Report No. 10965-IN India Policies and Issues in Forest Sector Development June 24, 1993 Agriculture Operations Division Country Department II South Asia Regional Office FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY MICROGRAPHICS Report No: 10965 IN Type: SEC Documwnt of the WorW Bak This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. ABBREVTATIONS AND AC&Qh2 ESMAP - Energy Strategy Management Assessment Program FAO - Food and Agriculture Organizadon FD - Forest Directorate FDC - Forest Development Corporation FPC - Foest Protection Committee GOI - Government of India GTZ - Deutche GesselUshaft fur Techniche Zusa=menarbiet IPAS - Integrated Protected Areas System ICFRE - Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education IFS - Indian 1Forest Service IBRAD - Idian Institute of Biosocial Research and Development JFM - Joint Forest Management NAEB - National Afforestation and Eco-Development Board NGO - Non-Government Organization NTFP - Non-Timber Forest Product NWDB - National Wasteland Development Board PCCF - Principal Chief Conservator of Forests SAU - State Agriculture University UNCED - United Nations Conference on Environment and Development CURRENCY AND AER E0UIAIM Average Exchange, R.te The currency is the Indian rupee. Average exchange rates per US$1: 1990 Rs. 17.5 1991 Rs. 22.9 1992 Rs. 26.0 April 1993 Rs. 30.7 Yam The Indian fiscal year runs from April 1 through March 31. Weights and Measures 1 hectare (ha) = 2.47 acres 1 kilometer (kim) = 0.62 miles I metric tone (mt) 1.1 short ton 1 kilogam (kg) = 2.2 lbs I quintal 100 lkilograms FOR OMCIAL USE ONLY ,INDIA POLICICBS AND ISSUES IN FOREST SECIrOR 8I0EN Table of Contents Preface ......................................................... iii Executive Summ.ary .. iv-x Matrix Summarizing Key Recommerdations .. xi-xvi I. EN)IA'S FOREST RESOURCES .. Inrduction 1..1 Perspective on Forest Resources. ........................... 2 Trade-offs between Different Investments.. 6 Government Strategy.. 6 Lessons from Forest Development Efforts.. 7 II. PEOPLE, FORESTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT . . 9 Overexploitation of Forest Products.. 9 Agricultur/Forestry Interface ..12 Why People and Forests Are Not in a Sustainable Reladonship . .15 People and Protected Areas ..15 Managing Forest Resources at the Local Level. 17 Main Reconunendations ..23 III. PRIYATE FOREST DEVELOPMENT ..25 Faers ..25 Forest Industries ..31 Pricing and Marketing of Forest Products ..34 Main Reconninendations ..37 IV. IMPROVING PRODUCIVITY OF FOREST RESOURCES . .38 Planttions ..38 Management of Natuml Forests ..40 Priorities for Technological Support ..41 Information and Technology Trnsfer ..42 Main Recommendations ..42 V. PUBLIC SECTOR MANAGEMENT OF FOREST DEVELOPMENT ..... ......... 43 Legal and Policy Framework .......................................... 43 Forest Policy Decision Making ......................................... 44 Forestry Investments .............................................. 45 The Role of the Public Sector ......................................... 46 The State Forest Administrations ....................................... 47 Main Recommendations ............................................. 49 This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipients only in the performance of their official duties. its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Bank authorization. ANNEES: 1. Occurrence of Forest Types in India . ............................... 50 2. Biodiversity Conservation ...................................... 51 3. Technologies to Improve Productivi of Plantaitons .............f........ 55 4. Selected Adiniistradonal Issues .................................. 59 List of Background Papers ............................................ 67 Biblography ............................................ 68 List of Tables Table 1.1 Current Forest Development in India by OwnershipAJse Categories Table 2.1 Community Forest Management Systems Table 3.1 Levels of Profitability and the Impact of Seedling Subsidies Table 3.2 Farm Forestry Model Table 3.3 Medium and Large Scale Woodbased Industries in India Table 3.4 Price of Eucalyptus Poles in Major Markets in Gujarat lable 3.5 General Market Price and the Price received by Eucalyptus Growers in the Arabari Range, 1985-89 Table 3.6 Import Tariffs for Forest Products Table A4.1 Training requirements for the West Bengal Forestry Project List of Figures Figure 1.1 Actual Forest Cover (1991 assessment) Figure 2.1 Urban and Rural Household Energy Figure 2.2 Seasonal NITP Availability Figure 2.3 Benefit Sharing in Joint Management Arangements Figure 3.1 Comparative Econonics of a Few Imported and Domestically Produced Items List of Boxes Box 1.1 Bank Experience in Forestry Box 2.1 Forest Protection in West Bengal Box 3.1 Incentive Policy Distortions and Practices Affectng Afforestation and Forest Management -lii- POLICIES AND ISSUES IN1 FOREST SECIYRDE LOMN This document was preFared as an input into developing a future lending strategy for World Bank aided forestry projects in Inlia. It is based on experience gained in implementation and evaluation of a host of social forestry projects (Bank, Donor and GOI-financed) as well as the preparation of a few recent and upcoming projects covering a broader spectrum of activities both within and outside designated forests. Background papers prepared by Bank staff and consultants are swrnarized in the report' which also borrows from available literature. The report benefitted from substantial input from the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (001). The Secretary of Environment and Forests Mr. Rajarnani, the Inspector General of Forests Mr. Mukherjee and their staff facilitated the debate of issues presented in the report. The findings of the report were further discussed in two national workshops in April 1993. About 80 participants were invited to the meeting in Bangalore and 120 to the meeting in New Delhi. Apart from the Heads of the Forest Departments and the State Forest Secretaries, the workshops were attended by a number of prominent environmentlist and NGO representatives, staff from other Government Departments, Central Institutes (ICAR, ICFRE, IIFM, FSI), forest based industries and many of the major donors involved in Indian Forestry. The final version of the report reflects comments and suggestions received in the review process. In general there was consensus that the paper had focussed on the main issues and broad agreement on the ways to try to deal with them. Agreements were strong on the need for joint forest management, technological improvement, provision of improved planting materials to farmers, seedling pricing and the need to increase funding to forestry. Areas with a lesser degree of consensus concern involvement of industries in rehabilitation of degraded forests and the institutional changes needed witiin the forest departments to effectively take on the future tasks. 1 This paper was prepared by An Clark bd on a nubner of backgound papes. he main background papas wae prepared by Amoldo Contreras (Forestry Incentives), Norman Jones (Technology and Technical Support), Augusta Molnar and Malcolm Jansen (Forest and Wasteland Development). -iv - 1. Vision. Indian forests are important because they provide fuel, fodder, some food and income to rural people as well as timber, environmental services and watershed protection. These forests are continuously degrading due to high pressures on the resource (India has only about 0.08 ha forest per capita). The approaches tried to address forest degraciadon have not been adequate to protect the resource to the extent required. If India's forests are to have a chance for sustainable management a new strategy is needed. This report outlines elements of such a strategy. It involves making villagers partners m forest management, stimulating the private sector to more actively take part in forest development, adopting improved technologies on a wide scale, ireviewing the forest administration to ensure effective implementation of forest policies, and setting development priorities based on the costs and benefits of different opdons. 2. Bnk Strategy. The Bank is at a turning point in its lending for forestry in India. In the past, forestrv projects in India supported mainly social forestry and watershed development activities. But such programs have had mixed success, and are inadequate in scope to address the complex issues affecting forests. A broader approach is needed which will protect and improve existing forests, and encourage private forestry. The Bank's forestry strategy has changed recently to focus on sector-wide projects combining policy reforms and support for a wide range of forestry investments and related activities at the state level. Two such forestry projects were approved for India in Spring 1992 following extensive study of issues affecting sector performance in the states of Maharashtra and West Bengal. Further state forestry projects are envisaged over the next few years. This review provides an overview for Bank staff and Indian policy makers to understanding and finding ways to address key forestry issues. It builds on experience gained through Bank projects world wide and uses case studies from the above mentioned Indian projects to illustrate issues and potential solutions. The review will be updated as more experience is gained in the sector. 3. Foresry Performance and Problems. Indian forests are under immense pressure to supply forest products to a growing population (850 million) in a land scarce situation. The Forest Departments are trying to protect 22% of India's land area. This has proved very difficult through the traditional methods as mentioned above. Many poor people living in and around the forests depend heavily on them for subsistence needs and income from gathered forest produce. Forest are not equally distributed in India. Some areas still have quite considerable forest resources, while others have none at all. Fuelwood is still the most important form of household energy in both rual and urban areas and represents 90% of the demand for wood. As the population and incomes are increasing the demand for fuelwood as well as other forest products is growing rapidly. The fuelwood deficit is large and the forest industries are facing raw material shortages forcing them to operate well below capacity. Forests have been overexploited to meet the various demands, including illegal removals which is one of the reasons why productivity in natural forests and plantations is low. A large part of India's livestock population grazes in forests which causes serious damage to regeneration and young plantations but there are no realistic management altemadves yet. Forests are also the only remaining source of agriculture land and encroachment and shifting cultivation of forests are prevalent. _v_ 4. Iss. There is a tremendous urgency to finding ways to manage forests sustainably in the face of current pressures and to augment the raw material production. Despite large-scale wasteland afforestation and farm forestry schemes the production from those areas has not significantly relieved the pressure on forests. Four sets of interrlated issues are key to breakdng the negatve patterns leading to continuous degradation of the resource. These issues encompass: (i) interactiJns between people, forests and the environment; (ii) fnancial and economic incentives for sustainable land management including forestry and tree crop development; (iii) technological factors that limit the yields that can be obtained; and (iv) the insdtudonal famework including tie respective roles of the public and private sectors in forestry. Although many of the forestry programs that were taken up during the past decades have worked reasonably well there are still many areas of possible improvement. 5. While the needs of local people have been taken into account in designing forest plans, people have not been sufficiently motivated to coopert to reach development goals. Furthemore, the village forests which used to supply them have vanished thereby increasing the pressure on public forest lands. A new approach has been identified in which villagers, particularly local women, and the forest administradon become parmers in forest protection and management. The approach requires furtier development aad adoption on a wider scale. Without providing options that allow people to obtain the products they need in a sustainable fashion, they will not protect any forest areas. While fringe forest populations are users of the forest resource they are also the first line of defence against illegal extraction. Mutually reinforcing links exist between increasing populations, insufficient agriculture growth and environmental degradation in marginal areas of india. 6. The private sector has not contributed as much to developing the forest sector as it could have done with clear incentives. Farm foresty development has considerable potentiaL However, a number of govemment regulations and practices make farm forestiy less profitable than it could be and has contained development of industrial forest resources by both farmers and industries. Protection of the forest based industries, aimed at developing them, has led to a situation where many industdes are relatively small in scale and obsolete technologies are stll used. Consumers pay for this inefficiency through higher prices and scarce forest resources are wasted. Pricing and marketing of forest product also needs attention. Provision of raw materials on highly concessional terms to forest industries has led to high demand, wastage of raw materials, and a large loss of revenue to the states. 7. Afforestation programs on public as well as private lands hive suffered from technological weaknesses which have limited the productivity and the impact of those efforts. Forestry technology needs to be improved in India. The most important gaps are: the quality of planting materials; lack of appropriate models and modalities for regeneration of degraded forests with people's participation; planting practices and a range of models for commercial and farm forestry production; and a weak information transfer process. There has not yet been any widespread success in involving women in forestry initiatives, even though they constitute a group that has much to gain from increased access to forest products and income-generating enteipises. Many of the identified weaknesses stem to some extent from institutional and financial constraints within the forest administration. 8. The public sector has attempted to take on all roles in the sector (policymaker, protector, producer, extractor, processor, provider of products, etc.) but that is a neady impossible task. Govemment policies and investments have not induced people to adequately manage or develop forest resources and policy impact analysis has not been sufficient. Although large-scale afforestation efforts have been made outside designated forests the investments have not been -vi- adequate to sustain the resource. Forestry development has fwuther been affected by fragmentadon of programs, contradicdons and overlap among them. An effective policy can only work if there is an adequate institutional structure and capacity to implement it. The structure and procedures employed by the forest administration have in many respects remaied unchanged for decades and need review to effecively meet the challenges ahead. 9. The most Important forest policy goal for the next decades will be to improve forest protection and management. The forests provide a number of important environmental services (protecdon of watersheds, source of plant and animal biodiversity, stabilization of fragile soils) and there are strong policies to conserve and expand this resource. However, the pressures on the resource are so strong, that apart from a limited number of areas of important biodiversity, it will be impossible to protect forest areas unless the benefits of this conservation are perceived by the public, especially those living near the forests. Further efforts along the tmditional lines are not likely to prevent degradation of the forestry resource and will not solve the many forestry problems. It is necessary to enlist the cooperation of local populations and other agencies in forest protection, management and development. To accomplish this the government has to use the tools at its disposal to create an environment that will encourage forest users and farmers to take greater interest in forest development. If all actors staed working together now, it would be possible to maintain the current levl of forest cover and improve the quality of the resource, even in the face of current pressures. 10. There are many inherent conflicts between users of forests. Policymakers have to decide on trade-offs between different uses and users keeping long-term sustainability in view. GOI prioritizes environmental conservation and meeting the needs of villagers in its national policy but state governments have pressing needs for revenue and for meeting industrial and commecial wood commitments. Local users have no or very few alternate sources of energy, employment or income so it is not accable orpossible to exclude them. A key issue in tribal areas iSto develop insdtutional links between forest departments and tribal development authorities that will lead to settin and working towards realistic objectives. The government also needs to develop new ways to address inter-sectoal problems such as energy and livestock. Examples of solutions to the energy problem include reaching agreements on alternate supply where possible - staring with urban and industrial users who pay for produce, and adaption of energy saving technologies to suit local food preparation habits and locally available fuels. Coming to gnps with the heavy livestock grazing in forests through management methods such as rotational grazing and increasing the overall fodder production is very importanL Agriculture directorates must be given clear responsibilities for augmenting fodder production and livestock programs cannot continue to operate as if there was no conflict with wasteland and forest development programs. 11. A number of steps need to be taken to make the forest strategy outlined above possible. The areas that need most attention can be grouped into five categories: (a) improving incentives for local participation and private development; (b) improving the technological means to solve production problems; (c) increasing the effectiveness of public sector forest management and development; (d)prioritizing areas to protect and develop; and (e) topics that require fiurher analysis. The actions required under each of these categories are discussed below. A matrix summarizing the recommendations in each area is attached. -vii- A. ovinyg lIntinves to Protect and Develgg Foests 12. Viliagers are much more likely to protect forests when they have a say in forest management and receive a significant proportion of the benefits. This point has been shown to hold true in a number of joint forest management (JFM) arrangements in different parts of the country. It is time to expand these experiments on a larger scale. GOI is encouraging joint management and so far eleven states have passed regulations setting out the modalides and allowing forest administrations to share revenues from forest lands with local populations. Increasing avaiLaIbiity of commercial NTFP is key to motivate peopl to protect trests because it provides an annual income flow. A cooperative attitude from the forestry staff is also important. Women are a strong potential lobby for forest protection so it is important to include them in discussions regarding joint nanagement arrangements. NGOs can provide valuable help in this process. One of the main constraints to involving NGOs in forestry programs (apart from the often prevalent mutual distrust) is difficulty in providing funds in a timely manner to support NGO work. Most NOOs are short on funds and therefore need advances. To date, JFM airangements have almost exclusively focussed on heavily degraded lands. Relatively better forests also need protection and the returns to both govemment and villagers would be much higher on such lands. Priority should be given to establishing joint management where it has a good likelihood of success (willing local population, viable rootstock) and around national parks and sanctuaries and environmentally sensitive areas. Care should be taken to keep the cost of the models reasonable to allow replicadon over a wide area within current budgetay constraints. 