Aspects of the Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension in India A Comparative Analysis Gershon Feder Roger Slade SW P656 WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS Number 656 WORLD BANK STAFF WORKING PAPERS Number 656 Aspects of the Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension in India A Comparative Analysis Gershon Feder Roger Slade The World Bank Washington, D.C., U.S.A. Copyright (� 1984 The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/THE WORLD BANK 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. All rights reserved Manufactured in the United States of America First printing July 1984 This is a working document published informally by the World Bank. To present the results of research with the least possible delay, the typescript has not been prepared in accordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. The publication is supplied at a token charge to defray part of the cost of manufacture and distribution. The views and interpretations in this document are those of the author(s) and should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual acting on their behalf. Any maps used have been prepared solely for the convenience of the readers; the denominations used and the boundaries shown do not imply, on the part of the World Bank and its affiliates, any judgment on the legal status of any territory or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. The full range of World Bank publications, both free and for sale, is described in the Catalog of Publications; the continuing research program is outlined in Abstracts of Current Studies. Both booklets are updated annually; the most recent edition of each is available without charge from the Publications Sales Unit, Department T, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or from the European Office of the Bank, 66 avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France. Gershon Feder is an economist with the Agriculture and Rural Development Department of the World Bank; Roger Slade is an economist with the Projects Department of the Bank's South Asia Regional Office. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Feder, Gershon, 1947- Aspects of the training and visit system of agricultural extension in India. (World Bank staff working papers ; no. 656) Bibliography: p. 1. Agricultural extension work--India. 2. Agricultural innovations--India. 3. Farmers--India. I. Slade, Roger, 1941- . II. Title. III. Series. S544.5.I5F38 1984 630'.7'15054 84-15157 ISBNI 0-8213-0392-9 ABSTRACT The paper utilizes recent farm survey data to assess the perfor- mance of the Training and Visit Extension system in one district in the state of Haryana (India) compared to a neighboring district covered by an older extension system. The data show a significantly higher level of village-level extension activity in the area covered by Training and Visit Extension, and this is compatible with the larger number of staff and higher expenditure on extension under this sytem. The data also suggest that knowledge of improved practices, especially in wheat cultivation, diffused faster in the area covered by T&V extension. 9 EXTRACTO En este trabaJo se usan datos obtenidos mediante una encuesta en las fin- cas para determinar los resultados del sistema de extensi6n de capacitaci6n y visitas en un distrito del estado de Haryana (India), en comparaci6n ccn Lin dis- trito vecino en que funciona un sistema de extensi6n mas antiguo. Los datos indican que en la regi6n en que existe el sistema de capacitaci6n y visitas las actividades de extension al nivel de los poblados son mucho mas amplias, lo que esta en consonancia con eL personal mas numeroso y los gastos mayores en exten- si6n que caracterizan a este sistema. Los datos tambien parecen indicar que el conocimiento de practicas perfeccionadas, especialmente en Lo que respecta al cultivo del trigo, se difunde mas ripidamente en la zona en que se aplica el sistema de capacitaci6n v visitas. Le present document utilise les donnees d'une recente enquete sur les exploitations agricoles pour comparer les r6sultats du systeme de vulgari- sation fonde sur la formation et les visites, applique dans une circons- cription de l'Etat de l'Haryana (Inde), et les resultats obtenus dans une circonscription voisine oui est utilise un systeme de vulgarisation plus ancien. Ces donnees indiquent que les activites de vulgarisation, au niveau du village, sont beaucoup plus intenses dans la zone couverte par le systeme de formation et visites, ce qui justifie les effectifs plus nombreux et les couts plus eleves du nouveau systeme. Les informations recueillies suggerent, d'autre part, que les populations sont plus vite au courant des techniques agricoles ameliorees dans la zone oui est applique le systeme de formation et visites, particulierement pour la culture du ble. Table of Contents Page 1. Introduction 1 2. The Districts Studied 3 3. Some Characteristics of Farmers in the Study Area 6 4. The Selection and Characteristics of Contact Farmers 9 5. Aspects of Extension Operations 11 6. Aspects of Farmer Knowledge 22 7. Summary and Conclusions 33 Footnotes 35 References 36 1. Introduction Agricultural extension has a long history in India as in other countries. Since the mid-seventies, however, India has progressively replaced its system of multi-purpose field workers by the Training and Visit System of Agricultural Extension [Benor and Harrison, 1977]. This transi- tion, not yet complete, has aroused widespread interest and spawned a growing body of literature; see for example, [Cernea 19811, [Howell 1982a, 1982b, 1983], [Von Blanckenburg 1982], [Jaiswal 19831, [Singh 19831, [Moore 19831, [Feder and Slade 1984a, 1984b',. Some of these, and other writers, see advantages in this new system of extension whilst others have expressed critical views. The resulting arguments, in the absence of suitable empiri- cal evidence, proceed by anecclote and casual empiricism. Nevertheless, few authors fail to mention the need for objective empirical information [for example, Moore 19831 with which the effects of the training and visit system (hereafter T&V system) can be assessed. This need led, in late 1981, to the initiation of an intensive ca;e study of the impact of T&V extension in the state of Haryana, where the extension system was reorganized in 1979. The study is being undertaken by i:he authors in collaboration with the Haryana Agricultural University at Hissar, and is designed inter alia to assess the extent to which the introduct:Lon of T&V extension in Haryana has accelerated the diffusion of knowledge about improved farming practices and increased farm productivity. -2- Data were collected through a series of sample surveys, spanning four consecutive crop seasons in two districts in Haryana (Jind and Karnal) and two crop seasons for one district in the neighboring state of Uttar Pradesh (Muzafarnagar). In Jind and Karnal districts two random samples, consisting of nearly equal numbers of contact and non-contact farmers, were chosen. In Muzafarnagar district and because the T&V system does not operate there, the sample comprised non-contact farmers only (see Table 1). Respondents were interviewed twice in each season. The first interview took place roughly at the mid-point of the season and the second shortly after the harvest. Respondents were constantly assured that the surveys were unconnected with the extension system or any other government department. Table 1: COMPOSITION OF THE SAMPLE IN 1981 Ie Haryana Uttar Pradesh Jind Karnal Muzafarnagar District District District Contact Farmers 260 175 --- Non-Contact Farmers 345 200 100 Total 605 375 100 /a In subsequent parts of this paper, the number of observations records the number of valid responses for the relevant variable obtained from this sample. Also note that the numbers given in this table do not always constitute the denominator for the calculation of proportions, as sample fatigue and a few missed interviews changed the maximum possible sample size in each survey round. Because the district of Jind is much drier than both Karnal and Muzafarnagar, comparative analysis in this paper is confined to the latter two districts and spans the two growing seasons, Rabi and Kharif of 1982/83, for which comparable data are available. Furthermore, we focus only on the -3- principal crop in each season -- paddy in the kharif (rainy season) and wheat in the rabi (dry season). The paper is organized as follows; the next section contains an outline of the study area and. descriptions of the two different systems of extension to be found there. In section three, based on characteristics that describe them, groups of farmers in the study area are compared. The follow- ing section briefly examines the role and selection of contact farmers in the T&V system. Data on the number and regularity of extension agent's visits to farmers are used in section five to examine the performance of the extension systems. Farmers' stated prEferences concerning sources of information are also discussed. Subsequently, in section six, farmers' knowledge about a variety of recommended farming practices is reviewed and a comparative analysis is undertaken of the. rates of knowledge diffusion for selected HYV paddy and wheat practices. The paper ends with a short summary and some conclusions. 2. The Districts Studied Karnal and Muzafarnagar districts are similar in many respects. They lie on opposite banks of the Jamuna river, are flat, have similar light alluvial soils and are connected by a solitary bridge which spans the river some distance to the north. Average annual rainfall in Karnal is 803 mm and in Muzafarnagar 794 mm. Both districts are heavily irrigated: in Karnal 74 percent of the net cropped area is irrigated, the comparable figure for -4- Muzafarnagar is 84 percent. The two districts are linguistically and ethni- cally similar. In the Rabi season wheat is the dominant crop in both dis- tricts. In the Kharif, however, paddy is the major crop in Karnal, sugarcane being of lesser importance. In Muzafarnagar sugarcane is the preponderant Kharif crop and paddy is of secondary importance. In the state of Uttar Pradesh, of which Muzafarnagar is the most westerly district, the extension system remains unreformed and is based on a network of village level workers (VLW) administered by the Community Develop- ment Programme. These workers are responsible not only for the provision of extension advice but regulate the supply of inputs and credit and provide links with the rural population for several other government agencies. There are some 155 VLW's in the district: one worker for every 5.9 villages. In Karnal the ratio is 4.7. Alternatively, in 1981 there were was one village extension worker (VEW) for every 7,400 members of the rural population in Karnal and in Muzafarnagar one VLW for every 11,500 rural people. 