June 2013




Measuring financial
capability: a new instrument
and results from low- and
middle-income countries

                       Summary
Measuring financial capability: 
a new instrument and results
from low- and middle-income
countries
                     Summary
© 2013 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank


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C
                      ountries at all levels of development have

                      an interest in measuring financial capa-

                      bility. In high-income countries, individuals

                      need to accept an increased role in saving

                      for old age or financing education and

                      health care to compensate for reductions

in public programs. In low- and middle-income countries, the

limited scope of social insurance and safety net programs—

along with the erosion of traditional family support mechanisms

due to urban migration and employment shifts—leave individ-

uals responsible for lifelong income planning and risk manage-

ment. This responsibility becomes more challenging when

the number and complexity of financial products available

increases with overall economic development. The low levels of

financial inclusion observed in low- and middle-income coun-

tries are partly driven by limited financial capability—which in

turn limits the ability to effectively utilize financial resources,

smooth consumption over a lifetime, and manage risks.
       Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Financial capability, the capacity to manage financial resources and use financial
services in a way that best suits individual needs and the prevalent social and
economic conditions, can contribute significantly to both the level and efficacy of
financial inclusion. Reliable measures of financial capability are needed to support
effective policy development and evaluation in this area. The capacity to evaluate the
overall levels of financial capability in a population—and to assess how these change
in response to programs directed toward enhancement of financial capability or as
a result of the development of financial products and markets—provides essential
information to policy makers that can inform national policies and strategies. Identi-
fying vulnerable groups toward whom programs can be directed and to tailor inter-
ventions that address the particular characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of
different groups relies on the ability to discern the distribution of financial capability
across the broad population and to distinguish among subgroups.




Financial literacy or financial capability?
Financial literacy has often been identified with financial knowledge, typically
measured through the understanding of concepts such as compound interest,
inflation, and risk diversification. The underlying idea is that these concepts are the
crucial pieces of information individuals need to choose the optimal allocation of
consumption and savings over their lifetime. A variety of surveys have been devel-
oped and used in higher-income countries based on this objective. The evidence
from these surveys shows that low levels of financial knowledge are associated with
poor financial outcomes. However, there is very little evidence for either low levels of
knowledge being the cause of these outcomes or that increasing knowledge by itself
improves long-term financial outcomes.

While such financial knowledge may be necessary for making good financial deci-
sions, a broader definition of knowledge may be needed to ensure that the financial
behaviors necessary to achieve good outcomes are adopted. Financial knowledge
itself comprises at least three different aspects: the first is related to mathematical
skills (numeracy); the second is the simple awareness of the existence of financial
issues, products, and institutions; and the third is the know-how required to interact
with financial service providers (e.g., how to open a bank account, how to use an
ATM card). However, the translation of knowledge into behavior may be impeded
by a lack of skills, by low levels of motivation, by other behavioral attributes such as
poor self-control and procrastination, by attitudes such as trust in financial institu-
tions, and/or by the environment in which decisions are made.

There is a movement toward an extended concept of financial literacy that encom-
passes behavior and the interaction of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. This concept




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




                                takes into account the impact of the surrounding environment on people’s ability to
                                achieve positive outcomes. It was originally developed in the United Kingdom in a
                                2005 effort by the Financial Services Administration (FSA) to develop and undertake
                                a measurement of financial capability that focused on behavior rather than simple
                                knowledge. This effort has since been extended in other higher-income countries.
                                The World Bank’s project funded under the Russia Financial Literacy and Education
                                Trust Fund on measuring financial capability was launched to advance this thinking; it
                                specifically aimed to develop empirically based methods to define and measure the
                                broader concept of financial capability in a way that was applicable to the conditions
                                of low- and middle-income countries.




