PHREE Background Paper Series For Official Use Only Document No. PHREE/91/36R James Adams T.A 64R I-6-175 Annual Operational Review: Fiscal 1990 Education and Training" Education and Employment Division Population and Human Resources Department February 1991 htis publcaion sfas ma a am oudu for bacvound pvduca pom the ongoing work progem of poliq research and analsis of the Education and Employmen Divisin AL d Populaton and Human Rtsoe DepamOn of sh Wortd Bank 7is document has a smt,ed dibudon and may be usd by recipents onl in se pomnce of dhi officalf d4..s lts consnts may nootu be disclosed ithoutt Worl Bank authotimdon. o The Intemational Bank for Recon1nc1 on and Developmentl The Worid BanI4 1991 CONTENTS EXECUTIVE S U MMARY ....................,. .........,.i A. Overview of Lending for Education and Training in FY 1990,... i B. Impact of Education Policy Papers on Projects and Sector Work. iii C. Recomendations .................. . ., v 1. INTRODUCTION. 1 2. OVERVIEW OF LENDING FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FY 1990. 2 A. Overall Lending For Education and Training . . . 2 B. Projected Education I.ending, FY 1991-94 . . 2 C. FY 1990 Education Projects Lending Trends. 2 1. Lending Trends by Type of Operation. 2 2. Lending Trends by Region. 4 3. FY 1990 Education Investments by Level and Type of Education ..........................,,, 6 4. FY 1990 Education Investments by Region. 7 5. Investments by Category of Expenditure. 8 6. Special Characteristics of FY 1990 Education Projects. 9 D. Project-Related Training ..17 E. Education Components in Non-Education Projects . .19 3. IMPACT OF EDUCATION POLICY PAPERS ON WORLD BANK PROJECT OBJECTIVES AND SECTOR WORK .20 A. Methodology of the Analysis .21 B. Preparation and Dissemination of Policy Papers .21 C. Policy Paper on Education In Sub-Saharan Africa .23 D. Policy Paper on Primary Education .30 E. Policy Paper on Vocational and Technical Education and Training 37 F. Impact of Policy Papers on FY 1990 Sector Work .41 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..49 A. Bank Lending for Education and Training in FY 1990 .49 B. Major Policy Trends .50 C. Recommendations .53 Contributors to this Review include Birger Fredriksen, Setsuko Oiyama, Omporn Regel, Rosemary Rinaldi, Christopher Thomas, and J. Price Gittinger. Annexes: 1: FY 1990 jducation Sector Projects and Recnal Distribution 56 2: Distribution of Education Loan/Credits and Projects by Region, FY 1963-1994 57 3: Proje and Sector Work Rcviewd 58 4: Comparison of Poliy Reaommendations in Educadon in Su-&Saharan AfJica and Pfmawy Edwcadon 60 Text Tables: 2.1: World Dank Lcnding for Eduation and Training, FY 1980-90 3 2.2. Projected Total Bank Lending for Education Projects, FY 1991-94 3 2.3: IBRD/IDA Shares of Lending for Education Projecs, FY 1960.94 4 2A Regional Shares of Education Lending, FY 1963-94 5 2.5: Reional Shares of Education Projects, FY 1963.94 5 2.6. Distribution of Invsments by Type and Leve1 of Education. FY 1988-90 6 2.7: Distribution of Regiori Investments by Type a nd Level of Education, FY I�90 7 2.8: Distribution of Investments by Category of Expendituru, FY 197990 8 2.89 Distribution of Regioral Investments by Category of Expenditure, FY 1990 8 210 Lending for Psonect-Reoated Trnining, by Reagon and Sector, FY 191890 18 3.1: Proportin of Projectsr Adopting Sub-Saharan Africa PoliS Recommendations 26 32: Avrotge Number of Proic Metsum Per ProAect in Sub-Saharan Africa, FY 1980, 19P5, 1990 27 3.2. Average Number of Policy Measures Taken Per Priman Education Project, FY 1980, 1985, 1990 32 3.4: Implementation of Policies Recommended in Primary Education Paper, Not Contained in Sub-Saharan Africa Policy Paper, FY 1980, 1985, 1990 34 3.5: Implementation of Voctional and Technical Education and Training Policie FY 1980, 1985, 1990 40 3.56: Policies Recommended in Educadon in S - Saharan Alkica Included in Sector Reports, FY 1980, 1985, 1990 44 3.67 Policies Recommended in Improvng P y Educadon Included in Sector Reports, FY 1980, 1985, 1990 46 328 Policies Recommended in Skilk for ProductW. Pociks for Vocadonal and Technical Educauon and raining in Deveoping Counrks Included in Sector Reports, FY 1960, 1985, 1990 48 Text Boxes 1: Education Sector Adjustment: Mm Ghana Second Education Sector Adjustment Credit 28 2: MEdcrcs to Ecqualize the Leaming Ptoces Te 1990 Gambia Educ tion Sector Projedt 35 3: More Speciric Interventions to Rnch Project Objective1 PrimGa Education in Prkistan, 195990 36 4: BaMonreng S c Intion and Trainingc SPr Lnka General EducPtion Pto n i 39 4: ImpBoving IEdruction al Efricencyi India TechniaGan Education Project 41 6. Unking Health nd Education: Mexico Basic Education and Chile Social Development Studies 45 7: Changing to an Employment-Oriented, Demand Driven System: Togo Technical Education nd Vocational Training Prject 48 Text FiAlure 1: ALksoctio of Lending for Project Related Tr ining by Mode, PY 1983-89 is EXECUTIVE SUMMARY i. This FY 1990 Annual Operational Review for Education and Training looks first at the education lending pattern for FY 1990, then examines the impact of education policy papers on World Bank project objectives and sector work. It concludes with several recommendations for future policy work. A. Overview of Lending for Education and Training in FY 1990 ii. World Bank lending for education and training in FY 1990 was the largest in the Bank's history. Lending commitments reached US$2,062 million, or 9.9 percent of the total for all sectors, up from 6.3 percent in FY 1989 and 8.5 percent in FY 1985, the previous maximum share. iii. Of the total amount, US$1,487 million was for education projects (21 loans in 18 countries), US$451 million for project-related training, and US$123 million for education in non-education projects. Projections indicate lending for education projects during the period FY 1991-94 will average about US$1,700 million. This means that the sharp upturn in education project lending noted in FY 1990 will be maintained in the coming years. Thus, the Bank has moved to implement the decision to double its lending to the education sector from the FY 1987-89 average, as announced by Mr. Conable at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, in March 1990. Lending for education projects as a proportion of overall Bank lending is, however, expected to decline from the 7.3 percent achieved in FY 1990 to an average of 5.9 percent in FY 1991-94. iv. The distribution of lending between Bank loans and IDA credits was exceptional in FY 1990, with two-thirds of investments through credits; this can be attributed to four large projects in the IDA countries of Bangladesh, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan. The lending pattern was also unusual in that there was no education loan in the LAC region, although two social sector projects contained sizeable education components. About one quarter of all FY 1990 lending was for primary education, continuing the increasing trend of recent years. The combination of a doubling in total education lending and continued increases in the share of this lending devoted to primary education is expected to result in a tripling of the amount lent for primary education by FY 1994. About one third of lending was for higher education; this is slightly above the long-term average for this level. About one quarter of the lending was for vocational and technical education at all levels (overlapping with the proportion devoted to higher education), and 15 percent was for teacher training. v. Investments in technical assistance accounted for 23 percent of FY 1990 total project costs. In Asia, 80 percent of the technical assistance was earmarked for training and only 20 percent for national and foreign expert services; in Africa the proportion was reversed with 78 percent of technical assistance for expert services and 22 percent for training. i vi. Education lending in FY 1990 continued a slow trend toward diversification of lending instruments. Of the 21 projects approved, three are sector adjustment loans, four are "pure" sector investment loans, and 14 are specific investment loans. However, while specific investment loans remain the dominant lending instrument in the sector, there is a clear move towards such loans becoming "partial" sector investment loans, where Borrowers become extensively involved in the appraisal and supervision of sub-projects, based on criteria agreed upon with the Bank. Furthermore, despite the unusually high number of sector adjustment loans in FY 1990, full-fledged or partial sector investment loans remain the preferred lending instrument for promoting education sector reforms and adjustment. The Nigeria and Ghana Sector Adjustment loans deviated from established Bank practice of barring local cost financing under adjustment operations. Local cost financing is normally only available in sector investment or hybrid operations. It was justified, exceptionally, in the Ghana and Nigeria operations on pragmatic grounds to help ensure successful program implementation. vii. Education projects in FY 1990 continued recent patterns of promoting increased use of cost recovery, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels; specific policy measures to protect the education sector during this period of increased financial stringency; increased participation by girls and women; and greater curriculum emphasis on environment and science and technology. Almost half the FY 1990 education projects had co-financing from a wide range of multilateral and bilateral sources; this compares to about one-third of the projects in the recent past. Increasingly, World Bank projects serve as a framework for coordinating donor support to the education sector, especially in IDA countries and for primary education. This role is expected to increase in the wake of the 1990 World Conference on Education for All. viii. The need to improve project sustainability was em"hasized in the CY 1987 and CY 1988 reports by the Operations Evaluation Department on project performance and evaluation results. Special attention to building local capacity through increased use of local fellowships and consultancies was urged. Project designs should take better account of macroeconomic policies, resource mobilization and the development of national strategies. Several of the FY 1990 education sector Staff Appraisal Reports reflect these recommendations. ix. Lending for project-related training (PRT) amounted to US$451 million in FY 1990, the largest amount ever, and a large increase over the average of US$277 million over the last five years. However, the trends toward increased emphasis on building local institutional capacity noted in the FY 1987 Annual Revlew of Education and Training have been reversed, as reflected in a plateau in support for local training costs, and a decline in fellowships, after the steady increase of FY 1985-87. Support for training consultancy services, which declined sharply in the FY 1985- 87 period, have begun to rise again. These patterns may reflect a much expanded lending program without corresponding increases in staff resources. B. I'mact of Education Policy Papers on Pro1ects and Sector Work x. Since 1988 the Education and Employment Division of the Population and Human Resources Department has isst'ed three policy studies dealing with education in developing countries: Educatlon In Sub-Saha ran Africa -- Policies for Adjustment, Revltalization, and Expansion (1988) * Primary Education (1990) * Skills for Productivity: Policies for Vocatlonal and Technical Education and Trainlng in Developing Countries (Available only in draft, but widely circulated.) xi. This review examines the impact of these policy papers on Bank project objectives and sector work. A total of 54 Staff Appraisal Reports from FY 1980, 1985, and 1990, and 27 Sector Reports from FY 1990 were reviewed. Each was compared to a list of policy recommendations drawr. from the three policy papers. The FY 1980 and 1985 reports were examined to determine the policy focus in the earlier part of the decade. FY 1990 Staff Appraisal and Sector Reports were reviewed to determine how the policy papers may have impacted current and future project objectives. The methodology used does not address the question of whether project design was appropriate to ensure effective implementation of the policy recommendations. Twenty-seven reports were relevant to Education in Sub- Saharan Afrlca; 42 to Primary Education; and 40 to Skills for Productivity: Policies for Vocational and Technlcal Education and TraLning in Developing Countries. xii. The major policy thrusts of the three papers have clearly been reflected in Bank project objectives and sector work. This suggests that the policy recommendations are sound and that they strike a responsive chord among Bank education professionals and policymakers in member countries. The congruence between recommendations of policy papers and project content is largely the result of the rrocess through which the papers were prepared. Research conducted by PHREE staff and contributions from operational staff were an essential element of this process. Because of their continued dialogue with government officials, operational staff have first-hand knowledge of best practices and innovative approaches in the design and implementation of education policies. One of the most important functions of policy papers is to codify and disseminate this knowledge to a wider audience. To a considerable degree, therefore, the process of preparing the policy papers is as important, or perhaps even more important, than formal publication. xiii. Several major policy thrusts common to all three of the education policy papers were increasingly reflected in education projects and sector work. First, there has been a continuing emphasis throughout the decade on improving the quality of education and on enhancing the efficiency of resource use in the sector. A second theme was increasing access to iii primary education by renewed progress toward universal primary education and through equalizing opportunities for disadvantaged groups, particularly girls and women. Third, there was a very noticeable trend toward greater cost-sharing. Finally, there was substantially greater emphasis on improved educational management and planning. xiv. The proportion of projects reflecting these policy recommenda- tions increased through the decade, and the policy measures included in projects to implement these recommendations were greatly broadened. The FY 1990 sector reports also reflected the influence of the policy papers in their content and recommendations, and seven specifically cite the papers. xv. Apart trom their effect on projects and sector work, education policy papers serve an important role in dialogues with Borrowers and other donors. This aspect is particularly well illustrated by Education in Sub-Saharan Africa which has helped frame the education policy debate in Africa through the establishment of the "Task Force of Donors to African Education," in which all major donors participate. xvi. Policy recommendations which went well beyond traditional educational activities did not fare as well as those of a more traditional educational nature. For instance, only 17 percent of the FY 1990 primary education projects responded to the recommendation to address student health and nutrition problems, hardly changed from the 14 percent of the TY 1980 projects. However, a review of sector reports and projects currently under preparation reveals considerable efforts to integrate health and nutrition activities in future education projects. Thus, rather than a rejection of such measures, this slow adoption may simply be an indication of the need for more time and effort to introduce measures that do not represent traditional education activities. xvii. An interesting phenomenon is the timing between the publication of the policy papers and the inclusion of their recommendations in Bank projects. The first of the papers -- Education in Sub-Saharan Africa -- has been available since FY 1988, more than adequate time for its policy recommendations to become widely known and included in projects. Even more interesting is the fact that the policy recommendations in the other two papers are already being incorporated in Bank education projects and sector work (even though one was formally published in September 1990, and the other was available only In draft). This demonstrates not only that the policies recommended in both papers are widely seen as appropriate, but also that the thrusts of the two papers have become known by means other than formal publication. Obviously, the extensive consultations that went into each paper have played an important role in making their recommendations known to Bank human resources development staff and to member government policymakers. iv C. Recommendatigns xviii. Based on the analysis in this Review, several recommendations emerge: Education and training as a proportlon of overall Bank lending. During the period FY 1991-94 lending for education projects is expected to average about US$1.7 billion per year, i.e. somewhat above the cooitm.nts (US$1.5 billion) made by the President of the World Bank at the World Conference on Education for All. This would constitute about 6.0 percent of total Bank lending during this period. While this is well above the average of the 1980s (4.5 percent), it represents a marked decline from the 7.3 percent reached in FY 1990. Given the consensus throughout the development community of the key role played by education in the development process, and the growing Bank commitment to supporting the sector, efforts should be made to reverse the projected decline. Furthermore, it may be desirable to reduce the wide annual fluctuations in the level of education project lending, projected to range from about US$1.3 billion in FY 1991 to US$2.1 billion in FY 1992. * Lending strategies. The financing of salaries and other locally incurred costs constitutes the main constraint on further expansion of basic education in many low-income countries. Effective implementation of Bank-supported education development programs may therefore require not only careful assessment of these programs' recurrent costs implications, but also full use of the flexibility provided in existing OHS with respect to their financing. Local cost financing is currently permissible under sector investment operations and investment components of hybrids, but not under adjustment operations. While certain local cost expenditures may be judged to be essential for achieving adjustment program objectives, financing of such expenditures should as a rule be secured through use of conditionality to ensure that necessary funds are allocated in national budgets, or by use of hybrids. This should preclude the use of funds generated by foreign exchange released under adjustment operations for local cost financing. Implementation of major education reforms is generally difficult, always time- and energy-consuming, and often costly. These are among the main reasons why full-fledged or partial sector investment loans remain the preferred lending instrument for promoting reforms and adjustment in the education sector. To further increase the effectiveness of this instrument, serious consideration should be given to extending it by (a) encouraging V donors and borrowers to agree on a 5-10 year action plan and expenditure program for the education sector, (b) providing financial support for the program through disbursements made in tranches upon successful implementation of successlve phases of the plan of action. Funds thus released should be available for any part of the expenditure program, including budgetary support for teacher salaries. Effectlvneas of pollcy papers. This analysis has demonstrated a high level of congruence between the recommendations in the three policy papers examined and the content of education projects and sector reports. Thus, policy papers -a and especially the process through which they are prepared -- play an important role in keeping Bank policy abreast of changing circumstances. In particular, they are an effective vehicle for identifying, codifying, and disseminating policy change. This role is particularly important at the present time when issues addressed and approaches used in Bank projects are evolving rapidly and where there is little professional contact and cross- fertilization among the many, small PHR divisions in Operations. Therefore policy papers should continue to be a tool for adapting and improving the quality of Bank sector work, lending and policy advice. i Project deslgn and effective implementation. Although this analysis has demonstrated that the recommendations have found their way into Staff Appraisal Reports, it has not attempted to determine whether project design is appropriate to ensure effective implementation. Ipdeed, in some cases Staff Appraisal Reports are vague regarding not only project design, but also implementation and evaluation mechanisms. This may be an indication of another problem not examined in this report, i.e., a need to strengthen the capability of staff to translate policy recommendations into projects that can be effectively implemented. Expanded education lending and staff turnover have resulted in recruitment of many staff who are new to the Bank, and thus not familiar with the design of Bank projects, or new to the sector and to education issues. Many staff and managers have expressed concern over an increase in the "deprofessionalization" of the sector. Thus, while comfort can be taken in the observed congruence between policy recommendations and project content, to ensure that projects actually have the desired impact, more effort needs to be devoted to staff development activities aimed at br. dging the gap between wh to do and hb_ to do it. * Heasures other than standard educational activities. If measures other than standard educational activities are to be recommended in future policy papers -- such as nutritional supplements -- then particular care should be taken to ensure that these mea- sures are understood and accepted by Bank operational staff and vi national policymakers, and additional means utilized to assure that the recommendations are translated into appropriate project design. Consultatlvo process. Future education policy papers should be prepared using an extensive process of consultation at all stages with Bank staff, recognized experts in the field, including those in developing countries, other donor agencies, and policymakers in member developing countries. * * * VU 1, INTRODUCTION 1.1. In recognition of the crucial role played by education in the development process, the World Bank has, during the last three decades, been a major investor in education in member developing countries. During FY 1990, nearly 10 percent of all lending supported education and training. 