WORLD BANK GROUP GENDER THEMATIC POLICY NOTES SERIES: ISSUES AND PRACTICE NOTE PLACING GENDER EQUALITY AT THE CENTER OF CLIMATE ACTION Franziska Deininger, Andrea Woodhouse, Anne T. Kuriakose, Ana Gren, Sundas Liaqat ABSTRACT Women and disadvantaged groups tend to be more affected by climate change across various dimensions, including health, livelihoods, and agency. Gender gaps are increasingly seen as barriers to effective mitigation and adaptation strategies. Women are also critical leaders and participants of low-carbon transitions. This policy note investigates how gender equality and climate change intersect; explores programmatic experience on the gender-climate nexus; identifies promising entry points and solutions; and offers recommendations for development practitioners, policymakers, and businesses. JANUARY 2023 TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1 1. UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND CLIMATE 2 Introduction 2 The Gender-Differentiated Impacts of Climate Change 2 The Gender-Differentiated Impacts of Climate Action 4 Women’s Empowerment and Leadership on Climate 5 2. EVIDENCE AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE 7 Financing and Investments 7 Institutions, Policy, and Regulation 9 Key Thematic Areas 11 Key Sectoral Priorities 15 Current Challenges in Collecting Evidence and Operationalizing the Gender-Climate Nexus 20 3. LOOKING AHEAD: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS TO ADVANCE WOMEN IN CLIMATE ACTION 22 Strategic Recommendations 22 Financing and Investments 22 Institutions, Policy, and Regulation 22 Thematic and Sectoral Recommendations 23 REFERENCES 24 This thematic policy note is part of a series that provides an analytical foundation for the World Bank Group Gender Strategy (2024–2030). This series seeks to give a broad overview of the latest research and findings on gender equality outcomes; summarizing key thematic issues, evidence on promising solutions, operational good practices, and key areas for future engagement on promoting gender equality and empowerment. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank Group or its Board of Directors. This paper was written by a World Bank Group task team led by Franziska Deininger and Andrea Woodhouse and including Anne T. Kuriakose, Ana Gren, and Sundas Liaqat. The team thanks the following colleagues, who kindly agreed to serve as reviewers or provided guidance and inputs throughout the process of developing this report: Margaret Arnold, Leslie Ashby, Debbie Mei Si Bong, Helle Buchhave, Ezgi Canpolat, Nathyeli Acuna Castillo, Sanola Daley, Kamila Galeza, Sherry Goldberg, Gaia Hatzfeldt, Sarah Keener, Elif Kiratli, Nato Kurshitashvili, Aleksandra Liaplina, Amy Luinstra, Craig Meisner, Asyl Undeland, Laura Rawlings, and Brian Walsh. 2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Gender and climate change are intimately linked, and Evidence on the effectiveness of gender-smart and promoting sustainable development requires addressing climate-smart development interventions remains both challenges together. The impacts of climate change fragmented, but some early entry points for action are profoundly unequal: women and other vulnerable and effective approaches have been identified. The groups tend to be more impacted by climate shocks and narrative on the gender-climate nexus is gaining traction stresses, including those arising from extreme weather in policy circles, in national climate roadmaps, and in events, droughts, floods, rising sea levels, and warmer climate finance and investments, although the systematic temperatures. These shocks reverberate in unequal ways inclusion of women’s leadership in these areas remains far because women face systemic disadvantages in access from what is required. Several high-potential gender entry to jobs, income, resources, finance, and information. points are supported by a nascent, but growing, body of Such barriers reduce their adaptive capacity, as well as programmatic experience. These include enhancing access their participation in mitigation solutions and disaster to green jobs and skills, providing adaptive social safety preparedness and response. nets and livelihood diversification, investing in resilience and disaster risk reduction, and addressing gender- The transition to greener economies can create new based violence (GBV) in climate action. Furthermore, five opportunities for women, provided that an intentional key systems—energy; agriculture, food, water, and land mix of gender-inclusive policies and interventions is put in management; cities; transport; and manufacturing—are place to ensure women’s participation. Women’s informal responsible for 90 percent of global greenhouse gas contributions, workforce participation, remuneration, and emissions and represent critical sectoral focus areas where decision-making power across sectors are unequal relative gender objectives can simultaneously be achieved. to those of men. Advancements in climate technologies and new green jobs and entrepreneurial opportunities in renewable energy, climate-smart agriculture, sustainable fisheries, and circular manufacturing processes are unlikely to benefit women to the same extent that they do men unless intentional actions are taken to address gender gaps. Women’s empowerment, leadership, and decision making in climate action is associated with better outcomes. Women’s presence in local climate change responses is associated with better resource governance, conservation outcomes, and disaster readiness. Yet women are systematically under-represented in decision-making circles at the grassroots level, in project implementation, during stakeholder consultations, and in municipal planning networks; in governments and in transnational climate dialogues; in the private sector on corporate boards and in senior management; in climate finance; and in science, STEM research, and academia. This has serious repercussions for the equal status of women, but also prevents more inclusive and effective climate action, which requires local knowledge, community mobilization and buy-in, behavior change, innovation, and problem solving. 1 1. UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND CLIMATE Introduction and adapt to changing climactic conditions are increasingly regarded as opportunities to address entrenched and Climate change is the defining challenge of our era. unequal power structures in households, communities, Addressing it will require fundamental shifts away from labor markets, governments, and businesses. business as usual towards green, resilient, and inclusive economies driven by regenerative, renewable, and This policy note investigates the complex and nature-positive processes. Emphasis must be placed on multidimensional intersections of gender equality a just transition; on strengthening community resilience and climate change, contributing to the emerging and individual capacity to confront climate shocks and dialogue on a people-centered approach to green and stresses; on the expansion of climate finance to local and inclusive development. It is organized into the following underserved areas; and on transformative investments three sections. Section 2 outlines the challenges and to improve climate adaptation and mitigation in critical opportunities in gender-smart climate action and presents sectors such as energy, agriculture, water, cities, transport, how gender intersects with climate change and climate and manufacturing. policies. Section 3 explores the intervention landscape to investigate how gender-smart climate solutions are Climate change is already affecting millions of people and operationalized across sectors and entry points. Section 4 communities around the world, but its negative effects are outlines best practices and recommendations. profoundly unequal. A growing body of evidence shows that the impacts of climate change, including more frequent and intense periods of drought, floods, hurricanes, extreme The Gender-Differentiated Impacts of rainfall events, and rising sea levels, disproportionately Climate Change affect the poorest, most marginalized groups, posing direct Climate change has outsized impacts on women and immediate threats to their health and livelihoods (UN and disadvantaged groups. Although the impacts of Women, 2022; UNFCC, 2022; IPCC, 2022). These inequities climate change vary across regional contexts, women’s are reflected along gender lines and shaped by gendered disadvantaged positions heighten their vulnerability and norms (Fruttero et al., forthcoming). Women have fewer reduce their adaptive capacity.1 In many contexts, pre- resources to protect themselves against climate risks and existing socio-economic factors, laws and regulations, recover from climate shocks, tend to be disproportionately and social norms create conditions that weaken women’s affected by climate variability and stresses, and face more social, financial, and economic outcomes following constraints in accessing climate-related opportunities. climate stresses and shocks (e.g., Erman et al. 2021; UNFCCC, 2022). Differences in access to income, assets, Ensuring green, resilient, and inclusive growth requires and natural resources; access to services and skills; the placing gender concerns at the center. Despite the growing gendered burden of responsibilities within the household; emphasis on sustainable and inclusive development discriminatory laws and practices; and prohibitive gender linking poverty eradication, planetary health, women’s norms reduce the bandwidth of response and the ability to empowerment, and economic growth, there is limited derive benefits from climate programs (see Box 1). integration of climate change action – both mitigation and adaptation—and efforts to close gender gaps. This is shifting These inequalities may be exacerbated by other aspects with the growing recognition that progress on gender of social disadvantage. Gender, including in its non- equality and climate change are inextricably linked. This binary form, intersects with other aspects of identity, relationship extends beyond the disproportionate impacts such as race, class, socio-economic status, nationality, of climate change on women and girls and acknowledges education, migrant status, religion, and disability, to create that women are invaluable changemakers in climate action multidimensional inequalities and heightened forms of (e.g., IPCC, 2022, UNFCC, 2022). The behavioral, economic, social vulnerability. political, and social transformations required to confront 1 A  daptive capacity is the potential or ability of a system, region, or community to adapt to the effects or impacts of climate change. Enhancement of adaptive capacity represents a practical means of coping with changes and uncertainties in climate, including variability and extremes. (IPCC, 2022). 2 BOX 1. THE UNEQUAL EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE Human Endowments Health: Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause 250,000 additional deaths each year from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress, with outsized impacts on vulnerable groups, including women (WHO, 2021). Women and children are more likely to suffer from climate-induced food shortages and malnutrition (WFP, 2021; UNICEF, 2021), while exposure to household air pollution is estimated to be around 40 percent higher for women due to the gendered distribution of household activities (WHO, 2014). The evidence for gender differentiated mortality rates following climate disasters is mixed, although women’s responses to such disasters are typically more constrained due to social disadvantages (Fruttero et al., forthcoming).  