TransitionEconomnicsDivision * PolicyResearchDepartmnent *TheWorldBan A Program for Trade Recovery in the New Independent St'ates by Constantine Michalopoulos anld David G. Tarr 11 lfifteen states established inthe tured extensive use of export controls control oftrade in key commnodities, and j economic space of the formner "to keep goods at home." Exports, pri- surrender of foreign exchange at be- Soviet Union (FSUJ) have expe- marily of fuel, raw material, and food, low-market exchange rates. rienced substantial declinesin trade and have been restricted, with the aim of econonuc growth since regammig inde- keeping domestic prices low, and hence Before 1994 most new states had im- pendenice. Their heavy econumc inter- have softened the impact rof price liber- posed few fonmal conxtrols on imports. d0ependence, with its roots in the cen- alizationi bothl on enterprises and con- The problem so far, however, has b'een tralized state planning systemn of the sumers. Export restrictions have in- toolittlecompetitionfromimnportsrather Soviet Union, has intensified the decline cluded licenses and quotas, taxes, thantoo much, because overvalued for- in trade and output. In 1993 total trade monopsony purchases by,state trading, eign currency rates hiked up import amnong the fifteen countries (interstate organizations and these organizations' prices, even in the absence of formal trade) declined to a third of its 1990 .....; level, whiletheirtotaltradewiththe rest ofthe world'dropped to 46 percent com- What's inside.. Latest report of the European Economiic pared with 1990.,Gross domestic prod- Averting aNewDebtCrisis inRussia Commi~ssionarguesthatforeigninvestors uct over the same period dropped by 30 In Russia, a looming arrears crisis can be are not leading the transition process. to 50 percent (see table on page 4). tackledwithproperpolicieg7includingac- (page 12) celeratedbankuptcyprocedures. (page 5) New market-based mechanism for RestructuringRussian Enterprises China stands inh3i0th psition ina allocating resources were slow to Support of cash privatization, tangible Euromoney's country risk table. It is fol- emerge in most countries. 'Ihe institu- control rights, land reform, competition, lowvedbyte Czech republic, Hungary, and tional infrastructure for the conduct of and social asset transfer could speed up Slovenia. (page 13) trade was and remnains deficient and all the process of restructuring in Russia too often continues to be dominated by (pg )Mlsoe fTasto pg 5 statetrading organizations.- Exp orts have Surveyof Czech Public Opinion WorldBank/IMF Agenda(page 19) also suff~ered from the overall disloca- TheCzechpubicconsidersshorttermeco- tion resultmig from the breakup of cen- nomic prospectswith reservation,but most ConferenceDiary(page22) tral plaming and declining supplies of believetheeconomywill improveoverthe some key products (for example, oil in nextfiveyears (page 10) 'NewBooksandWorkingPapers Russia). Quotation of the Month: "No Massive (ae4 Ineffectiv *adepolices wosened Shift ofForeign Fundsfrom Developing BibliographyofSelectedArticles thffe probkm postlSUcouties worened CountriestoEasternEuropeandtheFSUI (page 27) the poblen MostF SU ountns fea The World Bank/PRDTE import restraints. hi 1992, real wages- reformers, on the other. hand,. such as were due less to the introduction of measured atthe undervalued local rate- Georgia, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan, have market forces and more to other fac- reached only about $10-$20 a month in not arrestedtheir output decline and still tors: many FSU countries, and were just face most of their adjustment costs in slightly higher in 1994 in many states. the future. The performance of other Payments problems, with economic (The local exchange rate became un- countries, such as Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, agents either unwilling or unable to dervalued because of the strong de- and Russia; fell in between the two ex- use the banking system to pay for mand for foreign currencies-as resi- tremes. imported goods and services, may dents sought a store of value other than well have been the nost serious im- domestic currencies-andalsobecause Although supply-side problens bear pedimentto interstatetrade. This prob- hard currency supplies tapered off, not most of the responsibility for the de- lemculminatedin 1992 duringtheperiod least as a result.ofthe export restraints.) cline in trade over the pastfew years, of the common ruble zone. Russia was most countries face potentially sig- the only country entitled to print ruble Appreciating Currencies niflcant barriers in the OECD mar- notes, but all fifteen states could expand kets, especiallyintheformofnontariff the aggregate money ~supply as their Russiathrough 1993, and Uzbekistanto and contingent restraints. While sales central banks were able to create ruble date, subsidized imports extensively In of fuel and raw materialswhich ac- credits at will. In the absence of mon- Ukraine foreign exchange has been al- count for -the bulk of FSU exports- etary coordination among the central located at below-market rates to pre- encountet few problems with:'rnarket banks, governments were not particu- ferred importers. As a result, there was access, nontariff barriers have slowed larly interested in exports to the ruble less (or more expensive) foreign ex- trade in- agriculture, food products, zone. They would earn rubles, which change available for those who wanted leather, textiles, chemicals, and metals. would be credited to their account- to import competitive goods and ser- Antidumipigactions,introducedinitially something their central banks could do vices. From late 1993, as exchange against.Soviet enterprises, were carried anyway. And they had too many rubles markets gained strength and new cur- over to the new iependent states. In already. Goverments quicdy responded rencies were introduced, foreign ex- addition: new procedures were initiated by imposing export licensing require- change became more available. The in 1992 and 1993 againstBelarus,Geor- ments on interstatetrade, which usually appreciation of local currencies (in real gia, Kazakhstan,ARussia, Tajildstan, and were more severe than restrictions on terms) in some states prodded domestic Ukraininrelationto avarietyofprod- their trade outside the FSU. enterprises to seek protection from in- ucts inludingaluminum, ferro-silicon, ternational competition. Several coun- anduranum. Risky Ruble Trade tries, including Latvia, Lithuania, and Russia, responded to such pressures in Trade amongthe republics ofthe Soviet The payments situation deteriorated early 1994 with new, stricter regimes of Union was too high and should have furtherafterJuly1992.Russiabeganto import tariffs or with plans to impose delined, once countries gained inde- accumulate large bilateral trade sur- new, higher tariffs. pendence and started to introduce mar- pluses against the new independent ket reforns. Russia had the lowest de- states. To avoid unlimited financing of On the basis of case studies in eight pendence on trade with the other these trade surpluses and stem the out- countries-Estonia, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, republics: in 1990 its share of interstate flow of goods, Russia's central bank Lithuania, Moldova, Russia, Ukraineand traderepresented 61 percent in total imposedcreditlimitson otherFS.Ucoun- Uzbekistan-we can conclude that the f tra while for the other coun- tries. But the system was still plagued countries that have been the most suc- tnes, such trade in 1990 amounted to by huge uncertainties and long delays cessful in reorientingtrade and stabiliz- between 82 percent and -93 percent of (transfer payments took on average ing the downward spiral in trade and total trade. This high level oftrade inter- about three months). output are those that reformed the fast- d was the result of highly est (such as the Baltics). They intro- concentrated production and arbitrary By late 1993 all countries except duced new currencies, began to stabi- specialization. Centralplanningdecisions Tajikistanhadintroducedtheirown cur- lize their economies, and introduced forged trade links that often had little rencies. The new independent states no relatively liberal trade. regimes as early relevance to comnparative advantages `longer had to worry about worthless as end-1992. By mid-1994 their output or location advantages. But declines in trade surpluses. Commercial baniks and trade declines bottomed out. Slow interstatetrade followingindependence throughout Russia and Ukraine- 2 November-December 1994 Transition through their growingnetwork of corre- Furthermore, many countries were fac- 1973 OPEC oil shock.) Energy import- spondent accounts-provided reason- inga serious foreign exchange shortage ers attempted,to mitigate the terms of ably fast turnaround on payments. But and were unwilling to use the ruble for trade losses by making special arrange- even as this network facilitated trade in denomination or settlement of interstate ments in bilateral agreements with ex- 1993 and early 1994, new problems trade transactions. As a result, barter porting countriesto supply oil and other emerged. continued to be the favored instrument raw materials at less than world prices. of trade among most of the new states. The new currencies, with the exception Country Strategies of the Baltic currencies (and possibly Interstate trade was also hampered the Russian ruble), werenot convertible by major terms of trade adjustments, Countries reacted to the interstate trade and could not be used in trade. Denorni- which took place especially between breakdown in different ways: nating trade in rubles, however, was exporters and importers, of fuel and * Estonia and the other Baltic states risky because of the ruble's instability. raw materials. Over the. past three moved quickly to abandon policy tools The use of correspondent accounts was years, the major energy exporters, Rus- of the planned economy. By mid- 1994, furtherconstrainedbythegeneralweak- sia.and Turkmenistan, 'raised their oil withfew exceptions, little oftheBaltics' nesses of the commercial banking sys- and natural gas prices in interstate ship- exports flowed through state trading tern and limitations imposed on markets ments to close to world market levels. organizations. for rubles or dollars in some states such As a result, the Baltic states, Belarus, * State organizations in Georgia, as Ukraine. and Moldova suffered an estimated 20 Turkmenistan, Ukraine, andUzbekistan to 40 percent loss intheirterms oftrade. continued to control the bulk of foreign (This was a larger shock by far than the trade, especially key exports. *_______________________________________.__________________ *Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, andRussia made CIS Cooperation: IHow to Transform Words into Action? progress in stabilization and market re- - i I . ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~forms, but accorded the state a contin- Elevengovernments ofthe Commonwealth become operational todate. The CIS coun- forms,hbuthaccorded the s conting of Independent States (CIS) are consider- tries havebeen waitingfor Russiato move, ued (though declining) roleincontrolling ingaRussianproposalonoversightofCIS but Russia, which runs a huge surplus key commodity exports, while liberaliz- 'trade and 'international currency opera- with all CIS countries, has little incentive to ingothertradepolicies. Theyhavemoved tions. At the October summit meetings in do so. away from state orders, for example, Moscow, CIS countries (Azerbaijan, Ar- menia, Belarus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, The new initiative envisages conversion Kyrgyzstan,Moldova,Russia,Tajikistan, ofeachCIScurrencyintootherCIScurren- cies compete with other buyers for the Turkmenistan, UJkraine, and Uzbekistan) cies, to be guaranteed for all'"socially sig- procurement of exportables. adopted two documents, one on creating nificant payments," including pensions, asupranational InterstateEconomic Com- postal transfers, alimony payments, and For countries other than the Baltics, mittee, andanotheronforn-ngaclearing othergovernmentgrants. Furthermore, it annually renegotiated intergovernmen- union. (The document mentions a pay- foresees a mutual information exchange aalbr reements rovetfme- ments union, but it does not spell out the about currency flows and the establish- creation ofacreditfacility, astandardfea- mentofaCIS-wide systemfor monitoring work for allocating goods through state ture of payments unions.) Turkmenistan currencymovementsandcompliancewith ministries or agencies. This mandatory refused to sign the first document, and national laws governingthem. trade leads to widespread distortions, Azerbaijan signedonlywith reservations. even though prices fixed in the agree- All CIttsindheaeenot The CIS Interstate Economic Committee ments are getting closer to world mar- 'AllCIS states signedthe agreementonthe held its inaugural session in mid-Novem- clearing union, which is to ensure that in- ber and dealt with the creation of a CIS ket prices, and goods included in the terstate accounts and transactions are not customs union and a common market for agreements have narrowed recently to disrupted by the lack of convertibility. If goods, services, capital, and labor. It dis- a few commodities. The arrangement successful, the agreement co,uld reduce cussed uniform, customs codes and cus- has also failed to meet its central objec- the reliance ofthe CIS states on economi- toms service regulationsfor member states, callyinefficientbilateralbartertrade. But in and a common tariff regime for imports understh"oigtra" componento the past twoyears initiatives to set up such from outside the CIS. under the obligatory" component of a payments mechanism under a newly the agreements usually are less than formed interstate bank have failed. (See (Based on recent reports of Oxford fifty percent of the contracted amounts. the commentofDaniel Gros, "Genesis and Analytica, Ltd., Research Group, Oxford, Demise ofthe Interstate BankProject," in U.K., and oftheRadioFreeEurope/Radio the forthcorming book, Trade in the New Liberty News Service.) Independent States.) The bank has not ter, vanous groups among the fifteen Volume 5, Number 9 3 The World Bank/PRDTE Trade in the New Independent States, 1990 and 1993 settlement oftrade, if it stabilizes. Iffnot, (in millions of U.S. dollars) other currencies should be used, replac- Trade ameni the NIS Trade with the rest of the World ing barter. 