1.2. The World Bank invests in education through two major approaches: * Education nrojects largely devoted to educational development. These support primary education, general and technical education at the xecondary and tertiary levels, and vocational education and training in specific occupational fields, in both secondary schools and in various nonformal training programs. Project-related training components in non-education projects which seek to ensure that project objectives are not constrained by lack of adequately-skilled staff. Increasingly, these project-related components are being used to address broader, and longer-term training needs than just those arising from a single project. 1.3. Experience with education lending increasinglv has led the Bank to engage in dialogues with governments about broad policy issues in educational development, and to design its lending to support substantial policy changes. The major thrusts of this policy-based lending have been to expand educational opportunities, especially at the primary level and for disadvantaged groups including girls; to improve quality at all levels; and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of resource use in the education sector. Other policy elements commonly found in Bank projects include management improvement, strengthened planning capability, mnd greater cost recovery as a means to expand educational opportunities 1.4. In previous years, the Annual Review has examined a selected topic in depth. For FY 1987, the topic was training; for FY 1988, lending for policy change; and for FY 1989, higher education. This Review focusses on the impact of three recently-prepared education policy papers on Bank education projects and sector work. 1.5. The Review starts by examining the FY 1990 lending for education and training, comparing the FY 1990 program to past Bank lending for education. It then traces in detail the impact of the three education policy papers on Bank project design as reflected in Staff Appraisal Reports and on Bank analytical sector work in education. It concludes by providing several recommendations for education lending and lending strategies as well as for approaches to future policy research. 1.6. The Review traces the impact of policy papers on the content of education projects by comparing recommendations from three policy papers with that of all editcation projects approved in FY 1980, 1985 and 1990. The Review does not examine whether the policies included in the FY 1980 and 1985 projects were actually implemented, nor whether the mechanisms proposed in the project design were appropriate to ensure effective project implementation. These important questions are outside the scope of this Review and deserve separate study. * * * 1 2. OVERVIEW OF LENDING FOR EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN FY 1990 2.1. World Bank lending for education and training in FY 1990 was the largest in the Bank's history. Lending commitments reached US$2,062 million, or 9.9 percent of the total for all sectors. This was up from 6.3 percent in FY 1989 and 8.5 percent in FY 1985, the year in which the previous maximum share was reached (table 2.1). A. Overall Lending For Education and Training 2.2. Education lending in FY 1990 was composed of US$1,487 million for education projects tuj. 54 percent from FY 1989), US$451 million for project-related training (up 39 percent from FY 1989) and US$123 million for education in non-education projects. FY 1990 represented a sharp upward turn in the stagnating trend during the previous five-year period. The Bank has thus moved toward the increased emphasis on education lending called for in the Accelerated Education Development Initiative, as well as the decision to double Bank lending for education projects from its FY 1987-89 average of US$756 million announced by World Bank President Barber Conable at the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand, in March 1990. B. Projected Education Lending. FY 1991-94 2.3. Lending projections for education projects for the next four years show wide annual fluctuations, with an annual average of about US$1,700 million (table 2.2). This would continue the trend for increased lending for education projects, although the share of such lending in total Bank lending (6.0 percent) would on average be well below the 7.3 percent achieved in FY 1990. No projections are available for lending for project-related training or education in non-education projects. C. FY 1990 Education Projects Lending Trends 2.4. Both lending by type of operation and by region showed unusual patterns in FY 1990. 1. Lending Trends by TvDe of Operatio' 2.5. The distribution of lending between Bank loans and IDA credits was exceptional in FY 1990, with two-thirds of investments through credits totalling US$957 million (table 2.3). This can be attributed to four large projects in the IDA countries of Bangladesh, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan that accounted for 66 percent of all FY 1990 education IDA credits. Although there are large annual fluctuations, on average the distribution of lending remains stable, with 40 percent of lending for education projects through IDA credits for each of the two five-year periods FY 1985-89 and FY 1990-94. A detailed list of the FY 1990 projects is found in annex 1. 2 Table 2.1. World Bank Lending for Education and Training, FY1980-90 Total Lending for Project Relsted Educ. & Training i Education Lending Training ................... ................... . .......... ................... ............................................... Fiscal X Snk Xl nk X Bank Period (USS Nil) Lending (USS Nil) Lending CUSS Nil) Lending FY80-84 3,981 6.0 2,951 4.4 1,031 1.5 FY85-89 6,056 6.8 4,044 4.5 1,387 1.6 FY85 1,217 8.5 937 6.5 239 1.6 FY86 1,377 8.4 840 5.1 289 1.7 FY87 987 5.6 440 2.5 297 1.7 FY88 1,130 5.9 864 4.5 236 1.2 FY89 1,344 6.3 964 4.5 324 1.5 FY90 2,061.5 9.9 1487 7.3 451 2.4 jI Includes education cowponents in non-education projects. Table 2.2. Projected Total Bank Lending for Education Projects, FY 1991-94 Education Projects Lending Percent of Total Average Education (US$ Mil) Bank/IDA Lending Loan/Credit (US$M) FY91 1,256 5.1 67 FY92 2,065 7.4 69 FY93 1,614 5.9 50 FY94 1,873 5.4 60 FY91-94 6,808 5.9 61 Source: MIS projections, August 6, 1990. 3 Table 2.3. IBRD/IDA Shares of Lending for Education Projects, FY 1980-94 FYo0- FY85- FY84 FY89 FY87 FYN FTn9 FY90 FY91 FY92 FYM FY94 IRD for Education (US$J1) 1,951 2,436 174 655 515 531 755 1,474 987 1,320 IDA for Education (USWN) 1,000 1,608 266 209 449 957 S02 591 62, 553 ID Share of All IU.D/IDA Lendins (t) 75 79 8o 77 77 73 78 75 75 76 A Shore of All IUD/IDA Lending (1) 25 21 20 23 23 27 22 25 25 25 IID Share of All 66 60 39 76 53 36 60 71 61 71 Education (1) IDA Shre of All 34 40 61 24 47 64 40 29 39 30 Education (X) IIRD Zducation Share of All IDRD (2) 3.9 3.5 1.2 4.6 3.1 3.6 3.9 7.1 4.6 5.1 IDA Education Share of All IDA (2) 5.9 3.4 7.6 4.7 3.9 17.4 9.0 5.4 8.9 6.5 Avg. IERD Education Loan (USS nil.) 39 55 35 73 52 66 76 82 92 78 Avg. IERD Loan All Sectors (US$ nLl.) 71 78 112 125 94 125 128 117 126 117 Avg. IDA Education Credit (USS nLi.) 22 34 30 23 37 68 56 49 39 40 Avg. IDA Credit All Sectors (USS nil.) 33 27 32 45 30 45 47 47 47 51 Note: Data for projected years include reserve and standby projects. Source: MIS data as of August 6, 1990. 2. Lending Trends by Region 2.6. The US$1,487 million for education project lending during FY 1990 was made through 21 projects. Tables 2.4 and 2.5 show the regional shares of lending and number of projects over time. Annex 2 gives detailed breakdowns by dollar amounts and number of projects from FY 1963 through FY 1989, with projections to FY 1994. 2.7. In contrast with typical lending patterns, there was no education project in the LAC region in FY 1990. However, education components were included in two social sector projects: in the Bolivia Social Investment Fund (US$29 million for primary education and nonformal adult training), and the Jamaica Social Sector Investment Loan (US$27 million for primary education). (See the discussion of these two projects in paragraphs 2.45 to 2.49.) These projects are categorized under the PHN sector within the Bank. The Asia region continued to increase its already high share of education lending (61 percent) and number of projects (45 percent), with two-thirds of its new loans for higher-level skill training in China, India, Indonesia, and Korea. The Bank's emphasis on lending for education in the Africa region led to a more than doubled number of projects from the low of four in FY 1989 to nine in FY 1990, and an increase in lending amount from US$88 million in FY 1989 to US$351 million in FY 1990. This represents 24 percent of total Bank education lending and 41 percent of all FY 1990 projects. The EMENA region maintained the same share of number of projects as in FY 1989, although its share of lending dropped sharply to 16 percent (US$233 million). 4 2.8. Projections for FY91-94 show a sharp decline in lending to Asia after FY91 and a sharp increase for LAC. After a decline in FY91, the share of lending to EMENA and Africa are expected to stabilize at levels near those achieved in FY 1990. Table 2.4. Regional Shares of Education Lending, FY 1963-94 (Percent) Africa Asia EMENA LAC FY63-69 37 17 24 23 FY70-74 29 27 29 15 FY75-79 23 27 29 15 FY80-84 17 51 20 12 FY85-89 15 44 28 13 FY90-94 (Projected) 21 41 14 24 FY90 24 61 16 0 Source: MIS data and projections of August 6, 1990. Table 2.5. Regional Shares of Education Projects, FY 1963-94 (Percent) Africa Asia EMENA LAC FY63-69 34 16 22 28 FY70-74 37 21 24 18 FY75-79 39 20 22 19 FY80-84 31 32 22 15 FY85-89 33 22 21 24 FY90-94 (Projected) 37 33 13 16 FY90 41 45 14 0 Source: MIS data and projections of August 6, 1990. 5 3. FX 1990 Education Investments by Level and Type of Education 2.9. The FY 1990 breakdown of estimated project costs by level and type of education followed the same pattern as in FY 1989, with 63 percent for general education, 26 percent for vocational/technical education and training, and 11 percent for administrative capacity building within ministries but not specific to any one type of education (table 2.6). Every year there are fluctuations within the three types of education. Primary education received 24 percent of total investment, continuing the upward trend of recent years. A large increase at the post-secondary level for general education (up from 4 percent in FY 1989 to 17 percent) resulted from the two Korean Science and Technology projects and the Nigeria Federal Universities Development project. The increase in vocational training at the post-secondary level rose from a negligible amount to 16 percent due to the India Technical, China Vocational/ Technical, Indonesia Public Works and Indonesia Human Resource Development projects. As a result, about one third of FY 1990 investments were for post-secondary education. This is somewhat above the long-term trend for this level of education. As was the case in the two previous years, no project provided support for nonformal general education, which includes literacy training. Support for nonfotmal skill training also declined sharply. Table 2.6. Distribution of Investments by Type and Level of Education, FY 1988-90 FY88 -FY89--------- F.'0 ------ UJSSNt X USSN X USSX X GENERAL EDUCATION 767 61 990 63 1224 64 Primary 128 10 509 33 456 23 Secondary 68 5 253 16 164 9 Nonformal Literacy 0 - 0 - 0 - Post-Secondary 456 36 61 4 324 17 Teacher Training 115 9 167 11 280 15 VET 419 33 408 26 489 26 Secondary 0 - 27 2 69 4 Post-Secondary 45 4 11 - 302 16 Nonformal Skill Trg. 327 26 352 23 45 2 Teacher Training 46 4 17 1 73 4 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. ................................. ...................................................... . .... .... .. ...... OTHER 77 6 165 11 208 11 TOTAL BASE COSTS 1263 1563 1920 TOTAL PROJECT COSTS 1463 1838 2280 IBRD/IDA FINANCING 564 1593 964 1523 1487 (651 Note: I I indicates percentage of total project costs. Source: PHREE calculations based on Education projects Staff Appraisal Reports. 6 4. FY 1990 Education Investments by Region 2.10. In the Africa region in FY 1990, 73 percent of education investments went to general education (table 2.7). Almost half of this investment was for higher education (through the Nigeria Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment credit), about one-third was for primary education and the remainder for teacher training. Three large projects in the Asia region shifted that region's distribution of FY 1990 investments in favor of general education (largely through the Bangladesh Primary and Indonesia Secondary projects) and post-secondary vocational education (through the India Technical Education project). 2.11. The EMENA region only had three projects in FY 1990, with 84 percent of all investments going to primary and secondary education and teacher training through general education projects in Pakistan and Turkey. Table 2.7. Distribution of Regional Investments by Type and Level of Education, FY 1990 Totat ----- Africa------ Asia.------- EMENA------- USSHX USSM X USSM X USSM X GENERAL EDUCATION 1224 64 280 73 669 56 275 83 Primary 456 23 83 22 201 17 172 52 Secondary 164 9 24 6 122 10 18 5 Nonforml (Literacy) 0 0 0 - 0 Post-Secondary 324 17 126 33 182 15 16 5 Teacher Training 280 15 47 12 164 14 69 21 . ... ..... .... . .... .. .... .... ... .... .......... ..................... .. .............. VET 489 26 33 9 440 37 16 5 Secondary 69 4 20 5 49 4 0 Post-Secondary 302 16 12 3 290 24 0 - Nonformal Skiltl Trg 45 2 1 - 44 4 0 Teacher Training 73 4 0 - 57 5 16 5 ........ ............... ..................... ............ ................ ...................................... ...... ................. OTHER 208 11 70 18 100 8 38 12 TOTAL BASE COSTS 1920 383 1210 329 TOTAL PROJECT COSTS 2280 470 1398 412 IBRD/IDA FINANCING 1487 [653 351 (753 903 (653 233 1571 Note: 1 indicates percentage of total project costs. Source: PHREE calculations based on Education projects Staff Appraisal Reports. 7 5. Investments by CategorX of ExRenditure 2.12. The distribution of education investments by category of expenditure followed the same trend as in the last three years, with roughly two-thirds of project costs going to 'hardware,' including civil works, equipment and furniture (table 2.8). This can be attributed to large projects in eight countries that emphasize educational system rehabilitation and qualitative improvements (for general education in Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Turkey; for higher level education and skill training in India, Indonesia, Nigeria, and for science and technology research in Korea). 2.13. Investments in technical assistance accounted for 22 percent (US$502 million) of FY 1990 total project costs (table 2.9). Almost 70 percent of the technical assistance in all three regions provided financing for local, regional and international training, rather than for expert services (foreign and national). However, the table also shows a marked difference between Africa, where 78 percent of all support for technical assistance in FY 1990 is used for expert services, and Asia where only 20 percent is used for this purpose. Table 2.8. Distribution of Investments by Category of Expenditure, FY 1979-90 (Percentages) FY79-81 FY84-86 FY87-89 FY90 Civil Works 55 44 32 29 Equipment & Furniture 29 31 33 37 Technical assistance 7 10 19 23 Other expenditures 9 15 16 11 TOTAL 100 100 100 100 Costs (US$ M) (3145) (6560) (3985) (2256) Source: PHREE calculations based on project costs tables in SARs. Table 2.9. Distribution of Regional Investments by Category of Expenditure, FY 1979-90 (Percentages) Technical Assistance (Of which (of which National/ Local/Regional/ Equipment/ Total Foreign International Civil Works Furniture Experts) Training) Other AFRICA 17 53 19 (78) (22) 11 ASIA 26 35 25 (20) (80) 14 EMENA 53 32 13 (32) (68) 1 Total 29 38 22 (31) (69) 11 Costs (USSM) 661 866 502 (156) (346) 251 Source: PHREE cakulations based on project costs tables in SARsL 8 6. Special Characteristics of FY 1990 Education Projects 2.14. A number of special characteristics may be observed in FY 1990 education projects. (a) Lending Instruments 2.15. To respond more effectively to the diverse and changing needs of borrowers, four main instruments have gradually been developed for education project lending: specific investment loans, sector investment loans, sector adjustment loans, and hybrids. The development of these instruments and their relative importance reflects the transition of Bank education lending during the last 25 years. Initially the focus was on investment in infrastructure to meet increased social demand for education and demand for qualified manpower. Current projects cover all dimensions of education development including qualitative and institutional aspects.I The move toward lending to support broad education reforms accelerated in the last half of the 1980s in response to the deteriorating economic situation in many countries. For example, about half of the lending for FY 1987-89 was in support of changes in education policy. 2.16. The evolution toward greater flexibility and diversity in the use of lending instruments has blurred the distinction between specific investment loans and sector investment loans. Instead of thinking of these as two distinct categories of lending instruments, specific investment loans focusing on narrowly defined physical investments should be considered as one end of a continuum, and "pure" sector investment loans as the other. Sector investment loans differ from traditional specific investment loans mainly in that the former (a) transfer responsibility for detailed design, appraisal and supervision of Bank financed investments to the borrower, and (b) focus on policy and institutional objectives. Since specific investment loans have evolved to include comprehensive policy components as well, the responsibility aspect now constitutes the main distinction between the two lending instruments. The difference is still not always clear since some components of specific investment loans often are implemented by national institutions much in the same way as sector investment loans. In short, throughout the 1980s specific investment loans gradually turned into "partial" sector investment loans. This trend is very pronounced in the FY 1990 cohort of specific investment loans. 2.17. Of the 21 projects approved in FY 1990, three are sector adjustment loans (Ghana, Guinea, and Nigeria), four are "pure" sector investment loans (Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, and the Korea Universities Science and Technology Research Project), and 14 are specific investment loans. No hybrid loan was approved in FY 1990. The trend towards specific investment loans becoming "partial" sector investment loans is X This move toward more complex projects was facilitated by improved project implementation capacity among borrowers. By 1985, at least two projects had been approved in 75 countries, and at least three projects in 54 countries. 9 well illustrated by the projects in Bangladesh, China, Malawi, and Tanzania. These projects are classified as specific investment loans because the investments were identified and appraised by the Bank. However, because they stress the promotion of policy reforms and institution building through delegation of implementation responsibilities to the borrower, these four projects resemble full-fledged sector investment loans. Many of the remaining specific investment loans also have strong policy components, for example, the projects in the Gambia and Madagascar. 2.18. With three sector adjustment loans (all in Africa), the FY 1990 cohort of projects represents a notable increase in the use of adjustment lending in the education sector. Previously, only two such loans had been approved in this sector: for Morocco in 1986, and Ghana in 1987. In addition, a hybrid project approved for Mali in 1989 included an adjustment component. All three FY 1990 sector adjustment lending operations release funds in three tranches against satisfactory progress in the implementation of adjustment measures. However, while the Ghana and Nigeria credits both disburse against education sector expenditures, the Guinea project disburses against general imports. 2 Given this disbursement procedure, the close link of the sectoral adjustment program with overall macroeconomic adjustment, and the way project conditionality has been designed to protect the education sector and vulnerable social groups during a period of financial austerity, it may be argued that the Guinea operation is the first "pure" adjustment operation in the education sector. 2.19. The Nigeria Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment credit represents the first Bank operation in support of a major university reform program in Sub-Saharan Africa. Nearly all the credit will be used for imports for the higher education sector. The operation is also interesting in that the universities that will benefit from the credit will be selected by a national institution based on eligibility criteria agreed upon between the Bank and the borrower at project appraisal. Considering this feature, the procurement procedure used and the high policy content of the project, this operation is on the borderline between sector adjustment loans and sector investment loans. 2 While this is the normal procedure for adjustment lending, the Guinea project is so far the only education sector adjustment loan that disburses against general imports. In the FY 1989 Mali hybrid and the Nigeria project, disbursements were tied to education sector imports. This was possible because the value of such imports was sufficiently large to permit efficient use in the sector of all funds made available under the credit. In the two Ghana operations as well as in the FY 1986 Morocco project, disbursements -- while released in tranches subject to satisfac- tory implementation of the adjustment program -- followed procedures similar to those of a traditional investment operation. 10 2.20. The Ghana credit helps finance the second half of a six-year reform program that started in the 1987-88 school year, supported by the first Ghana sector adjustment loan approved in 1987. This is a good example of a case where Bank support for education reforms is based on the recognition that such reforms are long-term endeavors, and that their implementation requires sustained Bank support. (b) Recurrent Cost Financing 2.21. The Ghana operation is an unusual adjustment loan in that up to 40 percent of disbursements can be used for local cost financing. The discussions prior to and during the Board presentation of this operation illustrate well the need for clearer guidelines on lending for recurrent cost financing in education sector operations. Operational staff considered such financing essential to the success of the reform program supported by this operation. Furthermore, providing funds in a lump sum against a "positive' list of expenditures (including imports and local expenditures for goods ard services), to be accounted for ex-post, helped assure the Ministry of Education that foreign exchange would be available for crucial sector imports. This provides an important incentive to Ministries of Education in countries with non-convertible currencies where the education sector tends to be neglected when scarce foreign exchange is allocated. 