1/ These VLW's are supplemented by staff of the Department of Agriculture who, working mainly under the aegis of a series of special crop programmes, are much concerned with the supply of farm inputs and the administration of specific subsidy and incentive schemes. The T&V system is a hierarchically organized and time bound method of managing extension and is designed to deliver selected, timely and feasible technology to farmers with strict regularity. The technology is encapsulated in carefully formulated recommendations often termed impact points which extension agents convey to selected contact farmers (about 10 percent of all -5- farmers) and such other farmers as attend the fortnightly visits or who approach the agent on their own initiative at other times. The system places great emphasis on a professional approach to extension and requires an exclusive devotion to extension work. In principle, all activities related to the physical handling of inputs and credit applications should be strictly avoided. Extension agents are however expected to liase with input supply agencies and to advise farmers on sources of supply. In Haryana, of which Karnal is one of twelve districts, the extension system was reformed along T&V lines starting in December 1979. By August 1981, 95 percent of village extension worker (VEW) positions were filled as well as 79 percent of the subject matter specialist positions (technical specialists of intermediate rank). By March 1983 these figures had increased to 99 percent and 88 percent respectively. However, in May 1982 25 percent of agricultural extension officer positions (AEO's) were still vacant and were not filled until April 1983. 2/ District Technical Committees, Zonal Workshops, and the State Technical Committee were either not convened or worked erratically until very recently. These bodies, have, inter alia, important functions related ito defining and programming technical recommenda- tions. Their prolonged ineffectiveness constituted an important weakness in the extension system throughout the period of study. There have also been other problems. Between early 1980 and early 1984 there were six changes amongst the three most senior government servants responsible for the T&V system in Haryana and this resulted in periodic and marked fluctuations in the strength of managerial commitment to the reformed -6- system. There were also widespread and disruptive staff transfers at the AEO and VEW levels during 1982. In Karnal (and other districts) older VEWs have complained of reduced responsibility consequent on the separation of extension work from other agricultural duties. Some farmers have complained about their inability to obtain inputs through the VEW, supervising officers have been criticized for a lack of attention to field work and both VEW's and more senior officers still devote time to non-extension duties. The links between extension staff and the agricultural university remain weak, researchers continue to be isolated, and VEW training is poorly planned and frequently ineffective. [Sisodia 1983], [Hoepper 19831. 3. Some Characteristics of Farmers in the Study Area Information on a dozen factors that are likely to influence farmers' receptivity to innovations is summarized in Table 2. These data provide a backdrop for the later comparative analysis between districts and allow the extent of similarities and differences between contact and non-contact farmers to be assessed. Critics of the T&V system frequently argue that contact farmers are chosen from amongst the wealthy and powerful, who then monopolize extension services at the expense of other less privileged farmers [Howell 1982a], [Moore 19831. -7- Table 2: KHARIF 1982: CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE FARMERS KARNAL DISTRICT MUZAFARNAGAR DISTRICT (Haryana) (Uttar Pradesh) Non- Farm Contact Contact Farmer Size Farmers Farmers All Farmers Characteristic Class ai/ (Percent) (Percent) (Percent) Taken Ag. Trai- Small 6 6 2 ning Course Large 12 9 2 All 10 7 2 Participant in Small 12 5 20 Village Govt. Large 14 9 26 All 14 6 23 Has Non-Farm Small 21 16 28 Employment Large 23 14 26 All 22 15 27 Owns Tubewell Small 91 77 59 Large 98 96 91 All 95 86 75 Owns Tractor Small 8 6 17 Large 63 52 63 All 42 26 40 More Than 70 Small 79 82 83 Percent of Land Large 74 75 89 Irrigated All 76 79 86 Household Head Small 50 61 70 Without Formal Large 42 46 50 Education All 46 55 60 Reporting b/ Small 21 8 15 Salinity Large 11 13 30 Problems All 15 10 23 Reporting b/ Small 5 3 9 Waterlogging Large 7 1 17 Problems All 6 2 15 Reporting a Small 8 10 9 Shortage of Large 4 4 7 Credit All 6 7 8 Reporting Small 10 3 - Irregular Diesel Large 18 18 2 Supplies All 13 10 1 Reporting Small 59 47 7 Irregular Elec- Large 68 66 17 tricity Supplies All 64 55 12 Number of Small 66 88 46 Observations Large 111 71 46 All 177 159 92 a/ Based on owned land. In this and subsequent tables, farmers owning 10 or more acres are deEined as large farmers. b/ Based on responses from paddy growers only. In Muzafarnagar District there were 56 such raspondents. -8- In Karnal, contact farmers are significantly more involved in village government and have participated more frequently in agricultural training courses than non-contact farmers, although the difference in the latter attribute is not statistically significant. 3/ Whilst the participation of farmers in agricultural training in Muzaffarnagar is less than for non-contact farmers in Karnal, their involvement in village government appears to be more widespread -- a difference that is statistically sig- nificant. Presumably, this reflects a somewhat more diversified social structure in Muzafarnagar district. The proportion of farmers who also have non-farm employment, a characteristic that may affect their attitudes to production risk, is sig- nificantly greater in Muzafarnagar than among non-contact farmers in Karnal. The difference between contact and non-contact farmers in Karnal is not statistically significant. The ownership of tubewells is significantly higher for contact farmers in comparison to non-contact farmers in Karnal although the absolute levels of ownership for both groups are high. Generally, tubewell ownership is more common among large farmers than among small farmers. The ownership pattern of tubewells in Muzafarnagar is very similar to that of non-contact farmers in Karnal and enhances the validity of comparisons between these groups. In the same way the extent of irrigation is very similar amongst non-contact farmers in Muzafarnagar and non-contact farmers in Karnal. Table 2 also presents data on the incidence of waterlogging and salinity and -9- clearly shows, consistent with the higher proportion of irrigated land in the extreme west of Uttar Pradesh, that the incidence of both problems is sig- nificantly higher in Muzafarnagar than amongst non-contact farmers in Karnal. Comparisons of the frequency with which heads of household are found to have no formal education reveal that contact farmers are significantly better educated than non-contact farmers in Karnal but that the difference between farmers in Muzafarnagar and non-contact farmers in Karnal is not significant. Credit is not an overriding constraint for any group of farmers. Problems with power supplies (diesel fuel or electricity) for irrigation facilities are serious in Karnal and in this respect farmers in Muzafarnagar seem to be much better provided. In general we conclude that while non-contact farmers in Karnal are not identical to farmers in Muzafarnagar, they are comparable as there is no clear dominance of one group over the other with respect to factors likely to influence their attitudes to innovations. 4. The Selection and Characteristics of Contact Farmers At the bottom of the T&V system hierarchy are the village extension agents, who cover areas typically containing 700-800 farming families, divided into about eight groups. In each group, about 10 percent of the farmers are selected as "contact farmers" by the local VEW who visits each of the eight farmers' groups once every two weeks, on a pre-specified and fixed date. These visits are mostly to contact farmers, but other farmers are expected to participate. Indeed, the T&V method stresses that non-contact -10- farmers must not be excluded from meetings between the VEW and contact farmers and that they should be made aware of the extension agents' regular visits to the group (or the village) and of their freedom to attend meetings. They should be encouraged to attend visits by extension agents in contact farmers' fields, and their queries should be answered (Benor, personal com- munication). Indeed, as we show later, non-contact farmers do report sig- nificant direct exposure to extension. Contact farmers are expected to act as opinion leaders. They receive a continuous and regular flow of information from extension agents which they are expected to convey to other farmers. It follows that the way in which they are selected is a matter of considerable importance. While their poten- tial for opinion leadership on matters of crop husbandry is the key criterion, they should not be exceptional in their command of resources lest other farmers fail to imitate them, attributing their achievements to their wealth not to the application of improved practices [Benor and Harrison, 1977], [Benor and Baxter 19841. Hence a fine balance must be maintained between "representativeness" and potential for opinion leadership. Since the latter is closely related to innovativeness [Kivlin et al., 1971: pp 155-1601, there is an obvious trade-off between choosing those farmers who will adopt innovations most speedily and those who are somewhat less suitable (from the point of view of potential for fast adoption), but whose resource position is typical of the majority of farmers and hence, their behavior more readily immitated. -11- Since each VEW is responsible for the selection of contact farmers in his area personal preferences cannot be totally eliminated, and experience has shown that agents in many extension systems tend to favor the wealthy and influential. Further, the extent to which the principles of contact farmer selection embodied in the T&V credo are applied, will vary according to the extent to which VEW's understand the system and have benefitted from orienta- tion training. Hoepper [1983] has shown that there is considerable variation in the application of selection criteria by VEW's. It is not, therefore, surprising that in some respects contact farmers are representative of the farming community as a whole, while in other ways they are significantly different. Feder and Slade [1984a] demonstrate this point using multivariate logit analysis and show that while the caste composition of two groups of contact and non-contact farmers is almost identical farmers who are weal- thier, more educated, more favorably endowed with irrigation facilities and of higher social status than the majority are more frequently selected as contact farmers. They also note, however, that although very small farmers (those owning less than two acres) were underrepresented in the contact farmer group, their share was not negligible - 12 percent compared to 30 percent in the general population. 