ducation and Skills: Climate shocks have detrimental impacts on human capital, but women and girls are E affected in different ways. In the wake of disaster or drought, girls may be removed from school or spend less time on schooling, either as a household coping strategy or to perform household chores, such as water or fuel collection, that become more time-consuming in settings of climate-induced resource scarcity (Castañeda et al., 2020; Malala Fund, 2021). Droughts and extreme rainfall can lead to either higher or lower dropout rates for girls, depending partly on the predominance of gender biases, but weather events affect the test scores and cognitive and socio-emotional skills of boys and girls in similar ways (Fruttero et al., forthcoming). Economic Opportunities Livelihoods, Employment, and Income-Generation: Women are overrepresented in employment in natural resource-based and climate-vulnerable sectors, including agriculture, fisheries, and forestry, often in poorly renumerated, low-status, and insecure positions (e.g., UN Women, 2020; Chanana-Nag & Aggarwal, 2018; WWF, 2019; UNWTO, 2019). The physical impacts of climate change, such as droughts, desertification, ocean acidification, and flooding, reduce the income-generating potential of these sectors (Jägermeyr et al. 2021; Lam et al., 2020), undermining women’s livelihoods, community food security, and adaptive capacity. Droughts, extreme rainfall, and floods reduce women’s employment, especially in households where parents have less education (Fruttero et al., forthcoming). Time Poverty: Climate change can exacerbate women’s time poverty, reducing the time women and girls have to learn, work, and earn. Water and solid fuel collection, and other household chores, are primarily carried out by women and girls (Ho et al., 2021), creating dependence on natural resources. Depletion of these resources because of deforestation, land degradation, and drought, force women and girls to walk longer distances in search of water or cooking fuel. This increases their time poverty and heightens the risk of GBV (UN Women, 2009; IUCN, 2020; UNFCCC, 2022). Climate Migration and Livelihoods: Rising sea levels, extreme weather events and disasters, and prolonged droughts destroy rural livelihoods (McAuliffe et al. 2022). Several studies show an increase in climate shock-induced outmigration of men relative to women, as men search for new opportunities (Fruttero et al., forthcoming). This leaves women behind in precarious settings where they must secure livelihoods for their families. When women are displaced by disaster, they face increased risk of exploitation and trafficking, limited access to healthcare, and reduced access to formalized safety nets (UNHCR, 2022). Voice and Agency Gender-Based Violence (GBV): A growing body of evidence reveals that climate-induced stresses can lead to an increase in GBV, as households cope with the shocks of extreme weather events, environmental degradation, and climate-induced conflict and fragility (e.g., IUCN, 2020; Desai & Mandal, 2021; Rodrigues, 2022). Child marriage, as a particular form of GBV, has been observed to increase in some contexts as households cope with climate disasters (e.g., Human Rights Watch, 2015; UNFPA, 2021). The increase in violence reduces the adaptive capacity of women and girls, weakening climate resilience and creating negative feedback loops. 3 The Gender-Differentiated Impacts of create greater disadvantages to women in households, Climate Action communities, labor markets, and public life. In low-carbon transitions, women are likely to be left behind without The transition to low-carbon economies offers new explicit interventions. For example, green jobs of the opportunities to reduce gender inequality and empower future will likely favor skills and fields related to science, women and vulnerable populations. Climate change technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM)—areas mitigation efforts, together with adaptation measures, where women and girls tend to be underrepresented, bring new opportunities for better jobs, green business perpetuating longstanding patterns of occupational sex innovations, and a chance to address entrenched segregation. A recent study found that only 62 women for disadvantages. World Bank Group research estimates that every 100 men are considered to have so-called green climate investments can generate 213 million cumulative talent,4 a figure that has remained stagnant since 2015 jobs around the world between 2020 and 2030 (IFC, (LinkedIn, 2022). 2021). The global labor force participation rate for women is under 47 percent, compared to 72 percent for men Sectors that are likely to see growth in green jobs, (ILO, 2022), suggesting significant room for women to such as energy, manufacturing, construction, and make labor market gains in Paris Agreement-alignment transport, are traditionally male dominated (see Table trajectories. Beyond this, just transition2 principles—which 1). Women’s participation is limited in these sectors due aim to ensure that the process toward environmentally to discriminatory laws and social norms; biased hiring sustainable economies is well managed and contributes to practices; lack of access to mentoring, networking, and the goals of decent work for all, social inclusion, and the training opportunities; lack of preventative measures eradication of poverty—call for better and more decent against workplace sexual harassment; and inflexible work3 for women, as well as locally empowered economies. childcare policies. This trend will likely continue in the absence of long-term strategies that remove legal barriers Despite these opportunities, gender-blind climate and challenge social norms, as well as corporate policies policies and interventions also risk exacerbating gender that enable women’s ascension into technical fields (UN gaps. Gender-blind action to combat climate change risks Women, 2021). reinforcing stratified economic and social systems that 2 T  he term ”just transition” means greening the economy in a way that is as fair and inclusive as possible, creating decent work opportunities and leaving no one behind (ILO). 3 The term “decent work” refers to work that is productive and delivers a fair income, security in the workplace, and social protection, as  well as creating equal opportunity and treatment for women and men (ILO). 4 Green skills are defined as those that enable the environmental sustainability of economic activities (LinkedIn, 2022).  4 TABLE 1. JOB POTENTIAL AND FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION (FLFP) RATE BY SECTOR High Potential Sector New Direct Jobs (million)a Global FLFP Rate (%) Retrofit of buildings for energy efficiency 24.9 Energy: 22-32d Low-carbon municipal waste and water 23.4 Water: 18e Green urban transport 53.4 Transport: 17.3f Nature-based urban infrastructure 42.0b Decarbonization of heavy industry with 22.5 Manufacturing: 30g carbon capture, utilization and storage, and green hydrogen Scaling of climate-smart agriculture 40.2 Traditional agriculture: 43h Reinvention of textile and apparel value chains 60.0c Traditional garment industry: 80i Low-carbon airlines and shipping 6.1 Engineering: 20j Maritime/Shipping: 1.2k a All figures based on CTRL, ALT, DEL A Green Reboot for Emerging Markets (IFC, 2021). b Jobs globally between 2020 and 2030. c Maintained jobs in global supply chain. d FLFP is 22 percent in traditional energy sectors (Oil & Gas) (IEA, 2020) and 32 percent in the renewable energy sector (IRENA, 2019). e Based on a sample of 64 water and sanitation providers in 28 economies globally (World Bank, 2019). f B  ased on sample of 46 countries and includes civil engineering, land transport and transport via pipelines, water transport, air transport, warehousing and support activities for transport, postal and courier activities (Ng & Acker, 2020). g World Manufacturing Foundation.  h  Estimates from FAO and are likely to include subsistence farming, agricultural support activities, and informal work. i Promoting Decent Work in Garment Sector Global Supply Chains (ILO, 2019).  j Global Gender Gap Report 2021 (World Economic Forum, 2021).  k  Seafarer Workforce Report (BIMCO/ICS, 2021). Women face significant financing gaps in green mind, reducing opportunities for women and communities entrepreneurship, identified as a key lever to decouple to improve their climate resilience through technological growth and consumption from environmentally harmful innovations designed to meet their needs. processes. While investments into climate technologies aimed at mitigation and adaptation are growing rapidly,5 Women’s Empowerment and Leadership women-owned businesses are less likely to benefit without on Climate action to close gender gaps in access to finance. Women- Women’s economic empowerment and leadership owned businesses comprise 23 percent of micro, small is increasingly recognized as central to local climate and medium enterprises (MSMEs) globally, but account action to achieve long-term climate goals. Owing in part for 32 percent of the $5 trillion finance gap (SME Finance to traditional gender divisions of labor, women possess Forum). In 2020, women received only 2 percent of venture knowledge, capabilities, and networks that can drive capital funding (Crunchbase, 2020). They also make up only solutions in sustainability, resource scarcity, and climate 30 percent of the world’s scientists (Women’s Forum for resilience (ILO, 2015). Their experiences in agriculture, the Economy & Society, 2021). This means that women’s fisheries, tourism, conservation, nature-based solutions, entrepreneurial ambitions in green fora are cut short. and groundwater monitoring, for example, enable effective Furthermore, green technologies and climate solutions are and informed action in these areas. Further, given their less likely to be developed with women’s perspectives in 5 nvestment in climate technology totaled $87.5 billion in the second half of 2020 and first half of 2021, increasing by 210 percent from I what was invested in the 12 months prior. Climate tech now accounts for 14 cents of every venture capital dollar (PwC, 2021). 