1990 1993 1990 1993 * Bothtradeandpaymrents reformnshould Country Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports beimplementedinthecontextofbroader Armenia 3,509 5,477 583 999 109 855 29 188 market reforms, including price and Azerbaijan 8,213 7,300 1,555 1,526 723 1.413 351 241 enterprisereforn. Macroecononiicsta- Belaras 27,660 28,740 12,144 13,739 3,438 5,256 737 777 Estonia 3,289 5,257 568 543 198 592 461 618 bility is essential for developing cur- Georgia 5,168 7,608 573 1,321 515 1,543 222 460 rencyconvertibility andundistortedex- Kazakhstan 13,993 24,810 7,863 11,788 1,777 3,250 1,529 1,269 change rates. The latter in tum would Kyrgyz Republic 3,250 5,120 814 1,175 89 1,298 112 112 Latvia 6,516 8,302 978 1,082 304 1,642 460 339 reduce incentives for export controls. Lithuania 7,213 12,082 1,548 1,852 679 1,543 696 486 * Joiningthe GATT, and ultimatelythe Moldova 4,984 8,442 1,203 2,417 405 1,432 174 210 newWorldTradeOrganization(thesuc- Russia 146,183 95,802 55,355 34,109 80,900 82,900 43,900 33,100 Tajikistan 2,760 5,375 292 611 609 655 263 374 cessor to GATT), would enhance the Turkmnenistan 4,603 4,042 2,734 2,717 195 523 1,156 749 international market access of these Ukraine 60,348 71,841 17,628 35,294 13,390 15,907 6,300 4,700 Uzbekistan 11,327 18,818 4,100 5,243 1,390 2,217 1,466 1,280 countries. But a prerequisite for mem- FSU 309,016 309,016 107,942 114,417 104,721 121,026 57,857 44,903 bershipisreformsofthecandidatecoun- Source: the authors tries' trade regimes. If such reforms are undertaken, GATT members and the countries havetriedto put in place other ownedtrade organizations or other pub- GATT Secretariat should expedite the cooperative arrangements in trade and lic entities continue to dominate intema- process of admission to the extent pos- payments. Onthetrade side most agree- tional trade. Insteadofprescribingwhat, sible. OECD countries can support the ments involvetheprovisionoftariffpref- how much, and at what price cormmodi- integration byterminatingtheir designa- erences for imports under free trade ties should be traded, governments tion of these countries as "state trading arrangements; on payments the most shouidlimittheirroletoprovidingapolicy countries," once stabilization and struc- ambitious effort has been to negotiate a and regulatory environment and helping tural adjustment are making progress. clearing union under the auspices of a establish the financial and institutional Constantine Michalopoulos is senior new interstate bank. None of these ef- infrastructure that would facilitate adviser in Country Department III of forts has affected trade so far, however. interenterprise trade. The principal the Europe and Central Asia Regional The proposed free trade areas-with shortcomingsinthetradepoliciesofthe Office,:and David G. Tarr is princi- the exception of an agreement among new independent states have to do with pal economist in the Intemrational the Baltics-exclude the major exports exports, not imports. Remaining export Economics Department, of the World that are subject to controls. And the licenses should be converted to export Bank. The article is based on the interstate bank has not been set up yet, taxes and those taxes should be elimi- forthcoming book, Trade in the New although the proposal has been ratified nated overtime. Authorities should also Independent States, edited by the by several parliaments. The recent CIS be alert and abstain from restraining authors, to be published by the World agreements (see box, page 3) might imports (increasing tariffs) if the real Bank, Washington, D.C. (For order- make meaningful progress in address- exchange rate starts to appreciate in ing and price information, see page ing key constraints on interstate trade. response to successful stabilization 24.) Contributors, in addition to the measures. authors, are Misha Belkindas, Greta Recovery and Integration - Governments of these states should Bull, Michael Connolly, Yuri striveforcurrencyconvertibility, atleast Dikhanov, Sergei Glaziev, Daniel Some policy suggestions for promoting for current account transactons. Esto- Gros, John Hansen, Ardo Hansson, recovery and fuller integration in the nia and Latvia proved that early cur- Oleh Havrylyshyn, Bartlomiej world economy: reticy convertibility is feasible. Even if Kaminski, Daniel Kaufmann, Governments of the new independent currencies are not convertible, it is im- Vladimir Konovalov, Kathie Krumm, states should reducetheir direct involve- portant to develop a network of cor- Francoise Le Gall, John Nash Piritta ment in international trade. While many mercial banks and develop foreign ex- Sorsa, Silvina Vatnick, and Jonathan countries, in particular the Baltics, have changemarkets for "vehiicle" currencies. Walters. made big strides in reducing the role of The Russian ruble could become a suit- state trading, in other countries state- able currency for denomination and 4 November-December 1994 Transition Averting Debt Crisis in the Russian Economy by Qimiao Fan and Une Lee here is deep concem in Russia 3.1 percent of annualized gross domes- Enterprise arrears accumulate when that another enterprise arrears tic product to 4.8 percent. Tax arrears enterprises are unable or unwilling to crisis is imminent. (Arrears are tripled between October 1993 and June adjust to the changing economic envi- generally defined as debts or obligations 1994, from 0.5 percent of annualized ronment. Therefore, this issue cannot thatareoverdue.)Thisdebt-scarecomes GDPto 1.5 percent. (Data inthis article be expected to disappear overnight and afer the longest spell of tight financial are provided by Goskomstat, Russia's the problem may recur periodically. policy since the start of economic re- State Office of Statistics.) Overdue Thereis no simple and generalized solu- form in January 1992 and amid contin- bank credits and wage arrears also in- tion. What is critical in this process are ued sharp declines in industrial output. creased in recent months, although less the expectations of enterprises and the There are also concems that increasing vigorously. Interenterprise (trade) ar- credibility of th,e government. Enter- interenterprise debts will result in more rears are the largest category of arrears prises that have built up excessive ar- unpaid taxes to the budget, more unpaid in the economy. Their share in total rears should change behavior and not loans to the banks, and more unpaid enterprise arrears was 63.8 percent as waitfor agovernmentbailout. Programs wages to workers, thus threatening not of I June 1994. The second-largest cat- must tackle the root cause-the lack of only macroeconomic and financial sta- egory is tax arrears followed by loan financial discipline of enterpri ss-and bilization, but also social stability in the arrears, and wage arrears. This article force changes in enterprise behavior. country. argues that although the situation is re- The following measures, some success- ally difficult, with proper policy mea- fully implemented in the Central and Between October 1993 and June 1994, sures the arrears problem can be over- Eastern European economies, can alle- interenterprise arrears increased from come. viate the debt problem: Arrears, Arrears Everywhere Interenterprise(trade)arrears.InRussia was 0.8 to 1.2 months, and in Western Eu- There are, however, significant sectoral about 45 to 50 percent of all enterprise rope between 0.6 to 1.6 months. differences; While gas, coal and non-fer-' tradecredit is currentlyoverdue. Measured rous metal production have significantly in months, the average overdue period in The share of tax arrears in Russia's total reducedtheirsharesofoverduebankcredit early 1994reachedabout 1 monthforcom- enterprisearrearshasincreaseddramatically, intotalarrears,the machine-building, met- mercial receivablesandO.8to2monthsfor from 10.7 percenton 1 October 1993,to 19.8 alworking, leather, and footwear sectors, commercial payables. Trade arrears are percent on 1 June 1994. Tax arrears as a thechemical andpetrocheniical industries, especiallyhigh (around60 percentoftotal percentage oftotal tax obligation have also and the food and agriculture sectors have commercial credit) in oil extraction and re- doubled in the same period; in industrial significantly increased the share of bank fining; production ofgas; coal, chemicals, enterprises their share rose from 22 percent credit arrears. Gas, coal, and nonferrous andpetrochemicals;wood;andmicrobiol- on 1 October 1993 to 53.9 percent on 1 June metals productionandmicrobiology have ogy. (The total debt of the FSU countries 1994. Morethanhalf(53.3percent)oftotal the highest percentages of bank credit against Russian energy supplies equalled current tax arrears are due by the energy overdue in the economy. 2.6billion rublesas of 1 March 1994. Most sector, with fuel alone accounting for 47.6 ofthe debt, 1.9 billion rubles, was against percent. Industries such as coal, gas, andoil Wage arrears increased sharply in early gas supplies and was concentrated in production, forestry, ferrous metillurgy, and 1994, andwere equal to about 40 percent of Ukraine.)TheRussianarrearsfigures, how- construction accumulated the largest tax the monthly wage bill in April 1994. In ever, are not worse than overdue payment obligation. In oil production, overdue taxes agriculture, wage arrears exceeded tax ar- figures ofthe leading Central and Eastern exceeded arrears on payables to suppliers. rears and bank arrears. Wage arrears in European transition countries or of West- The oil and gas sector are major sources of coal mining exceeded bank arrears. Al- ernEurope. Attheendofl991, Czechand fiscal revenue; their poor taxpaying record though average remuneration in the fuel Hungarian overdue enterprisetrade credit hasasignificantnegativeimpactonbudget- sector is more than twice the industrial represented about 50 percent of all enter- ary balance. average (in gasproduction, fourtimes the prisetrade credit, and averaged44 percent average), wage arrears ate relatively rare. in 11 WestEuropeancountries. Measured Arrearsonbankcredithaveincreasedfrom Workerwagesinthissector areapparently in months, the average overdue payment 4.6 percent of total enterprise arrears on 1 financed by increasing trade and tax ar- periodinHungaryandtheCzechRepublic October 1993, to 5.7 percenton 1 June 1994. rears. Volume5, Number 9 5 The World Bank/PRDTE Clear and Present Dangers * Develop a market for interenter- prise arrears. Some enterprises mnight Estimates ofthe size ofRussia's interenter- to Russia's debtors in the former Soviet havea liquidityproblem andbeunableto prise debt vary widely, with the lowest Union,governmentpaymentofdebtowed pay their bills at a particular time. The figurebeingaround3Otrillionrubles($13.8 by state ministries, and a lid on energy government can encourage the devel- billion)andthehighestaround 1 12trillion. prices charged by monopoly suppliers opment of a market for interenterprise (Forcomparison: the Russiangovemment and transport companies. credt an arrars. (A presntialnd estimatesanominal 1994GDPof700trillion credit and arrears. (A presidential de- rubles.) Radical reformers wantto crackdown on cree to this effect was issued but has debtors and force large-scale bankrupt- not been implemented.) The market for Repeated proposals for the issuance of cies. But the debt problem is so wide- nonoverdueinterenterprisecreditisakin government-backed promissory notes 'spread, and the chains of nonpayment to a market for commercial bills in ma- against enterprise debts have a number of arrears so complex, that it is difficult to risks: knowwhichenterprisesoughttogobank- ture market economies, while the trad- *They wouldreinforce theperception that rupt. Besides, much of the debt-possi- ing of interenterprise arrears (overdue the government will never crackdown and bly 16trillionto20trillionrubles-isowed credits) is similar to trading in intema- force enterprises into bankruptcy on any bythegovernmentitself. Bytheendofthe tional debts. (Poland in the past two large scale. year, government debts to enterprises will *They would cover only existing interen- be at least 25 trillion rubles. The Federal years has developed a small but active terprise debts, although inflation eroded Bankruptcy Agency has indicated that market for interenterprise arrears and their real value anyway.(The interenter- the value of state obligations that appear the experience so far has been posi- prise debt shareofGDPfellfrom50percent as credits on enterprise ledgers will be tive.) at the end of 1991 to 9 percent last year.) ignored, a decision that has provoked The plan would do nothingto address the sharpprotestsfrommanagersandregional Such an arrears market flow problem, and hence would not pre- governments. vent the accumulation of new debt. *They wouldbe thinly disguised soft cred- In the absence of government action, -Wouldprovideliquidityforcash-thirsty its. If debtors failed to pay in the end, the some enterprises and regional govern- enterprises. government would be left to pick up the mentshave alreadybeguntoactively seek tab. solutions to the debt problem via such *They wouldeffectively penalizethose en- mechanismsasdebt-for-equity swaps and *g terprises that have taken the initiative to mutualwrite-offs.Thesemeasureswillhelp about the creditworthiness of enter- address the debt problem themselves (for to address the stock problem. The flow prises. example, by negotiating debt-for-equity problem-thecreationofnewdebt-will : swaps). beimpossibletoaddress, however, as long * Would reduce the frequency of liqui- Some recent evelopmentsas managers expect tihe government to dto n~bnrpc rcdrsa Some recent developments indicate fur- intervene and bail them out. The funda- ther government support for indebted en- mentalquestionremains whetherthegov- creditors could recoup part of their terprises: new credits worth 3.5 trillion ernmentwillresistpressurefromindustry money without initiating costly, fornal rubles have been promised to the defense to bust the budget or will loosen upmon- procedures. sector and to heavy industry, and 6.0 tril- etary policy. The danger is that even lim- lion rubles to the farming sector; and sub- ited concessions to industrial managers sidies have been alloted to the coal and will put recent gains on the stabilization a thus wud dersifyand strenthe nuclear sectors. DeputyPrimeNMinisterOle front in jeopardy. andthus woud diversify and strengten Soskovets, chairman ofthe interenterpriseE the emerging financial market. debt commission, has proposed a number (Based on recent reports of the Oxford of solutions, includingatougherapproach Analytca, Ltd., Research Group) * Enforce tax collecion. Tax compli- ance should be enforced and those en- * Encourage bankruptcy proce- the government can empower credi- terprises that do not pay their taxes on dures. In Russia creditors can go to tors; for example, the government can time should be penalized. Russian tax court to recover their debts, but court allow creditors to sell their debtors' as- authorities aretaking stepsto collecttax procedures are lengthy and costly, and sets if the debts are overdue for a cer- arrear; for example, they seize and cash the penalties that one imposed on debt- tain period. iThe effective threat of in commercial receivables, retainingthe ors insignificant. Many creditors are liquidationandbankruptcywillforceen- revenue against the tax arrears. (Re- therefore reluctantto initiate liquidation terprises to pay their creditors, suppli- forming the accounting system and im- and bankruptcyprocedures againsttheir ers, and the budget on time. 'proving infornation flow will also help debtors. Through legislative changes, tax collection.) 6 November-December 1994 Transition * Compensate for arrears that oligi- enterprises is not as bad as the rapid those managers in state-owned enter- nate from intergovernmental agree- increase of arrears would suggest. The prises who deliberately delay wagepay- ments. For some enterprises, especially presence of both large arrears and a ments. those in Russia's fuel and energy sectdr, healthycash flow (liquidity)is indicative arrears build up because other countries of the business policy of some enter- Qimiao Fan is an economist, and of the former Soviet Union (FSU) can- prise managers. The government may Une Lee a consultant, in Country Op- not pay for imports, a requirement man- even publicize sectors and enterprises erations Division II, Russia, Europe, dated byintergovemnmental agreements. that are in reasonably good financial and Central Asia Region, the World Consequently, enterprises should not be shape, but that nonetheless refuse to Bank. This article is based on pre- forced to bear the burden of resulting paytheirsuppliers,theirtaxes,theirbank liminary results of a larger, ongoing arrears. The government should paythe loans, and wages to their workers. The World Bank study on arrears in the enterprise for the purchases, either di- government should consider removing Russian economy. rectly from the budget, or out of rev- enues from sales of goods purchased under intergovemmental agreements. (By doing so, the government can iso- late the effects of intergovernmental agreements on enterprises as well as make explicitthe subsidies to other FSU countries and domestic users of goods from other FSU countries purchased under intergovernmental agreements.) Ideally, the government should get out of intergovernmental trade 'altogether and stop forcing enterprises to sell. * Reduce budgetary arrears toward enterprises. Many utility enterprises, especiallythose in gas distribution, elec- tricity, andtransport, arenotgettingpaid bythe local authorities (often for house- hold deliveries that are supposed to be sub-sidized bylocal budgets). TIis inturn restricts the enterprises' ability to pay their creditors. These subsidies should be reduced eventually, but a transitional measureto alleviatethe payments prob- lem is to transfer the subsidies directly to households and make them respon- sibleforpayingtheir bills. Makinghouse- holds directly responsible for the ser- vices and utilities they consume (while not overlooking the need to target social assistance) will also improve energy ef- ficiency and reduce waste. Federal budget arrears also