                                A framework for measuring financial
                                capability
                                Measuring financial capability is more complex than simply measuring financial
                                knowledge. As a first step, it requires that a determination be made concerning
                                which skills, attitudes, and behaviors should be considered as comprising financial
                                capability. One way to address this task is through a cognitive-based approach that
                                assumes that the decision-making process of individuals is guided by knowledge
                                that, in sufficient quantities, translates into behavior that leads to desired outcomes.
                                This approach can also be defined as normative, because the types of skills, atti-
                                tudes, and behaviors that are considered capable are identified in advance through
                                economic theory or previous evidence.

                                This approach may not be useful in the very different conditions found in low- and
                                middle-income countries. The higher levels of poverty, the greater share of the popu-
                                lation living in rural areas where community pressures can affect individual choices,
                                the higher levels of informality, and greater exposure to risk with fewer options for
                                risk mitigation are all features of developing countries that could affect financial
                                capability and how it is manifested.

                                Results of new work on behavioral economics have begun to show how a number
                                of social, psychological, and emotional factors can affect behavior. Cognitive biases,
                                hyperbolic discounting, procrastination, and self-control, can dramatically affect
                                behavior but are not considered in traditional economic theory.

                                Taking these developments and concerns into account, an alternative positivist
                                approach that makes no assumption about the operational definition of financial
                                capability, but instead relies on determining this through research in the settings of
                                interest, was utilized. This approach is based on the idea that financial capability is a
                                broad concept that may include knowledge as well as skills, attitudes, and behaviors.
                                Two premises underlie the approach:




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         Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




     „„ Financial capability, like other broad and abstract concepts such as intelli-
        gence or personality traits, cannot be measured directly; instead, a key set of
        manifestations of this underlying capability are measured.

     „„ Financial capability is not limited to one specific area of behavior or knowl-
        edge but spans different domains. No assumptions were made, however, as to
        whether the same domains obtained in the United Kingdom would be relevant
        for developing countries, or whether there was a set of domains that would
        apply across low- and middle-income countries.

The multistep process used to develop the methods to measure financial capability
in low- and middle-income countries entailed: (1) development of an operational
definition of financial capability through identification of its key manifestations (focus
groups), (2) development and cognitive testing of survey questions to measure the
manifestations (in-depth interviews and cognitive testing), (3) data collection (quan-
titative survey), (4) identification of the key components and domains of financial
capability (factor analysis and assignment of scores), and (5) identification of poten-
tial target groups for policy interventions (regression and cluster analysis).




Developing the financial capability survey
The process of developing the Financial Capability Survey—from design, choice of
survey implementation methods, and data analysis—involved the active participa-
tion of World Bank staff, expert consultants, and country-based teams consisting of
government officials and researchers from 12 middle- and low-income countries
(figure 1). This development effort was financed through the resources provided
by the Russia Financial Literacy and Education Trust Fund. A more detailed report
on the development of the survey and analysis of the results from its use in seven
countries that are summarized below can be found at the Trust Fund website
(www.finlitedu.org).1


Focus groups

Qualitative research techniques were used to identify the key manifestations of
financial capability. The first phase was to conduct focus groups in the eight coun-
tries that participated in the developmental portion of the work: Colombia, Malawi,
Mexico, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, Tanzania, Uruguay, and Zambia. Focus groups




 E. Kempson, V. Perotti, and K. Scott, Measuring Financial Capability: A New Instrument and
1 


Results from Low- and Middle-Income Countries (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2013). Also see
Measuring Financial Capability: Questionnaires and Implementation Guidance for Low- and
Middle-Income Countries by the same authors.




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Figure 1 Financial capability survey Countries




                                were conducted in each country by a local research team. Each focus group was
                                facilitated by one researcher working from a common topic guide.

                                Between 6 and 13 focus groups were conducted in each of the eight participating
                                countries (for a total of 70 focus groups). All the focus group discussions were recorded,
                                transcribed, and translated to facilitate their analysis. For each country, there was a
                                careful review of the first focus group transcript, and a thematic grid reflecting the main
                                concepts that emerged from the discussion was developed. The local research teams
                                completed the grids with results from the other focus groups. A final review of the
                                focus group transcripts comparing them to the country thematic grids was done, and a
                                master grid was produced that synthesized the results across countries.