13. Farmers will want to plant more trees if they can spare the land and it is more profitable for them than other crops. The first step to increase private sector motivation to plant trees is to identify and remove a number of regulations and government practices that act as disincentives. They include: (i) legislation governing state govemment rights to private forests; (ii) restrictions on felling trees on private lands; (iii) transit pass requirements; and (iv) mandatory sales of forest produce to the government in states where such exist. Some states have already removed transit pass requirements for the most popular farm forestry species. The most important ways to increase returns from farm forestry is to improve the quality of planting material and to develop agro-forestry models suited to different regions and conditons. Subsidization of seedlings should be discontinued because it is costly, has not been as effective an incentive as thought and it discourages quality seeding production. The impact of the subsidy may be negative since the quality of seedlings provided is often extremely low. Extension services for farm forestry and tree crops will be important as more sophisticated advice on management and models are required. Access to credit for farm forestry also needs to be improved. Women are an important target group for social forestry development on private as well as public common lands. An increased number of female forestry staff would improve the chances of reaching those women. Development of suitable market information systems would be helpful to farmers as prices vary significantly between markets. 14. Further libealizing selected trade and tariff banriers and concessional pricing of raw materials from public forests will encourage the forest industry to become more efficient and improve incentives for private forest development. However, unless the industries feel confident about the future policy environment including the raw material supply situation they will be loath to make investments to upgrade their plants. Forest industries can alleviate the raw material shortage to some extent by lining up with farm forestry and/or by growing their own supply. A mechanism is needed that will allow non-government entities to assist in the rehabilitation of degraded forest lands. There is limited scope for industries to access public wastelands for tree planting since most have alternative uses or are encroached. -viii - -~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-II i ~~B. in&ovS Productiv.ty 15. Improving the quality of planting materials is one of the most important factors to increasing productivity and quality of forest plantations on both private and public lands. It is easy to do by using better tree seeds and nursery management in accordance with available technologies which require only minor adaption to Indian condidons. The improved planting material will be more expensive to produce than current seedlings, but it will be well worth the extra investment. Other techniques which can improve the productivity of plantations includes paying more attention to planting practices. Site amelioration is often needed on degraded sites. Establishment of a data base for matching species with agro-ecological zones and conditions should be a high pIiority. 16. Development of better models and techniques to rehabilitate degraded forests is also a high priority. Particular emphasis should be given to rehabilitation of degraded forests through protection, or protection plus en-ichment planting. Such models are much less costly than full afforestation models and also do well in joint management arrangemer.ts as a variety of N become available for collection within a year or two, only. Sinice the government does not have the resources to replant the vast areas of degaded forests at once, this can be a very useful model to protect the areas in the meantime. More work is needed on the potential for expanding NTFP, on methods for propagating the trees and shrubs that produce them, and on how to include them in multiple product forest plantations. Multi-product models (trees, bushes and grasses) tend to maximize diversity and provide more environmental benefits the traditional models. 17. Forestry research needs to be strengthened considerably to support the desired development and provide solutions to field problems. This strengthening needs to begin by providing increased status and autonomy to the research function, increasing the qualifications and continuity of state forest research staff and improving links to central forest research and other research efforts in the states and the world. Within the broad priorities set out above each state needs to set its own priorities - with the importance of each topic related to area coverage and likely benefits. It is suggested that forest field staff be given more say in formulation and evaluation (annual) of research programs. Sociological research needs to be canied out in parallel with idenification of technical and economic options for the above programs. An assessment of how best to develop an effective extension mechanism for trees (forestry and hordculture) to farmers and local villagers is also needed. The mechanism should as far as possible de in with existing research and extension systems. C. Better Public Sector Forest Management 18. The state governments should review how the responsibilities and the tasks done by the forest departments can be restructured to give them a more reasonable workload and better address priority concerns. They need to define which of the tasks allotted to the forest department are legitimate govemment concerns which cannot be handled by any one outside the public sector (listing which agencies) and concentrate on them. They should also list tasks which could be undertaken by other actors such as NGOs and the private sector (including private individuals, farmers, cooperatives and industries) with appropriate suppot Examples of areas that clear:y need to be managed by the public sector include regulation, monitoring, protection, some aspects of technology development and extension. Areas which could be addressed by the private sector include inter alia operation of forest industries, production of seedlings, afforestation and some forest research. Many NGOs are technically weak but their assistance can be helpful as a complement to government activities, particularly as a link at the grassroots. Functions which could be performed by other government departments such as farm forestry research and extension should also be reviewed. -ix- 19. The effectiveness of public forest management can be increased. The key will be to coordinate forestry programs between implementing agencies and review the forest administration's intemal organization. It is questionable whether FDCs and other boards or corporations should remain semi-independent, be pvatized, or merged with the forest directorates' overall work ptogramns. Adoption of joint management will require re-orientation of forestry staff and changes in the working procedures. While most of the forest directorates' work can be carried out by generalist staff they need specialized support in certain fields (e.g. forestry research, resource assessment, management of protected areas, marketing). Government needs to think about how to address this issue and its implications for staff training, organization and promotional prospects. The training of lower level staff needs particular attention. There is also a need for a forum where professionals from different states could debate forestry topicsfissues of common interest. Forest department staffing appears high for certain categories and states may need to address this after in-depth review. Hiring in outside experts or contracting out tasks should be considered wherever possible. Improved procedures, management information systems and increased delegadon of financial powers would also make the organization more effecdve. There are often problems relating to timely release of funds, which is critical in a time-bound activity such as plantng. The current short-term target-oriented focus needs to change to one of high quality and long-term sustainability with a consistent system of rewards to achieve these goals. D. DMM:1=n1 Pdorides 20. Forestry planning needs to be viewed on a state-by-state basis since conditions are diverse and forest resources far from equally distributed. Each state should prepare a forest strategy and development program based on areas that are critical to conserve at all costs, forests with relatively intact cover which would also be a priority to protect and degraded forest areas. In the future all forestry investments must be made on the basis of prioritized forest management plans which is not the case now. Priorities will need to be set to detemine where to focus protection and joint management efforts, where to start development activities, and areas that are low priority because they are too difficult or cosdy to treat. The state plans that are being prepared as an input into the National Forestry Action Plan are an important step in this directon. 21. The better quality areas and areas which are easier to develop should be taken up first. Many good forests are in danger of degradation unless suitable institutional mechanisms are developed to protect them, and a large area of degraded forests could likely be rehabilitated through protecton only. Trees should not be supported for their own sake. Economic and environmental trade-offs and social sustainabiity should determine the kind of development to favor on particular locations. It may be that multi-product mixtures of trees, bushes and grasses, or fruitbearing trees/bushes, or other crops would be the best land uses in certain areas. It is suggested that the provision in the Forest Conservation Act which restricts use of non-forest species be relaxed to allow such development where appropriate especially in context of JFM. The forest administrations should concentrate on protecting and developing the fort.; + lands. Farmers can take up farm forestry plantations themselves including production of required planting materals, if provided extension support Since results of afforestation efforts on non-forest public wastelands have not been up to expectations, more focus should be placed on forest lands in future afforestation efforts. 22. Biodiversity conservation could be improved through a spectrum of interventions to meet differing needs. Some areas require total protection while others can tolerate a higher degree of intervention by local people. A three-pronged approach includes: (a) extension and improvement of the protected area network; (b) increasing benefits to local populations in and aound protected areas through joint management and other eco-development activities; and (c) Including biodiversity obecives in management of muldple use forest lands. It is rocommended that the Namonal Afforestason and EcDevelopment Board develop a strategy for experimentadon with multi-use forests. 23. Increased investments need to take place in forent maagement and development and in a number of supporting functions in order to cary out th above stegy. The suppordng functions include but are not limted to seed handling and processing, nury f uc, and staff and NG0 training. Funds need to be provided for imporvnt sivculture operadons which currently often are neglected, joint management of forests, expanded poms for reailitation of degraded forest lands and for biodiversity conservadon efforts. Funds will also be required for equipment and operation of research progams in priority areas required for upgading technological knowledge. A greater porton of revenues from forest exploitation and development projects USing forest lands should flow back to forest development. It is suggested that funds fiom the many different forestry schemes be consolidated by the government and some funds could be reallocated from current plantation progmms and policing efforts toward the above priorides. E. Areas forFurtherAnalii 24. 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I. %, ....... . ..... , '.... 1-%,._:.,. x if.,LK". ,',`, L .,.,,.,..':::.::::,:' -.- I.1 ...: -:....!;:, X. ..Ix .:. :.:r: :....: . :. -.:i%i::::::: , ,,,, ..:j-. .. ... ... .... . . .... . ............ A.I 11 I t 0 19 re.: tv -it Vv i4- .7;:, CHAPTER L IA'S FOREST RESOURCES 1.1 ntrotlzton. Indian forests are under immense pressure and are rapidly being degraded. One of the reasons is the severe land scarcity in India which is increasing with the rising population. Indigenous populations earlier farming in valleys or practicing shifting cultivation in relatively fertile forest areas have become marginalized and have moved to farm more fragile areas on shorter cycles. Poor farmers and landless populations encroach on forest areas, hoping that as in the past their holdings will eventually be regularized. Many poor families have also become dependent on forests for household fuel needs and to supplement their incomes though sale of fuelwood and other forest produce. Other important pressures on the forests are state governments' demands for revenue from the forests and for timber, pulp and fuelwood to supply industries and urban consumers. Forests have also come under pressure from organized illegal felling. 1.2 Forests are important to rural people as they provide fuel, fodder, some food and income. Althnvigh forests do not account for a major portion of CDP or employment, they protect watersheds, provide valuable environmental services and add to the agricultural economy. Agriculture is still the mainstay of rurl India. It contributes 30o of GNP, 60% of employment and is the pnrmary source of livelihood in rural areas which account for 75% of India's population and 80% of its poor. With all arable land under cultivation, increased agricultural output will depend on raising crop yields, increasing cropping intensity and diversification to higher value crops. In rainfed areas it will be harder to acheve agriculture growth and forests will continue to provide an increasingly important role for the livelihood of local communides. Therefore, it is important to maintain and improve the condition of remaining forest areas where that is the best land use alternative. Some of the main constraints to improving the forest resources include: the large demand for fuelwood, land scarcity resulting in heavy pressure from people who do not recognize environmental benefits; a lack of consistent incentives to motivate local people and the private sector to protect and develop forest resources; poor planting materials and application of technology to increase productivity; and a public sector forest management which is not working as wel as it could. 1.3 Forestry development in India is a complex issue and there are many actors in the sector with conflicting demands on the resource. Since the pressure on forests is high, it is impossible to protect forests without the active participation of local people. Conflicts between different objectives for forest development and use are inevitable since forests have to satisfy multiple needs of a large number of different user groups. The revenue and economic return objectives of the states conflict with environmental objectives to maintain the forests areas without interventions and the social objectives of providing fuel, small timber and fodder needs to the local people. The environmental movement is strong in India, but no one organization is considered its spokesman. PoliticaUy strong urban populations demand fuelwood and industries lobby for pulpwood and timber. The scarcity of budgetary funds makes it increasingly important to prioritdze public investments correcdy. 1.4 This review has three related objectives: (a) to help India identify options for refocussing its investment strategy; (b) to help the Bank to improve its dialogue and lending operations; and (c) to make recommendations regarding changes in policy instruments to meet sector goals. The aim is to provide practical suggestions. The starting point for the review is based on Bank experience gained over the past 15 years in social forestry and watershed development in India, numerous reviews of the agriculture and forestry sectors', and most recently the preparation of two comprehensive forestry sector projects in the states of Maharashtra and West Bengal. The Bank's Forest Policy Paper, the Asia Region Forestry Strategy and the 1992-93 World Development Report on environmental issues contribute to the strategy. Since previous papers have described the sector and its problems, this report will focus on the above mentioned key issues and means to resolving them. A review of ruml energy in India is about to be initiated by ESMAP so this report will only briefly touch upon that subject. 1 Wasteland Development Review 1988. Review of Raitfed 1988. Forestry Sector Overview 1990. and Country Economic Memorandum 1991. Vol IL Agriculwe -2- 1.5 The Bank's forest policy views forests as having an important role to play in poverty alleviation and sustainable economic development. In addition to these oUjectives, Bank forestry operations aim to reduce deforestation (especially in tropical moist forest), enhance the environmental contributions of forested areas; and promote afforestation in deficit areas. The major approaches to be applied in pursuit of these objectives include: (i) addressing major policy and institutional problems in the sector, (ii) increasing the involvement of local populations and the private sector, (iii) reducing commercial logging in primary tropical moist forest; and (iv) encouraging government commitment to forest conservation including establishment of institutional capacity to implement and enforce this commitment. The objectives of India's Forest Policy meet or exceed the preconditions for forestry investment set out in the draft Operational Directive. The Asia Strategy fur forestry in India emphasizes policy dialogue to remove disincentives for forestry development and increase involvement of local populations in forest management. coupled with large investments in forest and farm forest plantations. 1.6 This report will look at the above issues and identify ways to improve sector performance. This chapter provides an introduction to the forestry sector in India and sets the stage for the review. Chapter II explores the problems related to people and livestock pressure on forests, and promising approaches involving local participation in public forest management. Chapter m outlines policies and pracdces which constrain the contribution of farmers and forest industries to forest development. Chapter IV discusses improvements in productivity which are possible through adoption of existing technologies and priority areas which require further research. Chapter V summarizes key changes needed to increase effectiveness of the forest administration in supporting sector development. Possible strategies and areas for future action are highlighted within each of the chapters. Persective on Forest Resources 1.7 Forestry is important for village economies and pressure on forest lands is high. Trees cover 73 million ha or about 22% of India's land area. About 90% of all forests are publicly owned and managed. Due to their considerable geographical extension and the large number of people depending on them, public forests play an important role in the conservation of environmental quality, the welfare of the rural poor and the productivity of agricultural lands. Forests are the main source of household energy in India and by far the main depositories of genetic diversity. Forest resources protect water and soils and provide a number of industrial materials. Wood demand in India was 264 million m3 in 1988, of which 90% was for fuelwood (46% of India's household energy). The demand for wood will continue to increase with rising incomes and a growing population. Forests are a main source of fodder and non-timber forest products (NTFP), such as oils, medicinal plants, silk, resins, dyes, fibers and leaves. Many rural dwellers, particularly women, are employed in forestry or collection of NTFP. Although the contribution of the forestry sector to GNP often has been estimated at less than 2%, this figure does not take into account its numerous non-market and external benefits or the vast amounts of fuelwood collected in the form of twigs and sdcks or the fuelwood and timber that are harvested illegally. Forestry was less than 1% of total public sector Plan ouday during 1951-90. 