forceps, blunt end 1 30 dissecting set: needle with wooden handle 2 31 dynamo-motor model with flashlight bulb, 1-3 V, max. 500 mA 1 32 friction board-inclined plane apparatus (4-piece set) I set 33 G-clamp set (25 mn, 50 mm, 75 mm) 1 set 34 galvanometer, center zero, rang 1 to -1 mA 1 0.1 mA 1 35 Hare's apparatus for comparing density of liquids 1 36 holder, lens/mirror (2-piece set) 4 37 holder, test tube 6 38 knife, grafting/pruning 2 39 mirror, cylindrical, stainless steel 2 40 magnet, bar, Co-steel with steel strips for keepers 2 41 magnet, ceramic, barium/ferrite 4 42 magnet, horse shoe with steel strips for keepers 2 43 nucrometer screw gauge with ratchet and locknut, 0-25 mm/0.01 mm 1 44 nucroscope, 645x, 3 objectives, 2 eyepieces, in lockable wooden cabinet _ 1 45 multimeter, for current, voltage (AC and DC) and resistance 1 34 Table 8 (continued) Item Quantity 46 periodic chart, 720 mm x 530 mm, pasted to Minilab upper door 1 47 pulley, single, plastic, 50 mm diameter 4 48 pulley, double, plastic, 50 mm diameter 2 49 pulley, system of 3-in-line, aluminum 2 50 rule, wooden, 50 cm 6 51 rule, wooden, I m 6 52 rod, ebonite, 300 mm x 13 mm diameter 1 53 strip, acrylic, 300 mm long 1 54 strip, polyethylene, 300 mm long 1 55 slinky spring, for wave motion demonstration 1 56 sieves, set of 4 (mesh 10, 30, 60, 100/inch) 1 set 57 stand, tripod 3 58 stand, metal (set with rod, bosshead, clamp) 3 sets 59 soldering iron, 240V/25 W 1 60 slotted masses, set of 9 x 10 g and hanger 10 g 2 sets 61 spherometer, range 7 to -7 x 0.01 mm 1 62 stroboscope, hand operated, 12 slots 1 63 stand, test tube, wooden, 10 holes (20 mm diameter) 4 64 tape measure, stainless steel, 1 mm x 1.5 mm 1 65 tester, neon/screwdriver, for voltage range 100 - 500 V 1 66 tuning forks, set of 8, 256 to 512 Hz (Cl to C2) 1 set 67 lamp holder for flashlight bulbs 6 68 tongs, steel, for crucible 3 69 ticker-timer, for producing timning marks 1 70 trolleys, dynamic, matched masses 2 71 tool kit (10-piece: screwdrivers, saw, pliers, hammer, slip, chisel, file, drill) 1 set 72 tray, dissecting, aluminum, with wax 2 73 voltmeter, 0-5 VI with 4 mm socket terminals 1 74 Vernier calipers, 0-125 mm x 0.1 mm 1 75 piezoelectric apparatus (7-piece set) I set 76 cell, Daniell, with 4 mm socket terminals 1 77 hygrometer, wet and dry bulb with RH tables 1 78 cell, dry, Ni/Cd, D size, 1.25 V, 3.5 Ah, rechargeable with the solar panel 2 79 dynamo, bicycle, cut-away, but working 1 80 gas compression cylinder, in thick perspex 1 81 planetary model, Sun-Earth-Moon system, driven manually 1 82 water turbine/generator model I set 35 Table 9: Contents of the Minilab - perishables I Item Quantity 1 barometer tube, diameter 10-15 mm, bore 3-4 mm, length 900 mm 2 2 brushes for test tubes, length 300 mm, head 50 mm 2 3 blades, hack saw, high speed, length 300 mm 2 4 sharpening stone, carborundum, 150 x 50 x 25 mm 1 5 cork, bark, long form, for bottleneck diameter 10, 12, 16, 19, 33 - 20 each 100 6 cork, rubber, long form, for bottleneck diameter 10, 12, 16, 19, 33 - 10 each 50 7 cover slips, circular/square, diameter/side 20 mm, pack of 50 1 pack 8 clips, Mohr, Ni plated brass, length/spread 70/25 mm 6 9 clay triangle, length of side/clay 110/65 nun 6 10 filter paper, 110 mm diameter, No. 2, pack of 100 4 packs 11 glass tube, O.D. 7 mm, wall 1.5 mm, length 1 m 10 12 glass rod, O.D. 6 m, length 1 m 5 13 litmus Paper in book form - red 10 books 14 litmus paper in book form - blue 10 books 15 pins, optical, Ni plated brass, heavy gauge 20 16 paraffin wax, white in slab form of 1 kg 1 17 pH indicator paper in book form, universal 10 books 18 porcelain tile, white, 150 x 150 mm 3 19 slides, glass, microscope work, pack of 50 1 pack 20 spatula, stainless steel blade 40 m long, plastic handle 2 21 torch light, brass, plated, three cells _ 1 22 tubing, rubber, I.D. 6 mm, wall 2 mm, length 5 m 1 23 tubing, nylon, LD. wall 2 mm, length 3m . 1 24 tubing, capillary, glass, O.D. 7 mm, bore 1 mm, length 1 m 5 25 tube, boiling, BS glass with rim, 150 x 25 inm 50 26 test tubes, BS glass with rim, 150 x 16 mm 100 27 wire gauze with asbestos center, 150 x 150 mm 3 28 watch glass in soda lass, 50mm diameter 12 29 wire, copper, enameled, 32 SWG in reel 200 g 1 30 wire, copper, enameled, 26 SWG in reel 200 g 1 31 wire, copper, enameled, 22 SWG in reel 200_g 1 32 wire, constantan, bare, 26 SWG in reel 100 g 1 33 wire, manganin, bare, 26 SWG in reel 100 g 1 34 wire, nichrome, bare, 26 SWG in reel 100 g 1 35 wire, copper, insulated multistrand, spool 25 m 1 36 Table 10: Contents of the Minilab - glassware Item Quantity 1 beaker, 100 il, BS glass, with spout, tall form 3 2 beaker, 250 ml, BS glass, with spout, squat form 3 3 beaker, 500 ml, BS glass, with spout, squat form 2 4 basin, plastic, 30 cm diameter x 15 cm height 2 5 bottle, plastic, 250 ml, wide mouth, cap 6 6 bottle, plastic, 125 nl, wide mouth, screw cap 6 7 bottle, reagent, clear glass, 125 ml, narrow neck 8 8 bottle, reagent, amber, 125 ml, narrow neck 4 9 bottle, specific gravity, capacity 25 ml 2 10 burette, 25 ml, BS glass, glass cock 1 11 block, glass, rectangular, 115 x 60 x 20 mm 2 12 cylinder, measuring, 100 ml, spouted 1 13 cylinder, measuring, 250 ml, spouted 1 14 cylinder, measuring, 500 ml, spouted 1 15 crucible, porcelain, with lid, M type, 30 ml 2 16 dish, evaporating, porcelain, with spout, 60 mm diameter 2 17 bottle, 30 ml, dropping, TK pattern, clear 12 18 flask, 250 ml, conical, BS glass 2 19 flask, 250 ml, flat bottom, BS glass, narrow neck 2 20 flask, 250 ml, round bottom, narrow neck 2 21 funnel, glass, medium neck, 75 mm diameter 2 22 funnel, polyethylene, medium neck, 100 mm diameter 2 23 hydrometer, universal, glass, range 0.7-2.0 x 0.01 1 24 lens, double, concave, 50 mm diameter, focus 100 mm 3 25 lens, double, concave, 50 mm diameter, focus 150 mm 3 26 lens, double, convex, 50 mm diameter, focus 100 mm 3 27 lens, double, convex 50 mm diameter, focus 150 mm 3 28 lens, double, convex, 50 mm diameter, focus 500 mm 2 29 lens, hand, 75 m diameter, magnification lOx 3 30 mirror, plane strips, 150 mmx 50 nun 6 31 mirror, concave, 50 mm diameter, focus 100 mm 3 32 mirror, concave, 50 mm diameter, focus 100 mm and 150 mm 3 33 mirror, convex, 50 mm diameter, focus 100 mm and 150 mm 3 34 mirror, convex, 50 mm diameter, focus 150 mm 3 35 mortar and pestle, porcelain, 90 mm diameter 1 36 Petri dish, BS glass, 90 mm diameter, height 15 mm, and cover 3 37 pipette, 25 ml, bulb type, straight 2 38 prism, equilateral side 50 mm, polished glass 2 39 spot plate, 12 depressions of 20 mm 1 40 spirit lamp, with porcelain holder, 125 il 3 41 thermometer, mercury, -10 to 110 0 C 4 42 thermometer, clinical, Celsius scale 2 43 tube, T, O.D. 7-8 mm glass, 75/50 mm limbs 3 44 tube, U, each arm 130 mm, bore 15 mm 2 45 tube, Y, O.D. 7-8 mm, each limb 50 mm 2 37 Table 10 (continued) Item Quantity 46 dessicator, Novous pattern, 200 mm diameter 1 47 clock glass, BS glass, 100 mm diameter 4 48 syringe, clear glass, 10 n-l, with 2 needles 2 49 beaker, 1000 ml, BS glass 1 50 cylinder, measuring, 10 ml x 0.2 ml 1 51 jar, glass, cylindrical, 200 mm x 50 mm 2 52 flask, volumetric, 250 ml, with stopper 2 53 funnel, thistle with 200 mm stem 2 54 block, clear perspex, 115 x 65 x 25 rm 1 55 electroscope, gold leaf, potential detector 1 SOURCES Department of Examinations, 1992: G.C.E. (Ordinary Level) Syllabus - Science. Certified copy of the syllabus by the Department of Exaninations, Colombo, Sri Lanka, 4 p. Ponnanperuna, C., 1993: personal communication. Vidya Silpa, 1991: Minilab by Vidya Silpa, A Complete Science Laboratory Developed Specally for RUal Schools. Catalogue, November 1991, 36 pages in different numbering Contact for further information: Professor Cyril Ponnamperuma telephone: (301)4051898 President, The Third World Foundation fax: (301) 405 93 75 P.O. Box 82 University of Maryland College Park, MD 20742 USA 38 CASE STUDY 3: SCIENCE CENTERS IN COLOMBIA Already in 1979 it was recognized that the teaching of physics in Colombian public secondary schools was inadequate. Among the reasons were the too theoretical approach and the lack of practical (experimental) work due to lack of appropriate equipment and insufficient teacher training. A similar situation was found in other natural sciences, which among other things affected the performance of first years' students at the universities. One of the institutions that addressed the problem was the Faculty of Sciences of the Universidad del Valle with its Multitaller de Materiales Didicticos (Workshop for Didactic Materials is not a satisfactory translation; in the following referred to as Multitaller'). The strategies used were: - improvement of pre-service and in-service teacher training, - development, design and production of low-cost laboratory equipment and other educational materials, - organization and establishment of Integrated Science Centers. The Integrated Science Centers (Laboratorios Integrados de Ciencias - LIC) are fully equipped facilities for teaching of natural sciences and mathematics. They include laboratories where 40-50 students can work at the same time, and equipment for work in small groups (up to 4 students in a group). One Center is supposed to serve up to about 10 secondary schools in the vicinity. Students come from the schools and spend a day at a time doing practical work in the Center laboratories. This principle is feasible when there are enough schools in the area, otherwise transportation costs and time might become prohibitive. In cases where it is impossible for a school to use one of the Centers, the school itself may be equipped with basic laboratory facilities. Equipment at the Centers is to a large extent locally produced and low cost. The advantages of this approach were supposed to be: - a satisfactory educational effect without expenditure in foreign currency, - lower investment costs, - lower repair and replacement costs, - realization of practical ('hands on') work according to national curiculum, - easier comprehension of scientific principles and their importance, It is proposed to organize Integrated Science Centers at three levels: - regional, serving several provinces as an academic center for teacher training and curriculum development; it should be located at one of the universities; at the same time it should serve as a municipal Center for neighboring schools; 39 - provincial, with similar functions as the regional centers, but for one province only; - municipal, catering for schools and teachers of one municipality. The equipment in the Centers is modular. Each module is a self-sufficient unit for teaching one specific topic (or group of topics). The Integrated Science Centers are financed from a combination of funds, from national to municipal. Costs of operation of a municipal Center in 1992 were around 755 Colombian pesos (about one US dollar) per student per hour, assuming that there are 40 students in a laboratory. The costs are usually covered by the schools; in case of private schools by the parents. About 15 Centers are reported to operate in 1993. To increase utilization of the Centers and to provide additional motivation for the students, an Integrated Science Center can be upgraded to an Integrated Educational Resource Center (Centro Integral de Recursos Educativos - CIRE). To achieve that, additional modules for social sciences and humanities are added (including arts, music, dance, sports, etc.). DESCRIPTION OF THIE SCIENCE CENTER During the last three years, Multitaller has developed two types of Integrated Science Centers (Type 1 and Type 2), differing mainly in number of laboratory classrooms and basic modules. The type depends on the number of students expected to have classes in the Center. Of the two prototype laboratories, one is for physics and mathematics, the other for chemistry and biology. Both are of the same size, 12 m long and 7 m wide. Requirements and capacities of both types are given in Table 11. Multitaller has considerable experience in development of equipment for science education. Its designs have been published since 1981 by the UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Latin America and the Caribbean (OREALC). Some examples are: - an acoustic resonance apparatus; estimated cost (1985): $8; - a DC power supply, 1.5-10 V, 1.5 A; estimated cost (1985): $15; - an electronic voltmeter - DC; estimated cost (1985): $5. The equipment in the Centers can be divided into: - basic equipment, of which about 90 % is produced by Multitaller; of the rest, 70 % is acquired on the Colombian market and 3Q\% is imported; - additional equipment, consisting mostly of precision laboratory apparatus and electronic equipment; 96 % of it is bought on the market, possibly sometimes at too high prices. 