5 traditional responsibilities around managing water and sector as well: Companies with more gender-diverse other natural resources, women value these resources in leadership perform significantly better in eight out of different ways and represent key stakeholders to achieve nine climate action indicators; are twice as likely to effective conservation and management. Several studies find develop decarbonization strategies (BoardReady, 2021); women to be more concerned and knowledgeable about and are more likely to reduce the intensity of energy climate change, while also exhibiting greater awareness consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and water for the wellbeing of families and communities (UN, 2019), use (FP Analytics, 2020). A recent study found that a one including, the use of natural resources for food security, percentage point increase in the share of women managers for example. leads to a 0.5 percent decrease in CO2 emissions (Altunbas et al. 2021), while banks with more gender-diverse boards Women’s presence in local climate change responses is provide more credit to greener companies and lend less to associated with better resource governance, conservation firms with high pollution intensity (Gambacorta et al. 2022). outcomes, and disaster readiness. In Bangladesh, women play a pioneering role in community resilience (Roy, 2020), Despite this, women are systematically under- for instance, by reducing community reluctance to use represented in key decision-making settings, limiting emergency shelters (World Bank, 2010) and by engaging their contributions and reducing the effectiveness of as active stakeholders in disaster preparedness efforts to climate change action. Women hold only 21 percent of ensure women’s sanitation and security needs are met global government ministerial positions and one-quarter (IFC, 2021). In Nepal, local forest management groups with of national parliamentary positions (UN Women, 2020). a higher proportion of women in decision-making bodies Only 34 percent of COP26 committee members, and had greater forest conservation outcomes (Agarwal, 2009), 39 percent of those leading delegations, were women, while in Vietnam, women were crucial in protecting their while at COP27, they represented only seven of the 110 communities against intensifying natural hazards by world leaders (She Changes Climate). The proportion preserving and restoring mangroves (Wapner, 2020). The of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) World Bank’s Dedicated Grant Mechanism (DGM) projects, authors who are women currently stands at 30 percent supported by the Climate Investment Funds (CIF), used (IPCC, 2019), and only 122 out of 1,000 “most influential” country-based iterative strategies to foster Indigenous climate scientists are women (Carbon Brief, 2021). Women and local women’s climate leadership and participation in represent a mere five percent of CEOs and 20 percent of decision making at local and national levels for improved boardroom members globally (Deloitte, 2021). These gaps conservation and climate outcomes (Canpolat et al., 2022). point to widespread and systematic underrepresentation A recent study on the gender dimensions of disaster risk of women in climate policy and leadership, a pattern that and resilience outlines the critical role that women play constrains their contributions to climate action. in preparedness, response, and recovery efforts, with the formalization of their participation leading to better Moving beyond a victimhood narrative and positioning outcomes (Erman et al., 2021). women as climate changemakers are critical, but it is equally important to avoid instrumentalizing women’s Beyond local climate interventions, women’s participation leadership and empowerment to achieve climate in ministerial and corporate decision-making bodies is objectives. Women and girls should not be positioned as associated with more effective climate action. Based on environmental stewards based on preexisting social norms a large sample of countries, women’s political participation that emphasize them as family and community caretakers. results in more stringent climate change policies, and this Increasing women’s voice and agency in climate action are effect is likely to be causal (Mavisakalyan & Tarverdi, 2019). not a means to an end, but standalone imperatives from Women in leadership positions are also more likely to a justice perspective. Local adaptation and mitigation invest in policy areas that are of significance to women, measures should not add to women’s existing burden but such as securing access to drinking water (Chattopadhyay provide an avenue to increase their decision making and & Duflo, 2004). This phenomenon extends to the private their choices in the context of increasing fragility. 6 2. EVIDENCE AND OPERATIONAL EXPERIENCE The gender-climate operational landscape is complex growing aims to systematize or mainstream gender into and diverse. Interventions centered on closing gender climate action at scale, complementing local interventions gaps have focused on human capital endowments, that have historically linked women, livelihoods, and removing constraints for more and better jobs, removing nature-based solutions. barriers to women’s ownership and control of assets, and enhancing women’s voice and agency. Climate action The following section outlines emerging evidence and has typically centered on mitigation, adaptation, and operational experience on the gender-climate nexus. It is resilience building, with efforts targeting high-impact organized around the areas of: a) financing and investment; emission reduction sectors, and more recently, highly b) institutions, policy, and regulation; c) high impact themes, climate-vulnerable areas. For some time, planning toward including green employment and entrepreneurship, social reaching emissions reductions targets negotiated under safety nets and livelihood diversification, resilience building the Paris Agreement crowded out more people-centered and disaster risk reduction, and gender-based violence; and approaches to broader resilience goals. Today, a greater d) sectoral priorities identified in the World Bank Group’s level of understanding of how the gender-climate nexus Climate Change Action Plan (CCAP): energy; agriculture, is relevant for operationalizing mitigation and adaptation forestry, and land use; cities; transport; and manufacturing. pathways is coming into focus among implementers. The areas are cross-cutting and reflect high-impact and high-priority areas for closing gender gaps and addressing Entry points have emerged within the public sector climate change through mitigation and adaptation. through policies, regulatory frameworks, and national The examples included in this section reflect a mix of roadmaps to reduce gender gaps and carbon emissions, mitigation and adaptation approaches and efforts led by as well as local initiatives around community resilience the public and private sectors, prioritizing projects that and women’s participation. In the private sector, action on apply an integrated lens to the gender-climate nexus. This climate and gender is emerging slowly, but accelerating selection of interventions balances innovative solutions through corporate initiatives and capital flows, including (where impact measurement remains forthcoming) with in the environmental, social, and governance (ESG) space programmatic experience that has demonstrated results and through collaborative leadership among private, advancing gender and climate. public, and voluntary actors innovating with the use of different instruments, indices, and bundling of products. Financing and Investments For example, the 2X Collaborative has developed an While global climate finance has steadily increased over investment toolkit that includes simultaneous gender and the past decade, reaching $632 billion in 2019–2020, it climate targets to guide the flow of capital. is far below the $4.35 trillion required annually by 2030 Efforts to integrate climate and gender concerns at scale to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius (Buchner are growing. To date, projects with an integrated gender- et al, 2021) and little reaches women (WOW, 2021). Only climate focus have been smaller in scale, instituted at 10 percent of climate finance flows to the local level, only the local level in response to natural resource scarcity, one percent of gender equality funding flows to women’s climate risk management, and disaster response. However, organizations, and only three percent of environmental global actors, such as multilateral development banks, the philanthropy supports women’s environmental activism United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Daniel, 2020). In 2017 to 2018, only four percent of bilateral (UNFCCC), climate finance mechanisms, and the IPCC, have aid was dedicated to gender equality as the principal begun developing more systematic gender-responsive objective, and only 30–40 percent of environmental aid climate programs and approaches, including enhanced focused on gender equality (OECD, 2020). engagement with the private sector. These efforts reflect 7 However, there is growing recognition that finance In the private sector, the connection between action can be mobilized to address gender inequality and on gender equality and action on climate change has tackle climate change at the same time. Documented rarely been made, but this is beginning to change. The experience indicates that social inclusion can increase the emergence of innovative financing mechanisms, such efficacy, equity, and impact of climate finance and reduce as outcome-based (or results-based) financing, social the risk of capture by vested interests, while also ensuring bonds, and sustainability-linked financing, show capital the community buy-in necessary to achieve long-term mobilization toward development targets beyond climate. impacts. Over the past decade, climate funds have made Sustainability-linked financing, either in the form of loans or considerable headway in systematizing gender into fund bonds, can combine green and social use of proceeds and structures and policies to ensure that climate finance has an estimated market size of $200 billion, up 23 percent reaches women. from 20206 (Climate Bonds Initiative, 2021). Furthermore, the total market size of social bonds7 is currently estimated For example, CIF has developed a Gender Action Plan to at $223 billion (ibid), slowly catching up to the green bond8 ensure the systematic inclusion of development outcomes market, which has soared with volumes growing 75 percent for women and other marginalized groups in every CIF- from 2020 to 2021 to reach a market size of $523 billion funded project. The Adaptation Fund (AF) has identified (ibid). IFC’s recent investment in BIX Capital, to unlock gender equality and women’s empowerment as targeted financing for climate-smart household appliances for low- areas for investment, while the Green Climate Fund income households, reflects a more integrated gender (GCF) has made gender assessments a prerequisite for all and climate approach with an impact bond structure that funding proposals (UNDP, 2020). The Enhancing Access to seeks to quantify and monetize gender and health-related Benefits while Lowering Emissions (EnABLE) multi-donor impacts (IFC, 2018). The Impact Investment Exchange trust fund seeks to enhance the inclusion of marginalized (IIX) is launching a Women’s Climate Bond focusing on and disadvantaged groups, with its first contribution Sub-Saharan Africa, while Schneider Electric launched supporting gender equity in 15 Forest Carbon Partnership the first sustainability-linked bond with indicators on Facility (FCPF) countries (World Bank, 2021). gender diversity. While these are positive trends, challenges remain to Significant challenges still remain to make private climate make climate finance truly gender transformative. These capital systematically gender inclusive. Investments are linked to the low participation of local stakeholders reflect growing attention on gender and climate as core and beneficiaries; the difficulty in transparent monitoring, themes, but full integration of the two areas remains a reporting, and verification of gender equality results; and challenge. This is linked to a variety of issues, including the discrepancy between intended and verified gender market barriers, perceived and actual risks in private results (ODI & HBF, 2021). Comprehensive and balanced sector-led financing in emerging markets, the difficulty participation of local groups, like gender-focused of tracking gender and climate outcomes in the use of organizations and women’s networks, in climate financing proceeds, the challenge in integrating gender and climate decision making is still a critical concern among climate key performance targets, and the mindset that climate fund governance structures. Furthermore, early findings and gender are distinct investment areas. Furthermore, from portfolio assessments indicate insufficient granularity implementation experience suggests that social impact and comprehensiveness in accounting for gender benefits bonds, outcome funds are associated with high transaction through fund-supported projects. For example, the most costs linked to the relative complexity of developing recent Global Environment Facility (GEF) report on gender and monitoring them. Rigorous evidence about their implementation reveals that only half of GEF-funded effectiveness, in comparison to traditional financing projects reported on gender during implementation (GEF, mechanisms, is still lacking (Gustafsson-Wright et al. 2022). 