1.8 Forests are not spread evenly in India, but are concentrated in the Northeast, the Himalayas and Siwalik ranges, the central belt, strips along the Western Ghats and other hill areas, and in patches of coastal mangroves. Of the area under forest cover, 37% is tropical moist deciduous forest (including the high value sal forests); 29% is tropical dry forest (where teak is a valued species); 8% is tropical wet evergreen forest and 26% is subtropical, temperate, alpine and other forests (Annex 1). More than 50% of the forest land is located in five states: Madhya Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Maharashtra (Figure 1.1). Thirty percent of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa is covered by forest, 82% of Arunachal Pradesh, 17% of Andhra Pradesh and 15% of Maharashtra. This contrasts to the situation in other large states, whereby Gujarat, a primarily semi-arid and arid state, has barely 6% land under forest, and Rajasthan and Punjab, each less than 4%. Most forests are not large condguous blocks but rather small patches interspersed by habitations. -3- Figure 1.1: ACTUAL FOREST COVER 140000 120000 100000 80000 60000 40000 20000 0 1uc:7Saef stRpt91FrsSryfni Source: Ihe State of Forests Report 1991. Forest Survey of India. -4- 1.9 Nearly 4% of the land area has been set aside in 480 pars and sanctuaries to protect India's biodiversity. Many plants (33%), reptiles (32%) and amphibians (62%) are endemic while fewer of the mammals and birds are (3.5%). The Northeast, Western Ohats and the north-western and eastern Himalayas have the richest biodiversity. In total, protected areas cover 12 million ha of which 8 million is forest land with tree cover. While impressive progress has been made in conservation programs over the past decades the momentum needs to be kept up to preserve the remaining wildlife areas in India. There are no uniform criteria for classification of protected areas, with the result that some areas of great biological value are declared sanctuaries rather than national parks or left out altogether, while some parks and sanctuaries include areas of low biological value. Nor are existing areas well-protected because people ignore restrictions on use (see Chapter II). Many of the sanctuaries are too small to maintain any viable wildlife populations, particularly of the larger mammals. An extensive study was carried out by the Wildlife Institute of India to expand the protected areas network to cover important biomes currently left out, and to provide links between parks to facilitate seasonal migration and outbreeding. However, this study did not take the sociological sustainability of current or proposed protected areas into account. Although everyone agrees that forests provide important environmental services the needs for forest products are so great that only a limited set of areas can be closed off on biodiversity grounds. 1.10 Forests are particularly important to tribals. The tribal people of India number 54 million or 8% of the total population (1981 Census of India). Most of the tribal communities are settled agriculturalists, the remaining 12% being shifting cultivators. In isolated pockets of dense forests in South India, there are some small band societies of food gatherers and hunters completely dependent on forests. The largest population of tribal people are located in the states of Bihar in the North, Gujarat and Rajasthan in the West, Orissa in the East and Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra in Central India. The tribals of Central India constitute 50% of the total tribal population and this is also where the most extensive forests are located. 1.11 A large part of India's forests are degraded and productivity is poor. Only about one half of the forests have a crown density of over 40% and in many places the forest cover has already disappeared. While the forests are still relatively rich in flora and fauna, these resources are rapidly declining due to over-exploitation and encroachment as mentioned earlier for agriculture production, and shorter shifting cultivation cycles practiced by tribal populations (over about 10 million ha). Although the data base on which to judge past deforestation rates is weak, it is believed to have been up to one million ha/year prior to 1980. Actual forest conversion has slowed down considerably in the recent decade after the promulgation of the Forest Conservation Act. The latest satellite data indicate that the net loss of area under tree cover has been brought to a halt. However, the quality of the remaining forests has diminished over time and the resource continues to be overused. There is only about 0.08 ha forest per capita in India, that compares with 0.85 ha in Indonesia, 1.45 ha in Malaysia and over 1.2 ha in the United States. Deforestation and degradation is a subject of growing concern in India, with far-reaching environmental, social and economic consequences. It is no longer a question oi.providing equal protection to the whole area registered as forest land. Instead it is a question of which remaining areas are of high priority for conservation, what lands are encroached or so degraded that they are unavailable for development, and what one does with the degraded forest areas in between those two categories. State govemment policy makers need to recognize the above conflicts, evaluate the trade-offs and make judgments on the course to pursue, while understanding the possibilities and costs to those choices. 1.12 Government has sought to increase forest areas by planting on wastelands. However, many identified wasteland areas are in fact already used for other purposes. While there has been extensive planting under the social forestry programs on private, communal and non-forest public lands over the past decade, conservative estimates are that at most 5 million ha equivalent has been developed. Estimation of wastelands available for afforestation is difficult as they fall under a variety of tenure categories and are counted differently by different records. Also, what appears unutilized to the Revenue Departnent may be marginal pasture to local users. Estimates indicate that about 74 million ha of heavily degraded forest lands, private fallow, marginal agricultural lands and uncultivated non-forest public lands, could be available for afforestadon. In elity only a small part of tlis figure i likely to be developed over the next two decades. 1.13 A mator goal of India's foest policy is to incrase forest cover to 33% of the land area but in view of existing pressures it seems unlikely that the forest resoure could be extended much beyond the curent level (22%). The additional non-forest areas that could realisdcally be developed for forest purposes by the year 2010 have been conservatively estimated at about 12 million ha (3.5 million ha uncultivated revenue land and 8.5 million ha of private fallows and marginal sown area). At the same time It Is expected that large areas currndy under forest would be lost to other uses (many areas under shifting cultivation and encroachment would be peranently converted to agricultur and other aeas would be lost to development activides). Degradation will likely continue in many forest areas while some cunently degmded forest areas would improve through development efforts. With these trends and figures in mind it becomes clear that the future forestry strategy will need to focus on preventing ongoinp degtadation, rehabilitating degraded forest lands and developing private farm forestry, while afforextation on non-forest public lands will assume relatively less importance. (In Million Hectes) LAND CURRENT POREST CATEGORY SMTUATION AREA IN PUOR COLUMN Foies (440% 34 34 cover) ____ For(cove 331a 33 Uncultivated 22&- ReviueLid ____ Privatewder ues 6 6 Privatet low 27____ Private sown, (inc. 142 Ubanjo AS. 20 Rocky, b8m 20 T(YFAL 304il 73 la Tle million hoces of tdis aebL While dieFortDeplteoataltof75 mo boces of FD owned land, 67 million hecaes of forest land am rcorded in Revenue Dmnt RocOM Since the discreant 8 mion hecaes in any case have no ues, they are ichluede uder rvmaland or rcky, baoren land. Al lhis number is based upon calclatios made by N.C. Saxena hi At de mas, S milion hocas hve boen planted ouwide forest lands, while tradito peW and probably pivaely feesanding tres may total up t S milion hecs. Tis tabl e_mates dthate total riva te area is more likdy about 6 million hectares. 4 This number is te total ua of land in India for which roords ar ailab die mal land u Is 329 milMo hecar -6- Trade-off Between Different Invstments 1.14 While forests provide many valuable services to society, reafforestation is not always the most economic or sustainable use of degraded lands. The benefits of one land use over another should, at the margin, be the determining factor. The criteria could be a blend of cost, attractiveness to local communities, envronmental importance, projected sustainability, -tc. The value of producing only forest trees needs to be compared to a multi-product mixture of trees, shrubs and grasses; fruit bearin* trees/bushes or other crops2. Muld-purpose technology models also tend to maximize biodiversity and to provide more environmental services to protect land/soil and to recharge groundwater. Little analysis has been done of the comparative value of different land use systems. On private and non-forest public lands this lack of analysis is due to inadequate research efforts on mixed systems while the reason for not considering altemative models on forest lands is that the Forest Conservation Act regulates non-forest uses (including agriculture, horticulture and plantation crops). A relaxation of these provisions where appropriate could be advantageous. For example, rubber and cashew could provide annual benefits to gatherers for many years while simultaneously producing valuable timber and fuelwood. However, the government is, in view of current pressures, not prepared to liberalize this policy now. 1.15 The government cannot spare enough funds to develop all degraded areas over the short- term It is also a managerially daunting task. Therefore, it is important to set priorities by dividing the lands into three categories. Forests that are critical to consefve at all costs, forests with relatively intact cover which would also be a priority to protect and degraded forest areas. The latter category again can be divided up in priority areas to target for development, those to be tackled later on, and those that are low priority because they are too heavily encroached or have special problems that make successful development unlikely and/or very costly. Since public funds are scarce, it is important to examine alternatives to traditional plantation models. Regeneration from viable rootstocks through protection only or protection plus enrichment plantings can cover a large area relatively quickly and are cost-efficient. Forest areas suitable for such development will need to be identified. Areas which cannot easily or cost-effectively be regenerated or replanted sustainably with forest species only could be planted to a mixture of species, or if there was strong case be used for development projects. The same strategies could be followed for prioritizing investments on public non-forest wastelands. Government Strategy 1.16 The measures adopted by the Government of India (GOI) to address forest degradation and supply of forest raw materials have not achieved the desired results. The current strategy encompasses both legal measures to control diversion of forest land and theft from forests as well as investments in reafforestation. The focus of the forestry strategy has shifted considerably over the last decades. In the 1960-70s, GO concentrated on production areas to maximize timber and quick growing species for industrial uses, enforced forest protection, and supply of forest products at subsidized rates through public market depots. This approach failed to control unauthorized exploitation and relationships between local people and forestry personnel became increasingly strained. During the 1980s countrywide wasteland afforestation and social forestry programs were launched covering a reported 1.5 million ha/year (40-50% farm forestry), although this amount may be overstated. Even with this considerable level of investment outside forest areas degradation of the forest resource could not be halted. Direct investment in forest areas is also needed. 2 in West Bengal models, the fnancial rawes of return for production forestry ranged from 8-12 percent without and 10-25 percent with interaoppmig during the establishment phase. Returns on multi-product models range from 7-17 p-ermnt withoe; and 12-21 percent with interopping. The intrcrops were grasses, legumes and indigneous medicinal herbs, as Gilowed by MOEFs circular of June 1990 for joint managementL The return to sal forest regeneration through protection was over 50%, while models including regeneration with enrichment planting showed a retun of 28 percent. -7- 1.17 In 1988, forest strategy in India took anentirely newdirecdon with the announcement of a new forest policy (described in Chapter V). This policy is very progressive compared to that in most developing countries. While the policy includes many important, conservation-oriented features, the realism of some of the stated goals such as achieving 33% forest cover or supplying forest industries mainly from farm forestry, are open to question. Furthermore, competing objectives of the policy need to be harmonized. To back up the new policy an ambitious program was formulated for the Eighth Plan period during which India intends to afforest about 10 million hectares of degraded lands, promote NTFP and support forest and wildlife management, research, extension and training. However, more attention needs to be directed to exisdng reasonably well- stocked forests, to creating an incentive framework that motivates the different actors to contribute to forest development, and to addressing institutional issues. Lessons from Forest Development Efforts 1.18 There are promising trends that make tackling forest degradation seem possible. The social forestry programs have led to the development of a more people-oriented forest service and to the development of new technologies for afforestation and regeneration of the natural forests. Farmers have shown an interest in private tree planting and there are some successful models for involving local people in the management of village and degraded forest lands. The role of cooperatives, NGOs, and private institutions in forestry has also increased over the past decade. The Ministry of Environment and Forests has started to encourage management of degraded forest lands in cooperation with local communities, and several states have issued formal benefit-sharing arrangements for such activities. Introducing these new approaches on the large scale envisioned in the forest policy will require, however, some strong redirection in the current investment patterns and some fundamental policy changes. Box 1.1 An evaluation of Bank experience in forestry (OED, 1991), reports many findings that have important implications for future lending. The early industrial forestry projects were relatively straight-forward and most were rated satisfactory. The second generation forestry projects may show disappointing results, but it is still too early to say. The social forestry projects face issues in marketing, technology, research and extension. Environmental forestry projects encounter problems in forest management and protection as well as technical and financial constraints. Monitoring and evaluation is deficient in many projects which makes accurate assessment of project impact more difficult. Experience suggests that forests are not an abundant resource, that they ame used for multiple purposes, that communities should get involved in planning, that management and implementation will determine the success, and that sustainability depends on the incentive system. The key to successful development is not technology but institutional and human/cultural capital. The complex interplay between forests, people and culture should be clearly recognized. More attention needs to be given to property rights, organizational arrangements that are workable at the local level and management issues. Forestry projects are affected by the economic policy environment. Several of these issues can only be resolved at the sector or national level. Examples are the allocation of public funds, pricing policies, policies affecting land use, organization of the public and private sector and property rights and institutional reforms. To deal with these issues there needs to be better interaction between sector work and forestry lending. OED recommends a programmatic rather than project based lending vehicle with a focus on natural forest and environmental management. 8- 1.19 The Bank has extensive experience with forestry in India which hlas conttibuted to fonnuladon of a new approach to support forestry projects and many of the recommendadons in this report. Over the past 15 years The Bank has supported ten Indian forestry projects with a total of US$500 million. Most of that investment has been for social forestry and watershed development activides in one or several states. The major lessons from these projects are similar to the Bankwide experience (Box 1.1). Support for social forestry without addressing other sector issues was not enough. A more comprehensive approach, baswd on in-depth state-by-state sector analysis is necessary in order to address the complex and inter-related forestry issues it. Other important lessons include a need for improved seed and extension services, more emphasis on the planning, environmental and management dimensions of plantations and existing natural forests; methods to deal with the problems of common property rights through a better local participatory process; and inter-agency coordination in the execution of the various project components. These factors were taken into account in the recently approved Maharashtra and West Bengal Forestry Projects (Cr. 2328-IN and Cr. 2341-IN) which embody the new approach for Bank support to Indian forestry. In addition to supporting investments for a range of forestry related activides (natural forest management, rehabilitation and reafforestadon of degraded forests, social forestry and ecodevelopment, wildlife and biodiversity, support services, etc.) they also address key policy and institutional constraints. 1.20 In order to tailor policies and strategies to address the issues in the forest sector one needs to understand the different actors. The next chapter will explore in more detail the relationship between people, forests and the environment; and the key factors to achieving successful involvement of forest and fringe forest dwellers in management of public forests. -9- CHAPTER II. PEOPLE. FORESTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 2.1 Links exist between populadon growth, lagging agriculture production in many rainfed areas and environmental degradation. To keep up food production, fallow cycles are shortened leading to loss of soil fertility, poor harvests, expansion of the cultivated area on to more and more marginal lands, and an increased dependence on forests for alternate livelihood. As a result surrounding populations rely on forests for a variety of forest products for subsistence use and sale, for fodder and grazing of livestock, and particularly in tribal areas, as a source of agriculture land. Their use of forest areas is not sustainable. This is wonrying because conservation and development efforts will not work unless people are prepared to protect existing or newly created forest resources and given options to derive the products they need and want without degrading the resource. In order to satisfy the above needs people also make use of forests designated as protected areas which creates a separate set of problems. As mentioned earlier forests also come under heavy pressure from authorized exploitation to supply urban consumers and forest industries and organized illegal felling. There are conflicts in deciding how to allocate scarce forest resources, an issue that needs to be addressed direcdy by policymakers. This chapter will explore the relationship of surrounding populations to forests and protected areas, the reasons why people overuse forests, and the experience from successful experiments in enlisting the cooperation of local people in forest management. Overexploitation of Forest Products 2.2 The uses that are responsible for the bulk of the pressure are f&elwood for household energy, grazing for livestock, and land for agriculture. The relative importance of these factors varies from place to place depending on distances to cities, livestock densities, agriculture productivity, land scarcity and alternate employment opportunities. The demand for industrial wood, timber and NTFPe is also significant and demand for these products is growing with rising incomes. Extraction of amber and industrial wood is discussed in Chapter Em[. 2.3 In urban as well as rural areas many people condnue to rely on fiielwood. According to India's UNCED submission 70% of rural people and 50% of urban people use fuelwood for cooking purposes. In urban areas commercial fuels make up the differ .-ce while agriculture wastes and cow dung are used in rural areas where fuelwood is scarce (Fig 2.1). People in larger cities are increasingly switching to kerosene. Although kerosene is n ot more costly than fuelwood (there is a subsidy of about 35% of the c.i.f. price) and kerosene stoves are cheap, it is rationed and availability cannot always be assured particularly in smaller towns and rural areas. Many industries in smaller cities still use fuelwood as their primary source of et :rgy. In cities with a population over one million most fuelwood is purchased. In medium-siz- a nd smaller cities about 25% of household wood fuel is collected free compared to 76% in rumal are,s. Most of the rural population will likely continue to depend on gathered fuels and keep their li ited cash for items that must be purchased. Alternative supplies of commercial energy need tc bc. arranged urgently for urban and industrial users who pay for the produce. 