have contributed to the increase in enterprises arrears and should be avoided. * Improve-financial information on enterprises. The cash flow in some From the Budapest magazine The Hungarian Economy Volume 5, Number 9 7 The World Bank/PRDTE What's Next? Strategies for Enterprise Restructuring in Russia by Maxim Boycko and Andrei Shleifer M ,rass privatization in Russia the human capital and interestto initiate with fellow shareholders, voting their officially ended on 1 July significant changes, tending instead to shares, and getting their transactions 1994. Some 14,000 medium- stick with traditional product lines. In registered. Some outside investors con- and large-scale enterprises have been many cases, these enterprise managers sider minority shareholdings worthless. privatized,inpartthroughdistributionof have consolidated their control by buy- As to creditors' rights, neither the com- shares to insiders (workers and manag- ing shares in the secondary market. mercial banks nor creditor enterprises ers) and in part through voucher auc- have any legal mecharnisms of collect- tions. Two-thirds of the Russian indus- * Those enterprises that do want to re- ing what is owed them. The new bank- trial labor force is now employed by structure often lack the capital to move ruptcy procedure, largely ignores credi- privatized firms. More than 40 million aggressively. Private markets have not tors and instead gives control over Russians became shareholders in either succeeded in providing capital to bankrupt firms to a new government privatized enterprises or investment privatized firms, so the government re- agency. funds. This transfer of ownership was mains a major source of finance. Poli- accomplished in a matter of twenty ticians continue to dominate the alloca- Only recently, new regulations have be- months, with relatively few major scan- tion of export rights, capital, space and gun to be implemented, giving outside dais or severe setbacks. other essential inputs. This endangers investors more rights, includingtheright thepolitical and economic independence to vote and transfer shares. Outside Privatization, of course, is not the ulti- of these companies. investors will begin supplying capital to mate goal; it is a means to steer the the pnrvatized firms only when they can Russian economy on a growth course. * The legal and regulatory environment obtain tangible control rights in retum. Enterprise restructuring should follow in Russia has greatly discouraged for- ownership transfer. Manyprivatized en- eign investment. 3. Creation of securities markets. New terprises have indeed begun to change equity issues are likely to become an their product lines, reduce employment, There are six key strategies for en- importantsourceofcapitalforprivatized and involve foreign companies in joint terprise restructuring. firms in Russia. Many firms are plan- ventures. Major investors, who accu- ning to issue equity, but are concerned mulated blocks in voucher auctions.and 1. Transition to cash privatization. abouttheir abilityto distribute shares to inpostauctiontrading,haveactivelychal- Voucher privatization aimed at creating investors. The time for securities mar- lenged and even displaced old-school millions of shareholders. In the new kets has come, and they hold the poten- managers. Perhaps most important, phase of cash privatization, shares will tial of both addressing the capital needs privatization has created apolitical con- be sold-either government-owned of Russian firms and facilitating corpo- stituency of entrepreneurs who, rather shares ofprivatized enterprises or shares rate goveance. InRussia establishing than concentrate their lobbying efforts of enterprises that are still state-owned. a single centralized stock exchange at on extractingfurther state subsidies, ex- Much of the proceeds could be retained this pointis not desirable, sinceitislikely pect the government to go ahead with by the firms themselves, to cover re- tobecontrolledbyagovemmentagency, further reform in such areas as corpo- structuring costs. rather than market forces. A less cen- rategovemance, securities markets, and tralizednetworkofexchanges, controlled law enforcement. 2. Assurance of tangible control by broker dealers, seems more appro- rights. Managers ofprivatized Russian priate, Nonetheless, restructuring of the Rus- firms often go unchallenged by share- sian economy has been slowed down by holders. (Managers and workers own 4. Reform of land and real estate the following factors: morethan 50 percent of most privatized ownership. Land reform includes the firms.) External shareholders have reorganization of collective farms, the * Most enterprises,are still run bythe old trouble exercising their rights, such as creation,of'private ownership rights (in- management teams, which often lack obtaining information, communicating cludingtransferability)ofsmalllandplots 8 November-December 1994 T rlansition used for both recreation and small-scale ment. The antimonopoly agency is be- Russian-style, local governments, by farming, and the transferring of owner- ginning to develop a rational threatening separatism and social un- ship of land used by enterprises. Over procompetition policy that focuses on rest, extract resources from Moscow, the past three years, despite President monopolisticabuses ratherthanon regu- which in tum finances the expenditure Yeltsin's forceful efforts to decree lation of all large firms. And Russian by printing more money. Foreign aid change, land reform in Russia has been trade, despite all the regulations, is ex- could help reduce these tensions. The held up by the agrarian interests. The panding. Russian Privatization Center has initi- bureaucracy has managed to prevent ated a $20 rmillion pilot project, using privatization ofcollectivefarms and even 6. Transferring of social assets. Rus- funds from the World Bank, to facilitate registration of oNvnership of existing sian firms provide their employees with the transfer of enterprise kindergartens private land plots. free, or substantially below cost, social to local governments over a period of services such as housing-by far the three years. Theprospects for consolidation of own- largest item- -child care, medical care, ership rights over personal land plots, and sports and cultural facilities. Be- This program, linked to fiscal reform of and ownership, particularly, of the land cause layoffs are penalized, firms keep local govemments, couldpromotepriva- under enterprises are improving. al- their workers on at very low wages on tization, expansion of the tax base, and though privatization of real estate has long-term vacations ratherthanlaythem introduction of new taxes to finance been frequently delayed by local gov- off. Besides being a tremendous finan- local government expenditures. A rea- emments. In large cities, such as Mos- cial burden on the firns (representing sonably small amount of aid, properly cow and St. Petersburg, real estate is about 20 to 25 percent of total labor designed and administered, can go a probably the most valuable asset enter- costs), this commitment to social ser- considerable way toward addressing a prises have (as confirmed by the ex- vices scares away potential investors, major social problem in Russia, encour- tremely high valuation of firms in these reduces labor mobility, and gives extra aging enterprise restructunrng, and per- cities). The city governments, not sur- bargaining chips to old-time managers haps reforming local govemment fi- prisingly, have passed decrees designed innegotiationswiththegovernmentover nance. to maintaingovernment control overthe cheap credit and subsidies. leasing of real estate and to prevent the Andrei Shleifer is Professor of Eco- creation of private real estate markets. Transferring social assets to local gov- nomics at Harvard Universitv. ernments would solve many of these 5. Support of competition. Under com- problems. If the transfer of social assets Maxim Boycko is Chief Executive Of- petitive pressure, firms change their to local governments entails a decrease ficer of the Russian Privatization Cen- products, reduce costs, fire incompe- of local subsidies to enterprises, an in- ter (RPC) and had a principal role in tent managers, reduce employment. and crease in real prices charged for social the design and implementation of take other actions associated with re- services, privatization of local assets Russia's mass privatization program. structuring. In Russia progress in this and real estate, and a switch to payroll area has been relatively slow. The cen- and real estate taxation by local govem- The article is based on the author's tral government has imposed a variety ments, the whole system of local gov- study, Next Step in Privatization: Six of foreign trade barriers, including tar- ernmentin Russia, and notjust industrial Major Challenges, published in the iffs and quotas. firms, will be restructured. This would volume, Russia: Creating Private accelerate all reforn, including stabili- Enterprises and Efficient Markets, Local governments have also imposed zation. edited by Ira W Lieberman, John administrative barnrers to interregional Nellis, and others, and published by trade; among other measures, licensing The transfer of social assets from en- the Private Sector Development De- requirements greatly discourage entry. terpn'ses could result in fiscal tensions partment, the World Bank. To order: However, the privatization agency has between various levels of government. Rose Malcolm, the World Bank, Room so far resisted efforts to form financial Local governments might use their new G-4127, tel. (202) 473-7495, fax industrial groups (with the exception of responsibility for social assets to lobby (202) 522-3742. a few regions, such as Yekaterinburg) the central government for more funds to monopolize product markets and ex- or for a bigger share of the tax revenues tract credits from the central govern- they collect. This is fiscal federalism Volume 5, Number 9 9 The World Bank/PRDTE Czechs Are Optimistic-but Only in the Long Term ECONsult's Survey CONsult. Ltd., in association Perceptions of long-term economic About 38 percent felt their household's with AISA Prague. conducted prospects were more positive. A ma- financial situation would improve over its inaugural survey of consum- jority (54 percent) believed their the next five years, while 20 percent ers in the Czech Republic between Oc- economy would improve over the next believedtheir situationwouldnotchange tober 18 and November 1, 1994. The five years. Only 21 percent of respon- over the five-year period. sample consisted of I, ] 31 Czech indi- dents predicted worsened long-term viduals aged 1 8 and older. Respondents economic conditions. ECONsult's quar- Savings propensity. Forty-one percent were interviewed face to face in their terly index of future economic expecta- of those surveyed intended to save over homes. Some major findings of the sur- tions (FEE index), which measures ex- thenexttwelvemonths, but half ofthose vey: pectations about the economy, surveyed felt that now was a poor time unemployment, inflation, and savings, tosave. Respondents saidthatat present, ECONsult's quarterly index of current stood at 84 points (with a maximum a bank account was their method of economic conditions (CEC index) stood score of 200). The quarterly index of saving. Savings, rather than credit, were at 8 I points during the fourth quarter of consumer confidence (CC index), which a more likely source of fundingfor large 1994. (The index, with a maximum score summanrzes public sentiment aboutboth purchases made in the next three of 200, is based on responses to ques- current economic conditions and future months. Consumers tended to save for tionsaboutcurrenteconomicconditions, economnic expectations, stood at 72. specific large purchases. Only a small prices, household finances, and house- minority used credit to afford a large hold income.) Thus, the score fell below Unemployment and inflation were purchase. Although more than half of the index midpoint and indicated that viewedasequallyimportantproblemsin those interviewed felt that now was a public perceptions of current economic today's Czech Republic. Czechs ex- badtimetopurchaseconsumerdurables, conditions were somewhat negative. pected a higher level of unemployment overone-fifthiintendedtobuythesetypes and higher prices in the next twelve of large household goods. When comparingcurrentecoionoiccon- months. Prices were believed to have ditions with conditions prevailing over increased over the past year and risen PoliticsandPoliciesofthosesurveyed, the past twelve months, 44 percent of substantially overthepast fiveyears. In 45 percent were not satisfied with the those surveyed believed that conditions the next twelve months, pnces were present political situation in the Czech had worsened, 33 percent concluded expected to increase by 18 percent. Republic. More than a quarter were that economic conditions were un- Over the longer term-the next five satisfied, and an almost equal percent- changed, and 21 percent felt that the years-prices were expected to rise age (26 percent) were neither satisfied economy had improved. Thirty percent annually by 35 percent. nor dissatisfied. A majority of respon- of those surveyed held that now was the The living standard had remained un dents were "not very" (36 percent) or right time to launch aTe business,dad ha rewhile n-2I nghcttmetoolaunchapbusiness,iwhile 29 changed or had worsened over the past "not at all" (17 percent) satisfied with percetittooktheoppositeposition. About year most Czechs believed. Higher liv- present economic policies of the gov- 30 percent were undecided. (Four per- i emient, while 23 percent were satis- cent expressed a definite intention to ing costs were viewed as the primary fled and 21 percent were undecided. In cause for a decreased standard of liv- start their own buslness in the lnext three ing. About 25 percent benefited from terms of present social welfare policies, months.) tlde introduction of the market economy, 61 percent were not satisfied. Short-term expectationsfor the Czech while 57 percent felt their situation had (ECONsult specializes in forecasting economywere morenegativethan posi- worsened over the past five years. Fifty for the most cynamic economies in tive. One-third ofthe Czechs interviewed percent of the respondents felt that their Eastern Europe, including the Czech believedthat economicconditions would living standards would remain unchan- Republic, Hungaty, Poland, Estonia, be worse in the next twelve months. An ged over the next twelve months, while and Slovakia. For information: equal percentage of respondents ex- aquarterbelieveditwouldworsensome- ECON-sult, Ltd., Reid House, 31 pected an unchanged economic situa- what, and 17 percent sawtheir situation Church Street, Hamilton HMFXBer- tion, and 28 percent believed the improvingsomewhat. Inthelongerterm, muda, tel. in U.S. (408) 385-1049, economy would improve. Czechs expressed greater optimism. fax in U.S. (408) 385-1304. 