5. Aspects of Extension Operations As noted above, T&V extension is a hierarchical and time bound system which requires extension agents to perform their duties in a regular and predictable manner. The essernce is a two weekly visit by the VEW to each farmer group in his domain. D)uring these visits, the VEW focuses mainly, -12- but not exclusively on the contact farmers. As the system becomes estab- lished and a regular pattern of visits is built up so an increasing number of non-contact farmers are expected, through normal diffusion, to first become aware of the availability of regular extension advice and second to attend meetings between the VEW and contact farmers. In any four-week period, under ideal conditions, most contact farmers should report two visits. Such ideal conditions do not obtain in reality for various reasons: an extension agent may be temporarily sick for the whole or part of the reference period, some areas may be temporarily unattended due to unfilled vacancies, some farmers may skip a visit due to their own considera- tions and some VEW's may be dilatory. 4/ These factors may be summed up as normal friction. Nevertheless, if the system is working well the vast majority of contact farmers should receive two visits in each four-week period. Obviously, the same is not true of non-contact farmers but it might reasonably be expected that a slowly growing number of non-contact farmers will receive some direct advice from extension agents. Table 3 summarizes the evidence over four seasons in Karnal. By kharif 1981 after about two years of T&V operations 5/ about 80 percent of contact farmers received at least one visit during the four weeks studied but only a little more than 60 percent received two visits. Alternatively, about 20 percent did not receive any visits and nearly 40 percent received less than two visits. This is probably more than can be accounted for by normal friction. By Rabi 1982/83 the situation had improved slightly so that 30 percent of contact farmers received less than their scheduled two visits. Table 3: NUMBER OF VISITS TO FARMERS BY VEW DURING THE REFERENCE MONTH Karnal District, Haryana Muzafarnagar District, U.P. Contact Farmers Non-Contact Farmers All Farmers Farm No. Number of Visits No. Number of Visits No. Number of Visits Size Observations 0 1 2+ Observations 0 1 2+ Observations 0 1 2+ -----Percent--- -----Percent---- ----Percent---- | Small 63 22 19 59 114 58 25 17 Kharif Large 112 17 19 64 85 53 27 20 n.a. 1981 All 175 19 19 62 199 56 26 18 Rabi | Small 70 27 32 44 115 99 1 0 1981/ Large 110 18 29 53 79 77 13 10 n.a. 1982 |All 180 21 30 49 184 90 6 4 Small 66 33 18 49 88 89 7 4 46 98 2 0 Kharif Large 111 20 25 65 71 83 8 8 46 94 6 0 1982 |All 177 25 16 59 159 86 8 6 92 96 4 0 Rabi |Small 59 15 13 72 93 77 9 14 45 100 0 0 1982/ | Large 101 10 20 70 73 68 13 18 45 100 0 0 1983 | All 160 13 17 70 166 73 11 16 90 100 0 0 n.a. = not available. -14- During the intervening two seasons, however, the situation deteriorated substantially and it seems likely that this was a direct reflection of uncer- tainties that resulted from the changes that took place in senior extension management in Haryana at that time. There is also some evidence [Hoeper 1983] that the extensive transfers of field staff during 1982 disrupted visit schedules. During the kharif 1982 season, VEW visits to contact farmers were significantly biased in favour of the larger farmers but in the other seasons the apparent differences are not statistically significant. The story for non-contact farmers is much the same, but at lower absolute levels of contact frequency. Although larger non-contact farmers report a higher incidence of interaction with extension staff only in Rabi 1981/82 is the difference statistically significant. What does stand out, however, is that, in comparison to the traditional system of extension operating in Muzafarnagar the T&V system achieves more direct contact with farmers. Comparisons of the figures for Karnal with those of Muzafarnagar show that the proportion of non-contact farmers in Karnal who had direct contact with the extension agent is significantly higher than the comparable proportion in Muzafarnagar. This is compatible with the lower farmer to extension agent ratio in an area covered by the T&V system relative to an area served by traditional, multi-purpose VLW's. Data about extension visits is also reported in Table 4 but the reference period is extended to the entire season, excluding the four weeks immediately prior to the interview. A season long perspective helps to -15- eliminate the effects of any special circumstances that may have affected extension activities, or farmers recollection of them, in the month preceding the interview. The data show that during each of the four seasons covered by the surveys, 80 to 90 percernt of all contact farmers were visited by their VEW, whilst about 10 percent were not visited at all. VEW's are however, advised to replace contact f'armers whom they find uncooperative or who are deemed unsuitable by other contact farmers. To avoid mutual loss of face (status) they do not formally 'dismiss' contact farmers but merely phase out their visits to them (Baxter personal communication). The data in Table 4 provide no evidence of farm size bias in agents visits to contact farmers (the reported differences are not statistically significant) but amongst nor-contact farmers, there is a consistent sig- nificant bias in favor of larger farmers. This, however, does not neces- sarily reflect a pre-disposition on the the part of extension personnel, as non-contact farmers in their dealings with VEWs act primarily on their own initiative. Moreover, the theory of information acquisition predicts that larger farmers will be more inclined to actively seek information because the per-acre cost of obtaining information is lower for them than for smaller farmers [Feder and Slade 1984b]. Table 4 also shows that in Muzafarnagar, farmers' contact with extension agents is significantly less than in Karnal. Table 4: PROPORTION OF FARMERS VISITED BY VEW DURING SEASON a/ Muzafarnagar Karnal District, Haryana District, U.P. Contact Farmers Non-Contact Farmers All Farmers Farm No: Obse- Percent Sample Percent No: Obse- Percent Season Size rvations Visited Size Visited rvations Visited Kharif Small 63 80 114 45 1981 Large 112 86 85 59 All 175 83 199 51 n.a. Rabi Small 70 83 105 11 1981/82 Large 110 86 79 37 All 180 85 184 22 n.a. Kharif Small 66 86 88 31 46 6 1 1982 Large 111 93 71 48 46 15 All 177 91 159 38 92 11 Rabi Small 59 81 93 20 45 0 1981/82 Large 101 89 73 33 45 7 All 160 86 166 26 90 3 n.a. = not available. a/ Excluding the four weeks immediately before the interview. Only respondents who had received at least one visit from the VEW during the month before the interview were questioned. -17- The data in Table 5 record the extent to which farmers verify that extension visits take place on the appointed day and show that three-quarters of all contact farmers who have been visited during the season report visits to be regular and that a quart:er report the reverse. In short, although the T&V system in the study area is not without flaws, it does reach the majority of contact farmers regularly and a substantial proportion of non-contact farmers less regularly. Furthermore, the data do not support the contention that T&V has atrophied leaving an empty structure and no change in extension operations [Jaiswal 1983]. OnL the contrary, even in unsettled times (1982) it appears that the mechanics of T&V operations, although sub-optimal, are still better than those of the traditional system. This of course, is as it should be given the greater number of staff employed. Moore [1983], Jaiswal [1983] and other commentators have claimed, for many areas in India covered by the T&V system, that farmers perceive little benefit in the reformecL system, that VEW's are not known by their clients, that contact farmers fail to pass on information to others and may not even know that they are contact farmers. The data, reported below, for the study area in Haryana, do not support these contentions. Out of an original sample of 192 contact farmers selected at random from the extension lists in Kcrnal district 175 turned out, on their own admission, to be contact farmers and most of the remainder claimed to have been contact farmers in the recent past. Table 5: SEASONAL REGULARITY OF VEW VISITS AMONGST FARMERS RECEIVING A VISIT IN THE FOUR WEEKS PRIOR TO INTERVIEW a/ Karnal District, Haryana Muzafarnagar District U.P. Contact Farmers Non-Contact Farmers All Farmers Percent Percent Percent Farm No. Visited No. Visited No. Visited Season Size Observations b/ Regularly Observations b/ Regularly Observations b/ Regularly Kharif Small 49 59 48 29 1981 Large 93 71 40 32 All 142 67 88 31 n.a. Rabi Small 51 71 1 - 1981/82 Large 91 75 18 22 All 142 73 19 21 n.a. I Kharif Small 44 73 10 20 1 0 1982 Large 89 84 11 10 3 0 All 133 81 21 14 4 0 Rabi Small 50 82 21 48 0 - 1981/82 Large 90 71 23 35 0 - All 140 75 44 41 0 - n.a. = not available. a/ Regularity is defined as always receiving a visit on the same day of the week within each fortnight. b/ Only respondents who received at least one visit during the four weeks prior to interview were questioned. -19- All farmers in the sample were asked if they had observed changes in the style of the extension system during the past few seasons as compared to several years ago. The results are recorded in Table 6. Predictably, no change was perceived in Muzafarnagar as no change took place. In Karnal almost all contact farmers were aware of a change in extension operations and they perceived the change to be beneficial. Amongst non-contact farmers less than half were similarly aware although the majority of those who noticed a change held positive opinions about it. Farmers were asked these questions in the kharif season of 1982 when, as noted above, field operations were unsettled. Nevertheless, awareness of the change amongst non-contact farmers, particularly small non-contact farmers is low and suggests that efforts to publicize the availability of extension advice have been unsuc- cessful. Almost all contact farmaers, and about half of the non-contact farmers know the VEW that visits their group (Table 7). The comparable proportion for Muzafarnagar is, however, a little more than one-tenth. Similarly, 60 percent of non-contact