2021). Another issue is the lack of gender balance within This is where the deployment of blended finance tools and funding institutions themselves, with limited efforts solutions, combined with technical assistance, can enable to address women’s leadership as finance allocators more favorable conditions for private sector-led, gender- (UNDP, 2020). smart climate finance. 6 S  ocial use of proceeds targets outcomes beyond gender equality, making it difficult to assess the total capital outlay targeting gender and green activities explicitly (Gouett, 2021). 7 Social bonds are sustainable debt that supports social projects, including COVID-19 recovery, gender, housing, health, and education.  8 Green bonds are sustainable debt that supports projects, activities, and expenditures focused on environmental benefits.  8 Institutions, Policy, and Regulation 2022). A full 75 percent of parties provided information related to gender and 39 percent committed to consider In the design of climate programs and national gender in implementation. Of the 21 parties that referenced roadmaps, governments are increasingly acknowledging gender in their previous NDCs, 20 percent elaborated the the outsized threats of climate change to women and language and 38 percent included information related to girls, particularly those who are living in poverty. More gender mainstreaming. Shifting institutions substantively countries are positioning women as changemakers in this will require empirical data to drive a strong business case, space. According to the most recent synthesis report on tools and resources to facilitate greater gender balance 166 Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), parties (for example, the World Bank Group’s CCDRs in Box 2), and are increasingly recognizing gender integration as a way to accountability mechanisms to track progress over time. enhance the effectiveness of their climate action (UNFCCC, BOX 2. THE WORLD BANK GROUP’S COUNTRY CLIMATE AND DEVELOPMENT REPORTS (CCDRS) CCDRs are new diagnostic reports that integrate climate change and broader development objectives, with the aim of helping countries identify and prioritize the most impactful actions to reduce GHG emissions and increase adaptation, while also ensuring sustainable development. The pathways toward lower emissions and reduced climate vulnerability are supported by rigorous analysis, contextualized for each country, and include challenges and opportunities. At the time of writing, the World Bank Group has produced 24 CCDRs, several of which refer to women’s differentiated vulnerability to climate change. For example, Malawi’s CCDR sources evidence on the gendered effects of extreme weather events and recognizes modern cooking solutions as a priority action area to protect forests and bring health benefits to women and children (World Bank Group, 2022). The CCDR for Cameroon acknowledges the need to support women’s agency in climate adaptation by overcoming structural disadvantages and disaggregates various employment scenarios by gender (World Bank Group, 2022). Türkiye’s CCDR recognizes women’s labor force participation as a short-term priority to trigger a low-carbon transition, and acknowledges the risk of widening gender pay gaps in green transitions that ignore women’s lower participation in key sectors (World Bank Group, 2022). 9 An increasing number of countries are mandating Public sector initiatives have also focused on strengthening gender equality goals in their policies and governance the policy, legal, and regulatory instruments to drive frameworks on climate change and accompanying gender-responsive climate action. development programming. INTERVENTION EXAMPLES INTERVENTION EXAMPLES In Kenya, the World Bank’s Financing Locally Led Costa Rica, in response to decreasing forest areas Climate Action Program (P173065) aims to deliver and strong pressures on land use, is focusing on the locally-led climate resilience actions and improve involvement of women and Indigenous Peoples in capacity to manage climate risks by strengthening sustainable productive landscape initiatives and policy, legal, and regulatory instruments, as well other land use activities. Programs link income as human capacity, to deliver climate resilience generation and livelihood improvements for actions. It includes formal and informal training women to conservation and sustainability efforts and peer-to-peer and experiential learning. to protect the country’s forest areas. Costa Rica was the first country among 12 tropical countries I  n Zambia (P144254), the World Bank is supporting engaged in REDD+ to establish rewards for women efforts to strengthen the country’s institutional conservationists, recognizing the leading role that framework for climate resilience and to women play in natural resource management improve the adaptive capacity of vulnerable (World Bank, 2021). communities, specifically targeting women- headed households, through community Nine Caribbean countries9 have implemented adaptation sub-grants, adaptation contingency the Enabling Gender-Responsive Disaster funds, and improved management of traditional Recovery, Climate and Environmental Resilience canals used for transport, drainage, irrigation, in the Caribbean (EnGenDER) Project, which seeks fisheries, and cultural ceremonies. The Farmer to integrate gender equality and human rights- Income Support Program (FISP) and the based approaches into climate, disaster, and provision of crop seeds and fertilizer resulted in environmental management frameworks. a 20 percent increase in agricultural value added per worker. Pakistan has launched its Climate Change Gender Action Plan, a roadmap to incorporate gender  n South Sudan, the World Bank’s Enhancing I equality in climate action (IUCN, 2022). This Community Resilience and Local Governance plan recognizes that women’s representation in Project (P169949) aims to enhance women’s voice paramount in climate discourse and that equal and agency through increased representation participation of women and men leads to more in decision-making bodies. Efforts also center effective climate solutions. on changing perceptions concerning the role of women as decision makers, increasing women’s employment opportunities, and enhancing their economic empowerment. 9 Antigua and Barbuda, Belize, Dominica, Grenada, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, and Suriname.  10 In the private sector, regulatory efforts and business participation in STEM education and employment in their strategies reflect growing attention on climate change own right,10 some programs have begun to link women’s and gender equality to manage risks, realize new business labor force participation and climate change. opportunities, respond to growing external pressure, and remain competitive. The number of companies with net-zero pledges has doubled from 500 in 2019 to more INTERVENTION EXAMPLES than 1,000 in 2020, and the voluntary carbon market is  n Algeria, in collaboration with employers’ and I estimated to be worth upwards of $50 billion by 2030 workers’ organizations, the “Green jobs for young (McKinsey & Company, 2021). Disclosures of climate- men and women in Algeria for a just transition to related financial information have been advanced through a sustainable work future” project is promoting recommendations, such as those of the Financial Stability the creation of better and greener jobs through Board’s Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures sustainable entrepreneurship and the creation (TCDF). Increased transparency around the use of green of microenterprises in the green economy, with proceeds has been advanced by the International Capital a special focus on women. The project supports Market Association’s (ICMA) Green Bond Principles and Algeria’s Paris Agreement commitments and the IFC’s recent guidance on Blue Financing. Climate Action for Jobs initiative to develop just transition measures (ILO, 2022). The past decade has also witnessed the emergence of social responsibility, including gender topics, becoming a  n Türkiye (44190), IFC is using a sustainability- I mainstream conversation in corporate decision making. A linked financing structure in a water and growing business case for gender diversity across company wastewater infrastructure project to increase ranks (e.g., IFC, 2017; BCG, 2019; McKinsey & Company, 2021) women’s employment in technical positions, while and external pressure from consumers and shareholders also addressing climate-induced water shortages. to act on this agenda have emphasized this priority. As an incentive measure to increase women’s Voluntary diversity and inclusion mechanisms have taken employment, the Izmir Water and Sewerage hold, while sustainability and social financing is guided Administration (IZSU) will receive a reduced by developments, such as the EU’s Social Taxonomy and interest rate on the loan repayment if it achieves IFC’s sustainability debt guidance, to advance gender the target of hiring 300 women into positions equality. While these are positive steps, integration of where they are currently underrepresented gender and climate in private sector regulations, principles, (IFC, 2021). and strategies remain limited, driven by the insufficient articulation of a strong business case for gender-smart I  n South Africa, the Working for Water program, climate action. launched in 1995, sought to combat non-native species in waters to preserve biological diversity Key Thematic Areas and ensure water security. Simultaneously, it emphasized job creation and training for GREEN EMPLOYMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP women, youth, and persons with disabilities. The Women’s access to green employment and program improved land productivity, biodiversity, entrepreneurship has emerged as a key priority. Access conservation, and resilience to fires, all while to green jobs and supporting girls in STEM are regarded providing jobs to 30,000 people per year, 52 as key priorities for gender equality and climate change, percent of whom were women (UNDP, 2013). guided by just transition principles calling for decent work and livelihood security as the world transitions to  n India, Shell Foundation invested in SMV I low-carbon development pathways. Increasing women’s Green Solutions, a social enterprise enabling the representation in STEM is regarded as a lever to unlock ownership of e-rickshaws. It supported “Vahini,” a climate change innovations and solutions, ensure program focused on women owners and drivers women’s equal participation in climate dialogues, and of e-rickshaws to achieve greater gender parity in address predicted labor supply shortages in low-carbon India’s transport sector while reducing emissions transitions. Beyond initiatives to increase girls’ and women’s (SMV Green Solutions, 2020). 10  or example, the Nurturing Excellence in Higher Education Project in Nepal is focused on increasing women’s enrollment in STEM F subjects; the Higher Education Development project in Pakistan seeks to support women enrolled in STEM programs; and the Côte d’Ivoire Higher Education Development Support Project provides scholarships for women in higher education and extra tutoring support for women pursuing STEM subjects. 