                                A number of different aspects of capability emerged from the focus groups: behav-
                                iors, attitudes, and motivations. There was substantial similarity among the focus
                                groups across the eight countries. Interestingly, the focus group findings paralleled
                                many of the findings from lower-income groups in higher-income countries such as
                                the United Kingdom and Ireland. These concepts from the focus groups matched well
                                with two of the four domains identified in the FSA study: day-to-day money manage-
                                ment and planning for the future. The most notable difference was that there was
                                very limited mention of use or knowledge of financial products and their relevance
                                in indicating financial capability in the low- and middle-income countries. It also
                                emerged that psychological characteristics such as impulsivity or action orientation
                                were frequently used when describing financially capable (or incapable) people.




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       Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




In-depth interviews and cognitive testing
From the manifestations of financial capability emerging from the focus groups,
specific questions needed to be developed that could be used to capture these in a
quantitative household survey. Available questions from existing capability surveys
were reviewed, building on a previous review of work in this area. The project team
then designed new questions for concepts that were not adequately covered by
existing surveys. Two rounds of in-depth interviews and cognitive testing of ques-
tions were carried out by the research teams in each country.

The in-depth interviews were used to test whether questions were well understood,
if they provided meaningful information, and if they had the same interpretation
across countries. This process also enabled the team to identify questions that allow
for distinctions in capability to be made across groups as well as those that needed
to be avoided as they were not income- or education-neutral. Detailed feedback
was also gathered from the interviewers to detect any problems with specific ques-
tions, words, or expressions. The feedback was then compared across countries and
necessary adjustments were made—changes in wording, dropping of difficult ques-
tions, choosing between alternative versions of the same question—to develop a
final draft questionnaire. This draft was then field tested on a pilot basis for a sample
of 100–200 individuals in each country.



Using the financial capability survey
Not all of the countries involved in developing the instrument participated in survey
implementation; timing issues precluded the work in one or two countries, and others
had only been interested in participating in the developmental work that would define
the concepts. An additional group of countries joined the project for the implementa-
tion phase (figure 1). The national-level quantitative survey was carried out in seven
countries: Armenia, Colombia, Lebanon, Mexico, Nigeria, Turkey, and Uruguay.

The survey collected data on household composition, role in managing money,
day-to-day money management, planning, financial products, motivations, and
sources of income; and left space for each country to add optional questions as
desired. In five countries, the standard financial literacy questions were included in
this section. Interviews were conducted in face-to-face settings, largely using paper
questionnaires; although a few countries used electronic versions of the question-
naires (computer-assisted personal interviewing).

The sample of respondents was all those aged 18 years and older. The goal of the
Financial Capability Survey is to capture information on the manifestations of finan-
cial capability through individuals’ behavior, skills, and attitudes related to managing
the finances for which they are responsible. Because it focuses on behaviors and




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




                                actions, the survey instrument cannot be used to assess the financial capability of
                                people who neither manage their own finances nor participate in household financial
                                decisions; thus, only people aged 18 and older were included.

                                Each of the seven countries carried out the survey at the national level with effec-
                                tive sample sizes ranging from 1,200 in Lebanon to 3,000 in Turkey. Nigeria was an
                                exception, with a much larger sample. There, the Financial Capability Survey was
                                embedded in an ongoing panel survey with a sample of 5,000 households, and all
                                adults were interviewed, not just one randomly selected adult as in the other coun-
                                tries. In all countries, results could be disaggregated between urban and rural areas.
                                In total, just under 20,000 individuals were interviewed in this phase of the project.