10 November-December 1994 Transition Quotation of the Month: "No Massive Shift of Foreign Funds from Developing Countries to Eastern Europe and the FSU" Economic Commission for Europe reports drastic drop of capital inflows A n increasingnumberofthetran- to sharp fluctuations in the ruble ex- Eastem current account deficit fell by sition economies of Eastem change rate and a new upsurge in infla- $3 billion to a level of $1.7 billion in the A Europe have begun to show tion. The more fundamental reasons for first half of 1994 (compared with the signsofrecoveryfromatransitionslump the lack of an improved performance in first half of 1993), while the Russian that has been as severe, or more so, than Russia lie in thefailure to create a politi- surplus rose to $5.2 billion from $4.8 the collapse of the interwar years. In cal and social consensus behind a co- billion. The current account balances of 1994, GDP in most East European herent program of short-run stabiliza- the Baltic states deteriorated to a com- economies has been rising by between tion and longer-term institutional and bined deficit of $390 million in the first 2 and 5 percent, fueled mainly by ex- structural reform. half of 1994. portstoWestemtradingpartners and, to a lesser extent, by an increase in pnrvate In other economies of the CIS, govem- Net inflows of capital into Eastern Eu- consumption and investment demand. ments have been slow to adopt reform rope declined by one half to around $3 Exceptions include Bulgaria andthe suc- programs-Ukraine announced its first billion inthe first half of 1994. Nearly $2 cessor states of the former Yugoslavia, program only in October 1994-and to billion of this was direct and portfolio except Slovenia. In the Czech Republic, introduceeffectivestabilizationpolicies, investment. Access to the intemational Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia, despite the potentially greater scope for capital markets for medium- and long- the recovery has spread to industry, national action after the dismantling of term funds has improved, though it is which had suffered most in the slump. the ruble zone. They have also been still available only to the Czech Repub- adversely affected by the collapse in lic, Hungary, and Slovakia, although Between 1989 and 1993 fixed invest- intra-CIS trade and the long delay in Poland may soon be able to join this ment in Eastern Europe dropped by reaching agreement on an effective select group; but the funds raised in nearly 40 percent (and by much more in payments mechanism. The economic 1994 ($2.1 billion inthefirstten months) Russia and the CIS). But in the leading performance of the Baltic states falls aremuchlowerthanin 1993 ($6 billion). reformcountnresinvestmentisnowpick- between that of Eastem Europe and Loan disbursements from the develop- ing up. For 1994, gross fixed investment that of the CIS. Output was still falling ment banks, which have been in the shouldrisebysome5toll percentinthe inLatviaandLithuaniainthefirsthalfof forefront of financing infrastructure Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and 1994, but at a slower rate than in 1993. projects, were modest. Utilization of Slovenia. Apart from Hungary, where A recovery seems to be emerging in officiallybackedcreditswassmall.prob- some slowdown is expected, these rates Estonia. ably held back by low domestic invest- should increase slightly in 1995. In Po- ment, the high costs of borrowing, and landinvestmentinmachineryandequip- With the strong recovery in Westem for some, the lack of access. ment has been rising at 14 to 15 percent demand, transition economy exports a year since 1992. have risen in the first half of 1994-in Although the climate for foreign invest- dollar terms-by 4 percent. Trade be- ment in the transition has generally im- Russia's GDP is likely to be some 16 tween the CEFTA countries (the Czech proved, foreign direct investment (FDI) percent lower in 1994than in 1993, de- Republic,Slovakia,Hungary,Poland,and inEastemEuropeamountedtoonlyjust spite the government's earlier hopes of Slovakia) and Slovenia, and between less than $4 billion in 1993, and stag- holdingthedeclineto6to8percent. For the CIS and non-CIS states, increased nated in the first half of 1994 at $1.3 the CIS as a whole, the average fall in rapidly, more than offsetting the loss of billion. At mid- 1994 the stock of foreign output is likely to be nearer 20 percent. intra-CIS trade. investment in Eastem Europe amounted The acceleration in the fall of Russian to$12 billion, andnearly$17billion when output was largely a consequence of the Consequently, the trade and current the Baltic states and the European CIS tough austerity program introduced in account deficits of the East European countries are included. To place these early 1994tocombatinflation. Thispolicy countries have fallen sharply, while the numbers in perspective it may be noted was relaxed to meet the protests of Russian current account surplus has that Mexico alone received $3.3 billion state industries and agriculture, leading increased still further. In aggregate, the in FDI in the first half of 1994, a 25 Volume 5, Number 9 1 1 The Wodld Bank/PRDTE percent increase over the same period priate framework of business services multilateralinstitutionsfallshortoftheir in 1993. and protection for investors taken for balance of payments financing require- granted. Far from leading the transition ments, funds may be made available The fears expressed a few years ago process, foreign investors, for the most through the G-24's complementary that there would be a massive shift of part, will wait on the sidelines until they macroeconomic support. The European foreign funds away from the developing see sure signs of success. Union provides one half of the target countries to Eastern Europe and the amount. In 1993-94 the G-24 and the fofrmer Soviet Union have so far proved Another widely held misconception was European Union set loantargets or made groundless. The share of OECD for- that FDI would rush into Eastem Eu- commitmentstoBulgaria ($360 million), eign direct investment goingto the tran- ropeto exploitthe relativelycheap skilled Slovakia ($245 million), Romania($220 sition economies rose from about 0.2 labor. This ignores the fact that it is the million),andAlbania($42million).None percent in 1990 to 2 percentin 1992, but broader, prospective rate of return that of these funds had been disbursed by that of the developing countries rose matters in the FDI equation, notjust the mid-1994. More adequate credit and from 16 percent to 23 percent. Signifi- cost of skilled labor. Moreover, more better targeting of official assistance is cantly, Germanyis the one OECD coun- than 80 percent of foreign direct invest- still needed to remove many of the ob- try where the share of total outward ment by OECD countries stays within stacles to the transition to functioning investmnentgoingtothetransitionecono- the OECD area, where differences in market economies [and.to promote] mies has risen markedly, from 0.8 per- the costs of labor are not generally sig- foreign direct investment. cent to 6 percent between 1990 and nificant. Studies of the determinants of 1992-but again, the switchhas been at FDI usually cite the size and openness (Economic Bulletin for Europe, voL 46 the expense of the OECD, not that of of partner countries, and expectations (1994), United Nations Economic developing countries. of a stable, growing economy, among Commission for Europe, Geneva, 130 the important variables.) p. Inquiries: ECE, Division of Eco- The foreign investment that flowed into nomic Analysis and Projections, Mexico and half a dozen other Latin If the transition economies' access to Geneva, Switzerland, tel.(4122) 917- American countries in 1994 was at- private finance and the resources of the 2778, fax (4122) 917-0101. tractedinparticularbyprivatizationpro- grams.: This is also the case in Eastern Europe. Foreign investors are awaiting the end of the second round of voucher I T m w privatization in the Czech Republic and the conclusion of the Czech and Hun- the less I want to be garianprograms forprivatization ofkey industries (telecommunications, fuels, and soon), whichimay partlyexplain the overall slowdown of FDI into Eastem _ Europe in the first half of this year. X Tr Mowver, theprivatizationprograms in l E I . T. i Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, and Slovakia,forexamiple,havemovedmuch more slowly than expected at the start of the year. (ft was unrealistic, on the part of both Western and Eastem governments, to suppose that private foreign'investmnent '. l would somehow lead or bring about the transition to a market economy. Foreign investors are usually seeking an envi- ronmentthatpromises competitive, risk- adjusted rates of return, with an appro- From the Russian daily Izvestia 12 November-December 1994 Transition New Euromoney Country Risk List-China Surges Ahead, Cuba Trails L ondon-based Euromoney further enhance China's economy. Viet Sovereignforeign currency magazinepublished, in Septem- Nam, which has improvedits standing in debt: rating of transition L ber 1994, its latest country risk the past four rounds of ranking, now countries active on the capital list in an article entitled "Country Risk: stands in 88th place, up from 128th in market (as of October 1994) Watch Out, Uncle Sam." (See table on 1992. The communist government's Standard page 14.) Excerpts from the article fol- reforms in the late 1980s have fueled and low: the economy and attracted foreign in- Country Moody's* Poor's** vestment. Investment inflows totaled Investmentgrade China moved up to 30th place in $1.9 billion in the first six months of China A3 BBB Euromoney's latest ranking of coun- 1994. CzechRepublic Baa2 BBB+ tries by risk. China's young capitalist Below investment grade economy is growing at the rate of 10 Eastern European states making gains Hungary Bal BB+ percent a year. Foreign investment, vast in the ranking include the Czech Repub- Slovakia BB- natural resources, cheap labor, and the lic, which moves up one placeto 39. The .* Best grade: Aaa; ** Best grade: AAA. takeover of Hong Kong in 1997 will CzechRepublichasrisenlOplacessince .Not avaiable Source: World Bank Assessing Country Risk The Euromoney country risk assessment *Debt indicators (10 percent). Scores are 10, members of group II score five, mem- uses nine categories that fall into three calculated using the following ratios from bers ofgroup IIIscore zero. Coveragefrom broadgroups: analytical indicators, credit the World Bank World Debt Tables 1993- U.S. Exim Bank and the Dutch NCM is indicators, andmarketindicators. The high- 94: debt service to exports, current-account worth between zero and 10, depending on est score in each category receives the full balance to GNP, and external debt to GNP. the level of coverage available. markfor theweighing; the lowest receives Figures are the latest available, mostly for zero. The country risk rankingshows only 1992. *Access to international bond and syndi- the final scores after weighing. The cat- cated loan markets (5 percent). Reflects egories are as follows: *Debt in default or rescheduled (10 per- Euromoney's analysis of how easily the cent). Ascore ofbetweenzero and 10, based country might tap the markets now, based -Economic data (25 percent weighing). on the amount of debt in default or debt largely on issues since January 1993. A Taken from the Euromoney global eco- rescheduledover the pasttwo years. Scores scoreof 10meansnoproblemwhatsoever; nomicprojectionsfor 1994-95. are based on the World Bank World Debt eight, no problem on 95 percent of occa- Tables 1993-94. sions; and six, usually no problem; four *Political risk (25 percent). Euromoney means it is possible to acquire loans, de- polled risk analysts, risk insurance bro- *Creditratings(lOpercent). Theaverage of pending on conditions, two, just possible kers, andbankcredit officers. A score of 10 sovereign ratings from Moody's, Standard in some circumstances; and zero, impos- indicates no risk of nonpayment; zero in- &Poor's, andIBCA. Countrieswithoutcredit sible. dicates there is no chance of payments ratings, or those that are rated lower than beingmade. Countries verescoredincom- BB, score zero. (See table above.) *Access to and discount on forfaiting (5 parison both with each other andwith pre- percent).Reflectsthemaximnumtenoravail- vious years. Country risk was defined as -Accesstobankffmance(5 percent). Calcu- able (up to five years) and the forfaiting the risk of nonpayment or nonservicing of lated from disbursements of private, long- spread over riskless countries such as the paynientforgoods orservices, loans, trade- term, unguaranteed loans as apercentage of United States. The score equals the maxi- related finance, and dividends; and the GNP. OECD countries automatically score mumtenorminusthespread. Countriesfor riskofthe nonrepatriation of capital. This 10. Source: WorldBank World Debt Tables whichforfaitingisnot availablescore zero. category does not reflectthe creditworthi- 1993-94. Data were supplied by Morgan Grenfell ness of individual counterparts in any coun- Trade Finance. try. *Access to short-term finance (5 percent). Members of OECD consensus group I score Volume 5, Number 9 1 3 The World Bank/PRDTE its first ranking in Septernber 1992, As Poland moves from 80 to 73 on the back next year is 4.5 percent. Croatia climbs themostaccessibleex-comsnuniust tate, of economic success, political stability, eight places and now ranks 128 in the it can look forward to: greater invest- and a lively stock market. Euromoney's light of plans for an IMF-World Bank ment, better technology, and a transfer GNP growth forecast for Poland for financial package. of Western management techniques. Country risk rankings of 37 transition economies (compared with the five "leaders"), 1994 Debt Indicators Access to international financing Anal'vtcel indicators Debt in Access to Access to Access to Discount Rank :cEconomic Political Debt default or Credot bank short-term capital on Country Sep-94 Mar.94 Sep-93. Total performance risk indicators rescheduled ratings lending finance markets forfalting United States i I 1 97.93 22.93 25.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Switzerland 2 6 4 97,89 22.89 25.00 10.00 10.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Luxembourg 3 3 3 97.69 23.94 23.75 10.00 10.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 Singapore 4 10 12 96.92 25.00 24.33 10.00 10.00 8.85 5.00 3.75 5.00 5.00 Austria 5 2 8 96.52 22.44 24.08 10.00 10.00 10.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 China 30 38 38 73.32 21.14 18.55 9.60 10.00 4.62 0.00 1.25 4.00 4.16 Czech Republic 39 40 43 68,24 17.48 17,83 9.48 10.00 3.85 0.00 3.00 3.00 3.61 Hungary 46 44 46 59.84 15,46 14.93 8.46 10.00 2.31 0,29 2.00 3.00 3.40 Slovenia 53 73 61 53.12 13.59 13.75 9.71 10.00 0.00 0.68 1.50 2.00 1.89 Slovakia 66 64 63 48.03 10.68 12.13 9.48 10.00 0.00 0.00 3.25 2.50 0.00 Poland 73 80 72 45.13 16.08 13.23 9.17 0.00 0.00 0.01 2.25 2.00 2.39 Romania 77 74 75 43.33 10.10 10.43 9.56 10.00 0.00 0.00 1.75 1,50 0.00 Viet Narn 88. 97 103 40.45 1.42 11.60 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 2.50 0.67 Algeria 96 92 79 38.36 8,46 7.98 7.68 .10.00 0.00 0.00 2.25 2.00 0.00 Bulgaria *98 88 125 37.71 . 10.0,9 7.80 8.59 9.23 0.00 0.00 1.50 0.50 0.00 Estonia 102 105 122 35.00 12.18 10.33 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 2.00 0.00 Madagascar 115 100 120 32.02 6.5i 6.68 7.78 9.81 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.00 0,00 Tanzania 117 133 133 31.89 8.93 5.83 6.20 9.18 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.50 0.00 Lithuania 121 110 130 31.25 9.75 10.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1.00 0.00 Latvia' 125 104 132 30.04 9.96 8.58 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1,00 0.00 Ethiopia 126 123 141 29.10 6.06 3.88 8.93 9,60 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.50 0.00 Croatia 128 136 113 28.55 8.97 8.33 0,00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0,25 1.00 0,00 Angola 131. 141 143 26.80 . 4,66 2.15 8.23 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.50 0.00 Kazakhstan 132 129 129 26.78 7.36 7.43 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1.50 0.00 Uzbekistan 134 126 153 25,15 7,80 5.35 0.00 10.00 0.00 o.00 0.50 1.50 0.00 Russia 136 138 137 24.28 7,75 5.28 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.00 0.00 Belarus 138 145 139 23.93 3,78 6.65 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1.00 0.00 Kyrgyzstan 139 135 144 :23.81 6.81 5.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 1.50 0.00 Turkmenistan 141 117 148 23.26 8.93 3.33 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0,50 0.50 0.00 Albania 142 132 142 23,19 7.29 3.40 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 1.00 0,00 Cambodia 145 155 162 22,63 7.95 3.93 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.00 Ukraine 147 149 146 22.24 6,59 4.65 0.00 10.00 0:00 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 FYR Macedmnia 150 142 115 21.41 6.74 4.18 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0,00 Mongolia 151 153 147 21.23 3.33 6.90 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 Azerbaijan 154 154 165 19.63 3.15 3.50 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 Moldova 155 148 160 19,47 4.54 3.93 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.S0 0.50 0.00 Tajikistan 156 144 163 19.03 3.03 5.00 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.50 0.00 Mozambique 159 150 158 18,12 3.03 1.78 3.12 9.35 0.00 0.09 0.25 0.50 0.00 Nicaragua 161 160 167 16,86 3.86 4.15 0.00 7.59 0.00 0.00 0.25 1.00 0.00 Armenia 162 162 159 16,79 3.79 2.30 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 0.50 0.00 0,00 North Korea 164 157 135 15.S5 2.40 1.65 0.00 10.