2.22. The financing of salaries and other locally incurred costs constitutes a serious constraint on further expansion of the education and health sectors in many low-income countries. Therefore, it will be difficult to attain Bank objectives for human resources development in such countries without careful assessment of recurrent cost requirements and, where necessary, full use of Bank flexibility on recurrent cost financing. (For example, the Long-Term Perspective Study for Sub-Saharan Africa calls for a doubling of expenditures in the education and health sectors.) 2.23. The Ghana operation is designed to address difficulties caused by shortages of local cost financing during implementation of major education sector reforms. However, it does not fit easily within the usual typology of Bank lending instruments. It is in one sense a sector investment loan that uses SECAL disbursement arrangements. The Bank and the Government agree annually on an overall program of expenditures in the education sector; funds are released in tranches following successful implementation of policy reforms and agreement on annual expenditure programs. 2.24. Serious consideration should be given to employing an approach along the following lines in low-income countries where budgetary 3 For a more in-depth discussion of the Ghana and Nigeria credits, see Local Cost Financing Under Adjustment Operations - Report of a Task Force, Economic Advisory Staff, November, 1990. 11 constraints severely limit human resources development. First, donors and national authorities should agree on a complete expenditure program for the education sector (recurrent and capital expenditures) for a 5-10 year period. Second, donors should help finance a slice of their program through a sector investment loan, where disbursements are made annually subsequent to successful implementation of particular reforms and investments. Disbursements could then be made against any part of the expenditure program, including budgetary support for teacher salaries. 2.25. The CY 1987 and CY 1988 reviews of project evaluation results by the Operations Evaluation Department contained suggestions for improving project sustainability. The 1987 report highlighted the need to support educational research and evaluation, to design projects consistent with prevailing maintenance and staffing patterns, and to emphasize local capacity building through the increased use of local fellowships and local consultancies. The 1988 report adds that the design of projects needs to take closer account of macroeconomic policies, resource mobilization for recurrent costs, and development of national strategies. Several of the FY 1990 education sector Staff Appraisal Reports clearly reflect these recommendations. 4 2.26. Regional reviews of supervision reports for FY 1990 for the Asia, EMENA and Africa regions (the IAC review was not available at the time this Review was completed) reveal a general worsening of project status ratings and increasing supervision coefficients. All three regions cite problems with procurement procedures, and increased supervision requirements due to the complexity of project objectives. In Asia and Africa, rapidly changing macroeconomic conditions have complicated project Lmplementation and supervision. Concrete steps are being taken to address problems. For example, the Africa region is making progress toward an "implementation culture"; the EMENA review suggests changes in lending instruments, staffing patterns, and procurement and disbursement techniques; the Asia region has taken steps towards improving procurement, project management and sustainability. (c) ImRlementation Mechanisms 2.27. Most FY 1990 projects follow the trend of recent years towards establishing implementation mechanisms designed to promote better coordination between different ministries providing education and training services as well as between these ministries and those responsible for finance and planning. The latter aspect is of particular importance at the present time, both because of the need to protect the education sector 4 For further information see Project Performance Results for 1987, and Evaluation Results for 1988, Operations Evaluation Department. s For further information, see FY90 Annual Review of Implementation and Supervision (Asia region); EMENA FY90 ARIS: An Overview of Issues in the PHR Sectors, and FY90 ARIS Paper (Africa Region). 12 during this period of severe constraints on public budgets, and because of the need for the education sector to adjust to new economic and financial realities. To promote such coordination is also highly desirable from the point of view of institution building. However, sometimes the subject and/or regional diversity of projects has resulted in rather complicated mechanisms. Given the mixed past experience with implementation of projects straddling several ministries and implementa- tion agencies, it would be useful to monitor and evaluate the experiences gained from this approach. (d) Cost Recovery 2.28. Thirteen FY 1990 projects contained cost recovery measures, including the introduction of textbook fees, student loan schemes, scholarship reform programs, mobilization of community resources for school construction or rehabilitation, tuition fees at the secondary and tertiary levels, and school based income generating activities. Seven of the thirteen projects contained more than one cost recovery measure. 2.29. A wide variety of steps were taken to implement cost recovery measures. For instance, of six projects advocating adoption of textbook fees, three charge primary students and two charge secondary students book rental fees. Fees do not cover the full cost of books, but are deposited into revolving funds that contribute to the replacement of texts. The Madagascar project proposes the sale of textbooks at subsidized rates to primary and secondary students, while in Pakistan books are sold at full cost to these students, with compensatory measures for rural girls. Ghana aims at full cost recovery for tertiary level textbooks. 2.30. Student loan schemes focus on the tertiary level. A program in Ghana provides loans for families to help cover increased costs of transportation, feeding and books resulting from reductions in student allowances. The Nigeria project calls for more efficient staffing arrangements wit'iin the Student Loan Board, an increase in the maximum student loan ceiling, and the development of a long term financing plan for the agency. Efforts to reform scholarship programs range from improved targeting of scholarships at the tertiary level for priority needs in Indonesia, to targeting women and the poor in Bangladesh (primary level), Djibouti (secondary level) and India (tertiary level); and outright cancellation of secondary fellowships abroad for general secondary education in Djibouti. The most popular means to mobilize community resources is to require the provision of locally available material and labor for primary school construction and maintenance. Seven projects require such in-kind contributions. However, the Guinea and Tanzania projects also support initiatives in community financing for education projects. Finally, three projects support initiatives for tertiary level institutions to undertake income generating activities. In the India, Nigeria and Indonesia Public Works Training projects, institutions will sell services (training contracts, consultancy and laboratory testing services). The Nigeria project also encourages universities to begin commercial farming ventures on university land holdings and to make university-owned businesses more profitable. 13 (e) Pogitive Social I=act! Poverty Alleviation 2.31. Poverty and equity concerns figure prominently in the FY 1990 cohort of projects. Several projects include specific policy measures to protect the education sector in general, or at least the primary education sector, during this period of increased financial stringency. Eight projects will reallocate expenditures within the education sector to basic education (in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Madagascar, Malawi, Pakistan, Somalia, and Tanzania), while four projects will reallocate government expenditures from other sectors vo education (in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, and Malawi). In addition to policy measures of this type, twelve projects will increase the provision of basic education opportunities to previously under-served groups such as the urban and rural poor, and females (in Bangladesh, Djibouti, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Madagascar, Malawi, Pakistan, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, and Turkey). 2.32. Noteworthy within the projects promoting increased equity for under-served groups were the Bangladesh, Pakistan and India projects. The Bangladesh General Education project includes a system of satellite schools designed to attract and retain the rural poor, especially girls (see paragraph 2.36). In addition, the project will finance: (a) the development by experienced NGOs of nonformal primary education programs aimed at under-served areas and older students of primary age with no previous opportunity for formal primary education; and (b) the development by community groups and NGOs of experimental programs to make government primary schools more attractive to the poor and girls through, for example, school feeding programs, the provision of uniforms, teaching aids, and community outreach programs. 2.33. The Pakistan Sindh Primary Education Development project includes experimental programs in selected districts (for example, changing the school calendar, instituting more flexible school hours, abolishing the school uniform requirement for rural children, initiating automatic promotion, and achievement testing). A study will then examine the impact of these measures on the admission, attendance, and retention of students, and successful policies will be introduced later in all provincial districts. 2.34. Finally, the Technician Education Project in India includes programs aimed at the rural poor and the handicapped. The project will use "community polytechnics" to provide short technical training courses for rural artisans and other informal sector entrepreneurs. It will also establish India's first polytechnic for the physically handicapped. (f) Increasing PaXticiRation by Girls and Women 2.35. Nine projects in FY 1990 had investment and policy change components designed to increase the participation of girls and women. In particular, the Gambia credit was linked to a Women in Development project with components supporting the expansion of girls participation that included lowering the school entry age (from age 8 to age 6) to allow girls more time in school before puberty/marriage, research on eliminating 14 sexual bias and stereotypes in curricula and textbooks, and incentives to increase enrollment of women in science and technology courses. 2.36. Other primary education projects with components directed at increasing participation by girls and women included: (a) Guinea, which will set and monitor enrollment targets for girls, while developing administrative guidelines to increase their enrollment, and encourage women teachers; (b) Madagascar, with a study on improving female enrollment rates; (c) Indonesia Secondary Education, which will set up a data system to collect information on secondary school participation by girls; (d) Bangladesh, with a large program in basic education to attract and retain the rural poor, especially girls (the program includes a system of satellite schools with all-female staff, and funding for experimental small local programs to make government schools more attractive to girls by expanding a successful program of secondary school scholarships for girls and by introducing policy changes to increase women as a proportion of the teaching staff); and (e) Pakistan, with a free textbook program for rural girls and an expanded secondary school scholarship program. 2.37. Vocational skill training projects also included women as a target group in three cases: (a) India, with components for co-ed facility expansion, scholarships for women and mechanisms for placement of women graduates in industry; (b) Korea Second Technology Advancement, where systematic efforts are being made to deal with the traditional reluctance of girls to enter science and technology fields, for example, through visits by technical institute faculty to girls' high schools, information packages for parents and student counsellors, and visits by women students to the leading centers of excellence for the graduate training of scientists and engineers; and (c) Indonesia Human Resources Development, where 25 percent of higher level skill training fellowships are targeted toward women. (g) ETnvironment 2.38. Six projects had components with an emphasis on environmental issues. Madagascar will include environmental issues in its new basic education curricula; Bangladesh will include such issues in teaching guides for primary school teachers; Ghana will include environmental science in the development of its new core curriculum; India will include environmental awareness/conservation as part of its new technician education courses; Indonesia will include courses for engineers in industrial processes that reduce waste/pollutants in its Professional Human Resources Development project. Korea will fund both pure and applied research on energy efficiency and renewable energy sources through its Second Technology Advancement Project. (h) Science Education 2.39. A number of projects included curriculum and textbook development components and/or provision of laboratories and equipment for improved science education. Tanzania will prepare an improved national secondary science curriculum with pilot testing of a unified science syllabus that will emphasize practical (hands-on) methodology based on low-cost 15 equipment. A study will also examine the effects of different methods of science teaching on student science/math achievement. Djibouti will develop science textbooks to support its curriculum reform. Ghana will strengthen the teaching of science in its new secondary core curriculum. 2.40. Other projects included the provision of laboratories and equipment. Gambia will create science labs in support of its new middle school curriculum, The Indonesia Secondary Education Project will provide science equipment and training for lab technicians and an equipment maintenance program that the government is committed to fund after project completion. Sri Lanka will provide science rooms and kits, and the project agreement includes a Government commitment to expenditures for consumables. Madagascar will include minor rehabilitation of buildings and equipment to complement French bilateral support to upgrade secondary school laboratories. The Korea Universities Science and Technology Project will fund research in science education and pedagogy, with the expectation of subsequent improvements in teaching skills of secondary science teachers. (i) Science and Technologv 2.41. Five education projects had components to encourage science and technology, ranging from increasing community awareness to actual funding of science and technology research. The Nigeria Federal Universities Development Project will strengthen the teaching and research of science and technology by providing equipment, books, and journals, and appointing an international panel to advise on improving the quality of science research and teaching. The Indonesia Public Works Training Project will upgrade laboratories to permit cost recovery by providing services for commercial materials testing. The India Technician Education Project will fund "community polytechnics" to increase village-level awareness of science and technology while trainiag rural artisans and entrepreneurs. Finally, Korea has two science and tschnology projects this year which follow up on FY 1984 and 1986 proje.cts in the same subsector -- the Universities Science and Technology Project will concentrate on funding for science and technology research carried out by universities, and the Second Technology Advancement Project will support research at the country's leading science and technolog3 graduate school. (j) Co-Financing 2.42. Almost half of the FY 1990 education projects had co-financing from a wide range of multilateral and bilateral sources. 6 This represents an increase over the past two years, when one-third of the education 6 Djibouti--European Development Fund, UNDP; Guinea--France, USAID; Tanzania--NORAD, SIDA; Madagascar--UNDP, OPEC Fund, Germany, France, Gambia--EEC; China--Germany, France; Somalia--United Nations Capital Development Fund; Ghana, USAID; Pakistan--Norway, United Kingdom; Bangladesh--UNDP, UNFPA, UNICEF, Asian Development Bank, Netherlands, SIDA, ODA. 16 projects received such support. Nine of the ten FY 1990 projects with co- financing were directed at improving primary education in IDA countries. An unusually high number of co-financiers was brought together for the Bangladesh General Education project for which seven agencies will provide a total of US$109 million (35 percent of total project costs). This provides a good example of a lending operation used by the donor community and the Government as a mechanism to coordinate external financing for the education sector. The majority of the co-financiers participated in the identification, pre-appraisal, and appraisal missions. World Bank projects increasingly serve as a framework for coordinating donor support to the education sector, especially in IDA countries and for primary education. This role is expected to increase in the wake of the 1990 World Conference on Education for All. D. Project-Related Training 2.43. Lending for project-related training components amounted to US$451 million in FY 1990, or 2.4 percent of all Bank lending (table 2.10). This was the largest amount ever lent for such components, and a large increase over the average amount in the last five years (US$277 million). These increases can be attributed to the growth of PRT in three sectors that traditionally have strong lending for project-related training -- agriculture, energy, and PHN. 2.44. However, the large increase in lending for project-related training components has been accompanied by a reversal of the trends towards improving local institutional capacity for training that developed during the FY 1983-87 period (Figure 1 below). During this period, support for training consultancy services was reduced from more than half to less than 30 percent of lending, while support for in-country training costs increased sharply from less than 10 percent to more than 40 percent. Support for fellowships was on the rise after FY 1985. After FY 1987, support for in-country training reached a plateau, support for fellowships fell, and financing for training consultancy began to rise. This apparent return to the design of project-related training components that rely more heavily on contract training consultancy services is no doubt due to an expanded lending program without a corresponding increase in staff resources. Noting a decline in the number of staff with expertise in this area, and their dispersion throughout the Bank, the FY 1987 Annual Operational Review - Education and Training called for Management attention to this issue. Subsequently, several regions addressed the PRT issue through reviews and recommendations for action, but little action has been taken. 7 7 For further information see Annual Operational Review - Education and Training, Fiscal Year 1987, PHREE, March, 1988; and Improving Human Resources in EMENA Through Project Related Training, EMTPH, March 1989. 17 Figure 1. Allocation of Lending for Project-Related Training by Mode, FY 19C3-89 Percentage _0 _ . 0. TLndng Trai g Con-ultennc -190 40 , ',Followst ISo 20 - \ I X :~ \ota FR pTcoitd Study TouT 10 Hn-Cuty -83 84 85 so 87 as 89 Year Table 2.10. Lending for Project-Related Training, by Region and Sector, 5' 1988-90 TY" --------- TY89 --------- nr90o--------- g of Z of Z of TotaL PRT Total, YtS Total, FIt LendIng Lending LendLng Lending LndLng Lending Rankvide 236.4 1.3 324.6 1.6 451.2 2.4 A. By Blion afri& 75.5 2.6 111.9 2.9 134.9 3.8 ElM�A 40.7 1.3 43.6 1.2 119.4 2.9 MAC 29.5 0.6 44.9 0.5 104.5 1.8 Asia 90.6 1.2 124.4 1.7 92.4 1.7 lr-cu1 ture 61.5 1.8 106.2 3.0 157.5 4.3 DFC/IDF 16.6 0.6 35.7 0.8 11.7 0.6 Energy 0.2 0.1 6.6 1.1 5.3 6.1 industry 8.3 0.6 10.7 1.8 7.9 1.7 FM 14.6 '.8 56.5 9.1 98.5 10.5 Power 16.8 0.6 16.7 0.6 34.2 1.1 Technical Assistance 13.1 13.7 22.7 13.7 17.11 10.5 S-lco_inLcations 0.0 0.0 10.6 6.7 22.3 3.6 Transportation 51.1 2.0 29.0 1.6 57.5 2.1 Urban Developmnt 25.1 1.5 11.8 1.0 18.2 1.8 Water Supply 8.1 1.6 14.8 1.9 21.0 2.2 Frogram Lendin 1.3 0.1 1.4 0.1 0.2 0.0 Source: PHREE calculations based on Staff Appraisal Reports. 18 E. Education Components in Non-Education Projects 2.45. A total of 26 non-education projects included financing for education activities other than project-related training, totalling US$123 million. Of particular interest to the present Review are the two integrated sector projects in LAC -- the Bolivia Social Sector Development Project and the Jamaica Social Sector Investment Loan (see paragraph 2.7). Together these two projects account for US$55 millon of the US$123 million lent for education through these 26 projects. 2.46. The purpose of these two social sector development projects is to assist countries to design and implement comprehensive human resource development policies. The projects are designed to tackle problems common to all social sectors in improving the delivery and quality of services, and to take advantage of synergistic effects of social sector policy coordination. 2.47. The Bolivia project has three components: (a) a social investment fund designed to provide investment and operational support to health and education projects and to provide institutional support to requesting agencies; (b) an institutional development component providing administrative and technical assistance to the social investment fund; and (c) an emergency social fund training component consisting of a program to familiarize staff of selected public institutions with the fund's information management system for appraisal and supervision of projects. Representative sub-projects to be funded by the social investment fund include nutrition programs, basic and primary health care delivery systems, basic water and sanitation projects, construction or repair of primary schools, provision of learning materials, adult literacy and practical training programs. 