                                Findings and lessons learned
                                The project is based on the premise that financial capability is an abstract concept
                                that cannot be measured directly, but instead captured through the measurement of
                                its behavioral manifestations. The focus groups helped identify these manifestations,
                                and the questionnaire was designed to capture each of these. The first stage of the
                                analysis was to assess whether the set of questions asked about each manifestation
                                is capturing one underlying concept—in short, how well the questionnaire achieved
                                its purpose. Principal component analysis was used to identify groups of variables
                                that are explained by the same unobserved component. These groups, or compo-
                                nents, should be the empirical indicators of the manifestations of financial capability.
                                For example, if all the variables generated from the five questions about planning
                                expenses load on the same component, the resulting component could be used as a
                                measure for budgeting. The output from this analysis was used to create a score for
                                each component; this score can be considered a partial measure of financial capa-
                                bility. Figure 2 illustrates this process.

                                The survey showed that most individuals 18 and older participate in household
                                financial decisions, and very few people manage only their own funds without any
                                contribution to the household finances or financial decisions. The lowest partici-
                                pation ratio was in Nigeria (74 percent) and the highest in Armenia (97 percent).
                                Lower participation ratios were seen in households with older heads of household,
                                extended families, or with male heads of households, although these findings were
                                not consistent across all countries. Households with a more educated head of house-
                                hold had greater levels of participation. Younger adults were less likely to participate
                                in household financial matters. While men and women stated equally that they were
                                responsible (either individually or jointly) for making decisions in their households
                                in terms of day-to-day spending, women were less likely to make decisions around
                                unexpected expenses.




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       Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Figure 2 Factor analysis associates variables with
components and domains

             Variables                        Components                  Domains


         Planning: frequency




          Planning: accuracy                     Budgeting




     Planning: keeping to the plan                                        Controlled
                                                                           budgeting



      Buying unnecessary items:
              frequency
                                             Not overspending
      Buying unaffordable items:
              frequency




The results of the analysis showed that 10 components could be identified in each
country and that their composition was comparable across countries:

   „„ Budgeting
   „„ Living within means
   „„ Monitoring expenses
   „„ Using information
   „„ Not overspending
   „„ Covering unexpected expenses
   „„ Saving
   „„ Attitude toward the future
   „„ Not being impulsive
   „„ Achievement orientation.

The last three components correspond to previously developed and tested psycho-
logical scales for motivations.

Overall, the findings in terms of methodology—creating a questionnaire that captures
the manifestations of capability identified in the focus groups—are quite reassuring.
The components identified in the analysis broadly correspond to the manifestations
of financial capability conceptualized from the focus group discussions. The esti-
mated components represent a means of measuring the manifestations of financial
capability in a way that is consistent and comparable across countries.




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




                                In terms of the financial capability of individuals, the analysis shows that achieve-
                                ment orientation, living within one’s means, and using information are the capabili-
                                ties that score highest across the countries (figure 3). Common weak areas appear to
                                be saving, monitoring expenses, and attitude toward the future. All of the countries
                                showed both strong and weak areas (high and low scores on the individual compo-
                                nents). Average capabilities were, however, different across countries: for example,
                                Lebanon had among the highest scores for living within one’s means (similar to
                                Uruguay and Nigeria), covering unexpected expenses, attitude toward the future, and
                                not being impulsive, but also showed the lowest score for budgeting. On the other
                                hand, Colombia had the highest score for budgeting, using information, and achieve-
                                ment orientation, but the lowest scores for monitoring expenses.


                                Financial capability has multiple domains
                                Factor analysis was used to look at how the components are related to each other
                                and whether it is possible to trace these components back to a single underlying
                                ability—in other words, is it possible to construct an overall score for financial capa-
                                bility? If the components are found to be correlated in such a way that they can
                                be combined into a smaller set of meaningful scores, these can be interpreted as
                                domains of financial capability. The number of domains, like the number of compo-
                                nents in the previous step, is determined by the analysis of the data and, in partic-
                                ular, the correlation structure among the components. If most of the variation in the
                                components can be explained by a single factor, then a single indicator of financial
                                capability could be constructed.