11 ADAPTIVE SOCIAL SAFETY NETS AND The World Bank’s Rural Electrification Project in LIVELIHOOD DIVERSIFICATION Tajikistan (P170132) aims to increase women’s Primarily led by the public sector, efforts advancing participation in rural electrification, which is gender equality outcomes in climate action are starting to central to climate change mitigation. It is working employ social safety net programs to reduce gender-based with energy companies to make human resources socio-economic vulnerability amid shocks to households policies more gender inclusive, to provide career from deteriorating climate conditions. Adaptive social development workshops and trainings to women protection (ASP) programs acknowledge that the duration employees, and to raise awareness around and depth of poverty can be worsened by climate-induced unconscious gender biases. The project is also events (both slow and rapid-onset events, such as drought working to improve access to electricity and or cyclones, respectively). ASP can increase resilience in income generating opportunities for households the event of climate stresses, particularly when livelihoods led by women. diversification measures are integrated (Kuriakose et al., 2013; Bowen et al., 2020). The World Bank’s Equal Aqua (EA) is a collaborative platform that engages with private sector The inclusion of a productive safety net approach that actors, academia, and local and international supports livelihood diversification and skills development organizations to benchmark gender inclusion in can enhance adaptive capacity and reduce risks for water utilities. It aims to address the normative households and area economies. ASP programs also help and institutional barriers that stand in the way households avoid coping strategies that harm women and of women’s greater participation in the global girls, such as withdrawing girls from school, early child water workforce by providing diagnostic tools marriage, selling women’s personal assets, and reductions and human resources best practices to enhance in women’s food intake. women’s recruitment and retention. It also aims to support women working in the water sector through information, trainings, and tools to help INTERVENTION EXAMPLES advance their careers. To date, EA has supported or informed the design of more than 40 World In Niger, the World Bank’s Adaptive Safety Net Bank operations. Project (P166602) provides beneficiaries—primarily women—with cash transfers; establishes village  he Global Energy Alliance for People and Planet T savings and loans associations (VSLAs); hosts (GEAPP) and Shortlist launched the “Women for community workshops on aspirations and social Green Jobs,” a collaboration to create 750 green norms, life skills, and micro entrepreneurship; and jobs for women across six countries in Sub- provides large lumpsum cash grants to promote Saharan Africa.11 GEAPP is focused on accelerating investments in productive activities, with the investment to support an equitable green energy aim of increasing women’s capacity to cope with transition in developing and emerging economies, climate shocks. The project has improved women’s while Shortlist provides youth employment food security, raised household consumption, solutions in Sub-Saharan Africa and India improved business investments and outcomes, (Rockefeller Foundation, 2022). and increased women’s empowerment and control over their income-generating activities  n Malawi, Skills for Resilience is a four-year I and earnings. vocational training program to encourage climate- smart agriculture, targeting young smallholder farmers with a focus on women and people with disabilities. Coordinated by the Norwegian Association of the Disabled in partnership with the Technical, Entrepreneurial and Vocational Education and Training Authority in Malawi, the program focuses on rural areas where livelihoods are threatened by climate change (ILO, 2022). 11 Nigeria, Uganda, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia, Kenya, and Malawi.  12 response, and rebuilding mechanisms at the local level and beyond (e.g., GFDRR & World Bank, 2021). While best In Ethiopia, the World Bank’s Urban Productive practices are still emerging, there is broad consensus Safety Net Project (P151712) aims to increase the that interventions must target disaster preparedness, incomes of poor households and establish urban including risk perception, preparedness action, and early safety net mechanisms, with women as primary warning systems, as well as coping capacity, including beneficiaries. The project supports the delivery of access to finance and information, livelihoods, migration, conditional and unconditional safety net transfers, and social protection (ibid). It is considered best practice provides livelihoods through public works with to systematically incorporate women’s voices in the design equal participation of women, and supports and implementation stages and to use local networks and women to move into sustainable employment. community groups, which are critical in the dissemination According to the latest implementation report, 60 of information and in emergency mobilization. percent of project beneficiaries are women. India’s Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) is a INTERVENTION EXAMPLES rights-based safety net guaranteeing 100 days In Vietnam, UN Women sought to strengthen of wage employment per year to all men and the role of women in disaster risk reduction women working and living in rural areas in and management by elevating women’s India who opt in and qualify. The program also participation in the Committees for Flood encourages the participation of women, with and Storm Control in the An Dung commune. provisions for preventing gender and caste-based Women were trained in disaster management discrimination. This program has partially shifted and national lobbying to secure seats for the power relations between laborers and local elites, Women’s Union in decision-making boards. empowering women within households, and has Qualitative interviews reflect more effective already made a major contribution to resilience evacuation mechanisms for community members (Godfrey-Wood & Flower, 2017). stemming from this initiative (UN Women, 2014). I  n Senegal, the government’s social safety net The Women’s Resilience to Disasters program in program allowed over 10,000 direct recipients— the Pacific places women’s and girls’ advocacy primarily women—to receive $300 into their central in disaster risk reduction and resilience mobile money account to help them rebuild, responses, frameworks, and systems. By the end of provide for basic needs, and avoid negative the program, women and girls are expected to have coping strategies in response to severe floods in the capacity to withstand hazards, recover from 2020. The success of this program was linked to its disasters, and increase their resilience through adaptive nature, which included a social registry preparedness and early warning systems; assets, system, digital payments, and predefined and services, and products; capacity development timely response mechanisms (Rigolini, 2021). for women’s businesses; and climate-resilient livelihoods (UN Women, 2021). In Nepal, the Pratibaddha project engages in RESILIENCE BUILDING AND DISASTER capacity building efforts with local authorities and RISK REDUCTION disaster management bodies using innovative Closely linked to the development of climate-sensitive hazard and risk-mapping tools to increase local social protection systems, interventions at the gender- preparedness and increase resilience to floods climate nexus have also examined women’s role in local and landslides. The workshops and programs are resilience building and disaster risk reduction. A large gender balanced and provide equal opportunities body of evidence demonstrates women’s heightened for women, elderly persons, persons with vulnerability to climate-induced disasters. They are disabilities, and other marginalized groups. affected disproportionately in terms of life expectancy, Furthermore, local champions—the program’s key employment, labor force re-entry, and asset loss, while advocacy and communication stakeholders—are also experiencing greater risk of GBV in emergency settings primarily women (People in Need, 2022). (Erman et al., 2021). At the same time, women play an essential role in developing effective disaster risk reduction, 13 GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE Climate change heightens the risk of different forms of GBV, and programs have only recently begun to incorporate this into climate policies and local disaster response. A growing body of evidence suggests that climate change aggravates the safety risks faced by women and girls due to displacement, resource scarcity, food security, and the disruption of service provision (UN Women, 2022). At the same time, failure to eliminate GBV poses a threat to effective mitigation, adaptation, and resilience building, as it reduces women’s agency and voice in climate action. While there is increased international attention on the linkages between climate change and GBV, comprehensive approaches to integrate GBV prevention into national and local climate change policies and programs are still rare. Today, forward thinking examples are emerging at the local level to protect women and girls from security threats, particularly in disaster preparedness measures. In Indonesia, the World Bank’s Reconstruction of Aceh Land Administration System (RALAS) project aimed to recover and protect land ownership rights of the people in Aceh following a tsunami INTERVENTION EXAMPLES by leveraging community consensus and land In the Solomon Islands, the Women’s Peace and mapping. After four years, over 200,000 land Humanitarian Fund (WPHF) has supported the title certifications had been issued to tsunami Protection and Gender in Emergency Response survivors or their families, 28 percent of which Project, which seeks to address GBV in the context were distributed to women, either individually or of humanitarian and climate-related disasters in joint ownership (World Bank, 2011). through gender-responsive response and disaster risk reduction mechanisms. In Fiji, Solomon In Bangladesh, USAID’s Promoting Resilience to Islands, Tonga and Vanuatu, the WPHF has helped Risks of Natural Hazards (PRERONA) project aims implement the Pacific women’s weather watch to help communities in Cox’s Bazar prepare for project focused on capacity building among cyclones and other climate-induced disasters local rural women to make informed decisions, through the construction of 96 multipurpose including on GBV, before, during and after disasters cyclone shelters. The project aims to provide (UN Women, 2022). refuge to over 80,000 people and has taken additional measures to ensure women’s use by The Plan International Lake Chad Programme adding separate rooms for women, breastfeeding Strategy 2018-2030 is a joint initiative in corners, and separate toilets to prevent GBV Cameroon, Niger, Nigeria, and West and Central (USAID, 2020). Africa to scale up GBV responses given severe safety concerns arising from climate change and The EPIC Response provides a comprehensive the scarcity of resources in the Lake Chad Basin. framework to better manage hydro-climactic risks It aims to meet humanitarian needs, strengthen and takes a whole-of-society approach, leveraging resilience, and address the underlying causes of sub-national governments, businesses, civil GBV through the provision of quality services and society, and households, with a focus on women safe spaces, community engagement on safety, and other disadvantaged groups. The framework and long-term social norm change (GBV AoR recognizes the increased vulnerability of these Helpdesk, 2021). groups in the face of hydro-climatic events, but also calls on emergency response agencies to systematically include marginalized individuals in management programs (Browder et al., 2021). 