2.48. The Jamaica project is designed to increase funds to social sectors deprived during recent years of austerity while at the same time supporting policy reforms to enhance the delivery and effectiveness of social services. The Bank credit focuses resources on the health and education sectors; other donors are expected to fund social sector developments outside these areas. For the health sector, it provides funds for the construction of primary health care centers, acquisition of support equipment for hospitals, replenishment of depleted stocks of pharmaceuticals, and institutional capacity building. For the education sector, the credit provides funds for upgrading community supported pre- schools and institutional strengthening. Finally, the fund supports initiatives to improve administration and monitoring within the govern- ment's Human Resources Development Program. 2.49. These integrated social sector projects present several interesting features and represent a new approach to education lending. As will be shown later, the trend toward an integrated treatment of the social sectors is more pronounced for sector work than for lending. * * * 19 3. IMPACT OF EDUCATION POLICY PAPERS ON WORLD BANK PROJECT OBJECTIVES AND SECTOR WORK 3.1. Since 1988, the Education and Employment Division has circulated three policy studies dealing with education in developing countries: * Education in Sub-Saharan Africa -- Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion. * Primary Education. 2 * Skills for Productivity: Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training in Developing Countries. 3 3.2. The three policy papers followed the same working approach. First, relevant education issues were identified through research and consultation with experts within and outside the Bank. During this phase policy measures were assessed according to their effectiveness, implementation feasibility, and resource availability. Contributions from operational staff were essential to the process. Because of their continued dialogue with government officials, operational staff have first-hand knowledge of best practices and innovative approaches in the design and implementation of education policies. One of the most important functions of policy papers is to codify and disseminate this knowledge to a wider audience. This interactive process resulted in papers that articulated the current situation 1. World Bank. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization and Expansion. A World Bank Policy Study. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. 1988. 2. World Bank. Primary Education. A World Bank Policy Paper. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank. 1990. Based on Lockheed, Marlaine and Adriaan M. Verspoor: Improving Primary Education in Developing Countries: A Review of Policy Options. Oxford University Press, London. (forthcoming 1991). 3. Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department, The World Bank. Skills for Productivity: Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training in Developing Countries. Draft C. Processed. Washington, D.C.: 1990. Based on Middleton, John, Adrian Ziderman and Arvil Van Adams: Vocational Education and Training in Developing Countries: Policies for Flexibility, Efficiency and Quality. Draft, August, 1989. Processed. Education and Employment Division, Population and Human Resources Department, The World Bank. 20 and recommended policy alternatives. The papers in turn provided guidance to Bank specialists in sector work and project design, and became a basis for dialogue with policymakers in member developing countries. 3.3. This section reviews the impact of the three policy papers on World Bank operations, principally as reflected in Staff Appraisal Reports and sector reports. Further work is necessary to determine whether the policies incorporated in SARs were in fact implemented in the projects, and whether the mechanisms proposed in the project design were appropriate to ensure effective implementation. A. Methodologv of the Analysis 3.4. The three policy papers were compared to the FY 1980, 1985, and 1990 Staff Appraisal Reports and FY 1990 sector reports to determine the congruence between policy recommendations and project content. Each project was scored against a list of the principal policy recommendations of the three papers. Results of the analysis are provided in two forms: (a) the proportion of reports reflecting particular policy measures recommended in the three papers; and (b) the average number of measures adopted. The latter indicates the range of recommended policy measures that are reflected in SARs or sector reports. Therefore, it also indicates the intensity with which projects pursued larger goals. The figure quoted for any given policy is derived by dividing the total number of recommended policy measures adopted by the total number of reports. It should be noted that while the analysis shows a parallel shift in education policies adopted and the recommendations of policy papers during the past decade, there has also been a shift in the nature and complexity of problems faced by policymakers. For instance, problems of school maintenance, supply of learning materials, and motivation of teachers were not as pressing at the beginning of the decade as now. Thus, there was less need for FY 1980 than for FY 1990 projects to address such issues. The increased adoption of new policies in FY 1990 projects to combat these problems must, therefore, be partially attributed to changing realities. 3.5. A total of 54 Staff Appraisal Reports were reviewed -- 13 for FY 1980, 20 for FY 1985, and 21 for FY 1990. In addition, 27 FY 1990 sector work reports were reviewed. Only those reports relevant to a given policy paper formed the sample of analysis for that paper. Of the Staff Appraisal Reports, 21 were relevant to Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, 29 to Primary Education, and 27 to Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training. Six sector reports were relevant to Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, 13 to Primary Education, and 13 to Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training. (Some Staff Appraisal Reports and some sector reports applied to more than one policy paper.) B. Preparation and Dissemination of Policy PaDers 3.6. It is impossible to determine the exact causes of the evolution in project content. However, the analysis presented later in this section shows a strong congruence between the recommendations presented in the three major policy papers and the evaluation of project content during the 1980s. The 21 most likely explanation is that a dynamic exists between projects and policy papers in which the content of the papers is influenced by successful project initiatives, in-depth policy research, and responses to changing economic and social situations. Continuous dialogue between operational staff and government officials leads to policy directions which shape projects in the lending program and strongly influences the content of policy papers. In the process of developing a policy paper, suspected trends in educational development may be confirmed or dispelled, concrete recommendations emerge, and promising innovations are highlighted. Papers may therefore serve to speed the reform process, improve the efficiency of policy development, and improve the quality of policy. This conclusion is supported by the positive relationship between evolving project content and recommendations put forth in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, Primary Education, and Policies for Technical and Vocational Education. 3.7. It is important to avoid a simplistic model of the policy formula- tion process (whether in the World Bank or in member Governments, for that matter). The tendency is to view the policy process as tracing a linear path of a paper followed by policy changes based on that paper. The process, as noted, is much more complex than that: it is one of parallel development of a policy statement articulating the best thinking within the Bank and elsewhere in the development community, while simultaneously the same trends are influencing Bank staff preparing projects and engaging in policy dialogues with member Governments. New and innovative operations give rise to sharper policy recommendations. The policy paper then codifies and "legitimizes" -- within the Bank and in member states -- these best practices. 3.8. A constant interchange among authors of policy papers, Bank professional staff, outside experts, and senior policymakers and administrators in member developing countries facilitates the process. The preparation of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, was distinguished by the involvement at every stage of production of a wide range of experts from within and outside the Bank. Especially important to the process was the input of an "External Advisory Panel," made up of African development scholars, donor agency representatives, and government officials. Five meetings with African education ministers and other high-level officials were held between FY 1985 and 1987 to review technical issues, discuss drafts of the paper, and consider issues of external assistance to education. The paper incorporated extensive revisions from the comments received. 3.9. The wide-ranging consultative process also contributed to a new spirit of cooperation between donors and national policymakers. It also ensured early and wide dissemination of key policy recommendations. The final version of the paper was published in early 1988. Since then over 10,000 copies have been distributed. It has been the subject of numerous journal articles and radio interviews. The paper has been translated into French and Portuguese. Meetings have been held with members of the European academic community and with a large number of key policymakers and educators in Africa. To follow-up on the paper's recommendations, a "Task Force of Donors to African Education" has been established in which all major donor agencies participate -- 22 attended the meeting in July 1990, for example. 22 The Education Division of the Africa Technical Department serves as the secretariat for the Task Force. A number of specialized working groups have been established, chaired by different donor agencies. The preparation of the Primary Education policy paper benefitted from a similar wide-ranging consultative process. In particular, the book on which the policy paper is based was presented at the World Conference on Education for All (Thailand, March 1990), where the President of the World Bank chaired a special Round Table on the topic. A draft of the book was distributed to Conference participants in English, French and Spanish. 3.10. All three papers benefitted from numerous rounds of "brown bag" lunches and other seminars where ideas were presented for comment and criticism by Bank and outside professional colleagues. The feedback greatly influenced the final policy recommendations in the papers as well as the form of the presentation. 3.11. Not only did this process of consultation inform the policy papers, it also fed ideas into the work of the authors' professional colleagues within the Bank. They, in turn, began to incorporate the concepts being articulated in the meetings, seminars, background papers, and early drafts into their own project work, and to test these concepts in their policy dialogue with Borrowers. Thus, new policy initiatives were incorporated into ongoing project work long before the formal policy papers were published. In the case of Policies for Technical and Vocational Education and Training, for instance, the formal publication has yet to appear, yet this Review finds substantial evidence in the content of both projects and sector work reports of the policy thrusts articulated in the draft paper. Policy papers thus pull together experiences and trends, thereby providing a platform from which to make future improvements. 3.12. As a result of this extensive consultation, when the formal document does appear most of the content is already well known to professional colleagues within the Bank. It is also well-known within member developing countries through conversations with Bank staff, more formal policy dialogues including sector reports, and special seminars organized in developing countries. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa was the first Bank policy paper to employ such extensive consultation within and outside the Bank; subse- quently such consultation became an integral part not only of other education policy papers but in other sectors as well, as, for example in the Africa Health Policy Study currently under preparation. C. Policy PaRer on Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 3.13. In order to assess the relationship between the policy recommendations of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa and subsequent project content, the Staff Appraisal Reports of all the 21 education projects approved for the Sub-Saharan Africa region in FY 1980, 1985 and 1990 were reviewed (six each in FY 1980 and 1985; nine in FY 1990 -- see Annex 3 for a list of projects). Before reviewing the relationship between policy recommendations and project content, we shall summarize the recommendations of the policy paper. 23 1. Summary of Policy Recommendations 3.14. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa argues that while African countries have made remarkable progress in education since independence, achievements are threatened by high population growth rates, economic decline, and cutbacks in public spending. In many countries enrollments have stagnated and evidence suggests that the quality of educationdl services has declined. I Inequalities remain in the system; of particular concern are male-female and rural-urban differentials. Supplies of key inputs, such as textbooks and other learning materials, are critically low. Furthermore, indicators suggest that cognitive achievement is below world standards. 3.15. It is therefore important that each African country formulate and implement a set of policies to reverse this decline. Education in Sub- Saharan Afrlca suggests that policy packages reflect each country's unique history and aspirations, and include elements of adjustment, revitalization, and selective expansion. Management structures must also be improved to design and implement new policies. 3.16. The paper suggests two main sets of adjustment measures: mobili- zation of extra resources for education and containment of unit costs. Covernments may mobilize resources by increasing cost-sharing in public education and increasing official tolerance of private education. Cost- sharing policies, such as increasing tuition fees and reducing subsidies, should be directed at the secondary and tertiary levels. Finally, in most countries, the overall share of government spending devoted to education should increase. Unit costs may be contained through policies designed to reduce both capital and recurrent costs, such as adoption of low-cost construction methods and more intensive utilization of physical facilities and staff. 3.17. Revitalization measures, aimed at restoring quality, center on increasing the availability of relevant textbooks and learning materials, restoring and clarifying academic standards, and investing in the operation and maintenance of physical plant and eouipment. The objective of these measures is to restore a cost-effective balance of inputs to education systems. 3.18. The Sub-Saharan paper recommends that selective expansion proceed only after adjustment and revitalization measures have begun to take hold. 4. The latest year for which data on enrollment were available at the time Education in Sub-Saharan Africa was prepared was 1983. Statistics now available for 1986 confirm that the stagnation and decline noted in the paper were even more severe than expected. For example, the median primary enroll- ment ratio declined from 75 percent in 1983 to 68 percent in 1986. Available data are too scarce to permit an assessment of changes in learning outcomes as measured by student achievement. However, to the extent that such changes are caused by the well-documented decline in availability of education inputs, or indicated by continued high levels of repetition and dropout, education quality has deteriorated in many countries. 24 Efforts are expected to be concentrated in four areas: (a) renewed progress toward universal primary education; (b) expansion of secondary, post- secondary and teacher training via distance education programs; (c) training for those who have entered the labor force; and (d) development of institutions to produce and sustain high quality postgraduate education. Staff training programs must also be developed to maintain quality. 3.19. Policy design and implementation recommendations highlight the need for countries to commit resources to program development and to improve management so that programs can be implemented. 2. Impact of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 3.20. During the 1980s the proportion of projects pursuing adjustment, revitalization, and policy design and implementation policies such as those suggested in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa increased overall (table 3.1). Most notable are the growing proportion of projects calling for increased cost-sharing (from 33 percent in FY 1980 to 100 percent in FY 1990), reduced capital costs (33 to 78 percent), reduced recurrent costs (33 to 89 percent), restoration of academic standards (17 to 56 percent), increased investment in preventive maintenance (17 to 78 percent), formulation of comprehensive education sector development programs (33 to 100 percent) and improved management (50 to 100 percent). Also significant is the declining emphasis on the expansion of secondary and tertiary institutions during the decade (50 to 11 percent). 3.21. Moreover, projects have pursued these goals much more intensively, with a wider range of policies, since the policy paper was issued. The average project adopted 7.3 policy measures aimed at adjustment in FY 1990, but only 3.3 in FY 1985 and 1.3 in FY 1980. The average number of measures taken for revitalization nearly tripled between FY 1980 and FY 1990; and the average number of measures taken to improve policy design and implementation tripled during the decade, rising from 1.3 to 4.3. As expected, the nunber of policies aimed at expansion has grown less (table 3.2). 3. Major Policy Trends 3.22. Adjustment. The degree to which projects pursue adjustment policies increased dramatically during the 1980s. On average, the FY 1990 projects included five times as many adjustment measures as the 1980 projects and more than twice as many as the FY 1985 projects. 25 Table 3.1. Proportion of Projects Adopting Sub-Saharan Africa Policy Recommendationsil (Percent) 1980 1985 1990 ADJUSTMENT Mobilize resources 50 83 100 Increase cost sharing 33 83 100 Increase government expenditure 17 0 44 Contain unit costsk/ 67 67 89 Reduce capital costs 33 67 78 Reduce recurrent costs 33 50 89 REVITALIZATION: RESTORATION OF OUALITY Increase instructional materials 67 83 100 Restore academic standards 17 0 56 Increase operations and maintenance 17 50 78 SELECTIVE EXPANSION Renew progress toward universal primary educations1 67 83 89 Expand secondary and tertiary education 50 17 11 Enhance labor force training 50 67 78 Develop staff training programs 83 83 89 Develop capacity to produce and sustain post-graduate talent 0 0 11 POLICY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION Formulate an educational development program 33 50 100 Improve management capabilities 33 83 100 A. All projects approved in the Africa Region for 1980. 1985 and 1990 were reviewed to compile this table. There were six projects in 1980, six in 1985, and nine in 1990. Consequently, in FY 1980 and FY 1985 each project reviewed accounted for 16 percent of the total number of projects and in FY 1990 each project accounted for 11 percent. b. The only 1990 project not adopting measures to contain unit coste is the Somalia Education Rehabilitation Project. Capital expenditure in Somalia has fallen dramatically since 1979, and recurrent costs per pupll are among the lowest in the world. There is little scope for cost containment. c. The only 1990 project not pursuing a policy of renewed progress toward universal primary education is the Nigeria Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment Operation. However, university reform is expected to free resources to support development in other levels of education. Furthermore, the Bank has taken a more direct interest in development of primary education in Nigeria. The Nigeria Primary Education project has been negotiated in FY 1991. 26 Table 3.2. Average Number of Policy Measures per Project Sub-Saharan Africa, 1/b/ FY 1980, 1985, 1990 1980 1985 1990 ADJUSTMENT 1.3 3.3 7.3 Mobilize resources 0.5 1.0 3.2 Increase cost sharing 0.3 1.0 2.8 Increase government costs 0.2 0.0 0.4 Contain unit costs 0.8 2.3 4.1 Reduce capital costs 0.5 1.3 2.0 Reduce recurrent expenditures 0.3 1.0 2.1 REVITALIZATION: RESTORATION OF OUALITY 0.8 1.3 2.3 Increase supply of instructional materials 0.5 0.8 1.0 Restore academic standards 0.2 0.0 0.6 Increase operation and maintenance budget 0.2 0.5 0.8 SELECTIVE EXPANSION 3.8 3.6 5.2 Renew progress toward universal primary education 1.0 1.7 1.7 Expand secondary and tertiary education 0.7 0.3 0.2 Enhance labor force training 1.0 0.7 1.2 Develop staff training programs 1.2 1.0 1.9 Develop capacity to produce and sustain post-graduate talent 0.0 0.0 0.2 POLICY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION 1.3 2.7 4.3 Formulate an educational development program 0.3 0.5 1.6 Improve management capabilities 1.0 2.2 2.8 a. The average number of policy measures per project is an indication of the range of policy options used to achieve a stated goal, and the degree to whlch projects reflect policy optlons presented In Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Figures are derived by scoring the content of projects (as stated in Staff Appraisal Reports) against a list of 55 policy measures presented in the paper. The total number of specific policy measures contained for each major category vithln the projects for a given year is then divLded by the total number of projects for that year to obtain the figures ln thls table. For exsmple, Education in Sub-Saharan Africa suggests four measures to reduce capital costs: on the average, two measures were adopted for each FY 1990 project. This is four tLmes the rate for 1980 projects. b. All projects approved in the Afrlca Region for FY 1980, FY 1985, and FY 1990 were reviewed to compile this table. There were slx projects ln 1980, six in 1985, and nlne in 1990. 27 3.23. Preferred policies for mobilizing resources in FY 1990 include reducing subsidies for secondary and tertiary students (67 percent of projects), raising tuition fees (56 percent), and mobilizing community resources to defray school construction costs (67 percent). Several projects also encourage governments to support initiatives in private education (56 percent) and to introduce alternative modes of financing education, such as national service or student loan programs (33 percent). Efforts to mobilize resources in FY 1985 and FY 1980 consist primarily of encouraging community self-help construction and maintenance projects and reducing scholarship budgets. 