2.4 There is a large demand-supply gap for fuelwood but existing macro-level analyses of the role of fuelwood in the overall energy economy of India are not showing the whole picture. Fuelwood consumption is estimated at 162 million air dried tons per annum, about four times the sustainable cut (ESMAP). However, the supply of wood classified as fuelwood is likely a small part of the total supply of burnable biomass including that available from common areas and private lands. Furthermore, the percentage of cooking energy derived from livestock dung, agricultural residue, and manufacturing residue is likely to be considerably higher than estimated. As wood is getting more scarce people are switching to lower grade fuels. -10- Figure 2.1: URBAN AND RURAL HOUSEHOLD ENERGY (1980) URBAN AREAS * Soft Coke 8.32% 11.56% ~ ~ ~~EKerosene 3.40% UElectric 12.63% LPG 12.89% Firewood - - ~~~~~~3.05% Twigs 2.39% r= Veg. Crop Waste 111Dung Cake *Charcoal 43.02% * Gobar Gas RURAL AREAS 24.43% 14.59% 18.89%/ 3865% Source: Adapted from "Domestic Fuel Survey with special reference to Kerosene" by I. Natarajan (1985). 2.5 Local people collect fuelwood to satisfy their own needs and for sale to rural elites and to middlemen who transport it to smaller and larger cities. Gathering (headloading) fuelwood for sale is an important source of income to many poor fringe forest dwellers who lack altemate employment (especially tribal women). The Center for Science and the Environment estimated in 1982 that at least 2-3 million people work as "headloaders" but this estimate seems very low. A survey of 170 households in 9 villages in Bihar showed headloading served as the major source of income for a fifth of the households. With growing deforestation fuelwood became more commercialized and as fuelwood prices have risen sharply compared to agriculture prices, headloading has become more profitable than it used to be. Farmers who planted trees have become self-sufficient in household fuel and many times use the leaves and branches themselves and sell off the rest as poles for cash. Fuelwood plantations are often not very profitable since they compet- with gatherers who collect the resource without other costs than their own labor. 2.6 Current efforts to reduce fuelwood consumption have not been effective because of the way the pro Tams were designed and implemented. While a large number of improved stoves and biogas plants have been disseminated, the adoption rates have been low, and the likely impact on fuelwood consumption almost negligible in field operation. Worldwide research has demonstrated that improved stoves have the potential to provide substantial health and fuelwood consumption benefits. That many of these benefits have not yet been captured reflects the difficulties of designing and extending appropriate models which are responsive to the varied requirements of different user households and available fuels. Subsidized government programs and the use of socially unresponsive technologies have prevented the guided development of market solutions. The programs should be focussed on people who really need improved stoves in areas where fuel is scarce. If people had to buy the devices, designs would evolve that address local needs. Alternative promising methods of reducing consumption include changes in food preparation patterns (pre-soaking lendls) and fuel preparation (drying, briquettes). 2.7 Fuel collection and cooking tasks place a disproportionate burden on poor w'omen and children with increasing negative impacts on productivity, nutrition, health and children's educadon. Households which are having to move down the biomass chain to less calorie-intensive burning materials (leaves, twigs, etc.) bear the brunt of these negative effects. As degradation sets in women have to walk further to collect fuel and fodder. As a consequence children need to help women more and are withheld from school. Female education is the most important factor in increasing demand for smaller families, so without schooling there is little chance of a change in population growth rates. The complex distributional issues associated with various social forestry programs can either function to improve or worsen this situation. A study in West Bengal (Nesmith, 1991) has shown, for example, that eucalyptus leaves are a significant benefit to middle- income households from farm forestry on marginal private lands, generating important time- savings for other purposes (2 hours/day). A better understanding is needed of the distribution chain of products from public and private tree plantings at the microlevel to devise systems that will reach the poorest households. 2.8 In addition to the importance to women of forests as sources of fuelwood and fodder, the forestry sector has also been an important source of income. A large proportion of the employment generated in both timber and non-timber based forest enterprises accrues to women, although they have been increasingly marginalized as the resource base narrows and products become more commercialized. Forests and marginal pasture and commons have traditionally provided women with additional sources of household income and in times of natual disasters have been the exclusive income and food source for poor families. The reduced availability of forest products as a result of forest degradation makes poor families increasingly vulnerable in times of floods or droughts, and is a growing reason for their migration in such periods to cities. Given their limited education and job skills, these people are often marginalized there in low-paying, insecure jobs. -12- 2.9 Non-timber forest products are a significant source of subsistence products, employment and household income in areas near forests. NTFP production and use is high in a number of states: Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, West Bengal, Andra Pradesh, and the Northeastern states. Annual employment is estimated at over 2 million person years and NTFP have been estimated to account for nearly 40% of state forest revenues and about 75% of net export earnings from forest produce. The majority of workers in the NTFP-related economy are women. 2.10 Tribal populations depend heavily on NFPs for income and subsistence. One reason NTFF's are so important for tribals is that they have been pushed toward more and more marginal areas. Since agriculture yields are lower and more uncertain in marginal areas the reliance on NTFI's is high, both for food security during seasonal shortages and famine periods as well as for household medicines and income needs. Fortunately, the availability of edible NTFPs is highest during the agriculturally lean summer period (Figure 2.2). It is hard to assess the value of NTFPs to triba'R as there are few good studies on the subject. In four states rich in NTFP income from sale of these items accounts for 5 to 55% of the seller's total income. About 30% of the diet of Maharashtra-based tribal groups living near forests is derived from forest products such as leaves, vegetables, tubers, fruits, nuts, bamboo shoots, small animals and honey. Commercial NTFPs in Maharashtra include tendu leaves (used for rolling beedie cigarettes), sisal (for rope), bamboo, lac (for shellac), jatropha (for oil), tasar silk cocoons, foods and medicinal plants. West Bengal tribal groups in the rehabilitated forest areas of South Bengal collect 27 commercial products, 39 plant food products and 47 medicines for human or animal use. Micro-studies by IBRAD show that Forest Protection Committee (FPC) members in West Bengal earn Rs. 2 to 9 per day on average from commercial NTFP including sal leaves (which are stitched into plates) tendu leaves, sal seeds (for oil), mahua flowers (for country liquor), medicinal plants, tasar silk and mushrooms. Agiculture/Forestry Interface 2.11 Conflicts between agriculture and forestry occur through livestock grazing, shifting cultivation and encroachment. Livestock ownership has always been an important subsistence strategy of the smallholders and landless, for whom animals provide the second most important source of cash after agriculture labor, and a cushion against lean periods. With 13% of the world's livestock population (including 400 million cattle) and less that 0.5% of its grazing lands, India faces a severe fodder shortage. Agriculture land is also scarce and a large number of people have encroached on forests and shifting cultivation has been taken up on shorter cycles and over a wider area. 2.12 Heavy grazing in the forests damages trees, compacts soil, and prevents regeneration. As traditional grazing lands have been turned over to agriculture and many previously mono-cropped areas are being double-cropped, forests have become the main source of grazing and fodder especially during the dry season. An indication of the livestock pressure is that of 174 protected areas surveyed, 67 percent of national parks and 83 percent of the sanctuaries reported grazing incidence (although grazing is not allowed in protected areas). There are two main types of livestock pressures on forests and wastelands. One is pressure from sedentary village livestock- cattle and smaU ruminants--and the other is pressure from migratory animals grazed transhumandy by traditional, ethnic graziers. In recent decades, there has been a reduction in the number of nomadic households in response to competing demands on land. There has also been a change in the composition of livestock holdings--generally towards more cattle and smaU ruminants and away from buffalo which require high quality and reliable sources of fodder and water. -13- Figure 2.2: SEASONAL NTFP AVAILABLiTY Jainboni Range, West Bengal 35- (Ll U. 250 ._ .................. ....g 30 u.20- ; Cr 4. . . . ................. ._ ................. . . . .............. z XI F M A M J J A S O N D MONTHS o Commercial - Edible a Medicinal Source: Project Implementation yolume for the West Bengal Forestry Project, - - ~ ~ -4 -14 - 2.13 There is no comprehensive strategy for the management of grazing areas and fodder production. Inadequate attention is given to the problem and there is no clear division of labor among concerned government agencies. It is not possible to remove the livestock from the forests but rather a question of decreasing the pressure and finding management methods within a forest situation. While solid recommendations exist for stall-feeding productive livestock and producing fodder in high-yielding agricultural areas, there is poor understanding of the economics of raising fodder in drier areas or of the relative merits of stall-feeding compared to rotational grazing. High- yielding cattle breeds cannot be supported by rural poor through stall-feeding in most areas of India and even less so in dry regions. Yet livestock promotion programs continue to function as though there is no conflict with wasteland and forest regeneration programs. Creative strategies need to be explored. 2.14 Forests have over time declined due to heavy extraction, expansion of agricultural production, habitations, development projects, resettlement purposes and for distribution to landles. people. This process has happened both by design of the political leaders and by default where tribal populations earlier farming more fertile areas have been marginalized or where farmers and landless people have settled on forest lands to practice sedentary agriculture or shifting cultivation. In many cases such illegal claims have later been regularized. In order to halt this process GOI promulgated a Forest Conservation Act which restricts diversion of forest land to other uses. Furthermore, the National Forest Policy states that there should be no further regularization of encroached holdings. 2.15 Encroachment of forests and shifting cultivation is still prevalent. The Forest Survey of India estimated in 1987 that over 700,000 ha of forest land was under encroachment. It is unlikely that encroached areas can be brought back under forest again. Another 10 million ha is estimated to be under shifting cultivation. Part of the problem with encroachment and shifting cultivation is that the agronomic practices and fallow cycles used are generally not sustainable which leads to environmental degradation. Although a minority of traditional cultivators still practice relatively sound farming systems, an increasing number have been forced onto smaller and more marginal lands. Furthermore, many of the rural and urban poor who have taken up agriculture in forests do not have experience of farming in fragile hill areas. They are often producing annual agriculture crops following practices brought along from the plains areas and yields are poor. Since they are farming illegally they cannot go to the extension service and ask for help in adopting more suitable farmning systems involving different types of perennial crops or forest intercropping systems. 2.16 A number of initiatives have been adopted in relation to shifting cultivation, but the results have been spotty. In some cases, balanced development programs introduced in areas where traditional groups still have relatively long fallow cycles (10 years or more) could allow continuance of shifting cultivation without negative environmental impacts. In other cases, combinations of agro-forestry and sustainable rainfed farming need to be introduced, but the appropriate technical packages do not exist. Tribal Development Authorities are often poorly linked to the forest departments and plans are not developed in coordination. This leads to a failure to plan strategies for better land use -- often under agroforestry or perennial crops -- which could provide transitional employment for tribals trying to move to a new, more sustainable livelihood system. A recent promising initiative is the cultivation of rubber trees in former shifting cultivation areas in Tripura supported under the IDA assisted Rubber Project (Cr. -IN). Rubber provides income to the growers year-round from the tapping of latex and when the trees are ready to be replaced after about 25-30 years of age they yield valuable rubberwood. - 15- Why People and Forests Are Not in a Sustainable Relationshi 2.17 People overuse forests because they need the products for day to day survival and do not have adequate incentives and tenure security to conserve the resource itself. As mentioned earlier about 66% of India's populadon is still employed in agriculture but the basic resource, land, is tremendously scarce. The elements of the people/agriculture/ environmental degrdation spiral (para 2.1) are mutually reinforcing and linked thuough tradidonal practices for agriculture production, fuelwood collection, the roles of women and land tenure., Without alternative economic development and population control there is not much hope that the pressures on forest lands will ease anytime soon. Since no dramatic change is expected in these factors over the next decade considerable effort and ingenuity will be required to develop local arangements which can provide the required products in a sustainable fashion. 2.18 Traditionally fuel, fodder and NTFPs were available from the common lands which are esdmat-d to have constituted up to 80% of Indian land area until the late 19th century. Pressure on common resources has increased over time as population increased on a fixed land base, rainfed agriculture productivity could not keep up, and common and forest areas shrunk due to encroachment and distribution to individuals. Dependency on common lands and forests is particularly important for the rural poor. A 1986 study on villagers in an arid zone of India showed that the poor received up to 84% of their food, energy and income needs from common property resources as opposed to up to 38% for the non-poor. 2.19 The breakdown of traditional arrangements regulating access to common lands has hastened the degradation process. A study of 80 villages in India deternined that less than 10% of the original village rules governing common resources were still in effect. Forests are now considered de facto open access resources because the forest laws which contain a large number of restrictions on use of public forests are difficult to enforce. Tenure is insecure in open access areas and there are few incentives for any one to preserve the resources. While it is difficult for villagers to get away with full-scale cutting of live trees, grazing and collection of NTFP and fuelwood is harder to restrict. Removal of bark and girdling of trees is also not uncommon. 2.20 If the continuing gradual degradation of the nation's forest estate is to be reversed, it is imperative to break the negative patterns in the population/agriculture/environment nexus. Although improvements are taking place they are not happening fast enough to keep up with population growth rates. What is needed im-mediately is a change in tenure arrangements and the underlying incentives that will motivate local people to protect and develop forest resources. These efforts should be particularly targeted to women as they play a key role in collection and use of forest products. For the longer term it is important to develop demand for smaller families and to increase productivity of rainfed agriculture. People and Protected Areas 2.21 Local people and their livestock also put pressure on forest areas designated as national parks and sanctuaries. There have been an increasing number of conflicts between local populations and forest staff protecting wildlife and biodiversity interests. There are also conflicts outside protected areas where wild animals venture into fields to feed or accidentally hami suffounding populations. Resolving conflicts between local people and wild life interests is a high priority. Indian regulations stipulate that protected areas should be closed to people and livestock but this concept is problematic since many people already live within areas designated for protection. In reality it has not proven possible to resettle local populations to make room for wildlife, except in very few cases. Delays in formal nodfication of protected areas are due both to administrative constraints and to the fact that it may not be considered reasonable to extinguish the rights of the people already using the areas. There is therefore a need for new approaches which can combine the needs of people with biodiversity and wildlife concerns. I The links in the p puladon/agriculmre/environment nexus in South Saharan Africa were proven in Cleaver and Schreiber (1992). Many of their fndings and recommendations apply also to the Indian context. - 16- 2.22 A number of schemes have been instituted for populations living close to protected areas to improve their economic conditions and keep them and their cattle out of the core areas of parks and sanctuaries. While initial results, often facilitated by NGO support, have been encouraging, it remains to be seen if they will be effective in the longer term. Ecodevelopment is a collective tenn for such efforts which often includes fodder and fuel development in buffer zones, alternate energy sources, intensification of agriculture and development of other employment and income earning opportunities. One of these income sources can be wildlife tourism, fshing would be another possibility if it were allowed. To date few national parks in India have the ifrastructure required to support safaris such as those in Africa. While some areas have good tourism revenue potential, most Indian parks and sanctuaries are too small. However, they could be important for local tourism. A crucial factor to consider in this context is the impact large-scale tourism would have on the fragile ecosystems in question. 2.23 k proposal has been prepared by the Wildlife Institute of India for a modified and expanded Protected Areas Network which covers wildlife and biodiversity concerns but not the socio- economic sustainability of closing those particular areas. There is not an adequate information base to evaluate which ecosystems in India need most protection, the level of protection required and the area coverage for a particular ecosystem. More research is needed to: (a) devise an adequate IAS with workable boundaries; (b) determine the long-term viability of the various existing and proposed protected areas so efforts can be prioritized accordingly; and (c) suggest suitable and practical compromises for use of protected areas. While the core-buffer area concept is well known, another alternative that may be more practical in cases with villages is many different parts of a park, is to operate a limited negadve list. In this case people can go everywhere but they cannot collect certain products which are specifically important to preserve or for feeding the fauna, etc. This approach has the advantage of spreading the pressure and reducing the likelihood of a diminishing core. However, some experts argue that closure is the only way to protect sensitive eco-systems. Different mechanisms could be used as per needs and opportunities in the various protected areas. 2.24 Outside of protected areas, there is too little recognition of the need to follow explicit guidelines to maximize environmental benefits and biodiversity as well as marketable produce. The soundcst strategy for preservation of the full range of biodiversity lies in the establishment and stringent management of a comprehensive network of protected areas covering all biogeographic units, biomes and species. However, in a country like India, where the human and livestock densities are high, pressures on protected areas are strong and their future cannot be guaranteed. When managed with improved conservation objectives multiple use forests around protected areas offer opportunities to enhance the conservation value of the protected areas. Complementary strategies are needed that promote biodiversity outside protected areas and which seek creative solutions to management of protected areas under pressure. 