14 T he Gender-Based Violence and Environment Key Sectoral Priorities Linkages (GBV-ENV) Center, developed by IUCN, Climate-smart development and decarbonization is a platform for gathering resources, sharing pathways require substantial rethinking of high-impact best practices, and forging action on GBV in the systems, particularly in sectors with heavy emissions. context of environmental sustainability. To date, These include the sectors of energy; agriculture, food, the center has collected 200 requests from water, and land; cities; transport; and manufacturing. governments, policymakers, organizations, media, Together, these sectors account for 90 percent of global and academics for tools, information, and support GHG emissions (CCAP, 2021) and represent a central on the GBV-climate nexus. It has supported focus of public and private sector-led efforts to advance women’s advocacy groups in integrating GBV into green transitions. global environmental policy, and it has played a role in incorporating GBV considerations into Gender and climate interventions across these systems response mechanisms of disaster risk strategies have focused on strengthening women’s participation as (UN Women, 2022). community stakeholders and decision makers; integrating entrepreneurship, employment, and livelihood creation In Nepal, IFC led a $453 million debt and $29.2 initiatives for women into climate projects; and ensuring million equity financing package to develop a equitable access to infrastructure resources that help 216-megawatt hydropower plant by the Nepal alleviate the impacts of climate change. A central premise Water and Energy Development Company driving these efforts is that women are more affected (NWEDC). The project aims to reduce the by rising global temperatures in particular areas, such as country’s reliance on fossil fuels and to strengthen agriculture or urban housing. The second premise is that renewable energy sources. Simultaneously, it aims women can play a critical role in responding to climate to reduce the risk of GBV in NWEDC’s operations, change in forestry, public transport, urban planning, while assisting the company to promote respectful water and energy utilities, manufacturing, and other workplaces and create opportunities for women areas. This role is exhibited through participation in the in non-traditional roles under the Powered workforce, where more diversity allows companies to by Women initiative. As part of the initiative, improve service delivery or reach new markets, and there has been an increase in the adoption of through leadership on corporate boards, utility boards, codes of conduct to prevent bullying and sexual municipal planning committees, and local governments, harassment among participating companies. as well as through diverse roles as consumers and community stakeholders. 15 ENERGY Gender-transformative interventions in the energy sector  FC invested a $3.5 million senior loan in BIX Capital I have the highest potential for impact. The sector produces (BIX) to unlock financing for new and fast-growing three-quarters of global GHG emissions, 800 million people manufacturers and distributors of climate- live without electricity, and three billion people cook with smart household appliances (e.g., cookstoves) for biomass fuels, with significant implications on health and low-income consumers in Sub-Saharan Africa. time poverty, especially for women and children (CCAP, Through a results-based finance structure, BIX 2021). The sector offers opportunities to increase women’s is helping SMEs grow and create jobs, improve employment and entrepreneurship in renewable energy, quality of life within households at the base of to drive the uptake of healthier and more environmentally the pyramid (especially for women and girls), friendly cooking solutions, and to ensure that large-scale and benefit the environment by reducing GHG energy transition programs do not inadvertently widen emissions and deforestation. IFC is also advising gender gaps. BIX on an impact bond structure that can quantify and monetize the impacts on gender equality and Gender-transformative power sector planning, energy better health, alongside carbon credits. subsidy reforms, investing in energy access for women and other underserved groups, employing women in renewable The Multipurpose Functional Platform Project energy companies (with a focus on non-traditional and (MFP) in Mali was launched to increase electricity technical roles), supporting women’s entrepreneurship, access, promote solar energy, and reduce rural and enhancing women’s voice and agency (particularly poverty. The project targeted women as primary in decision making and leadership) inform strategic beneficiaries, expanding energy access to half a approaches in this space. million women. It also reduced women’s time burden from energy-intensive tasks by up to six hours per day, freeing up their time and promoting INTERVENTION EXAMPLES their participation in the local economy. Finally, the program created income-generating IFC’s Energy2Equal initiative works with companies opportunities for women through its eight-stage across Sub-Saharan Africa to increase women’s sequential development and installation of participation in the renewable energy sector by MFPs, developing women’s entrepreneurial skills expanding women’s access to jobs, leadership and equipping them with technical oversight positions, and entrepreneurial opportunities (IFC, (UNDP, 2004). 2019). IFC’s Lighting India initiative, which targets clean and affordable energy in rural India and IFC is working with off-grid solar companies, the focuses on women distributors and customers, Kenya Off-Grid Solar Access Program (KOSAP) has improved distribution networks, increased (P160009), and Practical Action to train and customer trust, and enhanced public awareness establish groups of women solar entrepreneurs in for clean energy products (IFC, n.d.). Kenya to sell solar products in their communities. This approach allows solar retailers to access new The World Bank’s MENA Regional Network in markets and overcome logistics challenges in Energy for Women (RENEW-MENA) seeks to reaching remote areas, while at the same time increase women’s economic participation across creating income-generating opportunities with the energy sector value chain (more specifically, flexible structures to accommodate household in clean energy transition jobs) in the Middle East and childcare duties (IFC, 2021). and North Africa (MENA) region. It is encouraging better workplace conditions in the private and public sectors, combatting widespread gender stereotypes about women’s role in STEM fields, and increasing the visibility of women in the energy sector (Beides & Maier, 2022). 16 AGRICULTURE, FOOD, WATER, AND LAND Addressing the impacts of climate change on agriculture, IFC has partnered with OLAM Agro India Limited forestry, water, and land use will be essential to meet and DCM Shriram Limited (42346), two large increasing global demand for food and water, adapt sugarcane off-takers in India, to implement food systems to climate vulnerability, and strengthen gender-smart interventions focused on narrowing the socioeconomic position of rural women. Increasing the gap in access to training for sustainable climate agricultural productivity in a sustainable manner is practices. To date, 201,000 farmers, of which regarded as one of the most effective ways to reduce 12,900 are women, have been trained in water poverty and increase food security in low-income sustainability and climate-resilient agricultural economies, while reducing gender gaps could significantly practices. Furthermore, all farmers received reduce economic losses in the agricultural sector.12 Women gender training, and a select group of 63 women represent on average 43 percent of the agricultural labor received support to establish individual sugarcane force in developing countries13 and produce a large share seedling nurseries. A business case analysis of the global food supply14, but women’s access to irrigated discovered that farmers preferred seedlings from land is legally or informally constrained, while climate- women entrepreneurs due to strong service and smart agricultural services, technologies, financing, and superior seedling quality, and the returns covered training do not reach them equitably. Climate-smart land the investments of women farmers within a single and water use, farming, and forestry can help address growing cycle (IFC, 2019). resource scarcity, while also addressing the large carbon footprint of the agricultural sector—estimated at 20 percent I  n Ghana and Sierra Leone, British International of global GHG emissions (FAO, 2021)—while creating Investment supported Miro Forestry in decent work for women and promoting community sustainable forestry practices, which are essential livelihood diversification. for addressing climate change and meeting the growing demand for wood in Africa. Miro Forestry set ambitious women’s employment targets through initiatives, including upskilling programs INTERVENTION EXAMPLES for women and unconscious bias training for The World Bank’s South Sudan’s Resilient senior management. Efforts resulted in a more Agricultural Livelihood Project (P169120) aims to targeted approach to gender inclusion and strengthen the capacity of farmers and improve GBV, as well as positive shifts in company culture agricultural production while introducing gender- (BII, 2020). responsive climate-smart agriculture. It targets equal participation of women in capacity building The World Bank’s Malawi Watershed Services efforts on climate-smart farming technologies Improvement Project (P167860) aims to increase the (e.g., drought-resistant seeds) and infrastructure adoption of sustainable landscape management and strengthens institutions to implement practices and improve watershed services in programming. targeted areas. The project establishes a link between women’s lower agricultural productivity The World Bank’s Bangladesh Sustainable Coastal and landscape degradation, and in turn, seeks to and Marine Fisheries (P161568) project works with improve women’s access to inputs, labor-saving women who face limited livelihood opportunities technologies, knowledge, and financial services. situated in the lower end of the fisheries value It delivers targeted training on gender-responsive chain. It aims to provide financing and capacity sustainable land management and climate-smart building to women in high-poverty communities agriculture, helps women secure land tenure, and to develop alternative livelihoods or start promotes women participation in government businesses in more sustainable value chains. decision making. 12  or example, the gender gaps in agriculture costs $100 million in Malawi, $105 million in Tanzania, and $67 million in Uganda per year F (UN Women, UNDP, UNEP, & WBG, 2015). 13 Women’s representation in the agricultural labor force is estimated at around 40 percent, with significant regional differentiation (e.g.,  in South Asia, it is estimated that women make up more than two-thirds of the agricultural labor force, while in Eastern Africa, they represent roughly half) (Oxfam). 14 An oft-cited figure is that women produce between 60-80 percent of global food through small-scale farming.  17 new and decent job opportunities in peri-urban and urban agriculture; urban transport; renewable energy; green In Argentina, the World Bank’s Buenos Aires construction and infrastructure; and urban water supply, Water Supply and Sanitation with a Focus on sanitation, and wastewater treatment. In addition, women’s Vulnerable Areas Program (P172689) aims to active participation in urban planning has the potential to improve access to water supply and sanitation drive more inclusive infrastructure that meets their needs, for 164,500 beneficiaries, targeting fragile while also advancing environmentally friendly practices areas in the city. In addition, the project aims and reducing GHG emissions. to improve workforce gender diversity of the partner water utility, AySA, which has adopted a variety of progressive measures to promote women’s career advancement and equal INTERVENTION EXAMPLES representation in decision-making positions. The Women4Climate initiative, which is part A $3 million disbursement-linked indicator is of the C40 Cities network of nearly 100 mayors contingent on increasing women’s representation across the world, aims to empower women’s in decision-making positions within the utility equal participation and leadership in city- (World Bank, 2021). led climate action. It provides women leaders with mentorship and produces research on Agricultural insurance and technology company the intersection of gender, cities, and climate Pula, in partnership with Shell Foundation and the to highlight the critical role played by women. UK Government, conducted a study to examine The group has taken part in city-led projects, gender differences in farmer agricultural insurance such as the London Sustainable Development registrations in Kenya, Malawi, and Zambia. The Commission’s initiative to attract more women to baseline report identified several gender gaps cleantech industries (Women4Climate, n.d.; World that influence uptake of agricultural insurance Bank, 2020). products and reduce yields for women. It put forward several approaches to bridge the yield The Asian Development Bank (ADB) and the and registration gender gap in the market (Shell European Investment Bank (EIB) are supporting Foundation, 2021). the development of climate-resilient and affordable eco-districts, which prioritize women- led households to receive new green housing in Mongolia. The program seeks to improve their CITIES access to climate-resilient water, sanitation, and Cities are expected to accommodate 2.5 billion additional heating systems, and sets targets for women’s people by 2050, and in turn, represent high impact employment in the construction and operational arenas to advance gender equality, social inclusion, and management of housing units (2X Climate Finance climate change adaptation and mitigation. It is estimated Taskforce, 2021). that cities, including transport and buildings, produce 70 percent of global GHG emissions, and will be home  n Monrovia, a key pillar of the comprehensive I to almost 70 percent of the global population by 2050 Urban Development Strategy is increasing (UNEP, 2022). The urban poor will be hardest hit by the participation and empowerment of citizens in the uneven impacts of climate change, with slum dwellers implementation and ownership of city planning facing overcrowding, substandard living conditions, lack of processes, with a focus on women. It will conduct housing rights, reduced access to services, and air pollution. a women’s safety audit, institute a citizens advisory Women are the majority of slum dwellers in 80 percent group, and launch an urban women’s livelihood of 59 developing countries across Latin America and the support project. The project will provide vocational Caribbean, Central and Southern Asia, and Sub-Saharan training to women along with safe childcare, Africa (UN Habitat, 2020). support for women’s engagement on policies and laws, and seed grants to women small business Global urbanization offers an opportunity to create owners following livelihood and business training gender-transformative adaptation and resilience solutions, (Cities Alliance, 2021). in addition to mitigation measures, for example, through 18 The Cities Alliance Cities for Women Program INTERVENTION EXAMPLES provides support to urban planning on gender The European Bank for Reconstruction and mainstreaming. The women-focused participatory Development (EBRD), with support from GCF, process of its framework was applied in the Greater invested to modernize the Tbilisi metro system Banjul area of The Gambia and will inform the in Georgia, while also addressing gender gaps in Banjul 2040 Digital Urban Plan. The cities of Beja employment. The tailored equal opportunities and Médenine in Tunisia also launched efforts to gender action plan led to an increased number improve the integration of gender mainstreaming of women employees, while also improving and gender-sensitive budgeting in local public employee retention. More recently, Tbilisi is policies through council member trainings (Cities working toward improving the safety of its metro Alliance, 2020). systems and promoting more environmentally- friendly transport to reduce air pollution (2X Climate Finance Taskforce, 2021). TRANSPORT In Colombia, TransMilenio, Bogota’s rapid By contributing significantly to global GHG emissions transit system, has taken strides to create a and serving as an enabler of women’s employment, more environmentally friendly city by reducing transport sits at a critical intersection of climate change emissions by over 1.6 million tons over a seven- and women’s economic participation. Globally, transport year period. While gender gaps were not initially produces a quarter of GHG emissions, and this figure is addressed, women’s perspectives were eventually expected to grow by 60 percent between 2015 and 2050 incorporated to ensure safer, more comfortable as countries continue to urbanize (CCAP, 2021). Women journeys for women and other vulnerable riders and men have different mobility patterns (Munoz-Raskin (World Bank, 2020). et al., 2022). Based on the limited gender-disaggregated data available, women more commonly use low-emission Driving towards Argentina’s 2050 resilience, forms of transportation, such as public transport, cycling, inclusivity, and carbon neutrality goals, Buenos and walking, than men (World Bank, 2022).15 When Aires’ Climate Action Plan seeks to increase transport infrastructure is designed in a gender-blind sustainable mobility, such as pedestrian and way, it can further reduce women’s mobility and access cycling options. At the same time, the city’s to employment opportunities. Men also dominate the Gender and Mobility Plan acknowledges women’s sector’s leadership and workforce, signaling an opportunity safety concerns in public transportation and to advance women into decent work through new makes efforts to address gender inequality in sustainable transport projects. transport and mobility planning, employment inclusion, data, and awareness raising around GBV Preserving and accelerating climate-positive mobility (Sustainable Mobility, 2022). patterns through gender-inclusive transport investments is critical to ensuring the transition to a low-carbon future. At In Serbia, the World Bank approved a rail the same time, expanding environmentally friendly modes modernization project (P170868) aimed at of transportation can reduce women’s mobility constraints, improving rail infrastructure and strengthening the removing barriers to their economic independence and institutions that oversee rail projects and address full participation in public life. However, as women increase air quality issues. The project identified gendered their incomes and independence, they are likely to switch mobility barriers of current and potential rail to more carbon-intensive transportation options, unless users and developed an action plan for the rail safe and affordable public transportation is available and operator. It also committed to providing three suits their needs (Legovini et al., 2022). It is also critical PhD scholarships in the rail industry to women at to address men’s use of private transport, which can be Serbian universities to promote a new generation associated with higher status and independence rather of highly qualified women professionals in a male- than the quality of public transportation. This entails public dominated sector (Aragones & Vukanovic, 2021). policies on road pricing and parking, behavior change interventions, and positive marketing. 15 I n some countries, the opposite is true, with more men than women using public transportation. In Jordan, for example, the FLFP rate is extremely low due to restrictive social norms that renders many women almost immobile. 19 MANUFACTURING change with a gender lens is still largely unexplored, but several innovative financing mechanisms, including Manufacturing, especially heavy industries, such outcome-based funds and sustainability-linked financing, as chemicals, steel, cement, and glass, contributes may help deliver more capital toward gender objectives. significantly to global GHG emissions, and features In the policy and regulatory realm, an integrated gender- considerable gender gaps in employment and leadership. climate narrative is growing in national roadmaps and It is estimated that women represent 30 percent of climate commitments. Furthermore, voluntary activities the industry’s workforce and only 15 percent in senior and corporate standards are emerging on gender and roles (World Manufacturing Association, n.d.). Carbon- climate, despite the objectives remaining largely parallel intensive base materials currently have no technical and to date. Social protection, disaster management, and economically viable substitutes, creating challenges in resilience building, as well as women’s employment and uprooting processes that support jobs, drive economic entrepreneurship, are all high-potential areas for gender- growth, and enable solutions for housing, waste treatment, inclusive adaptation and mitigation strategies. food safety, health care, and consumer goods (CCAP, 2021). To date, entry points for reducing the carbon footprint of Data gaps are significant. The lack of evidence on what manufacturing processes, while simultaneously enhancing works (and what doesn’t) within the gender-climate nexus the participation of women in the sector, have not been is driven by a dearth in baseline and programmatic data extensively explored. However, a recent policy assessment (see Box 3). Baseline statistics on women in environmental report16 notes that women’s untapped potential as leaders, decision making, disaster-related mortality and morbidity, entrepreneurs, and industrial employees can drive green disaster risk management, land rights and access to natural industrialization forward, despite the fact that most green resources, consumption and production, and health are industry policies do not yet include gender integration considered key gaps (Data 2X, 2020). There is a need for (UNIDO, 2020). better, more reliable qualitative and quantitative gender- disaggregated data at the programmatic level, as well as Global building materials company CEMEX has set robust strengthened monitoring and evaluation processes to emission reduction targets, approved by the Science Based track climate and gender outcomes. Targets initiative,17 that present the most ambitious pathway currently available in the cement industry (CEMEX, 2021). The gender-climate nexus also brings to the fore the At the same time, CEMEX works toward greater gender importance of ensuring sufficient attention to both inclusion, for example, through internal training to address climate adaptation and the gender responsiveness unconscious biases and develop inclusive leadership of climate financing. To date, mitigation measures behaviors (CEMEX, 2020). Initiatives like “Yo Construyo (including large-scale capital-intensive, hard infrastructural Autonomía”, empower women in DIY home construction investments) have received the bulk of funding and policy projects, and “Patrimonio Hoy” offers financing schemes attention. Adaptation efforts, including locally-led skills with women as 70 percent of its customer base. and institution-building efforts that can help secure the resilience of poor people, including women, have Current Challenges in Collecting historically received less funding and support (World Evidence and Operationalizing the Bank Group, 2019). Further, it is recognized that the scale Gender-Climate Nexus and scope of climate action needed globally will require The evidence on successful and replicable gender-smart significant private sector investment as public capital alone climate interventions is still emerging. There is significant are insufficient to keep warming below the 1.5 °C threshold. room to explore such interventions, learn from operational Private financing primarily flows to mitigation measures experience, and formulate best practices to combat that have demonstratable returns for investors. In contrast, climate change in an inclusive and gender-transformative the people-centered approaches highlighted in this brief way. Mobilizing finance and investment toward climate are often not monetized for a market context. 