                                Previous evidence from studies in high-income countries suggested that finding
                                a single domain of financial capability was unlikely. However, given the different
                                context of low- and middle-income countries, this remained a question to be
                                addressed empirically. The analysis confirmed that it is not possible in any of the
                                countries to combine the 10 components of financial capability into a single domain.
                                In addition, while it was possible to identify a small group of capability domains in
                                each country, these domains tended to differ in terms of their number and compo-
                                sition across the countries. Therefore, the analysis needs to be done using the set of
                                10 original components both for the cross-country comparisons and to segment the
                                population in each country in terms of financial capability.


                                Capability varies by component and respondent characteristics

                                The analysis of the data from the surveys shows how financial capability is related
                                to both household and personal characteristics. The differences in capability scores
                                associated with key sociodemographic variables are shown in figure 4. In line with
                                the findings of other analyses, women are found to have higher scores on the
                                budgeting and saving components compared to men. Younger adults have lower




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       Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Figure 3 Average component scores across countries




scores across a range of components and are particularly weak in impulse control
and not overspending. Education is associated with higher scores on most compo-
nents but is also linked to overspending. Geographic location, in and of itself, is not
strongly correlated with capability. Household composition, however, does matter:
people living in larger households have, on average, lower scores across the finan-
cial capability components. This is an important finding. In Nigeria, the only country
where all household members were interviewed, the correlation in scores within the
household was high, from 0.67 for budgeting to 0.82 for not overspending.

There is evidence that personal and economic circumstances affect some of the
scores. Every effort was made to avoid this by constructing indicators that take into
account, for example, the reason (lack of income) why people borrow or do not save.




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




                                    However, it is not possible to remove this effect completely, and care will need to
                                    be used in applying the results for policy making. In any given country, further work
                                    will be needed to evaluate when circumstances—personal and economic—may be
                                    constraining capability.

                                    A positive relationship was found between the components of financial capa-
                                    bility and responsibility for money matters in the household. There are indications
                                    that having sole or shared responsibility for financial activities in the household is
                                    positively associated with higher scores on related components (i.e., the person
                                    responsible for day-to-day money management had higher scores on the monitoring
                                    expenses and not being impulsive components). However, it is not possible to deter-
                                    mine causality: does someone become more capable on these components as a
                                    result of assuming responsibility, or do people assume responsibility because they
                                    are more capable?




Figure 4 Difference in capability score associated with key demographic variables




Note: Baseline = male, age 41–50, with secondary education and middle-low income.




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       Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Segmenting population groups by their financial capability

The population was segmented into subgroups with particular financial capability
profiles. Such analysis can be used by policy makers to determine which groups
might benefit from specific policy interventions and what targeting strategies might
be effective. A cluster analysis was conducted for each country using the financial
capability component scores. It was found that a reasonably fine level of detail could
be obtained for all countries by segmenting the population into five clusters. (Indi-
vidual countries will probably prefer an even more fine-tuned analysis.) One caveat
on the segmentation analysis is that, while a statistic is needed to compare across
10 components at a time, this is not to be mistaken for a measure of overall financial
capability: such a single measure is not possible.

The segmentation highlighted differences and similarities across countries. Key
similarities are that the groups of people who were, on average, the least capable
included young people with a tendency to overspending. Second, while there is
interplay between financial capability and income, many of the countries included a
group of people on very low incomes who were very good at managing their money
day to day, but either had short-term planning horizons or a low propensity to save
(or both). Finally—and of concern for policy makers—is the finding that many people
have low capability across a range of components. This is particularly problematic
when one of these weaknesses is in the component related to the propensity to
seek information about financial matters. Not only do the people in this group have a
number of areas of weakness but such people will, in all probability, have low recep-
tivity to attempts to help them increase their financial capability.


Financial capability and financial literacy are different concepts

A final question that the project was able to address is the extent to which financial
capability is associated with the narrower concept of financial literacy. Five of the
seven countries in the quantitative phase of the project included a standard set of
financial literacy questions in their surveys. The analysis reveals a very complex and
somewhat inconsistent picture that varies both across the components of financial
capability and across countries. Moreover, while in most instances the correla-
tions between the financial literacy (knowledge) score and the financial capability
score were positive, this was not invariably the case, and there were instances of
very strong negative correlations. In short, the results tend to lend support to the
idea that financial literacy and capability are different concepts—a view that was
expressed in the focus groups and cognitive interviews conducted in the develop-
mental phase of the survey.