2.25 The trade-offs between environmental services, commercial/urban needs, and the dependence of a large segment of India's poor and India's agriculture/rural economy on forest resources need to be clearly understood. As long as there are no or only limited altemate employment opportunities in rural areas, local populations will have to continue to depend on forest resources, particularly during the agricultural off-season. In this situation it will not be possible or defensible to shut local populations out totally. Nor can the country cufrendy afford to set aside a much larger area of forests for conservation purposes only as the demands from a growing population for forest products has to be addressed in some manner. The question becomes how to find a good balance the different demands that are placed on the forests and to find institutional arrangements, incentives and technologies that allow the forests to satisfy each of these demands more fully on the current land area. We recommend that GOI develop a strategy for multi- use forests with more bio-diversity emphasis. Annex 2 has more details on biodiversity and protected areas in India, programs implemented, and possible strategies for multi-use forests. - 17- Managing Forest Resources at the Local Level 2.26 Effective institutional arrangements need to be established between the forest departments and the local people to reverse the ongoing degradation in all forest areas. While the Government has made an extensive attempt to provide for some of the needs of local users, users have not been motivated to protect the forests. Plantations on public lands outside forests have often not been protected either even though they were set up under the social forestry projects to provide produce for local people. Since the tenure arrangements are different for forest lands and public wastelands, they require different approaches and will be discussed separately. 2.27 Joint Management of Forest Lands. Efforts to develop joint arrangements for forest management have long received sporadic and isolated attention in Indian forestry. The Van Panchayats of the Uttar Pradesh Himalaya and the Forest Cooperatives of Himachal Pradesh are two ex; -nples initiated prior to Independence. While they both showed promise and problems, they were generally not sustained. 2.28 Several states have passed government orders supporting joint management arrangements and GOI has issued a circular supporting joint planning and management of degraded government forests in all parts of India. In West Bengal almost 237,000 ha are now reported to be managed by over 1,700 forest protection committees (Box 2.1). In Haryana more than 40 communities have started catchment protection through forest protection committees and village leasing of grass harvesting rights along the Sukhomaiji model. The earlier efforts have been expanded and revitalized: forest committees are now covering 180,000 ha of forest land in Orissa; Van Panchayats have been given new life in Uttar Pradesh, joint management has started in Jammu and Kashmir, and many village forest protection efforts have come up in a tribal-dominated district in Gujarat (Surat). In addition, new efforts to establish joint management are being tried in a wide variety of ecozones, in some cases with support from NGOs. The salient features of the above models are summarized in Table 2.1. Box 2.1 The Forest Protection Committees (FPC) in West Bengal are a famous example of successful joint management. Starting in 1972 The Forest Department convinced local populations in Arabari in Midnapore district to protect public sal coppice forests through the formation of FPCs in return for free usufruct of all NTFP, first preference for employment, and a promise of 25% share in the net cash benefits from sale of short rotation sal poles. Inidal success led to a gradual spread to neighboring areas and increased support from the Forest Department and NGOs. The FPC model proved effective improving the relationship between forestiy staff and local people and in increasing sal forest regeneration and economic returns. Although the govemment has to share the benefits with the FPCs it now receives considerably higher revenues from the regenerated forests that it did when the areas were degraded. The key factors that motivated the villagers were a cooperative spirit from the Forest Department, regular incomes through employment, collection of NTFP and explicit benefit sharing arrangements for sal poles. As the model evolves, villagers would like to ensure a continuous flow of NTFP and other benefits. They have aleady been requesting staggered harvesting models to address this concern. It would also be easier to protect part of the area and use part of it for collection of NTFPs and fodder/grazing. -18- Table 2.1: CONTY FOREST MANAGEMENT 3XSTEMS Na=e of Type of Forum Protection Towi Nuzib*r Stua of State MWe1d Gmus s of Gnnuo QnM2dr kWW Wft Bpgsl* Reseve and Formt 1,726 Cedfied by Head of every Protectd Prot4cion w. Wt Beang household (; 37,OCC b&) Cowminees Fores Dept. (F?Cs) Elar3a6 Reserve and Village Forest 45 Regisrted Man and Pnemwtd Pro tecion and Sociedes women fom (15,QCC ha.) fanagement every Commitees household (VFP.MC) Or4sa,* Reserve and Village Forr. 1,179 Inoml All village Keshr Forest Commitee/ Groups households (74,000 ha.) (Iungle Samid) Fizachal Pachyam, Village 2.QCO U t One mn from Pradesh Com0itnicy, Developmet every and Comites/ household Uude -azaad Mabila Forests Mandals Guzjaza* Reserve and Forest 200 Recopized by All houswolds Protected Protecdon Gzarat Foret willing to (10,000 h.) Committees Departent partcipate Uttr Pradesh Pauchayat Van Panchaya 4,058 Rogpized by All household Forests State with tc yeas (20,000 ha.) Government of residence AMu & Demarcated Village Forest 101 Orgized by All village lCshoir Foresc Committees the I&K Forest households (5,434 ha.) Departzen Taiml Nadu Reserve and Interface 100 Informzal Scheduled Revenue Foresy Communiqy cLse, tribd, (5,550 ha.) Project Groups ane land poor households Other stm i Idia may have also established Comuity Foret Management Programs, howevcr, no daa on these was avalable at the dme this report was prepared. * Enabling Government Resolution Pased Enabling Government Resoludou Pending Souuas: Z;roduccd in !uU from Poffenberger (eL al.) I990, page 16. . 19- Table 2.1 (cont.): COMMy FOREST MANAGEMa SYSTEMS Imporcsn Minor bdisdeaig p-ocactics gvsm oeC Svs' i Far3 Pratecdca. V uCIOUAl * Voi=cfer pacsl (2- - All P? - Sol leaf plata =ace,sczo- 10 men) or wacher - 25S dmber * TeRdM: planing paid by community - Envloymeat - Mushrooms * - Fines medicinals - Salseeds * T=a. Si1'M Prot n,oa. social - Com?-=m ry - lit auoS to buy - Bo ab rope fencing. iicro-plaaling. monitoing fodder snd Me se - Bamboo basket producion management * Soc.al pressum leases - Fodder gram - All other !FPs *2S% dinber P.r.c:cC. fir: contrl - Stick rou4ou - Small dCber * Sar leaf plate (tarn.ga Pam) - Firewood - Fruit - Fines, seasonal & - Leaves & tbars soatial rsicdons Tend2Ji - Social pressure seeds - Social presuz Protc,ou. grnss - Paid watcher - All ? - Leaves for-cocost distibuton. dispute - Fines * 75% TImber - Mushrooms nsoluicn. fre labour - Social prossure - Medicinals Protcion from cuting - Village parol groups - All MPs - Mahua flowen and and graTng, identify Commmiqty - 25 % Tiber fruit labour for silvi-cultaul toonitoring - Eployn= - Dhak leaf plates work Rs.100 - 300ih for - Bamboo cleaning - Fruits - GIrs P:vcc: agai-st Paid watcher Grsus, dry leave, - Pine resin unauhoized use and - Commuticy twig3, Limited tinber - Fodder encroacbcent. regulate monitoring - Gning wer - Medicnals access, defie rules aud - Fimes pe d by U.P. righLs Procec: agairst grazing - Local watcher paid by - Fodder grass cuug - Fodder gnss and cucing Projec:, supervised by - Fuelwood collecdon - Fuelwood UCF Partcipadon in nicro- - Elinlctinon of got - Fuel, fodder, roof, - Gr e leaf mnim planning, forst populazion through thatch, fruit and odor - Fodder protac:ddou s2ale ) - Basket fibers So9URfe Reproduced in full om Poffaiberger (et. al.) 1990. page 17 West Bengal updated to reflect figures of October. 1991. -20- 2.29 Initial results from these efforts have shown an overall increase in the level of forest protection and productivity, though results are not consistent for each site. Where equitable benefit sharing arrangements were insdtuted a net increase in benefits was obtained for both the local users and the Forest Departments. The FPC model has produced forestry raw materials which are used to satisfy local as well as urban/commercial demand. The increased canopy closure also provides improved soil protection. The effectiveness of joint forst mnagement in specific forests and villages is variable. It has been most promising in areas with homogeneous (predominantd1 tribal) populations. Studies by EBRAD, a research institute in West Bengal, using a sample of 4 PCs in Jamboni Range have found that: (a) 74% of the FPCs were functioning reasonably well; (b) there is considerable heterogeneity of ethnic composidon, number of villages, and proporton of participating households among FPCs; (c) the smaller the number of vilages particpatng the greater the FPC effectiveness; (d) the greater the proportion of tribal households in the FPC the greater the effecdveness; and (e) the greater proportion of households in each participating village mcluded as FPC members the better its management of the forest. These results indicate that wbile joint management is not a panacea for insdtutdonal effectiveness everywhere, it does result in a net improvement over current arrangements and shows promise for reversing degradation trends. 2.30 The key to developing a successful joint management model is to understand the incentives which wll encourage local people to take U and sustain forest tecton efforts. The kev factor sharing arrangements with identified user-groups. The increase in NTFP in protected forests is important as a way to bridge the gap untidl longer gestadon products mature. Models with annual benefit flows from NTFPs and rotational harvesting provide much better incentives for forest protection than traditional models (Figure 2.3). Eleven states2 have issued orders to allow benefit sharing with local populations (details of these arrangements in SPWD, 1992). The institutional framework for joint management arrangements is controversial but most experience points to the benefits of small user groups directly linked to the protection of the resource rather than woridng through the panchayats. Women have not been actively involved in FPC decision making forums but there is now movement in this direction. The new West Bengal Forestry Project requires that women be joint members with their husbands and have equal rights. here is also controversy regarding the definidon of users in relation to a given forest. In both West Bengal and Haryana, there have been conflicts related to the status of secondary users, i.e. those hamlets more distant from the forest who have traditionally harvested products. Resolving this issue is a high priority. 2.31 Information is growing about the characteristics of successful joint management and benefit- sharing arrangements. Much, however, remains to be learned. In forest areas where a large proportion of the benefits accrue in the short term as rights to collect a variety of NTFPs, there is a broad distribution of benefits across income groups with substandal benefits accruing to poor and marginal households. Where the majority of forest products accrue to the user group only over the long term, i.e., as a share of rotational timber harvests, distribudon systems may entail creating a user group fund for development activities rather than distributing shares. In the case of the first Forest Protection Committees established in West BengaL the Forest Department set up a system whereby each household would receive a cash share of the timber harvest, to increase incentives and ensure equitable distribution of benefits. 2 Orissa, West Bengal. Bihar, Gujaru. Rajasiun. Madhya Pradeab Tripura. Mahashtra. Jmunu & Kadvnir, Haryana and Andhra Pradesh. -21 - Flre12: BENEFIT SHARING IN JOINT MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS REVENUE SHARING - TRAOMONAL MOCE No Intercrapping or Rotzaonal Havest 25 20 .5. YEARS REVENUE SHARING MULTI-TIER MOCEL WUi kxerOppwng & Ronax Hawui 4000 3000 2000 j1000 0 *1000 .2000 _ 000 . YEARS -Govt shure =FPC shwre Source: Project implementation 16olume for ti'Le West Bengal Forestry Project. 22- 2.32 It is recommended that joint management arrangements be expanded significantly. They should be considered for all types of forests, both to regenerate degraded areas and to halt degradation in areas which currently have better forest cover. While joint management has been undertaken on degraded lands many high forests also need this type of protection if they are to be maintained or improved. It is estimated that large areas of good forests are in danger of imminent degradation unless improved institutional arrangements are adopted. One preliminary estimate indicates that regeneration from viable rootstocks or a combination of protection and enrichment planting could be possible on up to 18 million ha of degraded forest lands. Development of joint management arrangements around protected areas would improve the chances of preserving them and should therefore be a priority. It is important that the joint management models should not be too costly, so that they can be replicated over a large area within current budgetary constraints. 2.33 Wide-spread adoption of joint management will require significant shifts in investment and strategy. It will also require substantial re-orientation of forestry staff, working plan procedures, and monitoring capability. In areas where the Forest Development Corporation and/or Forest Laborer Cooperatives are operating special arrangements will need to be developed to involve them in joint management arrangements. While the use of NGOs can provide valuable assistance in the process (para 2.38), a commitment to a long-term phased approach will be necessary to achieve substantive impacts. 2.34 Non-Forest Lands. The results of afforestation efforts on non-forest public lands and village commons have generaliy not been up to expectadons. Identified planting sites have more often than not turned out to be encroached or already used for other activities that the communities were not willing to give up. Communities also worry about losing control of the areas to the government if planted to trees. In many areas were planting has taken place seedlings have not been protected and large-scale failures due to grazing and hacking have been reported. Even where trees have been protected the areas have often not been replanted by the communities after harvesting. Benefit sharing agreements, which often were aimed at poorer segments of the communities, were finalized late and have only been implemented in relatively few instances so far. Strip plantations in particular have been expensive to establish and protect. 2.35 While public plantings have not been very encouraging they have not been a total loss. A recent sample survey (para 3.9) found that village woodlots had a survival rate of 75% and yielded on average an increment of 4.4 cum per ha. These figures are not spectacular but they are much higher than expected and returns where also reported to be quite good. However, care needs to be taken in interpreting this data since the sample was small and not designed to draw general conclusions for India. The Project Completion Report for the Karnataka Social Forestry Project (CR. 1432-IN) estimated returns on investments in woodlots at about 7-9 percent. In instances where public plantations were located on adequate rather than poor sites, yields were considerably higher and the response from villagers for protecdon also much better. It begs the question whether it is worth putting in costly plantations on poor sites, which are not and perhaps never will be productive, and are difficult to manage and maintain. The dilemma is that most remaining revenue lands are of poor quality. 2.36 Recognizing the problems in implementation of social forestry approaches on public lands, state governments and NGOs have introduced a number of changes in their programs. Technologies have broadened to include pasture development, silvi-pasture, more planting of multi- purpose species, and multiple product models. Much more work is needed in this area, but technologies are changing. The National Wasteland Development Board has involved a variety of NGOs in planting schemes, but the local communities have seldom been given adequate tenure rights. However, some NGOs have been modestly successful with forestry, pasture and horticulture development on these land categories. Experiments have allowed smaller groups than the panchayat to manage plantations, but extension to such groups and tenure security have still been weak. While women could be a lobby for making a long-term community commitment to regenerate and manage revenue and common lands, there have unfortunately not been concerted efforts to find ways to encourage their participation. On a small scale, a number of NGOs have successfully organized women around wasteland reclamation, but it is not yet clear how easily -23- such examples could be replicated. Women show pardcular interests in enterprise-based plantations, for example, to grow trees producing oilseeds (Gujarat, Rajasthan) or shrubs for rearing silkworms (Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal). There seems to be considerable potential to organize groups of women to lease public lands for development, if appropriate support mechanisms can be implemented. 2.37 Opinions among Indian experts on the relative potential to develop revenue lands are divided. There is no argument that the least productive lands are unlikely to be successfully developed. Nor is there argument that without careful attention to tenurial, institutional and technical arrangements such development is unlikely to be economic or sustained. It is recommended that the Government continue to promote development of such lands, but that the major initiative should come from NGOs and local communities themselves. Funds should be targeted to sites and villages with the greatest potential and funds allocated based on site quality in contrast to the current practice of equal amounts regardless of site. The responsibility for site selection and afforestation should be devolved to local groups interested in such initiatves and the forest departments should concentrate their efforts on technical support only. 2.38 Private and NGO Sector. The Forest Policy proposes a much greater involvement of non- profit NGOs and the private sector in development and management of forest resources. Involvement of these actors will only work if they are motivated to participate. While NGOs have provided valuable services in many of the successful joint management experiments, there are relatively few NGOs with experience in forestry programs. NGOs strengths are generally not in substituting for the forest departments in afforestation efforts but as a complement to government activities. Considerable promise has been shown in involving non-profit NGOs in: environmental education, forest committee organization, joint management facilitation, training of forestry personnel and local leaders, marketing and processing support (particularly for women), and multi- disciplinary applied research. Intermediary NGOs are increasingly providing critical technical assistance and training support to local NGOs. Constraints to effective NGO involvement in forestry development programs stem from misunderstanding of NGO strengths and weaknesses, contractual and funding hurdles such as finding a way to channel funds to NGOs in advance, mutual distrust, and the lack of managerial and technical skills among many NGOs. Special programs are needed to strengthen NGOs and allow them to play a greater supporting role in the forest sector. The government also has limited mechanisms for identifying and channeling technical and financial resources to the more grass-roots based organizations that often have a crucial rapport with local communities and a good knowledge of local socio-economic dynamics. Some states have developed creative mechanisms such as jointly-formed societies to overcome precurement and contractual hurdles to non-government entities. Use of private consultants in furthering forest policies and programs is not common although this could allow forest departments to obtain specialized expertise which they lack. Main Recommendations 2.39 Local populations have to be more intimately involved in planning and management of existing forests and new plantations for conservation and improvement of the forest cover in India. A number of actions are required to achieve that: (a) expanding joint forestry planning and management arrangements involving local people on a much larger scale; (b) increasing the availability of NTFP that people collect in forests to increase motivation for forest protection and increasing the involvement with grass-roots level organizations to facilitate the joint management process; (c) focusing joint management and development efforts around protected areas and other forest areas which can be rehabilitated through protection only or protection-plus- enrichment planting; and -24 - (d) devolving responsibility for the selecdon and afforestation of non-forest public lands and common lands to local communities and concentrating the forest departments efforts on technical support. 