farmers reported knowing at least one contact farmer in their area. Whilst it is not incumbent on contact farmers to pass on the knowledge gained from extension agents they are expected to do so. Relevant findings from the survey are reported in Table 8. It is clear that more than half of all contact farmers claimed to have discussed extension advice with other farmers, whilst more than 30 percent of those non-contact farmers Table 6: KHARIF 1982: FARMERS' AWARENESS OF CHANGES IN EXTENSION OPERATIONS IN COMPARISON WITH PRE-1979 SYSTEM Muzafarnagar District Karnal District, Haryana Uttar Pradesh Contact Farmers Non-Contanct Farmers All Farmers Small Large All Small Large All Small Large All Response a/ (N=59) (N=101) (N=160) (N=93) (N=73) (N=165) (N=45) (N=45) (N=90) ------Percent � ------Percent � ------Percent------- 1. Not aware of change 5 2 3 67 48 38 100 100 100 2. Extension visits more 37 18 25 3 3 3 0 0 0 frequent and regular 3. Extension delivers 59 77 71 28 45 36 0 0 0 more useful and timely information 4. Extension visits are 12 11 11 2 7 4 0 0 0 less frequent and less regular 5. Information is not as 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 useful as before /a Responses 2-4 are not mutually exclusive. Table 7: RABI 1982/83: KNOWLEDGE OF VEW BY FARMERS- Karnal District, Haryana Muzafarnagar District U.P. Contact Farmers Non-Contact Farmers All Farmers Percent Percent Percent No. Knowing No. Knowing No. Knowing Farm Size Observations VEW Observations VEW Observations VEW Small 59 97 93 50 45 9 Large 101 98 73 56 45 13 All 160 98 166 52 90 11 a/ In this context 'Knowledge' was defined as knowing the name of the VEW or being able to recognize him. -22- who had direct contact with VEW's also claimed to have passed on information obtained from extension agents. Table 8: KHARIF 1982: FARMERS WHO DISCUSSED EXTENSION ADVICE WITH OTHERS Karnal District-Haryana Muzafarnagar District - U. P. Number of Discussed with Number of Discussed with Farmer Type Observations Others (Percent) Observations Others (Percent) Contact 149 52 -- -- Non-contact 52 37 3 0 Further evidence of farmer's opinions about extension is provided in Table 9 which reports farmers rankings of their most important sources of information. Not surprisingly, perhaps, individual advice from the VEW was the first choice for the vast majority of contact farmers. Of greater inter- est is that nearly 20 percent of non-contact farmers in Karnal were of the same opinion compared to 2 percent in Muzafarnagar. Advice from other farmers scored highly in Karnal but was the dominant source in Muzafarnagar, perhaps reflecting the absence of an effective alternative. Of the remaining sources only radio programs won a noticeable number of first preferences. Indeed, it would appear that radio and, to a lesser extent, input salesmen and distributors are regarded as subsidiary rather than primary sources of information by farmers in both districts. 6. Aspects of Farmer Knowledge An increase in farmers knowledge about crops and cropping practices is the intended direct product of extension. Obviously, those who seek to -23- Table 9: RABI 1982/83: FARMERS SOURCES OF INFORMATION BY RANKED PREFERENCE a. Muzafarnagar Karnal District, Haryana District, U.] Source of Ranked Contact Non-Contact Information Preference Farmers Farmers All Farme; -------------Percent----------------- Individual advice from VEW First 87 19 2 Second 1 9 1 Third 1 4 1 Advice from contact farmer First 1 16 1 Second 3 4 0 Third 1 3 0 Advice from other farmers b/ First 9 47 82 Second 36 33 9 Third 21 10 3 Demonstration/field days First 0 0 1 Second 10 2 28 Third 3 1 8 Agricultural radio programs First 1 10 9 Second 28 27 38 Third 39 34 32 Salesmen and agency officials; First 0 8 3 Second 15 17 17 Third 18 21 17 Other c/ First 2 1 1 Second 6 8 8 Third 19 27 39 a/ For each source of information farmers were asked to say whether they regarded it is a primary, secondary or tertiary source. b/ Other farmers could in fact be contact farmers. Not all contact farmers are known as such to the non-contact farmers. c/ Includes group meetings, journals and other publications, and research personnel. -24- improve extension systems hope that additional knowledge will lead to the adoption of improved husbandry by cultivators and will ultimately be trans- lated into increased agricultural productivity. Adoption and any resulting changes in output are, however, only indirectly affected by extension and the disentangling of the direct and indirect effects from other contributing factors is a complex task which we have, for the time being, chosen to eschew. Instead we concentrate on comparing levels of knowledge among the different groups of farmers. This has the advantage of avoiding issues such as constrained input supplies and credit availability which may affect adop- tion and productivity in a particular season. Such factors should not, however, affect the acquisition of knowledge. We confine our comparative analysis to data drawn from the survey in Karnal and Muzafarnagar during the Kharif and Rabi seasons of 1982/83. The data in Table 9 show farmers preferences by information source and demonstrate that farmers acquire their knowledge from several sources amongst which the extension service and other farmers are the most important. Moreover, we tested farmers' sources of knowledge for a wide range of specific practices and found that for most practices not involving special- ized technical knowledge or major expense, contact farmers, under the T&V system, learn mostly from the extension service whilst non-contact farmers learn mostly from other farmers, including contact farmers. With regard to practices involving specialized technical knowledge the picture was roughly reversed. For such practices all farmers tend to learn from knowledgeable primary sources, such as extension agents or other informed persons. This -25- apparently regular pattern suggests that the diffusion of knowledge regarding the more demanding practices is likely to be much faster in an area such as Karnal which has ample extension staff than in a less well endowed area such as Muzafarnagar. During the sample surveys farmers were also questioned on their knowledge of specific practices and on the time when they first learned about them. 6/ Knowiedge is difficult to measure without conducting a thorough examination of a respondents understanding of all aspects of a given recom- mendation. For some practices this was possible but for others detailed testing was beyond the tinme and resources available. In such cases, however, it was possible to establish the farmers awareness of the practice. Such awareness is an important indication of knowledge because, by definition a farmer who is unaware of a practice cannot be familiar with its detail. From the resulting data the levels of knowledge in 1978, the year before T&V extension was introduced in Haryana, and 1982, four years later, have been calculated. 7/ To increase the validity of comparisons between Karnal and Muzafarnagar contact farmers in Karnal have been excluded from the analysis because they receive a disproportionate amount of direct extension advice and may also be different in other ways. Thus the results reported in Tables 10 and 11 are, for Karnal, based only on responses from non-contact farmers. The direct comparison between Karnal and Muzafarnagar of the present levels of knowledge about a practice is clearly an unsound procedure because the initial or starting le!vel of knowledge may differ for random or histori- cal reasons. The proper procedure would be to compare the time paths of -26- knowledge diffusion by superimposing, for each practice in turn, the time path from the area with T&V extension on the corresponding time path from the area with traditional extension. If the former path lies above the latter it may be inferred that the more intensive extension effort provided by T&V increases the rate of knowledge diffusion. However, with only two observations we have no clue as to the shape of the growth curve which passes through them. To assume that the growth path is linear is clearly wrong as it is widely believed that processes of diffusion follow a logistic curve or some other non-linear function of time. The growth path for a logistic curve can be calculated from the following equation; 1 1t + ea-(1 where Kt is the proportion of knowledgeable farmers, t is time and a and a are parameters. Given, however, that we cannot be sure that a logistic curve will accurately reflect the growth path of knowledge for all practices we postu- late that the growth path might alternatively be approximated by the follow- ing negative exponential function; Kt = 1 - (1 - K ) e Y t (2) t 0 where Kt is again the proportion of knowledgeable farmers, t is time and y a parameter. -27- Equation (2) represents a curve with a monotonically decreasing rate of growth and may be a good eapproximation where the initial or base observa- tion is 50 percent or more, and therefore, above the inflection point in equation (1). Figure 1 below describes the slope of both curves. K K (a) (b) 0 lJ t O _IK t Figure 1. Logistic (a) and Negative Exponential (b) Curves The application of equations (1) or (2) to our data, although requir- ing strong implicit assumptions (the recorded rates of knowledge are, after all, estimates based on a sample of observations) does allow useful inferen- ces to be made about the diffusion paths. And, it can be shown that the larger are the parameters 0 or y the higher is the diffusion path (for any given initial level of knowledge) and hence the faster will a saturation level of knowledge (say 99 percent) be achieved. Now, the parameters of the functions derived from the observations for Muzafarnagar can be interpreted as the path that would have applied to Karnal if the T&V system had not been introduced. And, given that the farmers in the samples from the two dis- tricts are quite similar in most relevant respects except of course, for the extension system servicing them, we may interpret higher values for 0 or Y in -28- Karnal as a reflection of the contribution made by intensive extension to faster diffusion of knowledge. This procedure has the additional advantage of circumventing the problem posed by different initial levels of knowledge for the two districts. To calculate the values of the parameters a and y we re-write equa- tions (1) and (2) as follows: K ~~~K n Kt k -n 0 /t (la) rin (1-K) - Qn (1 - Kt) j/t = (2a) where K represents the proportion of knowledgeable farmers in the initial time period (1978). The calculated values of a and Y are reported in Tables 10 and 11 for each practice in each district except in two cases. The first where the initial observation was zero and the second where the terminal observation was 100 percent. In such cases the formulae cannot be