3.24. With regard to cost containment, the EDUCATION SECTOR ADJUSTMENT: THE GHANA FY 1990 projects include SECOND EDUCATION SECTOR ADJUSTMENT CREDIT nearly twice as many The 1 Ghana Second Education Sector Adjustment Credit Is designed to policy measures as the FY support the ongoing Education sector refornm program, nitiated by the 1985 projects, and five govornment In 196 with assistance from IDA and other donors. A number times as many as the FY of adjustment measures have been applied under the program, including a 1980 projects. More than reduction inthe proportion of boarding students to day students, the creation half of the FY 1990 of a bulk purchasing system to lower student feeding costs, retrenchment of projects call for in- a number of non-teaching staff, a freeze on the number of teaching posts, fee increases to help cover the costs of food, exercise books and texts, and creased utilization of introduction of a loan scheme at the tertiary level. In addition, the facilities. Eighty-nine government is attempting to rationalize the university system by establishing percent c a 1 1 f o r staffing norms, encouraging day students, and consolidating non-viable intensified use of staff, programs and departments. The adjustment program has contributed to a principally through substantial increase in basic education enrollments, improved allocation of financial resources, curriculum development, broad-based training of multi-grade and/or multi- education staff, development and supply of instructional materials and shift teaching and strengthened supervision. The 1990 credit will support continued increased student-teacher implementation of these reforms and their extension to the senior secondary ratios. In contrast, level, with the ultimate goal of creating a more cost-effective and equitable none of the FY 1980 education system. projects call for in- creased facility utiliza- tion, only 17 percent suggest increasing student-teacher ratios, and 17 percent suggest multi-shift and/or multi-grade teaching. 3.25. Revitalization. The adoption of policy measures aimed at revitalization has increased during the 1980s. The average number of measures per project rises from 0.8 in FY 1980 to 1.3 in FY 1985, to 2.3 in FY 1990. All FY 1990 projects set increased availability of textbooks and learning materials as a goal, as opposed to 67 percent of the FY 1980 projects. Fifty-six percent of the FY 1990 projects seek to restore academic standards by strengthening the examination systems, whereas only 17 percent of the FY 1980 projects, and none of the FY 1985 projects, seek to do so. Seventy-eight percent of the FY 1990 projects have provisions for preventative maintenance and repair of physical plant; only 17 percent of the FY 1980 make similar provisions. 3.26. Selective Expansion. All FY 1980, FY 1985, and FY 1990 projects contain elements of selective expansion. The FY 1990 projects, however, lay more emphasis on primary education, with 78 percent of projects calling for 28 an increased share of sector spending to be devoted to this level of educa- tion. 5 Correspondingly, the proportion of projects with policies promoting the expansion of secondary or tertiary education has declined, from 50 per- cent in FY 1980 to 17 percent in FY 1985 and 11 percent in FY 1990. 3.27, More FY 1990 projects (78 percent) contain policies to enhance training of the labor force than do FY 1985 (67 percent) or FY 1980 projects (50 percent). Measures taken in FY 1990, however, largely center on making existing systems function more efficiently, rather than creating new institu- tions. 3.28. Of all the projects reviewed, only one, the FY 1990 Nigeria Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment Operation, reflects the recommendation in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa to expand African capacity to produce and sustain postgraduate intellectual talent. 3.29. Compatible with the Sub-Saharan paper recommendations, FY 1990 projects also build staff development components into their programs to help maintain or increase the quality of teachers and staff. For instance, 89 percent of the FY 1990 projects will develop distance education or inservice teacher training programs; only 33 percent of the FY 1985 projects and 67 percent of the FY 1980 projects do so. Moreover, for the first time, some FY 1990 projects link teacher pay increases to the successful completion of training courses, and one project provides allowances for texts, journals, and monographs for tertiary level staff development. 3.30. ImProvinR Policy Design and ImRlementation. Perhaps the most dramatic change in project policy content during the past decade relates to suggestions in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa for improving policy design and implementation. All FY 1990 projects provide resources to help countries formulate comprehensive educational development programs. This compares with 50 percent of the FY 1985 projects and 33 percent of the FY 1980 projects. 3.31. All the FY 1990 projects also contain policies to improve management, whereas 83 percent of the FY 1985 projects and 50 percent of the FY 1980 projects do so In FY 1990 emphasis is on improving the examinations systems, improving the capacity to collect and process statistical information, and improving the quality of central ministry analytical staff. 3.32. New Policies. Among the projects reviewed, several policies recom- mended in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa appear for the first time in FY 1990. To mobilize new resources for adjustment, new policies include: (a) increasing official tolerance and encouragement for private education; (b) making families and students more responsible for students' living expenses; 5. Of four projects not providing for increased funding for primary education, two were in countries that have already attained near universal primary education, Djibouti and Tanzania. Two others, the Ghana and Nigeria projects, concentrate on secondary and tertiary education respectively. Improved efficiency in these sub-sectors is expected to free resources for the development of primary education. 29 (c) introducing or raising tuition fees; and (d) introducing alternative modes of financing education such as national service or student loans. In order to contain unit costs, policies of minimizing low-priority civil works such as boarding facilities or sports complexes, increasing utilization rates for physical facilities, increasing teacher loads, increasing instructional time, and cutting the number of non-teaching staff appeared in the FY 1990 projects, but were not present in the FY 1985 or FY 1980 projects. 3.33. Newly-adopted policies aimed at selective expansion include increasing the share of resources devoted to primacy education, linking teacher pay increases to the completion of training programs, and providing more monographs and journals to tertiary level staff. One FY 1990 project also supported coordination and development of high quality university education. 3.34. Policies Not Yet Adopted. Some policy recommendations made in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa were not included in FY 1990 projects, e.g. requiring students to perform "work-study" services in kind, addressing student health problems, or making more use of foreign correspondence courses. Rather than a rejection of such measures, this may be an indication of a need for more time to introduce in education projects measures that are not standard education activities. An illustration of this is the fact that while only one FY 1990 project covers nutritional aspects (Madagascar will introduce such aspects in the curriculum of primary schools), three projects in FY 1991-92 plan to support various types of interventions in this area (Burkina Faso, Mozambique and Zaire). D. Policy Paper on Primary Education 1. Summary of Policy Recommendations 3.35. This policy paper, published in 1990, focuses on three central themes: (a) improving educational effectiveness through (i) enhancing the learning environment, (ii) improving the preparation and motivation of teachers, and (iii) strengthening educational management; (b) improving equitable access; and (c) strengthening the resource base for primary education. There is considerable overlap between the recommendations of Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. For example, both stress increased provision of textbooks and learning materials, and the need to improve examination systems and educational management. Both papers also address issues of employing resources more efficiently through such measures as increasing student-teacher ratios, using physical facilities more intensively, and increased use of low-cost school design and community involvement in construction and maintenance. However, the recommendations of Primary Education tend to be more specific in these areas than those of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. 3.36. Notwithstanding the similarities, there are important differences in the papers. Primary Education emphasizes the need to commit resources in addition to those generated through adjustment in order to realize real gains in the quality of education. It recommends that governments not only pursue adjustment policies to increase the efficiency of the education sector, but 30 that they increase allocations to the sector, and within education to the primary sub-sector. According to the primary education paper, improvements in the quality of education should be measured by student achievement. It presents managers with a wide range of policy options to improve achievement which go beyond provision of learning material, adequate facilities, and improved monitoring systems suggested in the Sub-Saharan paper. Primary Education points out that increasing quality will, in the end, increase efficiency by reducing rates of repetition and dropout. Thus, even though costs per student may rise, costs per graduate are expected to fall. A detailed comparison of the two papers may be found in Annex 4. 2. Impact of Primary Education Policy Paper 3.37. Because Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa do have so much in common, it is difficult to distinguish the influence of each on project content. However, the impact of Primary Education may be seen in the changing content of primary projects outside of the Africa region. Because the primary paper offers more detailed suggestions for achieving overall objectives than Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, especially for improving learning achievement, its impact might also be seen in the rate of adoption of the more specific policy recommendations it puts forth. The accuracy of data for this, of course, is dependent on the level of detail provided in Staff Appraisal Reports. 3.38. To assers the effect of Primary Education, the content of 29 projects with primary education components was examined to determine the extent to which they reflect Primary Education's recommendations for improving educational effectiveness, improving equitable access, and strengthening the resource base (table 3.3). These include twelve FY 1990 projects, ten FY 1985 projects, and seven FY 1980 projects. Nineteen were in the Africa region, three in LAC, one in EMENA, and six in Asia. All 29 Bank- approved projects with primary education components were reviewed. (The projects are listed in annex 3.) 31 Table 3.3. Average Number of Policy Measures Taken Per Primary Education Project (All Projects), FY 1980, 1985, 1990 1980 1985 1990 IMPROVE EDUCATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS 10.3 15.7 24.3 Enhance the learning environment 4.0 5.4 7.8 Improve curriculum 0.4 0.5 0.8 Provide textbooks/teachers guides 1.0 2.3 3.3 Increase instructional time 1.0 1.0 1.3 Improve teaching 1.4 1.5 2.2 Increase student learning capacity 0.1 0.1 0.2 Improve preparation/motivation of teachers 2.3 2.9 5.0 Strengthen institutional capacity 4.0 7.4 11.5 Improve the organizational structure 2.7 5.4 7.3 Develop managerial capacity 0.6 0.9 2.0 Strengthen information systems 0.7 1.1 2.2 IMPROVE EQUITABLE ACCESS 4.9 5.9 8.5 Increase the supply of education 3.1 3.9 5.1 Increase demand for schooling 1.7 2.0 3.4 STRENCTHEN THE RESOURCE BASE 1.7 2.2 5.0 Use primary resources more efficiently 1.3 1.4 3.0 Mobilize resources for primary education 0.4 0.8 2.0 a. All 29 primary educstLon approved in FY 1980, 1985 and 1990 were reviewed to compile this table. 3.39. A review of Staff Appraisal Reports for FY 1980, 1985 and 1990 reveals an increase throughout the 1980s in the congruence between policies recommended in Primary Education and the content of projects. This trend has accelerated in the latter half of the decade, and the FY 1990 projects do more to improve educational effectiveness, improve equitable access, and to strengthen the resource base for education than do 1980 or 1985 projects. 3.40. Educational effectiveness was improved in three ways: (a) by enhancing the learning environment; (b) improving teacher preparation and motivation; and (c) strengthening institutional capacity. On the whole, projects adopted 24.3 policy measures in 1990 to improve educational effectiveness, compared with 15.7 in 1985 and 10.3 in 1980. Notable policy shifts include more comprehensive efforts to provide textbooks and teachers guides, additional steps taken to improve teaching by providing in-service training and developing programmed teaching materials, adoption of measures to improve the preparation and motivation of teachers, and efforts to improve organizational structures for more effective administration. 32 3.41. FY 1990 projects also place more emphasis on improving equitable access than do the FY 1980 and FY 1985 projects. In particular, they take more steps to increase both the supply of and demand for education. Supply is increased through measures such as renovating and constructing schools, recruiting and deploying teachers more effectively, and instituting multiple- shift and multi-grade teaching. The average FY 1990 project adopted 5.1 measures to increase the supply of education; the average FY 1985 and FY 1980 projects adopted 3.9 and 3.1 measures respectively. FY 1990 projects did twice as much as FY 1980 projects to increase the demand for schooling, by improving schools, reducing the direct and indirect costs of education, and mobilizing community support. 3.42. Perhaps the most dramatic change since FY 1985 is the increasing number of policies aimed at strengthening the resource base for primary education. FY 1990 projects contained more than twice as many measures aimed at this objective than did FY 1985 projects, and nearly three times as many as FY 1980 projects. Analysis shows increased emphasis not only on using available resources more efficiently, but more significantly, increased efforts to mobilize additional resources for primary education. According to Primary Education, the latter is important for real improvements in the quality of education. Additional resources are mobilized for primary education by shifting government allocations from other sectors to education, devoting more of the education budget to primary education, or raising more revenues locally. 3.43. Primary Education contains a number of suggestions not found in Education for Sub-Saharan Africa to improve student learning capacity, increase instructional time, improve actual teaching, and increase teacher preparation and motivation. It suggests several options for increasing the demand for schooling, especially from poor families and girls. Finally the paper presents several more-detailed recommendations for developing managerial capacity and for strengthening the resource base for primary education (table 3.4) 3.44. Among the projects reviewed, relatively few policy measures are adopted to increase learning capacity. None provide funds for pre-school or health programs. Two FY 1990 projects, one FY 1985 project, and one FY 1980 project support school feeding programs. 3.45. Evidence about efforts to increase instructional time is limited. Staff Appraisal Reports do not indicate that suggestions to maintain time standards have been adopted as yet. However, more is being done in FY 1990 than in previous years to provide incentives for teacher attendance. Efforts include providing teacher housing (25 percent of projects) and providing teaching materials (92 percent of projects). Two FY 1990 projects also contain funds to study the causes of student and teacher absenteeism. 33 Table 3.4. Implementation of Policies Recommended in Primary Education Policy Paper Not Contained in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa Policy Paper !I Percent of Average Projects Number of Reflecting Measures New PolLcies Adopted 1980 1985 1990 1980 1985 1990 INCREASE LEARNING CAPACITY 14 10 17 0.1 0.1 0.2 Encourage pro-school programs 0 0 0 0 0 0 Provide nutritional supplements 14 10 17 0.1 0.1 0.2 Provide health screening 0 0 0 0 0 0 INCREASE INSTRUCTIONAL TIME 71 80 92 1,0 1.0 1.3 Maintain time standards 0 0 0 0 0 0 Provide incentives for attendance 71 So 92 1.0 1.0 1.3 IMPROVE TEACHING 86 80 100 1.4 1.5 2.2 Provide more in-service training 86 70 100 1.1 1.2 1.8 Develop interactive radio instruction 14 10 25 0.1 0.1 0.3 Provide programmed teaching materials 14 20 17 0.1 0.1 0.2 IMPROVE TEACHER PREPARATION/ MOTIVATION 86 100 100 2.3 2.9 4.7 Shorten/focus pre-service traLning 43 40 50 0.4 0.5 0.8 Improve teacher motivation 86 100 100 1.9 2.4 3.9 Improve remuneration 0 10 33 0 0.1 0.7 Provide career opportunities 0 20 42 0 0.4 0.6 Improve vorking conditlons 71 80 92 1.1 1.1 1.8 Improve administrative support 57 80 75 0.7 0.8 0.8 INCREASE DEMAND FOR SCHOOLING 71 80 100 1.7 2.0 3.4 Reduce direct costs 71 60 92 1.0 0.7 1.6 Reduce indirect costs 14 10 25 0.1 0.1 0.3 Mobilize community support 29 70 67 0.4 0.9 0.9 Equalize the learning process 14 30 58 0.1 0.3 0.7 IDEVELOP MANAGERIAL CAPACITY 4 3 60- 83 0.6 0.9 2.0 Increase professional opportunities 0 0 17 0 0 0.2 Clearly define career paths 0 0 17 0 0 0.2 Institute performance evaluation 0 0 17 0 0 0.2 Provide staff development programs 43 60 75 0.4 0.7 1.0 Refine management selection criteria 0 0 17 0 0 0.2 Develop specialized institutes for training educational managers 14 20 33 0.1 0.2 0.3 STRENGTHEN THE RESOURCE BASE 86 80 100 1.7 2.2 5.1 Use existing resources more efficiently 71 80 100 1.3 1.4 3.0 Mobilize resources for primary education 43 SO 75 0.4 0.8 2.1 Reallocate resources to the education sector 29 20 33 0.3 0.2 1.5 Increase priority of primary education 29 40 75 0.1 0.6 1.5 Diversify funding for prlmoary education 0 0 25 0 0 0.3 Nov national taxes 0 0 0 0 0 0 Strengthen local financing 0 0 25 0 0 0.3 a All primary education approved for FY 1980. FY 1985 end FY 1990, a total of 29. were revieved to compile this table. There were 7 projects in 1980, 10 in 1985, and 12 in 1990. Consequently. in FY 1980 each project reviewed accounted for 14 percent of the total number of projects, in FY 1985 each project accounted for 10 percent, and in FY 1990 each project accounted for 8 percent. 34 3.46. There has been some increase in the proportion of projects adopting policies to improve teaching and in the range of measures used to achieve their objectives during the latter half of the decade. More projects provide teacher training and experiment with interactive radio instruction. Two FY 1990 projects are also experimenting with the use of programmed teaching materials. 3.47. Analysis of the FY 1980, FY 1985, and FY 1990 projects shows that the adoption of measures to improve teacher preparation and motivation has increased. Six of twelve FY 1990 projects take steps to shorten pre-service teacher training and to re-focus it on providing pedagogical skills. To achieve this goal, four FY 1990 projects raise entry criteria for teacher training institutes, thereby shifting the burden for teachers' general education back to secondary schools. None of the F'Y 1980 or FY 1985 projects do so. More FY 1990 projects are also taking steps to improve teacher remuneration, improve working conditions, or improve administrative support, compared to their FY 1985 or FY 1980 counterparts. 3.48. In line with recommendations of Primary Education, efforts to increase the demand for schooling have grown, especially in the latter half of the decade. The proportion of projects attempting to reduce direct and indirect education costs for families and students has increased. Means for achieving these goals include: providing instructional materials, MEASURES TO EQUALIZE THE LEARNING PROCESS: feeding programs, school THE 1990 GAMBIA EDUCATION SECTOR PROJECT uniforms, and targeted The 1990 Gambia Education Sector Project is being Implemented in parallel scholarships. Three with a Women in Development Project. countries will also experiment with altering The WID project will conduct an information, education, and communication the school calendar to campaign to bring about changes in prevailing perceptions, attitudes, and take into account sea- practices that have a negative impact on education and employment sonal labor demands on rural children. Efforts The education project will focus on measures to increase female enrollments to mobilize community and achievement The Government will lower the school entry age from eight support and to equalize to six years by 1992. n Is hopedthat this will provide girls with more time for the learning process have schooling before the competing demands of early marriage and pregnancy Increas. The project will increase the proportion of women in the teaching also increased during the force in order to provide more role models for girls. It will suppon the decade. In particular, development of unbiaed teaching methods and pedagogical materials; several FY 1990 proj ects provide a range of soial and financial Incentives to encourage girls to enroll contain provisions to In more traditionally male-dominated classes such as science, mathematics, establish parent-teacher and technical courses; and incorporate family life education programs into the associations and to conduct outreach campaigns to increase community support. To equalize the learning process, FY 1990 projects include revision of textbooks which portray women or minori- ties in negative ways, revision of discriminatory teaching practices, and choice of a sound language policy. 3.49. The Primary Education paper contains several new recommendations for development of education sector managerial capacity. These include increased professional opportunities and incentives; clear definition of 35 career paths; systematic assessment of student performance; systematic staff development; refinement of managerial position selection criteria; and development of specialized training institutions for educational managers. All six of these recommendations are included in FY 1990 projects; only two of them were included in the FY 1980 and 1985 projects. 