2.40 Public forests will continue to provide the major pordon of forestry products. Only limited amounts are expected to come from afforestation of non-forest public lands and common lands. More important contributions to the supply of forest raw materials are likely to come from private forestry investments which are discussed in the next chapter. -25- CHAPTER m. PRIVATE FORESTRY DE 3.1 Sadsfying India's demand for forest raw materials and products is a formidable undertaking which cannot be tackled without the cooperadon and support of the private sector. Yet, through nationalizing all forest lands the Government has taken on the sole responsibility for forest management. The private sector is now mainly involved in marketing and processing of forest products, traditional craft making, and farm forestry plantations. Little involvement of the private sector is seen in managing and rehabilitating existing forests. The Government has discouraged advances from industries seeking to lease degraded forest lands to produce their own raw material. This chapter will discuss the role of individuals and fims in the forest sector and how they can be motivated to contribute more to sector development. It will explore why farmers plant trees, what factors constrain further farm forestry development and how to overcome them, the main issues for forest development in current forest industry and trade policies and practices, and some of the issues in marketing of forest produce. The discussion is limited to directly forestry-related policies and the analysis is constrained by data availability. While numerous linkages with other sectors also influence forest development, their impacts are difficult to determine. Eanners 3.2 Farmers plant trees to get cash income and/or have a "savings accounte which can be tapped when future needs arise, such as weddings, etc. They only plant trees when they think that is a better land use option for them than the alternatives. Since. returns from poles, small timber and veneer are generally much higher than those from fuelwood or tree fodder, farmers would naturally aim for those markets. This has been viewed by some critics as a failure of farm forestry which should aim at production of subsistence fuelwood requirements. It could be seen as a rational decision-making process by farmers for whom income is a far higher perceived need. Furthermore, this is not an either-or situation - along with the more valuable products there will always be a certain amount of lower grade produce. Only limited work has been carried out on the returns from farm forestry in different parts of the country. One study (GTZ, 1992) reported profitability levels for farm forestry investments ranging from 14% to over 50%. Profitability is better in areas of high productivity and good markets and if superior quality planting materials are used (as in some industrial contracts). The variability of returns to different forestry models is illustrated in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: LEVELS OF PROFITABILITY AND THE IMPACI QF SEEDLING SUBSIDIES Model F*naaol rate of 1l with seedling Seedling cost as return (M) subsidy pergent&ae of (Percenta) (percentae) total cost durLn West Bengal, farm 21 28 36 forestry, rainfed areas South West 21 23 20 Bengal ,multitier reforstatLon La degraded Lands Msahagahtra, bamboo 38 62 37 plantations on bumds,irr gited fLns_ MAhAr0shtVa, eucalyptus 25 28 23 plantatlon. in ralnS70 endangered). The reptile and amphibian fauna include 400 and 165 species respectively, with an unknown number under threat. Endemism among the faunal group varies substantially, from a low in mammals and birds (3.5 percent) to highs in reptiles (32 percent) and amphibians (62 percent). Important areas of endemism are the Western Ghats and the north-east. The World Conservation Monitoring Center has identified five locations in India in their list of World Centers of Plant Diversity. 2. Protection of wildlife has a long tradition in Indian history. Directives to protect the environment and all forms of life were inscribed in ancient Hindu scriptures. The concept of protected areas emerged during the fourth century BC, with the establishment of "Abhayaranyas" or forest sanctuaries. Sacred groves were much older, dating back several thousand years. Legal protection of wildlife in India today is based on the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, which provides for the establishment of protected areas and the control over trade in wildlife products. The Act also provides for the establishment of Wildlife Advisory Boards, appointment of Wildlife Preservation staff, and for notificadon of the following categories of protected areas: national parks, sanctuaries, and closed areas by the state governments. The Wildlife Act was amended in 1981 to include protecdon of plant life too. 3. Creation and maintenance of national parks and sanctuaries, and financial allocations for wildlife protection are the responsibilides of the state govenments, although the central government has various schemes under which it can extend financial support. The central govemment maintains a Wildlife Preservation Directorate within the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) to guide and help fund state wildlife programs. The Wildlife Institute of India is an autonomous body dealing with wildlife research and training matters. At the state level, the wildlife sector is administered by the wildlife wings of the state FDs. All state and union territories with national parks and sanctuaries have wildlife wings. On the average, a modest three percent of the annual FD budgets are spent on the national parks and sanctuaries. 4. The most significant action toward wildlife conservation in India was the framing of the National Wildlife Action Plan in 1983. This plan provides the overall direction for the conservation of biodiversity in India through: (a) establishment of a representative network of protected areas; (,) management of protected areas and habitat restoration; (c) wildlife protection in muldple use areas; (d) rehabilitation of endangered and protected species; (e) captive breeding; (f) wildlife education and interpretadon; (g) research and monitoring; (h) domesdc legisladon and internaional conventions; (i) national conservation strategy; and a) collaboration with voluntary organizations and non-govemmental organizations. Special conservation projects aimed at preseryig certain endangered species have been initiated by the central and state govemments: the better known ones are Project Tiger, Crocodile Breeding Project, Gir Lion Sanctuary Project and the Himalayan Musk Deer Project While tl't ^ concem form environmentalists that these -52- Page 2 of 4 projects focus too much on a few apex species, these, particularly Project Tiger, have been very successful in protecting entire ecosystems that a disinterested public would otherwise have allowed to diminish. 5. India is signatory to a number of intenational Conventions and Treades, including the Convention on Wetlands of Intemnational Importance Especially as Wildfowl Habitat, Convention on International trade in Endangered Species, Convention on the Conservation of Migratoy Species of Wild Animals, and Convention between India and the Soviet Union for the protection of migratory birds. 6. India's progress in expanding its network of protected areas has been quite impressive. There are today more than 480 national parks and sanctuaries, covering nearly 4.0 percent of the country. Despite a wide coverage of biomnes and species, the existing network poorly represents some biogeographic zones with critically endangered species, such as the Trans-Himalayan, Gangetic Plains, and North-cast. There are not uniform criteria for classification of protected areas as parks or sanctuaries, with the result that areas of great biological value are declared sanctuaries rather than parks or left out altogether, while some parks and sanctuaries include areas of very low biological value. Nor are existing areas well-protected, for reasons described below. Seventeen mammal species in Schedule 1of the Wildlife (Pwtection) Act have no viable populations in national parks and a furter 7 are dependent on the protection offered in a single park. Many of the sanctuaries are too small to maintain any viable populations, particularly of the larger mammals. 7. Tere are a range of problems for the effective protection of the existing national parks and sanctuaries: (a) the incompleteness of legal procedures for 60 percent of national parks and 90 percent of sanctuaries; (b) the ablsence of management plans for 57 percent of the national parks and 29 percent of sanctuaries, (c) the lack of integration between management of individual protected aeas and the surrounding areas; (d) the large collection of forest products and animal grazing; (e) the absence of an tegrated Protected Area System (PAS) linking areas through networks of forested corrdors or establishing complementary multiple use areas; and (f) the limited jurisdiction, under-staffing, limited raining, and inadequat. budgets of state wildlife wings. A study by the Wildlife Institute of India has proposed an expansion of the present network from 4.0 to 4.6 percent of India's geographic area in 148 parks and 508 sanctuaries, but the proposal has been drawn up on biological considerations without taking into account the administrative, politcal and socio-economic problems which need attention to make this proposal viable. 8. Outside of protected areas, there is too little rect I-on of the need for explicit guidelines to maximize environmental benefits and biodiversity as well as marketable produce. The soundest strategy for preservadon of the full range of biodiversity lies in the establishment and stringent management of a comprehensive network of protected areas covering all biogeographic units, biomes and species. However, in a country like India, where the human and livestock densities are high, pressures on protected areas are strong and their future cannot be guaranteed. Resettuement should be avoided as far as possible. In reality it has not proven possible to resettle local populatdons to make room for wildlife, except in very few cases. Complementary strategiesr are needed that promote biodiversity outside protected areas as well and which seek creative solutions to management of protected areas under pressue. -53- Anne2 Page 3 of 4 hndng Biodi[ersity Conservation 9. There are many factors which contiibute to difficuldes in providing effective protecdon of the existing parks and sanctuaries. High human and livestock pressures need to be taken into account, legal procedures to notify protected areas speeded up, the Wildlife Act amended to make a provision for plants, management plans prepared for the areas which are currently lacking them, and wildlife wings of the forest departments need more staff, training and considerably increased budgets. The ban on exploitaon n of plantaions in protcted areas needs to be enforced. 10. There is still not an adequate information base to evaluate which ecosystems in India need most protecdon, the level of protection required and the area coverage needed for a particular ecosystem. Given the large bbiodiversity in India it is seems wise to maintain at least the current size of the protected areas system. To devise an adequate IPAS better irformation is needed on: (a) the appropriateness of the Wildlife Institute of India's proposal for a protected areas network in light of social, political, and economic condidons; (b) the constraints on completing legal notification of protected areas and workable changes in procedures to address these constraints; (c) identificadon of the institutional changes needed to strengthen wildlife wings and link these to state forest departments' planning cells; and (d) monitoring to generate on-going information about the situation in specific protected areas. 11. Isolation of individual protected areas as "islands" amidst agricultural land and human settements could result in a progressive erosion of genetic diversity within the protected areas themselves as a result of the barriers created for mixing and outbreeding of populations. Mgltiple use fImsts around protected areas offer opportunities for extending the range of biodiversity when managed with improved conservation ethics and can greatdy enhance the conservation value of the protected areas themselves. A number of states have working plans that include forest zonation and silvicultural practices in multiple use forests and plantadons designed to encourage dispersal linkages between core protection zones of protected areas and enhance biodiversity conservation. Measures include maintenance of natural forest strips along streams, other water courses and migatocy routes and preservation of selective old growth stands. Some silvicultural techniques for enhancing biodiversity include selective dtinning to favor species characteristic of natural forests, staggered harvesting to suppress weed growth and favor maintenance of habitat diversity, and the size of coupe and rotational interval of harvesting. Few states follow these measures in practice to any great extent and there is need to monitor and revise measures to achieve the desired objectives. 12. Given the high human and livestock pressures on protected areas, strategies to conserve biodiversity must include people's needs as an integral part of management plans. Surrounding populations need to be involved in the management of protected parks and sanctuaries and the conservation of complementary areas outside them. Given the lack of suitable models for ecodevelopment, pilot efforts need to be taken to test policies, institutional arrangements, and packages of interventions. To initiate such pilot acdvides, working conmmittees need to be established at state levels involving a variety of agencies, NGOs and the private sector. 13. Three kinds of ecodevlomnt strategies can be pursued simultaneously. Eia, parks and sanctuaries can be zoned to include core protection zones and areas that can provide food, fodder and forest products to the local people on a sustainable basis. In this re-zoning priority should go to alternatives which involve little or no resettlement. Local populations refuse to move to accommodate animals (many have grown up with wildlfe around) and experience has shown that -54- Annex 2 Page 4 of 4 such moves are almost impossible to implement. Better management of non-forest lands under agroforestzy, improved nunfed agriculture, and the promotion of non-fazm income-geneating enteprises including development of co-tourism can all relieve pressure on protected areas. S,gn~, more forest lands outside the protected areas network can be managed under forest department jurisdiction or joint management to supply local needs and/or be put under a multiple- use management system that conserves biodiversity while serving national and local interest. Third joint management models can be expanded to protected areas to involve local communities as responsible partners in planning and implementation, involving them as well in biodiversity decisions. Annex 3 Page 1 of 4 Technologies to Inwrov Productivity of Plnttons Planting maerial 1. There are two distinct aspects to the quality of planting stock - the genetic constitution and the physical quality of plants. Genetic quality relates to the genotype of the parents, or parent if clonal stock is used. The physical quality is dependent upon nursery practices, whether seedlings or clones are planted. In terms of inputs and a time frame, upgrading of nursery practices is by far the easiest and quickest. However, there are some physical aspects of seed quality which can be significantly improved over a short period of time, given suitable inputs, which will influence to some extent the genedc quality of planting stock and significantly improve the physical quality of planting stock. It is logical, therefore, to address seed supply problems first then nursery aspects. 2. Seed Sujpies. Seed technologies for agriculture and horticulture crops are generally far in advance of those used for most forest species in India. Forest tree seeds usually are collected immediately before sowing, harvesting is often by unskilled unsupervised labor, and little or no cleaning or grading is carried out before sowing. There are many reasons for these deficiencies and the problems need urgent resolution. Probably the most important factors will be financial control and experience in the modern techniques of seed harvesting and handling. A number of officers have received training overseas but it is unlikely their work load would permit them to practice their new skills. 3. The need for a seed certifon system has been recognized at central level and in many states but for various reasons not practiced. As a result nursery staff cannot make useful comparisons of seedling development and growth from year to year and field staff rarely have any information regarding the true origin of the plants planted. The simple "Yelow Tag" (source identified), "Green Tag" (source selected) and "Blue Tag" (source certified) system, commonly in use throughout the world, would be adequate initially. However, it is most important that the system be introduced officiaUy and used. 4. Harvesting seeds can be complex for many reasons: some tree seeds are collected from the ground in others from the crown, all fruits do not ripen simultaneously; in some species fruits are collected, for others seeds are collected directly from the tree. Thus, seed harvesting for the large number of forest tree species used in forestry programs is a task which requires detailed biological knowledge, accurate local knowledge and thorough advance planning. A level of information regarding all three is usually available but rarely the detailed knowledge of all put together for efficient harvesting. Each state will need a special team to attend to seed harvesting and this team will have to access, evaluate and synthesize available data: this is a major technological task. 5. Improved seed handling (cleaning, grading, testing, storage, pre-treatments, etc.) is needed in order to obtain a reasonable level of homogeneity which is critical to development of good planting stock. This will vary with the type of fruit and type or size of seed. Some seeds lose their viability quickly while others do not. Many seeds can be stored for extended periods provided they have the correct moisture content and are stored under satisfactory conditions. There is a lot of inforation available on these subjects which will require review to ensure the correct practices are developed and also identify areas where there is inadequate information. 6. Improving certification, harvesting and handling will require financial inputs and will make forest tree seeds a more expensive but significantly more valuable cr. ,. modity. This increased cost can be offset to some extent by changing some current practices: the quantities of seeds used in nurseries at present is usually far in excess of the actual requirements; and present plantation establishment favors intense stocldng levels which would not be required with improved plants. The most critical factor for successful nursery operation is a guaranteed supply of an adequate quantity of seed at the appropriate dme. This will require careful seed distribution planning based on accurate estimates of the seed viability, growth rates and plantation needs. -56- _nne 3 Page 2 of 4 7. Vegetative Propagation. A few private companies in India have started to clone through rooted cuttings and a number of state afforestation programs are considering this development. Many universities and other institutions have successfully tissue cultured a number of tree species but there have been no extensive plantings. These new technologies could significantly improve yields and are relatively cheap to introduce into well organized nurseries. 8. Nursenes. Planting stock can be raised in containers or be bare-rooted; the latter may be entirc plants having normal roots and shoots, stump plants with both shoot and root cut back to a minimum, or striplings where the plant is pruned of most branches and leaves and the roots are also cut back. Different species have different requirements; all can be planted as containerized plants and some can only be planted successfully this way. Therefore, when dealing with a versatile species the pros and cons of the type of plant required have to be studied. Stumps are the cheapest to transport followed by striplings and then containerized plants. 