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Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




                                Conclusions and going forward
                                The Financial Capability Survey project has added to the overall body of knowledge
                                on financial capability in middle- and low-income settings, producing important
                                methodological and substantive findings.

                                   „„ Perhaps most important, the research has shown that it is possible to identify,
                                      through an approach based on definitions of capability derived from the popu-
                                      lations of interest (what could be termed as a vox populi approach), a range of
                                      manifestations of financial capability that apply across very diverse countries
                                      ranging from Papua New Guinea to Mexico.

                                   „„ The work has demonstrated that it is possible to design a questionnaire
                                      that functions across different income groups and quite different cultures
                                      to capture these manifestations accurately, minimizing income and cultural
                                      biases. (Entirely eliminating all income and cultural biases was not possible,
                                      and the interpretation of results needs to acknowledge the role that environ-
                                      mental factors can play in affecting an individual’s level of financial capability.)

                                   „„ The analysis shows that it is possible to create scores for individual compo-
                                      nents of financial capability (mirroring the manifestations identified in focus
                                      groups) that are robust and meaningful across different countries. However,
                                      it is not statistically meaningful to collapse these into a single score for level
                                      of financial capability. Collapsing the components into domains, however, can
                                      be conducted at the individual country level, although the number of domains
                                      used to capture all the components of financial capability will differ (from two
                                      to four domains in the countries studied here). While having a single indicator
                                      may be useful for overall comparisons and the inability to develop such a
                                      measure is disappointing, for the purpose of developing a national strategy
                                      and designing specific interventions, a more disaggregated measure can be, in
                                      fact, more informative and more easily interpreted.

                                   „„ Populations of individual countries can be segmented into groups with varying
                                      levels of capability across all components. The strengths and weaknesses of
                                      these groups can be determined, as can their characteristics. These groups
                                      can be as fine-tuned as required to inform policy approaches to increasing
                                      levels of financial capability. Some of the components identified can be tackled
                                      through education—for example, learning how to plan spending or to monitor
                                      finances. Others will require other types of interventions and policies.

                                The research identifies some additional questions to be addressed in the area of
                                financial capability, illustrating the complex relationship between financial literacy
                                and capability and highlighting the need for further exploration of this relationship.




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          Measuring financial capability: a new instrument and results from low- and middle-income countries n Summary




Issues related to measuring financial capability and how it may change over time
remain to be addressed. Context matters and what may make a person capable
today may not in the future. How best to make comparisons from one point in time
to another? The study also sheds little light on people who are not financially active.
In a household context, it would be useful to know who is inactive and the implica-
tions for these individuals. Some of the evidence showed more capable persons as
being more likely to be responsible for financial decision making, raising important
questions on the direction of causality: are non–financially active people self-se-
lecting based on their own skills, or are there barriers to participation for those with
low capability? Finally, the results do not address the issue of the extent that the
financial capabilities measured here contribute to individual and household welfare.
These questions point to the need to undertake such surveys in a wider range of
settings and to repeat them over time to expand the knowledge of financial capa-
bility.




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The Russia Financial Literacy and Education Trust Fund was established in 2008 at the World

Bank with funding provided by the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation. The work

supported by the Trust Fund is jointly managed by the World Bank and the Organisation for

Economic Co‑operation and Development (OECD) and is directed toward improving public pol-

icies and programs to enhance financial knowledge and capabilities in low- and middle-income

countries. This effort has focused on the review of national strategies for financial education,

the development of methods for the measurement of financial knowledge and capabilities,

methods for evaluating the impact and outcome of programs, and research applying these

methods to programs in developing countries. The products of this program of work can be

                             found at the Trust Fund website at:


                                    www.finlitedu.org




                                          MINISTRY OF FINANCE OF
                                          THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION