GOVERNMENT OF MALAWI MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE SHIRE VALLEY TRANSFORMATION PROGRAM DRAFT Updated Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) 15 February, 2022 Table of Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................................................. vi List of Acronyms .............................................................................................................................................. x 1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................................... 12 SHIRE VALLEY TRANSFORMATION PROGRAM ...................................................................................... 13 SVTP-I ........................................................................................................................................................... 13 Component 1: Irrigation Service Provision ................................................................................................ 13 Component 2: Preparing land-based investments and natural resources management support ............. 14 Component 3: Agriculture Development and Commercialization .............................................................. 14 Components 4 and 5: Project Management and Project Preparation ...................................................... 14 Components 4 and 5 for SVTP -I provide for the management of the project, and provided assistance during the preparation of the project. ......................................................................................................... 14 SVTP-II .......................................................................................................................................................... 14 SVTP-III ......................................................................................................................................................... 19 Lessons Learned from SVTP-I for Application in SVTP-II............................................................................. 19 2. MITIGATION WORKSHOPS ..................................................................................................................... 21 3. RELATION BETWEEN THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT AND OTHER STUDIES IN THE LOWER SHIRE VALLEY ............................................................................................................................................. 27 4. PROJECT LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION ............................................................................................ 32 4.1 WATER INTAKE .................................................................................................................................. 33 4.1.2 Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 34 4.2 CANALS ............................................................................................................................................... 35 4.2.1 Construction and characteristics ................................................................................................... 36 4.2.2 Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 37 4.3 COMMAND AREAS ............................................................................................................................. 38 4.3.1 Construction and characteristics ................................................................................................... 38 4.3.2 Operation ....................................................................................................................................... 38 4.4 NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (NRM) COMPONENT ..................................................... 39 4.5 ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED ......................................................................... 41 5.1 MALAWI POLICIES RELEVANT TO THE SHIRE VALLEY IRRIGATION PROJECT ........................ 45 5.1.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Malawi (1995) ....................................................................... 45 5.1.2 The Malawi Vision 2063 ................................................................................................................ 46 5.1.3 Malawi Growth and Development Strategy II ................................................................................ 46 5.1.4 National Environmental Action Plan (1994) .................................................................................. 46 5.1.5 National Environmental Policy, 2004 ............................................................................................ 47 5.1.6 National Land Policy, 2002............................................................................................................ 48 5.1.7 The National Irrigation Policy (2016) ............................................................................................. 48 5.1.8 The National Forest Policy of Malawi (2016) And Forest Landscape Restoration Strategy (2017) ............................................................................................................................................................... 49 5.1.9 National Disaster Risk Management (NDRM) Policy 2015 ........................................................... 49 5.1.10 National Water Resources Policy 2005 ....................................................................................... 49 5.1.11 National Wildlife Policy 2000 ....................................................................................................... 50 i|Page 5.1.12 National Gender Policy 2012 – 2017 .......................................................................................... 50 5.1.13 National HIV/AIDS Policy, 2012 .................................................................................................. 51 5.1.14 National Land Resources Management Policy and Strategy, 2000 ........................................... 51 5.1.15 National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (2016) ...................................................................... 51 5.1.16 National Climate Change Policy .................................................................................................. 52 5.1.17 Charcoal Strategy ........................................................................................................................ 52 5.1.18 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NABSAP) 2015-2025 ...................................... 52 5.1.19 National Waste Management Strategy (2019-2023) ................................................................... 52 5.2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK ......................................................................................................................... 53 5.2.1 Environment Management Act, 2017 ............................................................................................ 53 5.2.2 National Parks and Wildlife (Amendment) Act, 2017 .................................................................... 53 5.2.3 Land Act (2016) ......................................................................................................................... 54 5.2.4 Customary Land Act (2016) .......................................................................................................... 54 5.2.5 Land Survey Act (2016) ............................................................................................................. 55 5.2.6 Physical Planning Act (2016) .................................................................................................... 55 5.2.7 Cultural Heritage Regulations ....................................................................................................... 55 5.2.8 Water Resources Act (2013) ......................................................................................................... 56 5.2.9 Pesticides Act (2000) .................................................................................................................... 57 5.2.8 Forestry Act (2016) ........................................................................................................................ 57 5.2.9 Irrigation Act, 2001 ........................................................................................................................ 57 5.2.10 Occupational Safety, Health and Welfare Act (1997) ................................................................. 58 5.2.11 Environment Waste Management and Sanitation Regs 2008 .............................................. 58 5.2.12 Environmental (Management of Chemicals and toxic substances) Regulations, 2008 ........ 58 5.2.13 Workers Compensation Act 2000 .......................................................................................... 59 5.2.14 The Employment Act, 2000 ................................................................................................... 59 5.2.15 The Labour Relations Act, 1996 ............................................................................................ 59 5.2.16 Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1997) ........................................................... 59 5.3 FUNDING AGENCY POLICIES ........................................................................................................... 60 5.3.1 Environmental Assessment (Operational Policy 4.01) .................................................................. 60 5.3.3 Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12) .............................................................................................. 61 5.3.4 Cultural Heritage (OP 4.11) ........................................................................................................... 61 5.3.5 Natural habitats (OP 4.04)............................................................................................................. 61 5.3.6 Environmental and Social Framework .......................................................................................... 61 5.3.7 Projects on International Waterways (OP7.50) ............................................................................. 63 5.3.8 Safety of Dams (OP4.37, ESS4) ................................................................................................... 63 5.4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR ESIA MONITORING AND ESMP IMPLEMENTATION 64 5.4.1 National Level................................................................................................................................ 64 5.4.2 Project Level .................................................................................................................................. 67 6. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ..................................................................................................................... 68 6.1 CLIMATE.............................................................................................................................................. 68 6.2 LOCAL TOPOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 68 6.3 RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY ............................................................................................................... 70 ii | P a g e 6.4 RIVER HYDROLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 74 6.5 SHIRE RIVER WATER QUALITY ....................................................................................................... 85 6.6 SOIL, EROSION, SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND GEOLOGY .......................................................... 87 6.7 AQUIFER AND GROUNDWATER ...................................................................................................... 94 7. SOCIOECONOMIC BASELINE ................................................................................................................ 97 7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 97 7.2 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................. 97 7.3 CONSULTATION RESULTS ............................................................................................................. 100 7.4 SOCIAL INDICATORS ....................................................................................................................... 100 7.4.1 Population and demographics ............................................................................................. 100 7.4.2 Household size .................................................................................................................... 101 7.4.3 Gender aspect ..................................................................................................................... 101 7.4.4 Vulnerable people................................................................................................................ 102 7.4.5 Education Attainment and quality ........................................................................................ 102 7.4.6 Settlements and Community Organization .......................................................................... 103 7.5 INFRASTRUCTURE .......................................................................................................................... 103 7.5.1 Housing ............................................................................................................................... 103 7.5.2 Access roads ....................................................................................................................... 105 7.5.3 Telecommunication ............................................................................................................. 105 7.5.4 Water supply ........................................................................................................................ 106 7.5.5 Sanitation and hygiene ........................................................................................................ 107 7.5.6 Health facilities .................................................................................................................... 108 7.5.7 Electricity supply .................................................................................................................. 109 7.6 LAND .................................................................................................................................................. 109 7.6.1 Land tenure ......................................................................................................................... 109 7.6.2 Land size ............................................................................................................................. 110 7.6.3 Land Use ............................................................................................................................. 110 7.7 HEALTH ISSUES ............................................................................................................................... 121 7.7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 121 7.7.2 Water-Related Diseases...................................................................................................... 121 7.7.3 HIV infection and AIDS ........................................................................................................ 125 8. CULTURAL HERITAGE .......................................................................................................................... 126 8.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 126 8.2 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 126 8.2.1 Desktop Assessment ........................................................................................................... 126 8.2.2 Fieldwork Assessment......................................................................................................... 127 8.3 RESULTS........................................................................................................................................... 127 8.3.1 Desktop Assessment ........................................................................................................... 127 8.3.2 Fieldwork Assessment......................................................................................................... 133 8.3.3 Determination of Site Significance and Values ................................................................... 135 8.4 CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS ................................................................................................... 137 9. NATURAL HERITAGE ............................................................................................................................ 138 iii | P a g e 9.1 MAJETE WILDLIFE RESERVE ......................................................................................................... 140 9.1.1 Status of the Reserve .......................................................................................................... 140 9.1.2 Main Landscape Features ................................................................................................... 140 9.1.3 Management Objectives ...................................................................................................... 143 9.2 LENGWE NATIONAL PARK.............................................................................................................. 143 9.2.1 Status of the Park ................................................................................................................ 143 9.2.2 Main Landscape Features ................................................................................................... 144 9.2.3 Vegetation of Lengwe National Park ........................................................................................... 145 9.2.4 Fauna of Lengwe National Park .................................................................................................. 146 9.2.3 Management Document ...................................................................................................... 150 9.3 MWABVI WILDLIFE RESERVE and Matandwe Forest Reserve ...................................................... 150 9.3.1 Status of the Reserves ........................................................................................................ 150 9.3.2 Matandwe Forest Reserve ...................................................................................................... 150 9.3.3 Management Document ...................................................................................................... 151 9.4 ELEPHANT MARSH .......................................................................................................................... 151 9.4.1 Wetland Biodiversity of the Marsh ............................................................................................... 151 9.4.2 Current Threats and Value of the Elephant Marsh...................................................................... 152 9.4.3 Management of Elephant Marsh ................................................................................................. 158 10. ECOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................. 159 10.1 LAND COVER and habitat types ..................................................................................................... 159 10.2 Modified Habitats ............................................................................................................................. 161 10.3 Natural TERRESTRIAL HABITATS ................................................................................................. 161 10.4 WETLAND HABITATS ..................................................................................................................... 162 10.5 WILDLIFE......................................................................................................................................... 162 10.6 Rare and Scarce Species in Lower Shire Valley ............................................................................. 202 10.7 AQUATIC ECOLOGY ...................................................................................................................... 205 10.7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 205 10.7.2 Fisheries .................................................................................................................................... 206 10.7.3 Description of the Fish Species in the Lower Shire Valley ........................................................ 208 10.8 Critical Habitat Assessment ............................................................................................................. 228 10.9 ECOLOGY STUDY LIMITATIONS .................................................................................................. 229 11. IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHOD ....................................................................................................... 230 11.1 METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE .......................................... 230 11.2 DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTING ACTIVITIES................................................................................. 232 11.2.1 Pre-construction ........................................................................................................................ 232 11.2.2 Construction .............................................................................................................................. 232 11.2.3 Operation ................................................................................................................................... 232 11.3 Cumulative Impacts ...................................................................................................................... 233 11.4 Impact assessment of the Natural Resources Management (NRM) component......................... 238 11.5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT LIMITATION ............................................................................................ 238 12. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT......................................................................... 239 12.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 239 iv | P a g e 12.2 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE ................................................................................................. 241 12.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF RIVERS .................................................................................................. 241 12.3.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 241 12.3.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 242 12.4 HYDROLOGY .................................................................................................................................. 243 12.4.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 243 12.4.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 248 12.5 WATER QUALITY ............................................................................................................................ 250 12.5.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 250 12.5.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 251 12.6 SOIL & GROUNDWATER ............................................................................................................... 252 12.6.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 252 12.6.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 253 13. IMPACT ON SOCIOECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE ....................................... 256 13.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 256 13.2 IMPACT IDENTIFICATION MATRIX ON SOCIOECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE............................................................................................................................................... 256 13.3 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE ................................................................................................. 260 13.4 SETTLEMENT, COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND LAND TENURE ......................................... 261 Land Tenure and Consolidation ................................................................................................................... 261 13.4.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 262 13.4.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 263 13.5 INFRASTRUCTURES...................................................................................................................... 267 13.5.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 267 13.5.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 268 13.6 Irrigated Agriculture .......................................................................................................................... 270 13.6.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 270 13.6.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 272 13.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY ................................................................................................................... 273 13.7.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 273 13.7.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 275 13.8 GENDER ASPECT AND VULNERABLE PEOPLE ......................................................................... 279 13.8.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 279 13.8.2 Mitigation Measures .................................................................................................................. 279 13.9 CULTURAL HERITAGE................................................................................................................... 285 13.9.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 285 13.9.2 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 285 13.10 NATURAL HERITAGE ................................................................................................................... 286 13.10.1 Description of impacting activities ........................................................................................... 286 13.10.2 Mitigation measures ................................................................................................................ 296 14. ECOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................... 306 14.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 306 v|P a g e 14.3 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE ................................................................................................. 307 Component ............................................................................................................................................... 307 Component value ..................................................................................................................................... 307 14.4 LAND COVER .................................................................................................................................. 308 14.5 Terrestrial Habitats And Wildlife....................................................................................................... 313 14.6 Mitigation measures ..................................................................................................................... 319 14.7 WETLAND HABITATS AND WILDLIFE .......................................................................................... 325 14.7.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 325 14.7.4 Mitigation measures .................................................................................................................. 329 14.8 AQUATIC HABITATS AND FISH .................................................................................................... 331 14.8.1 Description of impacting activities ............................................................................................. 331 15. IMPACT ASSESSMENT CONCLUSION .............................................................................................. 338 15.1 RESIDUAL IMPACTS ...................................................................................................................... 338 16. BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................................................... 345 ANNEXES ................................................................................................................................................... 347 Annex 1.1: Mammals of Lengwe National Park ....................................................................................... 348 Annex 1.2: Birds of Lengwe National Park .............................................................................................. 352 Annex 1.3 Plants of Lengwe National Park ............................................................................................. 363 ANNEX 2: MINUTES OF MITIGATION WORKSHOPS .......................................................................... 381 vi | P a g e List of Figures Figure 1: Target Areas for the Natural Resources Management component Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 2: Workshop at Nsanje (left) and Chickwawa (right) (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) ..................................... 21 Figure 3: Farmer Workshop at GVH Njeredza (SVTP) ................................................................................ 22 Figure 4: An Official from Agricane briefing the mission .............................................................................. 22 Figure 5: A team of DNPW Official examining the sites ................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 11: Monthly Rainfal and Temperature Averages for Chikwawa (Source: Ngabu Metereological Station (2015) ) ......................................................................................................................................................... 68 Figure 12: Topography of Chikwawa District ................................................................................................ 69 Figure 13: River Bed Split in the Nkombedzi Wa Fodya River ..................................................................... 70 Figure 14: River Bed Digging and Deepening by Erosion in the Namikalango ............................................ 71 Figure 15: Lower Shire River Profile from Kapichira Dam to Chiromo Bridge (Source : Source: NWRMP, 1986) ............................................................................................................................................................ 73 Figure 16: River Profiles of Mwanza, Ruo, Thangadwi West and East (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) .................... 74 Figure 18: Extent of January 2015 flood (in blue) ........................................................................................ 77 Figure 19: Mwanza River at the Bridge of the M1 National Road, completely dry the January 26th 2016 .. 78 Figure 21 : Time Series and Maps of Temperature Change Southern Africa December-February ............ 80 Figure 23: Time Series and Maps of Precipitation Change Southern Africa October-March ....................... 82 Figure 24: Time Series and Maps of Precipitation Change Southern Africa June-August (Source: IPCC, 2013) ............................................................................................................................................................ 83 Figure 25: Zone I-1 Soil Map by CODA (2006) overlaid with current project map ....................................... 89 Figure 26: Zone I-1 Soil Map by CODA (2006) ............................................................................................ 90 Figure 27: Soil map used by KRC (based on FAO classification) ................................................................ 92 Figure 28: Soil map used by KRC (Source: FAO. 2006. AQUASTAT Country Profile – Malawi.) ............... 93 Figure 32: Household ethic groups............................................................................................................. 103 Figure 33: Permanent dwelling and traditional dwelling in the study area ................................................. 105 Figure 34: Unprotected well from river bed ................................................................................................ 107 Figure 35: Livestock Population in Chikwawa ............................................................................................ 113 Figure 36: Gender and Decision Making on landuse at Household Level: Phase 1 .................................. 115 Figure 37: Gender and Decision Making on landuse at Household Level: Phase 2 Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 38: Crop Production in Chikwawa in 2020-2021 season ................................................................ 117 Figure 39: Crop Production in Nsanje in the 2020-2021 season ............................................................... 118 Figure 40: Main Income Sources.................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 41: Examples of Nkope Pottery, Early Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date) ............ 130 Figure 42: Examples of Kapeni Pottery, Terminal Early Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date ) .................................................................................................................................................................... 130 Figure 43: Examples of Mawudzu (or Maudzu) Pottery, Late Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date) ........................................................................................................................................................... 131 Figure 44 : Examples of Nkhudzi Pottery, Late Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date ) ......... 131 Figure 46: Iron Age Slag found close to Chafudzika (CK71) ( (Source: BRLi (2016) ) ............................. 135 Figure 48: Majete at Feeder canal location (Source: BRLi (2015) ) ........................................................... 141 Figure 49: Kapichira falls and Shire River from Majete .............................................................................. 141 Figure 52: Canal passing through Lengwe National Park (blue line) ............. Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 53: LNP in 2001 (Northern part of the Uplands Unit) ...................................................................... 149 Figure 55: Original situation with a meander of the Shire in the marsh (2010) .......................................... 153 Figure 56: Manmade dyke to increase flow to the Shire ............................................................................ 153 Figure 57: Ongoing encroachment of subsistence farmers following blockage of meander (2016) .......... 154 Figure 58: Original situation in the marsh (2006) ....................................................................................... 155 Figure 59: Beginning of encroachment (2011) ........................................................................................... 155 Figure 62: Land Cover of SVTP Area ............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined. Figure 63: Spillway ..................................................................................................................................... 206 Figure 64: Graph Showing Fish catches in the Shire Valley ...................................................................... 207 Figure 67: Hydrological Impacts ................................................................................................................. 244 vii | P a g e Figure 67: Water availability and demand at Kapichira Dam (using same hydrological data from DWR used in TFS) ........................................................................................................................................................ 245 Figure 69: Borrow pit with dangerous steep slopes (left) and typical impact from blasting (right) (Source: BRLi, 2015 ) ................................................................................................................................................ 254 Figure 70: Suitable borrow pit for the creation of a wetland (Source: BRLi, 2017) .................................... 254 Figure 71: Stuck cow in a lined canal (BRLi, 2017) .................................................................................... 268 Figure 72: Trucks and pedestrians sharing construction roads & rubbish in construction camps (Source: BRLi, 2015 ) ................................................................................................................................................ 274 Figure 73: Working in damp condition around a pumping station (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) .......................... 276 Figure 74: "Invisible" falls at 5m3/s (November 2016) (Source: BRLi, 2016 )............................................ 292 Figure 74: Example of the micro topography along one km of the Feeder canal (between KP 2.8 and 3.6) .................................................................................................................................................................... 298 Figure 78: A Poorly Pretected Tree (Source: BRLi, 2017) ......................................................................... 312 Figure 79: A well protected tree .................................................................................................................. 312 Figure 80: Wildlife casualties in Grootfontein – Omatako Canal (Source: the Republikein, 2016 ) ........... 317 Figure 81: Inefficient escape structure (Source: Heyns, 2016 ) ................................................................. 317 Figure 82: Overpass in Namibia (Source: Heyns, 2016 ) ........................................................................... 318 Figure 85: Armorflex (Source: ISG Infrastructure Specialist Group, 2016) ................................................ 324 viii | P a g e List of Tables Table 1: Relations between studies.............................................................................................................. 27 Table 2: Main canals characteristics ............................................................................................................ 35 Table 3: Siphons of MWR ............................................................................................................................. 36 Table 4 : Morphological Characteristics of the Lower Shire Tributaries ....................................................... 71 Table 5: Temperature and Precipitation Projections by the CMIP5 Global Models for South Africa Region80 Table 6: 1999 water quality for Shire River .................................................................................................. 85 Table 7: 1999 Water quality for Shire River ................................................................................................. 85 Table 8: Water quality at some Shire tributaries .......................................................................................... 86 Table 9: South Africa guidelines for aquatic ecosystem............................................................................... 86 Table 10: Water Quality at Illovo Discharge Area ........................................................................................ 87 Table 11: Soil Map of Zone I-1 ..................................................................................................................... 90 Table 12: Population and housing for Chikwawa and Nsanje against regional and national conditions ... 104 Table 13: Proportion of Population with access to potable water by source .............................................. 106 Table 14: Sanitation Coverage in Chikwawa and Nsanje (Source: NSO, 2017) ....................................... 108 Table 15: Common Diseases in Chikwawa ................................................................................................ 108 Table 16:: Livestock population in Chikwaw ............................................................................................... 114 Table 17: Crop Production (Mt) in Chikwawa from 2015 to 2021 .............................................................. 116 Table 18: Crop Production in Nsanje (Mt) from 2015 to 2021 .................................................................... 117 Table 19: Site priorization ........................................................................................................................ 136 Table 20: Revenue Generation in Lengwe National Park (Source: DNPW) .............................................. 144 Table 21: Summary of Vegetation of Lengwe ............................................................................................ 145 Table 22: Land cover using FAO Land Cover Classification ...................................................................... 159 Table 23: Mammals of concern found in LNP ............................................................................................ 163 Table 24: DNPW versus WESM Animal Census ....................................................................................... 165 Table 25: Game Count in Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve by Year...................................................................... 199 Table 26: Common mammals in the three parks ....................................................................................... 199 Table 27: IUCN status of Terrestrial Species recorded from the study area.............................................. 202 Table 28: Terestrial Plant Species recorded from the study area: IUCN Red data List status ................. 204 Table 29: IUCN status of Wetland Species recorded from the study area ................................................. 204 Table 32: Number of months when the flow is (will be) lower than 20m3/s ............................................... 247 Table 33: Number of months when the flow is (will be) lower than 10m3/s ............................................... 247 Table 34: Peak flow of right bank Shire tributaries .............................................................................. 250 Table 34: Estimation of the number of trucks ............................................................................................. 289 Table 35: Revenue Generation in LNP (source: DNPW) ........................................................................... 290 Table 36: Land cover changes ................................................................................................................... 308 Table 37: Options to avoid drowning of wildlife in LNP .............................................................................. 323 Table 44: Minutes of Nsanje Workshop...................................................................................................... 382 Table 45: Minutes of Chikwawa Workshop ................................................................................................ 383 ix | P a g e List of Acronyms ADD Agricultural Development Division BMP Biodiversity Management Plan Ca Calcium CC Construction contractor CBOs Community Based Organizations Common Management Information CMIP Protocol COB Coyne et Bellier Study Department of National Parks and DNPW Wildlife EC Electrical Conductivity EFR Environmental Flow Requirement EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EGENCO Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi Environmental and Social Impact ESIA Assessment Environmental and Social Management ESMP Plan ESP Exchangeable Sodium Percentage Food and Agriculture Organization of the FAO United Nations FGD Focus Discussion Group FS Feasibility Study GCM Global Climate Model Global Inundation Extent from Multi- GIEMS Satellites GoM Government of Malawi Ha Hectares IFC International Finance Corporation Intergovernmental Panel on Climate IPCC Change ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KRC Korea Rural Corporation LNP Lengwe National Park Masl Meters above sea level Mg Magnesium x|Page MWK Malawian Kwacha (1$ US equals +/-715 MWK) MoAIWD Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development MWR Majete Wildlife Reserve N Nitrogen NWDP National Water Development Project OHSM Occupational Health and Safety Manual P Phosphorus PAPs project-affected people PCCPLTRPF Preparation and implementation of a Communications, Community Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement Policy Framework pH Soil Reaction PMP Pest Management Plan PPE Protective Personal Equipment PPP Public Private Partnership RoW Right-of-Way SOCFE Smallholder Owned Commercial Farm Enterprise SRBMP Shire River Basin Management Program SVTP Shire Valley Irrigation Project SVTP Shire Valley Transformation Program TORs Terms of Reference United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural UNESCO Organization WASVTP Water Availability for Shire Valley Irrigation Project WESM Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi WRB World Reference Base for Soil Resources . xi | P a g e 1. INTRODUCTION Since 2020 the Republic of Malawi has been constructing the first phase of the Shire Valley Transformation Program (SVTP-I). The Republic of Malawi is now seeking to commence the second phase of the program, and has prepared this update to the program ESIA to describe the most recent information on the potential environmental and social impacts. The Shire Valley Transformation Program is a 14-year program (2017-2031) structured around three coordinated pillars: (i) Providing reliable, professionally managed and sustainably financed irrigation service to a large number of irrigators in a phased construction of the Shire Valley Irrigation Project scheme and providing multiple services including water supply; (ii) Support farmer organization within a comprehensive land use plan; supporting land tenure strengthening and consolidation; as well as natural resources management; and (iii) Establishment of smallholder owned commercial farm enterprises transitioning into commercial agriculture from subsistence farming and integrating them into commercial value chains. These pillars all contribute to the overarching goals of the program, and build on each other in a phased approach. This project comprises three sequential but partially overlapping phases (with different financiers entering at different times and in parallel financing arrangements). In general terms, SVTP-I initiates the process on all pillars with a major focus on irrigation service provision to the SVTP-I area, land tenure, farmer organization and natural resource management as these precede any downstream development. While not investing heavily yet in areas of agricultural commercialization and investment promotion, it incorporates the vision and principles of agricultural modernization and commercialization and prepares for downstream investments under SVTP-II, which shifts investment focus to agricultural investment, private sector and value chain support, as well as the investments in bulk infrastructure for the SVTP-II area. Finally, SVTP-III is the scale up phase of investments to the SVTP-II area. All three phases of the program were subject to impact assessment in 2017, prior to the start of works. Phase 1 commenced commenced construction in 2020, and contractors are mobilized and actively working on the first 52km of the main canal, including the intake for the program and the fish barrier. The project aims to commence Phase 2 in 2022 and therefore the impact assessment for the program has been reviewed and updated to reflect the most current information about the scheme and the baseline conditions. This report is the updated Environmental Impact Aassessment (ESIA) report. A new Environmental and Social Management Plan has been prepared and the Pesticide Management Plan has also been reviewed and updated in preparation for Phase 2 of the project. The project is being taken forward by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development (the “Client”). Korea Rural Corporation (KRC) is the consultant undertook the Feasibility Study (FS) and detailed design for a significant component of the project, including the main canal being constructed as part of Phase 1 and the agricultural irrigation component. BRLi undertook the initial ESIA of the program and prepared two stand-alone reports, the Inception report (June 2015) and the Pest Management Plan (PMP, September 2016). The ESIA, PMP and Phase 1 ESMP were disclosed in 2017 on the project website (www.svtp.gov.mw/reports-2/svtp-1-safeguards-documents/). OBJECTIVE OF THE PROJECT The Project objective is to provide access to reliable gravity-fed irrigation and drainage services, secure land tenure for smallholder farmers, and strengthen management of wetlands and protected areas in the Shire Valley. It will improve the management and utilization of natural resources in a sustainable way to increase agricultural productivity and commercialization for targeted households in the Shire Valley. The Program is directly aligned with Malawi’s policy commitments to address climate change and build resilience, as set-out in Malawi’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) document submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2015. NDC’s top adaptation priorities are 12 | P a g e to address land and watershed degradation and specifically the loss and degradation of forests, improve the resilience of the agriculture sector to climate change through development of irrigation and climate smart agriculture and improved management of fisheries and natural ecosystems. UPDATE OF THE ESIA This update has been undertaken by the Government of Malawi to reflect new technical project information (especially the detailed design of the irrigation works constructed to date and any lessons learned from the works to date in Phase 1) and to ensure that baseline information about environmental and social receptors remains uptodate. The update has included a review of the environmental (including biodiversity) conditions, feedback received from stakeholders and the public, and consideration of the cumulative impacts of this project in combination with others on the Shire Valley. The update ensures continuing compliance with national policies regarding impact assessment as well as demonstrating how the second phase of the project will accord with the World Bank Environmental and Social Framework (ESF). Phase 1 of the project is being implemented in accordance with the World Bank Safeguard Policies and the AfDB environmental and social standards. Measures developed under this assignment have informed the Client and technical studies about ways to mitigate impacts and enhance positive effects of the Project. The ESIA is based on the FS description of the Project amended to reflect the most recent available detailed design for the irrigation canal and associated features. The detailed design is complete for Phase 1 but is yet to begin for Phase 2. Although the detailed design of Phase 2 is not expected to result in a major changes to the alignment of the canals (except perhaps at Lengwe National Park) or command areas, the design will allow for refinement of the canal alignment, precise locations for crossings, and fix the points at which the irrigation canal will feed the command areas. The mitigation measures have been informed not only by BRLi’s experience (not only in designing canals but also in monitoring impacts during construction of canals in Africa as presented in the 2017 ESIA), but also from the detailed design process and lessons learned during the supervision of the Phase 1 works. Fieldwork and discussions with stakeholders have helped identify risks and impacts and inform the mitigation design. This updated ESIA is not only intended for funding agencies who financed the ESIA but also to inform the measures that need to be delivered during the detailed design, construction and operation of Phase 2 of SVTP. The ESMP for Phase 2 sets out how the measures will be delivered during the design, construction and operation phases. The updated PMP describes how persticides, herbicides, fertilizers and other chemicals will be safely used by the agricultural enterprises. SHIRE VALLEY TRANSFORMATION PROGRAM The first phase under the program has initiated the process of transformation of the Shire Valley and paved the way for agricultural commercialization and improved natural resource management at the landscape level. The objectives for the second and third phases are to increase agricultural productivity in targeted smallholder-owned commercial farm enterprises; support value chain and value addition; extend area supported with irrigation and farm development; and continue and expand efforts to address land degradation and sustainable management of forests, wetlands and protected areas. SVTP-I Under SVTP-I there are five components: Component 1: Irrigation Service Provision This component is implementing the works, goods and services necessary to develop irrigation and drainage infrastructure in the SVTP-I area. This includes preparation of detailed designs and construction supervision and quality assurance, construction of the physical bulk water conveyance and main distribution system, major drainage and service and access roads. Provisions have been made for SVTP- 13 | P a g e II and SVTP-III in terms of canal dimensions, right of way, and preparatory studies. In parallel, the component will support spatial planning in the wider project area to ensure the irrigation scheme is well integrated with other land uses and natural resources. Subcomponent 1.2 will support the establishment of a professional management, operation and maintenance system for the scheme. Component 2: Preparing land-based investments and natural resources management support Sub-component 2.1 provdes the works, goods and services in support of addressing security of land tenure and organizing farmers for commercial production – as a first step in developing commercially oriented agriculture. This subcomponent supports coordinated pilot implementation of the new legal framework for land administration. Subcomponent 2.2 is GEF funded in which the Government of Malawi has allocated GEF-6 resources to support investments from the Biodiversity, Climate Change, and Sustainable Forest Management focal areas and supports natural resources management (figure 1) broaden the multi-sectoral benefits of the program and enhance environmental sustainability within the modernization program. Key activities focus upon national level strengthening of frameworks for biodiversity conservation, sustainable landscape management and building capacity for field level monitoring and management of information for enforcement. The program will invest in protected areas, the Elephant Marshes and associated activities that will support improved natural resource management and the development of a broader land use plan for the Shire Valley. Component 3: Agriculture Development and Commercialization This component provides the works, goods and service in support of a program of activities to support inclusive commercialization in agriculture through smallholder owned commercial farm enterprises. Financial sustainability of the SVTP irrigation investment can only be achieved through profitable agricultural production. Farms will need to be linked to Commercial Value Chains for production and sale of their produce. Development of commercial value chains will be needed to enable farmers to gain access to markets and commercial services; this is essential to enable viable commercial agriculture. The process of identifying and capacitating farmers for commercial production has begun so that farmers are prepared for commercial operation when the irrigation infrastructure is completed. This component will pave the way for major scale up in SVTP-II & SVTP-III. Components 4 and 5: Project Management and Project Preparation Components 4 and 5 for SVTP -I provide for the management of the project, and provided assistance during the preparation of the project. SVTP-II The proposed focus of SVTP-2 will continue to be on infrastructure development, land tenure, and natural resources management but development of agricultural modernization and commercialization will play an increasingly important role, including private sector and value chain support. The components will be similar to SVTP-1, and will include: (i) Component 1 - Irrigation Infrastructure Development and Service Provision: This 70km section of the main canal will eventually supply water to about 21,000 ha (including some 17,500 ha of new irrigation) in the Phase II project area, which comprises the agricultural blocks south of Lengwe National Park. The development will be led by DoI, but consultants have been hired under SVTP-1 to prepare the detailed designs and tender documents for the 70 km main canal section. The full design will be completed before the end of 2022 but designs of part of the canal system will be completed well before that. The first 14 km of this section of the main canal will pass through Lengwe National Park, bisecting ‘Old Lengwe’ from ‘New Lengwe’ and the design and approach to construction will need careful consideration to ensure that the canal will not hamper the restoration of the park to favorable conservation status and will minimize impacts to critical habitat. It is proposed that because of the construction of the canal in a sensitive nature area a separate contract will be awarded for the construction of the canal in Lengwe. The proposed project will also finance the construction of a number of secondary canals in the 14 | P a g e Phase II project area, the number depending on the available funds for development of agriculture blocks and secondary canals, as well as drainage and flood protection works and service and access roads. SVTP-2 will finance required consulting services for remaining detailed design services, e.g. secondary canals in the Phase 2 project area, and construction supervision and quality assurance. Development of the electricity grid with a dedicated line along the main canal will be considered in close cooperation with ESCOM. (ii) Component 2 - Land Tenure and Consolidation: All farmed agricultural land under customary tenure within the project area will be demarcated and formally registered using a gender sensitive approach . Most agricultural land in Malawi farmed by smallholders is held under customary systems, either patrilineal, matrilineal or mixed, governed by traditional authorities (male or female). The chieftaincy hierarchy starts from the village chief, to the Group Village Headman (GVH) and traditional chief. The Traditional Land Management Authority (TLMA). Land administration institutions will only be established in GVHs and TLMAs gazetted by the Ministry of Local government. As already indicated, the obligation that women constitute at least 50% of the members of the Customary Land Committee (CLC) was met in SVTP I. Recruitment of staff, communication, and training programs is also gender sensitive and is . monitored. SVTP II will complete any outstanding demarcation and registration work started under SVTP I, and also complete on demand issuance of consolidation customary estate. SVTP II will also continue to support the functioning and renewal of CLC and land tribunals and will consolidate the land dispute monitoring system set up under SVTP I. District land registries will keep the record of all registered land parcels and shares in consolidated customary estate, and register follow up transactions or updates. All land records (or “customary estate”) and cadastral maps produced under SVTP I and completed under SVTP II will be kept and maintained in an electronic format at the district land registry. The land registry will also keep the cadastral map and record of all individual[1] “shares” (equivalent to the size of the land parcel(s) contributed by a member to the consolidated customary estate). Land records and shares can be printed upon request. An individual customary estate as well as a share in a consolidate customary estate are transferable (e.g., inheritance, lease, mortgage) and after five years also sold. The two district land registry for the SVTP project area (Chikwawa and Nsanje) will be established under SVTP I and use the Land Information Management System developed by MoL with support from AGCOM (P158434). The sustainability of the District land registry and the land clerks is related to progress with the devolution process and transfer of this responsibility to the Ministry of local government, which will become responsible for budget and staffing. SVTP II will consolidate the two District Land Registries in collaboration with MoL and MoLGov; train and mentor land registrars, land clerks and other staff engaged in land record maintenance and transactions, and support to land institutions (land tribunals, CLC); support information and communication campaigns on formalizing land transactions and keeping information on land records and land shares updated. SVTP II will consolidate and institutionalize monitoring and accountability systems to track emerging land markets – including for shares in consolidated customary estates and based on gender disaggregated administrative and management data, which were started under SVTP I. SVTP II will also continue and consolidate (quick) surveys to assess land holders awareness of rights and procedures; assess knowledge and accessibility and affordability of land administration services, options for using e- governance; assess sustainability (including financial). The project will also institutionalize gender sensitive capacity building of district staff (land clerks, district and registrars and land institutions. SVTP II will assist MoL and MoLGov to draw lessons for national level rolling out of customary land registration. SVTP-2 will complete any outstanding land use planning, support monitoring and updating land use management in response to the changes resulting from the operationalization of the irrigation scheme. SVTP I will complete the Nsanje District Physical Development Plan, urbanization plans for both districts and all group village land use plans in the phase 2 area. The new irrigation scheme will become operational in 2023 (Phase 1), which will change the environmental conditions, bring about land use changes with new opportunities and also risks. SVTP 2 will assist the districts and the villages to assess changes, update their land use plans if needed and monitor compliance. (iii) Component 3 - Agriculture Development and Commercialization: This component will support implementation of activities that leads to improved productivity, diversified production, cropping intensity, competitiveness, market access and agro-processing for smallholder farmers. SVTP 2 will finance farmer 15 | P a g e mobilization and training, technical assistance to build farmer capacity to run and manage the irrigated blocks and associated activities, form productive alliances to improve market access, setting up of SOCFE management, acquisition of equipment, and matching grants. The component will also draw lessons from the Agriculture Commercialization Project (AGCOM) on how to establish coherent Productive Alliances (PAs) while linking farmers to off-takers. Specifically, the following subcomponents will be financed by the project. SVTP-2 will, through MoA and PMT, continue adopting the current farmer driven approach around the Smallholder Owned Commercial Farm Enterprises (SOCFE) and models. The farmer mobilization process will represent the commencement of activities in the identified project areas. A multi-disciplinary team from various implementing agencies at the Chikwawa District Council and the Project team will carry out intensive sensitization campaigns to inform the communities of the project activities, their roles and prepare a consolidated action plan for the initial activities to be implemented and their timelines. These activities are key to successful project implementation. The component will promote and enable effective collaboration among smallholders to consolidate their land into customary estates, coordinate production, and sell their produce collectively as cooperatives. Under the proposed Component 3, the project will finance the commercialization of agriculture in the developed areas through establishment of 25 new SOCFEs located on the new 17,000 ha of irrigation command area. In addition, the project will also continue to support 14 SOCFEs identified under SVTP-1 to make them fully operational. Component 3 will also promote productive diversification through promotion of cultivation of various crops other than sugarcane, which is prominent in the area. SOCFEs will also be encouraged to develop fishponds, pasture, vegetable gardens, and sustainable woodlots for charcoal production on land in the blocks not suitable for irrigation and also as long as these have been assessed to be both technically and financially viable. It is unlikely that sugarcane production will be part of the cropping pattern under SVTP II as the only possible off-taker, ILLOVO has signaled that it has no capacity for additional sugarcane processing. Technical Assistance and Farmer Capacity Building: Component 3 will finance the recruitment of a firm to provide technical assistance (TA) to SOCFEs on the development of desired possible development pathways[1] , farm investments and farm operations. The TA will facilitate the establishment of SOCFEs; provide intensive training, mentoring and guidance to the SOCFEs; and subsequently assist them to recruit farm managers and key staff; and facilitate the formation of productive alliances between SOCFEs and partners, value chain players and investors. The TA will also be responsible for the identification of commercial partners to provide technical advice, training and mentoring on the essentials of farm business management such as agronomy and crop husbandry and value chain development services to enable SOCFEs to function as viable and profitable commercial farms. Further, the TA will help the SOCFEs in farm investment planning which will include, i) selection of enterprises to venture and its associated husbandry; ii) irrigation methods to be employed; iii) farm equipment; iv) farm management and staffing; v) financing for equipment and production costs; and vi) identification and contact with possible markets. The STVP-2 will further finance the recruitment of Services Providers (SPs) that will appoint professional management and associated farm specialist staff that will be working with the SOCFEs on daily basis to kick start implementation of commercial agricultural operations. The country has over the years gained considerable lessons from implementation of similar projects like the Agriculture Commercialization Project (AGCOM) and Irrigation, Rural Livelihoods Development Project (IRLADP). It has been learnt that considerable time and effort is needed in the social formation process of developing clusters of farmers into enterprises. In addition, the process of having clusters develop well thought-through business plans takes time and considerable support. Further, continued viable operation of newly formed enterprises needs considerable support, including training and ongoing mentoring, especially in management and facilitating market linkages. The SPs will thus be crucial to support the SOCFEs with the identification of a pathway of their choice, determination of the choice of value chains, to a large extent based on the identification of off-takers, and sensitization of the SOCFEs on matching grant requirements. In addition, SPs will have to advise the SOCFEs on the investment cost implications of different water application methods; the O&M cost implications of different water application methods; and the crops that be grown under different water application methods, and the degree of flexibility or otherwise for crop choice with 16 | P a g e different methods. The STVP-2 will recruit SPs at the start of the second phase to have ample time to support the farmers though mentorship. Establishment of viable Productive Alliance (PA). Introduction of the viable productive alliances under STVP-2 will help to address several constraints related to market failures and inefficiencies experienced by many farmers along the value chain. The market failures are mainly caused by inadequate integration of actors, information asymmetries and coordination failures amongst stakeholders. The introduction of PAs has to some extent proven to increase productivity, incomes, and commercial viability apart from prospects of creating employment in rural economies. Under the STVP-2, support will be provided for the establishment of the PAs as soon as planning for production from SOCFEs is initiated. They would consist of entities operating within identified value chains and each PA could include one or more SOCFEs, financial institutions, suppliers of farm inputs and services (services to include Government research and extension), and crucially, off-takers of farm produce. These voluntary organizations will operate on the principle of mutually beneficial partnerships. They will initially be formed and mentored by the SDSPs and the ACTA. All SOCFEs will receive training and capacity building to enhance their skills. The training will include basic accounting and financial management, governance, business plan management, procurement, leadership training for those elected to the management committees, and health and safety management and resource efficiency on farm. It is envisaged that the training will assist SOCFEs to manage their businesses and improve marketing skills that enables them to enter effective PA to sustain their operations. The project will also provide capital investment support to enable capital investments in the SOCFEs based on their on-farm irrigation and development designs and business plans. An estimated 80 percent of the available funds under the component will finance block development investments in irrigation and drainage, land leveling, and commercial farm development. This will include irrigation systems (including surface, sprinkler, center pivot, drip, or microjet as per informed decision by the SOCFEs), farm equipment (fixed and moveable), initial production and management support at SOCFE level, and basic infrastructure. Matching grants will be made available to lower the investment costs to be paid by SOCFEs, while private finance leveraged in value chain development is expected to be available as well. As the number of agricultural blocks to be developed is expected to increase considerably under SVTP- 2, the component will put a lot of emphasis on ensuring that any matching grant is made available in a timely manner. All farms would receive investment as a grant to provide access to irrigation water. They would receive a 90 percent grant for land development, with the balance to be provided by the SOCFEs though “in-kind contribution (labor and/or materials)”. On the other hand, investments in farm assets (including warehouses and agro-processing equipment), overhead and production costs will follow a formal matching grant procedure. Investment Assessment Panel (IAP). The project will, through Component 3, also finance the recruitment an expert team of independent evaluators to assess business plans prepared by SOCFEs. The IAP would consist of a commercial financier, at least two private agribusiness representatives, an irrigation agronomist, and a project representative (Project’s Agribusiness Specialist or an alternate). The IAP will be responsible for evaluating the business proposals which will be the basis on which the project grants will be awarded. The IAP will evaluate and select PA business plans for funding based on technical and feasibility in line with terms and conditions that will be detailed in the Project Implementation Manual (PIM). SVTP-2 will continue to explore ways of linking SOCFEs with commercial banks and other potential financiers, including Development Partners. Loans or grants to SOCFEs will have to be matched with engagement of SOCFEs with viable value chain businesses for their products. Thus, a three-party arrangement of commercial banks, off-takers, and SOCFEs should be the model from the outset, supported through productive alliances. Detailed and transparent communication between these three parties and providers of the required capital investment would be an important feature of such arrangements. During SVTP program development, an Agricultural Development Planning Strategy was prepared in 2015 that identified possible value chains. SVTP-2, mostly through departments in MoA and the Ministry of Trade (MoT), will support additional studies, including regular market studies and road shows to identify additional prospective off-takers and where possible enter pre-contractual arrangements on specific value chains. Possible crops that have been researched and tested in the valley that have an import- substitution or export potential include cotton, sorghum (for beer production), beans, soya beans, bananas, vegetables, sugar cane for ethanol (if a viable off-taker becomes available), and fruit trees such as mangoes or citrus. The SOCFEs owners and managers will also need to be equipped with the 17 | P a g e necessary skills and knowledge to make production and management adjustments in the light of evolving market conditions. The crops chosen will have to be technically and financially viable, fit into the developed irrigation application method, and have an appropriate position in a crop rotation to avoid depletion of soils and unsustainable farm practices. The component will promote waste management by supporting studies and private sector engagement in waste management. Activities that will be implemented as part of this component are separate from, and additional to, the mitigation measures specified in this ESIA. Although these activities will have benefit for the Natural Resources in the Lower Shire Valley and will therefore result in positive environmental impacts, a screening procedure is included in the ESMP to identify and manage any possible negative impacts that may arise from these community level activities during their implementation. According to ILO, the agricultural sector presents key challenges for safety and health of farmers and communities. Measures to safeguard community health, for example through providing the necessary infrastructure to identify and prepare for an increase in number of waterborne diseases will be included within SVTP-II. Resource efficiency and safety considerations will be issues to be addressed as part of the advice provided to the SOCFEs, and measures to ensure the training, PPE and processes for the safe transport, storage, use and disposal of farm chemicals will be incorporated into farm management plans, in accordance with the principles established in the Pest Management Plan. (iv) Component 4 – Strengthening Landscape and Natural Resources Management in the Lower Shire Valley. The Lower Shire Valley includes ecological regions, protected areas, and biodiversity hotspots which are essential to the maintenance and functioning of the Lower Shire watershed. However, critical aspects of the watersheds are becoming degraded, leading to reduced water availability, deteriorating water quality, increasing vulnerability to droughts and floods, and reducing agricultural productivity. The planned project activities will strengthen the management and sustainability of key protected areas (Lengwe, Mwabvi), the Elephant Marsh (EM), and forest reserves (Matandwe, Thambani, and Thyolo. Development of park trails/roads, ranger camps, eco-tourism facilities and cultural sites, fences, water holes, and utilities are among the proposed works to be financed under SVTP-2. Accompanying these proposed investments will be critical community livelihoods interventions in the areas around the protected areas to strengthen co-management and reduce direct threats to aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity, such as overfishing and habitat destruction. Importantly, SVTP-2 will support strengthening the management of the Elephant Marsh, which provides a unique habitat sanctuary to birds and flora, through the implementation of its Community Conservation Area Management Plan (developed under SVTP-I) including through further promoting ecosystem-based fisheries management. Deforestation has had a tremendous impact on the landscape of the Lower Shire. The proposed activities will provide support to the Government’s 2016 commitment to place 4.5 million hectares of degraded and deforested land under restoration by 2030 in support of the Bonn Challenge. Proposed activities will promote private sector engagement and investment in the sustainable management of the remaining forest reserves through awareness raising and capacity building, as well as performance-based grants and payments (carbon credits), in order to shift toward ensuring sustainable financing of the management of the remaining forests. Key natural resources are under threat from overexploitation, habitat encroachment, as well as poor pollution and solid waste management practices in the project area, with a lot of unregulated waste dumping and burning, including hazardous waste disposal. As the Lower Shire transforms and the generation of waste increases, there is a necessity to prepare the services for the communities and private enterprises to manage pollution and comply with environmental regulations. Studies will be conducted to determine mechanisms and strategies for management of the threats to biodiversity and ecological values posed by invasive species, increased generation of waste, and increased demand for natural resources that is expected to occur throughout the transformation of the valley. This component will promote an inter-sectoral approach to the management of the Lower Shire landscape by addressing biodiversity conservation, protecting and enhancing the role that natural assets and wetlands play in supporting livelihoods mitigating climate change; and promoting sustainable approaches to forest management that protect forest resources and deliver benefits to local communities. At landscape and park level, this sub-component would: 18 | P a g e (i) Invest in community-level natural resource management in areas adjacent to the irrigation and conservation areas (Lengwe National Park, Mwabvi and Majete Wildlife Reserves, Matandwe Forest Reserve and the Elephant Marsh proposed Community Conservation Area) and in wildlife corridors, (ii) Provide targeted support to these conservation areas to strengthen conservation and community management and encourage private sector investments (e.g. by tourism concession investors) that could boost revenues for re-investment in local community development and conservation management, Activities that will be implemented as part of this component are separate from, and additional to, the mitigation measures specified in this ESIA. Although these activities will have benefit for the Natural Resources in the Lower Shire Valley and will therefore result in positive environmental impacts, a screening procedure is included in the ESMP to identify and manage any possible negative impacts that may arise from these community level activities during their implementation. Activities implemented under this component arise from sectoral needs, i.e Parks and Wildlife, Forestry and Environment and are largely meant to enhance positive benefits that emanate from the project. In line with Malawi Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines of 1997, actions that take place in protected areas require environmental and social screening. Building on the experiences of SVTP-I, all proposed actions in protected areas and surrounding communities will, therefore, undergo environmental and social screening. (v) Component 5 - Project Management, Coordination, and Communication. SVTP-2 will continue to provide funding for the Project Management Team. This will allow the PMT to provide day-to-day management and coordination, monitoring and evaluation, communication, and management of safeguard related issues, including the grievance redress mechanism. The PMT is fully staffed with qualified and competent specialists. It also has an external Gender Based Violence (GBV) service provider. This component will finance the multiple coordination and management needs of a project of this scale and focus on the roll out of the communications strategy and manage grievance redress mechanisms, as well as day-to-day management, monitoring and evaluation of the project. The GRMs will provide a responsive ongoing mechanism to address PAP and other stakeholder concerns raised throughout the life of the project, including those arising from resettlement and compensation initiatives, and construction and operations phases. The sub-component will finance project management structures that have been established and in place throughout project preparation. The project will provide funding for professional and support staff to strengthen the PMT and facilitate its operations, coordination and communication, including procurement, financial management, environmental and social safeguards specialists. SVTP-III The third phase of the project will be focused on the agricultural commercialization and continuing natural resource management activities, scaling up what has been achieved under SVTP-I and what will be achieved under SVTP-II. Lessons Learned from SVTP-I for Application in SVTP-II During the update of the ESIA, consideration has been given to the lessons learned from the environmental and social safeguards work undertaken as part of the implementation of SVTP-I. Key points that have been integrated into this ESIA review include: a. Ensuring adequate allocation of temporary working area and defined and contractor’s responsibility vis a vis spoil/rock falling into neighbouring land, and clauses for not deposing spoil in Majete National Park b. Focus on speeding vehicles and dust generated on local roads c. Controlling litter and waste d. Ensuring senior contractor management participate actively in community meetings 19 | P a g e e. Controls for fuel theft and interations with local law enforcement f. Dedicated locations for the provision of wood to local communities g. Adequate numbers of ESHS specialists in Supervision and contractor’s team, each with dedicated transport. h. Established program and process for submission and approval of key documents (including OHSM/CESMP/approval of camp locations) prior to start of works i. Establishing a clear reporting process (to include for regular and incident reporting) j. Ensuring progressive restoration of sensitive areas, including National Parks, to ensure planting timescales and proposals for care of planted areas rather than leaving restoration to the end k. Clear requirement for worker welfare facilities (including food preparation and eating areas, washing facilities and toilet facilities) to be established and maintained by the contractor at suitable distances along the linear works site l. Provision and use of safe worker transport m. Provision of on-site COVID-19 testing facilities at the contractor’s campsite for staff and relevant awareness messages and PPEs 20 | P a g e 2. MITIGATION WORKSHOPS Mitigation workshops have been held frequently during the preparation and implementation of the project. They began in 2005 as part of the framework for the EIA and have continued throughout the assessment process, and particularly after the draft Impact Assessment report was produced, in November 2016 when the mitigation measures were presented and discussed with stakeholders, to collect their opinions. In addition, a presentation to the Task Force, World Bank and the Feasibility Consultant was done prior to the publication of the ESIA to discuss about several key issues: the tiger fish, the impact on Majete Wildlife Reserve and on Lengwe National Park and impacts on Elephant marsh. Community engagement is an essential part of the project, not only to understand the potential impacts of construction works , but also to co-ordinate and engage with stakeholders on land tenure, planning, agricultural commercialization and natural resource management measures. Much of the communication is undertaken on a day-to-day basis, although in addition, the following workshops have been held. (i) Community & Stakeholder Workshops Two workshops with communities in Nsanje (November 10th, 2016) and Chickwawa (November 11th 2016) Districts were held and presented by the ESIA Consultant. The objective was to expose the main conclusions from the impact assessment and the set of mitigations. Opinions and questions raised are presented in annex of this report; some of them are dealt with in the main text whenever relevant. In Nsanje, 50 people attended the workshop and in Chickwawa 37. Other workshops and meetings were held at several occasions, including with African Parks, Jambo Africa (in charge of tourism in LNP), Wildlife and Environment Society of Malawi (WESM) and EGENCO. Figure 1: Workshop at Nsanje (left) and Chickwawa (right) (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) A number of workshops were further organized between May and June, 2021 as part of the SVTP-II formulation process. These included community consultation at GVH Njeredza and lessons learnt workshop at Phata Cooperative. The community consultation meeting at Njeredza was geared at tapping information on how the communities were engaging with the first contractor appointed under SVTP-I and providing important lessons learned for the review and updated of the Stakeholder Engagement Plan (SEP). The workshop further interrogated the manner in which grievances were addressed between the communities and contractor. Two issues arose, namely, that the contractor delegated junior staff who do not have authority to make decision and the time for resolving issues was too long. Another workshop with the farmers at GVH Njeredza provided more information about what was expected of farmer groups and how they would decide on crops to grow. 21 | P a g e Figure 2: Farmer Workshop at GVH Njeredza (SVTP) SVTP facilitated a meeting of the Phata Cooperative, Agrichem and the World Bank Mission at Phataiwth an objective of establishing lessons on how cooperatives operate in the Shire Valley and the role of service providers, i.e Agricane. Figure 3: An Official from Agricane briefing the mission Key lessons on establishing farmer cooperatives that were extracted included the following: 22 | P a g e  The service provider has capacity to secure matching grants by way of loans or developing projects. The experience of Agricane has enabled the service provider to expand its services to Kasinthula;  Both Kasinthula require some time to develop own capacity to manage the schemes. Both SVTP and Agricane will have provide more training to the cooperatives; and  The cooperatives, Agricane and SVTP need to explore other value chains and develop markets. The current over reliance on Illovo as sole market exposes the cooperatives to external shocks. Besides other value chains may offer more return to farmers if well developed. (ii) Workshop With Task Force in Lilongwe A Workshop with Task Force (SVTP), the FS consultant team, with the World Bank and national stakeholders was held. It was the opportunity to exchange on the latest development of the FS, and on the key technical issues to address such as the tiger fish barrier and type of canal inside MWR. (iii) Meetings with other projects in the Shire Valley A number of meetings were held with stakeholders in the Shire Valley with a view to examine projects that have been implemented between 2017 and 2021 and any future projects that have a consumptive effect on the Shire River and consequently may affect the Elephant Marsh. This information is required to understand the communlative impact that may occur and their implications for the Shire river and Elephant marsh. Key Institutions consulted were as follows: a) Malawi Watershed Services Improvement Project (MWSIP) MWSIP is designed to improve the Shire River catchment, by encouraging habitat improvement and water retention measures that will slow the discharge rate from land to the river. No measures have yet been undertaken, although a number of measures have begun procurement. These first measures will be undertaken upstream of the Kapichira Reservoir, and are likely to have a moderating and therefore beneficial effect on the flows reaching Kapichira. As such when these projects are delivered, water reliability is likely to improve at Kapichira. b) Shire Biodiversity and Environmental Support Trust (BEST) The visit was organized to promote alignment of SVTP-II to the ESF and come up with cumulative impact assessment for the projects in the Shire River catchment. It transpired that Shire BEST is not brain child of SRBMP but the Millenium Challenge Corporation (MCC) – Malawi Compact whose empahasis was on energy development. The purpose is to promote sustainability of project initiatives started by projects focusing on the Shire River Basin. Todate the trust, in collaboboration with EGENCO have embarked on catchment restoration and another with Illovo on flood management, soil stabilization and promotion of bamboo cultivation. These projects will not abstract from the River Shire and are designed to improve water retention and natural resources within the Shire catchment area. As such they are unlikely to result in any detrimental impacts that would need to be considered alongside SVTP-II. c) Prescane Prescane will be developing a 2,215 hactre Kama-Kasinthula Scheme, starting with 1,069 hactres in 2022. The design abstraction rate is 2.5 M3 / second and the intake will be at the Kamuzu Bridge upstream of the Elephant Marsh. This scheme is currently in planning, and has not yet begun. The additional abstraction could have a small additional detrimental effect on Elephant Marsh, if it comes to fruitition. d) SVADD - Divisional Irrigation Office New development was considered with respect water abstraction from the Shire river, namely, the establishment of a small but new Chaimbatuka Irrigation Scheme.The schemes has an abstraction of 3 litres per second of water for 10 hactares and is solar powered. This is unlikely to have a significant impact on the hydrology of Elephant Marsh, even in combination with SVTP-II e) Water Resources Authority (WRA) 23 | P a g e The Water Resources Authority are responsible for licencing abstractions from the Shire River. Discussions with the WRA are ongoing, that maintain a register that contains details of the abstraction permits issued since 2017. This information will assist in understanding the cumulative impacts of SVTP-II on the current baseline conditions. (iv) Meeting with the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) Figure 4: DNPW Officials Visiting canal alignment sight in LNP The meeting discussed the canal route within Lengwe National Park and the associated mitigation and compensation. The feasibility study recommended the route entering the park at 16013’55.41” South and 34042’21.50” East and exiting the park at 16018’07.65” South and 34046’10.67” East, and this is marked on site. The meetings discussed options for a canal alignment at 16016’00.30” South and 34040’40.63” with an exit point at 16018’05.25” South and 34040’40.25” East, and a canal alignment that will minimize loss of thicket habitat. The optimization of the route will continue through the design development, with the assistance of DNPW. (v) Meetings regarding GBV Consultation meetings to understand people’s perceptions, ideas and recommendations on GBV issues in the project were done in May, 2021. The meetings were conducted with various stakeholders which included the communities around the project area, the media and other stakeholders at the Disrict Council. The main objective of these meetings was to understand from these various stakeholders looked at the social trends particularly GBV isssues, if any, since the start of the project activites. Importantly to also understand from them the proposed mitigation measures that may be needed with regard to GBV issues. 24 | P a g e Figure 6: GBV mitigation stakeholder Consultation meeting at Mologeni OUTCOME OF DISCUSSIONS The discussions informed the preparation of the ESIA and its update. For example, in discussing the detailed design of the canal inside MWR:  The canal alignment was revised so that itis partially underground inside MWR and crosses the Mwembezi River using a siphon (more detail is provided in this report under section 4). The rationale for the latest canal alignment route and mix of open and buried canal is the presence of topographic and terrain constraints. The high cost for the buried sections do not leave much place for a completely buried canal.  Investigations into developing the shortest possible way out of the reserve determined that the construction of the dike across the Shire river would have been required, a development that would have pushed the cost up eroding the economic sense of the project.  The boundaries of the reserve were established so as not to be confused with the electric fences within MWR boundaries. And also to understand how the canal can help achieve the management objectives for Lengwe National Park, through discussion with the DNPW. The discussion with the other projects helped identify new and planned schemes or programs (not considered in the 2017 ESIA) that may affect water flow or quality in the Lower Shire Valley, and particularly on Elephant Marsh. This information was used to inform the update of the assessment of the cumulative impacts. With respect to discussions on GBV, it became clear: 25 | P a g e  The risk of sexual abuse should be taken seriously considering the vulnerabilities that may be there when people are looking for employment, particularly women, for example.  Issues of child abuse also will need to be looked into as, for example, parents send little girls to sell merchandise to the campsites where they can easily be abused.  As a way of mitigating against any probable risks, the project should ensure there is enforcement of the Code of Conduct, GBV sensitization eetings in all the project areas and the development of a shared information base for the service provider to interface with all concerned stakeholders. 26 | P a g e 3. RELATION BETWEEN THE IMPACT ASSESSMENT REPORT AND OTHER STUDIES IN THE LOWER SHIRE VALLEY The ESIA/ESMP has many links with other studies. These links can be distinguished in three different categories: • Relations with the Project technical studies (feasibility and design study); • Relations with Shire River Basin Management Programme (SRBMP) funded by the World Bank; • Relations with other studies under the SVTP. The following table presents these relations. Table 1: Relations between studies SVTP Project technical studies Relation Shire Integrated Flood Risk Objective of the Plan was to assist the GoM in development of an Action Management Strategy Project Plan to address the flood risk situation in the Lower Shire in an integrated way, based on sound diagnostics and systems to assess and implement (Atkins, 2012) future interventions. The Action Plan aimed to address both the hazard (Water regime) and the vulnerability to these hazards (adaptation of human behavior). This life and livelihoods are better protected from flood risks and enhance the capability of socio economic development in the basin. This was done in harmony with Malawi growth and development strategies which emphasis sustainable growth and MDGs. The study helped inform the design of SVTP. Shire Valley Irrigation Project The GoM has for many years intended to develop irrigated agriculture Phase I Project Preparation in the Lower Shire Valley and a number of successive studies and Activities. Appraisal Report reports has been prepared, to help prepare for the SVTP project. (AfDB, October 2012) The report identified the need for additional activity: Study on water availability at Kapichira – pre-feasibility level study. This was undertaken under the SRBMP-1 (Norplan report 2013) Hydraulic model study at the Although the title of the study is hydraulic modeling, the main objective headpond of Kapichira dam of this study is to assess the impact of the Project on the reservoir sedimentation pattern. The study’s objectives are also to avoid negative impact on sediment flushing operations at the power station and to minimize the entry of sediment into the proposed feeder canal system of SVTP. Feasibility Study report The 2017 ESIA is based on the scheme described in the FS. (December 2016) The 2021 update of the ESIA is based on the latest detailed design for Phase 1 works (under construction) provides to the FS study the series of mitigations that need to be technically tested. These mitigations only relate to infrastructures or changes in the Project design that will be required to mitigate of avoid impacts. Preparation and implementation Many elements on socioeconomics are dealt with in the of a PCCPLTRPF. The ESIA make references to it. This assignment is divided in Communications, Community several studies: Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement Policy • Communication strategy: Framework (PCCPLTRPF) (on going) 27 | P a g e SVTP Project technical studies Relation This study describes the main stakeholders and presents a SWOT analysis. It also presents the communication strategy toward stakeholders. • Gender and Youth Strategy Study: This study describes the current challenges that women and young people face. This report also recommends a series of measures and guidelines aiming at these two groups. In addition, roles of various stakeholders and monitoring actions are defined. • Grievance redress mechanism: This study describes the current method for grievance redress (revolving around traditional leaders). This study also implements the Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) and Grievance Redress Committee (GRC) to ensure that people’s opinions and grievances regarding the project are documented and addressed. In addition, monitoring of complaints will be carried out under this mechanism. • Resettlement Policy Framework This document provides the basis for the Resettlement Action Plan (regulatory review, gap analysis, etc.). It deals with impact of resettlement but also the issue of access to sources of livelihood and to impact on cultural heritage. The ESIA refers to this study, especially when it comes to the number of affected villages and the number of bridges that shall be built to cross canals (and footpaths for people). • Stakeholders’ views report This report presents the main conclusions from various stakeholder’s consultation. It discusses stakeholders’ views on several topics: land tenure, access to irrigated land, resettlement, agricultural development, access to water for livestock and gender vulnerability. • Socio-economic baseline report This report presents the main socio-economic figures of the SVTP area and discusses about health, land tenure, livestock, agriculture, etc. It also includes a chapter on communities’ views of the Project. Agricultural Development Planning This study describes the crops of SVTP. Many elements related to Strategy (2016) agriculture and fisheries are dealt with in this report. It discusses about mitigation for smallholder livestock farmers and assesses the potential for fish farming. In addition, this study describes efficient organization of producers that shall be implemented Pest Management Plan (2021) The PMP identifies the main pest based on the type of crops and proposes measures to fight pests. A Cultural Heritage Impact This report provides information on cultural heritage baseline conditions Assessment Report (2016) by identifying key sites of interest within the SVTP study area. The report has informed the ESIAs. Public-Private Partnership (PPP The PPP study informed the ESIA about public-private partnership Feasibility study) (on going) arrangements for irrigation services for SVTP. The ESIA also makes recommendations about arrangements and responsibilities of the Bulk Water Operator for maintenance and its relationship with park management (Lengwe). The ESIA also helps to identify environmental and social risks regarding the BWO 28 | P a g e SVTP Project technical studies Relation Lengwe National Park, 5 years This document, written by DNPW, describes the reserve’s objectives and business plan 2016-2020 presents its zoning. It also describes the various infrastructures of the reserves. Lengwe National Park, General The 2017 ESIA refers to this document has it defines objectives for the Management Plan 2016-2020 work LNP as well as identifies issues with wildlife and infrastructures of the document park. Detailed Design Studies (after the The 2017 ESIA proposed measures for study in the Design Study for FS) for Phase 1. Phase 1. The Detailed Design works have The updated 2021 ESIA describes the outcome of these design studies not started yet for Phase 2 but is for Phase 1 and by providing detail of what was constructed. It has also complete for Phase 1 works. reviewed the current baseline conditions against the FS design for Phase 2, to update the assessment. 2017 Environmental and Social The 2017 ESIA studied the predicted impacts and effects of all three Impact Assessment phases of the proposed SVTP in preparation for Phase 1 works. It was disclosed in August 2017. 2017 Environmental and Social The 2017 Environmental and Social Management Plan set out the Management Plan management arrangements for delivering the mitigation measures to be delivered as part of Phase 1 works 2021 Update to ESIA An update of the ESIA in 2021 was undertaken to ensure that the current design was reflected for Phase 1 works, and to reflect any changes in baseline conditions that have occurred since 2017. The 2021 ESIA was prepared in advance of Phase 2 works. Lengwe National Park, General The 2021 update of the ESIA refers to this document has it defines Management Plan 2021-2026 updated management objectives for the LNP. Matandwe-Mwabvi Protected Details of Natural Resource Management measured to be provided as Area Complex Integrated part of SVTP will be information by the management objectives set out Management Plan 2021 in this plan. SRBMP studies Relation Component A – Shire Basin The recommendations of the ESIAs and ESMPs have taken into account Planning the studies undertaken as part of SRBMP, and those that were Sub-components: particularly relevant, for example by providing baseline information, A1-Basin planning framework information on cumulative impacts or details of management A2-Institutional capacity A3-Water interventions that will improve the natural resources in the catchment. resources information systems A4- Most activities of the SRBMP relate to catchment management and Program management rehabilitation, as well as the upgrading and future operation of the monitoring & evaluation Kamuzu Barrage that influences the Shire River’s flow, well upstream of the SVTP. Component B – Catchment Management Sub-components: B1-Catchment planning, monitoring and learning B2- Rehabilitation targeted catchments B3-Alternative rural livelihoods B4-Ecological management Component C – Water related infrastructure Sub-components: C1- Kamuzu Barrage C2-Flood management C3-New water investment 29 | P a g e SRBMP studies Relation Implementation Service This report deals with risk from floods, and has been considered as part Provider (ISP) for Flood Risk of the hydrological information included in SVTP. In some sections, it Management (SRBMP-1) presents measures to minimize flood impacts on human safety from: • Ruo River • Thangadzi East River • Mwanza River • Lalanje River • Tombokamwa River Study on water availability for Prepared under SRBMP, the objective of the study was: Irrigation and hydropower a) To assess utilization levels of Shire River, suggest areas for production on Shire River at improvement so that reliable water is available for a number Kapichira Falls of purposes. (Norplan, 2013) b) To independently assess the water availability for hydropower and irrigation purposes at Kapichira falls. c) To recommend the best possible strategies for accommodating demands for irrigation and hydropower and explore possible trade-offs in use. The study gave priority to satisfy the demand for irrigation (SVTP) project to the demand of water for maximum energy production. The consequences of shortage of water has been calculated as loss of and value of energy production. The Elephant Marsh General The aim of this management plan is to ensure that the integrity of the Adaptive Management Plan 2018- Elephant Marsh is maintained and enhanced, together with the natural 2022 (2017). functions that these wetlands perform and the benefits that they supply, including the sustainable utilization of wetland resources, without Prepared under SRBMP-1 undermining future adaptive capacity. The management plan has informed the measures undertaken as part of the Natural Resource Management components of SVTP. Shire River Basin Management The overall assessment of impact of SRBMP planned activities is dealt Program (Phase I) Project with in this report (except for the impact of Kamuzu barrage). Final Environmental and Social Assessment Report (July, 2013) Independent Environmental An ESIA was carried out under the Component C.1: upgrading of the Impact Assessment for the Kamuzu Barrage. The barrage is a key element that has many Upgraded Kamuzu Barrage interactions with SVTP as the current objective of the upgraded barrage (December 2011) is to raise the water level up to 40 cm in Lake Malawi. Climate resilient livelihoods and This study addresses the following objectives (MRAG, 2016): sustainable natural resources management in the Elephant • Describe local livelihoods, including spatial and temporal use Marsh, Malawi. Ministry of Water of resources; Development and Irrigation. • Assess the past, present and potential future influence of Description of the livelihoods in the human livelihoods on the Elephant Marsh, and what effect area of the Elephant Marsh these will have on the functional resilience of the Marsh in Report November 2016 the future, and the implication for climate change; • Identify the socio-economic impacts of livelihoods and how climate change might affect these livelihoods; 30 | P a g e SRBMP studies Relation • Describe the risks to livelihoods (e.g. flooding or overfishing), and current strategies to increase resilience to these risks that will be exacerbated by climate change; and • Provide an assessment of the support mechanisms for community welfare in line with possible flood mitigation measures and disaster management strategies. Climate Resilient Livelihoods and The hydromorphology study objectives are to: Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the • To establish the current status and recent trends of the Elephant Marsh, Malawi hydromorphology of the Elephant Marsh. Hydromorphology study To establish a hydraulic model predicting flooding patterns in the Elephant Marshes since flow records began. • To evaluate historic land-use change (especially deforestation and agriculture) and its effect on sedimentation and siltation. • To map historic changes in the channel patterns in the marshes. Climate Resilient Livelihoods and This study is a desktop study which: Sustainable Natural Resource • Describes the ecosystem services provided by the Elephant Management in the Marsh in physical terms and provide desktop estimates of Elephant Marsh, Malawi. SubStudy their economic and social value; 3. Ecosystem Services of the • Draws comparisons with other wetlands in Africa of a similar Elephant Marsh. nature; (December 2016). • Discusses how capacity of the system to deliver these services responds to hydromorphology how this has changed over time; • Discusses the wetland’s sensitivity and adaptive capacity to multiple pressures, with a description of those pressures. Climate Resilient Livelihoods and “This sub study forms part of a larger study on the Elephant Marsh which Sustainable Natural Resource also includes studies of the hydrodynamics, local communities and Management in the ecosystem services, in order to inform a management plan for the Elephant Marsh, Malawi SubStudy marshes and in order to prepare an application for Ramsar status as a 4: Biodiversity of the wetland of international importance” (Anchor, 2016). Elephant Marsh (2016) This sub-study aimed at describing (through surveys), biodiversity of Elephant marsh. Specialized surveys and studies of several taxonomic groups were carried: plants, aquatic invertebrates, dragonflies, butterflies, reptiles, amphibians, fish, birds and mammals. Climate Resilient Livelihoods and This sub study explores the potential effects of alternative future Sustainable Natural Resource scenarios of flow and/or management on the ecological condition of the Management in the Elephant Marsh. Elephant Marsh, Malawi Analysis of the potential effects of alternative future scenarios of flow and/or management on the ecological condition of the Elephant Marsh (Ecosystem Functional Model (DRIFT) 2016) 31 | P a g e 4. PROJECT LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION The update of the impact assessment is based on the the Program set out in the FS, updated by the current information from the detailed designs work undertaken to date for Phase 1. The Study area remains as for the 2017 ESIA, and is the geographical area that includes all the Project components as well as the boundaries of potentially affected geographical areas. The Study area includes all phases and zones of the Project as well as the right-of-way of all canals. It starts, at its northernmost limit, at Majete Wildlife Reserve and ends at its southernmost limit after Elephant Marsh at Bangula. It includes most of Chikwawa district and a part of Nsanje district. From a hydrological perceptive, the Study area is included in the Lower Shire River valley. It includes the Ruo River confluence with Shire River and all rivers feeding the Elephant marsh (both on the right and left banks of the marsh). The following map shows the Study area. Figure 7: Impact Area of SVTP In addition, an Extended Study area was identified in the 2017 ESIA and has been maintained for this update to include all infrastructures and major waterbodies that influence the hydrology downstream of Lake Malawi: namely Lake Malombe, Kamuzu barrage (Liwonde barrage), and the Nkula, Tedzani and Kapichira EGENCO hydropower plants. The Map on the next page shows the Extended Study area. Construction work of the SVTP began in 2020 after a tendering process for a designer, and a construction contractor. The water will start to flow inside the water intake at Kapichira Dam towards the end of year 2023. The total cost of SVTP taking into account direct and indirect construction costs is estimated at 519,250,000 USD (KRC FS report, 2016). 32 | P a g e Figure 8: Extended Study Area As mentioned in the latest version of the FS (Korea Rural Corporation, in Joint Venture with Dasan Consultants co., LTD., GK Works Civil and Structural Engineers, December 2016), the Project consists of several key infrastructures that are described in this section of the report. 4.1 WATER INTAKE A water intake will be built at Kapichira reservoir, the highest topographic point of the scheme (145.5~146.5masl), on the right bank of the Shire River, upstream from EGENCO training dike and the fuse dike, on the opposite side of the water intake of EGENCO hydropower station. The SVTP water intake will extract a certain amount of water from the Shire River (the reservoir) to distribute water by gravity to the scheme. The value will be between 20.5 and 51.3 m 3/s depending on the season. Based on the Hydraulic Modeling study, a bathymetric survey was carried out to select the adequate location which is shown in the following figure. 33 | P a g e Figure 9: Water intake location inside MWR (Source: KRC, 2016 ) The SVTP intake structure will comprise a 46.5 m long intake sill, with 12 sluice gates each 3 m wide. The EGENCO power plant as a capacity of 132 MW. The by-passed section between the reservoir dam and the power plant is very short (900 meters). An informal environmental flow of 30-50m3/s is currently released from the dam spillway, which helps to maintain a strong flow over the Kapichira Falls during the rainy season. Although not a primary reason for visitors to come to the Majete Wildlife Reserve, the Kapichira Falls serve as a seasonally valuable tourist attraction. During much of the dry season, this environmental flow is not guaranteed and the Kapichira Falls sometimes dwindle to a trickle. 4.1.1 Construction and characteristics Before the impact of cyclone Anna, construction of the intake was at 16% and siphone 1 had been completed. With the damage incurred, designs for the intake will be reviewed and information regarding the construction of the intake will be available (quantity of material needed, location of quarries, RoW, duration of work, etc.) after the review process. One element can be highlighted: in order to prepare the passage for the water intake, part of the reservoir may be dredged to deepen the channel (using a dredger), if not already fully implemented by the planned reservoir dredging by EGENCO. The ESIA and ESMP will be updated with specific information as it becomes available after detailed design, and will also need to be included in the contractor’s ESMP, in line with the ESF and based on principles of this ESIA avoiding impacts within the Reserve.. 4.1.2 Operation The gates will be operated by an automatic control system. When the operator inputs the required amount of water into the system, the system will automatically operate the gates based on the relation between the flow rate, gate opening and water level variation. The 12 sluice gates will be installed into two partitions, the first one comprising 8 gates and the second one 4 gates. The second partition will allow abstraction of 18 m3/s, and will be operated when the water requirements at the scheme is less than 18 m3/s. The first partition will allow abstraction of up to 32 m3/s and will be operated when the water requirements at the scheme are between 18 m3/s and 32 m3/s. Both partitions will be operated for scheme water requirements above 32 m3/s to the maximum requirement of 50 m3/s (KRC, 2016). The SVTP water demand per month is presented in section 6.5 (hydrology impact assessment). 34 | P a g e The water intake is not a pumping station as water enters the intake passively (by gravity). 4.2 CANALS There will be three main canals: • A Main canal 1 (MC1), with a total length of 33.8 km (conveying water from the water intake), will extend from the intake at Kapichira Reservoir to the northern end of Lengwe National Park. • The Supuni canal, also called Main canal 3 (MC3), which will be piped for a total length of 10.7 km (previously called Illovo canal) mainly irrigating Phase 1, • The Bangula canal, also called Main canal 2, with a total length of 88.0 km mainly irrigating Phase II but also some Zone in Phase I (before Lengwe National Park). Main canals 1 & 2 will be lined with concrete, although the stretch of the Bangula canal may either be lined with pre-fabricated concrete mats, Amorflex, or be earth lined where it passes through Lengwe National Park, to allow easier escape by animals and minimise fragmentation effects. The following are the main characteristics of the canals based on the feasibility study (lined canal). RoWs are estimated. Table 2: Main canals characteristics Average Total Velocity Right of Canal Water (m/sec) at Peak Bed Upper Way Side Slope Length Depth max. flow width width (RoW) of Canal (km) (m) capacity (m3/s) (m) (m) (m) Feeder Canal (also called Main Canal 1) 1H/1.5V 33.8 2.2 1.44 50 12.6 22.0 40-45 Bangula Canal (also called Main canal 2) 1H/1.5V 88 1.8 1.50 29 8.1 13.5 30-45 Supuni Pipeline (also called Main canal 3 and Illovo Canal) 2.5m x 2.5m 10.7 2.5 1.91 11.6 2.5 2.5 12-14 Each of these canals separate into Branch canals. Siphons are provided to cross large valleys and rivers with important floods. In total, 11 siphons are expected (6 are in the detailed designed for Phase 1), for a total length of about 4 km. Culverts will be used at river crossings where topographic changes are high but floods are small. Culverts will also be used to cross small-scale rivers and roads. With current layout, the Feeder canal will cross about 2.45 km of Majete Wildlife Reserve and about 14km of Lengwe National Park. INSIDE MAJETE WILDLIFE RESERVE The Feeder canal inside MWR is underground for 1.25 km inside MWR boundaries, and is open (open lined canal) for 1.20 km. A wall with fenceis being constructed to prevent annimals from falling into the open areas of canal, but animals will be able to freely pass over the parts of the canal that are 35 | P a g e underground, and the canal has been designed to withstand the passage of animals and allow for some remediation of vegetation over the canal. Animal escape ladders have also been provided in the flume to allow a means of escape should any smaller animals fall into the canal. The following are the characteristics of the underground canal (siphon) in MWR. Table 3: Siphons of MWR Chainage location of siphons Length (m) Length in MWR (m) Size (m) Name Intake and 0+64 to 0+817 (entirely in MWR) 755.40 755.40 #1 Siphon 1+237 to 1+430 (entirely in MWR) 195.40 195.40 #2 Siphon 8.0 x 3.0 2+710 to 2+890 (partially in MWR) 181.70 100 #3 Siphon 3+400 to 3+800 (partially in MWR) 406.80 200 #4 Siphon Total length of buried canal inside MWR 1250.8 INSIDE LENGWE NATIONAL PARK The FS design for the canal through Lengwe National Park will be further developed in consultation with DNPW. Considerations will be given to the alignment (to minimise impacts on thicket areas) to minimise fragmentation and maintain linkages, and to minimise disturbance during the construction works. The design includes for 5 wildlife overpasses of between 100m and 250m wide (three of them to also carry roads over the canal) and one underpass specifically for wildlife. Where necessary and to assist with the spoil balance, considerations will be given to burying sections of the canal. In addition, up to 10 foot bridges may be incorporated into the design, and perimeter fencing will be provided in the design as agreed, with particular attention where the canal enters and leaves the park to ensure that the canal does not become an easy access point into the park. NIGHT WATER STORAGE In addition, night water storages will be built. Although their locations are not yet known, they will not be constructed within protected areas.. Their size will be between 90 and 270 meters long, 40 to 180 meters wide and 3.5m deep. Their construction will generate significant quantities of spoil (that will need to be disposed of at approved locations) and they will need to have appropriate safety measures integrated into the design to prevent animal or people from drowning. The night storages will be subject to their own ESIA and ESMP, which will be prepared in parallel with the design development. 4.2.1 Construction and characteristics Earthworks for leveling the bed and constructing the sides of the canal will require the use of excavators and movement of material by truck to either temporary storage or permanent disposal. The excavation will then be lined with a water-proof membrane ontop of which smoothed reinforced concrete will be placed to form a solid and scour-proof base and walls for the canal. Through Lengwe Nation Park, the canal lining will not be smoothed poured concrete, but earth lined or a rough concrete mesh, laid at a slack angle, to allow for animals to cross the canal. The Contractors will be required to work to approved ESMP and OHSM, which will be approved by the Supervising Engineer prior to the start of works. Quarries, borrow pits and disposals sites have not yet been identified for Phase 2 works, although suggestions in the FS are to use existing borrow pit locations at Tomali, Nyaika, Sibale old pit, 36 | P a g e Nyamithuthu old pit, Chikhama, Moroko, Chikalumpha and Namiche. Quarry sites identified in the FS that may be suitable are at Kajawo, Thabwa existing quarry, Nzongwe and Ngabu. The contractor of the main canal for the intake and first 6km of SVTP-I has elected not to open a quarry or borrow pit, and is instead purchasing materials from existing operations in the area. The detailed design of the scheme for Phase 1 has taken into account the spoil balance, to minimise the need for offsite disposal of excavated materials, and it is expected that this principle will be applied for Phase 2. If the Contractor for the remaining sections of Phase 1 or Phase 2 main canal construction works wishes to open a quarry and/or borrow pit (which may or may not be from the options listed in the FS), the contractor will be required to prepare first an ESIA and ESMP to identify potential impacts, associated mitigation measures and agree restoration proposal in accordance with national law and to meet the requirements of the World Bank ESF. Site specific ESMPs will be developed for quarry, borrow pit, disposal site and campsites by the contractor for the approval of the supervising engineer. 4.2.2 Operation All canals are gravity canals. In some area, canals may be in siphons (such as when crossing large rivers such as Mwanza River) and MC3 may be in pipeline to increase pressure. The daily time for irrigation depends on the irrigation methods. For pivot irrigation system, irrigation time is 24 hours, a whole day. For furrow irrigation, water application is normally 12 hours, during the daytime. Therefore, Branch canals shall be used only for 12 hours based on furrow irrigation methods. The main canals are designed for 24-hour continuous supply, for the whole year. Therefore, there is an operating time gap between the main canals and the Branch canals. Night storages will allow to store water (KRC, 2016). Regarding field drainage, existing rivers and streams that flow eventually into the River Shire will be used as drainage channels. Where necessary, new drainage channels will be cut within command areas to link to the existing streams and rivers. The following figure summarizes the system. Figure 10: Diagram of irrigation canal 37 | P a g e 4.3 COMMAND AREAS The project is made of several irrigated areas as shown in figure 7.  Phase 1 of the Government Program consist of three zones: - Zone I-1: 9,631ha (total area, including access roads and right of ways) - Zone I-2: 11,250ha (total area, which is made of Illovo estate) - Zone A: 5,199ha (total area)  Phase 2 consists of three zones: - Zone B: 9,925ha (total area, which is partly made of Illovo estate) - Zone C: 10,749ha (total area) - Zone D: 4,076ha (total area)  Phase 3 will be a consolidation phase that will expand the agricultural commercialization works, building capacities of the SOCFEs and farm operators, and considering whether agricultural spatial zones are needed to support the transformation of the valley. During this phase, Natural Resource Enhancement measures studied and planned during earlier phases will be implemented. The total area is 50,830ha of land. The irrigation land covers 43,370ha (without farm roads, canals and infrastructures etc.). 4.3.1 Construction and characteristics The command areas or farm blocks will be made of parcels, with irrigation systems (such as pivots or drainage channels) and farm roads (between 4 and 6m wide) designed and built to reflect the characteristics and relationships between the parcels. Work to prepare the parcels for irrication will involve land leveling and major earthwork. 4.3.2 Operation The operation of each farm block will be determined by the responsible farmer co-operative to reflect the desired crops, long term plans for the farm (including investment levels) and desired working arrangements. Each co-operative will be advised as part of the agricultural commercialization process, which will present the options for irrigation and help each co-operative decide on the preferred management plan for the farm. The irrigation and drainage system and roads in a unit parcel of land shall be based on its size. Typically, roads inside the farmland have been planned to be spaced at every 1.5 km distance. In this regard, several parcels comprise a single block around which roads have been planned. A field block shall comprise 6 parcels, and a farm lot shall comprise 2 field blocks (KRC, 2016). A farm lot=2 field blocks, 1 field block=6 parcels. 38 | P a g e Figure 11: Arrangement of field blocks Source: KRC, 2016 The field canal will supply irrigation water directly to the parcel through furrows. APPLICATION EFFICIENCY The various efficiency coefficients are:  Application Efficiency Ea (furrow irrigation): 64%  Distribution Efficiency Ed: 90%  Conveyance Efficiency Ec: 90% Multiplying the three coefficient shows how much irrigation water will return to the system either to the water table, to drain canals or evaporates. The overall Application efficiency is 52%, which means that about half of the water is returned to the natural environment (or evaporates). Figure 12: Design of Furrow Irrigation Source: KRC, 2016 4.4 NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT (NRM) COMPONENT The Sub-component 2.2 Natural Resources Management has, in Phase 1, included site level support for Conservation Areas of the Lower Shire Landscape So far: 39 | P a g e • Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve and Matandwe Forest Reserve : Interagency planning has been strengthened, and between DNPW and DoF a combined management plan has been prepared, along with a training plan fo Nature Based Tourism. Beekeeping has been introduced as an income generating activity for 112 beneficiaries. 605 goats have been distributed to 121 households, and 15 tree nurseries have raised seedlings for planting new woodlots. 96 Village Forest Areas have been identified and the process of ensuring the communities participat in forest management has begun. Village Savings and Loan Schemes have been established and continue to be managed. These activities will continue throughout Phase 1. In Phase II, tools for managing human wildlife conflicts will be developed and disseminated with backstopping training of extension staff and farmers. • Elephant Marsh: In Phase I, Malawi’s first ‘Community Conservation Wetland Area’ was established and guidelines prepared, and briefings on this have been held with District Assemblies and Traditional Authorities. The community has been consulted on potential areas for CCA establishment, in discussion with the communities. A re-assessment of the biodiversity hotspots has been undertaken, to identify non-use areas, and patrols have been conducted to curb illegal fishing methods. 70 community members have constructed 18 fish ponds. A community based ecotourism training plan has been prepared. In Phase II efforts will be directed at water quality monitoring with respect to pesticide and other chemicals, fisheries quantity and quality with respect to pollution from pesticides and sediment load monitoring. Tools for managing human wildlife conflicts will be developed and disseminated with backstopping training of extension staff and farmers. • New Lengwe (the Lengwe “Extension” in the Western par of LNP): During Phase 1 a management plan for the whole of the park (ie including New Lengwe was prepared, including the development of co-management arrangements with local communities to build on an existing platform of Community- based Organizations around the Park. A road network of 130km has been opened, following community based works to assist with the clearance of the roads. These will ensure that New Lengwe is now accessible, and more than 156 patrols have been carried out for illegal activities; in addition DNPW has attended to resolve Human Wildlife Conflicts. 1100 goats have been distributed to 220 households surrounding the park, and the communities have been encouraged to develop bee keeping enterprises within the protected area. A study into identifying a feasible route to link Majete Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park was undertaken, and baseline surveys undertaken of the plants, animals and birds within the park. In Phase II, many of these initiatives will continue, particularly with respect to law enforcement, and on measures to help increase the biodiversity value and interest for tourism. • Majete Wildlife Reserve: The Project has supported existing community livelihood initiatives from African Parks, as well as deliver the compensation and mitigation measures commensurate with the progress of the construction activities. • Increased use of Pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers: commensurate with the commercialization of the farms it is expected that there will be an increase in the use of chemicals inputs not only into the commercial enterprises, but also by ‘spill-over’ into family and local farm settings. Training of farmers will be carried out in integrated pest management, handling and application of pesticides and disposal. It is antincipated that sub-component 2.2 of Phase 1 will become Component 4 in Phase 2 owing to the magnitude of the scope. 4.5 DOMESTIC WATER SUPPLY From the Feeder canal at Chikwawa, a pipeline will be constructed to provided potable water to Chikwawa town. The pipeline will be designed to carry up to 1,240 m3 per day and consideration during the detailed design will be given to the form and location of treatment works. Small water supplies, for example to provide non-potable water to staff housing in Majete and to village cattle troughs will also be included in the detailed design. 40 | P a g e 4.6 ASSESSMENT OF ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED A number of alternatives have been considered during program design, including the withoutproject scenarios. This section presents the assessment of alternatives to achieve the program objectives. The parameters of the scheme are convincing in addressing the critical water-agriculture-nexus in Malawi and the scheme features highly in investment prioritization matrices. This is due to: (i) Its unique location for agriculture. Agro-ecological potential is very high if water is brought to this area as demonstrated by existing pumped irrigation in the valley. Any intensification for commercial agriculture in Malawi requires investment in irrigation; this area suffers most from lack of precipitation making even subsistence rain fed agriculture very precarious. Finally, the area is close to Blantyre, the country’s largest market and transportation hub and the Nacala railway for exports; (ii) Its impact on the water balance. When fully developed the scheme will abstract in the critical month of September about 12 percent of the long term Q80 Shire River flow for that month at Kapichira. This corresponds to an 8 percent net abstraction (taking into account substitution for existing pumping by gravity-fed irrigation) and is determined to have limited appreciable harm on downstream marshes or other uses, as has been confirmed by a hydromorphological study on the marshes and modelling under the SRBMP. The potential trade-off with power production at Kapichira hydro-electric plant is obvious given the scheme’s intake location, yet is determined to be limited and restricted to dry months in dry years (full supply is guaranteed in 4 out of 5 years for both hydropower and irrigation in the critical month of September – this is common practice). Virtually all other irrigation in the country would be upstream and affect the entire hydropower cascade and other uses and possibly future upstream hydropower development as well, so this is a least harm alternative, and economically justified. The scheme is designed and technically limited within sustainable resource use parameters and this was confirmed in the national water resources investment strategy as well as the Shire River Basin Management Program planning where alternative sites/developments have been analyzed; and (iii) Its impact on the energy balance. With Malawi’s severely constrained energy situation, pump- based irrigation is unfeasible and undesirable. This scheme enables the expansion of irrigated area in the country by 40 percent, only relying on gravity, while enabling the release of power to the currently underserved national grid through converting current large scale pump based irrigation to gravity. The technical design studies have been optimized from earlier versions that have been developed over the years, and alternatives have been considered, including options that would bypass Majete Wildlife Reserve altogether, and smaller pump-based versions. These designs would have prohibitive cost in construction and long term operation, rendering them non-viable. The current design is robust, has reduced environmental impacts by rejecting the alternative original design with an intake at Hamilton Rapids (9km upstream) and is better addressing current technology and farming models, optimizing resource utilization rather than low equilibrium agriculture. It has prioritized commercial agriculture instead of low value crops and better integrated multiple uses including livestock, drinking water and the environment. The design parameters are conservative and robust to reduce operation and maintenance costs, while allowing for gradual water efficiency improvements. The phasing has been optimized within available funding. It is technically, financially and socially undesirable to “pilot” with a smaller command area as costs per hectare would dramatically increase, future expansions would be significantly compromised, and short term benefits would be skewed towards existing commercial enterprises. Several options have been considered as part of the development of the design: • Canal options: Apart from the choice of route inside vs. outside Majete Wildlife Reserve (MWR) as mentioned above, several technical options within Majete have been considered to minimize impacts during construction and operation. An option was considered to bury most of the length of canal, which will not function as a barrier or trap for animal movement as an open canal would. Much of this stretch will be within a siphon which reduces the length of canal and physical footprint in the canal as 41 | P a g e compared with the alternative where the canal follows the contours. Various lining options have been considered for the open sections. • Wildlife protection within MWR: Various work schedules have been discussed and the selected option limits disturbance to wildflife and tourism. For the open canal section alternative barriers have been considered and a masonry wall with local rocks and fence has been selected as the most robust and most visually attractive scenario. • Wildlife protection in Lengwe: During design development, the alignment will be optimized to avoid/minimise loss of thicket habitat. Final selection for the stretch in Lengwe National Park is to be made, but there is a strong preference for a technical design option that avoids slippery slopes and allows safe access and passing of wildlife. • Tiger fish invasion at Lake Malawi and Shire River: Various alternatives have been considered and discussed with technical experts. While an independent panel is to verify final design, the choice was made for the design of a fish barrier that uses a high vertical drop with proven effectiveness and very low maintenance requirements, as compared with the two alternatives: use of fish screens (which would have had less head loss but which would be very difficult to maintain in good working condition and a construction with a lower drop and screen, which was considered less desirable. • Environmental flows: Various scheme sizes, cropping patterns, scenarios with/without Illovo estate have been considered; and alternatives were considered for expanding hydropower rather than irrigation, and other developments and climate change scenarios were incorporated in this multi- criteria analysis under the Shire River Basin Management Program. Consideration has been given for various flow scenarios for downstream impacts from Kapichira Falls to Elephant Marshes. The technical design considered limiting overall abstraction to within sustainable resources use and SVTP will consult with EGENCO to include environmental considerations into the operating rules at Kapichira Dam and at the basin level for releases at Kamuzu Barrage, keeping in mind overall water security, lake levels and human safety. EGENCO in collaboration with Water Resources Department regulate water flows from the barrage and Kapichira reservoir. In the event of increasing water levels and imminent floods, alerts and warnings against floods are issued to stakeholders and communities along the Shire to move to safer higher areas. While this will be an ongoing process of optimization and scenario development, the alternative would have been not coordinating water resource utilization with obvious detrimental effects. • Flood risk management: It has been considered that the scheme should generally only be constructed in areas outside the 10 year floodplain. The alternative would have opened up more areas for irrigation, but would have necessitated construction of significant stretches of embankments which has been discarded for environmental reasons, for hydrological reasons (it transfers flooding elsewhere) and economic reasons. The project area now provides a livelihood outside the immediate floodplain and reduces risk to production significantly. A without project scenario would perpetuate the unsustainable livelihood scenario and poverty levels in the lower Shire, with long term negative impacts on household food security, natural resource utilization, and would not provide much needed economic impetus in the Shire Valley and beyond. From an safeguards perspective certain potential impacts associated with canal infrastructure and intensive agriculture would be avoided, but also opportunities for addressing these and other challenges in an integrated landscape approach would not be seized. On balance, with robust mitigation measures in place, it is anticipated that the program can deliver net social and environmental benefits over the baseline scenario. The no project scenario would also entail no leveraging of resources for the NRM component on natural resources management, which includes critical protection for protected areas and wetlands (Elephant Marsh protection and support for RAMSAR status). It is a safe assumption that without the project, continuous unregulated use and exploitation of the marsh will continue that will contribute to its degradation in the long run. Majete WR might not be negatively impacted most likely as it is managed well, but the other reserves and natural habitats might continue to be degraded and lose biodiversity. 42 | P a g e Figure 13: Protectected Areas of the Shire Valley 43 | P a g e Figure 13: SVTP Layout 44 | P a g e 5. POLICY AND LEGAL FRAMEWORK 5.1 MALAWI POLICIES RELEVANT TO THE SHIRE VALLEY IRRIGATION PROJECT The policy framework in support of agriculture, irrigation and sustainable natural resources management comprise the National Constitution of the Republic, the national road map Malawi Vision 2020, the umbrella national development planning instrument; the National Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS), various sectorial policies in agriculture, land, forestry, irrigation, environment; the various strategies to implement international conventions on biodiversity, sustainable development, climate change, desertification etc. Most of the policies have recently been reviewed, revised or/ and harmonized. The following sections highlight some selected policies and laws which are applicable in the planning and implementation of public sector projects, more especially those in the agricultural and irrigation sector and therefore relevant to the preparation of Environmental & Social Impact Assessment and Pest Management Plan for Shire Valley Irrigation Project. 5.1.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Malawi (1995) A new Constitution of the Republic of Malawi was adopted in 1995. Section 13 (d) of the Constitution provides a broad framework for sustainable environmental management at various levels in Malawi. Among other issues, it calls for prudent management of the environment and accords future generations their full rights to the environment. The Constitution provides the fundamental principles that require the State to promote the welfare and development of the people by progressively adopting and implementing policies and legislation aimed at achieving gender equality, adequate nutrition, adequate health care and responsible management of the environment. Specifically for the environment, the constitution makes the following provisions: • To manage the environment responsibly in order to: - Prevent degradation of the environment; - Provide healthy living and working environment for the people of Malawi; - Accord full recognition to the rights of future generations by means of environmental protection and sustainable development of natural resources; - Conserve and enhance the biodiversity of Malawi. Section 13 (e) of the Constitution: • To enhance the quality of life in rural communities and to recognize rural standards of living as a key indicator in the success of Government policies. With respect to gender equality, the Constitution under Section 13 (e) gives the State the responsibility to achieve gender equality for women through: • Full participation of women in all spheres of Malawian society on the basis of equality with men; • The implementation of principles of non-discrimination and such other measures as may be required; • The implementation of policies to address social issues such as domestic violence, security of the person, lack of maternity benefits, economic exploitation and rights to property. In view of the environmental principles stipulated in the constitution, SVTP ensures that activities implemented under the project promotes environmental protection and sustainable socio-economic development of natural resources by effectively implementing environmental and social management as well as pest management plan in compliance with the government legislative requirements stipulated in acts, policies and approved guidelines applicable to environmental management. The ESIA and PMP assignment also addresses gender inequality issues between men and women and measures to ensure that women are included in implementation of project both during construction and operation phases. 45 | P a g e 5.1.2 The Malawi Vision 2063 The Government of Malawi adopted the Malawi Vision 2063 as successor development agenda for the country replacing the Malawi Vision 2020. The agenda was arrived at in a consultative manner that involved participation of full representation of key actors in the country. In it’s Enabler 7 (Environmental Sustainability), the government and people of Malawi aspire that “Malawi shall have a safe, clean, secure and sustainable environment.” The agenda recognizes that challenges confronting environmental sustainability in Malawi are both externally and internally induced. These include: natural disasters and climate adversities; environmental degradation; weak institutional capacity and coordination exacerbated by political interference in regulation and enforcement; limited awareness of environmental best practices; data gaps and limited funding for environment sustainability initiatives. Poor Industrial waste management coupled with loss of forest cover have increased the destruction risks on flora and fauna and endangered species. Industrial activity associated with unregulated disposal of waste, discharge of untreated industry effluents, lack of proper waste treatment systems and leaking of toxic waste leads to modification of the ecosystem and related services. Consequently, Malawi undertakes to harmonize policies and coordinate implementation efforts towards environmental sustainability, embrace ecosystem based approaches in managing the environment, embrass Green Economy measures and account for the full economic value of environmental resources. The ESIA and PMP assignment describes potential and actual impacts to be generated by SVTP activities on issues in the Vision 2063 such as land degradation, deforestation, degradation and depletion of water resources, diversity loss, air pollution, and poverty and land tenure. The ESIA through ESMP will recommend site specific measures to mitigate the negative impacts and enhance the positive impacts. 5.1.3 Malawi Growth and Development Strategy II The Malawi Growth and Development Strategy (MGDS II) of 2011 – 2016 is Malawi’s road map for the attainment of the MDGs that among many goals set out to halve the level of poverty by year 2015 and the need for ensuring environmental sustainability. The MGDS needs to be reviewed and aligned to the new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) but in its present form, it is still relevant to the SVTP. Agricultural production and smallholder integration into commercial activities is seen as of the Malawian economy, while strategies to target high growth sectors are being developed. Commercialization of agriculture entails improving management and making land and water use decisions that lead to improvement quality, seasonality of production and attract good prices on the market. Commercialization fuels proper land and water management as it provides incentives for irrigated agriculture. The MGDS II has six thematic areas: Sustainable Economic Growth; Social Development; Social Support and Disaster Risk Management; Infrastructure Development; Improved Governance and Cross Cutting Issues. Out of these six thematic areas, nine priority areas pivotal to the achievement of sustainable economic growth and wealth creation have been identified among which Agriculture and Food Security, Green Belt and Water Development and Natural Resources and Environmental Management are relevant to SVTP. Inclusion of these priority areas is a clear manifestation of government commitment to irrigation development that is sensitive to social and environmental impacts. The ESIA and PMP assignment assesses how issues of fish resources, wildlife, sanitation, malaria and HIV management are impacted by the project and designs mitigation measures to address them. The ESIA and PMP also look at how smallholder farmers are integrated into commercial farming and how this affects poverty reduction and proposes measures on how these can be enhanced. 5.1.4 National Environmental Action Plan (1994) The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) developed in 1994 and updated in 2004 provides a framework for integrating the environment into all socio-economic development activities of the country. The objectives of the NEAP are to: document and analyze all major environmental issues and measures 46 | P a g e to alleviate them; promote sustainable use of natural resources in Malawi; and develop an environmental protection and management plan. The NEAP identifies the following as key environmental issues to be addressed: soil erosion, deforestation, water resources degradation and depletion, threat to fish resources, threat to biodiversity, human habitat degradation, high population growth, air pollution and climatic change. Most of the issues identified are linked to agriculture and therefore any efforts to address the issues will involve and benefit the agriculture sector. In order to protect the environment from further degradation; the NEAP outlines actions that need to be undertaken and to ensure adequate environmental protection. The actions relevant to the SVTP include: • Discourage cultivation on marginal lands (steep slopes and river banks); • Construct permanent physical conservation structures such as storm water drains, terraces and bunds; • Promote crop rotation; • Promote mixed and intercropping by smallholder farmers; • Improve land productivity through sustainable land saving technologies; • Intensify training of farmers in improved farming practices; • Improve management of forest resources on customary land; and • Promote proper handling and use of agrochemicals. 5.1.5 National Environmental Policy, 2004 The 2004 National Environment Policy prescribes the policy and institutional arrangements necessary for effective delivery of sustainability agenda and provides the basis for Environmental Impact Assessment and environmental management plans. The implementation of the policy is, however hampered by lack of the required legal framework and institutional arrangements to support the aspirations. The National Environmental Policy as an umbrella framework guides different lead agencies and stakeholders when their activities affect the environment and natural resources management, including how to minimize impacts of environmental degradation. Its aspirations under different sectors considered relevant to enhance the ideals of sustainable land and water management are summarized in the overall goal of the policy that states that “the overall policy goal is the promotion of sustainable social and economic development through the sound management of the environment and natural resources”. Specifically, the policy sets out many objectives that are inclined towards supporting sustainable land and water management and irrigation development in the country as advocated under SVTP. Some of the relevant objectives are as follows: To promote environmentally sustainable agricultural development by ensuring crop and livestock production through ecologically appropriate production and management of systems and appropriate legal and institutional framework for sustainable environmental management; • To sustainably manage forestry resources so as to maximize benefits to the nation; • To manage fish resources for sustainable utilization and conservation of aquatic biodiversity; • To manage and conserve wildlife resources inside and outside protected areas so as to ensure their protection, sustainable utilization and reduction of people/ wildlife conflicts; and • To manage and use water resource efficiently and effectively so as to promote its conservation and availability in sufficient quality and acceptable quantity. In relation to the SVTP relevant objectives under this policy, this ESIA and PMP assignment seeks to provide mitigation measures that ensure sustainable utilization and conservation of aquatic biodiversity, water resources use efficiency, human/wildlife conflicts and wildlife habitat loss. 47 | P a g e 5.1.6 National Land Policy, 2002 The 2002 Malawi National Land Policy recognizes the centrality of land as a basic resource common to all people of Malawi for their social and economic development. The policy provides opportunities for the people of Malawi to embark on a path of socially and environmentally sustainable development. In addition, the policy highlights a number of approaches for redressing problems facing land resources. Some of relevant provisions to the proposed SVTP activities are as follows: • Recognition that agriculture development is and will continue to be the major benefactor land use sector is of the policy’s strength. The policy guarantees full legal protection to customary land tenure to the people of Malawi in order to enable the ordinary Malawians adequately participate in agricultural activities and other rural livelihoods by converting them to “customary estates”. • The policy recognizes several sectoral policies and strategies in physical planning fisheries, environment, forestry, irrigation and wildlife and for this reason; it encourages multi-sectoral approach in land use and management at local and districts level. • The policy recognizes environmental impact assessment of all big land development projects, and those planned in fragile ecosystems in order to protect biodiversity and water resources. Thirteen years after the adoption of what is considered to be one of the most progressive land policies, the reviews and enactment of relevant land laws have not been completed making the implementation of the provisions of policy difficult if not impossible. Key statutes which regulate land use are the Land Act and the Town and Country Planning Act, Number 26, 1988. These statutes deal with land tenure and land use quite comprehensively. The issues of land tenure and land use are recognized as critical in sustainable environmental management in Malawi. The Land Act and The Town and Country Planning Act highlight the sustainable use of land resources by strengthening and clearly defining security of tenure. This is essential, as people are more inclined to manage well, land that belongs to them. In terms of the SVTP this implies that land protection and management principles should be adhered to in order to preserve land resources for the benefit of current and future generations. It also implies that the SVTP will adopt a multi-sectoral approach in protection and conservation of the land resources in question. Chapter 10 of the Land Policy, 2002 deals with inter-sectoral coordination and relations. The chapter highlights the need for collective responsibility for monitoring of the land resources, forging strong inter- ministerial commitments to land stewardship in Malawi, feedback from land sector agencies and their regulatory processes to inform land use decision-making, recognition of the importance of maize production and food self-sufficiency in a dualistic agricultural sector, and consideration for land use proposed in other sectors. The SVTP will rely on several experts that will describe actions aiming at protecting customary land tenure, addressing gender inequality in terms of access and control over irrigated land and measures to enhance governance of land and water through local institutions such as Water Users Associations. 5.1.7 The National Irrigation Policy (2016) The overall National Irrigation Policy goal is to contribute to sustainable national economic growth and development through enhanced irrigated agriculture production and productivity. The policy is supplemented by the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Guidelines for Irrigation and Drainage Projects (2002) that guides development of ESIA in the irrigation sector. The policy aspires to attain the following outcomes: • Increased irrigated agriculture production and productivity for local and export use using irrigation technologies that take into account climate change; • Improved national and household incomes, food and nutritional security; • Improved irrigation service delivery; 48 | P a g e • Increased employment opportunities; and • Enhanced land and water productivity through sustainable land tenure arrangements, catchment management and water harvesting. The ESIA and PMP assignment will include measures that will ensure integration of irrigation, environmental and social considerations and that issues such as salinity, soil erosion and human health are monitored and mitigated. 5.1.8 The National Forest Policy of Malawi (2016) And Forest Landscape Restoration Strategy (2017) Forestry resources play a major part in supporting livelihoods, infrastructure development and energy besides providing habitat for animals and providing protection for soil and water resources for agriculture and domestic use. The ecological services provided by forests in providing protection of watersheds that supply water to irrigation schemes are very important for sustainable irrigation development in Malawi making the sector policy relevant to SVTP. The 2016 National Forestry Policy calls for conservation, establishment, protection and management of trees and forests for the sustainable development of Malawi. The 2017 Forest Strategy seeks to reinforce landscape governance by strengthening local bylaws for the use and management of trees and other natural resources; expand communication and outreach to share information broadly about restoration techniques and benefits, and to mobilize a restoration movement; ensure increased socioeconomic benefits accrue to communities and individual households investing in implementing restoration; and mainstream integrated landscape management approaches and increased support for implementing restoration in development programs at all levels. Although SVTP will have minimal impact on forests, as it takes place within a predominantly agricultural area, the canals may lead to opening up of new areas and canal passage in the protected areas may lead to reduction in forest cover and reduction in carbon sinks. The ESMP recommends establishing Set-aside Lands within the proposed irrigation areas for a variety of reasons, including to avoid clearing remnant forest patches and other environmentally sensitive areas such as wetlands and riverbanks and restoration of pieces of land that may get degraded as a result of the project. The ESMP further advocates restricting clearing of areas within the canal alignment and RoW. 5.1.9 National Disaster Risk Management (NDRM) Policy 2015 The overall goal of the NDRM Policy is to sustainably reduce disaster losses in lives and in the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and of the nation. The policy aims at creating and providing enabling framework for the establishment of a comprehensive disaster risk management system in Malawi. The priority areas of the policy focus on including mainstreaming of disaster risk management into sustainable development, establishment of comprehensive system for disaster risk identification, assessment and monitoring, development and strengthening of a people centred early warning system, promotion of a culture of safety, adoption of resilience enhancing interventions and the reduction of underlying risks. The strategies to implement the policy cut across several sectors including infrastructure development, agricultural diversification, microfinance initiatives, disaster risk insurance, social support schemes, reforestation and river training. This policy is very relevant to the SVTP as the project will be implemented in areas that are prone to floods. 