9. Containerized plants have been popular because such plants usually start to grow earlier than the other types, thereby minimizing weeding and making the most of rapid growth conditions. Poly-bags can be excellent containers provided they are carefully managed and root systems are not allowed to become seriously deformed due to spiral or convoluted growth at the base of the bag. The most recent developments outside India have led to containers known as root trainers. These are re-usable pots of various sizes with ridges from top to bottom and a hole at the base about half the diameter of the top. The ridges cause roots to grow vertically downwards and there can be no spiral distortion. Pots are suspended above the ground in nurseries which causes emergent roots to die back but set adventitious buds at the base of the container. Such buds are hardier than delicate root tips and will start growth immediately after transplanting. 10. Some companies in India are manufacttuing root trainers but few are in use. This is an obvious area for direct technology transfer and adaptation. The trainers are best when filled with an organic light-weight uingomixture. Since most Indian forest nurseries use heavy mineral mixes research is needed to develop a suitable mixture with locally available materials. Work on containerized plants should not discount use of stump plants or striplings because both have a place in current technologies. In the light of improved plant growth using root trainers older experiment results comparing stumps and striplings with containerized (poly-bag) plants will require checking. 11. Forest nurseries will require overhead irrigation. It is critical to good nursery management that every plant is given the same treatment so that culling of unsuitable stock can be canied out fairly, based on true between-plant comparisons. Early culling, even before prickout stage, is important to improve plant quality at minimal cost. There are a number of companies distributing suitable equipment in India, some permit additions of exact volumes of fertilizer and/or pesticides. Unfortunately, most forestry nurseries still rely on hand watering and this is far from satisfactory. The investment in overhead irrigation will be soon repaid through the improved quality of the planting stock and thereby the value and productivity of planted sites. This is not a new technology but one which will require adaptation into forestry practices in India. 12. Substantial advances have been made throughout the world over the past two or three decades in addressing planting stock quality. With the pressing needs in India and the abilities of trained forestry staff, it should be possible for research and irnplementation foresters to upgrade planting stock quality quickly and significandy. Once the first improved quality plantations are established and can be seen application of the superior practices will escalate sector wide. npmyJrQ Plantion Practices 13. Apart from provision of improved plants there are other technologies which can be applied to substantially improve returns from forestry plantadons such as accurate site and species matching, improved establishment practices and management for end use. These technologies are geared to ensure best use of available resources. This is important both for public plantations of industrial and/or commercial species and for private forestry. Research on these aspects should -57- Annex3 Page 3 of 4 lead to development of new Aels public lands and for farm fot The latter are needed to improve returns and spread adoption of private forestry much more widely in subsistence areas and on field bunds. Agroforestry looks like a promising model but it has been well researched yet as both the forest and agriculture departments prefer to promote monocultures. Other important factors to success in farm forestry in different areas of the country were discussed in Chapter 3. To do proper species and site matching it is necessary to first conduct market potential and price studies to identify the economic species and end products for a particular location. 14. Spcies and Site Matching. There are a wealth of species in hdia but not all are valuable nor can aU the valuable species be raised economically in plantadons at the present level of knowledge. There is always a tendency to grow a species which is easy to handle rather than one which is difficult, even if the more difficult species will yield a better or more valuable end product. This is, of course, less evident in the private than the public sector. Many different environmental/climatic situations are present in India so it is impossible to make any general observations concerning species selection other than that careful site matching is cntical. 15. The vastly improved data processing facilities offered by modem computer programming are being used in some countries to link species or provenances with particular sites. The present emphasis relates the requirements of "exotic" species to condidons in different parts of the recipient country. The techniques could be used with equal effect to expand the plandng of indigenous species within India. The data needed to match site and species are: a) extensive climate records; b) good soil classificadon; and c) accurate knowledge of the natural distribution of species concerned. All these are available for most states and a large number of the indigenous species throughout India, it is therefore a valuable technology which could be quickly adapted. 16. Matching species and planting site should include also end-use as an important criterion though undoubtedly the current most important criteria will be ease of plant raising and survival. Low value products such as fuel wood or fann stakes are often listed as prime products for easily established species, when it in some cases would be better to consider such uses as by-products from more valuable species. The subject of species selection and site matching will require a lot of scientific effort to ensure the best possible use is made of land. Detailed comments on the more important species are available in the Background Paper on Technology. 17. Site Amelioration. Sometimes the sites to be rehabilitated have become so degraded that there is need to tailor the technology to rehabilitate the site quality as well as generate initial products. This can be done through fertilization, inoculadon with lost microflora, application of soil and moisture conservation techniques, and plantadon of species that improve the soil. Such plants may be multi-purpose species providing either fuelwood or a NTFP. It is recommended that foresters review literature and discuss with local populadons to identify species with valuable uses or end-products. Vetiver sp. is a good example of a useful species because it can be used as live hedging, reduce some erosion effects, encourage water percolation, the leaves can be managed to provide fodder and the roots a valuable oil. While contour trenching and vegetative Ail and moisture conservadon methods have been tried on a small scale in many areas, much more appreciation is required for how to apply these methods for maximum effect. Jatropha sp. will grow under quite arid conditions and its seeds provide a versatile oil. Melaleuca spp., another site tolerant species, can be established as live hedges and the leaves harvested for the extraction of useful oils. There must be many such useful species either already available and used in India or which can be tested. 18. Many planting sites are deficient in adequate available supplies of nutrients. In some cases the problems can be solved by addition of the correct mineral or organic fertilizers. The soil micro- &UEa can also significantly influence growth. It is well known that certain trees cannot grow without an associated species, either fungal or bacterial, growing on their root system. These are normally present in the soil provided the soil environment has not been too severely disturbed. In India large areas of wastelands have lost the citical soil micro-organisms essential for tree or shrub growth. Systems of inoculation have been tried which ensures species regenerating or newly -58- Annex 3 Page 4 of 4 planted seedlings are equipped with their essential symbionts. 19. Site pandxion. In forestry the primary objecive for tree planters is that the seedlings planted survive and take control of the site as quickly and cheaply as possible. The main hurdles faced by trees during establishment are access to water and nutrient needs; these may be in short supply due to absence from the site (either permanent or seasonal) or to competidon from "weed" species. There are a number of ways to prepare a site so that the tree seedlings have the optimum opportunity for growth. Each site must be reviewed in order to decide which approach is best and the nview must equate biological nquirements with the costs and returns. 20. Preparing contour ditches and planting vegetative hedges on the contours can improve SQil and moisture conservadon while inwncdon is obviated through soil working. These practices have been significantly improved over recent years and require either extension into a wider range of sites or adaptation for local use. The most commonly used solution to obatweeds is close espacement of planted trees. This is effecdve but has the major drawback that, for optimum growth, the crop has to be manipulated after canopy closure to reduce between-tree competition while maintailng sufficient canopy to suppress weeds. The between-tree compedtion can be even more serious than weed competition. Adequate water is often not available. A serious problem on waterdeficient sit is the carry-over practice from weedy sites of the narrow planting espacement. If limited water is shared among too many plants it reduces productivity and limits the size of tree which can be grown. If site preparadon is adequate and there is sufficient water and nutrients the plants will not only survive, they will grow well, particularly if conditions also favor the necessary micro-organisms. _ 59 - Annex Page 1 of 5 Selected AdmW ationMh Issums 1. Forestry is a concurrent subject which means the central and state governments share responsibilities and control over forest laws. At the central Level the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF) sets policy, coordinates activities with state forest departments and overseas national forestry research, education and training through its Deparment of Forest and Wildlife, which is headed by an Inspector General of Forests. The National Afforestation and Eco- Development Board (NAEB), another arm of MOEF, has taken on the afforestation responsibilities covering designated forests and adjacent wastelands. Funds for afforestation schemes on wastelands only are channelled trough the National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) which is under the Ministry of Rural Development. While the policies and coordination of the nationwide social forestry programs is in the hands of NAEB and NWDB, implementation is the responsibility of the state forest administrations. 2. Designated forest areas (on average 22% of the land area) are owned by the states and controlled by the Forest Departments. They are chared with the principal responsibility for protection, conservation, management (incl. exploitation and utilizadon) and the development of forest and wildlife in the states. Since forests serve both as an economic resource for the stae and local populations and as an environmental resource, all those factors, including sociological aspects, have to Lr addressed to achieve sustainable development. In addition to the designated forest areas, forest departments play a wide range of developmental roles on lands belonging to the panchayats (local government bodies) and the revenue departments, and on private l 3. The Forest Department is headed by a Secretary of Forests. Under him there are generally two main bodies - a Forest Directorate (FD) and a Forest Development Corporation (FDC). The Forest Directorate is the main unit originally entusted with protection and management of state forests. With increasing emphasis on social forestry, parallel infrastructures have grown up within the FD which most states refer to as: the traditional or territorial forestry wing and the soc forestry wing. Most states have furher parallel structures for wildlife, soil conservation, production and utilization, etc. Practically every state also has a FDC which is eligible for mstitutional finance to help create and regenerate plantadons, and harvest and market forest produce. M4any states also have wasteland development, pulpwood development, and/or minor forest produce development corporations, etc., but in most cases their activities are relatively limited. Some states have formed a Wasteland Board for the coordination of wasteland efforts undertaken by different government departments. 4. The forest directorates are headed by a Principal Chief Conservator of Forests (PCCF). The PCCF often regards himself as the overall manager of the Forest Department, and therefore, clashes with the authority of the Forest Secretary. He is assisted by a number of Chief Conservators of Forest dealing with a) forest protecdon and vigilance, forest policy and legislaton and forest lands, b) forest production and utilization; c) evaluation of all plan and non-plan programs; d) social forestry; e) management and conservation of wildlife; f) the tasks of managing minor forest products, research, training and educadon, publicity and informadon, forest stadsdcs and management information system. The latter tasks are often distributed on the Chief Conservators of Forests in addition to the other tasks. Other Chief Conservators of Forests designations also exist depending on choice and need in individual states. The number of Chief Conservators of Forests vary considerably between states (about 4 -15) depending largely on overall cadre strength. 5. The wings of the forest directorates are further organized into circles, divisions, ranges and beats each headed by a responsible officer. Each of the Chief Conservators of Forests are, in addition to their other duties described above, responsible for the progams in the circles assigned - 60 - Annex4 Page 2 of 5 to them In Maharashtra each teritorial Chief Conservtor of Forests is responsible for 2-3 forest circles which cover 200,000-1 million ha of forest land each. Circles are divided in territorial divisions which range from 40,000- 250,000 ha in size; each division is divided in 5-12 forest ranges of 10,000-40,000 ha; and ranges ar subdivided into 2-4 beats. A circle is headed by a Conservator of Forests, a division by a Divisional Forest Officer, a range by a Range Officer and the smallest unit a beat by a Forest guard. Most states operate separate social forestry circles and West Bengal also has separate soil conservadon circles. 6. Recruitment and training of forest staff follow different strict patterns. The officer's cadre are members of the Indian Forest Service (IFS) or the State Forest Service. IFS cadre is selected by the Union Public Service Commission for training (two years at Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy in Dehra Dun and 4 months in Lal Bahadur National Academy for Administration in Mussoori and are posted by GOI to the states. Recruitment for State Forest Service is done by the State Public Service Commissions and officers are trained at one of the state forest service colleges for two years. A few of the State Forest Service cadre are later promoted to IFS. Forest Rangers are recruited by the State Public Service Commission and trained for two years at regional schools, some are later promoted to State Forest Service. State Staff Selection Boards select candidates for appointnent as foresters and forest guards. Foresters are sent for one year of training at state forestry schools and Forest Guards are usually given some training when they enter the service but that has not always been the case. 7. The training curriculums could use revision at all levels and the training of lower level staff in particular needs attention through initial as well as in-service training. Generl forestry curicula need to be broadened to cover new technologies and social forestry approaches including participatory planning methods. Lower level staff are not as well traned as their jobs require. Many forest guards have never received any training, and many other staff have not received any training after their first basic courses upon entry in the service. In-service training needs should be identified and prioridzed for staff at all levels based on skills needed to improve their job performance and to meet forestry goals. The types of expertise needed are: technical knowledge for carrnying out the tasks in an effective manner, the ability to manage resources for specified outputs with an optimum level of efficiency, and the ability to adopt successful extension practices. During the preparation of the West Bengal Forestry Project specific subjects were identified by the staff themselves in a workshop (Table A4.1 attached). Few forest officers attend currently offered training programs, often because the courses are of a long term duratd and away from home. It may be better to concentrate on 1-2 week duration programs except where highly specialized knowledge is ruired. As a general rule all staff should have some training every year. NGOs can play a useTf faculty role in training Forest Rangers and other forestry staff and they themselves need training to align with the development objectives. Workshops could be organized with forest officers and NGOs to bring about greater understanding of their roles. Forest Resource Assessment and Management Planning 8. If India's forest resources are to be effectively managed a renewed commitment must be made to the design, execution and implementation of forest assessment and management plans. However, two concerns are often raised with respect to forest resource assessment and management planning. The first concem relates to the relevance of the activities to forest sector Investment struaegies ar rarely based on management plan presaiptions and thus incentives to maintain an adequate planning system are weak. As a result, many foresters feel that the working plans have become marginal to heir'work. The second concern relates to the capacity at the state level to develop and apply analytcal techniques with aid in the evaluation of forest management activities. Most states have currently litte ability to cany out even basic assessments of the standing stock of forest resources and the productive potential of degraded or under-utilized lands. - 61 - Anneix Page 3 of 5 9. Preparation of forest management plans is conceptually straight-forward but there are man practical limitations. Forest management plans can take many fotms and can be based on a mix of more or less complex analytical tasks. Ideally, the management plan should be a relatively simple written statement of how the forester - in collaboration with local forest users - hopes to manipulate the forest resources to obtain the desired objectives. In practice several factors constrain and Firrt the utility of working plans: a) the growing complexity of goals and objectives that forest administrations must strive to achieve. Many of these objectives such as timber production, grazing, fodder, fuelwood, habitat management and NTFP are in conflict with one another. Most operational plans simply address the silvi-cultural, fire-protection and soil conservation needs of an area and rarely address conflicting demands; b) the complexity of the social dynamics of the forests are not considered as plans are not developed as apart of a process which allows local forest users a voice ;n their implementation and management. The timeframe for the plans are also too long to address local needs; c) the complexity of the forests themselves covering a wide range of ago- climatic zones which complicates implementation of working plans; and d) the practical limits to the financial resources that government can commit to development and enforcement activities. 