3.50. To strengthen the resource base, Primary Education suggests that, where appropriate, governments introduce measures to mobilize additional resources, such as new national taxes or increased local financing for educa- tion. Three FY 1990 projects are experimenting with ways to strengthen local financing of education. In Somalia, community education associations are being encouraged. Establishing school maintenance and cost recovery schemes for textbooks will be among their main responsibilities. The Guinea project will support a local taxation scheme by matching all funds for small investment projects raised at the local level. The Tanzanian government is experimenting with ways to encourage school expansion with financing from parent-teacher associations. 3. Primary Education Policy in Asia. LAC and EMENA 3.51. Because it is impossible to separate the impact on African projects of the Primary Education policy paper from that of Education in Sub- Saharan Africa, a separate analysis was undertaken of projects with primary education components outside Africa in order to gauge the impact of Primary Education on the policy measures included in projects. Ten primary education projects outside the Africa region were funded by the Bank in the chosen sample years -- two in FY 1980, four in FY 1985, and four in FY 1990. Sev- eral trends in primary education policy emerge during the 1980s based on a review of these projects: i Improving educational ~~~effectiveness through MORE SPECIFIC INTERVENTIONS TO REACH PROJECT OBJECTIVES: ef de ve 1hpoent PRIMARY EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN, 1985-90 the development, production, and A 1985 crodit helped Pakistan improve the quality of primary education in distribution o f selected provinces. The project was intended to Improve teacher textbooks and teachers effectiveness by providing: (a) instructional guides and training materials; (b) guides. in-service training courses; and (c) Improved supervision. Low cost primary educadon was promoted through: (a) use of aistant teachers; (b) * Emphasizing quality development of low cost school buildings; and (c) policy studis aimed ot further developing options for low cost primary education, in-service training for teachers: projects A 1990 credit contains more specific Interventons to ain project objectives designed later in the to: (a) Increase enrollment In rural and urban slum areas, with emphais on decade turn to less girls; (b) enhance the delivery of primary education; end (c) Increase student leoming achievement To Increase enrollment, the project provides funds to conventional methods improve access, facilhies, and maintenance; and to provide s wide range of such as shortened, incentives to improve admission and retention of children in school. ODeiveay more focused training is being improved by introducing meosures to enhance the recruitment courses, training and motivation, and retention of teachers; improving the supply, training and visit systems, and supervision of teachers; and improving planning, management. and implementation of primary education. Finally, student schievement will be distance education enhanced by improved quality, durability, distribution and availability of programs. teaching materials, textbooks and supplementary materials. 36 * Improving teacher motivation by increasing remuneration and career opportunities. * Strengthening institutional capacity, with comparatively more of the later projects devoting resources to defining career paths for managers, establishing systems to assess performance, providing staff development programs, and improving information systems. Decentralization of authority also became more prevalent in projects during the latter half of the decade. * Improving equitable access by increasing the demand for schooling during the latter part of the decade, rather than merely increasing the supply, as was the case in the earlier years. Several measures target girls specifically, such as providing scholarships, book subsidies, or uniforms. Project documents increasingly stated that texts portraying certain groups such as women negatively should be rewritten. 3.52. In conclusion, trends in this sub-group of projects do not differ significantly from worldwide trends. E. Policy PaRer on Vocational and Technical Education and Training 3.53. The most recent of the three papers examined for this review, Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training, is still in draft form. Even so, because of the paper's preparation process, the recommendations contained in the paper are reflected in FY 1990 projects. This is because the major policy thrusts of the paper have been under discussion since 1988. Moreover, Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training clarifies and elaborates on several issues raised in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: the need to strike a balance between general education and technical/vocational training, to determine the most suitable location for different types of training, to adjust expectations of training, to develop further links to the labor market, and to create incentives for private industry to provide skills development. 1. Summary of Policy Recommendations 3.54. The recommendations in the paper fall into five main categories: (a) improving training's contribution to productivity; (b) mobilizing employer and private training; (c) increasing responsiveness, outcomes and efficiency; (d) diversifying training finance; and (e) improving equity. 3.55. To improve the contribution of training to oroductivity, the paper first warns policymakers to avoid unrealistic expectations that vocational and technical education can be used to reduce youth unemployment, create a reserve of trained workers, change aspirations, or serve the needs of less academically able students. Second, the paper suggests that policymakers strike a balance between general education and training, in which the quality of general secondary education is improved, training institutions develop 37 specialized occupational competence to improve worker productivity, and technical/vocational training is separated from general education. Third, it suggests several ways to better adapt training policy to the economic context. Reducing distortions in the economy or designing compensatory training policies will improve economic signals to training providers. Strengthening economic analysis in training institutes will increase the effectiveness of education planners. Several measures will help to strengthen the orientation of training toward labor markets: developing a labor market information system; monitoring trends in employment and the results of training through such measures as employment, tracer, and enterprise surveys; and building linkages between training institutions and enterprises through joint employer-school advisory and curriculum development committees, vocational guidance and placement activities, surveys of local employers, and supervised internships. 3.56. To mobilize emRlover training, the paper suggests providing transitional support and incentives for private enterprises to develop their training capacity. It also suggests using public employer training capacity to train for private employment or for special operations, such as training for structural adjustment or growth in a particular sector. To mobilize private (proprietary) training, the paper suggests improving the information base on private training, establishing testing and certification systems, and providing careful regulation of the sub-sector. 3.57. The responsiveness of public pre-emplovment training may be increased by strengthening the capacities of national training authorities to develop strategic plans, provide professional services to training institutes, develop temporary training systems to meet particular needs, and to help develop private training capability. The paper also recommends offering incentives to public and private training providers to adjust to changing training needs, creating specialized institutions to meet the needs of different skill markets, and increasing institutional autonomy and accountability. 3.58. To imProve training outcomes, the paper recommends paying salaries adequate to attract quality instructors, providing continual in-service training to instructors, and ensuring the availability of teaching materials. To improve instructional efficiency, the paper suggests consolidating vocational and technical schools into fewer, higher-quality institutions. Utilization may then be increased by reducing the duration of instruction, and providing "dual' training that combines training off-the-job in basic skills and theory with supervised apprenticeships. 3.59. Possibilities for diversifying training finance include the imposition of payroll levies or cost-recovery schemes, such as charging tuition fees, or amending regulations to allow training institutions to more easily generate and retain income. Resource diversification is also a topic of Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. 3.60. Finally, like the two other papers reviewed, this paper emphasizes measures to imDrove eguity. Generally, educational attainment should be improved by ensuring the completion of the primary curriculum, expanding 38 access to secondary education for women and the poor, and supporting nonformal basic education and literacy programs. Access to training opportunities may be made more equitable by reducing the private costs of training -- for example, by offering shorter, more intensive courses, providing training in the evenings, offering training in convenient locations, and subsidizing training for disadvantaged groups provided by non- governmental organizations. 2. Impact of Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training 3.61. All projects with vocational or technical education components in FY 1980, 1985 and 1990 were reviewed to determine the degree to which they reflect policies set forth in Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training (table 3.5). In all, 27 projects were reviewed -- nine for each year. Eleven are pure technical/vocational projects; the remainder are general education projects with technical/vocational components. Twelve are projects in the Africa region, seven in EMENA, five in Asia, and three BALANCING EDUCATION AND TRAINING: in LAC. (A list of SRI LANKA GENERAL EDUCATION PROJECT projects is found in an- One of the main objectives of the 1990 Sri Lanka General Education Project nex 3.) is 'to begin the process of adjusting the balance between various types of education and training - to bring the more closely in line with employment 3. 62. Although all opportunities and manpower requirements.! To do so, the project provides projects in both FY 1980 funds for Increasing the quality of secondary education. In particular, It seeks and FY 1990 included to upgrade science programs by providing science kits and laboratories, to ensure the supply of learning materials, and to train school managers and measures to train for supervisors to improve the effectiveness with which teachers and resources productivity, the FY 1990 are used. Finally, the project provides funds to carry out an extensive study projects adopted more of education-employment linkages. It will analyze the scope for adjusting the measures. The average mix of academic, technical and vocational training, as well as the cost FY 1990 project adopts effectiveness of various types of vocational training. The output of the study is expected to form the basis for reform in the education and training system. 4.0 policy measures aimed at balancing education and training; FY 1985 and FY 1980 projects contain 2.3. and 2.6 measures respectively. In particular, FY 1990 projects emphasize improving the quality of general secondary edu- cation by providing teacher training, increasing achievement in mathematics and science, and providing learning materials. Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training recommendations in this area are consistent with Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recommendations for improving quality. On the training side, more FY 1990 projects than FY 1985 or FY 1980 projects contain provisions to increase links between training administrators and instructors and employers. For example, the FY 1990 China Vocational and Technical Education Project supports industrial attachments for teachers lacking in practical experience. The FY 1990 India Technician Education Project supports an extensive industry-institute interaction program designed to promote the involvement of industry in critical aspects of training, and to support efforts by institutes to solve special training or technical problems of industry. 39 3.63. Projects in FY 1990 also do more than their FY 1985 or FY 1980 counterparts to adjust training to the economic context. The average FY 1990 project adopts 4.3 policy measures to achieve this goal, the average FY 1985 and FY 1980 projects have 3.2 and 2.4 policy measures respectively. The most widely-used measure is to establish joint employer-school advisory committees. The National Council of Training and Employment in Djibouti is a typical example. Composed of representatives of educational institutions and employers, the Council is charged with assuring proper linkages between training and the labor market, proposing necessary adjustments to the composition, content, duration, and volume of training, and reviewing proposed investments. Seventy-eight percent of the FY 1990 projects support such committees. Table 3.5. Implementation of Vocational and Technical Education and Training Policies, FY 1980, 1985, 1990 Percent of Projects Average Number Reflecting VET Policies of Measures Adopted 1980 1985 1990 1980 1985 1990 TRAIN FOR PRODUCTIVITY 100 89 100 5.0 5.6 8.3 Balance education and training 89 89 100 2.6 2.3 4.0 Adjust training to economic context 78 78 89 2.4 3.2 4.3 MOBILIZE TRAINING 11 33 11 0.2 0.9 0.2 Mobilize employer training 0 33 0 0.0 0.6 0.0 Mobilize private training 11 22 11 0.2 0.3 0.2 INCREASE TRAINING RESPONSIVENESS, OUTCOMES AND EFFICIENCY 100 100 100 7.4 9.6 9.0 Improve responsiveness to employment demand 100 100 100 4.8 6.6 5.7 Improve training outcomes 89 100 89 2.2 2.2 2.1 Improve instructional efficiency 33 44 78 0.4 0.8 1.3 DIVERSIFY TRAINING FINANCE 11 33 44 0.1 0.6 0.7 IMPROVE EOUITY 89 67 78 2.0 2.0 1.7 Improve levels of education 78 44 78 1.6 1.1 1.0 Reduce private costs of training 33 56 56 0.4 0.9 0.7 a. All vocational and technical education and training projects for FY 1980. FY 1985 and FY 1990. a total of 27. were reviewed to compile this table. There were nine projects in *ach year. Consequently, each project revlewed accounts 11 percent of the total number of projects in each year. 40 3.64. Efforts to mobilize employer and private training did not increase in the FY 1990 projects. However, six of nine FY 1990 projects are ia low-income countries where the private training capacity is weak. Of the remaining three projects, the China project focuses on expanding the formal technical school system, and the Egypt project concentrates more narrowly on developing a technical teacher education program. Only the India project supports measures to better utilize private institutions resources. IMPROVING INSTRUCTIONAL EFFICIENCY: 3.65. A noteworthy effort to INDIATECHNICIAN EDUCATION PROJECT improve training responsiveness, out- The India Tochnician Education Projoet suppots several comes, and efficiency during the programs to incroas the tralning systom's internal and external decade is the increase in the efficioncy. First, management In the Bureau of Technical proportion of projects pursuing Education and the State Directorates of Technical Education improved instructional efficiency. will be strongthoned to provide essential services to training This rose from 33 percent of the FY instutes and to improve projoet implementation capabilites. 1980 proJ ects to 78 percent of the Second, autonomy will be granted to polytechnics In order to clearly identify decisionmaking authoriy, and to increase their FY 1990 projects. Measures taken in flexibility in responding to changing needs of tho labor market. FY 1990 include the consolidation of Third, the project will promote an Industry-instituto Intoraction vocational education institutions in program with the objectives of (a) organizing industrial training two countries and improving the for students and teachers; (b) involving Industry in curriculum utilization of training capacity in and learning materials development; (c) encouraging institutes to undertake consultancies to help industries solve speciic six countries. Utilization was problems related to production; (d) helping Industries conduct improved by intensifying and reducing in-service training programs; and (e) carrying out research the duration of instruction and by studies to gather data for better planning and curriculum combining theoretical teaching with development apprenticeships to take better advantage of employer resources. The trend toward increasing efficiency is consistent with findings regarding related suggestions in the Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. 3.66. The proportion of projects containing measures to diversify sources of finance for training has increased during the decade, rising from 11 percent in FY 1980 to 44 percent in FY 1990. The most common measure used in FY 1990 is charging tuition fees to trainees. One project also imposes payroll levies, and another loosens regulations concerning direct income generation and retention by training institutes. 3.67. Most projects (78 percent) adopt measures to improve equity. The propor- tion of projects doing so has not changed much during the decade. However, the FY 1990 projects put comparatively more emphasis on ensuring completion of the primary school curriculum than do FY 1985 or 1980 projects, and less emphasis on nonformal basic education and literacy programs. Other measures taken in FY 1990 include reducing the private costs of training by offering shorter, more inten- sive courses, and subsidizing training for women and the poor. F. ImDact of Policy PaRers on FY 1990 Sector Work 3.68. Sector work contributes to the understanding of education policies, pro- vides the basis for policy dialogue with member governments, and identifies forthcoming projects. This section examines the relationship between the content 41 of FY 1990 sector work and specific suggestions made in the three policy papers reviewed above. 3.69. Twenty-seven education sector reports were produced in FY 1990: 12 for Africa, three for Asia, five for EMENA, and seven for LAC. Twenty-one of the reports are country-specific; six are regional studies. Of the country-specific reports, six are relevant to Education in Sub-Saharan Afrlca, 13 to Primary Educatlon and 13 to Policles for Vocational and Technical Education and Tralnlng. For purposes of analysis, only the country-specific sector reports are included in the tables in this section; regional sector reports are dealt with separately. (A list of the sector work reports included in this analysis can be found in annex 3.) 3.70. Nine of the 27 FY 1990 sector papers are multi-sectoral. Of these, eight are country-specific studies (El Salvador, Ecuador, Fiji, Malawi, Chile, C8te d'Ivoire, Costa Rica, and Egypt), and one, Social Spending in Latin America -. The Story of the 1980s, is regional. Several cover a wide range of social sectors, but most focus on health and education. In doing so, the reports focus on problems common to all social sectors in the delivery and quality of services, and to take advantage of the synergistic effects of social sector policy coordination. For example, the Fiji investment will increase productivity by simultaneously building a healthy and well-educated work force; and in Malawi, efforts will be made to ensure that children are healthy enough to take full advantage of educational opportunities. The integrated approach attempts to ensure an appropriate balance in social service delivery to achieve national goals. 3.71. The policy papers have contributed significantly to the development of FY 1990 sector work. Seven of the reports specifically refer to one or more of the papers. Moreover, there is substantial evidence that Education in Sub- Saharan Africa has helped to frame the education policy debate in Africa. 6 Within the Bank itself, PHREE staff commented on a number of sector reports in FY 1990-91 from the perspective of the Primary Education and Vocational and Technical Education and Training policy papers. In addition, the authors of the papers participated in the Malawi Human Resources Development Strategy sector mission in FY 1991, incorporating policy recommendations from the two papers. 1. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa 3.72. Six FY 1990 sector studies are relevant to Eduzcation in Sub-Saharan Africa, one each in Chad, C6te d'Ivoire, Lesotho, and Madagascar, and two in Malawi. Several regional studies examine Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recommendations in more detail. They include: Using Examinations to Improve Education: A Study in Fourteen Countries; Science, Education and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa; Towards a Plan of Action for the Sahel; Supply and Demand for 6. See Update on Implementation of the World Bank Policy Study Education in Sub-Saharan Africa--Policies for Adjustment, Revicalization, and Expansion. Report to the Executive Directors of the World Bank. Processed. April 1990. 42 Tralned Agricultural Manpower in the SADCC Countries; and SADCC: An Approach Framework to Capacity Building and Human Resource Development. 3.73. The Chad, Lesotho, Malawi Human Resources, and C8te d'Ivoire reports reflect the major recommendations of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. Each of the reports suggests a wide range of policy measures for adjustment, revitalization, selective expansion, and improved policy design and implementation. Taken as a group, these four reports are even more reflective of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recommendations than the FY 1990 Staff Appraisal Reports. For instance, the average FY 1990 Staff Appraisal Report contains 7.3 adjustment policy measures; the average of these four sector reports contains 8.8 measures. Staff Appraisal Reports in FY 1990 contain 2.3, 5.2, and 4.3 policy measures for revitalization, selective expansion, and improved policy design and implementation respectively. Corresponding figures for the sector reports are 2.0, 8.0, and 4.8. 3.74. The remaining two country-specific reports, (Madagascar Employment and Vocational Training and Malawi Training Sector Study), more narrowly reflect suggestions for enhancing labor force training. Both reflect Education in Sub- Saharan Africa's specific recommendations for conducting training in venues close to the workplace; for improving the formulation, monitoring and evaluation of training policy; and for increased internal and external efficiency. 