applied. Of the ten HYV paddy practices (Table 10) only three practices in Karnal proved to have clearly superior estimated exponents in comparison with those for Muzafarnagar (practices 2, 7 and 9). Three other paddy practices (1, 4 and 10) show superior exponents for equation (2) but not for equation Table 10: KHARIF 1982, PARAMETERS OF KNOWLEDGE DIFFUSION CURVES FOR RECOMMENDED HYV PADDY PRACTICES AMONGST NON-CONTACT FARMERS IN KARNAL AND ALL FARMERS IN MUZAFARNAGAR Karnal District, Haryana Muzafarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh Percentage Percentage Knowledgeable Knowledgeable (N=138) a/ Parameter (N=56 / Parameter Practice 1978 1982 L 1978 1982 _ Y 1. Best Spacing 58 81 .2818 .1983* 46 75 .3147 .1925 2. Number of Seedlings per Station 54 97 .8200* .6825* 38 67 .2994 .1576 3. Chemical Treatment of Seed 23 29 .0780 .0203 0 2 n.a. n.a. 4. Utility of Weedicides 19 38 .2400 .0668* 5 14 .2700 .0249 5. Salt Treatment of Seed 12 14 .0400 .0057 34 48 .1458 .0596 6. Method of Nitrogen Application 62 78 .1940 .1366 45 73 .2988 .1779 7. Utility of Pesticides 22 41 .2250* .0698* 9 13 .1030 .0112 8. Utility of Phosphate 51 73 .2386 .1490* 34 61 .2776 .1315 9. Utility of Potash 14 24 .1656* .0309* 16 21 .0833 .0153 10. Utility of Zinc Sulphate 49 75 .2846 .1782* 32 61 .2956 .1390 Note: The asterisk (*) signifies what the parameter for Karnal is higher than the corresponding value for Muzafarnagar. n.a. - not applicable a/ All respondents actually grew HYV Paddy. -30- (1). Additionally, one other practice (knowledge of chemical treatment of seed) is also clearly superior as the 1978 value in Muzafarnagar was zero and had only reached 2 percent by 1982 while in Karnal the level of knowledge increased by 6 percent. For the remaining two paddy practices (5 and 6) the rate of growth in knowledge is superior in Muzafarnagar. This analysis suggests that for HYV paddy practices the growth in farmer knowledge in Karnal under the T&V system is not universally better than in Muzafarnagar. It is noteworthy, however, that of the three practices in Karnal that have superior knowledge diffusion rates two are cash demanding practices with a significant technical content. We have argued earlier that these are the practices which farmers most commonly learn directly from extension agents, and these results are consistent with that argument. Turning to the levels of farmer knowledge about practices for HYV wheat, Table 11 shows that the estimated exponents, irrespective of the functional form, are superior in Karnal for all nine practices for which they can be estimated. The exception is the seeding rate for late sown varieties of wheat, which is known by all sampled farmers in Muzafarnagar. This is not surprising as the late sowing of wheat is much more common in Muzafarnagar than in Karnal, consequent on the prevalence of a sugarcane -- wheat rotation in the former district. These are interesting results but they are not free of caveats. First, they are based on results from sample surveys and all such surveys have a margin of error no matter how small. Second, some of the differences Table 11: RABI 1982/83, PARAMETERS OF KNOWLEDGE DIFFUSION CURVES FOR RECOMMENDED HYV WHEAT PRACTICES AMONGST NON-CONTACT FARMERS IN KARNAL AND ALL FARMERS IN MUZAFARNAGAR Karnal District, Haryana Muzafarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh Percentage Percentage Knowledgeable Knowledgeable (N=166) a/ Parameter (N=92) a/ Parameter Practice 1978 1982 y 1978 1982 __y 1. Varieties for Late Sowing 63 94 .5500* .4548* 84 95 .3215 .2908 2. Seeding Rate Late Sown Varieties 28 47 .2060 .0766 89 100 n.a. n.a. 3. Seeding Rate Normally Sown Varieties 55 87 .4200* .3100* 28 30 .0243 .0070 4. Correct Spacing 42 71 .3045* .1730* 77 80 .0445 .0349 5. Chemical Treatment Against Fungi 2 10 .4200* .0212* 10 14 .0900 .0113 6. Chemical Treatment Against Termites 3 13 .3938* .0272* 8 9 .0320 .0027 7. Method of Nitrogen Application 46 82 .4190* .2746* 66 71 .0580 .0398 8. Utility of Phosphate 56 97 .8087* .6714* 78 87 .1588 .1315 9. Utility of Potash 50 72 .2360* .1449* 59 65 .0637 .0396 10. Utility of Zinc Sulphate 31 60 .3010* .1363* 2 5 .2375 .0077 Note: The asterisk (*) signifies that the parameter for Karnal is higher than the corresponding value for Muzafarnagar. n.a. = not applicable a/ All respondents actually grew HYV wheat. -32- in the estimated values for 6 and y are very small and may in fact be masked by the implicit error term. Third, even though knowledge about a practice has increased, this says nothing about the extent to which the practice is either useful or profitable to those who have learned it. Consequently, these results per se do not allow us to determine whether any gains in agricultural productivity result from the observed increases in knowledge, or whether such gains outweigh the incremental costs of T&V extension. Nevertheless the results suggest that T&V extension in Karnal, when compared to the traditional system in Muzafarnagar has led to a noticeable increase in the rate of knowledge diffusion for almost all recommended prac- tices for HYV wheat and several important practices for HYV paddy. Such results are consistent with the significantly higher level of extension activity prevailing in Karnal compared to Muzafarnagar. They are also con- sistent with other survey findings (not reported) that show (for nine of ten paddy practices and eight of ten wheat practices) the rates of knowledge diffusion amongst contact farmers to be higher than among non-contact farmers (when measured by the parameters of equation (1)). As observed in preceding sections, contact farmers have a greater degree of direct interaction with extension agents and should, ceteris paribus, have higher knowledge diffusion rates. Recall, however, that contact farmers are not necessarily repre- sentative of the farming community, and that their higher rates of knowledge may be the result of other attributes. -33- 7. Summary and Conclusions Recognizing the importance of providing any discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of the T&V system of agricultural extension, rela- tive to other systems, with firm empirical foundations we have drawn exten- sively on evidence derived from recent sample surveys of farmers in India. Data from these surveys, which were undertaken in two contiguous, climati- cally and ethnically similar districts show that the farmers in these two areas are very similar with respect to several factors likely to influence their attitudes to innovations. One of these districts (Karnal, Haryana) is covered by the T&V system of extension whilst the other (Muzafarnagar, Uttar Pradesh) is covered by an earlier system of extension similar to that which operated in Haryana until 1979. In Karnal we show that contact farmers, the principal target of the T&V system, are unlikely to lbe fully representative of their local farming community (in particular, larger farmers are more than proportionately repre- sented), but that they may still be valuable as opinion leaders. Despite several managerial changes and extensive field staff transfers during the period of study the evidence suggests that the majority of contact farmers are visited regularly by extension agents (VEW's) and that substantial num- bers of non-contact farmers are also reached directly by the VEW's. The level of extension exposure in Muzafarnagar is significantly lower. It appears that most contact fairmers are aware of their role, know their VEW, and perceive the T&V system t:o be an improvement over its predecessor. However, non-contact farmers, and particularly smaller farmers, are much less -34- aware of the change in extension that has taken place in Haryana, although amongst those that are, they too perceive the change to be beneficial. There is no strong evidence that extension agents' visits are systematically biased in favor of the largest, or wealthiest contact farmers. These findings contradict claims that the T&V system, despite the increased deployment of staff and resources, is operationally ineffective and seriously biased in favor of the rich and influential. A detailed examination of farmers knowledge of a series of recom- mended practices for HYV wheat and paddy showed, not only a regular pattern in the way farmers acquire information, but that the rates of knowledge diffusion in Karnal, for all wheat practices and for some paddy practices examined, are faster than the comparable rates in Muzafarnagar. These find- ings suggest that the T&V extension system in Karnal is more successful in delivering information to farmers than the traditional system that operates in Muzafarnagar. Although this may be viewed as an encouraging sign, it must be emphasised that the T&V system deploys more resources than the old system and hence should be more effective. Moreover, the demonstrated increases in the effectiveness of information delivery and thus farmer knowledge, although an important first step in understanding the effects of the T&V system, tell us little about the relevance of the technology being extended, its profitability at the farm level or whether any resulting gains in farm productivity are commensurate with the incremental costs. These questions remain as worthy subjects for future research. -35- Footnotes 1/ The ratios pertain to village level staff. The number of higher level extension staff under the T&V system is significantly higher than under the traditional system. 2/ In a district VEWs are supervised by AEOs who are, in turn responsible to sub-divisional agricultural extension officers. The latter report to the senior agricultural officer in the district, normally a Deputy Direc- tor of Agriculture. It follows that in the absence of AEO's VEW's are effectively unsupervised. 3' The statistical test used here and in other sections of the paper is b_,ed on the large sample normality of the test statistic Z=(pl - P2)/ /: . (1 - I). [(1/N1) + (1/N2)J where pi is the proportion of farmers with a certain characteristic within sample i, N are the sample sizes, and II is the proportion of farmers possessing tle characteristic under investigation within the population. 4/ Additionally, in the survey a small number of contact farmers may have reported a single visit because they were interviewed shortly before their scheduled visit day. 5/ By that time over 95 percent of VEW's were in position. 6/ All practices examined are included in the 'packages of recommendations' that the extension systems in Karnal and Muzafarnagar are propogating. 