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 Cuba 167 167 170 5.75 2.35 1.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.50 0.00 0.00 Source: Euromoney 14 Nov.mber-Decomber 1994 Transition Milestones of Transition The European Bank for Reconstruc- down tariff barriers-is envisaged be- In Slovenia GDP growth for 1994 is tion and Development (EBRD) will fore the Baltic states become full mem- expected to reach 4 percent. The pace spread its investments over a greater bers. of restructuring is quickening, although geographical area, work more with lo- thegovernment still takes a cautious line cal lenders, and increase its equity fi- The new World Trade Organization, onprivatization. nancing, according to EBRD President which will link more than 120 countries Jacques de Larosiere. The bank will inawide-rangingtreatyliberalizingglo- Inthefirsthalf of 1994 Slovakia's GDP emphasize assistanceto local, small and bal trade, will startoperations on I Janu- increased 4.4 percent (reaching 45.5 medium-sizeenterprises; and itwill both ary 1995. billion korunas), compared with same lend and invest large sums of capital in period last year. The central bank's re- local financial institutions, andtraintheir In Poland the new zloty will be intro- serves (excluding gold) increased by staff in modem lendingtechniques. The duced on 1 January 1995. Initially, three $240 millionto $720million. Thebudget EBRD had an operating profit of $4.5 bank notes (10, 20, and 50 zloty) and deficit reached 10.5 billion korunas by million in the third quarter of 1994, re- nine coins (1,2,5, 10,20, and 50groszy end-June. The Statistical Office envis- versing a second-quarter loss of around and 1,2, and 5 zloty) will be introduced; ages a 3.9 percent increase in real GDP $8 million. The tumaround was fed pri- 100- and 200-zloty notes are to be is- for 1994, a 14.7 percent increase in marilybywhatbankofficialstermedan sued in mid-1995. The new currency consumer prices, and a drop of 2 per- "outstanding" performance by the trea- will replace the current zloty by reduc- centagepoints in unemployment,to 14.5 sury department, which manages and ing its nominal value by 10,000. percent. invests the bank's cash. The German Commerzbank on 1 De- Rapid growth in exports and a burgeon- The European Union's latest summit cember agreed to take a 21 percent ing in investment are pushing the Run- in Essen did not fix a timetable for eco- stake in the Polish Export Development ganan economytoward 4 percent GDP nomic and political integration with six Bank. This is the first time a Gemian growth in 1994. Industrial output has former communist countries (Bulgaria, bank has invested directly in Poland's been rising at a 7 percent annual rate the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, financial sector. The Commerzbank in- while construction has boomed with a Romania, and Slovakia), but pledged a vestmentamountstoDM80rmillionand 15 percent:growth rate. Agriculture is minimumof5.5 billionEcu($6.6billion) provides the German bank with a local expected to rise by 5 percent this year. over five years to help the six close the partnerto deal with its clients in Poland. Hungary'sforeigntradedeficitwillprob- economic gap with the Union. The Dresdner Bank, and the French ably reach $2.8 billion by the end of Banque Nationale de Paris, are cur- 1994. Duringthefirstninemonthsofthe The European Union Council of For- rently setting up branches in Poland, but year, the value of exports was $7.4 bil- eign Ministers, during their late-No- similar attempts by other Western banks lion, while imports reached $10.0 billion. vember meeting in Brussels, agreed to have run into opposition from thePolish Tradewith Germany accounted for one- open talks with the Baltic states on an National Bank, which insists that inves- third of both imports and exports. Ex- association agreement. Estonian Am- tors buy into existing Polish banks to ports to Western industrial countries bassadorto Brussels Clyde Kull saidthe help strengthen the Polish banking sys- grew 21 percent over last year's fig- timing of the talks will depend on the tem. ures. Some $900 million inforeign capi- completion oftechnical preparations, but tal was invested in Hungary from Janu- that it is hoped that the agreements will The Czech government's proposal for ary through September. be signed in March or April 1995. He 1995 envisages a balanced budget, with noted that the council set similar condi- budgetary expenditures and income to- The Hungaran government has sub- tions for talks with the Baltic.states as it taling 411.5 billion korunas each. The mitted its 1995 budget to parliament. had with the six East European coun- government also proposed that the Na- The draft provides for a deficit of 282.7 tries that are already European Union tional Property Fund, the country's top billionforints($2.7billion)or5.5percent associate members. A transition period privatizationagency, provide 10.7billion of estimated GDP, excluding interest of up to six years-necessary to make korunas to pay the interest on the payments on the accumulated debt. The legislative changes and gradually pull country's state debt. government announced on 8 December Volume 5, Number 9 15 The World Bank/PRDTE that electricity and gas prices for con- In early November Russian President gested the establishment of a Western- sumers will increase by an average of Boris Yeltsin named radical reformer Russian investment fund for retuming 65 percent and 53 percent, respectively, Anatoly Chubais as first deputy prime Russian capital from abroad. The fund as of January. The government will al- minister. Chubais is now responsiblefor would guarantee the anonymity of in- locate 9 billionforints ($8.2 million) from several economic agencies, including vestment and efficiencyintheutilization the state budget to compensate those the ministries of economics, finance, of capital, both in Russia and abroad. hardest hit by the increases. It is esti- and foreign trade. Vladimir Panskov, mated that a 100 percent hike in house- who between 1987 and 1990 served as In Russia about 4,400 industrial facili- hold energy prices is needed to bring first deputy to the Soviet minister of ties were closed in the past nine months; them up to world levels and to cover finance, Valentin Pavlov, was appointed declineinindustrialoutputoverthesame production costs. to the post of minister of finance. period reached 23 percent, as compared Vladimir Polevanov, a professional ge- with the same period in 1993. At the Russia is experiencing a dangerous ologist, was appointed as chairman of same time, gross domestic product tendency toward curtailing education at the state committee for property, to dropped by 16 percent. Capital invest- all levels, claims Vladimir Terekhov of manage the country's privatization pro- ments were reduced by 26 percent dur- the Analytical Center of the Federation gram. ingtiisperiod, mainlybecauseindustrial Council [theupperhouseoftheRussian construction is being wound down. At parliament]. Russia currently has 2.6 President Boris Yeltsin has ordered that present the earnings of the highest in- million students in a total of 535 state his administration's staff levels be re- comedecileinRussiaare29times those colleges and universities. Spending on duced by one-third and that part of its of the lowest income decile. educationatall levelsinRussiais among function be transferred to the Russian the lowest in the world. Investment in government. According to former Mn- By the end of 1994 the official number education has in recent years seen a ister of Finance Boris Fedorov, the total of unemployed in Russia will have steady decline. Teachers are paid wages ofpersonnel in Yeltsin's presidential ad- reached 2 million, writes the that rank among the lowest in the coun- ministration in Moscow and other re- Nezavisimaya Gazeta. By the end of try. Student maintenance grants allow gions has reached 40,000. This is much 1995 the unemployment figure is ex- for only two hours of study a day, in- higher, Fedorov claims, than the staff of pected to double and, according to the stead of eight, and students must earn the Central Commnittee of the Commu- Federal Employment Service, will their living the rest of the time. nist Party during the Soviet period. amount to between 4 million and 5 mil- lion. As of 1 November 1994 the Fed- The total student body in Russia de- Russians are currently keeping about eral Employment Service had 1.7 mil- dined by 409,000, or 13 percent, be- $10billionto$14billionintheirforeign lion people officially registered as tween 1980 and 1992. And whereas in bankaccounts, Andrei Vemnikov, Deputy unemployed. 1987 some 41 percent of school leavers Director of the Bank of Russia's For- intended to enroll in college, the figure eign Operations Department, has said. Sergei Storchak, deputy head of the dropped to 28 percent by 1991. The These funds can return, provided the Finance Ministry's External Debt and number of students at state colleges of Russian economy is stabilized, the rate Foreign Credits Department, suggested econormics and law has dropped by 23 of inflation is curbed, and the interest that Russia would not ask for forgive- percent. Over the past year an average rates of the Bank of Russia are low- nessonitsforeigndebt, butwouldtryto of 40 percent of the younger (under 40) ered. Thevolume offoreign investments stretch its payments out for as long as college professors and teachers have inRussiamaytotal $2billion in 1994, as possible. Without taking account of either quit their jobs to join commercial compared with $1.6 billion and $1.8 bil- agreed rescheduling deals, Russia will structures or emigrated. According to lion in 1992 and 1993, respectively. Di- have to pay creditors $15.5 billion in sociological surveys, one in five profes- rect investments in the charter funds of 1995, equivalent to 40 percent of the sionals and a quarter of college gradu- banks and industrial enterprises were state's total budgeted income. The ates are planning to emigrate. The po- theprincipalformofforeigninvestment. govemment'smaintaskin 1994 has been tential emigration of professionals is Russia currently has 14 banks with for- (andwill continuetobein 1995) to calm estimatedat 1 .5millionbytheyear2000. eign equity, Vemikov said. Artyom creditors and to service debts so that (Source: Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 29 Tarasov, a deputy ofthe state duma and theyarenottoo much of a burden onthe November 1994.) a well-known entrepreneur, has sug- budget. Moscow has been giving pref- 16 November-December 1994 Transition erence to repaying the $9 billion debt percent. Russia had inflation of just (employees and enterprise managers) incurred since 1992, and less emphasis over 14percent in Novemnber, compared and at auction. Managers, who have to reducing the debt inherited from the with 15 percent in October. been cool toward privatization, will have former Soviet Union. (According to a the right to buy up to 5 percent of the Russian finance ministry document cir- Lithuania's premier, Adolfas shares in a given enterprise. Another culated at a closed session of the state Slezevicius, estimatedthatthecountry's presidential decree authorizes private duma, the debts of the forner Soviet gross domestic product would increase ownership of agricultural land for the Union totaled $112.7 billion at the start by 5 percent in 1995, He also affirmed first time in Ukraine. The decree allows of 1994. Soviet debts stood at $103.9 that there would be no change in the landowners to sell, lease, or bequeath billion and Russian debts at $8.8 billion. decisionto pegthelitastothe U.S. dollar their land to Ukrainian citizens as long Germany, the USSR's largest creditor, at a rate of 4:1. Lithuania's hard cur- as it continuesto beused foragriculture. was owed$ 15.9 billion. Whentheformer rency reserves have been increasing by Soviet Union later collapsed, Russia $20 million to $25 million a month and China has forecast a growth rate of 1 1 assumed responsibility for repaying its now exceed $600 million. Slezevicius percent this year, but has warned of a debts, but it has had to seek reschedul- said credits obtained from the IMF for a second year of high inflation in 1995 as ing deals to give it extra time to pay.) litas stabilization fund were no longer income gaps widen, law and order dete- needed and would be returned to save riorates, and ailingstateindustries await Russia's "shadow" economic sector- on interest payments. reform, the People s Daily reported. that is firms and individuals avoiding Officials said that control of inflation, taxes by failing to declare incomes and President Boris Yeltsin in early Novem- and compensation for those workers revenues-now accounts for about 20 ber issued a decree establishing new who are fired from loss-making state percent ofRussia's gross domesticprod- rules for the Russian securities mar- firms, will head China's agenda for eco- uct, according to Yuri Yurkov, head of ket. Business activity on the security nomic reform next year. The announce- the State Statistics Committee. The market will be allowed only for trade ment came after a five-day conference, output figures but do not include crimi- professionals and institutionsthatobtain during which economic officials also nal activity, he said, but take account of state licenses. Consequently, only state- stressed the need to observe fiscal dis- hidden volumes of sales, companies licensed dealers will be permitted to cipline, boost agriculture, and reform working without licenses, and private issue stocks and bonds. A Federal Com- social welfare and state enterprises. A individuals involved in unlicensed im- mission on the Securities and Bond bulletin issued at the end of the confer- ports. At least 12 million to 14 million Market has been setup, headed by First ence called on the Communist Party people in Russia have monthly incomes DeputyPrimneMinisterAnatolyChubais, andthe countryto "grasp opportunities, upward of one million rubles, claims to protect the rights of shareholders and deepen reform, expand opening to the Yurkov. He also estimates the number investors and to monitor Russian finan- outside world, promote development, of people with incomes of 10 or more cial institutions' compliance with inter- andmaintainstability." million rubles a month at several hun- national and domestic laws. dredthousand. On the other hand, about Prices have been rising more quickly in 10 million people do not have enough Lithuania's inflation in the first nine the Chinese countryside than in towns money even for a minimal standard food months of 1994 was 31.3 percent, com- and cities this year and many items now basket. paredwith 137.2percentduringthesame cost more in rural areas, the China period in 1993. In Estonia prices for Business Times reported. In the third Countries of the Commonwealth of goods and services have risen by 50.9 quarter, retail prices rose 29.6 percent Independent States (CIS) continue percentcomparedwithSeptember 1993. overall, with prices in rural areas soar- to experience high inflation and falling ing 34.3 percent while prices in urban production. According to figures from Ukrainian President Leonid Kuchma districts rose only 24.0 percent. The the CIS statistical committee, consumer has issued a decree aimed at privatizing newspaper attributed the rises to flood price rises in October over September morethan 8,000 stateenterprisesin 1995. damage and to a ban on market sales of showed Georgia suffering the highest The decree seeks to guarantee the right grain until government quotas are filled. priceinflation, at36 13 percent, followed ofUkrainiancitizenstouseprivatization China has imposed strict measures to by Azerbaijan at 28.3 percent, Belarus certificates and create a market for contain commercial loans to strategic at 25.4 percent, and Kazakhstan at 24.8 shares. Shares will be sold to insiders industries in an effort to shore up the Volume 5, Number 9 17 The World Bank/PRDTE credit rating of local companies amid a China plans to set up its first private open trade anQd industrial policies, and spate of bad debts. The measures came bank next year to provide loans mainly control of inflation and fiscal deficits. as once-generous lenders tightened their to private