3.75. Regional sector studies undertaken in FY 1990 also reflect Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recommendations. Towards a Plan of Action for the Sahel raises issues for consideration for the medium-term development of educational systems in the region. It emphasizes mobilization of resources, containment of unit costs, revitalization, universalization of primary education, improved labor force training, rationalization of higher education, and improved planning for education. Using Examinations to Improve Education is a detailed study of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa's suggestions for using examinations to restore academic standards and for strengthening testing. The report quotes Education in Sub-Saharan Africa extensively. Three reports, Science, Education and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, Supply and Demand for Trained Agricultural Manpower in the SADCC countries; and SADCC: An Approach Framework to Capacity Building in Human Resource Development, formulate strategies for developing the skills necessary for high quality scientific research and introducing technical change. They reflect Education in Sub-Saharan Africa's specific recommendations for developing the capacity to produce and sustain post-graduate talent, for mobilizing resources, and for restoring academic standards (table 3.6). 43 Table 3.6. Policies Recommended in Education in Sub-Saharan Africa Included in FY 1990 Sector Reports, a/ Percent of Papers Average Number of Reflecting New Policies Measures Adopted ADJUSTIENT (100) 67 (8.8) 5.8 Mobilize resources (100) 67 (4.3) 2.8 Increase cost sharing (100) 67 (3.5) 2.3 Increase government expenditure (75) 50 (0.8) 0.5 Contain unit costs (100) 67 (4.5) 3.0 Reduce capital costs (75) 50 (2.3) 1.5 Reduce recurrent costs (75) 50 (2.3) 1.5 REVITALIZATION: RESTORATION OF OUALITY (100) 67 (2.0) 1.3 Increase supply of instructional materials (100) 67 (1.0) 0.7 Restore academic standards (75) 50 (0.8) 0.5 Increase operations and maintenance budgets (25) 17 (0.3) 0.2 SELECTIVE EXPANSION (100) (100) (8.0) 6.3 Renew progress toward universal primary education (100) 67 (2.5) 1.7 Expand secondary and tertiary education (75) 50 (1.3) 0.8 Enhance labor force training (100) 100 (2.3) 2.5 Develop staff training programs (75) 50 (1.5) 1.0 Develop capacity to produce and sustain post-graduate talent (25) 17 (0.5) 0.3 POLICY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION (100) 67 (4.8) 3.1 Formulate an educational development program (50) 33 (1.5) 1.0 Improve management capabilities (100) 67 (3.3) 2.2 a. Figures in parentheses are calculated from the four comprehensive education sector papers done ln FY 1990 -- Chad, Cote d'lvoire. Lesotho, and Malawi Human Resources. Figures outside of parentheses are for the group of seven papers as a whole. Consequently, the figure in the parentheses for each project accounts for 25 percent of the total for each project. Each figure outside the parentheses accounts for 16 percent of the total. 44 2. Primary Education 3.76. Primary Education recommendations are well reflected in FY 1990 sector work (table 3.7). All 13 reports suggest policies for increasing instructional time, improving teacher preparation and motivation, increasing the demand for schooling, and strengthening the resource base for primary education. Eighty- five percent of the reports contain suggestions for improving teaching. The sector reports deal with policies LINKING HEALTHAND EDUCATION: to increase student learning capacity MEXICO BASIC EDUCATIONAND much more effectively than the SARs. CHILE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT STUDIES Four sector reports contain sug- The Mexico Basic Education and Chile Social Development gestions for encouraging pre-school Studies both recognize the linkages between health and programs for disadvantaged children; nutriion and increasing student learning capaciy. The Chile seven suggest providing nutritional study recommends placing an Increased emphasis on supplements, and five suggest poli- preventative health care systems. Central to the strategy is identfication of children at risk and actions to improve their cies for health screening. In health and nutritional status. Specific actions include contrast, only one 1990 Staff vaccination campaigns, treatment of infectious and parashic Appraisal Report supports a school diseases, and improved delivery of school feeding programs. meal program, and no project The Mexico study recommends the following measures to addresses health issues. improve student learning capacity: (a) providing students with school breakfasts or snacks; (b) providing iron, iodine, and Vitamin A supplements; (c) treatment for parasites; and (d) 3.77. Sixty-two percent of the screening children for visual and auditory problems. sector reports call for increasing resources for the education sector and all call for increasing the share of sector resources devoted to primary education. Only 33 percent of the FY 1990 Staff Appraisal Reports call for a reallocation of resources to education, and 75 percent for a reallocation within education to the primary sub-sector (table 3.4). The shift is indicative of the need to commit funds, in addition to those generated through adjustment policies, to finance improvements in educational quality. 3.78. The influence of Primary Education is particularly strong in the Mexico Basic Education; Malawi Human Resources and Algeria Basic and Secondary Education studies. The latter two specifically cite Primary Education findings on improving teacher performance. The Mexico study reflects all of the policy paper's major recommendations. Primary Education is also cited in Using Examinations to Improve Education and Towards a Plan of Action for the Sahel and in Social Spending in Latin America: The Story of the 1980s. The Sahel paper reiterates Improving Primary Education suggestions for ensuring the supply of teaching and learning materials, maintaining in-class time standards, defining a minimum schedule for teaching math and language skills, and increasing student learning capacity through the provision of regular nutritional supplements and anti-parasite treatment. The Latin America study contains suggestions for increasing expenditures in education and improving equity in the sector. 45 Table 3.7. Policies Recommended in Improving Primary Education Included in FY 1990 Sector Reports !I Percent of Average Number Reports Reflecting of Measures Neo PolicLes Adopted INCREASE LEARNING CAPACITY 54 1.6 Encourage pro-school programs 31 0.5 Provide nutritLonal supplements 54 0.6 Provide health screening 39 0.5 INCREASE INSTRUCTIONAL TIME 100 2.0 Maintain time standards 16 0.2 Provide incentives for attendance 100 1.8 IMPROVE TEACHING 85 1.7 Provide more in-service training 85 1.4 Develop interactive radio instruction 16 0.2 Provide programmed teachLng materlals 16 0.2 IMPROVE TEACHER PREPARATION/ M4OTIVATION 100 4.7 Shorten/focus pro-service training 39 0.5 Improve teacher motivation 100 4.0 Improve remuneration 39 0.7 Provide career opportunities 31 0.5 Improve vorking condltions 100 1.8 Improve administrative support 77 0.9 INCREASE DEMAND FOR SCHOOLING 100 5.0 Reduce direct costs 100 2.5 Reduce indirect costs 16 0.2 Mobilize community support 62 0.8 Equalize the learning process 77 1.5 DEVELOP MANAGERIAL CAPACITY 39 1.5 Increase professional opportunities 23 0.2 Clearly define career paths 16 0.2 Institute performance evaluation 23 0.2 Provide staff development programs 39 0.5 Refine management selection criteria 23 0.2 Develop speclalized institutes for training educational managers 8 0.1 STRENGTHEN THE RESOURCE BASE 100 5.8 Use existing resources more efficiently 100 2.5 Mobilize resources for prLmary education 100 3.3 Reallocate resources to education sector 62 0.6 Increase prLority of primary education 100 2.2 Diversify funding for primary education 39 0.5 Nev national taxes 8 0.1 Strengthen local financing 39 0.4 ------------------------------------------------------------ a. Thirteen sector reports vere considered relevant to Primary Education. Consequently, each sector report revieved accounted for eight percent of the total number. 46 3. Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training 3.79. The impact of the Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training paper is considerable, given that it is still in draft form (table 3.8). The thirteen FY 1990 sector reports with technical or vocational components all reflect the recommendations in Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training to train for productivity, increase training responsiveness, improve outcomes and efficiency, and enhance equity. Ninety-two percent of the reports reflect Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training suggestions for mobilizing employer or private training resources and 70 percent reflect suggestions for diversifying training finance. 3.80. Moreover, the sector reports adopt a wider range of policy measures to achieve objectives than do earlier Staff Appraisal Reports. The average sector report contains 11.2 policy measures aimed at training for productivity; the average 1980, FY 1985, and FY 1990 Staff Appraisal Reports contained 5.0, CHANGING TO AN EMPLOYMENT-ORIENTED, 5.6, and 8.3 policy DEMAND-DRIVEN SYSTEM: TOGO TECHNICAL measures respectively EDUCATION AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING PROJECT (table 3.5). Policy The Togo Technical Education and Vocational Training Project reflects the measures aimed at major recommendations of Policies for Vocational and Technical Education. mobilizing training have The project will support a restructuring of technical education and vocational increased from 0.2 in the training systems, changing their focus from a system that is socially-oriented most recent set of Staff andsupply-driventoanemployment-oriented, demand-drivensystem. Itwill support institutional development of the Ministry of Technical Education and Appraisal Reports to 3.3 Vocotional Training, particularly in its capacity to plan and monitor programs in the FY 1990 sector and to follow labor market trends. The newly created Training and reports. Similarly, the Employment Observatory will provide training institutions with ongoing average number of policy information on the state of the labor market. The project will also establish mIt easures aimed at a National Training Fund to provide investment and budgetary support for a me a sure s a i med a t wide spectrum of training activities. Finally, the credit will finance the increasing training development of sector-specific vocational training centers. The centers will responsiveness, outcomes, work in close collaboration with industry to professionalize the cufrent formal and efficiency has and informal training systems. As a result of the project, Togolese technical increased from 9.0 to education and vocational training programs will become more relevantto the needs of the economy. more internally and externally efficient, and more 10.9; measures aimed at institufionally sound. diversifying training finance have increased (This FY 1991 project is not included in this analysis.) from 0.7 to 1.7; and measures aimed at improving equity have increased from 1.7 to 2.7. 47 Table 3.8. Policies Recommended in Skills for Productivity: Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training in Developing Countries Included in FY 1990 Sector Reports Al Percent of Papers Average Number of Reflecting New Policies Measures Adopted TRAIN FOR PRODUCTIVITY 100 11.2 Balance education and training 100 5.8 Adjust training to economic context 100 5.4 MOBILIZE TRAINING 92 3.3 Mobilize employer training 70 2.2 Mobilize private training 62 1.2 INCREASE TRAINING RESPONSIVENESS, OUTCOMES AND EFFICIENCY 100 10.9 Improve responsiveness to employment demand 100 7.8 Improve training outcomes 54 1.2 Improve instructional efficiency 85 1.9 DIVERSIFY TRAINING FINANCE 70 1.7 IMPROVE EOUITY 100 2.7 Improve levels of education 92 1.9 Reduce private costs of training 42 0.8 a. Thirteen sector reports were considered relevant to Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training. Consequently, each sector report reviewed accounted for 8 percent of the total number. 3.81. Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training is directly cited in two sector reports. Its research regarding balancing education and training is contributing to the development of a cost and financing strategy for Turkey and its recommendations about methods to improve training outcomes are cited in the Algeria Basic and Secondary Education paper. * * * 48 4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Bank Lending for Education and Training in FY 1990 4.1. World Bank lending commitments for education and training in FY 1990 were the largest in the Bank's history, totaling US$2,062 million, or 9.9 percent of total lending. Of this, US$1,487 million was for education projects, US$451 million for project-related training, and US$123 million for education in non-education projects. The Bank's lending program for the period FY 1991-94 indicates that the absolute level of lending for education projects will rise to an average of US$1,700 million per year. However, the share of such lending as a proportion of total Bank lending will decrease from 7.3 percent in FY 1990 to an average of 6.0 percent for FY 1991-94. No projections are available for lending for project-related training or for education in non-education projects. 4.2. The lending pattern in FY 1990 was exceptional. IDA credits accounted for two-thirds of lending; largely attributable to four large projects in Nigeria, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. There were also no education loans to LAC, although two social sector projects contained sizeable education components. About one quarter of FY 1990 lending was for primary education, one third for higher education, and one quarter for vocational and technical education at the secondary and tertiary levels. Emphasis on primary education is expected to grow in the future. 4.3. The distribution of education investments by category of expenditure in FY 1990 followed the trends of the previous three years. Roughly two thirds of investments were for civil works, equipment and furniture. Technical assistance accounted for 22 percent of total FY 1990 project costs. In Asia, 80 percent of technical assistance was for training and 20 percent for foreign and national expert services; in Africa, 78 percent was for expert services and 22 percent for training. 4.4. Lending instruments continued to evolve in response to the changing economic situation. Of 21 projects approved in FY 1990, three were sector adjustment loans, four were "pure" sector investment loans, and 14 were specific investment loans. However, the distinction between specific and sector investment loans becomes blurred as Borrowers take more responsibility for detailed design, appraisal and supervision of Bank financed investments: specific investment loans actually become "partial" sector investment loans. This trend was especially marked in FY 1990 projects. Thus, despite the unusually high number of sector adjustment loans in FY 1990, full-fledged or partial sector investment loans remain the preferred lending instrument for promoting education sector reforms and adjustment. 4.5. Education projects in FY 1990 continued recent patterns of promoting increased use of cost recovery, especially at the secondary and 49 tertiary levels; specific policy measures to protect the education sector during this period of increased financial stringency; increased participation by girls and women; and greater curriculum emphasis on environment and science and technology. Almost half the FY 1990 education projects had co-financing from a wide range of multilateral and bilateral sources; this compares to about one-third of the projects in the recent past. Increasingly, World Bank projects serve as a framework for coordinating donor support to the education sector, especially in IDA countries and for primary education. This role is expected to increase in the wake of the 1990 World Conference on Education for All. B. Major Policy Trends 4.6. The major policy thrusts of the three policy papers examined in this Review clearly have been reflected in Bank project objectives. This argues that the policy recommendations contained in the papers are sound and that they strike a responsive chord among Bank education professionals and among policymakers in member countries. The congruence between these recommendations and project content is largely the result of the process through which the papers are prepared. Research conducted by PHREE staff and contributions from operational staff were an essential element of this process. Because of their continued dialogue with government officials, operational staff have first-hand knowledge of best practices and innovative approaches in the design and implementation of education policies. One of the most important functions of policy papers is to codify and disseminate this knowledge to a wider audience. To a considerable degree, therefore, the Rrocess of preparing the policy papers is as important, or perhaps even more important, than formal publication. The papers thus play a significant role in defining a forward agenda in the education sector. 4.7. Several major recommendations common to all three policy papers were increasingly reflected in education projects. Throughout the decade projects emphasized improving the quality of education. Although certainly not absent in FY 1980, the emphasis grew in importance during the decade. In the African projects reviewed, for example, projects incorporating measures to increase instructional materials rose from 67 percent in FY 1980 to 100 percent in FY 1990. In the primary education projects, measures to provide incentives for student attendance rose from 71 percent in FY 1980 to 92 percent in FY 1990, and measures to improve teaching rose from 86 percent in FY 1980 to every project in FY 1990. Even more striking were policies to improve educational efficiency that appeared in only 33 percent of the FY 1980 projects, but in 78 percent of the FY 1990 projects. 4.8. The emphasis on increasing access to primary education also grew during the decade. In the Sub-Saharan African projects reviewed, proposals for renewed progress toward universal primary education rose from 67 percent of the projects in FY 1980 to every project in FY 1990. Although increased access was certainly a prominent feature of FY 1980 50 projects, where 71 percent of the projects included measures to increase the demand for schooling, by FY 1990 every project included such measures. There was a marked increase in overt measures to equalize access to primary education. Measures in this regard were included in only 14 percent of the FY 1980 projects, but in 58 percent of the FY 1990 projects. Vocational and technical education projects also reflected the emphasis on improving equity (e.g., by reducing the private costs of technical and vocational training) and on enhancing quality (e.g., by emphasizing improved quality of general secondary education). 4.9. Also notable is the trend toward some form of cost-sharing. In the African projects reviewed, inclusion of cost-sharing measures rose from 33 percent in FY 1980 to 100 percent in FY 1990. Among the primary education projects reviewed, measures to strengthen local financing, not even mentioned in FY 1980, appeared in 25 percent of the FY 1990 projects. In the vocational and technical training projects reviewed, inclusion of measures to diversify training finance rose from 11 percent of the projects in FY 1980 to 44 percent in FY 1990. 4.10. The decade also saw growing emphasis on improving educational management and planning. In the Sub-Saharan Africa projects, measures to improve management capabilities, present in only one-third of the FY 1980 projects, were found in every FY 1990 project. The proportion of primary education projects with measures to increase managerial capability almost doubled during the decade, attaining 83 percent in FY 1990. Similarly, measures to improve the ability of the Sub-Saharan African Borrowers to formulate educational development programs was found in just 33 percent of the projects in FY 1980, but included in every FY 1990 project. 4.11. The proportion of projects reflecting these policy recommenda- tions increased, and the policy measures included in projects to implement these recommendations were greatly broadened during the decade. In the Sub-Saharan African projects reviewed, the average number of policy measures designed to improve educational quality rose from 0.8 in FY 1980 to 2.3 in FY 1990. The average number of policy measures designed to promote adjustment, a major policy objective of Education in Sub-Saharan Africa, increased from 1.3 in FY 1980 to 7.3 by FY 1990. Measures to improve policy design and implementation rose from 1.3 on the average in the Sub-Saharan African projects in FY 1980 to 4.3 in FY 1990. Among the vocational and technical education projects reviewed, the broadening of policy approaches was not so dramatic, but measures to increase training for productivity rose from an average of 5.0 in FY 1980 to 8.3 in FY 1990. 4.12. The recommendations that went beyond traditional educational activities were slower to be adopted in projects, but had more influence on the policy recommendations included in sector reports. No project reviewed in Sub-Saharan Africa responded to the recommendation in Education In Sub-Saharan Africa to address student health problems, and a similar proposal in Improving Primary Education was adopted in only 17 percent of the FY 1990 primary education projects, hardly changed from the 14 percent in the FY 1980 projects. However, rather than a rejection of 51 such measures, this slow adoption may simply be an indication of a need for more time to introduce measures that do not represent standard education activities. For example, student health and nutrition issues may be increasingly reflected in future projects if the recommendations of the sector reports are accepted. Indeed a review of nutrition activities in education projects under preparation for FY 1991-92 reveals widespread recognition of the need to improve student health and nutrition through school feeding, micronutrient supplementation, deparatization, or nutrition education programs. 