40 Typ.s and cost of basic and additional equipment in a Type 1 Center are presented in Tables 12 and 13. All costs are calculated from Colombian pesos (Col$) at an exchange rate 1 US$ - 740 Col$, valid in early 1993. Table 11: Main characteristics of the Integrated Science Center (ISC) Main parameters ISC Type 1 ISC Type 2 Maximum Minimu Maximum Minimum Number of basic modules 10 8 Number of laboratories 6 4 6 3 Minimal laboratory area (square meters) 420 280 240 210 Maximal laboratory area (square meters) 528 352 528 264 Maximal total area of ISC (square meters) 648 400 648 330 Students per laboratory 50 40 48 32 Laboratory hours per day 5 4 5 4 Laboratory hours per week 25 20 25 20 Student-hours per week and laboratory 1250 800 1200 640 Total student-hours per week 7500 3200 7200 1920 Total student-hours per month 15000 6400 14400 3840 . Table 12: Costs of basic equipment for Integrated Science Center Module Quantity Cost per unit (US$) Total cost (US$) 1 Basic chemistry 10 671 6,710 2 Basic natural sciences 10 575 5,750 3 Organic chemistry 3 338 1,014 4 Inorganic chemistry 3 338 1,014 5 Biology 3 253 759 6 Measurements and graphs 10 118 1,180 7 Introduction to mechanics 10 223 2,230 8 Liquids 10 56 560 9 Waves 10 208 2,080 10 Electromagnetism 10 402 4,020 11 Optics 10 182 1,820 12 Introduction to electronics 10 202 2,020 Total cost 29,157 41 Table 13: Costs of additional equipment for Integrated Science Center Item Quantity Cost per item (US$) Total cost (US$) 1 Balance, 411 g/0.01 g 4 253 1,012 2 Balance, 3210 g/0.1 g 4 253 1,012 3 Balance, 3-armed, 710 g/0.1 g 4 203 812 4 Digital balance 2 929 1,858 5 Portable salinometer 2 443 886 6 Portable conductometer 1 443 443 7 Portable pH meter 1 676 676 8 Oven, 1000°C, 1Ox9.5x11.5 cm 1 1,098 1,098 9 Digital multimeter (for teachers) 2 135 270 10 Mercury barometer 1 108 108 11 Distillator (for water) 1 1,196 1,196 12 Laboratory cart 4 203 812 13 Monocular microscope (x50, x150, 10 284 2,840 x300) 14 Microprojector 1 1,098 1,098 15 Kit for microscopy 2 84 168 16 Stereoscopic microscope 2 840 1,680 17 Incubator 1 1,014 1,014 18 Digital chronometer (for teacher) 1 135 135 19 Electromagnetism demonstration kit 1 270 270 20 Two-channel oscilloscope, 1 1,566 1,566' 20 MH4z, 5 mV . 21 Vacuum pump, 2 I/s 1 2,534 2,534 22 Vacuum accessories 1 473 473 23 He-Ne laser 1 541 541 24 School telescope 1 541 541 Total costs 23,043 Total costs of laboratory equipment are estimated to be about $52,500 (Col$ 38,635,000). Together with additional costs (listed in Table 14), the total cost for a complete Integrated Science Center Type 1 is about $65,000 (Col$ 48,235,000). Table 14: Costs of auxiliary equipment and installation for Integrated Science Center Equipment Cost (US$) 1 Computer equipment 2,432 2 Stabilizers/transformers 270 3 Audiovisual equipment \ 2,568 4 Audiovisual materials 608 5 Bibliographic materials 1,014 6 Tools 676 7 Installation 5,405 Total costs 12,973 42 To form an Integrated Educational Resource Center (Centro Integral de Recursos Educativos - CIRE), additional modules for social sciences and humanities are added. The modules are designed to accommodate groups of 40 students, except for the Arts module, which caters for 80 students at a time. The modules and estimated costs are given in Table 15, totaling to $67,600 (Col$ 9,600,000). Total costs of an Integrated Educational Resource Center are thus estimated to about $132,000 (Col$ 98,235,000). Table 15: Costs of the modules for social sciences Module Approximate cost (US$) 1 Geography (maps, atlases, etc.) 10,800 2 Music and dance 8,800 3 Arts painung 8,100 22,300 sculpturing 8,100 photography 6,100 4 Local history and literature 5,400 5 Sports 20,300 Total costs 67,600 SOURCES Castro, L.F., Diaz, CJ., Solarte, E., 1992: Los Laboratorios Integrados de Ciencias. Universidad del Valle, Faculdad de Ciencias, Multitaller de Matriales Didkcticos, December 1992, 34 p. Chiappe, C., 1993: personal communicaton Martinez, H, 1993: personal communication. Tobon, R., 1988: Low-cost materials for science and technology education. In: Layton, D. (Ed): innovations in Science and Technology Education, Vol. L, UNESCO, Paris, pp. 223-239. Contact for further information: Efrain Solrate R telephone: (57) (23) 39 30 41 Universdad del Valle fax: (57) (23) 39 24 40 Faculdad de Ciencias Multitaller de Materiales Didicticos Colombia 43 CASE STUDY 4: DESIGN OF SOPHISTICATED EQUIPMENT AT LOW COST IN INDLA Equipment designs, developed by an interdisciplinary group at the University of Delhi (known as the Edutronics Group), show that it is possible to produce durable, reliable and precise sophisticated equipment at a low cost. The group is led by Krishna V. Sane, Professor at the University of Delhi, and Chairman of the Committee on Teaching of Chemistry (CTC) of the Intemational Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (JUPAC). A pilot project to develop equipment for chemistry teaching at a low cost was initiated at the Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi in 1979. It was sponsored by CTC in collaboration with UNESCO and the Committee on Teaching of Science (CTS) of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU). Assistance was provided also by the Commonwealth Foundation, Committee on Science and Technology for Developing Countries (COSTED), the International Development Research Council, Danida and other international and regional agencies. The project has the following objectives: - to develop reliable, low-cost and locally producible equipment, easy to fabricate and easy to maintain, - to describe experiments compatible with the equipment that illustrate concepts and practice of modem chemistry, - to transfer the know-how to teachers through hands-on workshops, manuals and videotapes, - to set up a production unit able to supply kits and assembled equipment without any significant escalation of cost, - to encourage curriculum changes that ensure that students are better trained for a career in chemistry. The initial aim of the project has.been chemistry teaching at the higher secondary and lower tertiary levels. Some important features of the project are: - use of local materials and local know-how; exclusive use of components made-in-India stresses self-reliance and adds a challenge to the design (electronic components are widely available in India at a low cost); - involvement of a large number of students and teachers in the design and construction; - equipment is produced in integrated packages, together with accessories (electrodes, cells, etc.) and descriptions of tested experiments; 44 - the philosophy of the project is to spread the approach rather then distribute or sell the equipment; to achieve that, the group has been very active in organizing workshops in India and abroad; many of them included production of equipment; - extensive teacher training through workshops and seminars, enabling teachers to build, maintain, modify, repair and effectively utilize the equipment. The project has been presented at a large number of national and international workshops. Those that included fabrication work are presented in Table 16: Table 16: Workshops held by Edutronics Group until February 1991 Location Count ry Date 1 Madras India April 1981 2 Mysore India October 1981 3 Delhi India November 1982 4 Hyderabad India November 1982 5 Chandigarh India January 1983 6 Delhi India June 1983 7 Sao Paulo Brazil July 8 Georgetown Guyana Aug= 1983 9 Dhaka Bangladesh June 1984 10 Talwakalle Sri Lanka December 1984 11 Puerto Rico USA October 1985 12 Ammnan Jordan October 1985 13 Bombay India December 1985 14 Raishahi Bangladesh April 1986 15 Bangkok Thailand October 1986 16 Islamabad Pakistan December 1986 17 Katmandu Nepal February 1987 18 Serdang Malaysia April 1987 19 Kabul Afghanistan October 1987 20 Hyderabad India December 1987 21 Trivandrum India January 1988 22 Jaipur India April 1988 23 Iloilo Philippines May 1988 24 Delhi India December 1988 25 Delhi India April 1989 26 Bharuch India April 1989 27 Mayiladuturai India May 1989 28 Reduit Mauritius December 1989 29 Delhi India February 1990 30 Delhi India March 1990 31 Bangalore India May 1990 32 Bangalore India June 1990 33 Delhi India February 1991 45 The approach and philosophy of the project were presented in international conferences, workshops and seminars in industrialized countries (Table 17). At these, useful cooperation with scientists from highly developed laboratories was initiated. Table 17: Some international conferences where the Pilot Project was presented Location Country Date 1 College Park, Maryland USA August 1981 2 Copenhagen Denmark August 1983 3 Montpellier France August 1983 4 Bathurst Australia September 1984 5 Singapore Singapore April 1985 6 Karlslunde Strand Denmark May 1985 7 Ljubljana Slovenia (Yugoslavia) June 1985 8 Hong Kong Hong Kong May 1988 9 Wberlingen Germany (FR) July 1988 10 oberlingen Germany August 1992 Equipment was field-tested from the beginning of the project. At the International Workshop in Madras (April 1981) about 35 academics from 10 countries tested the first package in the laboratory and found it to be generally satisfactory. A batch of 50 units was produced the same year and tested by 40 college teachers at two regional workshops. The equipment was then supplied at cost price to some colleges in South India in order to get the feedback from student users. In early 1982, the instruments were tested at Claude Bernard University, Lyon, France and found to be accurate and sufficient for junior university chemistry students. A major introduction of low-cost equipment was launched in India in 1987. A two year program covering 40 colleges all over India was sponsored by the Department of Science and Technology and the University Grants Commission, New Delhi. It involved: - design of production models of twelve instruments (in different precision and price range, depending on the intended educational level), based on four prototypes developed under the Pilot Project; - training of 80 teachers in fabrication and maintenance; - introduction of 300 pieces of low-cost equipment in student laboratories for evaluation and feedback; - organization of a Pilot Production Center in Delhi supervized by teachers and students; the work force consisted of school dropouts and handicapped persons. The center supplied 900 pieces of equipment to the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, on a 'no-loss, no-profit' basis. That University has opted for the use of low-cost equipment in its chemistry courses. In 1989, 97 colleges joined a one year Teacher Training Program in Chemical Instrumentation. One nominee from each college was trained in fabrication and maintenance 46 of low-cost equipment. Over 1000 pieces of equipment and a set of 20 model experiments were supplied to the colleges for use in undergraduate courses. Feedback reports have shown that the equipment performs satisfactorily for student-level work. A nationwide program has recently been launched under the auspices of the University Grants Commission, where teacher training in fabrication and maintenance will be followed by supply of equipment packages and revised curricula. In the first phase (1991/92), 350 colleges from all six universities in three states (Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh) are included. The Low Cost Teaching Aids Charitable Society from New Delhi recently signed a Technology Transfer Agreement with the Department of Science and Technology, University of Delhi. The Agreement authorizes the Society to manufacture and market the equipment, developed in the Department. The Society has employed the handicapped persons and school dropouts trained by the Edutronics Group. Two goals are thus achieved at the same time: production of low-cost equipment and employment of needy individuals. Equipment packages (instruments, accessories, peripherals and test equipment) will be produced in two forms: - a kit form, estimated price $45, - an assembled form, estimated price $55. In 1991, the Publication Division of the University of Delhi published two books, written by K.V. Sane and D.C. West. The books which overlap in contents serve as a complete guide to low-cost experimentation, from fabrication of equipment to tested experiments. Both books include: 1 - theoretical aspects of potentiometry, conductometry and colorimetry, important methods used in practically all branches of chemistry, as well as in biology and medicine; 2 - description of electronic components, circuits and accessories (components: resistors, capacitors, diodes, transistors, voltage regulators, operational amplifiers and others; circuits: inverting and non-inverting, voltage follower, voltage to current converter, comparator, multivibrator and differential amplifier; accessories: carbon electrodes, carbon electrode conductance cells, colorimeter cell holder, magnetic stirrer, continuity tester, multimeter, oscilloscope and OVA source); 3 - instructions for assembling instruments and accessories, including full lists of required components, prints of circuit boards and step-by-step procedures, which also non- specialist in electronics can easily follow; the instructions are provided for: - component assembly on printed circuit boards, - assembly of power supply, - assembly of mV/pH meter, - assembly of conductometer, - assembly of colorimeter, - assembly of OVA (Ohm-Volt-Ampere) source, 47 - making carbon electrodes from used dry batteries, - construction of a conductance cell, - construction of a cell (cuvette) holder for colorimetry, - construction of printed circuit boards; 4 - principles of circuit operation, calibration and use of the instruments; 5 - maintenance of the instruments with troubleshooting instructions for all of them; 6 - chemical testing with sample experiments in potentiometry, conductometry and colorimetry; 7 - bibliography; 8 - appendices with useful. alternatives for cabinet design, possibilities for mV/pH meter improvements and an additional list of experiments. The project was based on the recognition that one of the reasons for the high cost of commercial instruments is that they are designed for multipurpose use in industry and research, while a significantly simplified instrument will satisfy student needs. Therefore, the group designed different versions of instruments, varying in cost and precision, depending on the purpose. For example, demands in secondary schools are not as high as at the university level. However, it was concluded that other applications of the instruments were possible, such as for soil testing, in small-scale industries and even in hospitals. For example, the colorimeter was tested for three months in a hospital and was found to be adequate for estimation of routine biochemical parameters. In the future, group plans not only to further disseminate knowledge in low-cost equipment production and use, but also to become involved in some other areas, for example: - reducing cost of chemicals used in experimentation by reducing their quantity (with additional safety and environmental advantages) or substitution; possible strategies are: - introduction of a microscale approach, - inclusion of a recycling step as a part of student experiments, - substitution of expensive chemicals with other, preferably local materials, which is cost-effective and has pedagogical advantages; - introduction of microprocessor based instruments in student laboratory work; the availability of microprocessors and personal computers is increasing also in developing countries; - production of published materials using desk-top publishing approach; - production of videotapes to complement the equipment (has already started); - participation in international distance education projects. Recently Professor Sane has become coordinator of the new UNESCO Network for Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment with headquarters at the University of Delhi and under the supervision of the UNESCO Regional Office in New Delhi. The Network has affiliated centers in Brazil, France, Germany, Puerto Rico, Philippines and Jordan. 48 DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT pH meter Eight versions have been made to suit different requirements. All of them employ a single operational amplifier (opamp); in all except one it is a general purpose 741 opamp (made in India). The exception employs opamp type 3140 (imported) to permit the use of glass electrodes. Power is provided either by batteries (2 models) or by public power supply (220 V, 50 Hz). A model for high schools uses 'comparator' circuit and does not include a constant current source. AM other models do and use a 'voltage to current' circuit. Estimated cost: from $12 to $50 Conductometer Four versions have been developed, all with direct reading. The high school model employs a Wheatstone bridge circuit with phase sensitive detection by way of two LED diodes and a transistor. The more sophisticated versions employ a single 741 opamp in the multivibrator configuration. Estimated cost: from $8 to $40 Colorimeter This design employs LEDs as light sources at different wavelengths, where peaks are 630 mn (red), 585 nm (yellow) and 565 rum (green) and bandwidth about 30 nm. A light dependent resistor (LDR) is used as light sensor. The circuit uses type 741 opamp in a differential amplifier configuration. There is only one cell holder alternately used for the reference and sample solution. Estimated cost: $40 Polarimeter A combination of two polaroid slides (one used as a polarizer and the other as an analyzer) is used to determine the angle of rotation of the plane of light polarization by an optically active substance. Estimated cost: $7 Electronic timer The design utilizes a timer circuit and an oscillator circuit, where the pulse from timer is used to interrupt oscillator signals, resulting in fixed intervals, which can be adjusted through altering resistance between power supply and the circuits. Estimated cost: $10 Magnetic stirrer The device utilizes a small 6 V DC electric motor of variable speed. Estimated cost: $12 49 Electronic thermometer (to be used with the pH meter) Estimated cost: $2 Conductance cell (using carbon rod electrodes) Estimated cost: $2 Electrodes Carbon rods from used dry cells are used to prepare quinhydrone electrodes. Their limitation is that they are not reliable in basic solutions, above pH 9. The advantage is a nearly zero cost. In testing it has been found out that they may replace (expensive) platinum electrodes in the working range. Carbon rods are easily electroplated with silver, zinc or copper, resulting in substitutes for Ag, Zn or Cu electrodes. Other low-cost electrodes have been developed, such as glass and ionoselective electrodes, made from soft glass test tubes and carbon rod electrodes. The development of these types of electrodes has been an important breakthrough. Their cost matches the low cost of the equipment, developed in this project. Otherwise, a situation where the accessories (e.g., standard glass electrodes) would be more expensive than the equipment, would be possible. Demonstration models of single wavelength atomic absorption spectrophotometer and flame photometer have been build for about $200. Data logger Prototype of a low-cost microprocessor based multipurpose data logger was presented in 1992 and will be ready for manufacture in 1993. It comes as part of a package which includes appropriate hardware and software for interfacing, simulation and computer- assisted learning. Potential applications are in teaching (programing, design, data acquisition and manipulation), in industry (for control) and particularly for environmental monitoring, since it is suited for field work. Estimated cost: $80 (prototype) !! f 50 ,ximately 80 experiments have been developed to match the equipment. Publication of ,arate monograph dealing with them is pending. Some of the experiments are listed in je 18. ible 18: Experiments developed and tested on low-cost equipment 'ield of application Experiment 'otentiometry 1 Potentiometric acid-base titrations (e.g. strong-strong, weak-strong, mixture of strong and weak-strong, dibasic-strong) 2 Determination of pK (e.g. pKl and pK2 of malonic acid) 3 Determination of the stability constant of complexes 4 Redox titration (e.g. KMnO4 with Fe(II) salt) 5 Kinetics of reactions 6 Determination of the solubility product of sparingly soluble salts 7 Preparation, characterization and use of ionoselective electrodes 'onductometry 1 Conductometric acid-base titrations (e.g. strong-strong, weak-strong, mixture of strong and weak-strong, dibasic-strong) 2 Non-aqueous titrations (e.g. succinic acid-sodium methoxide) 3 Precipitation titrations (e.g. BaCI2-MgSO4) 4 Determination of the solubility product of sparingly soluble salts 5 Dissociation constant of weak acids _ 6 Kinetics of reactions 'olorimetry I Kinetics of reactions 2 Determination of dissociation constant of an indicator 3 Determination of equilibrium constant for a reaction 4 Determination of combining ratio of ions in a precipitate 5 Analysis of a mixture of ions 6 Colorimetric titrations pplied chemistry 1 Clinical chemistry: colorimetric estmation of albumin, bilirubin, cholesterol, glucose, hemoglobin, total protein and urea 2 Soil analysis: pH and salinity, colorimetric estimation of organic carbon, ammonia-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen, etc. 3 Water analysis: pH, salinity, colorimetric estmation of ions 4 Determination of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium in sugar cane 5 Potentiometric titration of amino acids \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 51 SOURCES Garbowski, E., 1983: Testing low cost equipment for chemistry. In: Thulstrup, E.W., Waddington, D. (Eds.): Proceedings, Workshop on Locally Produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 11-17, 1983, pp. 86-96. Padgaonkar, L., 1992: Low costs, high benefits; Locally-made equipment for chemistry instruction. UTNESCO Sources, No. 35, March 1992, p.22. Sane, K.V., 1993: personal communication. Sane, K.V., 1992: Goals, activities and expected outcomes. UNESCO Seminar Teaching on Environmental Chemistry, Uberlingen, Germany, August 9-15, 1992, in print. Sane, K.V., 1985: A model for self-reliance in science education resources. In: Thulstrup, E.W. (Ed.): Proceedings, The Nordic Conference on Science and Technology Education, The challenge of the future, Karlslunde Strand, Denmark, May 8-12, 1985, pp. 317-324. Sane, K.V., 1984: Science Education through Self-reliance. The Commonwealth Foundation, 21 p. Sane, KV., 1983: Low-cost equipment for chemical education. In: Thulstrup, E.W., Waddington, D. (Eds.): Proceedings, Workshop on Locally Produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 11-17, 1983, pp. 240-245. Sane, K.V., 1981: Project to develop low-cost equipment and experiments. Proceedings, Sixth International Conference On Chemical Education, College Park, Maryland, USA, August 9-14, 1981, p. 146. Sane, KV., West, D.C., 1991: Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment for Teaching of Chemistry. Publication Division, University of Delhi, 213 p. + 29 p. (preface). Sane, KV., West, D.C., 1991: Low Cost Chemical Instrumentation. Publication Division, University of Delhi, 214 p. + 33 p. (preface). Seth, C.K., 1983: Zero cost electrodes for electrochemical measurements. In: Thulstrup, E.W., Waddington, D. (Eds.): Proceedings, Workshop on Locally Produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 11-17, 1983, pp. 255-264. Srivastava, P.K., 1983: A design for a direct reading conductometer. In: Thulstrup, E.W., Waddington, D. (Eds.): Proceedings, Workshop on Locally Produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 11-17, 1983, pp. 265-267. Contact for further information: Professor Krishna V. Sane telephone: (91) (11) 22 14 21/x31 University of Delhi fax: (91) (11) 72 57 161 Department of Chemistry Maurice Nagar New Delhi 110007 India 52 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Experiences from many developing countries demonstrate that the quality of science education is often unsatisfactory, especially with respect to use of equipment. In many cases, large investments in imported equipment have been made, draining limited foreign currency, without an apparent positive effect. International donor and lending organizations - the World Bank included - are often faced with expensive equipment purchases which have no demonstrated effect on the teaching. What can be concluded from the case studies and the examples in Appendix A? First of all, that self-reliance in the supply of science education equipment is crucial. Production of equipment in the country has advantages, such as easier service and replenishment of spare parts. If the equipment is produced locally, foreign currency is saved. At the same time, the production creates employment. It may also contribute to the development of small-scale enterprises. If the equipment is also low cost, it is more likely to be used in the classrooms, *without fear of the consequences if it is accidentally broken. It has a higher local content and is generally more flexible with respect to design of new experiments. Finally, many examples show that it is possible to use the same teams for curriculum development, equipment design and