entrepreneurs. Minsheng Asian countries may need up to $400 own procedures for approving credit to Bankwill have registeredcapital of about billion in investment inpowergeneration joint ventures, which have mushroomed $235 million andwill operatenationally, over the next ten years, claimed experts in the booming Chinese economy and although the central bank has yet to at a separate Manila conference, on are currently growing at between 11 approve of the private bank's manage- energy. and 12 percent. ment regulations, which include a list of shareholders, board members, and ex- The Manila-based Asian Development At least a fifth of the people employed ecutives. Bank(ADB)has approveda$40 rnillion and fully paid by China's state-owned stabilization loan to Kyrgyzstan. The industries are unnecessary, according Chinahas registered a $2.4 billiontrade interest-free ADB loan is earmarked to a senior government official involved surplus for the first ten months of the forthefinancingofimportstostrengthen in industrial reform. The estimate of year, compared with a trade deficit of the energy and transportation sectors, Chen Qingtai ofthe State Economic and $7.0billionfortheperiodJanuarythrough for educational services, and for the Trade Commission means that 25 mil- October 1993, the China Daily re- revitalization of public and private en- lion to 35 million employees could be in ported. Exports grew by 29.7 percentto terprises. dangerof losingtheirjobs. About 4 mil- $89.9 billion and imports by 14.5 percent lion people are already on less-than-full to $87.5 billion, the paper said. MVet Nams's central state bank has wages because the state enterprises appointed the Bank of Tokyo and the cannot afford to pay them. Meanwhile, China plans sweeping reform of its Australia and New Zealand Banking other officials estimate China's inflation welfare systemto provide a social safety Group as advisers on the restructuring will peak this year at around 19 to 20 netforurbanemployees, "manyofwhose of the country's medium- and long-term percent; jobs are under threat in ailing state in- commercialbankdebt. Anadvisorycom- dustries,"theFinancial Times reported. mittee comprising representatives from China will look to foreign investors to Municipalities such as Shanghai have the two foreign banks has held initial provide more than 40 percent of the $7 been experimenting with new social meetings. Foreign bankers estimate Viet billion it needs to develop its telephone security measures for the past year or Nam's commercial bank debt at $700 and communications manufacturing in- so, the article says, but the national gov- millionto $800 million. dustry over the next five years. At least eminent has decided to formally over-. $3 billion should be raised from over- haul the system. China's official urban Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Viet seas, Zhou Dal Qun, director of China's unemployment stands at 2.6 percent, Nam agreed in late November to share telecormunications department, told an but this figure vastly understates the and jointly develop the waters of the Asian telecoms conferencein Singapore. problem. Thenumberofjobless in some Mekong River. Senior officials from the According to conference participants, industrial cities may be as high as 20 four countries initialed a draft agree- the World Bank estimated that China percent of the work force. ment on "cooperation for the sustain- would require $141 billionto set up tele- able development of the lower Mekong communication infrastructure between Asia will lead the world in brisk eco- riverbasin." 1995 and 2004. nomicgrowth in 1995, asthe industrial- izedworldrecovers from recession, and Tanzania's government has borrowed China is expected to implement a plan theregionwill continuetogetthebulkof $44 million from its central bank, defy- next year to raise more than $3 billion capital inflow from developed countries, ing World Bank advice not to exceed a worth of foreign funds for construction according to experts meeting in Manila $20 millionlimit, FinanceMinisterJakaya of the Three Gorges Dam, the Xinhua at an international conference on Asia's Kikwete said, addingthat tax fraud had news agency reported. Most of the economicoutlook. (A slowdown inChina brought the government to the verge of more that $16 billion estimated to be will bring the overall growth rate down bankruptcy, forcingitto borrow heavily needed for the seventeen-year project, from 7.8 percent in 1994:to 7.3 percent which is expected to begin in coning in 1995.) Conferees attributed thejump (We appreciate the contributions from weeks, will come from the Chinese gov- in Asian econonic growth in 1994 to the RFE/RL Research Institute.) ernment. higher rates of saving and investment, . 18 November-December 1994 Transition World Bank/IMF Agenda Disclosure Russia-IMIF Talks mental Management Project-which, in addition to support from the Bank, is IMF First Deputy Managing Director The IMIF and the Russian government funded by the Russian government and Stanley Fischer has announced that a havestartedtalksona$6billionstandby variousRussianenterpn'sesandbanks- proposal to publish MIF Article IV con- credit. The talks have focused on the will help the country replace its frag- sultation documents is due to go to the abolition of Russian export quotas in- mented, uncoordinated environmental Executive Board before the end of the cluding for oil and petroleum products, management system with a more effec- year. Fischer said several countries in- on Russia's draft 1995 budget, and on tive, decentralized one. A new pollution dicated they were willingto publish, but the ruble's exchange rate. Prime Min- abatement fund will finance cleanup others were concemed that publication ister Vlktor Chemomyrdin foresees a operations of contaminated rivers, pol- would inhibit the frankness of the dis- budget deficit amounting to 7.8 percent luted industrial sites, and toxic waste cussions between the lM1F and its mem- of gross national product, but IM First dumps. In addition to coming up with bers that form the basis for Article IV Deputy Managing Director Stanley coordimatednationalstandards,theman- consultations. Fischer said the Board Fischer suggested that Russia further agement project will finance programs will vote on whether to allow govem- tighten its 1995 draft budget, to 7 per- in the Upper Volga, Ural, and northern ments that want to publish Article IV centofGNP,inordertohavethestandby Caucasus regions. consultation papers to do so, and will loan approved by the first quarter of also discuss the possibility of opening 1995. Preston Visits Three CIS Countries the IIMF's archives to pernit viewing of past ArticlelVdocuments. Hesaidthere Russia's monthly inflation rate in Sep- Economic reform is crucial to ending would likely be a tradeoff between pub- tember was 7.7 percent, and draft ver- the environmental pollution that threat- lication of Article lV documents and the sions of the 1995 budget have set a ens lives in Central and Eastem Europe, frankness of some discussions, but said target of 3.0 percent monthly inflation Bank President Lewis T. Preston said this would differ from country to coun- for the end of next year. (The IMF duringavisittotheregioninthefirsthalf try. estimatesthatsalesofgovernmentbonds of November. Preston, along with amounting to 2 to 3 percent of GDP can Wilfried P. Thalwitz, Bank vice presi- New IMF Lending Facility? be attained in the context of a tough dent for Europe and Central Asia, vis- stabilizationplan. The$13 billionbudget ited three former Soviet Union repub- The IMF has begun to explore the pos- figure for foreign financing is reason- lics-Russia, Kyrgyzstan, and sibilityofsettingup a multibillion dollar able, but depends on liberalization of oil Kazakhstan-to discuss the World lending window to help countries cope exportrules. The$6 billion rublestabili- Bank's rolein supportingtheirtransition with sudden capital flight by big-time zation fund would be available if the to market economies. In Moscow they speculators. Called the short term fi- ruble were pegged.) "Russia would not met with Prime Minister Viktor nancingfacility(STFF), the new pool of be ableto achieve its financial stabiliza- Chemomyrdin, First Deputy Prime Min- funds would be designed for use during tionplanfornextyearwithoutkeylegal isterAnatolyChubais,andFinanceMin- economiccrises, to help countries cope reforms to assurethe government sticks ister Vladimir Panskov and his aide with suddencapital flight. Sucha facility tothebudgetthatparliament approves," Andrei Vavilov. The Bank's lendingpro- would help member countries avoid Harvard Professor Jeffrey Sachs as- gramtoRussianextyearcouldreach$3 being pushed off track by wayward and serted. billion, Preston said. The Bank will be temporary losses of confidence among lookingcloselyatRussia'splansforloos- intemational investors. Under the pro- World Bank Cofunds Russian Envi- ening oil export regulations, he added, posal, the IMF would be ableto quickly romment Project notingthat a $500 million rehabilitation lend money to countries hit by capital loan to the Russian oil sector is likely to flight without first having to go through The World Bank on November 8 ap- be prepared for Board approval soon. lengthy negotiations. The money would proved a $110 million loan to Russia to (Vavilov also mentioned a $500 million have to be repaid quickly, and would help underwnrte a program to deal with loan for social programs and a $600 onlybe lent to countnres pursuing sound massive deterioration in the environ- million loan for agricultural reform, as economic policies. ment. Thenew $194.8 million Environ- part of the 1995 World Bank lending program.) Volume 5, Number 9 19 The World Bank/PRDTE IMF Clears $535 Mllion to Viet Health Care in Albania loanwasalsotiedtoclosingtheChernobyl Nam nuclear plant. The IDAapproved a $12.4 million credit The MvIF has approved enhanced struc- to help restore Albania's health system. Fresh Aid Package to Armenia tural adjustment facility (ESAF) loans Some 100 primary health centers and 2 totaling $535 million over three years to regional hospitals will be upgraded. (At On December 8 the International De- help Viet Nam stabilize and restructure present, onlytwo-thirds ofprimaryhealth velopment Association approved a $13.7 its economy. The first loan, for $178 centers have heat, a mere 40 percent million credit to help Armenia maintain million, is available in two equal install- have running water, and fewer than 15 and modernize electric power genera- ments, the first of which is available percent have basic laboratory equip- tion in the country. Another $43 million immediately. The government hopes to ment; most health center stock consists IDA credit will fund efforts to rehabili- maintain real GDP growth of 8 percent of a stethoscope, some syringes, and a tate the groundwater network in the a year, andto reduce inflationto about 6: cookingpotfor sterilization.) Albanians, Ararat Valley, and to upgrade irrigation percent. The structural reforms include partly because of their active, agrarian facilitiesgenerally Earlier, international a comprehensive restructuring of tax lifestyle and lower-fat diet, enjoy adult donors-inanexpressionof strongsup- and expenditure policies, strengthening longevity, with a life expectancy that port for Armenia's reform efforts- of financial markets and the banking nears seventy-three years. Infant and pledged $265 million in assistance for sector, and further liberalization of the maternal mortality are still extremely 1995. The promised support came dur- trade and exchange systems. VietNam's high, however. ing a November22 meeting ofthe Bank- main donors, meeting in Paris on No- sponsored Consultative Group for Ar- vember 15-16 at a World Bank-spon- IKyrgyzstan Investors Conference menia at the Banks Paris headquarters. sored conference, pledged $2 billion. Armenian Prime Minister Hrant Last year donors pledged $1.8 billion. The World Bank cosponsored a foreign Bagratian explained that Armenia has About $400 million of the aid pledged investors conference in Paris on De- managed to halt declining output, de- last year has been disbursed. Vietnam- cember 7-8 to try to get capital flowing crease inflation, and stabilize the ex- ese officials say they will be streamlin- into Kyrgyzstan; 343 foreign investors change rate. Trade has been liberalized, ing the bureaucracy that deals with de- from 29 countries were invited to at- privatization is accelerating, and new velopment aid and project tend. private enterprises are emerging rap- implementation. idly. Subsidies to enterprises have been $500 Million World Bank Loan to cut sharply, and reforn of the financial Georgia Shores Up Shaftered Infra- Ukraine? sector is under way. The pledged assis- structure tancecamefrom France, Germany, Italy, ;The World Bank has completed talks Japan, the Netherlands, Russia, the The Intemational Development Asso- with Ukraine on a $500 million rehabili- tEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and ciation (IDA) on November 8 approved tation loan that is tentatively scheduled Development, the World Bank, and the an $18 million credit to help alleviate to go to the Banks Board for consider- [MF. AU.S. contribution of $80 million Georgia's most pressing urban infra- ation on December 22. The loan would is a grant. structure needs. The IDA project aims help Ukraine fund imports needed to to stem the decline-and head off the curb a declineinproduction andcushion Damage Control Loan to Algeria possible collapse-of basic urban ser- deteriorating living standards, Bank vices, transport networks, water supply President Lewis Preston said in a state- Algeria will receive a $51 million World andwastewatersystems, and solidwaste ment. The United States will provide a Bank loan, approved on December 1, to facilities inThilisi,Poti, andBatunii. More $100 mnillion grant to Ukraine for food rebuild schools, housing, health centers, than 200 schools and hospitals will be and fuel imports, and another $100 mil- water supply, and other infrastructure "winterproofed" before the coldest lion in assistancefor student exchanges, destroyed in an earthquake last August. weather sets in. Representatives of 12 privatization, and small businesses. Eu- On another issue-rescheduling of countries and 7 intemational organiza- ropean Union finance ministers ap- Algeria's debt-littleprogress was made tions agreed in Paris-under the spon- proveda loan of$108 nillion, butcondi- during recent talks in Paris between sorship of the World Bank-to make tioneddisbursernerton Ukraine's signing Algerian officials and a steering com- availableto Georgia $280 million in the a standby accord with the EMF. The mittee of international bank creditors. coning year. 20 November-December 1994 Transition Algeria is seeking to reschedule $3 bil- ing countries grew rapidly in the 1990s, Viet Nam to Seek Multilateral As- lion in debtfallingdue between 1994 and it was reported, reachingmorethan $65 sistance 1998, but nearly half of this is made up billionin 1993 andaprojected $75billion of loans whose repayment was already this year. China has received the lion's Viet Nam is expecting to borrow up to rescheduled in 1992. share of the investment flows,' with re- $1 billion annually from multilateral ceipts totaling $26 billion in 1993, com- groups over the next three years for ... Technical Aid to Cambodia pared with $5 billion for the whole of infrastructure projects and further eco- Eastern Europe and $1.8 billion for Af- nomic reforms, the central bank gover- A new $17 mnillion credit approved De- rica. Privatizationinthedevelopingcoun- nor, Cao Si Kiern, said in an interview cember 6 by the International Develop- tries, and the transfer ofnew infrastruc- publishedinHanoi. Kieinsaidloansfrom ment Association will provide Cambo- ture activity to the private sector, have the World Bank, the IMF, and the Asian diawithextensivetechnical aidtoimprove propelled foreign investment in infra- Development Bank would mostly be public sector management, including structure. usedto develop thecountrys infrastruc- such techniques as expenditure control ture, which is in urgent need of upgrad- and management of investment, debt, ing after decades of neglect and mis- and personnel. A second component management. will help boost private sector develop- ment in Cambodia. ... Environmental Loan to Latvia