10. A number of actions are required to improve the timeliness, utility, relevance and technical quality of the forest management plans. As a first step, state forest administations - with technical assistance from the center - should reassess their requirements for resource assessments and management plans incorporating fresh approaches to meet today's needs. Forest assessments and management planning should be used as a means for prioridzing investment strategies and annual work plans. These activities should also be an integral part of the states forest management information system. As a second M, the technical skilis and the physical '.acilities to carry out surveying and planning operations must be acquired. One of the most important impediments to the use of existing inventory data is the lack of baseline information and access to even rudimentary data processing capabilities. The possibility of contracting out the bulk of the survey and inventory work to the private sector should be investigated. In the long run, contracting should be very cost- effective as it will reduce government investment in cosdy equipment which is often difficult to maintain and in highly specialized staff training. Aocsairdtp existing administrative and budgeting procedures must be modified to ensure that forest management plans are the basis upon which all forest investment will be made. At the present investments are scattered among a myriad of state and central government sponsored development schemes. Few, if any of these schemes have been designed within the framework or objectives of an existing forest management plan. Thus, programs are uncoordinated, overlapping, and sometimes conflicting. Commitment is required to forest assessment and planning as a continuous requirement and not simply as a one time activity as is currently the case. The State of Forest Research 11. In the early years of the Indian Forest Service a great deal of work at the Forest Research Institute concentrated on the botany, taxonomy and silviculture of the natural forest. Some of the publications, periodically up-dated, are still the most authoritative available in these fields. Following independence and into the late fifties and early sixties Indian research linked with international rescarch evaluating technological aspects of a large number of species for plantations, many exotic particularly eucalyptus, and also plantation establishment techniques. However, this was also a period of increasing pressures on the forest. The duties of field staff broadened and the emphasis during the following decades moved from forest exploitation toward protection. afforestation of severely degraded lands, and during the 1980s to seedling production and distribution. As a result researchers trying to keep abreast of intemational developments received little support or recognition, and technology evolved was seldom extended to the field workers. Unfortunately, the isolation of researchers came at a time when forest research throughout the world was advancing at a hitherto unprecedented pace. - 62 - Annex4 Page 4 of 5 12. There is no shortage of competent scientists for research in India. As in all countries there are three main openings for graduates with a research bent, civil service research institutions, academia or privately owned research centers. The forest service contains the research arm for the forest sector. The Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) was established in 1987 at the former Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun in the Siwalik Hills. The staff is made up of IFS officers and "scientists", ic. specialized scientists with no forestry qualification. The research program is decided by a committee made up from senior forest officers from the states, other government research institudons and university scientists for each five year development plan. Annual revisions would be needed in these days of rapidly increasing scientific knowledge. Otherwise it is easy to fall behind technical advancement. 13. Most states have a research division staffed by senior officers each for a period of usually not more than three years. These postings are seldom sought after because territorial duties are considered more attractive. The posts are not infrequently filled by officers without a research background which is most unfortunate as they generally lack the tools to carry the research work forward. However, this is not the case for all officers and many valuable pieces of research have been initiated at state level. Of course, the short duration of their tenure limits the impact and the validity of their results. The program of work is adjusted at the commencement of five year plans by senior officers and observations in many states indicate that programs are often far too ambitious, partly because of the carry over of uncompleted studies. The research findings also need to be fed into the rest of the organization for implementation. At present this link is very weak. If the implementors are involved in identification of research projects the chances of successful implementation are higher. Hence they need to be included in the review committee. 14. There are good research facilities associated with universities, particularly the agriculture universities. Their potential has expanded over recent years because it is now possible for students to obtain forestry degrees at many of them. At present the forestry graduates from such institutions cannot direcdy enter the forest service but can be employed under certain circumstances by Government and will demonstrate gradually the value of this training. There is a trend developing for academic institutions to take on contracted research for state forest departments as is the case in many countries. Fostering of this trend, given careful supervision, would enhance the forest research capability, particularly for certain academic aspects. 15. An increasing number of private companies are funding their own research in the field of forestry, in fact some companies are being set up solely for tree planting and developing their own research bases. This is a healthy development because world wide reviews indicate that the most successful research in many branches of forestry is from the private sector. This can never entirely replace public research institutional work because some long term subjects can only be supported by public funding. The development will demonstrate different approaches to research programs and consideration how funds are best allocated and spent. Private research does not rest solely with industry, a number of NGOs and cooperatives are also investing in research teams. 16. Although there has been a considerable amount written about forestry research at the central level, there is little evidence of research and development filtering down to the forestry programs of state forest departments. ICFRE has virtually no input to forestry in the states. GOI has recognized this and has proposed that it be addressed through a Bank funded Forestry Research, Education and Extension Project. The six subsidiary institutes which have been set up under ICFRE have stated research objectives which are intimately applicable to different states but there are few collaborative linkages established. The benefits of communication links and collaborative research lie in acquisition of knowledge, avoidance of duplicative efforts and in constructive peer review. Liaison with Universides could be 'xpected to bring rigor into experimental design, data collection and statistical analysis which is currently often lacking in state forestry research. Past state research efforts are inadequately documented. A review of research should be done and _ 63 - &,nex 4 Page 5 of 5 relevant results published before new programs are developed. Links between researchers and users need to be developed urgently. In fact, one of the reasons that research has fallen behind in India is the lack of communication between researchers and users and the lack of pressure on the "public" researchers to produce pracdcal results or to forego research subjects which are already standard in other countries and require adaption rather than experimentation. -6b4- Anmex4 Table 1 Page 1 of 3 Table A4.1: TRAING NEEDS FOR THE WEST BENGAL FORESTRY PROJECT r TEnTHTCAr, atQ41TNG GENERAL SPECIALISED …_--- -- ---…-…---------------------------- - ___________________________ CCF'S NEW SPECIES (EXPERIENCES IN INDIA) ECO-SYSTEM INTEGRATED CONCEPTS WATERSHED MANAGEMENT …__ ___ __ ___ __ ___ __ ___ __ ___ __ ________ ___________________________ C.F's NEW SPECIES WATERSHED GE.NETICS IN REMOTE MANAGEM"ENT SILVICULTURE SENSING APPROACH ECO SYSTEM STATrSTICAL METHODS …-------------------------------------------------------__------------------ D.F.O's SILVICULTURAL WILDLIFE STATISTICAL G.I.S. (I.F.S. PRACTICES MANAGEMEUNT METHODS W.B.F.S.) AGRO-FORESTRY GENETICS ZN SILVICULTURE APPLICATION OF SOIL & WATER REMOTE SENSING CONSERVATION TECHNIQUES ---------------------------------------------------------------__----------- RANGERS SILVICULTURAL TRAINING FOR SOIL CONSER- WILDLIFE PRACTICES SUPPORT VATION ACTIVITIES NURSERY AGRO-FORESTRY PRACTICES (INCLUDING AGROSTOLOGY) -----------------------------------------------------__--------------------- FORESTER/ SILVICULTURE NURSERY SEED STAND & VEGETATIVE FOREST OPERATIONAL SEED ORCHARD PROPOGATION GUARDS/ ASPECTS (PIT FOREST DIGGING, CONTOUR EXTENSION TRENCHING ETC) WORKERS PLANT PROTECTION -----------------------------------------------------------__--------------- F.P.C's MUL.:?LE USES NURSERY OF NEW SPECIES PRACTICES N.G.O's FDPESTRY KMAGEMENT OBJECTIVES OF FORESTS & NWFP -65- Anngx4 M~~~1A?. ~~~~~~~ Table I Page 2 of 3 PLANNING, ORGANISING HUMAN RESOURCE & CONTROL MANAGEIMENT ------------------------------------------------------__---------------------_ C.C.F's PROJECT PLANNING O.D.6 INSTITU- H.R.D. LEADERSHIP S TION BUILDING CONCEPT TEAM BUILDING (STRUCTURE, SYSTEMS, PROCESS) CONTROL SYSTEMS MARKETING ACHIEVEMENT S INTER-PERSONAL (DESIGN OF EXTENSION RELATIONS FORMATS ETC.) MOTIVATION ------------------------------------------------------------__-------------- C.F.'s NETWORK ORGANISATION H.R.D. MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES DEVELOPMENT PRACTICES PROJECT SYSTEMS COMZ1UNICATION LEADERSHIP L FORMULATION T TEAM BUILDING APPRAISAL -----------------------------------------------------------------__---------- D.F.O'a COMPUTERS IN NETWORK H.R.D. LEADERSHIP & M.I.S. SCHEDULING PRACTICES TEAM BUILDING (PERT, CPM) (STAFF DEV) NETWORKING WITH PROJECT PLANN- COMMUNICATION OTHER AGENCIES ING IMPLEMEN- & MOTIVATION (INTER DEPART- TATION S MENT) EVALUATION (MONITORING) -----------------------------------------------------__---------------------- RANGERS MICRO PLANNING BAR CHART SMALL GROUP INTER-PERSONAL SCHEDULING COMMUNICATION RELATIONS PLANNING WITH SUPERVISION MOTIVATION METHOD OF N.G.O0s & REPORTING PANCHAYATS …_____________________- ____________________________________________________ FORESTERS/ MICRO PLANNING MOTIVATION INTER- USE OF LOCAL FG & FEW PERSONAL RESOURCES RELATIONS …-------------------------------------------_------------__----------------- F.P.C'a PLANNING GROUP FINANCE MGMT. INTER GROUP SMALL GROUP L COMMUNITY RELATIONS COMMUNICATION DEVELOPMENT L RESOURCE UTILIZATION …-----------------_-------------------------- -- ____________________________ N.G.O'3 AWARENESS OBJECTIVES COMMUNITY INTER-GROUP CAMPAIGNS PARITY WITH RELATIONS RELATIONS BETWEEN GCVT.PROJECTS N.G.O'a, FOREST OFFICIALS & VILLAGERS Annezx Table 1 Page 3 of 3 EXTENsroTN TRATNTNM SOCIO-ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONAL C.C.F'3 DEVELOPMENTAL EXTENSION INSTRUMENTS MARKETING ECONOMICS METHODOLOGIES OF PUBLIC CONCEPTS ADMINISTRATION ----------------------------------------------------__---------------------- C.F's EXTENSION INSTRUMENTS OF MARKETING METHODS PUBLIC ADMINIS- TRATION D.F.O. RAPID RURAL NEEDS ROLE OF NABARD APPRAISAL ASSESSMENT CO-OPERATIVES SCHEMES (INCLUDING P.R.A.) EXTENSION MARKETING ---------------------------------------------------------__----------------- RANGERS NEEDS EXTENSION ROLE OF INFORMAL ASSESSMENT COMMUNICATION COOPERATIVES GROUPS ---------------------------------------------------------__----------------- FORESTERS/ USE OF AUDIO PANCHAYATS FG A FEW VISUAL AIDS F.P.C's MASS DISTRIBUTION COMMUNICATION MECHANISMS (EQUITY ISSUES) N.G.O' FEEDBACK ASSESSMENT ---------------------------------------------------------__------------------ -67- List of Background Papers Agricultural Finance Consultants. "Study Report on Wastelands Availability and Production Potential". Barnes, D. "Population Growth, Energy Use and Resource Problems in India". Campbell, J. Gabriel. "Whose Land is This?" Paper presented to CPRM conference, Durham, North Carolina, September 1989. Chatterjee, N., R. Kaur and A. Shourie (Consultants). "Voluntary Organizations and Social Forestry." Contreras-Hermnosilla, A. "Forestry Incentives in India." Deutche Gessellschaft Fur Technishe Zusanumenarbeit (GTZ). "Study of Social Forestry Programs in India." Draft Final Report Environmental Resources Limited, Naturl Resource Management for Sustainable Development (1988). " A Study of Feasible Policies, Institutions, and Investment Activities in Nepal with Special Emphasis on the Hills: A Study for ODA and the World Bank." Indian Market Research Bureau. "Social Forestry: A Report on West Bengal". Prepared for ISO/Swedforest 1989. Jones, N. "India Forest Sector: Technology and Technical Support" Maharashtra Industrial and Technical Consultancy (MITCON). "Report on Current Situation and the Potential for Non-Timber Products - Bamboo and Sisal." Molnar, A. and M. Jansen (World Bank) and J.G. Campbell (Consultant). "Institutional and Environmental Considerations for Forest and Wasteland Development." Ryan, P. "India - Woodfuel Supply Situation." Saxena, N.C. (Consultant). "India: Forestry Incentives Study." Schonberger, S. "Linking the Environmental, Industrial and Local Benefits from India's Forests." Vasulu, T.S. "Report on Collection and Sale of Minor Forest Products in North Bengal." -68- BkliogrWhy AgrawaL Anil and Sunita Narain (1989). Towards Green Villages. New Delhi: Centre for Science and Environment. Bahuguna, V.K. and Vinay Lutira (1991). Forest Administration in India. A theme paper for the National Seminar on forest Administrative Changes. New Delhi: SIDA; IIFM; ISO/Swed forest Ballabh, Vishwa and N.C. Saxena (1991). Socio-Econotnic Aspects of Tree Growing by Farmers in South Asia. Workshop Report Anand; Institute of Rural Management. Bardhan Roy, B.K. (1991). ArabaTi Experience: A Model for Forest Management with People's Participation. Department of Forests. Calcutta: Government of West Bengal. Bentley, William R. (1984). The Uncultivated Half of India: Problems and Possible Solution. DP No. 12. New Delhi: Ford Foundation. Bhumbla, D. R. and Arvind Khare (1984). Esdmates of Wastelands in India. Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development New Delhi: Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development Binswanger, H. (1991). "Brazilian Policies that Encourage Deforestation in the Amazon." World Development Vol. 19., July 1991. pp 821-829. Buch, M.N. (1991) The Forests of Madhya Pradesh. Bhopal: Madhya Pradesh Madhyam. Chambers, Robert, N.C Saxena and Tushaar Shah (1989). To the Hands of the Poor: Water and Trees. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Cleaver, K. and G. Schreiber (1992). Population/AgriculturelEnvironment Nexus in South Saharan Africa. Agriculture and Rural Development Series No. 1 Technical Department Africa Region: Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Femandes, Walter, Geeta Menon and Philip Viegas (1988). Forests, Environment, and Tribal Economy. New Delhi: Indian Social Institute. Food and Agricultual Organization (1991). Women's Role in Dynamic Forest-Based Small Scale Enterprises. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organiztion. Gadgil, M. and Ramachandra Guha (1992). "Interpreting Indian Environmentalism." Conference on the Social Dimension of Environment and Sustainable Development. The United Nations Research Institute for Social Development and the Foundation for International Studies. -69- Gadgil, M. et al. (1982). "Forest Management and Forest Policy in India: A Critical Review" in: Walter Fernandes (ed.), Forests, Environment and People. New Delhi: India Social Institute. Government of India (1992). Environment and Development: Traditions, Concerns and Efforts in India. National Report to UNCED. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests. (1991). National Wastelands Development Programme: Guidelines for Microplanning. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests, National Wastelands Development Board. (1990). Developing India's Wastelands. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests. (1990). National Wastelands Development Progrmme: Mission Document. New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests, National Wastelands Development Board. _______________ (1990). The Report of the Working Group on Forests and Wildlife for Eighth Five-Year Plan (1990-1995). New Delhi: Ministry of Environment and Forests. (1989). The State of Forest Report 1991. Dehra Dun: Ministry of Environment and Forests, Forest Survey of India. (1987). Description, Classification, Identification and Mapping of Wastelands. New Delhi: Ministry of Enviromnent and Forests. (1976). Report of the National Commission on Agriculture, Part IX. Forestry. New Delhi: India Social Institute. Government of West Bengal. (1988). Technology Manual for Forest Management with People's Participation. Calcutta: West Bengal Department of Forests, Social Forestry Wing. Jodha, N. S. (1990). Rural Common Property Resources: Contributions and Crisis. New Delhi: Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development. (1986). "Common Property Resources and Rural Poor in Dry Regions of India", Economic and Political Weekly. Vol 21, No. 27, 1169-1181. Kant, S., and N. M. Singh (1991). Community-Based Forest Management Systems (Case Studies from Orissa). New Delhi: SIDA, ISO/Swedforest and IIFM. Khan, Irshad (1987). Wasteland Afforestation. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd. -70- Kaur, R. (1991). Women in Forestry in India. Report no. WPS 714. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. Kothari, A. et al. (1989). Management of National Parks and Sanctuaries in India - A Status Report. New Delhi: Indian Institute of Public Administration. Malhotra, K.C. and M. Poffenberger (1989). Forest Regeneration through Community Protection: The West Bengal Experience. Calcutta: Government of West Bengal, Departnent of Forests. Molnar, A. and G. Schreiber (1989). Women and Forestry: Operational Issues. Report no. WPS 184. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. Nadkarni, M. V., S. A. Pasha and L. S. Prabhakar (1989). The Political Economy of Forest Use and Management. New Delhi: Newbury Park, London. Sage Publications. Natarajan, I (1985). "Domestic Fuel Survey with Special Reference to Kerosene". New Delhi: National Council for Applied Economic Research. Nesmith, C. (1991). "Gender, Trees and Fuel - Social Foestry in West Bengal India." Human Organization Vol. 50 No. 4, Winter 1991, pp 337-348. Poffenberger, Mark (ed.), Kirin Bhatia and Betsey McGean (1990). Forest Managernent Partnerships: Regenerating India's Forests. New Delhi: The Ford Foundation and the Indian Environmental Society. Poffenberger, Marke (ed.), Betsy McGean, N. H. Ravindranath and Machav Gadgil (1992). Joint Forest Management - Field Methods Manual Vol. I and H. New Delhi: Society of Promotion of Wastelands Development. Ramakrishnan, P.S. and J. Singha (1991). "4 " Sustainable Development. Roy, S. (1990). Operational Guidelines for Participatory management of Degraded forests in West Bengal. Calcutta: Government of West Bengal, Directorate of Forest. Saxena, N. C. (1991). "Marketing Constraints for Eucalyptus from Farrn lands in India". Agroforestry Systems, 13 pp., 73-85. Kluver Academic Publishers. ____ ____- (1991). "Crop losses and their Economic Implications due to Growing of Eucalyptus on Field Bunds - A Pilot Study." Agroforestry Systems. 16pp., 231-245. Kluver Academic Press. Shah, T. (1987). Gains from Social Forestry: Lessons from West Bengal. Paper presented at IDS/ODI Conference 8-9 June 1987. Anand: Institute of Rural Management. -71- SIDA, ISO/Swedforest IIFM (1992). National Seminar on Forestiy Sector Administration Development. New Delhi: SIDA, ISO/Swedforest and IIFM. Smith, Kirk R. and Jamuna Ramakrishna (1991). Improved Cookstove Programs: Where Are We Now? EWC/ESMAP/UNDP Evaluation Report. Honolulu: Environment and Policy Institute. Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development. (1992). Joint Forest Management: Regulations Update 1992. New Delhi: Society for Promotion of Wasteland Development. Vohra, B. B. (1985). "The Greening of India," in 1. Bandyopadhyay et al. (eds.) India's Environment, Crises and Responses. Dehradun: Natraj. World Bank (1992). India: West Bengal Forestry Project. Report no. 1001 1-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1992). India: Maharashtra Forestry Project. Report No. 10040-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1992). A Strategy for Asian Forestry Development. Asia Technical Department. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. (1992). Country Study - Gender and Poverty in India. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. (1992). World Development Report 1992. Report no 10360. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1991). Country Economic Memorandum. Report no. 9412-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1991). The Forest Sector: A World Bank Policy Paper. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1991). Forestry Development: A Review of Bank Experience. Report no. OED 9524. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1988). Review of Rainfed Agriculture and Watershed Development. Report no. 7138-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1988). Wasteland Development Review. Report no. 6945-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. (1978). India Forestry Prospects. Report no. 1745-IN. Washington, D. C.: World Bank. World Resources Institute (1992). World Resources 1992-1993. New York: Oxford University Press.