teacher training, which increases the relevance of the equipment and effectiveness of its use. Local expertise in the country should be used when decisions about new equipment for science education are made. Design of low-cost equipment takes place in many countries. International networks may provide information on activities in developing countries. Examples of such networks are UNESCO INISTE (Paris) and a new network on Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment based in Delhi, India (see Case Study 4). Other sources of information are staff at teacher training colleges, departments of science at the universities, and teachers' associations. The Ministry of Education may know which institutions are involved in curriculum development for science education. Often strong resistance against low-cost equipment is encountered since it is assumed that it leads to second-rate science teaching. However, this is not necessarily so; simpler equipment may have distinct educational advantages, particularly if it employs local materials, which are familiar to the students. Scientific concepts and their relation to the real world can better be demonstrated, when familiar materials and contexts are used. However, local production and low cost provide no guarantees for effective use of the equipment in the schools. A primary concern should be that the equipment is relevant to the curriculum (and the curriculum to local needs). Lists of equipment should be composed on the basis of curriculum requirements, not on the basis of producers' catalogs. It is therefore recommended that curriculum developers are involved in the design and 53 choice of the equipment. In recent years, new science curricula are often designed to change the style of teaching from the traditional 'blackboard' approach to more active involvement of students. This development is today common in developed countries and is likely to soon occur on a larger scale in developing countries. If a new curriculum is being designed, equipment to match it should be designed at the same time. In supplying the equipment, local conditions have to be taken into consideration. Due to climatic conditions in many tropical countries (high temperature and humidity), some materials corrode very fast. The equipment should be durable and rugged. Water, electricity and gas supplies are often nonexistent. The equipment should be designed to be independent of them as far as possible. The equipment should not be too dependent on perishable items, since the supply is not always reliable. A good example are batteries; in the long run it is more reliable to supply more expensive rechargeable batteries and solar-powered recharging units, as in the ZIM- SCI kits from Zimbabwe (Case Study 1), and the Minilab from Sri Lanka (Case Study 2). Distribution of the equipment has to be carefully planned and coordinated with other activities for the introduction of equipment. When a new program starts in a school, the equipment should be in place with time for teachers to prepare themselves. However, equipment often arrives haphazardly to the schools. Local authorities should do their best to reduce bureaucratic delaying procedures to a minimum. There should be some flexibility in distribution to different schools. Although it is easier to prepare the same sets of the equipment for every school, an effort should be made to differentiate the supply according to the number of students, existing equipment and other local conditions. Together with the distribution scheme for equipment, the supply of consumable materials should be planned. It should be made on time to allow experiments in accordance with the curriculum. However, it should again be carefully decided which materials and what quantities are needed. Hazardous chemicals are still in use in many countries. Lists of materials for ZIM-SCI kits, for example, include ammonia dichromate, copper sulfate, iodine crystals and potassium permanganate, all potentially dangerous chemicals (Tables 3, 5 and 6). Potential safety risks should be kept in mind when experiments, complementing the curriculum, are planned. Frequently schools receive chemicals they do not need; in one case reported, a secondary school had a large stock of phosphorus, sodium and potassium, all very dangerous chemicals. However, the situation is usually the opposite; a lack of consumables makes in many cases experimentation impossible. An efficient approach to decrease the costs of consumables for schools is to import the materials in large quantities and repackage them in the country. 54 At the time of the introduction of new equipment, or possibly a new curriculum (or both), it is necessary to revise pre-service teacher training and organize in-service teacher training. Teachers must know how to use the equipment and when to use it. It seems that recent problems encountered in ZIM-SCI project (Case Study 1) to some extent could be attributed to inadequate training of teachers. Workshops with active participation of teachers are usually much more effective than distribution of manuals and guides, although the latter are also necessary. At the same time, teachers (or possibly laboratory technicians) should be given a basic knowledge on how to maintain equipment and carry out small repairs. Service centers for more substantial repairs should be organized, and teachers must know where and how to use them. Small funds for repairs should be available to schools. It is amazing to see how much is often spent on equipment in science education projects, and how little on efforts to keep it in usable condition. It must be ensured that teacher training colleges train teachers in use of those teaching aids, including equipment, they will actually have in schools. It is useless to train them exclusively with equipment they will never see again. In countries where the teachers are responsible for selecting and acquiring equipment and consumable materials, they should develop the needed managerial skills. They should know where to acquire teaching materials, and should be able to improvise to a certain extent. Improvisation makes it possible to use resources available in the local community. This may increase students' motivation, the relevance of the science teaching, and the amount of practical work performed by students. Students should become able to apply scientific concepts in their own environment. Finally, it must be emphasized that a country-specific approach is necessary. When deciding on curricular changes- and the selection of equipment, local curriculum developers, or other experts in the country's education system, should be involved, together with decision-makers from the govenmment. Local equipment specifications should be developed. Support of local production of equipment should be based on the industrial capabilities of the country. Local development of reliable producers of quality equipment for science education may take some time. However, it may contribute to the industrial development of the country in general, and the small-scale private sector in particular. It also has distinct benefits for the effective use of the equipment. 55 In summary: 1. The relevance of the equipment to the curriculum could be improved by involving local curriculum experts in production of equipment lists. Buying from manufacturers' catalogs should be avoided. Rely on local resources as far as possible. 2. Local development of equipment designs should be supported in accordance with the curriculum and, when feasible, also local production of the equipment. Locally produced equipment has several benefits in addition to price and availability. 3. Long-term supply of spare parts and repair service (more than five years) should be ensured as part of the supplier's responsibility. It may be a separate clause in a contract for equipment supplies. 4. Supply of consumable materials should be ensured for a longer period (more than five years) with funds allocated for that purpose. Buying in bulk and repackaging for schools could be a part of the strategy and may decrease the costs significantly. 5. Flexible distribution schemes should be used. Apart from the sets every school is receiving, funds should be allocated for schools with individual needs. 6. Pre-service teacher training in use and maintenance of equipment should be provided. Future teachers should also develop basic managerial skills in selection and acquisition of the equipment, spare parts and materials. 7. In-service teacher training in use and maintenance of equipment should be provided (including technician training). Necessary funds should be provided. Involve those who, designed equipment and experiments in the training. 8. Training courses for teachers in using locally available materials and manufacturing simple equipment should be organized. Much can be achieved with very small funding. Publication of source books and manuals should be part of the activities. Taking this list into account when preparing an education project might be a considerable task, consuming both time and energy. However, it is worth the effort, if the effectiveness of the project is increased. Again, the most efpensive equipment is that which is never used. 56 APPENDIX A ACTIVITIES IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES - SELECTED EXAMPLES BOTSWANA . 57 BRAZL ......................................... 58 COLONBIA ..............................60 ETHIOPIA .............61 GHANA ........ 63 INDIA ...........................65 INDONESIA ....... 67 KENYA ........ 69 NIGERIA ....... 70 PAKISTAN ....... 71 PEIfPPINES ......... 72 SRILANKA ....... 73 TANZANIA (with ZANZIBAR) ................... 74 THAILAND ...................... 76 UGANDA ................... 78 ZAMBIA ................... 79 ZIMBABVE ..8................. g0 57 BOTSWANA BASIC INDICATORS (UINESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 1.3 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 582 GNP per capita, 1990: $2,040 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 8.3 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 26 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 32 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 111 (net: 93) Secondary: 37 Tertiary: 3 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 9 The Teaching Aids Production Unit (TAPU) was established in 1976/77 as part of the Department of Curriculum Development and Evaluation. TAPU produced science education aids, for example electric circuit boards, electromagnets, terrariums, weather stations and balances. It has produced 14,000 teaching aids on Wildlife Conservation for the Ministry of Local Government and Lands. In 1984 science kits were introduced at the lower secondary level, with 33 % local content (Lewin & Ross, 1992). In 1985 Botswana bought 30 ZIM-SCI kits from Zimbabwe. After a one-year trial and a workshop, a decision was made to adopt the ZIM-SCI approach and adapt the ZIM-SCI kit for local needs. In the BOT-SCI kits some items have been replaced with more expensive ones, but local production was retained (Dock, 1993). 58 BRAZIL BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mnid-1990 (million): 150.4 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 8,512 GNP per capita, 1990: $2,680 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 3.7 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 19 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 23 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 105 (net: 84) Secondary: 39 Tertiary: 11 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 21 In the early 1950s, a group of university professors initiated the foundation of Instituto Brasileiro de Educacao, Ciencia e Cultura (IBECC). It was started in Sao Paulo as a non- profit corporation, concerned with scientific research and education in Brazil, and evolved in 1967 to Fundacao Brasileira para o Desenvolvimento do Ensino de Ciencias (FUNBEC). Its first activities were in out-of-school science education, starting with opening of university laboratories to interested high school students. However, this had a very limited impact. The group designed, produced and marketed a number of 'laboratory kits' together with pamphlets describing simple experiments. Students could also purchase a variety of supplies from the stock. To reach even larger number of students, smaller units were designed, which would permit experiments on a specific topic. A real breakthrough came with a series of kits based on the history of science and related to individual scientists (for example "Volta and the Battery", "Koch and the Cause of Disease"). The series contained 50 different 'pocketbook kits' marketed in a polystyrene box and cover resembling a book. The kits were marketed through newspaper stands all over Brazil. The first units sold about 200,000 kits, the number dropped to about 10,000 at the end. The effect of this project was time limited. The experience in design, production and marketing of low-cost educational products on a large scale was used to produce a permanent series of pocketbook kdts, 'Eureka", and to enter the toy market with educational materials. The International Clearinghouse for the Advancement of Science Teaching, University of Maryland, College Park, Md., USA, keeps a collection of pocketbook kits (Lockard, 1993). On the basis of the success of out-of-school equipment, FPNBEC was commissioned by educational authorities to provide simple and inexpensive laboratory equipment for schools. This resulted in production and supply of sets of science laboratory equipment. Sales to public schools were made by tender, which triggered establishment of other small companies. The FUNBEC sales of school equipment reached 3 million US$ in 1979, but varied from year to year according to allocation of public funds. 