and Privatization Lithuania A $4 million World Bank loan approved December 6 will help reduce discharge of untreated and partially treated waste- water andwill promote environmentally sustainable development around the cit- ies ofLiepaja and Ventspils. A $7 million loan to Lithuania, approved December 8, is to support efforts to stop environ- mental degradation of the Baltic Sea in the Klaipeda region and adjacent coastal areas. ... and Structural Loan to Moldova A World Bank loan of $60 million, ap- proved December 8, will support struc- tural reforns in Moldova. The loan will provide fast-disbursing balance of pay- X t i ments assistance. Investment Flows to Developing Countries An increasing share of internati6nal in- vestment is going to developing coun-  tries, according to the latest issue of the ' World Bank:quarterly, Financial Flows and the Developing Countries. For- eign direct investment flows to develop- eig dret nvsten fow tdveop From the Budapest magazine Hungarian Economy Volume 5, Number 9 21 The World Bank/PRDTE Conference Diary Negotiating and Structuring Inter- Street, N. W Washington, D.C. 20433, ences, tel. (4471) 915-9635, fax national Business Transactions tel. (202) 473-7644. (4471) 724-0124. February 6-7, 1995, Los Angeles International/Domestic Govern- Has the Time Come to Invest in This conference, organized by the went Procurement Russia? American Conference Institute, brings February 16-17,1995,Washinton,D.C. March 15-17, 1995, New York together an international panel of ex- perts on international business law top- the American Conference Institutewill 19th Arden House Conference, orga- ics. They will provide a review of the conductacomprehensivetwo-day semi- nized by Harvard University, Russian issues that arise in most intemational nar on new developments in national Research Center, andtheColumbiaUni- transactions, as well as up-to-the-minute and international govemment procure- versity, Harriman Institute. reviews of developments in key geo- ment law that will affect the ability of Information: Harvard University, graphic areas. Topics of discussion in- contractors to compete in the intema- Russian Research Center, Archibald clude: rules affecting transfer of goods, tional marketplace. Highlights will in- Cary Coolidge Hall, 1737 Cambridge services, people, and money across in- dude: competingintheintemational mar- Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts temational borders; structural analysis ket place; opportunities to explore new 02138, tel. (617) 495-8900, fax (61 7) of letters of credit; the U.N. sales con- markets; developing new products and 495-8319. vention in a nutshell; foreign corrupt technologies; key legal principles and E-mail: chess@husc7.harvard.edu practices act; negotiating and structur- policies; the new GATT government ing international business transactions procurement: expanded scope and new Doing Business with Russia in Latin America, China, and Southeast disciplines. March 15-16, 1995, New York Asia, Western Europe, and Canada; and Information:American Conference international dispute settlement. Institute, 175-Fifth Avenue, Suite The American Conference Institute has Information.American Conference 2182, New York, N.Y 10010, tel. (416) assernbledintemational experts whowill Institute, 175-Fifth Avenue, Suite 927-7936, fax (416) 927-1563. present the latest views of the legal, 2182,NewYork, N.Y. 10010, tel. (416) accounting, and economic regimes and 927-7936, fax (416) 927-1563. The U.S. Forum on Russian Trade investment climate in Russia. Key top- and Investment ics include: the new business reality, Stock Markets, Corporate Finance, February 22-24, 1995, New York 1995 and beyond; corporate acquisi- and Economic Growth tions in Russia; strategies and tech- February 16-17, 1995, Washington, D. C. The U.S. Forum on Russian Trade and niques; cocumentation; practical lessons -nvestment conference is organized learned from experience; cegal culture: The conference, organized bythe Policy jointly bythe Russian-American Cham- riskavoidanceor risk assumption; U. S.- Research Department of the World ber of Commerce and Sterling Confer- Russia Enterprise Fund; Russian ac- Bank, is divided into four sessions: Ses- ences. Speakers include Dr. Henry counting versus Western GAAP; valu- sion 1 presents measures of stock mar- Kissinger, former secretary of state of ation for privatized enterprises; tax is- ket development and relates these mea- the United States, Dr. Anatoly Sobchak, sues regarding investing in Russia; use sures to various economic indicators the mayor of St. Petersburg; the Hon. of offshore entities and structural issues and other measures of financial devel- Yuli Vorontsov, Russian ambassador to associated with Russian operations; opment. Session 2 examines the links the United States; and Mr. Akhremenko, establishment ofjoint ventures, subsid- between stock market development, Russian trade representative to the iarycompanies,andotherlegalentities; savings, productivity, long-run growth, United States. Other speakers include business-governmentpartnerships; U.S. and specific policy changes. Session 3 senior representatives from The World project finance and political risk; multi- evaluates the ties between stock mar- Bank, the IMF and the European Bank lateral finance; privatization; Russia's ket development and corporate financ- for Reconstruction and Development, privatizationprogram; strategiesforfor- ing decisions. The final session exam- as well as Academic and Government eign participation in Russian privatiza- ines a few country cases in detail. Advisors. tion; financing in the CIS; intellectual Information: Paulina Sintim- Information: Mr Andrew Brown, property protection; trade: importing Aboagye, the World Bank, 1818 H Read of Planning, Sterling Confer- from Russia into the United States; 22 November-December 1994 Transition Trade: exportingto Russia; Foreign cor- sions should include two copies of the ConfenceorganizeubytheIntemational rupt practices act; preventing fraud and paper, including an abstract. Please at- Input-Output Association and the In- other crimes in Russian business; Real tach anadditional 100-wordabstractin dian National Institute of Educational estate opportunities; currency regula- both print and as a WordPerfect file on Planningand Administration. Topics in- tion and convertibility; and dispute reso- a floppy disk. Final decisions will be clude input-output techniques in devel- lution and litigation in Russia. based on the full manuscript. oping countries; demand, supply, and Information:American Conference prices in interindustry modeling; envi- Ins,titute, 175 Fifth Avenue, Suite Please submit papers as early as pos- ronment, natural resources, energy, and 2182, New York, N.Y 10010, teL (416) sible, but before I March 1995, to the infrastructure; new developments in in- 927-7936, fax (416) 927-1563. Program Chairman: Professor put-output accounts and systems; and Damien J. Neven, University of the role of modeling fortransition coun- Seventh Annual Bank Conference Lausanne, DEEP-HEC, BFSH-1 CH- tries. on Development Economics 1015 Dorigny, Switzerland, tel. (ABCDE) (+4121) 692-3484. Call for papers: Two-to-three page May 1-2, 1995, Washington, D.C. E-mail: eea(cerge.cuni.cz abstracts until end of January 1995; full papers, by the end of June 1995. Sponsored by Vice President and Chief Eleventh International Conference Send to: Norbert Rainer, Secretary, Economist, Michael Bruno,' with a key- on Input-Output Techniques International Input-Output Associa- note address by Domingo F. Cavallo, November 27 - December 1, 1995, New tion, PO. Box 108, A-1033 Vienna, finance minister, Argentina, and orga- Delhi, India Austria. nized by the World Bank. Conference sessions: Revisiting Redistribution with Growth (Albert Fishlow and Pranab Bardhan); Demographic Change and Development (Peter Diamond and Nancy Folbre); Aid and Development First-time Home Owner (Dani Rodrik, Elinor Ostrom and Rich- ard Co'oper); Fiscal Decentralization (Vito Tanzi and RudolfHommes); anda a\ 1V roundtable discussion on Second Gen- kl1 eration Issues of Transition. Participa- tion bynon-Bank and non-IMP staff is by invitation. Information: Boris Pleskovic or Gre- iv gory Ingram, Research Advisory Staff,'-World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Room N9-037, Washington, D.C. 20433, tel. (202) 473-1062, fax (202) 477-0955. Tenth Annual Congress September 1-4, 1995, Prague This conference is organized by the Center for Economic Research and Graduate Education (CERGE) of Charles University and the'Economics Institute of the Academy of Sciences (El). Call for papers (in English) in all areas of economics are actively solic- ited for the Prague meeting. Submis- _____ From the Hungarian magazine Uritok Volume 5, Number 9 2 3 The World BankIPRDTE New Books and Working Papers The PRDTE unit of the World Bank regrets that it is unable to supply the publications listed. WorldBankPublications EduardoBorenszteinandJonathanD. Ostry, these, 2,415 have been given approval by EconomicReform and Structural Adjust- the CPF (CroatianPrivatizationFund). Cur- SimonComniander,JanosKollo,andCecilia mentinEastEuropeanIndustry,IMFWP rently, about 2,220 enterprises have com- Ugaz,FirmBehaviorandtheLaborMarket no. 94/80, June 1994,13 p. pleted the process and registered as either intheHungarian Transition, WPSno. 1373, joint stockor limitedliability companies. October 1994,43 p. CarlosM. Asilis, and V. Hugo Juan-Ramon, To order: BarbryKeller, room M3-04 7, tel. On Corruption andCapital Accumulation, Most of the shares have been bought by (202) 473-5195. IMF WPno. 94/86, July 1994,25 p. small investors, with five-year loan arrange- ments. As compared with the total value of David L. Lindauer, and Barbara Nunberg, To order IMF publications: IMF Publica- assets assigned for transformation (about RehabilitatingGovernment:PayandEEm- tion Services, 700-19thStreet, N. W, Wash- $15billion),thecashreceiptsfromprivatiza- ploymentReforminAfrica,November 1994, ington, D.C. 20431, tel. (202) 623-7430, tion havebeen marginal. Sofar,mosttrans- 244p. fax (202) 623-7201. formedproperty has been state-owned. The government's goal is a substantial increase Ukraine: TheAgriculture Sectorin Tran- * intheprivate sector, andfreedistribution of sition, November1994,72p. shares is one option to achieve this. The CEPRPublications number of small shareholders could rise to Leila M. Webster, Newly Privatized Rus- bet%een 0.5 millionand 1.0millionasaresult. sian Enterprises, Studies of Economies in AlanWmters,WhoShouldRunTradePolicy Transformationno. 13,November 1994,82p. inEasternEuropeandHow?,CEPRno. 1043, Other recent IRMO publications: October 1994,43 p. To receive ordering and price information No.8, K. Ott,TheCurrentStateandReform for publications of the World Bank, write: IrenaGrosfeld, FlnancialSystemsinTran- oftheTaxSysteminCroatia,January1994, The WorldBank, PO. Box 7247-8619, Wash- sition: Is There a Case for a Bank Based 22p. ington, D. C, tel. (202) 473-1155, fax (202) System?, CEPRno. 1062, November 1994, No. 9,Z. Rohatinski, TheRole ofExchange 676-0581; or visit the World Bank book- 32p. RatePolicyintheNewlyAdoptedStabiliza- stores, in the UnitedStates, 701-18th Street, tion Program of the Croatian Economy, N. W, Washington, D. C. or in France, 66 PhilippeMartin,ASequentialApproachto February 1994,20p. avenue d'Iena, 75116, Paris. Regionallntegration:TheEuropeanUnion No. 10,L. Jankov,MonetaryPolicyandlnfla- andCentral andEastern Europe, CEPRno. tion in Croatia, April 1994,26p. 1070, November 1994,27 p. No. l1, V. Tadic, Agricultural Reform in Croatia,May 1994,24p. nternationalMonetaryFundPublications To order: Centerfor Economic Policy Re- No. 12, S. Crnkovic-Pozaic, Unemployment search, 25-28 Old Burlington Street, Lon- andLabourMarketFlexibilityintheTran- Carlos M. Asilis, and Gian Maria Milsei- don WIXILB, United Kingdom, tel. (4471) sition to a Market Economy: The Case of Ferretti, OnthePolitical Sustainability of 734-9110. Croatia,May 1994,26 p. Economic Reform, M VWPno. 94/3, Janu- No. 13,K.Jurlin,TheReformoftheForeign ary 1994,26 p. Trade Sector in Croatia, September1994, 16p. Billes Saint-Paul, AretheUnemployedUn- IRMO Publications,Zagreb, Croatia employable?IMF WPno. 94/64,June 1994, To order: IRMO, Ulica Ljudevita Farkasa l9p. NevenkaCuckovic, Privatization Process Vukotinovica 2, PO. Box 303, 41000 in Croatia: The Newlegislative Solutions Zagreb, Croatia, tel. (385-41) 454-522,fax Vincent Koen, and Eric Meyermans, Ex- andtheOldPrblems?ReformRoundTable (385-41) 444-059. change Rate DeterminantsinRussia: 1992- WorldngPaper(RRT WP) no. 14, September 93, IMF WPno. 94/66, June 1994,40 p. 1994,14p.* Daniel C. Hardy,andAshokK. Lahiri, Cash AlthoughCroatiaadopteditsownprivatiza- Adam SmithResearch Centre, WarsawPo- ShortageintheFormerSovietUnion,IIMP tion program relatively early (April 1991), land WPno. 94/67, June 1994,36 p. three and a half years of experience ended with rather modest,results, in terms ofboth Andrzej Kondratowicz, and Wojciech Ke-youngChu,andGerdSchwartz,Output the sizeofthe privatizedsectorandprivati- Maciejewski, Small and Medium Private Decline and GovernmentExpenditures in zation proceeds, particularly when com- Enterprises in Poland, 1994, 126p. European Transition Economies, IMF WP pared to the region front-runners. By mid- no. 94/68, June 1994,30p. 1994, 2,877sociallyownedenterprises (out Jan Winiecki, Polish Mass Privatization of3,619) hadsubmittedapplicationsforau- Programme: The Unloved Child in a Sus- tonomousprivatization/transformation. Of pectedFamily, 1994,15p. 24 November-December 1994 Transition 7b order: Adam Smith Research Centre, Jo Marie Griesgraber (ed.), Rethinking macro-economic,agrarian,andothersectoral Bednarska Street 16, 00-321 Warsaw, Po- BrettonWoods:TowardsEquitable,Sus- reformswere implementedconcurrently Real land, tel. (4822) 214-707, fax (482) 628- tainable andParticipatory Development wages and income have declined sharply, 0614. [conference report and recommendations], inflation has been reduced to low single- Center ofConcern, Washington, D.C., 1994, digit levels, the real exchange rate has appre- 33p. ciated substantially and stabilized, and the real value offoreign trade and trade depen- OtherNewPublications The report highlights recommendations for dence on the East has fallen substantially, reform of the Bretton Woods institutions Restructuringandprivatization ofstate and AndrasBlaho, Russian Transition-Chinese put forward by participants ina Washington collective farms has been progressing rap- Refonns:AComparativeView,WorldInsti- conferencein June1994. Heavydebtobliga- idly, and the privatization of other enter- tute for Development Economics Research tions of low-income, less developed coun- prises in the food and agricultural sector (WIDER), Finland, 1994,54 p. triesandformercommandeconomies inhibit hasbeen movingforward, thoughata slower investment and debt servicing and drain pace. Input prices and retail prices have in- China's dramatic economic success and the awaydesperately neededforeign exchange, creasedin real tenns,while realproductprices controversial results of the Russian transi- the report states. Debt problems should be have declined. The food and agricultural tion suggest a reassessment is needed of dealt with in a comprehensive manner and sector has contracted, and in a market the state's economic role in order to under- relieved through a genuine sharing of re- economy will likely remain far less depen- standwhich state policies are able to release sponsibilities among creditors and debtors. dent on imported inputs and on export mar- the creative powers of the markets even as Fair and reasonable criteria shouldbe estab- kets for products. they define the parameters within which lishedthrough consultation amnongall inter- market forces may operate. Experience in ested parties. The member countries of the To order: Center for Agricultural and Ru- both countries underlines that government Bank andthe Fundcould establish an exter- ral Development, Iowa State University, has an important role toplay, forexample, in nal arbitrationboardto evaluatefailedloans, 578HeadyfHall,Ames, Iowa 50011, United the restructuring of state-owned enterprises, assess the size and structure of the pay- States, tel. (515) 294-1183, fax (515) 294- by its calculation of probable changes in ments a debtor country is able to bear, and 6336. domestic and external demand as the eco- write off the balance, the report suggests. nomic structure alters. Since unproductive To order: Center of Concern, 3700-13th The Next Asian Tiger? Promoting Pros- economic units can begin to turn profits as Street, N.E., Washington, D.C. 20017, United perityintheRussianFarEast,TheHeritage demand takes off, it is important that gov- States, tel. (202) 635-2757, fax (202) 832- Foundation, no. 997, Washington, D.C., emmentbe abletodiscerntheprofit-making 9494. August 1994. potential of particular state-owned enter- prises and avoid shutting them down. Natalija Kazlauskiene, and William H. To order: The Heritage Foundation, 214 Meyers, Macroeconomic Adjustment and MassachusettsAvenue, N.E., Washington, the Economic Transition in Agriculture: D.C. 20002-4999, United States, tel. (202) Toorder: UNUWorldlnstituteforDevelop- TheCaseofLithuania,Reportno.94-BR 19, 546-4400. mentEconomicsResearch (UNU/WIDER) November 1994,11 p. Katqjanokanlaituri 6 B, 00160 Helsinki, DomenicoMarioNuti,TheRoleoftheState Finland, tel. (358) 0-693841, fax (358) 0- Experiences in transition economies have in Post-Communist Economies, Edward 6938548. shown that the simultaneity of Elgar, London, UnitedKingdom, 1994, macroeconomic and sectoral reformsis im- 1lp. Roland Berger, Michael Bauer, and Milan portant to the success ofboth. In Lithuania, Kubr, Enterprise andManagementDevel- opment,InternationalLaborOffice,Geneva, 1994, 22 p. To order: International Labor Office, 4 route des Morillons, CH-1211, .