5.1.10 National Water Resources Policy 2005 The 2005 National Water Resources Policy whose aim is to ensure sustainable management and utilization of water resources is very much relevant to SVTP. It is meant to address all aspects of water including resource management, development and service delivery. The policy relating to riverbank cultivation states: “there shall be no agricultural and infrastructure construction activities below the 477-metre above mean sea level contour line along Lake Malawi and below the 100-year flood water level along rivers, except where written authority from the responsible 49 | P a g e Minister is granted”. The 477 meter above sea level and the 100- year water flood level limits are very relevant and care must be taken that the proposed SVTP irrigation areas do not violate this limit without consent from the responsible minister. The ESIA and PMP assignment will provide measures for monitoring compliance to this provision to ensure there is no cultivation or infrastructure construction in the specified low laying areas and flood prone areas. 5.1.11 National Wildlife Policy 2000 The National Wildlife Policy 2000 aims at ensuring proper conservation and management of the wildlife resources in order to provide for sustainable utilisation and equitable access to the resources and fair sharing of the benefits from the resources for both present and future generations. It recognizes that wildlife forms the basis for the tourism industry in Malawi which is overwhelmingly nature-based and has potential for increased contribution to GDP. The National Wildlife Policy seeks to meet a number of objectives including ensuring adequate protection of representative ecosystems and their biological diversity through promotion and adoption of appropriate land and water management practices that adhere to the principles of sustainable use and enhancing public awareness and understanding of the importance of wildlife conservation and management and its close relationships with other forms of land use. The ESIA and PMP assignment will consider the potential and actual threats posed by the SVTP on the terrestrial and aquatic habitants of wildlife in the Study area and institute mitigation measures that would protect wildlife from negative impacts caused by the activities of the project. Actual impacts to be generated by construction of main canal through Lengwe National Park and Majete Wildlife Reserve will be assessed and mitigation measures to reduce the adverse impacts will be instituted. 5.1.12 National Gender Policy 2012 – 2017 The 2012 – 2017 National Gender Policy recognizes that women play important roles in agriculture; they constitute 70% of full time farmers, carry out most of the agricultural work, and produce most of food for home consumption and therefore they ensure household nutrition security. This contribution is however not matched with their access to and control over resources such as land and capital and their enjoyment of benefits from management and use of natural resources. Strengthening of gender mainstreaming and women empowerment at all levels in order to facilitate attainment of gender equality and equity in Malawi is the main purpose and the goal is to reduce gender inequalities and enhance participation of women, men, girls and boys in socio economic development processes. The policy has seven objectives and those directly relevant to SVTP are: • To ensure women and girls sexual and reproductive health rights, and HIV AIDS status are improved; • To strengthen gender mainstreaming in all sectors of the economy; • To reduce poverty among women and other vulnerable groups (orphans, widows, people living with HIV and AIDS, persons with disabilities, the elderly) through economic empowerment; and, • To promote women’s participation in decision making positions in both politics and public life. The policy identifies a number of priority areas including gender in health, gender in agriculture, food security and nutrition, gender in natural resources, environment and climate change management, gender in governance and human rights and gender and economic development. All these priority areas are relevant to SVTP. For instance, the policy ensures that women and other vulnerable groups have access to and control over agricultural productive resources, technologies and markets for cash crops, food and nutrition security. In natural resources management the policy ensures that all gender groups value and own natural resources and their environment and that gender is mainstreamed in natural resource and the environment. On economic development, the policy advocates that gender issues are mainstreamed in all poverty reduction and economic empowerment initiatives and that women participation in economic empowerment initiatives is increased and strengthened. 50 | P a g e Various experts to be used by the SVTP will prepare interventions to help ensure that women and other vulnerable groups will have access to land and water under SVTP and that women as well as men will participate actively in natural resources management activities. Employment by the contractors particularly during the construction phase should not be biased towards men and that the benefits accruing from project activities benefit both men and women equally. 5.1.13 National HIV/AIDS Policy, 2012 The national HIV/AIDS policy highlights that HIV/AIDS impact on the country is quite significant and affects a range of socio-economic activities be it in agriculture, fisheries, public sector, private sector, tourism, urban areas, rural areas among others. HIV/AIDS prevalence in the country varies from one region to the other and from rural to urban areas. The highest rate is in the Southern Region and the lowest in the Northern Region. Prevalence rate is high in urban areas as compared to the rural areas. National HIV/AIDS Policy identifies migrant workers and women among highly vulnerable people to transmission of HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases. An application of migrant workers is that some single male migrant workers would be at an increased likelihood of contracting HIV/AIDS. The reason is that some migrant workers may approach and indulge in casual sexual intercourse with infected local female partners in the surrounding local communities or some sex workers in the targeted irrigation schemes. In addition, increased disposal of income from migrant workers may enhance some workers to indulge in extra-marital affairs with either local girls or married women within the surrounding villages. These sexual activities would enhance the spread of HIV/AIDS among workers and local people. In order to minimize the risks, this ESIA and PMP study recommends various mitigation measures. 5.1.14 National Land Resources Management Policy and Strategy, 2000 The overall goal of this policy is to promote the efficient, diversified and sustainable use of land based resources both for agriculture and other uses in order to avoid sectoral land use conflicts and ensure sustainable socio-economic development. Some of the selected policy objectives are to promote integrated land conservation measures in all forms of agricultural practices, and to protect and preserve environmentally fragile areas such as steep slopes, stream banks, water sheds and dambos. The policy is not explicit on the issue of riverbank cultivation as it provides no guidance on the size of buffer zones along rivers and the recommended management practices of such zones. This policy is quite relevant in the implementation of the proposed SVTP because a number of the activities fall within the framework of this policy such as integration with land conservation and the protection and preservation of environmentally fragile areas. 5.1.15 National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy (2016) The goal of the Policy is to promote sustainable fisheries resource utilisation and aquaculture development in order to contribute to food and nutrition security and economic growth of the country. The policy objectives hinge on increasing annual fish production from capture fisheries; increasing aquaculture production; strengthening participatory fisheries management regimes; reducing fish post harvest losses; increase annual fish exports; increasing per capita fish consumption; improving decent employment in fishing communities for youth, women and men and to reduce the number of child labourers; promotion of applied research in fisheries and aquaculture and monitor the impact of pollution and environmental changes including climate change; and developing capacity of the Government and local management institutions to serve the industry. SVTP I, through its sub-component 2.2 has been promoting fish farming to ensure both income and food security and Phase II intends to promote monitoring against invasive alien tiger fish in line with ESS 6 (Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources). In SVTP II, efforts will be applied to ensure that ESS 2 (Labour and Working Conditions) is complied with as regards employment in project supported aquaculture activities. 51 | P a g e 5.1.16 National Climate Change Policy Malawi’s policy commitments to address climate change and build resilience, as set-out in Malawi’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) document submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2015 sets the country’s top adaptation priorities that include addressing land and watershed degradation and specifically the loss and degradation of forests, improving the resilience of the agriculture sector to climate change through development of irrigation and climate smart agriculture and improved management of fisheries and natural ecosystems. 5.1.17 Charcoal Strategy The goal of the National Charcoal Strategy (NCS) is to provide a framework to address the linked problems of increased deforestation and increased demand for household cooking fuel, with defined and prioritized short-term, mediumterm and long-term actions. Aligned with the Forestry Policy (2016), Forestry Act (1997), Energy Policy (2003), draft National Energy Policy (2016), Energy Act (2004), and the Climate Change Policy (2016), the NCS supports Government’s objectives to arrest and reverse deforestation and forest degradation and to reduce energy overdependence on solid biomass fuels. The strategy defines seven strategic pillars in order to realise its objective aspirations, namely: promote alternative household cooking fuels; promote adoption of fuel-efficient cookstove technologies; promote sustainable wood production; strengthen law enforcement; regulate sustainable charcoal production; enhance livelihoods; and information, awareness and behavior change communications 5.1.18 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NABSAP) 2015-2025 The goal of the NABSAP is to enhance the management of biodiversity for economic growth and well- being of the present and future generations. To realise the goal, the NABSAP will pursue the following strategic objectives: Improved capacity and knowledge on biodiversity issues; Increased mainstreaming of biodiversity management into sectoral and local development planning; Reduced direct pressures on biodiversity; Improved status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems, species and genetic diversity; and Enhanced access and benefit sharing from biodiversity and ecosystem services 5.1.19 National Waste Management Strategy (2019-2023) The National Waste Management Strategy (2019-2023) stipulates measures for the management of hazardous wastes and pesticides as elaborated in the Seventh Schedule of the Environment Management (Waste Management and Sanitation) Regulations development under the Environment Management Act of 2017. The strategy defines pesticides are chemicals used to control pests. Pesticide waste consists of expired and contaminated pesticides as well as the used containers. Due to their toxicity, potential to pollute and threat to human health, pesticide wastes are extremely hazardous and the strtaegies proposes measures for transporting, treating and disposal of pesticides and pesticide wastes in an environmentally sound manner in accordance with the stipulations of the relevant laws. Invariably, some of these pesticides contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) which can accumulate in the food chain if not well managed. Owing to the anticipated rise in pesticide use, SVTP will institute measures that reduce the risk associated with pesticide use, transportation, handling and disposal of associated wastes. 52 | P a g e 5.2 LEGAL FRAMEWORK 5.2.1 Environment Management Act, 2017 This Act has replaced the Environment Management Act of 1996. The new act provides for the creation of regulations on all aspects of environmental management, and creation of the Malawi Environmental Protection Agency (MEPA) in Part III of the Act. The Act empowers the minister responsible for environment under Section 31 to categorise type and size of projects for which an ESIA is required as follows: 31.—(1) The Minister may, on the recommendation of the Authority, specify, by notice published in the Gazette, the type and size of a project which shall not be implemented unless an Environmental and Social Impact Assessment is carried out. (2) A person shall not undertake any project for which an Environmental and Social Impact Assessment is required without the written approval of the Authority, and except in accordance with any conditions imposed in that approval. (3) Any other licensing authority shall not grant a permit or licence for the execution of a project referred to in subsection (1) unless an approval for the project is granted by the Authority, or the grant of the permit or licence is made conditional upon the approval of the Authority being granted. (4) The Minister may, on the advice of the Authority, make regulations for the effective administration of Strategic Environmental Assessment, Environmental and Social Impact Assessment and Environmental Audit. The Act further provides for imposition of environmental protection orders in Section 72 in respect of actions that the MEPA may deem detrimental. The act defines penalties in sections 105 and 106 in respect of non compliance to the act. Fines are provided for in outlines the EIA process to be followed in Malawi; and requires that all project developers in both the public and private sectors comply with the process. The Act under section 26 (3) further requires that no licensing authority issue any license for a project for which an EIA is required unless the Director of Environmental Affairs (DEA) has given consent to proceed; on the basis of a satisfactory EIA or non-requirement of an EIA. Non-compliance with the EIA requirements is an offence and attracts penalties. Review of the ESIA for the SVTP has been conducted to ensure it is aligned to the new act so that it remains relevant at all times. 5.2.2 National Parks and Wildlife (Amendment) Act, 2017 The act was amended in 2017 to replace the National parks and Wildlife Act of 1992 with an aim to curb the rising number of illegalities in the protected areas. All protected species are now referred to as endangered or listed in line with IUCN classification. Part IV of the Act, provides for the conduct of environmental and social impact assessment (ESIA) for activities that may occur in protected areas. This may be initiated by any person with sufficient grounds that such actions may have an adverse effect on any wildlife species or community. SVTP II will conduct an ESIA and ESMP for Phase II that will include the impact the project may have on Lengwe National Park in line with this act and ESS 6 (Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Mangement of Living Natural Resources. Part XIII of the act, stipulates penalties and offences that include depositing any waste material in a protected are; introducing any plant into a protected area; lighting fires in a protected area; and poaching, among others. 53 | P a g e Contractors and designers for SVTP will need to ensure their actions take into account the requirements of the Act. 5.2.3 Land Act (2016) The Land Act (2010) is the principal legal framework on land administration and management and it replaces that he Land Act (1965). A number of enabling acts were also enacted in 2016, namely, the Customary Land Act, the Land survey Act and the Physical Planning Act. Section 17(1) of the act, defines procedure and purpose for which the Minister responsible for lands may acquire customary land. Section 17 (2) defines occupation of land for public utility for less that seven years as temporary and creates a requirement that such piece of land should revert to customary land status. Section 17 (5) defines public utility as: “For the purposes of this section “public utility” means a utility which is for the direct or indirect benefit of the community as a whole, or a part of the community within a traditional land management area”. Section 18 of the act provides for compensation to individuals for loss, damage or disturbance that may arise as a result of land acquisition under Section 17 above. SVTP II will build upon the successes of SVTP I in line with the Land Act 2016 and World Bank ESF especially ESS 5 (Land Acquisition, Restrictions on Land Use and Involuntary Resettlement). The RAP for Phase II of SVTP will be aligned to the Act and ESS 5. 5.2.4 Customary Land Act (2016) The new Customary Land Act (CLA) proposes the creation and registration of customary estates based on current, legitimate, customary land occupation within Traditional Land Management Areas (TLMAs) and transforms these holdings into private land, capable of being transacted (with certain limitations) and encumbered. It envisages identification and formalization processes that incorporate international best- practice principles and lays the legal foundation for transparent and decentralized administration of these estates. Arrangements for local governance of land rights envisage formal approval and dispute resolution roles for the Traditional Authorities (TAs), and for new institutions to be established at Group Village Level. These comprise of Customary Land Committees (CLCs), established in terms of section 5 of the CLA, which will have powers to make grants of customary estates. In addition, the current regional land registry will be decentralised to district level. Each TLMA will also have a Customary Land Tribunal (CLT) with responsibilities for hearing appeals and resolving disputes as a forum of first instance, and to be chaired by the Traditional Authority. The establishment of these Group Village CLCs and TLMA CLTs is a conscious attempt to institute greater legitimacy in decisions regarding the application of customary norms to land management. Whilst formalizing the roles of the TAs in this regard, the CLA introduces a level of democratization; the CLCs will be chaired by the Group Village Headperson, ex oficio, but an additional six members shall be elected by people in the TLMA, three of whom must be women. Section 3 (3) of the act provides a solid legal platform for securing the current tenure rights of customary occupants within the SVTP area through transparent and locally-legitimate processes and institutions. The opportunity to undertake the systematic adjudication and formalisation of customary land rights, in areas defined by the development plans of the irrigation infrastructure, along with the introduction of customary estates as a form of legal land-holding, available to individuals, groups and corporate entities, allows the SVTP to provide safeguards for current occupants and affected persons, as well as mechanisms for making land available to the intended beneficiaries. 54 | P a g e 5.2.5 Land Survey Act (2016) In line with the 2002 Land Policy, the Land Survey Act (2016) was promulgated to enhance security of tenure of land by making provisions for adjudication and registration of land including customary land that hitherto was not the case. The act recognizes efforts carried out under the Customary land Act (2016) by providing under section 46 (1) the marking of boundaries for Traditional Land management Areas (TLMA), a district or local government area, as follows: 46. —(1) The boundaries of any area declared as a Traditional Land Management Area, a district or a local government area shall be surveyed and registered in the Land Registry under the traditional authority or local government authority of the area. Customary land registration and adjudication are further enhanced by Section 46 (2): 46. (2) Where a Traditional Land Management Area is registered, all the villages and the public land within the area shall be surveyed and registered. The SVTP II will build on successes of Phase I, sub-component 2.1 (Land Consolidation) and in line with this act to consolidate customary land estates and adjudication and registration of the customary land currently held by villagers. 5.2.6 Physical Planning Act (2016) The Act makes provision for physical planning and the orderly and progressive development of land in both urban and rural areas; to preserve and improve amenities thereof; for the grant of permission to develop land and for other powers of control over the use of land; for the establishment of the Physical Planning Council; for the establishment of the Physical Planners Board; for the registration and regulation of physical planners and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto. Sections 29 to 32 of the Act deal with the powers of the district councils to develop District Physical Development Plans, whereas Sections 33 to 35 deal with the powers of district councils to develop local physical development plans and local land use plans. Part VIII of the Act, on the other hand, makes provision for acquisitions of land and equitable compensation in respect of people that lose land to pave way for national development. In line with these legal provisions and with ESS 5 (Land Acquisition, Restrictions on Land Use and Involuntary Resettlement), the SVTP will in Phase II continue with the development of the Nsanje District Physical Development Plan, Urban Structural Developmentfor both Chikwawa and Nsanje and formulation of local land use plans. The RAP for Phase II will address provisions of Part VIII of the act and ESS 5. 5.2.7 Cultural Heritage Regulations Cultural resources are nowadays protected in almost every country by national legislations and international conventions. This also applies to Malawi, which has provisions for the protection of cultural resources in its National Cultural Policy and its Monuments and Relics Act. The Project is also committed to undertake its activities in compliance with the World Bank Group’s safeguard policies on cultural resources. The Malawi Department of Antiquities (MDoA) was founded in 1967 by an Act of Parliament with the mandate to study, preserve, conserve and protect the country’s cultural and national heritage. Its offices are located in Lilongwe, which also houses other divisions of the Department of Culture. The two most important legal frameworks are the Monuments and Relics Act of 1990 and the Malawi Cultural Policy (2014). The latter, which has been approved by President Peter Mutharika in 2015, provides guidelines for proper implementation processes on issues such as heritage protection. 55 | P a g e Section 5.7.8, Objective 8 of the Policy is that cultural factors need to be taken into account in development projects, policies and programmes for the nation. Its first strategy asserts that, “development projects include a cultural heritage impact assessment”. The need for cultural heritage impact assessments are not mentioned in the Monuments and Relics Act of 1990 but it provides statutory protection against the threat of development on declared monuments, historical buildings, archaeological, paleontological, geological, anthropological, ethnological, and other heritage sites to enable their preservation. Section 29. (1) of the Monuments and Relics Act reads, “A person in charge of any survey, excavation, exploration, construction or new development shall, at the earliest stages of planning for such activities, give notice to the Minister to enable, where necessary, rescue archaeology to be carried out in accordance with subsection (2)”. Section 29 (2) mentions that Rescue archaeology of a monument or relic under subsection (1) shall be carried out by the Chief Antiquities Officer or any qualified person with an excavation permit issued by the Minister, and the cost of such work shall, unless the Minister otherwise directs, be borne by the person in charge of any survey, excavation, exploration, construction or other development. The Monuments and Relics Act provides clear definitions of cultural resources in its tangible forms, comprising both movable and immovable physical cultural heritage of the following types: • Places, buildings and structures of cultural significance; • Places and objects to which oral traditions are attached or which are associated with living heritage such as ethnographic art and objects; • Historical settlements, townscapes and sites of significance relating to the history of slavery; • Landscapes and natural features of cultural significance; • Geological sites of scientific or cultural importance; • Archaeological and paleontological sites and objects; • Graves and burial grounds. The protection of intangible expressions of cultural heritage in contrast does not appear in the Monuments and Relics Act. Hence, no provisions are made for its protection in the context of development projects. 