59 Other FUNBEC activities were curriculum development for high schools, which integrated classroom and laboratory work. It included textbooks, teachers' guides, laboratory equipment, supplies and in-service teacher training in six regional centers. In the early seventies, production was expanded to sophisticated equipment for university, research and hospitals (Raw, 1983). FUNBEC designs are included in the UNESCO resource document on low-cost equipment for science and technology education (Lowe, 1985). More recent reports find science education in public primary and secondary schools inadequate. Some of the reasons identified are lack of funds for equipment, low quality of teacher training and a drop in prestige of the teaching profession (World Bank, 1990b). 60 COLOMBIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 32.3 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 1,139 GNP per capita, 1990: $1,260 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 2.7 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 13 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 30 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 107 (net: 69) Secondary: 52 Tertiary: 14 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 29 Since 1979, the 'Escuela Nueva' (New School Program) has been used in Colombia, in order to universalize complete primary education. It is aimed particularly to rural areas. It is being implemented in 17,000 schools (out of 27,000 in rural areas), reaching more than 900,000 children annually. The funding came from the government resources, a loan from the World Bank and UNICEF. Among the features of the program is that the children learn through an active methodology that facilitates learning by doing and playing to solve problems of daily life, and to apply what they learn in their communities (Fordham, 1992). Universidad Nacional in Bogota is preparing a project to popularize science. It will include design of practical activities in the secondary schools and out-of-school activities (Penia, 1993). Multitaller de Materiales Didacticos at the Universidad del Valle has been developing low- cost equipment and exchanging information on its design for a number of years. Their design of science centers for secondary schools is described in Case Study 2. 61 ETHIOPIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 51.2 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 1,222 GNP per capita, 1990: $120 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 4.4 Adult illiteracy: n.a. Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 43 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 38 (net: 28) Secondary: 15 Tertiary: 1 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 35 The Educational Materials Production and Distribution Agency (EMPDA) was established in 1975 as an autonomous unit under the Ministry of Education, incorporating a number of operations previously carried out by various administrative organs. Its responsibilities in the education sector were the entire process of procurement of items both locally manufactured and purchased abroad, production of materials according to policy decisions, distribution of all types of supplies to schools and other institutions, and maintenance of equipment. By 1984 EMPDA had a (largely technical) staff of 300 people. Its own production facilities included: - One central and 14 regional Furniture Production Units, covering about 70 % of the school needs; - The Chalk Unit, producing 600,000 gross of chalk per year, covering all the needs at the time (but planing an expansion together with the expansion of education system); - The Printing Unit, producing half a million books per year and increasing its capacity to 3 million; - The Science Equipment Production Unit, manufacturing 140 different items for 1,000 primary school science kits per year (materials from SEPU, Kenya, were adapted and production started in 1980/81), and planning an increase in output to 3,000 kits; also a teachers' kit has been produced and teachers have been trained to use it; - The Bulk Chemical Store (under establishment) to purchase school supplies in quantity and package them for distribution to individual schools. One of the goals of EMPDA was to increase the self-reliance of the education sector in Ethiopia. About 63 % of the items were either produced by EMPDA or procured from domestic manufacturers. A large share of imports was sophisticated equipment (Last, 1984). Approximately at the same time, EMPDA was assessed to be effective, efficient and fulfilling its designed function. However, storage facilities were inadequate and there was a need for better procurement and distribution of imported instructional equipment. Local purchases 62 were made following a tender procedure. Educational materials were distributed to regional offices and from them to schools using EMPDA's own trucks (World Bank, 1983). A goal to provide one science kit for each primary school was not yet reached in 1984. Support to achieve that and to improve educational equipment maintenance was proposed (World Bank, 1984). Two years later, the capacity of EMPDA to manufacture, deliver, repair and maintain educational equipment was found to require continued development (World Bank, 1986). In 1987 many higher secondary schools were found to be unable to offer practical courses due to lack of tools and equipment. Criteria for selecting schools to be equipped in the next World Bank Education Project were established (World Bank, 1987). UNESCO reported (UNESCO, 1987) that in the Fifth Education Project some 135 supply contracts for equipment were awarded through International Competitive Bidding. Only a single one was awarded to an Ethiopian bidder. The maintenance infrastructure for building and equipment was not yet functioning. Equipment was purchased in bulk, but problems occurred in storage and distribution, mostly due to inadequate storage facilities and lack of synchronization between construction work and distribution of equipment. 63 GHANA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 14.9 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 239 GNP per capita, 1990: $390 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 3.6 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 40 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 27 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 75 Secondary: 39 Tertiary: 2 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 33 The Overseas Development Administration (UK) supplied Junior Secondary School Science Kits worth over $1.5 million. In 1991 it was reported that imported equipment is often not in use and that simpler equipment would be needed (Lewin & Ross, 1992). A workshop for production of science materials in Ghana was held in 1989. Goethe Institute (Germany) helped organizing it. It had 25 participants, mostly from regional and district educational offices. As an outcome, a teacher's source book has been published. It includes designs for simple, locally producible equipment and experiments for 72 topics of school science, the major subject being human biology, genetics, zoology, botany and chemistry (University of Cape Coast, 1989). 64 INDIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 849.5 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 3,288 GNP per capita, 1990: $350 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 3.3 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 52 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 61 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 98 Secondary: 43 Tertiary (1988): 6 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 29 In India, State Govermnents are responsible for education. The Central Government is mainly responsible for defining broad policies for concurrence by the States and ensuring coordination of various activities. The National Council of Education Research and Training (NCERT) is the academic agency of the Central Ministry of Education for improvements in all aspects of school education (Bhattacharyya, 1981). In 1965 NCERT established the Central Science Workshop which started to design and develop science kits in 1968. Although it is a government-run production unit, it contracts local companies to make equipment. From 1969 to 1976 the production was over 2500 kits per year (8 different kits with prices ranging from $20 to $40). Three kinds of equipment were designed: (a) packs of equipment for demonstration or students' activities (kits, mini- laboratories), (b) inexpensive substitutes for conventional laboratory equipment and (c) equipment needed for use in science centers and science fairs. In general, NCERT encourages the use of local resources, teachers' fabrication of 'improvised' equipment with the help of local craftsmen and-use of commonly available materials. Apart from production of kits, NCERT encourages the States to set up their own institutes to provide in-service teacher training and produce science equipment (Lewin & Ross, 1992). Key persons for teacher training, inspection and quality control of equipment production in the States are trained at NCERT. It also functions as a monitoring agency for foreign aid programs involving equipment. The Teachers' Center in Bombay is an example of regional activities. It was established in 1971 to help teachers to prepare inexpensive and improvised science equipment for primary schools. The approach was based on a belief that concepts in science can best be understood by children when the apparatus is simple. At that time there were about 1,200 primary and pre-primary schools in Bombay with more than half a million students. From 1971 to 1976, over 2,000 teachers were given in-service training at the Center, preparing science materials and developing experimental activities (Shah, 1983). 65 Another example from Bombay is Homi Bhaba Centre for Science Education (HBCSE) under the leadership of Professor V.G. Kulkarni. It is concerned with the improvement of science education, particularly on the secondary level. It was concluded in 1978 that only 10 percent of 5,108 high schools in Maharastra State had adequately equipped laboratories, while 30 percent had none at all. To overcome that problem, HBCSE started a low-cost experimental program. An experimental kit for primary school science was developed. A large number of experiments have been developed using household items and cheap chemicals. Testing the experiments with high school students have shown a high educational value of many (Agarkar, 1988). In Rajasthan (a state in the north-western part of the subcontinent), the State Institute for Education Research and Training (SIERT) has a central role in curriculum development, teacher training, low-cost equipment design and other activities. It was established in 1978 from eight previously existing institutions. SIERT collaborates with many international and national organizations, notably with NCERT. SEERT is involved in developing low-cost teaching aids and improvised apparatus. Two kits of low-cost teaching aids (one for science and one for mathematics) have been developed and distributed to 7,000 state primary schools. The science kit includes 50 items, which can be maintained with locally available materials. To introduce the teaching aids to teachers, SIERT organizes in-service courses. From 1981 to 1988 almost 10,000 teachers (6,000 mathematics and 4,000 science teachers) attended the courses. Since every secondary and higher secondary school in Rajasthan employs a laboratory assistant, six training workshops have been organized for them during the period. Over 300 laboratory assistants were trained in purchasing and maintaining stock registers of equipment, chemicals and other materials, and maintenance and use of laboratory equipment. SIERT also trains resource persons (about 150 from 1981 to 1988) who in turn train primary school teachers in the use of kits; these latter courses are organized by district education officers and are obligatory for all teachers. NCERT has developed the Science Club Kit to help teachers and students prepare models for science exhibitions. Two SIERT officers were trained in its use at NCERT and 44 kits were distributed to higher secondary schools (central schools) in Rajasthan. Three training courses at SIERT in the use of these kits were attended by 44 resource persons. To enhance the use of improvised apparatus, SIERT organized workshops for primary, upper primary, secondary and higher secondary school teachers. Until 1988, 137 teachers were trained as resource persons. SIERT is also active in publication of books, pamphlets, posters, textbooks and video cassettes for science education (UNESCO, 1988). 66 An example of international cooperation is an India-Germany project "Improved Science Education in Primary and Middle Schools in Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh". In charge of the project are education authorities from both states, NCERT and Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). The main objectives were improvement and development of teaching materials (teachers' handbooks, kit manual, charts and versatile portable laboratory in the form of kit), provision of equipment and machines for three workshops for production of science kits (NCERT, Allahabad - Uttar Pradesh and Bhopal - Madhya Pradesh), and pedagogical and technical training. The project was effectively started in 1986 (following an appraisal report from 1984). By 1989, three Teacher's Handbooks had been prepared in both English and Hindi (third, fourth and fifth standard at primary schools). A Primary Science Kit was developed as a portable laboratory in a box (dimensions: 51x27x36 cm). It contains three trays in which 91 items are packed, and a manual. The Kit provides materials for over 350 experiments described in the Teacher's Handbooks, all basic items required for science teaching at the primary level except readily available items. The Manual provides a list of activities for each of the three classes. All three production Workshops have been built and equipped. The most important Kit items are produced there, while production of simpler items is contracted out to local small- scale enterprises. The final products are checked for quality and included in the Kit in the Workshops. Teacher training is organized in three steps: experienced educators involved in the development of the project are Key Resource Persons; experienced educators from teacher training institutions will be selected and trained as Resource Persons who train teachers. The first group of sixty Resource Persons was trained in April 1989 at the State Institute of Science Education in Allahabad. Over 230 selected primary teachers were trained in Uttar Pradesh during a 10-day program in June 1989. The kits were first tested in 60 schools in both States with very good results. In May 1989, one hundred Kits produced at NCERT (out of a batch of 500) were used in the Key Resource Person training (GTZ, 1989). However, it seems that after the completion of the bilateral project no further progress was made in the production and distribution of the kits (Genze, 1993). The important work of Professor K.V. Sane aid his group at the University of Delhi within the UNESCO/IUPAC project for low-cost equipment development is described in Case Study 4 (pages 43 to 51). 67 INDONESIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 178.2 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 1,905 GNP per capita, 1990: $570 Total expenditure on education, 1990 (percent of GNP): 1.7 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 23 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 23 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 118 (net: 99) Secondary: 47 Tertiary (1988): 7 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 21 GTZ (Germany) and Government the of Indonesia (The Office of Educational and Cultural Research and Development - BP3K) started in 1976 a bilateral cooperation for development, production, dissemination and educational use of teaching materials for science education in primary and secondary schools. The situation at the start of the project was characterized by expensive imported equipment, or equipment produced in Indonesia, but modeled upon imported equipment, of almost the same price and much lower quality. Equipment was mostly not in use by teachers, since they did not receive supplementary training. Instructions for use were not provided either. The situation became critical after the introduction of a new curriculum in 1975, which emphasized individual work by the students. When the project was started, a 400 square meter workshop in Bandung was placed at the disposal of the project team. The first phase comprised development of an Elementary Science Kit. It is contained in a box (dimensions: 50x32x13 cm) and includes instructions together with a number of items, such as thermometer, beam-type balance, alcohol burner, flexible tubing, pendulum, glass flasks, bolts, screws, etc. It allows students of grades 4-6 to carry out about 50 different basic experiments in physics, chemistry and biology. In a 10-day preparatory seminar, a manual for teachers was produced. After the Kit was tested in schools, the production was expanded. Contracts for production of the first 25,000 kits were awarded to small-size enterprises in Surabaya. In March 1982, the first 25,000 kits were distributed to schools in the eastern part of Indonesia. Two new contracts for 25,000 lkts each were awarded the same year. Production costs at the time were about 100 DEM per kit. For 1984, 110,x000 new kits were ordered. A mobile unit for maintenance, repair and supplementing of the kits was established. The project team was increased from 11 to 25 members and moved to a bigger workshop. Prototypes of Science Unit for integrated lower secondary school science, and Mathematics Kit for prinary schools, have been developed (Dahar, 1983; GTZ, 1983). 68 Teachers were also encouraged to develop simple equipment, using locally available materials. Examples include water distillation equipment and a wind vane, both for primary science teaching (APEIID, 1981). The In-Service/On-Service Teacher Education Project (known as PKG) was developed in the late seventies with UNESCO and UNDP support (Young, 1989). However, success of in-service teacher training varies from region to region, depending on the involvement of local educational officers (Montague, 1993). The World Bank has been involved in lending for education in Indonesia for a long time. Some projects include a science equipment component. While earlier lack of equipment was mentioned (World Bank, 1977), the supply is later described as better, although it varies greatly from school to school. Problems arise particularly in the use of equipment, which is closely related to teacher training and motivation. Replenishment and maintenance are also critical. Locally produced equipment is assessed to be expensive and need improvement in quality (World Bank, 1989). For example, the SMP Physics Modular Kit is reported to include items of inadequate quality, while the cost is high. Teachers have not been trained in use of the Kit, and they lack skills or motivation for maintenance and repair of the equipment (Hamilton, 1993). A recent World Bank project in secondary education includes the supply of equipment kits for physics. A number of Indonesian companies are involved in their production. The Ciketing Workshop (near Jakarta) established by GTZ prepared blueprints for the kit and is supervising the production quality. Teacher training in the use of the kits is also a project component. Regional technical instructors are to be trained first in a 6-months program. They should than train teachers in the regional service repair centers. The instructors will also carry out repair of equipment and supervise spare parts and replacement supply (supply by school response). The initial training is going to take place in 1994. 69 KENYA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, miid-1990 (million): 24.2 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 580 GNP per capita, 1990: $370 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 6.3 Adult ilhiteracy, 1990 (percent): 31 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 33 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 94 Secondary: 23 Tertiary: 2 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 42 The Kenya Science Teachers' College (KSTC) was established in 1968 with assistance of the Swedish Government. It included a small workshop for production of science teaching materials. A new workshop (400 square meters) was completed in 1970, and in 1975 the School Equipment Production Unit (SEPIJ) was detached from KSTC. Later, it was enlarged to over 1,000 square meters. SEPU was established as a basically government-owned non- profit enterprise under the board of directors. The initial goals were to produce teaching aids as a small-scale industry, to be self-supporting, to compete with other enterprises on the local market, to serve the existing 950 secondary schools, to adapt teaching aids to Kenya's needs and financial resources, and to improve the teaching of science in Kenya. Kits for physics and chemistry were developed and produced by 1975. The basis of the chemistry kit was a pegboard stand, but it contained also a number of items (half of them glassware), allowing over 100 simple experiments. The items were manufactured mainly from materials purchased locally in Nairobi. The kits were packed in cardboard boxes (later in wooden boxes), with instructions for 96 experiments relevant to the curriculum, a pupils' manual and a teacher's guide. All components were designed to be compatible with the others, thus making the kit flexible. The glassware required only small amounts of chemicals and solutions for safety and cost reasons. Therefore, the kit is not suitable for teacher demonstrations, but for practical work by individual students. Chemicals and spare parts were not offered at the beginning, but after 1977 every kit item could be purchased separately. Small sub-kits, covering specific topics of the curriculum, were also produced, containing a selection of items from the bigger kits. The annual sales varied between $50,000 and $70,000 during the years 1975 and 1978, corresponding to 500-1,000 kits per annum. The selling prices in 1978 were $80 for a physics kit, $62 for a chemistry kit and $48 for a biology kit (Bengtsson, 1983; Carroll et al., 1981). Final examinations in secondary schools include a practical part, which could be a reason for the better lab performance in Kenya compared with neighboring countries (Somerset, 1993). 70 NIGERIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 115.5 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 924 GNP per capita, 1990: $290 Total expenditure on education, 1980 (percent of GNP): 5.5 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 49 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 37 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 70 Secondary: 19 Tertiary: 3 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 32 A Science Equipment Center was established in 1970 in Lagos with branches in Enugu, Jos and Abraka. The Products Development Agency, based in Enugu, develops science equipment from local materials on a pilot scale. Maintenance and repair of equipment for science education were identified to be the most urgent, and a mobile workshop for maintenance and repair service was established, visiting schools at regular intervals. In Bendel State, the Science Equipment Workshop has produced a 11 1-item kit for primary school science. It was commissioned to produce over 1,500 kits during the period 1976- 1979 (UNESCO, 1982). In Oyo State, a standard list of science equipment required for the Junior Secondary School Science Program in integrated science was prepared. Out of 125 items, 81 could be produced or purchased locally (Bajah, 1985). Equipment designs of the Science Equipment Center are included in the UNESCO resource document on low-cost equipment for science and technology education (Lowe, 1985). 71 PAKISTAN BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 112.4 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 796 GNP per capita, 1990: S380 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 2.6 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 65 Primaxy level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 41 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 38 Secondary: 20 Tertiary: 5 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture: n.a. The National Education Equipment Center was established in 1964 in Lahore, partly sponsored by the Ford Foundation. In 1975, the Government took over the responsibility. The Center's functions included the design and development of prototypes of scientific equipment for secondary and upper secondary levels, and to promote local manufacture of educational equipment. Starting from a small workshop, it was expanded, and plans in 1983 included a machine shop, a sheet-metal shop, a tool-room, a plastics shop, optics and glass blowing sections, a thermometer section, a foundry, a woodwork shop, an electroplating shop, and painting and finishing shops. The total area of the workshops after the expansion was to be about 8,000 square meters. By 1975, 200 different items had been developed, together with a primary school science kit, comprising 95 items. A teacher's tool kit for primary science and mathematics was also developed. 2,200 teachers were trained in the Center in order to train in turn 200,000 teachers in use of the primary science kit through a cascade model. The objectives of the Center are: to introduce new designs of science equipment for schools and colleges; to prepare drawings and worksheets for the mass production; to provide advice, designs and training for equipment manufacturers; to continuously update lists of equipment in accordance with curricula; to act as an agency for testing, standardization and certification of the equipment before it enters the mass production; and to train teachers in maintenance, repair and use of the equipment. Equipment designs of the National Education Equipment Center are included in the UNESCO resource documents on low-cost equipment for science and technology education (Lowe, 1985; Lowe, 1986). 72 PHILIPPINES BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 61.5 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 300 GNP per capita, 1990: $730 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 2.2 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 10 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 33 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 111 (net: 99) Secondary: 73 Tertiary: 28 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 38 The School Science Equipment Project was started after a critical evaluation of the equipment situation in 1970. It was financed by the National Science Development Board and UTNDP. The Science Education Center was established at the University of the Philippines, and included a workshop for design and testing of equipment. Cooperation between a technical team and curriculum developers was established. Local materials were used to a large extent for manufacture of the equipment (Maddock, 1982). The equipment designs developed in the project are included in the UNESCO resource document on low- cost equipment for science and technology education (Lowe, 1985). Other source books of designs of low-cost equipment and experiments were published (University of the Philippines, 1986; Talisayon, 1988). A kit for junior secondary school science was developed, evaluated and offered to schools at about $50, however, the quantities were not sufficient. Two kits for an electronic module were developed in 1979. GTZ prepared a proposal for a technical assistance project for science teaching at secondary schools. It included plans for an equipment design and production center at the total estimated costs of $200,000 (Nachtigall et al., 1988). In 1992, a center in Cebu was being constructed (GTZ, 1992). 73 SRI LANKA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 17.0 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 66 GNP per capita, 1990: $470 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 3.1 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 12 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 14 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 107 (net: 100) Secondary: 74 Tertiaiy: 4 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 37 Sri Lanka has been active in regional development of low-cost equipment for education, notably in UNESCO's Asia and the Pacific Programme of Educational Innovations for Development (APEID). In the 1970s, the School Science Equipment Design Unit of the Curriculum Development Centre prepared an Inventory of low-cost materials, games and toys, targeted mostly to primary, but also to secondary school science (UNESCO, 1984). Changes in primary school science curriculum were made in the early 1980s, introducing integrated science (Peiris, 1983). Among the main principles to be followed were learning by doing, study of the environment through project work and use of material and human resources available in the environment. UNICEF provided some rural schools with educational kits which included a few simple instruments and tools. There is a need for additional training in the use of simple equipment for teachers at the upper primary level. In- service workshops for teachers in resource material production have been organized. The Goethe Istitute (Germany) organized workshops in 1985 and 1986, where inexpensive equipment for chemistry and biology was produced (Lewin & Ross, 1992). The most important recent activity is the development and use of Minilabs, described in Case Study 2 (pages 30 to 37). 74 TANZANIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 24.5 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 945 GNP per capita, 1990: $110 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 4.0 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): n.a. Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 33 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 63 (net: 48) Secondary: 4 Tertiary: 0.3 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 49 Attempts have been made to encourage development and small-scale production of teaching aids. It is reported that on the average four primary schools share one science kit. Workshops have been held under the sponsorship of Goethe Institute (Germany) to introduce teacher-made equipment and simple experiments for secondary schools. Chemistry, Physics and Biology Source books were published by the Mzumbe Book Project, from 1990 to 1992 (INISTE, 1992). ZANZIBAR is a part of in Tanzania, which is politically autonomous, and historically and geographically separate. It is also autonomous in its educational policies and generally better developed than the rest of Tanzania. The school science equipment situation was assessed to be good in 1986, when schools still had science kits provided by SIDA in the beginning of 1980s. However, there were problems with supply of chemicals, other consumables and spare parts (Goranson, 1986). On the other hand, the equipment was not well used, probably because of lack of teacher training (Somerset, 1993). The Zanzibar Science Camp Project was started in 1988 in cooperation of the Ministry of Education of Zanzibar, the University of Dar es Salaam and Professor R.V. Lange from Brandeis University in the USA. Funding has been provided by different donor organizations within a limited frame ($200,000 for the 1992 project year with extensive activities). In the first year, 30 students from secondary schools spent 3 weeks in a camp, constructing and using apparatus, such as telescopes. In the second year, teachers from 30 schools were invited together with a student from each school. The equipment produced in camps was brought to schools, but it was noticed that teachers do not use it adequately. The Project was expanded to put more emphasis on teacher training. 75 Curriculum development experiments were carried under the project and all participants in the process (students, teachers, educational administrators) were invited to cooperate. It is expected that 'core teachers', which were trained under the project, will gradually change the teaching methods to more hands-on teaching, and will push also curriculum changes. Within the relatively small education system in Zanzibar (80-90 secondary schools), this is entirely possible. By 1992, the Project expanded to a number of workshops, related to different topics of teaching and curriculum. Activities planned for 1993 include 5 workshops, one of which will be on local production of science education equipment. Integration of environmental education in science teaching is also foreseen. Efforts will be made to replace imported chemicals with locally available ones (Lange, 1993). 76 THAILAND BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 55.8 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 513 GNP per capita, 1990: $1,420 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 3.3 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 7 Primary level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 18 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 86 Secondary: 28 Tertiary: 16 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): n.a. The Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST) was established under the Ministry of Education in 1971 in Bangkok with the help of UINESCO. The initial focus was on secondary school science, with the objective to promote and execute: curriculum research, teaching techniques and evaluation; teacher training; research, development and production of science equipment and materials; and preparation of tests, exercises, references, supplementary materials and teachers' guides. Curriculum development and teacher training started immediately, and some of the trained teachers became in turn in-service instructors for more than 30,000 secondary science teachers in Thailand (90 %). All teachers attended a 2-3 week long workshop where new curricula and methodologies were introduced. The curriculum development emphasized linking science education to real-life situations, the inquiry approach and use of local resources. By 1976, 36 teacher training colleges in the country began to use IPST's curricula, equipment and approach (Ketudat, 1981). Development of school science equipment also started in 1971 using machinery purchased by UNESCO with UNDP funds. IPST produces prototypes based on locally available, low- cost materials. A small batch (300 pieces) is produced first for school trials. Equipment is then marketed by the Business Organization of the Teachers Council on a commercial scale for nationwide distribution at low price. By 1977, 80 % of equipment for the new curricula was being made in Thailand (compared with 9 % before). Equipment was supplied fqr complete courses. The cost of a classroom set for physics in 1976 was about $900 for grade 11 and $650 for grade 12. Calculated per student, the costs were up to $4 for physics, $2.5 for chemistry, $3.5 for biology and $1.2 for general science. The total value of equipment distributed until 1977 was about $1.4 million. 77 IPST produces both teachers' and students' kits for chemistry, biology, physics, general science and physical and biological science. The kits can be used without special laboratory facilities. Schools in Thailand are required to buy local equipment. Problems in purchase of consumable materials have been reported due to an increase in enrollment without an increase of the budget (Maddock, 1982; APEID, 1981) IPST equipment designs are included in the UNESCO resource document on low-cost equipment for science and technology education (Lowe, 1985). The performance of IPST has been praised by the British Council as a good example of donor support coupled with a long term commitment from the govemnment, and with stable funding (Young, 1989). 