- Geneva22, Switzerland, tel. (022) 7996111, fax (022) 798 8685. ZoyaGirshfeld,andBorisKhersonski,Rus -_ sianTax Legislation,PacificBVL Corpora- tion, United States, 1994,42 p. Boris Khersonski, Basics of Legislation on K � ) Entrepreneurship in Russia, Pacific BVL Corporation, UnitedStates, 1994,32 p. . - To order: Pacific BVL Corporation, 1329 "Iamverydisappointedinyou.Ithoughtyouunderstoodthenecessityofundertaking Sixth Avenue, San Francisco, California, certain restrictivemeasures calledforbythe catastrophic budget situation." United States, 94122, tel./fax (415) 753- 6961. FromtheHungarianmagazineHocipo Volume 5, Number 9 225 The World Bank/PRDTE Jan Prybyla, Chinese Puzzle, Journal of vestments, intensified social conflicts, Jens Holscher, Money, Privatization and EastAsian Affairs(South Korea) vol. 8, no. greaterpolitical radicalization, and sustained PrivateProperty:TheExampleof Central- 2,1994,37p. instability. This would reduce foreign in- East Europe, European Business Manage- vestment inflows and strongly impair the ment School Working Paper Series no. 26, Economic reform in China has been a slow, prospects for economic growth. Swansea, 1994, 26p. halting, largely uncoordinatedprocess. Two *Increasingincomedifferentialsacrosscoun- basicsocialisteconomicprinciples,central tries in the former CMEA area is likely to allocation of resources and state-controlled stimulate migration from poorto rich coun- markets, havebeen abandoned. The reform tries, but also to cause political conflicts Newsletters has unleashed market forces that new eco- amongcountries; this isaparticularproblem nomic policiesare not equippedtodeal with. because ofthe many ethnic minorities in the TheRussian Economic Barometer,aninde- Incompletely reformed institutions in China formerCMEAarea pendent bulletin, published quarterly that have had difficulty adopting to, and ensur- monitors microeconomic transition based ing an orderly process of, development and These impediments togrowth couldbe over- on monthly surveys in 200 industrial enter, growth. come more easily if Central and Eastern prises and 50 banks from all over Russia. European economies had their own interna- Free market competition requires a move tional/interregional organizations in place Information: Elena Belyanova, Institute of away from state ownership. However, priva- to deal with problems and prospects of re- World Economy and International Rela- tization has lagged behind marketization. gional cooperation on a regular basis in a tions, 23 ProfsojuznajaSt., GSP-7, Moscow, Much of the change in property relations standardizedway. IftheEUcouldregainfull Russia tel. (7095) 128-8105, fax (7095) has simply modifieduser rights, rather than employment and restore efficient 310-7027, orlFOlnstitute, Poschingerstr effectingtransferofownership(forexample, decisionmakingwithinanenlargedcommu- 5, D-81679, Munich, Germany, tel. (4989) land use certificates, not land deeds). And nity(whilenotrulingoutthatsomeEUmem- 9224-426, fax (4989) 985-369. although, formally, the state intervenes less bers might leave the Community) and ifthe than it used to in enterprise production and Central andEastern European transforma- The FreeMarket, amonthlypublicationby investmentdecisions, informally-particu- tion-including the transformation of the the Lithuanian Free Market Institute that larly at subnational levels-its intervention former Soviet Union-were successful, a focuses on topics such as banking and so- remains heavy-handed and capricious. newpan-European marketeconomy would cial security. emerge. Such internal inconsistencies contribute to To order: Lithuanian Free Market Insti- ongoingdestabilization ofthe economy, and If Russiacannot be stabilized economically tute, PO. Box 415,2004 Vilnius, Lithuania, make control ofeconomic cycles, inflation, andifitspoliticaldynamicscannotbechan- tel. (3702) 352-584, fax (3702) 351-2 79. stockand,real estate speculation, unemploy- neled towardmeaningful, efficient coopera- ment, and distorted (notjust market-skewed) tion in Europe, the progress ofthe Visegrad Catalogue of Maps and Atlases of the ex- distribution of income and wealth elusive. countries in transformation and economic USSR, #5, afall 1994 cataloguecollection of Assuming that the reform continues and opening-upwillbe short-lived. Without sta- mapsandatlasesexclusivelyfromtheformer that the incompatibilities between political bility in the FSU the political risk for the Soviet Union. philosophy and the new economic policies whole ofCentral andEastem Europe is likely To order: Four One Company, Ltd.. 523 can be smoothed over in the short run, the to prevent necessary foreign direct invest- Hamilton Road, London, ON N5Z IS3, questioniofthe long-term incompatibility of ment inflows andtoencourage destabilizing Canadai fax (519) 433-5903. amaturemnarketsystemandanauthoritarian Westward migration. If a pan-European polity remains. The delicate, difficult issue market economy is to be achieved, a new East European Constitutional Review, a of political pluralization, of the reconcilia- vision will have to emerge of shared pros- quarterly publicationpublishedbythe Cen- tion of political and economic values, will perity, shared values and shared responsi- ter for the Study of Constitutionalism in not go away. bilities, and national economies in which EasternEurope. To order: CSCEE, the Uni- (Jan S. Prybyla is Professor ofEconomics market-clearingis reestablished. versity of Chicago Law School, 111 East at Pennsylvania State University.) 60th Street,. Chicago, Illinois, 60637. : f ! ~~~~~~~To order: Wirtschaftswissenschaftliche Paui J. Welfens, The EU Facing Economic, Fakultat, Internationale Wirtschaft/ East-WestBusiness and Trade,abiweekly OpeningUpin Eastern Europe: Problems, Europaische Wirtschaftspolitik, D-48143 publication that focuses on Russian and Issues and Policy Options, Universitat Munster, Universitatsstrasse 14-16, fax Central European business and economic Munster, Germany, August 1994,56 p. (49251) 83-28-68. developments. Economic growth could face three major Wirtschaft im Wandel, Institut fur To order: East-West Business and Trade, bottlenecks in postsocialist economies: VirtschaftsforschungHalle, 1994,15 p. 1413 KStreet, N. W, Suite 1400, Washing- *The degradation ofthe enviromnent, much To order: Institutfur Wirtschaftsforschung ton, D.C. 20005, tel. (202) 371-0555, fax damaged by,socialist production patterns, Halle, Offentlichkeitsarbeit, Herr Dr. (202) 408-9369.. will require high investments in the future, Packeiser Postfach 16 02 07, 06038 Halle which implies arisingcapital-output ratio. (Saale), tel. (0345) 7753 700, fax (0345) *Rising unemployment could lead to in- 7753 820. creased resistance to rationalization of in- 26 November-December 1994 7ransition Bibliography of Selected Articles Postsocialist Economies 81679 Munchen, Germany, tel. (089) 983- Communist Economies and Economic 821, fax (089) 981-0110. - Transformation (U.K.) 6(3):341-66, 1994. Nove, A. Gap in Transition Models? A Comment on Gomulka. Europe-A sia Stud- Health Care Industry Survey. Business Lipowski, A. On Development and Indus- ies(U.K.)46(5):863-73, 1994. CentralEurope(Vienna), pp. 37-43,Novem- trial Policy [in Poland]. Russian and East ber 1994. To order: Business Central Eu- European Finance and Trade: A Journal of Bergson, A. Communist Efficiency Gap: rope, Schwarzenbergplatz 8/4, A-1030 Thanslations(U.S.)30:78-96,May-June 1994. Alternative Measures. ComparativeEco- [ienna, tel. (431) 713-33-63,fax (43 1)714- nomicStudies(U.S.)36:1-12,1994. 01-13. Radosevic, S. StrategicTechnology Policy forEastern Europe. EconomicSystems(Ger- Demougin, D., and H. W Sinn. Privatiza- Hersc l, ,D. Kemre,andS. Bhandari. Com- many) 18(2): 87-11 6,June 1994. tion,Risk-taking,andtheCommunistFinn. petition in Transition Economies: Deterni- Journal ofPublic Economics (Netherlands) nantsofPrice-CostMargins inPrivate Sec- Rautava, J EC Integration: Does It Mean 55:203-31,Octoberl994. tor Manufacturing in Eastern Europe. East-West Disintegration? Review of Southern Economic Journal(U. S.) 61:356- Economies in Transition (Finland) 3:31-38, Hillman,A. L. Transitionfrom Socialism: 66, October 1994. 1994. An Overviewfrom aPolitical EconomyPer- spective. European Journal of Political Inzelt, A. Privatization and Innovation in Report on the Implementation of Macro- Econom'v (Netherlands) 10: 191-225, May Hungary: First Experiences. Economic FinancialAssistancetoThird Countries. 1994. Systems(Gerrnany) 18(2): 141-58, June 1994. European Economy/Commission ofthe Eu- ropean Communities (International) 5 831 - O'Keefe, D Charity andthe State. Economic Jasinski, A. R&D and Innovation in Poland 104,1994. Affairs(U.K.) 14:37-39,October 1994. in the Transition Period. Economic Sys- tems(Germany) 18(2): 117-40, June 1994. CountryUpdate: Romanian Telecom Puts Central and Eastern Europe on a Digital Look. Eastern European Soviet Lane, S. The Pattern of Foreign Direct In- Telecom Report (U. S.) 5(12): 10-1 1, Decem- Aspectsof Economic Transformation.Ale- vestment andJoint Ventures in Hungary. ber 1994. tropolis (Germany) vol. 1, 1994, 419 p. To order: MVetropolis, Postfach 1748, D-35007 i Aiarburg.'Lahn. Bahnhofstrabe 16, D- 35037Afarbug/Lahn, Germanvu tel. 06421- 67377, .fax 06421-681918. Bulgaria:FinancialTimesSurvey.Finan- cial Times(U.K.), pp. 11-13, 13 October1994. Czech Telecommunications Enterthe New ' Era. Eastern European Soviet 7elecom Report (U.S.) 5(12): 1, December 1994. To d .: LJ order: EESTR, 1724 Kalorama Road, N. W., Suite 210, fashington. D.C. 20009, tel. (202) 234-2138. Czech Republic, Financial Times Survey. The Financial Times (U.K.), pp. i-vii, De- cember 19,1994. Dempsey, Judy. The Sale [initiated by Germany's Treuhand] Is Nearly Over. Fi- nancial Times (survey; Germany), pp. IX, 21, November 1994. Dyker, D. Technology Policy and the Pro- ductivity Crisis in Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Economic Systems (Germany)l 8(2):71-85, June 1994. Toorder: Economic Svstems. Scheinerstrasse 11, D- "It's terrible! This trade has become overfeminized..." From the Hungarian magazine Uritok Volume 5, Number 9 2 7 The Wodd Bank/PRDTE Bibliography of Selected Articles (continued) Schwartz, G., M. Stone, and T. van der (jokhbert,L. BasicResearch inRussia:Hu- School, 1111 East 60th Street, Chicago, Willigen. Beyond Stabilization: The Eco- man Resources and Funding. Economic Illinois 60637. nomic Transformation of Czechoslovakia, Systems(Germany) 18(2): 159-78, June1994. Hungary, and Poland. CommunistEcono- Shirreff, D., K. Kryzyzak, and C. Mellow. If miesandEconomic Transformation (U.K.) Ilirvensalo, 1. BankingReform inEstonia. Russia GetsItRight[survey ofthefinancial 6(3):291-314,1994. Review of Economies in Transition (Fin- sector]. Euromoney (U.K.),pp. 72-78, Sep- land)8:75-79,1994. tember 1994. Spechier, M. Competition and Structural Change in Eastern Europe. Review ofln- Lainela, S.,andP. Sutela TheComparative Sutela, P The Instability of Political Re- dustrialOrganization (Netherlands) 6:189- Efficiency of Baltic Monetary Reforms. gimes, Prices and Enterprise Financing 98,1991. Review of Economies in Transition (Fin- andTheirImpactontheExternalActivities land) 10:5-26,1994. of the Russian Enterprises. Review of Staikova,R. Bulgarian Women andFami- Economies in Transition (Finland) 8:5-36, lies in Economic and Social Transition. Latvia: FinancialTimes Survey.Financial 1994. Development: Journal of the Society for Times(U.K.),pp. 27-30,November 18,1994. InternationalDevelopment(Italy) 4:49-50, Asia 1993. Lukashuk, A. Belarus: The NationalBank as a Defender of Sovereignty. East Euro- Deliusin, L. "ChineseCapitalism" or "So- Stieger, C. Bulgaria's Balkan Woes. Swiss pean Constitutional Review(U. S.) 3(3):56- cialism with Specific Features?" Problems Review of WorldAffairs(Switzerland) 8:22- 59,1994. ofEconomic Transition:A Journal of Trans- 24, August 1994. lationsfrom Russian (U.S.) 37:24-44, July Peagam,N. Kazakhstan,RelyingonltsOwn 1994. Strasek, S. Role of Government in Transi- Resources. Euromoney (U.K.),pp. 111-16, tion: The Case of Slovenia. Rivista September 1994. To order: Nester House, Lee,C. KoreanUnification: IssuesinTran- internazionale di scienze economiche e Playhouse Yard, London EC4V 5EX, tel. sition and Economic Union. Institut fur commerciali/lnternationalReviewofEco- (071) 779-8888, fax (071) 779-8653. Weltlwrtschaftander UniversitatKiel(Ger- nomicsandBusiness(Italy)41:173-83,Feb- many)590: 1-36,August 1993. nrkly 1994. The Republic of Sakha: Creating a Pro- cessed Diamond lndustry. RussianFarEast McGill,P [North]Korea: Tradingwiththe CIS and the Baltics Update((U.S.)4(12):7-9, December 1994. To Enemy. Euromoney(U.K.),pp. 163-68, Sep- order: Russian Far East Update, P0. Box tember 1994. Bell,J. CentralAsia: Bankingon the Last 22126, Seattle, Washington 98122, tel. Frontier. Project and TradeFinance(U.K.) (206) 447-2668, fax (206) 628-0979. Shuangyuan, L., and H. Zhenjie. Socialist 135:34-36, July1994. Market Economyand thePerfection and Rosefielde, S. Retreat from Utopia: The DevelopmentofPrivateInternationalLaw Flemming, J. S., and R. C. Matthews. Eco- Reconfiguration of Russian Socialism. in China. Social Sciences in China (China) nomic Reform in Russia. National Insti- AtlanticEconomicJournal(U.S.)22:1-12, 15:32-43,1994. tute Economic Review (U.K.) 149:65-82, June 1994. August 1994. Tang, W S. UrbanLandDevelopment und- Rytila, T. Monetary Policy in Russia. Re- er Socialism: China Between 1949 and Gavrilenkov,E. Macroeconomic Crisis and view ofEconomies in Transition (Finland) 1977. International Journal of Urban and Price Distortions in Russia. Review of 10:27-47,1994. RegionalResearch(U.K.) 18:392-415, Sep- Economiesin Transition (Finland) 3:39-58, tember 1994. 1994. Semler,D. ACurrencyBoardwithin aCen- tral Bank: Reflections on the Estonian Yan,RToReachChina'sConsumers,Adapt Gavrilenkov, E. Russia: Out of the Post- Hybrid. EastEuropean ConstitutionalRe- to Guo Qing. Harvard Business Review SovietMacroeconomicDeadlockthrougha view (U.S.) 3(3):53-55, 1994. To order: (U.S.),pp.66-75,September-Octoberl994. Labyrinth of Reforms. Review ofEcono- CSCEE, The University of Chicago Law miesin Transition(Finland)(3):59-79,1994. TRANSITIONis a regular publication ofthe World Bank's Transition Economies Division, Policy Research Department. The findings, views, andinterpretationspublishedin the articles arethose ofthe authors and shouldnotbe attributedtothe WorldBankor its affiliated organizations. Nordoanyofthe interpretations or conclusions necessarilyrepresentofficial policyofthe WorldBankorofitsExecutive Directors orthecountriesthey represent. RichardHirschleris the editorandproduction manager, Room NI1-003,tel. (202)473-6982,E- mail: RHlirschler(Worldbank.org. Jennifer Prochnow-Walker is the research assistant and desktop publisher. 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