7/ An attempt to construct a continuous time profile of knowledge diffusion was unsuccessful as many farmers were unable to recall precisely the year when they first learned of certain practices. They were, however, able to say whether they had learned more or less than four years ago. -36- References 1. Benor, Daniel and James Q. Harrison., 1977, Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System. Washington, D. C., World Bank. 2. Benor, Daniel and Michael Baxter., 1984, Training and Visit Extension. Washington, D. C., World Bank. 3. von Blanckenburg, Peter., 1982, "The Training and Visit System in Agricultural Extension: A Review of First Experiences", Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, Vol. 21, No. 1. 4. Cernea, Michael., 1981, "Sociological Dimensions of Extension Organiza- tion: The Introduction of the T&V System in India", in Extension Education and Rural Development, Vol. 2: International Experience in Strategies for Planned Change, edited by Bruce R. Crouch and Shankarian Chamala. Chichester; John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 5. Feder, Gershon and Roger H. Slade., 1984a, "Contact Farmer Selection and Extension Visits: The Training and Visit Extension System in Haryana, India", Quarterly Journal of International Agriculture, (Forthcoming). 6. _, 1984b, "The Aquisition of Information and the Adoption of New Technology", American Journal of Agricultural Economics. (Forthcoming) 7. Hoeper, Bernhard., 1983, "Selected Results of the Agriculture Develop- ment Officers and Village Extension Workers Survey in Jind, Karnal and Mahendragarh Districts, Haryana, India", Institute of Socio- Economics of Agricultural Development (Berlin), Organizational and Methodological Variables of the Training and Visit System of Extension, Working and Discussion Note No. 1. (Mimeo). 8. Howell, John., 1982a, "Managing Agricultural Extension: The T&V System in Practice", Overseas Development Institute (London), Agricultural Administration Network, Discussion Paper No. 8. 9. ., 1982b, "Responses to Discussion Paper No. 8, Managing Agricultural Extension: The T&V System in Practice", Overseas Development Institute (London), Agricultural Administration Network, Newsletter No. 9. -37- 10. ., 1983, "Strategy and Practice in the T&V System of Agricultural Extension", Overseas Development Institute (London), Agricultural Administration Network, Discussion Paper No. 10. 11. Jaiswal, N. K., 1983, "Transfer of Technology under T&V -- Problem Identification", in Background Papers: Workshop on Management of Transfer of Farm Technology under the Training and Visit System; February 1-8, 1983", National Institute for Rural Development (Hyderabad). 12. Kilvin, Joseph, Frederick Fliegel, Prodipto Roy and Lalit Sen., 1971, Innovation in Rural India, Bowling Green State University Press, Bowling Green, Ohio. 13. Moore, Michael., 1983, "Institutional Development, The World Bank, and India's New Agricultural Extension Programme", Institute of Development Studies (Brighton), (Mimeo). 14. Singh, R. N., 1983, "T&V in Chambal Command Area (Kota District): Some Observations" in Background Papers: Workshop on Management of Transfer of Farm Technology Under the Training and Visit System, February 1-8. 1983", National Institute for Rural Development (Hyderabad). 15. Sisodia, K. S., 1983, "Observations on the Working of the Training and Visit Extension System Ln Haryana". World Bank, Washington, D.C. (Mimeo). W orld Bank The? Agricultural Development their productivity. Valuable to policy Experience of Algeria, makers, project designers, rural soci PUbical om Morocco, and Tunisia: A ogists, extension workers, and othe of R lat;ed Comparison of Strategies for agricultural researchers. Interest Kevin M. Cleaver ISBN 0-8213-0301-5.Stoxk No. BK 030 Compares agricultural experience of Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. Pro- vides insights into the importance of foocl and agriculture for development, NEW and determinants of agricultural Adoption of Agricultural groivth. Agricultural Extension: The Innovations in Developing Stafj Working Paper No. 552. 1983. 55 Training and Visit System Countries: A Survey pages. Daniel Benor, James Q. Harrisor Gershon Feder, Richard Just,and ISBN 0-8213-0120-9. Stock No. WP 0552. and Michael Baxter David Silberrnan $ Contains guidelines for reform of ai Staff Working Paper No. 542. 1982. 65 cultural extension services along tht pages. lines of the training and visit systen ISBN 0-8213-0103-9. Stock No. WP 0542. The central objective-making the $3. The Agricultural Economy of most efficient use of resources avail Northeast Brazil able to governments and farmers-i Gary P. Kutcher and Pasquale L. achieved through encouraging and Agrarian Reformn as Unfinished Scaiidizzo cilitating feedback from farners to r Business-the Selected Papers This study, based on an agricultural search workers through extension p of Wolf Ladejinsky survey of 8,000 farms, assesses the ex- sonnel who visit and advise farmer' Louis J. Walinsky, editor tent and root causes of pervasive rural on a regular, fixed schedule, thus Studies in agrarian policy and land re- poverty in northeast Brazil. The au- helping research to solve actual pro form spanning four decades, grouped thors review a number of policy and duction constraints faced by the chronologically according to Ladejin- project options; they conclude that farmer. sky's years in Washington, Tokyo, and courageous land reform is the only ef- Explains the complex relationships i Vietnam and while at the Ford Foun- fective means of dealing with the training and visit extension and dra dation and the World Bank.Oxford problem. attention to the range of considera- University Press, 1977. 614 pages (in- The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982. tions that are important to imp.eme cluding appendixes, index). 288 pages. ing the system. LC 77-24254. ISBN 0-19-920095-5, Stock LC 81-47615. ISBN 0-8018-2581-4, Stock 1984. 95 pages. No. OX 920095, $32.50 hardcover; ISBN No. JH 2581. $25.00 hardcover. ISBN 0-8213-0140-3. Stock No. BK 01' 0-19-920098-X, Stock No. OX 920098, $5. $14.95 paperback. Agrarian Reforms in Agricultural Land Settlement Developing Rural Economies NEW Theodore J. Goering, coordinatii Characterized by Interlinked author Credit and Tenancy Markets Agricultural Extension by Examines selected issues related to Avishay Braverman and T.N. Training and Visit: The Asian World Bank's lending for land settle Srinivasan Experience ment and gives estimates of the glo Edit(ed b Michael . Cemea,rate of settlement andthe world's ul Staff Working Paper No. 433. 1980. 32 Edited by Michael M. Cenea, mate potentially arable land. pgs(including references). Johnl K. Coulter, and John F.A.maeptnilyrbelnd pages (including references). Russell A World Bank Issues Paper. 1978. 73 Stock No. WP-0433. $3. Captures nearly ten years of experi- pages (including 4 annexes). English, ence with the Training and Visit Ex- French, and Spanish. Agricultural Credit tension System. Addresses five issues: Stock Nos. BK 9054. (English), BK 905: farm(er participation, the research-ex- (French), BK 9056 (Spanish). $5 paper- Outlines agricultural credit practices tension linkage, training, system man- back. and problems, programs, and policies agerrent, and monitoring and evalua- in developing countries and discusses ge on itoring and evalua- their implications for World Bank op- tion. Within this framework, extension erations. system managers and evaluators from Agricultural Price Manageme A World Bank Paper. 1975. 85 pages (in- six Asian countries and six discussants in Egypt AlWoing 14anne Pabe.195l aes)(in present their experience and analyses. William Cuddihy cluding 14 annex tables). Notes the World Bank's strong com- lam u l y Stock No. BK 9039 (English), BK 9052 mitment to agricultural development Staff Working Paper No. 388. 1980. 17 (French), BK 9053 (Spanish). $5 paper- in its member countries and to helping pages (includig annex, bibiography). back. least advantaged farmers to improve Stock No. WP-0388. $5. Agricultural Price Policies and Stock Nos. BK 9074 (English),BK 0160 NEW the Developing Countries (French), BK 0161 (Spanish). $5 paper- George Tolley, Vinod Thomas, and back. Chung Ming Wong Agroindustrial Project Analysis This book first considers price policies James E. Austin A _ fo, PtPt,o 6-t , in Korea, Bangladesh, Thailand, and Provides and illustrates a framework Venezuela, bringing out the conse- for analyzing and designing agro-in- tt quences for government cost and reve- dustrial projects. . nue, farm income, and producer and consumer welfare. Other effects, in- EDI Series in Economic Development. cluding those on agricultural diversifi- The Johns Hopkins University Press, ( 1981.2nd printing, 18.24pgs(n cation, inflation, economic growth, ldn pedxs ilorpy n and the balance of payments are aiso cluding appendixes, bibliography, and discussed. The second part of the book index). . / provides a methodology for estimating LC 80-550. ISBN 0-8018-2412-5,Stock | i | f l these effects in any country. Opera- No. JH 2412, $16.50 hardcover; ISBN 0- / (l tional tools for measuring the effects 8018-2413-3, Stock No. IH 2413, $7.50 ll on producers, consumers, and govern- paperback. ment are developed and applied. French: L'Analyse des projets agroindus- L ) l The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982. triels. Economica, 1982. ISBN 1-7178- 256 pages. 0480-3, Stock No. IB 0537. $7.50 paper- Appraising Poultry Enterpris( LC 81-15585. ISBN 0-8018-2704-3, Stock back. for Profitability: A Manual fc No. IH 2704, $25 hardcover; NEW: ISBN Spanish: Analisis de proyectos agroindus- Potential Investors 0-8018-3124-5, Stock No. JH 3124, $9.95 triales. Editorial Tecnos, 1981. ISBN 84- International Finance Corp. paperback. 309-0882-X, Stock No. IB 0520, $7.50 pa- Decisionmaking tool for entrepreneu perback. and project managers considering in NEW vestments in integrated poultry pro- NEW jects. Use this guide to conduct on-s Agricultural Prices in China investigation of proposed project. Fi: Nicholas R. Lardy Altemative Agricultural Pricing ure production costs and determine Analyzes recent adjustments to Policies in the Republic of fixed asset and working capital for China's agricultural pricing systems Korea: Their Implications for broiler operations. Analyze market a and its effects on urban consumers Govemment Deficits, Income accurately forecast market prices. Th and overall production patterns. De- Distribution, and Balance of comprehensive guide tells how to fines price ratios from key inputs and manage integrated,broiler operations outputs and examines price/cost rela- Payments gives specifications for broiler and tions in view of the institutional set- Avishay Braverman, Choong Yong breeder houses and summarizes pro- ting for price policy. Ahn, Jeffrey S. Hammer duction costs. Staff Working Paper No. 606.1983. 84 Develops a two-sector multimarket Technical Paper No. 10. 1983. 110 pages pages. model to evaluate agricultural pricing ISBN 0-8213-0165-9.Stock No. BK 0165 ISBN 0-8213-0216-7. Stock No. WP 0606. policies, replacing insufficient standard 5. $3. operational methods. Measures the impact of alternative pricing policies The Book of CHAC: Agricultural Research on production and consumption of rice Programming Studies for Points out that developing countries and barley, real income distribution,. Mexican Agricultural Policy must invest more in agricultural re- import levels of rice, self-sufficiency in Edited by Roger D. Norton search if they are to meet the needs of rice, and public budget. Provides a Xde Solis M. their growing populations. Notes that valuable synthesis of the work that has andLeopoldo Solis M. studies in Brazil, India,japan, Mexico, been done to date on agricultural The principal tool of analysis is the and the United States show that agri- household models. Helps economists sector model CHAC, named after th# cultural research yields a rate of return evaluate the impact of alternative pric- Mayan rain god. This model can be that is more than two to three times ing policies aimed at reducing deficits. used throughout the sector to cover greater than retums from most alter- Based on the experience of the Grain short-cycle crops, their inputs, and native investments and cites some of Management Fund and the Fertilizer their markets. It can also be broken the successes of the high-yielding vari- Fund in Korea. down into submodels for particular I eties of rice and wheat that were de- Staff Working Paper No. 621. 1983. 174 calities if more detailed analysis is re veloped in the mid-1960s. Discusses pages. quired. The model helps planners the World Bank's plans to expand its ISBN 0-8213-0275-2.Stock No. WP 0621. weigh the costs among policy goals, lending for agricultural research and $5. which can vary from region to regior extension, particularly for the produc- This volume reports the expenence c tion of food and other commodities Argentina: Country Case Study using the CHAC model and also pre that are of importance to low-income of Agricultural Prices, Taxes, sents purely methodological material consumers, small farmers, and re- and Subsidies The Johns Hopkins University Press, 196 source poor areas. Lucio G. Reca 624 pages (including maps, bibliographie: Sector Policy Paper. 1981. 110 pages (in- Staff Working Paper No.386. 1980. 72 Index). cluding annexes). English, French, and pages (including 3 annexes). LC 80-29366. ISBN 0-8018-2585-7, Stoc, Spanish. Stock No. WP-0386. $3. No. JH 2585. $35 hardcover. Building National Capacity to The Design of Rural Economic Aspects and Policy Develop Water Users' Development: Lessons from Issues in Groundwater Associations: Experience from Alfrica Development the Philippines Urna Lele Ian Carruthers and Roy Stoner Frances F. Korten Analyzes new ways of designing rural Staff Working Paper No. 496. 1981. 110 Staff Working Paper No. 528. 1982. v + development projects to reach large pages (including annex, bibliography). 69 pages (including references). numbers of low-income subsistence Stock No. WP-0496. $5. ISBN 0-8213-0051-2. Stock No WP 0528. populations The third paperback Economic Retum to Investmen printing contains a new chapter by the Ec omcRtrtonvs er $3. author updating her findings. in Irrigation in India Bureaucratic Politics and The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1975; Leslie A. Abbie, James Q. Incentives in the Management 3rd printing, 1979. 260 pages (including Harrison, and John W. Wall of Rural Development glo:3sary, appendix, maps,bibliography, in- Staff Working Paper No. 536. 1982. 52 fRihard Deavelopmer t dea). pages. Richard Heaver ISBN 0-8018-1769-2, Stock No. IH 1769, ISBN 0-8213-0083-0. Stock No. WP 0536 Analyzes management problems in $9.95 paperback. $3. implementing rural development from a bureaucratic political standpoint. French: Le developpement rural: l'experi- Farm Budgets: From Farm. Emphasizes the need to take account 6ence AficainetEconom.ca Z977. ISBN 2- Income Analysis to of informal interests in managing pro- 780,t N B5 Agricultural Project Analysis grams. Suggests possible methods for paperback. Maxwell L. Brown assessing incentives. ECOnomic Analysis of Clarifies the relation between simple Staff Working Paper No. 537. 1983. 74 Agricultural Projects farm income analysis and the broader pages. Second edition, completely revised field of agricultural project analysis ISBN 0-8213-0084-9. Stock No. WP 0537. and expanded and emphasizes the more practical as- $3. J. I'rice Gittinger pects of project preparation. Gives Sets out a careful and practical meth- guidance to those responsible for plar NEW odology for analyzing agricultural de- ning in agriculture. velopment projects and for using these EDI Series in Economic Development The Common Agricultural analyses to compare proposed invest- The Johns Hopkins University Press, Policy of the European me.nts. It covers what constitutes a 1980. 154 pages. Community: A Blessing or a "project," what must be considered to LC 79-3704. ISBN 0-8018-2386-2,Stock Community: A Blesing identify possible agricultural projects, No. JH 2386, $15 hardcover; ISBN 0- Curse for Developing the life cycle of a project, the strengths 8018-2387-0, Stock No. IH 2387, $6.50 Countries? and pitfalls of project analysis, and the paperback. Ulrich Koester and Malcolm D. calculations required to obtain financial Spanish: Presupuestos defincas Editorial Bale and economic project accounts. Tecnos, 1982. ISBN 84-309-0886-2, StocA Examines the importance of the Euro- The methodology reflects the best of No. IB 0522, $6.50 paperback. pean Community (EC) in global agri- contemporary practice in government cultural trade. Points out that the EC agencies and international develop- Fishery is the leading importer of agricultural ment institutions concerned with in- Highlights the importance of fisheries goods and is the dominant exporter of vesting in agriculture and is accessible to the economies of developing coun- a number of agricultural products. Em- to a broad readership of agricultural tries and recommends that the World phasizes that policymakers in develop- planners, engineers, and analysts. Bank provide assistance to those cour ing countries must understand the im- This revision adds a wealth of recent tries that have the fishery resources plications of the EC's common project data; expanded treatment of and are willing to develop them fur- Agricultural Policy. Spells out how this farm;i budgets and the efficiency prices ther. policy operates and categorizes impor- to be used to calculate the effects of an Sector Policy Paper.1982. tant commodities. investment on national income; a glos- ISBN 0-8213-0138-1. Stock No. BK 0138 Staff Working Paper No. 630. 1984. 64 sary of technical terms; expanded ap- S5 paperback. pages. pendixes on preparing an agricultural Stock No. WP 0630. $3. project report and using discounting Forestry tables; and an expanded, completely Graham Donaldson, coordinating The Design of Organizations annotated bibliography. author for Rural Development EDI Series in Economic Development. Examines the significance of forests ir. Projects: A Progress Report The Johns Hopkins University press. July economic development and concludes William E. Smith, Francis J. 1982. 2nd printing, March 1984. 528 that the World Bank should greatly in Lethem, and Ben A. Thoolen pages (including appendixes and glossary/ crease its role in forestry developmeni Staff Working Paper No. 375. 1980. 48 inde.r). both as a lender and adviser to gov- pages. English and French. LC 82-15262. ISBN 0-8018-2912-7, Stock ernments. Stock Nos. WP 0375 (English), BK 9241 No. JH 2912, $37.50 hardcover; ISBN 0- Sector Policy Paper. 1978. 63 pages (in- (French). $3. 801S-2913-5, Stock No. IH 2913, $13.50 cluding 7 annexes). English, French, and paperback. Spanish. Spanish: Analisis economico de provectos Stock Nos. BK 9063 (English), BK 9064 Prices subject to change without notice agricolas. Editortal Tecnos, S.A. ISBN 84- (French), BKL 9065 (Spanish). $5 paper- and may vary by country. 309-0991-5. $13.50. back. major policy options open to the pages (including 3 annexes, appendix. NEW World Bank in this field. map). Forestry Terms-Terminologie A World Bank Paper. 1975. 73 pages (in- Stock No. WP-0332. $5. forestiere cluding 2 annexes). Monitoring and Evaluation of English-French; Francais- Stock No. BK 9042. $5 paperback. Agriculture and Rural Anglais. Land Tenure Systems and Development Projects Presents terminology related to for- Social Implications of Forestry Dennis J. Casley and Denis A. estry development and erosion control Development Programs Lury in and and semiarid lands. Since fuel- wood problems and desertification Michael M. Cernea This book provides a how-to tool for have become serious, particularly in Staff Working Paper No. 452. 1981. 35 the design and Implementation of Western Africa, the World Bank has pages (including references, bibliography). rural development projects. Because become increasingly involved in wood- Stock No. WP-0452. $3. rural development projects are com- based energy and erosion-control and plex, they seek to benefit large num- in forest-management projects. Assists NEW bers of people in remote rural areas, translators and researchers who work and they involve a variety of invest- in this field. ments. The need for monitoring and A World Bank Glossary-Glossaire de .__ _ evaluating them during implementa- la Banque mondiale tion has been accepted in principle, 1984. 48 pages. _ - but effective systems have not hereto ISBN 0-8213-0175-6. Stock No. BK 0175. fore been formulated. The concepts o $5. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~monitoring and evaluation are differ- S5.& ] 1entiated and issues that need to be Improving Iffigated considered in designing systems to Agriculture: Institutional monitor and evaluate specific project- Reform and the Small Farmer ~~~~~~~~~are outlined, emphasizing the timeli- Reform and the Small Farmer f ness of the monitoring functions for Daniel W. Bromley effective management. Elaborates on Staff Working Paper No. 531. 1982. 96 such technical issues as selection of i) pages. dicators, selection of survey methodo ISBN 0-8213-0064-4. Stock No. WP 0531. Managing Elephant ogy data analysis, and presentation. I $3. Mngn Elpatis directed primarily to those workinF Depredation in Agricultural with specific projects and will be use- India: Demand and Supply and Forestry Projects ful to project appraisal teams, to de- Prospects for Agriculture John Seidensticker signers of monitoring and evaluation James Q. Harrison, Jon A. Outlines procedures for managing ele- systems, and to project staff who woi Hitchings, and John W. Wall phants in and around project areas as y Staff Working Paper No. 500. 1981. 133 part of the project design. Helps proj- The Johns Hopkins University Press. 