16 Report includes analysis of Cambodia, Peru, Senegal, and South Africa.  17  he Science Based Targets initiative seeks to help businesses set ambitions that provide clearly defined pathways to reduce GHG T emissions. Targets are considered ‘science-based’ if they are in line with the latest climate science limiting global warming to well- below 2°C above pre-industrial levels (Science Based Targets). 20 BOX 3. DATA GAPS ON THE GENDER-CLIMATE NEXUS Gender-disaggregated data is at the core of evidence-informed policymaking and the achievement of gender- transformative climate goals. Without gender data, issues related to differentiated climate impacts remain in the shadows, interventions are inappropriately designed, decision makers are not convinced to act, and progress is impossible to track. Data on pollution and other climate indicators are among the least accessible, and countries face huge governance and resource burdens in applying monitoring frameworks related to climate change (Lorenz & Getzendanner, 2022). At the same, UN Women estimates that it will take 22 years to close the SDG gender data gaps (Encarnacion et al., 2022). When it comes to the nexus, gender-related environmental statistics are largely absent in national statistical systems. According to an ongoing survey, only seven OECD countries collect gender-disaggregated data related to the environment (OECD, 2020). There is growing recognition about the importance of collecting data on the gender-climate nexus, making that data available, and using it to inform policies and interventions. There are several notable initiatives working toward these ends, including the following: • The UN’s Women Count initiative seeks to overcome institutional and financial constraints that limit the production of gender statistics by building technical capacity of national statistical systems and providing financial support to improve data collection. Women Count has also published a toolkit, the Model Questionnaire on measuring the nexus between gender and environment, to build capacity on gender-disaggregated data collection in the environment and climate spheres. • The Gender + Environment Data Alliance (GEDA) is a membership-based coalition that was launched in 2021 to help governments, financiers, and development practitioners respond to climate realities in a gender-responsive way. It provides technical support and advocacy around gender-environment data, with the goal of communicating data and knowledge on this nexus to better inform climate action. IUCN’s Gender and Environment Resource Center aim to encourage learning and inform action by sharing • news, resources, tools, initiatives, and partnerships through a designated platform. Its Environment and Gender Information (EGI) fills data gaps to support gender-responsive programming and policies in environmental and climate areas, with analyses revealing challenges and progress on the gender-climate nexus. • WEDO’s Gender Climate Tracker App, launched in 2016, provides the latest on-the-go information and resources to understand and monitor progress on the integration of gender into national and international climate policies. Its primary aim is to create civil society awareness and hold countries accountable to facilitate dialogue and policy implementation. While understanding the differentiated impacts of climate change is critical through the generation of gender-dis- aggregated data, there is also an important link between the disclosure of climate-related data and women’s leadership. A study of 215 firms listed on the London Stock Exchange found a strong positive correlation between voluntary disclosures of GHG emissions and gender diversity in boardrooms (Tingbani et al. 2020). Similar findings in South Korea reveal the positive effect of women executives and employees on voluntary corporate carbon disclosures (Kim, 2022). Firms with more gender diverse boards perform significantly better when it comes to Task Force on Climate-Related Financial Disclosures, where greater transparency can improve company risk assess- ment, capital allocation, and climate-responsive strategic planning. 21 3. LOOKING AHEAD: KEY RECOMMENDATIONS TO ADVANCE WOMEN IN CLIMATE ACTION Strategic Recommendations Increase 3.  concessional and blended finance mechanisms. This can be done leveraging established  trengthen the understanding of the gender-climate 1. S financing mechanisms that target gender or climate, nexus. Enhance evidence-led, inclusive approaches that such as We-Fi or CIF. Create dedicated blended finance move beyond “women as victims” narratives to highlight funds with the aim of drawing private sector capital to women as key contributors to local, national and global gender-climate projects in areas perceived as high risk policy and finance action on climate, and to community or low return, such as adaptation and resilience building. resilience building and disaster risk reduction. 2.  Build the evidence base through pilot interventions Invest in women-founded or led green and climate 4.  and evaluative work. Use quantitative and qualitative businesses. This will support climate-friendly products approaches, with beneficiary feedback and gender- and services that benefit women end users, or solutions collection, to identify gender-smart climate solutions. that improve women’s adaptive capacity. Investigate the Adding an intersectional lens and collecting data on potential for public-private partnerships in this space, additional characteristics, such as disability disaggregated linking public organizing and convening power with data, can deepen the evidence base. private capital and targeted value chain development. 3. E  nsure the gender-climate nexus is fully integrated and Institutions, Policy, and Regulation tracked, including in World Bank Group programming. Apply a gender lens across all climate programs and 1.  This is important in terms of content and expenditure policies. Gender should be a fully integrated element in World Bank Group strategy and programming, such to create climate response programs that are inclusive as CCDRs (see Box 2) and future efforts in areas, such as and drive toward mutually reinforcing objectives loss and damage funding, for countries affected most by around gender equality, poverty reduction, and climate climate disasters. resilience. Doing so can advance attainment of Nationally Determined Contributions and Paris Alignment Continue to address the root causes of gender inequality 4.  commitments in a gender-responsive and socially that place women at greater risk of climate vulnerability. inclusive manner. Strengthen gender-sensitive legal frameworks and focus on women’s human capital, job quality and livelihood Support participatory practices in climate dialogues. 2.  diversification, access to and ownership of assets, and Create opportunities for the inclusion of women and voice and agency in the context of climate action. marginalized groups to shape investment priorities as part of locally-led climate action. Financing and Investments Promote women’s leadership and decision-making 3.   ignificantly scale up financing for gender-smart 1. S capacity. This should be done across the board, in climate action. This includes devolved climate finance climate policy, planning, and implementation; in and dedicated funding amid mainstream public sectoral governments, local community organizations, corporate and macro budget categories. Ensure that capital flows boards and management; and in the broader climate to women’s organizations and women-led initiatives, science community. including those representing other disadvantaged group identities, such as Indigenous Peoples and climate migrants. Explore innovative private sector financing instruments. 2.  Expand innovations such as ESG-related bonds on gender, sustainability, and blue and green bonds; carbon market mechanisms with gender and health co-benefits; and blended finance that explicitly includes gender and climate performance indicators. 22 Thematic and Sectoral Recommendations  hare best practices and replicate and scale effective 1. S solutions. These include green employment/ entrepreneurship, adaptive social protection, disaster response, and local resilience building. Target high-impact, high-emission sectors, such as agriculture, water, forestry, and land use; energy; cities; transport; and manufacturing, where considerable growth or job creation is expected, so that women and girls may benefit positively from these transitions. Programs should consider a rights-based approach to programming to increase transformational potential, and work to expand the time-horizon of action and goals.  romote green employment and entrepreneurship. 2. P Encourage girls’ education in green STEM and support the school-to-work transition to ensure equitable access to green jobs. Make sites of employment better for women, for instance by addressing gender-based discrimination and barriers to entry and retention through gender-responsive human resource policies that include childcare, GBV prevention, technical training, and mentorship opportunities. Ensure gender-smart design in social protection 3.  and livelihoods diversification measures. Create programming to diversify livelihoods to reduce women’s overrepresentation in natural resource-based sectors, and secure their tenure rights, natural resource management capacity, and use of area-based approaches, particularly those led by women and Indigenous People. trengthen policy and legal frameworks protecting 4. S women from violence. Use a GBV lens in the context of climate-induced migration, disaster response, and natural resources-based conflict to reduce GBV threats and enhance support measures in the context of displacement and mobility. Implement measures to reduce the risk of GBV in workplaces to encourage women’s workforce participation as part of a just transition.  ntegrate gender considerations into resilience building 5. I and disaster risk reduction. 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