4.13. An interesting phenomenon is the timing between the publication of the policy papers and the appearance of an increasing number of policy measures responding to their recommendations. The first paper -- Educa- tIon In Sub-Saharan Africa -- has been available since FY 1988, time enough for the policy recommendations to become widely known and accepted, as this analysis has shown. The analysis also shows that many of the recommendations in the other two papers are being incorporated into projects. Yet Primary Education was only formally published in September 1990, and the vocational and technical training policy paper, although widely circulated, remains in draft. This argues not only that the policies recommended in both papers are widely seen as appropriate, but also that the thrusts of the papers have become known by means other than formal publication. The obvious answer is that the extensive consultations that went into each paper have played an important role in making their policy recommendations known to Bank education specialists and to member government policymakers. The consultations, of course, worked in both directions. The content of the policy papers was strongly influenced by the consultative process, as the policies incorporated into the papers became known to Bank and member government staff. As emphasized in para. 4.6, Bank operational staff played a key role in this process. 4.14. The consultative process is both time-consuming and expensive, and the question is legitimate as to whether the cost is worth the results. The analysis in this paper does not answer that question. What can be concluded on the basis of this analysis is that the papers have had a substantial impact on actual Bank operations; they have not simply appeared in published form and been relegated to a dusty shelf as is the fate of so much research. Furthermore, to the extent that the consultative process and the subsequent policy papers have helped the Bank and member governments avoid "bad" investments, the process may have helped save resources that might otherwise have been wasted. The cost of producing Primary Education, for example, was about 334 staff weeks, or approximately comparable to the preparation of three lending operations. The total monetary cost came to about US$800,000, less than one fifth of one percent of the Bank's investment in primary education projects in FY 1990 alone. 4.15. In conclusion, the process of preparing the papers has been valid, and future policy papers should adapt the same consultative process. 52 4.16. The analysis in this Review has attempted to assess the congruence between recommendations in policy papers and the policies as described in the Staff Appraisal Reports. The analysis has not addressed whether the policy measures are actually implemented as projects are carried out, nor did it analyze whether the mechanisms proposed in the project design were appropriate to ensure effective implementation. Further research and a different methodology would be needed to address this issue. C. Recommendations 4.17. From the analysis presented in this Review, several recommendations emerge: * Education and trainIng as a proportion of overall Bank lending. During the period FY 1991-94 lending for education projects is expected to average about US$1.7 billion per year, i.e. somewhat above the commitments (US$1.5 billion) made by the President of the World Bank at the World Conference on Education for All. This would constitute about 6.0 percent of total Bank lending during this period. While this is well above the average of the 1980s (4.5 percent), it represents a marked decline from the 7.3 percent reached in FY 1990. Given the consensus throughout the development community of the key role played by education in the development process, and the growing Bank commitment to supporting the sector, efforts should be made to reverse the projected decline. Furthermore, it may be desirable to reduce the wide annual fluctuations in the level of education project lending, projected to range from about US$1.3 billion in FY 1991 to US$2.1 billion in FY 1992. * LendIng for recurrent costs. The financing of salaries and other locally incurred costs constitutes the main constraint on further expansion of basic education services in many low- income countries. Effective implementation of Bank supported education development programs may therefore require not only careful assessment of these programs' recurrent cost implications, but also full use of Bank flexibility with respect to their financing. Serious consideration should be given to adopting a lending approach which (a) encourages donors and national authorities to agree on a complete 5-10 year action plan and expenditure program for the education sector, and (b) provides financial support for the program through disbursements made in tranches upon successful implementation of successive phases of the plan of action. Funds thus released may be used for any part of the expenditure program, including budgetary support for teachers salaries. 53 Local cost financing is currently permissible under sector investment operations and investment components of hybrid operations, but not under sectoral or structural adjustment operations. Although certain local cost expenditures may be judged to be essential for achieving adjustment program objectives, efforts should be made to ensure that these are met by the use of conditionality to obligate the Borrowers to allocate funds, or by the use of hybrids. The use of funds generated by foreign exchange released under adjustment operations for local cost financing should be strictly viewed as exceptional and temporary. Effectiveness of pollcy papers. This analysis has demonstrated a high level of congruence between the recommendations in the three policy papers examined and the content of education projects and sector reports. Thus, policy papers -- and especially the process through which they are prepared -- play an important role in keeping Bank policy abreast of changing circumstances. In particular, they are an effective vehicle for identifying, codifying, and disseminating policy change. This role is particularly important at the present time when issues addressed and approaches used in Bank projects are evolving rapidly and where there is little professional contact and cross-fertilization among the many, small PHR divisions in operations. Therefore policy papers should continue to be a tool for adapting and improving the quality of Bank sector work, lending and policy advice. Project design and effective 1Iplementation. Although this analysis has demonstrated that the recommendations have found their way into Staff Appraisal Reports, it has not attempted to determine whether project design is appropriate to ensure effective implementation. Indeed, in some cases Staff Appraisal Reports are vague regarding not only project design, but also implementation and evaluation mechanisms. This may be an indication of another problem not examined in this report, i.e., a need to strengthen the capability of staff to translate policy recommendations into projects that can be effectively implemented. Expanded education lending and staff turnover have resulted in recruitment of many staff who are new to the Bank, and thus not familiar with the design of Bank projects, or new to the sector and to education issues. Many staff and managers have expressed concern over an increase in the "deprofessionalization" of the sector. Thus, while comfort can be taken in the observed congruence between policy recommendations and project content, to ensure that projects actually have the desired impact, more effort needs to be devoted to staff development activities aimed at bridging the gap between what to do and ho to do it. 54 * easures other than standard educatlonal activitles. If measures other than standard educational activities are to be recommended in future policy papers -- such as nutritional supplements -- then particular care should be taken to assure that these measures are understood and accepted by Bank operational staff and national policymakers and additional means utilized to assure that the recommendations are translated into appropriate project design. * Consultative process. Future education policy papers should be prepared using an extensive process of consultation at all stages with Bank staff, recognized experts in the field, including those in developing countries, other donor agencies, and policymakers in member developing countries. * * * 55 ANNEX 1. FY 1990 EDUCATION SECTOR PROJECTS AND REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION Total Total IBRD IDA Project Loanl Loan Credit Country and Project Cost Credit Amount Amount ArRICA Djibouti--Manpover and Education Development 7.5 5.8 5.8 Gambia--Education Sector 21.1 14.6 14.6 Ghana--Second Education Sector Adjustment 88.0 50.0 50.0 Gulnoa--Education Sector Adjustment Program 44.0 20.0 20.0 Madagascar--Education Sector Reinforcoment 48.6 39.0 39.0 Malavi-Second Education Sector Credit 40.5 36.9 36.9 Nigeria--Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment 120.0 120.0 120.0 Somalia--Education Rehabilitation 32.5 26.1 26.1 Tanzania--Education Planning ond RehabilLtation 67.5 38.3 38.3 Subtotal 469.8 350.7 0.0 350.7 ASIA Ban ladesh--General Education 310.2 159.3 159.3 China--Vocational and Technical Education 91.0 50.0 50.0 India--Technician Education 370.0 260.0 25.0 235.0 Indonesia--Second Secondary Education and Managemnt 223.5 154.2 154.2 IndonesLi--Publlc Works Institutional Development and Training 54.0 36.1 36.1 Indonesia--Professional Buman Resource Dcvelopment 168.4 117.5 117.5 Korea--Universities Science and Technology Research 60.0 45.0 45.0 Korea--Second Technology Advancement 46.0 32.0 32.0 Srl Lanka--General Education 75.0 49.0 49.0 Subtotal 1,398.1 903.1 409.8 493.3 EMENA Egypt--EngLneerLng and Technical Education 38.6 30.5 30.5 Pakistan--Sind Primary Education Development Program 196.4 112.5 112.5 Turkey--National Education Development Project 177.2 90.2 90.0 Subtotal 412.2 233.2 120.7 112.5 LAC (No projects) TOTAL 2,280.1 1,487.0 530.5 956.5 56 ANNEX 2. DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATION LOANS/CREDITS AND PROJECTS BY REGION, FY 1963-1994 LOAN/CREDIT AMOUNTS Africo Asia LAC seNA Total Fiscal Period USS mil X US$ mL. X US$ mil US$ mil X USS mil X FTY 63-69 89 37 40 17 53 23 59 24 244 100 FY 70-74 240 29 221 27 120 15 234 29 815 100 FY 73-79 380 23 455 27 228 14 617 37 1,682 100 Ty 80-84 510 17 1,504 51 355 12 582 20 2,951 100 FY 85-89 624 15 1,788 44 519 13 1,113 28 4,044 100 Total 1,843 19 4,058 41 1,277 13 2,605 27 9,786 100 FY 88 178 21 356 41 88 10 242 28 864 100 FY 89 88 9 484 50 140 15 251 26 964 100 FY 90 351 24 903 61 -- -- 233 16 1,487 100 FTY 91 159 13 825 65 190 15 100 8 1,274 100 WY 92 435 21 602 29 771 37 257 12 2,065 100 FY 93 343 21 495 31 495 31 281 17 1,614 100 TY 94 494 26 548 29 508 27 323 17 1,873 100 NUMBER OF PROJECTS Africs A-sia LAC _ EMENA Total Fiscal Period Number 2 Number 2 Number 2 Number X Number S FY 63-69 11 34 5 16 9 28 7 22 32 100 FY 70-74 25 37 14 21 12 18 16 24 67 100 FY 75-79 36 39 19 20 18 19 20 22 93 100 FY 80-84 28 31 29 32 14 15 20 22 91 100 FY 85-89 30 33 20 22 22 24 19 21 91 100 Total 130 35 88 23 75 20 82 22 375 100 FY88 8 42 5 26 2 11 4 21 19 100 FY 89 4 20 10 50 3 15 3 15 20 100 Fy 90 9 41 10 45 -- -- 3 14 22 100 FY 91 6 32 8 42 4 21 1 5 19 100 Y 92 10 33 9 30 7 23 4 13 30 100 FY 93 13 41 8 25 7 22 4 12 32 100 FY 94 12 39 9 29 4 13 6 19 31 100 Source: MIS data and projections as of August 6, 1990. 57 ANNEX 3. PROJECTS AND SECTOR WORK REVIEWED Projects Reviewed for Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: Policies for Adjustment, Revitalization, and Expansion 1980: Second Education Project in Botsvan Burkina Paso Second Education Project A Second Education Project in Burundi Ivory Coast Third Education Project Thtrd Education Project in Svtztland To.o First Education Project 1985: Burkina Primary Education Development Projeet A First Education Project in Djibouti Sixth Education Project in Ethiopia Fourth Education Project in Lesotho Togo Educational Improvement Project Zaire Education Technical Assistance and Training Project 1990: Djibouti Manpover and Education Development Project Gambia Education Sector Project Ghan Second Education Sector Adjustment Credit Guinea Education Sector Adjustment Credit Madagascar Education Sector Reinforcement Project Malavi Second Education Sector Grant Nigeria Federal Universities Development Sector Adjustment Operation Somalia Education Rehabilitation Project Tanzania Education Plenning and Rehabilitation Project Projects Reviewed for Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training In Developing Countries 1980: angladesh Fourth Education Project Brazil Northeast Basic Education Project Burkina Faso Second Education Project A Second Education Project in Burundi Ivory Coast Third Education Project Third Education Project in Swaziland Togo First Education Project 19853 Bangladesh Second Primary Education Project Burkina Primary Education Development Project A First Education Project in Djibouti Haiti Fourth Education and Training Project Sixth Education Project in Ethiopia Fourth Education Project in Lesotho Pakistan Second Primary Education Project Peru Primary Education Project Togo Educational ZWrovement Project Zaire Education Technical Assistance and Training Project 1990: Bangladesh General Education Project Djibouti Manpower and Education Development Project Gambia Education Sector Project Gh-na Second Education Sector Adjustment Credit Culnea Education Sector Adjustment Credit Madagascar Education Sector Reinforeement Project Malavi Second Educatton Sector Grant Pakistan Sindh Primary Education Development Program Somalia Education Rehabilitation Project Sri Lanka Genral Education Project Tansania Education Planning and Rehabilitation Project Turkey National Education Development Projcet 58 Projects Reviewed for Policies for Vocational and Technical Education and Training 1990: Chlna Vocational and TSchnLcal Education Project Djlbouti Manpover and Education Development Project Egypt Engineering and Tchnical Education Project Gambia Education Sector Projcet Chan Second Education Sector Adjustment Crodit Oulnea Education Sector Adjustment India Technlcian Education Project Madagascar Education Sector Reinforeement Project Sri Lanka General Education Project 1985: Dominlcan Republic Vocational Training Project Egypt Third Vocational Training Project Ethiopia Sixth Education Oroject Haiti Fourth Education and Training Project Lesotho Fourth Education Project Mexico Second Technical Training Project Morocco Vocational Training Project Nepal Agricultural Manpower Development Project Turkey Industrial Schools Project 1980: Algeria Fifth Education Project Botswana Second Education Project Surundi Second Education Project Ivory Coast Third Education Project Jordan Third Education Project PhilLppines Fisher TrainLng Project Portugal Second Education Project Svazillnd Third Education Project Togo First Education Project Sector Reports Revlewed Africa Using Examinations to ImProve Education: A Study in Fourteen African Countries Selence, Education and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa Towards a Plan of Actlon for the Sahel Countries Elements pour un Strategic de Developpement du Systeme Educatif Tchadien Ivory Coast Rui n Resources Strategy Process Note Lesotho Improvlng QualLty and EfficLency in Education: Toward A Plan for Reform and Revitalization Madagascar Employment and Vocational Training Sector Note MalawL Human Resource Developm nt Strategy Malavi TrainLng Sector Study Le Sectour Informal au Niger SADCC: An Approach Framework to Capacity BuLldLng and Human Resoure* Development Supply and Demand for Trained Agricultural Manpower in the SADCC Countries Asia Chlna ProvincLal Education Planning and Finance Sector Study FLjL Performance and Prospects of Education, Training and Health Services PhilLppines Vocational Training for Operatives and Craftsmen EMENA Algeria Basic and Secondary Education Study Poverty Alleviation and Adjustment in Egypt Pakistan Lower Secondary Education ln Punjab Pakistan Higher Education and ScientifLc Research Turkey Costs and FLnancing of Education LAC Brasil Issues in Secondary Education -- Sector Memorandum Brarll Issuos ln Secondary Education -- Sector Memorandum Cost& Rica Public Sector Social Spending Ecuador: A Soclal Sector Strategy for the Nineties El Salvador Population, Health. Nutrition and Education Issues and Opportunities Socal Development Progress in Chile: Achievements and Challenges Social Spending ln Latin Amorica: The Story of the 1980a 59 ANNEX 4. COMPARISON OF POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS IN EDUCATION IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA and PRIMARY EDUCATION A. ImRrovinz Educational Effectiveness 1. Increased provision of textbooks and learning materials is a central theme of both Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. This involves writing pedagogically sound books, setting culturally relevant specifications, providing materials in sufficient quantity, and developing a sound distribution network. The papers also recognize the need to improve achievement testing. Finally, both papers state the need to upgrade the quality of the teaching force through in- service training. Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recommends that this be achieved primarily through the development of distance education programs. Primary Education outlines a major reform program that would shift responsibility for the general education components of teacher training programs to secondary schools, shorten pre-service training and focus it on pedagogical skill development, develop programmed teaching materials, and provide regular teacher supervision. In order to maximize gains, the paper suggests complementary measures to increase instructional time and to improve teacher motivation. Possibilities include setting and maintaining standards for instructional time in core subjects; establishing career ladder paths for teachers; and improving remuneration, administrative support, and working conditions. 2. Strengthened educational management is essential for the successful implementation of reform programs and the development of long-term capacity to respond to future challenges. Both papers suggest that coun- tries examine possibilities for strengthening the organizational structures of agencies responsible for education. This includes increas- ing local authority and improving the performance of central ministry personnel. Local bodies should be made responsible for supervision, administration, and quality improvements; while the statistical, pedagogical development, and planning functions remaining in central ministries should be improved. 3. Primary Education offers specific suggestions for developing managerial capacity: increase professional opportunities and incentives, clearly define career paths, establish systems for assessing performance, provide systematic staff development programs, develop specialized institutes for training educational managers, and refine criteria for manager selection. It also offers specific suggestions for improving intermediate and local-level organizations, such as adding additional supervisory staff, operating through cluster systems, providing comprehen- sive principal training, and stimulating community participation in school affairs. 4. While Education in Sub-Saharan Africa recognizes the need to address student health and nutrition problems, Primary Education goes further in emphasizing the role of such measures in increasing student learning capacity. The measures proposed include providing snacks and 60 breakfast, providing vitamin supplements, treating for parasites, and screening and compensating for audio and visual impairments. B. Improving Eguitable Access 5. Education In Sub-Saharan Africa calls for selective expansion of education systems once adjustment and revitalization measures have taken hold. The paper strongly recommends that renewed progress toward universal primary education should be a priority for all countries. Governments should set targets for increasing primary enrollments, address equity issues for girls and minorities, and allocate increased resources to the primary sub-sector. Primary Education elaborates on several of these themes by calling for measures such as school construction, the expansion or renovation of existing schools, provision of single sex schools where appropriate, and more effective recruitment and deployment of teachers. 6. Primary Education also examines the demand for education by putting forth several options for reducing the cost to families, especially for girls and minorities; actively involving the community in school development; and equalizing the learning process. For example, the cost to families for girls education may be reduced by altering the annual school calendar or daily schedule, providing child care for younger siblings, or introducing labor-saving technologies. Community support may be stimulated by establishing parent-teacher associations, holding school open houses, involving the community in building schools, or conducting information campaigns to highlight positive aspects of education. The learning process may be equalized by providing equal resources for boys and girls and for rural and urban children, rewriting texts that portray certain groups negatively, revising discriminatory teaching practices, and determining a sound language policy. C. Strengthening the Resource Base 7. To strengthen the education sector resource base, Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa both suggest ways to use existing resources more efficiently such as (a) using post-primary subsidies more effectively; (b) promoting alternative delivery modes (interactive radio and correspondence courses); (c) increasing student-teacher ratios; (d) using existing physical facilities more intensively; and (e) minimizing the cost of school construction through low-cost designs and community involvement in construction and maintenance. 8. Both papers also recognize the need for governments to generate and comit more resources to education by loosening restrictions on private suppliers of education and encouraging cost-sharing at post-primary levels. The papers suggest that, where appropriate, governments should reallocate resources to education from other sectors, and increase the priority of primary education within the education budget. While Education in Sub-Saharan Africa emphasizes generation of funds through adjustment, Primary Education suggests ways governments may further diversify sources of funding for primary education. Tax reform at the national level may be appropriate for countries with low tax to GDP ratios. Depending on local conditions, there may also be scope for 61 strengthening local financing by promoting local taxation, informal levies, or empowering local organizations such as parent-teacher asso- ciations. 9. In summary, Primary Education and Education in Sub-Saharan Africa are complements. They share many common themes. However, Primary Education offers more specific recommendations for achieving overall objectives. It places comparatively less emphasis on adjustment, and more on enhancing the learning environment, expanding access and equity, staff development, and resource mobilization. Moreover, it recognizes the need to increase commitments to education in order to realize quality improvements as measured by student achievement. 62