198. pages (including 5 appendixes, references, ect designers plan activities that will 145 pages. annex). protect wildlife and prevent financial LC 82-7126. ISBN 0-8018-2910-0, Stock loss from damage by animals. Illus- No. lH 2910. S8.50 paperback. Stock No. WP-0500. $5. trates methods used to investigate ele- Monitoring Rural Developmen phant behavior and ecology. NotesMoirngR alDvop e Irrigation Management in that careful scheduling of project activ- in East Asia ifies is required to ensure that ele- Guido Deboeck and Ronald Ng China: A Review of the phants are not isolated in production Staff Working Paper No. 439. 1980. 91 Literature areas. pages (including annexes). James E. Nickum Technical Paper No. 16. 1984.50 pages. Stock No. WP-0439. $3. Analyzes irrigation management in the ISBN 0-8213-0297-3. 1 People's Republic of China. Major top- SokN.B 27 3 E ics covered are the institutional top- Stock No. BK 0297.$3. NEnW ronment, the organizational structure, Managing Information for Monitoring Systems and water fees and funding, and water al- R D L I location. The report is based on Rural Development: Lessons Iffgation Management: An Chinese-language materials published from Eastern Africa Experience from the in China and now available in the Guido Deboeck and Bill Kinsey Philippines United States. Staff Working Paper No. 379. 1980. vii + Agricultural economists, planners, an Staff Working Paper No. 545. 1983. 106 70 pages (including 5 annexes, index). field workers will find this 1983 case pages. Stock No. WP-0379. $3. study report a practical guide for de- ISBN 0-8213-0110-1. Stock No. WP 0545. signing efficient monitoring and evalu $5. Measuring Project Impact: ation systems for irriation and similar Monitoring and Evaluation in projects. It illustrates the practical ap- Land Reform the PIDER Rural Development plication of the principles covered in Examines the characteristics of land re- Project-Mexico Evaluation of Agriculture and Rural De- form, its implications for the econom- Michael M. Cernea uelopment Profects. Highlights the prob ies of developing counties, and the Staff Working Paper No. 332. 1979. 137 lems as well as the successes. 1983. 162 pages. World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 387. permitting a full social cost-benefit ISBN 0-8213-0059-8. Stock No. BK 1980. 108 pages. analysis of the project. 0059.$5. Stock No. WP-0387. $5. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1982. Project Evaluation in Regional 336 pages (including maps and index). NEW Proect Evaluaton in Regional LC 81-48173. ISBN 0-8018-2802-3, Stock Perspective: A Study of an No. IH 2802, $30 hardcover. Opportunities for Biological Irrigation Project in Northwest Control of Agricultural Pests in Mala8ysia Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries Developing Countries Clive Bell, Peter Hazell, and Roger Development: Western D. J. Greathead and J. K. Waage Slade Concepts, Asian Experiences Describes how to use living organisms This innovative study develops quanti- Staff Working Paper No. 423. 1980.107 as pest control agents, either alone or tative methods for measuring the di- pages (including references). as one component of pest manage- rect and indirect effects of agricultural Stock No. WP-0423. $5. ment. Biological control offers hope of projects on their surrounding regional long-term-permanent-results, causes and national economies. These meth- Rural Development no pollution, poses no risk to human ods ate then applied to a study of the Discusses strategy designed to extend health and is often cheaper than Muda irrigation project in northwest the benefits of development to the ru- chemical controls. Gives methods and Malaysia. A linear programming ral poor and outlines the World Bank's costs. Specifies controls for specific model is used to analyze how a project plans for increasing its assistance in crops found in developing countries. changes the farm economy, and a so- this sector. Technical Paper No. 11. 1983. 55 pages. cial accounting matrix of the regional Sector Policy Paper, 1975, 89 pages (in- ISBN -821301640. Stck N. BK 164. econom-y is then estimated. This pro- cluding 14 annexes). ISBN 0-8213-0164-0. Stock No. BK 0164. vides the basis for a semi-input-output $3. model, which is used to estimate the Stock No. BK 9036. $5 paperback. indirect effects of the project on its re- Prices, Taxes, and Subsidies in gion. Thereafter, a similar methodol- Pakistan Agriculture,1960-1976 ogy is used to estimate the project's NEW Carl Gotsch and Gilbert Brown effects on key national variables, thus Rural Financial Markets in Developing Countries NEW J. D. Von Pischke, Dale W. Adams, and Gordon Donald Rural Development in China Selected readings highlight facets of DwightaH. Perkiopmens and ShmahidY rural financial markets often neglected Dwight H. Perkins and Shahid Yusuf in discussions of agricultural credit in developing countries. Considers the Looks at China's rural development China's rural development policy. performance of rural financial markets experience as a whole since 1949. Ana- Helps clarify both the strengths and and ways to improve the quality and lyzes China's agricultural performance weaknesses of a self-reliant strategy range of financial services for low-in- and traces it back to the technology of rural development. come farmers. Also reflects new think- and other sources that made that per- ing on the design, administration, formance possible. Goes beyond the ' *.. evaluation, and policy framework of conventional sources of growth analy- . .' rural finance and credit programs in sis to examne the political and organi- Th o developing countries. z ational means that enabled the The ohn s Hopkins University Press. 1983. Chinese to mobilize so much labor for 430 pages. development purposes. ISBN 0-8018-3074-5.Stock No. IH 3074. Describes the successes and failures of - _\ $32.50 hardcover. ;-*.* _ -~ '\ - Rural Poverty Unperceived: 41- _ . . _ - - Problems and Remedies Robert Chambers . - r > * .~ ~r t e w Staff Working Paper No. 400. 1980. 51 pages (including references). Stock No. WP-0400. $3. Rural Projects through Urban Eyes: An Interpretation of the World Bank's New-Style Rural Development Projects The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1984. Judith Tendler 232 pages. World Bank Staff Working Paper No. 532. LC 83-049366. ISBN 0-8018-3261-6. Stock ' 1982. 100 pages. No. JH 3261. $25 hardcover. ISBN 0-8213-0028-8.Stock No. WP 0532. -__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1 $3. most important determinant of overall ISBN 0-8213-0168-3. Stock No. WP 0561 NEW economic growth, has been sluggish in (English) $3. Sub-Saharan African countries during ISBN 0-8213-0269-8. Stock No. BK 0269 Sheep and Goats in the past two decades. This overview (French) $3. Developing Countries: Their takes a three-pronged approach to un- Present and Potential Role derstanding the problems of agricul- Winrock International Livestock tural production in the 47 countries Research and Training Center that make up the region. It outlines NEW Sheep and goats are viewed as an in- domestic and global constraints; sum- tegral component of complex agricul- manzes price, trade, and consumption Training and Visit Extension tural systems. This comprehensive forecasts for major agricultural exports; Daniel Benor and Michael Baxter analysis leads to recommendations on and project trends. Contains a comprehensive explanation the need for a balanced production Staff Working Paper No. 608. 1983. 172 of the organization and operation of system approach for research, training, pages (including more than 75 tables and the training and visit system of agri- and development programs. Assesses charts). cultural extension. Emphasizes sim- the role of sheep and goats in food ISBN 0-8213-0221-3.Stock No. WP 0608. plicity and decisiveness. Defines or- production svstems by examining ad- $5. ganization and mode of operation and vantages and disadvantages, aid/donor allows continuous feedback from farm- support, constraints on contributions, ers to extension and research workers. and overcoming constraints. Empha- A System of Monitoring and This method has been adopted in sizes the need for a combination of Evaluating Agricultural some 40 countries in Asia, Africa, Eu- support activities and marketing and Extension Proects rope, and Central and South America. pricing policies for small ruminants Michael M. Proects Useful to extension staff at all levels, and their products. Reviews ongoing BenJamin agricultural research personnel, train- projects. J. Tepping ers, and staff of agricultural organiza- Technical Paper No. 15.1983. 109 pages. Staff Working Paper No. 272. 1977. 121 tions, as well as universities and train- ISBN 0-8213-0272-8. pages (including 9 annexes, bibliography). ing institutions involved in agricultural Stock No. BK 0272. $5. Stock No. WP-0272. $5. and rural development and public ad- Stock No. BK 0272. $5. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~ministration. Sociocultural Aspects Thailand: Case 1984. 214 pages. ofDeveloping Small-Scale Study of ISBN 0-8213-0121-7.Stock no. BK 0121. Fisheries: Delivering Services Agricultural Input and Output $15. to the Poor Pricing Richa Poo a Trent Bertrand Staff Working Paper No. 490. 1981 64 Staff Working Paper No. 385. 1980. 143 Women and the Subsistence (ta ncludrking refereNces). 490.1981.64pages (including 2 appendixes). Sector: Economic Participation pages No. references). Stock No. WP-0385. $5.NEW and Household Stock No. WP-0490. $3. Decisionmaking In Nepal Some Aspects of Wheat and Traditionial Land Tenure and Meena Acharya and Lynn Bennett Some Aspects ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Fascinating analysis of the complex so- Rice Price Policy in India Land Use Systems in the cial, demographic,and economic fac- Raj Krishna and G.S. Design of Agricultural Projects tors that affect women's decisionmak- Raychaudhuri Raymond Noronha and Francis J. ing role in the subsistence sector. Data Staff Working Paper No. 381. 1980. 62 Lethem collected from seven villages show pages (including 2 appendixes, 6 tables, The feasibility of agricultural projects women play a major role in agricul- bibliography). and their intended impact are often tural production, both as laborers and Stock No. WP 0381. $3. determined by traditional patterns of managers. Bringing women into the tenure and land use. This paper pro- market economy would make better vides agricultural project designers use of local resources and improve NEW with an analytical basis and rationale their status and economic security in for examining systems and suggests Nepal. Sub-Saharan Agriculture: how to use such information in de- Staff Working Paper No. 526.1983. 160 Synthesis and Trade Prospects signing projects. pages. Shamsher Singh Staff Working Paper No. 561. 1983. 54 ISBN 0-8213-0024-5. Stock No. WP 0526. Agricultural production, the single pages. $5. 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