78 UGANDA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 16.3 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 236 GNP per capita, 1990: $220 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 4.4 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 52 Primary level pupillteacher ratio, 1989: 35 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 77 Secondary: 13 Tertiary: I University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 18 The Science and Technology Equipment Production Unit (STEPU) was established in 1987 at the National Curriculum Development Center as a governmental organization for design and production of low-cost equipment from locally available materials, repair and service of the equipment, in-service training of teachers and technicians, and research and development in the area of equipment design and development. The activities started with maintenance and repair service for science equipment in secondary schools. STEPU has a central workshop and a mobile unit for operations throughout the country. In-service training of science teachers and laboratory technicians in the use, handling, maintenance and repair of equipment is provided. It is the only training of the lknd in Uganda. Production of science education equipment at STEPU is limited to 5 simple items for chemistry, 10 items for physics and dissection needles for biology (STEPU, 1991). Major support from the World Bank can not be expected, and further expansion of the project is questionable (Holsinger, 1993). The situation is complicated by the fast growth in the number of secondary schools. Before the civil war the secondary schools had relatively well equipped science laboratories. There is a feeling among local educators that fully equipped traditional laboratories are necessary for secondary science. Ugandan lists of essential chemicals and equipment for 0-level and A- level subjects include equipment for biology at $12,500 and $26,500 per class for 0-level and A-level respectively, $15,000 and $32,000 for chemistry, and $34,000 and $46,500 for physics. The consumables would cost $8,500 and $11,500 per class per year. These estimates are high even for developed countries (Ilukor et al., 1990). Although there was interest in Uganda for Zimbabwe experience with the ZIM-SCI project (UNESCO, 1989), no action was reported. 79 ZAMBIA BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 8.1 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 753 GNP per capita, 1990: $420 Total expenditure on education, 1990 (percent of GNP): 1.9 Adult illiteacy, 1990 (percent): 27 Primaiy level pupil/teacher ratio, 1989: 44 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 95 (net: 80) Secondary: 20 Tertiary: 2 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 24 The problems that are typical for many developing countries, are also present in science teaching in Zambia. Teachers are to a large extent inadequately prepared. More than 60 % of the secondary schools do not have laboratory facilities. Even when they have, there is a general lack of equipment, and expendable items are in short supply (Varghese, 1988). To improve the situation, a joint project of the Government of Zambia, UNESCO and UNDP has been started. The National Science Center with the Teacher's Center was established to produce low-cost equipment for primary schools, and to provide training and support for teachers. Twenty items have been developed and produced by 1991 (out of 35 planned), and distributed to 224 schools at no cost. They include test tubes, flasks, stoppers, lenses, beakers, funnels, measuring cylinders, retort stands, test tube holders, etc. Two satellite centers have been established for the production, testing and distribution of the equipment. They successfully organized one-week residential workshops for primary school teachers. Future workshops for production of improvised equipment are foreseen, and four to six new centers are going to be developed. Mobile workshops for maintenance and repair of equipment were also reported successful. They operate as an extension of the satellite centers. However, a number of problems have been encountered. Teachers still lack knowledge and confidence in the use of equipment. The attitude towards low-cost materials is negative. Teaching is in some cases going on as before,\ even if the equipment is available, since many teachers have not yet received the necessary in-service training (Shaikh, 1991). 8o ZIMBABWE BASIC INDICATORS (UNESCO, 1991; World Bank, 1992) Population, mid-1990 (million): 9.8 Area (thousands of square kilometers): 391 GNP per capita, 1990: S640 Total expenditure on education, 1988 (percent of GNP): 8.7 Adult illiteracy, 1990 (percent): 33 Primary level pupilteacher ratio, 1989: 38 Percentage of age group enrolled in education, 1989: Primary: 125 (net: 100) Secondary: 52 Tertiary: 6 University students in natural sciences, engineering and agriculture, 1988 (percent): 7 After independence in 1980, enrollment into primary and secondary schools was increased immensely. Secondary school enrollment which was 66,215 in 1979, reached 695,882 in 1989. To cope with that magnitude of expansion, a number of projects were launched. To support science education in secondary schools, the Zimbabwe Secondary School Science Project (ZIM-SCI) was started in 1981. It is described as Case Study 1 on pages 21, to 29. 81 APPENDIX B SELECTED SOURCE DOCUMENTS FOR LOW-COST SCIENCE EQUIPMENT MANUFACTURE AND EXPERIMENTATION APEID, 1984: Low-cost Educational Materials: How To Make, How To Use, How To Adapt. Inventory, Volume m, UNESCO ROEAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 126 p. Designs of 61 piece of equipment and material for primary schools (not all for science; some items are for secondary schools). APEID, 1982: Low-cost Educational Materials: How To Make, How To Use, How To Adapt. Inventory, Volume II, UNESCO ROEAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 123 p. Designs of 52 pieces of equipment and materials for primary schools (not all for science; some items are for secondary schools). APEID, 1980: Low-cost Educational Matexials: How To Make, How To Use, How To Adapt. Inventory, Volume I, UNESCO ROEAP, Bangkok, Thailand, 157 p. Designs of 87 pieces of equipment and materials for primary schools (not all for science; some items are for secondary schools). Fogliani, C.L. (Ed.), 1985: Fabrication of Low Cost Instrumentation. Proceedings of the workshop, Mitchell College of Advanced Education Bathust, Australia June 29 - July 6, 1985, 82 p. Instructions for work, experiments and designs of 8 pieces of equipment Fogliani, C.L. (Ed.), 1984: Low Cost Locally Produced Equipment. Proceedings of the workshop, Mitchell College of Advanced Education Bathurst, Australia, September 16-23, 1984, 202 p. Instructions for work, experiments and designs of 12 pieces of equipment Gonzalez, F.V., Rebolledo, G.M., Candelle, D., 1990: Diseno de Recursos para Actividades Sencillas de Quimica. Cuadernillo No. 1, CENAMEC, Caracas, Venezuela, 40 p. Designs of 21 piece of equipment for chemistry course. Gonzalez, F.V., Rebolledo, G.M., Candelle, D., 1990: Actividades Sencillas de Laboratorio. Cuadernillo No. 2, CENAMEC, Caracas, Venezuela, 40 p. Experinents with low-cost equipment for teaching of chemistry. Lockard, J.D. (Ed.), 1972: Guidebook to Constrction Inexpensive Teaching Equipment, Volume 1: Chemistry. Science Teaching Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA. 82 Lockard, J.D. (Ed.), 1972: Guidebook to Construction Inexpensive Teaching Equipment, Volume 2: Biology. Science Teaching Center, University of Maxyland, College Park, MD, USA. Lockard, J.D. (Ed.), 1972: Guidebook to Construction Inexpensive Teaching Equipment, Volume 3: Physics. Science Teaching Center, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA. Lowe, N.K. (Ed.), 1986: Low Cost Equipment for Science and Technology Education. Volume I[, UNESCO, Paris, ED.86/WS.110, pages numbered separately for each piece of equipment Designs of 66 pieces of equipment. Lowe, N.K. (Ed.), 1985: Low Cost Equipment for Science and Technology Education. Volume I, UNESCO, Paris, ED.851WS.60, pages numbered separately for each piece of equipment. Designs of 84 pieces of equipment Mzumbe Book Project, 1990: Source Book for Teaching Chemistry to Beginners with Locally Available Materials. Mzumbe Book Project, Mzumbe, Tanzania, 102 p. Designs of equipment (30 items), instructions for manufacture and over 100 experiments for the whole course in school chemistry. NIER, 1982: Low-cost Aids for Elementary ScieDce Teaching in Asia and the Pacific. National Institute for Educational Research, Tokyo, Japan, 169 p. Designs of 33 pieces and kits of equipment and experiments for 4 science topics. Sanchez, RG., 1987: Quimica Experimental Simplificada. GTZ, Eschborn, Germany, 133 p. Designs of equipment and experiments for 20 topics of school chemistry. Sane, KYV., West, D.C., 1991: Locally Produced Low Cost Equipment for Teaching of Chemistry. Publication Division, University of Delhi, 213 p. + 29 p. (preface). Designs for electronic equipment (pH meter, conductometer, polarimeter) and experiments. Talisayon, V.M. (Ed.), 1988: Low-cost Equipment for College Physics. Science Education Institute, Department of Science and Technology, Manila, Philippines, 94 p. Designs of equipment and experiments for 14 topics of college physics. Thulstrup, E.W. (Ed.), 1988: Teaching Chemistry at a Low Cost, Proceedings, UNESCO Workshop, Karislunde Strand, Denmark, March 17-20, 1988, 174 p. Includes examples of low-cost experiments and equipment, as well as general guidelines for their development 83 Thulstrup, E.W., Waddington, D. (Eds.), 1983: Locally Produced Laboratory Equipment for Chemical Education. Workshop Proceedings, Copenhagen, Denmark, August 11-17, 1983, 296 p. Includes over 15 designs of locally produced equipment for chemistry teaching, as well as general guidelines for local production of equipment. UNESCO BREDA, 1980: Inventory of Low-Cost Didactic Materials Locally Produced in Africa. UNESCO Regional Office for Education in Africa (BREDA), Dakar, Senegal, 95 p. Designs of 85 pieces of equipment and materials for primary and secondary levels, list of resource materials, list of 44 institutions producing didactic materials in 19 African countries University of Cape Coast, 1989: Draft of a Ghanaian Science Teacher's Source Book. Report, Pilot Workshop Learning by Doing with Locally Available Materials, Saltpond, Ghana, January 16-27, 1989, 78 p. Designs of equipment and experiments for 72 topics of school science. University of Philippines, 1986: Improvised Science Equipment for Secondary Science. Institute for Science and M5athematics Education Development, Quezon City, Philippines, 99 p. Designs of 17 pieces and kits of equipment and experiments for 4 science subjects. 84 APPENDIX C SELECTED JOURNALS A very limited list of joumals where individual authors are publishing their designs of low- cost equipment and experiments, as well as innovations in curricula and teaching methods, is presented in Table 19. The list is based on the search in ERIC database and international availability of the journals. Many national journals where teachers publish their experiences are in existence, but their availability is limited. Table 19: Selected journals Title and ISSN Address of the publisher Frequency American Biology Teacher National Association of Biology Teachers, Inc. monthly 11250 Roger Bacon Dr., Ste. 19 (Jan.-May, Reston, VA 22090, USA Sep.-Nov.) US ISSN 0002-7685 Tel.: (703) 471 1134 Computing Teacher International Society for Technology in Education 8/year University of Oregon 1787 Agate St Eugene, OR 97403-9905, USA US ISSN 0278-9175 Tel.: (503) 346 4414 Fax.: (503) 346 5890 Instructor Scholastic Inc. 9/year 730 Broadway New York, NY 10003, USA US ISSN 1049-5851 Tel.: (212) 505 3000 International Journal of Taylor & Francis Ltd. 5/year Science Education Rankine Rd Basingstoke, Hants RG24 OPR, England, UK UK ISSN 0950-0693 Tel.: (0256) 840 366 Fax.: (0256) 479 438 Journal of Biological Education Institute of Biology quarterly 20 Queensberiy Place London SW7 2DZ, England, UK LUK ISSN 0021-9266 Tel.: (071) 581 8333 Joumal of Chemical Education American Chemical Society monthly Division of Chemical Education 1155 16th St N.W. Washington, DC 20036, USA US ISSN 0021-9584 Tel.: (202) 872 4363 Fax.: (202) 872 4615 Journal of College Science National Science Teachers Association 6/year Teaching 1742 Connecticut Ave. N.W. Washington, DC 20009, USA US ISSN 0047-23 1X Tel.: (202) 328 5800 85 Table 19 (continued) Title and ISSN Address of the publisher Freuency Journal of Geological National Association of Geology Teachers, Inc. 5/year Education Box 5443 Bellingham, WA 98227-5443, USA US ISSN 0022-1368 Tel.: (206) 676 3587 Fax.: (206) 734 9745 Learning (Year) Sprnghouse Corporation 9/year 1111 Bethlehem Pike (Aug.-May) Spzinghouse, PA 19477, USA US ISSN 0090-3167 Tel.: (215) 646 8700 Physics Education Institute of Physics Publishing 6/year Techno House, Redcliffe Way Bristol BS1 6 NX, England, UK UK ISSN 0031-9120 Tel.: (0272) 297 481 Fax.: (0272) 294 318 Physics Teacher (College Park) American Association of Physics Teachers 9/year 5112 Berwin Rd. 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