5.2.8 Water Resources Act (2013) The Act provides for the management, conservation, use and control of water resources; for the acquisition and regulation of rights to use water. It creates the National Water Resources Authority (NWRA) to replace the National Water Resources Board and also creates Catchment Committees for different river basins such as the Shire River basin where SVTP irrigation activities will be implemented. It also sets appropriate standards and techniques for the investigation, use, control, protection, management and administration of water resources and regulates public and private activities which may influence quality, quantity, distribution, use or management of water resources. It also sets out the coordination, allocation and delegation of responsibilities. It enforces use of water resources for domestic uses, livestock watering, irrigation and agriculture, industrial, commercial and mining, recreation, hydro- electric power generation, and other uses, in ways that minimize harmful effects to the environment, control pollution, and promote the safe storage, treatment, discharge and disposal of waste and effluents. One of the key provisions of the Act relevant to SVTP is that it prohibits persons from cultivating or carrying out activities within the bed and banks of water courses and lakes and the adjacent land strips except as determined by the Authority created by the Act. It also enforces water rights (permits), water abstraction, water pollution control and building of dams. For SVTP a water abstraction right will have to be acquired from NWRA for the intake at Kapichira Dam. This is a very important Act and the ESIA and PMP provide measures to ensure proper quality (pollution), quantity, distribution, use or management of water resources within the project sites. The ESIA and PMP 56 | P a g e assignment recommend measures for controlling cultivating or carrying out of activities within the beds and banks of watercourses and lakes as provided by the Act. 5.2.9 Pesticides Act (2000) This Act provides for the control and management of the import, export, manufacture, distribution, storage, disposal and use of pesticides. The Act also establishes the Pesticides Control Board that enforces the provisions of the Act relating to pesticides and other incidental matters. It therefore protects the importation and use of expired products that can be hazardous to the environment and human health. This is relevant to the proposed SVTP as in pursuit of increased production use will be made of production enhancing technologies including use of pesticides and herbicides which if not properly regulated can harm the environment and human health thereby contravening with World Bank and African Development Bank’s operational policies on safeguards. The PMP will include measures for ensuring proper and safe use and storage of agrochemicals and safe disposal of empty containers to avoid contamination of water resources and poisoning. This may include training of farmers on handling and safe use of agrochemicals, use of protective clothing, disposal, dangers of using expired products and public health. This must also target agro-dealers emphasizing on the need for approval from the Pesticide Control Board for clearing, importation and certification of chemicals. 5.2.8 Forestry Act (2016) The Forestry Act provides for participatory forestry, forest management, forestry research, forestry education, forest industries, protection and rehabilitation of environmentally fragile areas. The act among other things seeks to: augment, protect and manage trees and forests on customary land in order to meet basic fuelwood and forest produce needs of local communities and for the conservation of soil and water; promote community involvement in the conservation of trees and forests in forest reserves and protected forest areas; prevent resources degradation and to increase socio-economic benefits; promote community involvement in conservation of trees and forests; promote optimal land use practices through agroforestry in small holders farming systems; protect fragile areas such as steep slopes, river banks, water catchment and to conserve and enhance biodiversity. The Act is very relevant to the SVTP as trees and forests are important for sustenance of ecological integrity of watersheds. This ESIA and PMP assignment therefore advocates integration of irrigation activities with natural resources management activities such as land restoration, ree planting and riverbank protection. 5.2.9 Irrigation Act, 2001 The Act is central to SVTP since it provides for the sustainable development and management of irrigation, protection of the environment from irrigation related degradation, establishment of the National Irrigation Board, the Irrigation Fund and other matters related to irrigation development in Malawi. It even mandates farmers to maintain irrigation canals, drains and other associated infrastructure in their holdings and prohibits people from engaging in practices which are destructive or potentially destructive to the catchment area of a river that provides water for irrigation. It goes further and prohibits livestock grazing, setting or causing to set fire on irrigation schemes or farms. Recognizing the destructive effects of fires, puts the responsibility for averting, fighting or extinguishing fire on irrigation schemes or farms in the hands of everybody. Although the Act is silent on the maintenance of buffer zones along riverbanks, it prohibits any actions that are destructive to the catchment. Issues of livestock, fire management, and catchment protection are very pertinent to SVTP and therefore this Act is very relevant. Various experts engaged by the SVTP have proposed measures to control livestock grazing and bush fires, enhance riverbank protection, stabilize water dams, and properly construct water delivery and storage systems. This includes the stabilization of embankments and protection of water intake points.. 57 | P a g e 5.2.10 Occupational Safety, Health and Welfare Act (1997) The Act makes provisions for the regulation of conditions of employment in workplaces with regard to safety, health and welfare of employees. It also provides for the inspection of certain plant and machinery, the prevention and regulation of accidents occurring to persons employed or authorised to go into the workplace, and for some related matters. The Act requires registration of workplaces and defines duties and responsibilities of employers and employees with regards to health, safety and welfare and the notification, and investigation of accidents, dangerous occurrences and industrial diseases. In relation to SVTP, the Act is relevant as the construction of canals, drains and ancillary facilities will require labor and use of motorized machinery. In addition, use and application of agrochemicals require safe handling and safe disposal of empty chemical containers. All these pose great environmental, health and safety hazards if not managed properly. The ESIA and PMP assignment will propose mitigation measures to reduce accidents at work place especially during the construction phase and measures to reduce the occurrence of water borne diseases. 5.2.11 Environment Waste Management and Sanitation Regs 2008 The Environment Management (Waste Management and Sanitation) Regulations were promulgated by the Minister under section 56 of the act: 56.—(1) The Minister shall, on recommendation of the Authority, by regulations, make provision for the management, transportation, treatment and recycling, and reduction of waste, safe disposal of waste, and for prohibiting littering of public places The act further, in section 56 (2) empoweres the responsible minister in collaboration with relevant with lead agencies to: a. formulate such measures as are necessary to regulate the collection, storage, transportation, reduction and safe disposal of waste; b. promulgate such rules or formulate criteria and standards for the classification and analysis of waste and shall determine the method or methods for safe disposal of waste; c. control the handling, storage, transportation, classification, importation, exportation and destruction of waste; d. control the reduction of waste; and e. monitor any waste disposal site and direct the control of any such site if its continued use as a waste disposal site Sections 57 and 58 deal with powers of licencing for wastes and transportation and exportation of wastes. 5.2.12 Environmental (Management of Chemicals and toxic substances) Regulations, 2008 The Environmental (Management of Chemicals and toxic substances) Regulations, 2008 are promulgated under section 117 of the Environment Management Act of 2017. The regulations are aimed at regulating importation and exportation of wastes, management and disposal including labelling. Section 45 of the regulations adopts offenses and penalties as establsighed under in Part XV of the Environment Management Act of 2017. 58 | P a g e 5.2.13 Workers Compensation Act 2000 The Workers’ Compensation Act provides for compensation for injuries suffered or diseases contracted by workers in the course of their employment or for death resulting from such injuries or diseases; it provides for the establishment and administration of a Workers’ Compensation Fund; and it provides for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto, key of which are the following:  Eligibility for Compensation in Case of Injury other than the Contraction of a Scheduled Disease;  Compensation for Injury Caused otherwise than by the Contraction of a Scheduled Disease;  Calculation and Distribution of Compensation;  Medical Aid;  Compensation for Injury due to the Contraction of a Scheduled Disease;  Procedure for Obtaining Compensation; and  Administration 8. Workers’ Compensation Fund 5.2.14 The Employment Act, 2000 The Employment Act establishes, reinforces, and regulates minimum standards of employment with the purpose of ensuring equity necessary for enhancing industrial peace, accelerate economic growth and social Justice and for matters connected therewith and incidental thereto. The Act covers:  Administration;  Employment of Young People;  Contracts;  Hours of Work, Weekly Rest and Leave  Wages; and  Discipline and Dismissal 5.2.15 The Labour Relations Act, 1996 The Labour relations act promotes sound labour relations through the protection and promotion of freedom of association, the encouragement of effective collective bargaining and the promotion of orderly and expeditious dispute settlement, conducive to social justice and economic development. The act covers the following:  Freedom of Association;  Trade Unions and Employers’ Organizations;  Collective bargaining and Organizational Rights;  Dispute Settlement;  Tripartite Labour Advisory Council; and  Establishment of Industrial Relations Court 5.2.16 Fisheries Conservation and Management Act (1997) The Act makes provisions for the conservation and management of fish resources in Malawi. Changing water flow in the Shire due to reduced flows could negatively affect fish spawning in the Elephant Marsh and biodiversity of the Shire River. Increased application of agrochemicals in the fields could adversely affect fish resources in the Lower Shire. The ESIA and PMP assignment proposes mitigation measures to reduce adverse impacts that could be generated by project activities especially flows reduction into the Elephant Marsh. 59 | P a g e 5.3 FUNDING AGENCY POLICIES Due to financial assistance from the WB (and the AfDB for Phase 1), the Project will need to ensure that the project complies with the Environmental and Social policies of those respective institutions. For Phase 1, the relevant WB Safeguard Policies were: 5.3.1 Environmental Assessment (Operational Policy 4.01) World Bank’s Environmental Assessment (EA) Operational Policy 4.01 requires that all projects proposed for Bank financing be screened for potential environmental and social impacts. The policy is triggered if a project is likely to have adverse environmental risks and impacts in its area of influence. Under OP 4.01, the Bank classifies proposed projects into one of four categories, depending on the type, location, sensitivity, and scale of the project and the nature and magnitude of its potential environmental impacts. The SVTP is classified as Category A. A proposed project is classified as Category “A” if it is likely to have significant adverse environmental and social impacts that are sensitive, diverse, or unprecedented. These impacts may affect an area broader than the sites or facilities subject to the physical works. EA for a Category A project examines the project's potential negative and positive environmental and social impacts, compares them with those of feasible alternatives (including the "without project" situation), and recommends any measures needed to prevent, minimize, mitigate, or compensate for adverse impacts and improve environmental and social performance. Construction of the water intake structure, bulk water irrigation infrastructure, and irrigation development on 42,000 ha in Chikwawa and Nsanje will have environmental impacts, which require mitigation. Therefore, undertaking this ESIA study for SVTP is in tandem with this Operational Policy. OP 4.01 also requires that, prior to project appraisal, the Government of Malawi will approve and disclose the EIA report in places publicly accessible to affected groups including local NGOs. The Government of Malawi must officially submit the approved report to the Bank; and authorize the Bank to disclose the document on its Web site. In commissioning the formulation of the ESIA and by making the document available to the public, the proposed project will also be in compliance with the World Bank’s Information Disclosure Policy, BP 17.50. 5.3.2 Pest Management (OP 4.09) The procurement of any pesticide in a Bank-financed project is contingent on an assessment of the nature and degree of associated risks, taking into account the proposed use and the intended users. With respect to the classification of pesticides and their specific formulations, the Bank refers to the World Health Organization’s Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification. The following criteria apply to the selection and use of pesticides in Bank-financed projects: They must have negligible adverse human health effects; They must be shown to be effective against the target species; They must have minimal effect on non-target species and the natural environment. The methods, timing, and frequency of pesticide application are aimed to minimize damage to natural enemies; Their use must take into account the need to prevent the development of resistance in pests. At a minimum, pesticide production, use and management should comply with FAO’s Guidelines for Packaging and Storage of Pesticides, Guidelines on Good Labelling Practice for Pesticides, and Guidelines for the Disposal of Waste Pesticide Containers on the Farm. The Bank does not finance formulated products that fall in WHO Classes IA and IB, or formulations of products in Class II, if (a) the country lacks restrictions on their distribution and use; or (b) they are likely to be used by, or be accessible to, lay personnel, farmers, or others without training, equipment, and facilities to handle, store, and apply these products properly. 60 | P a g e The proposed project will trigger OP 4.09 since there will be increased use of agro-chemicals on the irrigation fields. However, procurement of pesticides will not be financed until experience demonstrates that the local capacity exists to adequately manage their environmental and social impacts in compliance with OP 4.09. 5.3.3 Involuntary Resettlement (OP 4.12) The objective of OP 4.12 is to avoid or minimize involuntary resettlement where feasible by exploring all viable alternative project designs. Where resettlement is unavoidable, OP 4.12 is intended to assist displaced persons in maintaining or improving their living standards. It encourages community participation in planning and implementing resettlement and in providing assistance to affected people. This policy is triggered not only if physical relocation occurs, but also by any taking of land resulting in: (i) relocation or loss of shelter; (ii) loss of assets or access to assets; and (iii) loss of income sources or means of livelihood, whether or not the affected people must move to another location. For the SVTP, a Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF) is currently being prepared to guide land acquisition, reorganization, and involuntary resettlement as needed. 5.3.4 Cultural Heritage (OP 4.11) The WB’s safeguard policy on cultural heritage is OP 4.11 on Physical Cultural Resources. It reads, “Physical cultural resources are important as sources of valuable scientific and historical information, as assets for economic and social development, and as integral parts of a people’s cultural identity and practices”. It further states that “physical cultural resources in projects proposed for Bank financing need to follow the EA sequence of: screening; developing terms of reference (TORs); collecting baseline data; impact assessment; and formulating mitigating measures and a management plan”. The identification of appropriate measures for avoiding or mitigating adverse impacts as part of the EA process is another important element of OP 4.11, which states: “These measures may range from full site protection to selective mitigation, including salvage and documentation, in cases where a portion or all of the physical cultural resources may be lost”. As an integral part of the EA process, OP 4.11 states that “the borrower will need to develop a physical cultural resources management plan, that includes measures for avoiding or mitigating any adverse impacts on physical cultural resources, provisions for managing chance finds, any necessary measures for strengthening institutional capacity, and a monitoring system to track the progress of these activities”. 5.3.5 Natural habitats (OP 4.04) This policy recognizes that the conservation of natural habitats is essential to safeguard their unique biodiversity and to maintain environmental services and products for human society and for long-term sustainable development. Habitat classification as presented in the policy has been used in the ESIA. The Policy distinguishes natural habitats from manmade habitats and also describes what a “critical habitat” is. Critical habitats are (a) legally protected, (b) officially proposed for protection, (c) identified by authoritative sources for their high conservation value, or (d) recognized as protected by traditional local communities. 5.3.6 Environmental and Social Framework The following sections present the World Bank Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) and the relevant Environmental and Social Standards (ESS) that are applicable to the project, to support the financing for Phase 2. 5.3.6.1 ESS1: Assessment and Management of Environmental and Social Risks and Impacts 61 | P a g e This standard sets out the Government of Malawi (GoM) responsibilities for assessing, managing and monitoring environmental and social risks and impacts associated with each stage of a project supported by the Bank through Investment Project Financing (IPF), in order to achieve environmental and social outcomes consistent with the Environmental and Social Standards (ESSs). Informed by ESS1 and relevant to this project is the inclusion of Environmental and Social Assessment (Annex 1), Environmental and Social Commitment Plan (Annex 2); and Management of Contractors (Annex 3). 5.3.6.2 ESS2: Labor and Working Conditions ESS 2 recognizes the importance of employment creation and income generation in the pursuit of poverty reduction and inclusive economic growth. Borrowers can promote sound worker-management relationships and enhance the development benefits of a project by treating workers in the project fairly and providing safe and healthy working conditions. The standard deals with labour conditions and management of working relationships, protection of workforce including limitations on child labour, grievance redress between employers and workforce, occupational health and safety, OHS matters relating to contract and community workers, and primary supply workers. 5.3.6.3 ESS3: Resource Efficiency and Pollution Prevention and Management ESS3 recognizes that economic activity and urbanization often generate pollution to air, water, and land, and consume finite resources that may threaten people, ecosystem services and the environment at the local, regional, and global levels. This ESS sets out the requirements to address resource efficiency and pollution prevention and management throughout the project life-cycle. Of relevance to the project, the standard has exacting requirements that SVTP should address, namely, pollution prevention and management, hazardous waste management, management of air pollution, management of pesticides. 5.3.6.4 ESS4: Community Health and Safety The standard addresses the health, safety, and security risks and impacts on project-affected communities and the corresponding responsibility of Borrowers to avoid or minimize such risks and impacts, with particular attention to people who, because of their particular circumstances, may be vulnerable. This standard provides guidance to SVTP in the management of traffic and road safety, community exposure to health hazards, ecosystem services, mangement of hazardous materials, and emergency preparedness and response measures, among others. Of particular importance to the project, the standard through Annex 1 (Safety of Dams) part B (Existing Dams and Dams Under Construction (DUC)), the following requirement are demanded of SVTP: i. The dam is designed and its construction is supervised by competent professionals; ii. The reports and plans related to dam safety are prepared and implemented. These reports are:  Plan for construction supervision and quality assurance;  Instrumentation plan;  Operation and maintenance (O&M) plan; and  Emergency preparedness plan. 5.3.6.5 ESS5: Land Acquisition, Restrictions on Land Use and Involuntary Resettlement – The standard advances avoidance of involuntary resettlement where possible. Where involuntary resettlement is unavoidable, it will be minimized and appropriate measures to mitigate adverse impacts on displaced persons (and on host communities receiving displaced persons) will be carefully planned and implemented. 62 | P a g e Annex 1 to the standard (Involuntary Resettlement) provides guidelines for activities that involve land acquisition.SVTP has applied provisions of the annex with regard to preparation of Resettlement Framework (RF) and Process Framework (PF). Part A of the stabdard will guide SVTP II in the preparation of Resettlement Action Plan (RAP), compensation and benefits for project affected persons, community engagement as fuided by ESS 10, grievance mechanism, and displacement. 5.3.6.6 ESS6: Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources ESS6 recognizes that protecting and conserving biodiversity and sustainably managing living natural resources are fundamental to sustainable development and it recognizes the importance of maintaining core ecological functions of habitats, including forests, and the biodiversity they support. ESS6 also addresses sustainable management of primary production and harvesting of living natural resources, and recognizes the need to consider the livelihood of project-affected parties, including Indigenous Peoples, whose access to, or use of, biodiversity or living natural resources may be affected by a project. The standard affects SVTP owing to the proposed canal alignment in Lengwe National Park. Paragraphs 23, 24 and 25 that deal with activities in critical habitats have been fully applied. 5.3.6.7 ESS8: Cultural Heritage This standard recognizes that cultural heritage provides continuity in tangible and intangible forms between the past, present and future. ESS8 sets out measures designed to protect cultural heritage throughout the project. The standard will largely deal with tangible heritage along the construction canal although an intangible heritage in form of Khulubvi Shrine is also covered under Component 4. In line with the standard, SVTP will engage community leader and the Department of Antiquities in preserving cultural heritage. 5.3.6.8 ESS10: Stakeholder Engagement and Information Disclosure The standard recognizes the importance of open and transparent engagement between the Borrower and project stakeholders as an essential element of good international practice. Effective stakeholder engagement can improve the environmental and social sustainability of projects, enhance project acceptance, and make a significant contribution to successful project design and implementation. 5.3.7 Projects on International Waterways (OP7.50) Where a project affects an International waterway, the Bank requires appropriate notification to be provided to the riparian users. Owing to the Shire river being an integral part of the Zambezi River Basin, the Government of Malawi undertook to consult the riparian states of the basin through ZAMCOR of its intention to implmenet the SVTP. This was geared at addressing any cumulative impacts associated with increased use of shared water resources. ZAMCOR did not raise any objections to the development and implementation of SVTP. 5.3.8 Safety of Dams (OP4.37, ESS4) Projects that rely on dams are required to have adequate safety checks undertaken. Since SVTP will rely on the performance of the Kapichira Dam for the water intake, a Dam Safety assessment was undertaken on the Kapichira dam by an independent panel of experts. The report found no matters of immediate concern, but recommended a series of measures including a regular safety inspection protocol to be established. These measures have been communicated to EGENCO, the operators of the Dam and associated Hydroelectric Power station. The Kapichichira Dam suffered extensive damage that also affected SVTP intake structure owing to the impact of Cyclone Anna. the dam will require major rehabilitation in the short term, during which any outstanding recommended measures from the independent panel of experts can be addressed, to ensure compliance with ESS4. 63 | P a g e 5.4 INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES FOR ESIA MONITORING AND ESMP IMPLEMENTATION This Section identifies the institutional needs to ensure the effective implementation of the social and environmental management and monitoring program as outlined in the ESIA and ESMP so that the Project’s benefits are maximised and that the Project is implemented on a sustainable basis. Recommendations are included for staff on environmental, social and health & safetymonitoring and management aspects taking into account the risks of the project and the experiences to date from implementing Phase 1. The ESMP provides project specific arrangements for monitoring. 5.4.1 National Level By nature, this Project will be multi-sectoral and will involve a number of key government agencies, and consultation and coordination mechanisms. The main implementing agency is the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Development and Irrigation, and it coordinates overall implementation together with the Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development (MoFEPD). Other agencies involved in the program are the Ministry of Natural Resources, Energy and Mining (MNREM); the Department of National Relief and Disaster Management (DNRDM); the Ministry of Lands and Housing (MLH); Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (MLGRD); the Ministry of Transport and Public Works (MTPW); the Ministry of Tourism and Culture (MTC); Malawi Investment and Trade Center (MITC), EGENCO; the PPP Commission; the Southern Region Water Board (SRWB); and the Shire River Basin Agency/National Water Resources Authority. SVTP has a Program Steering Committee (PSC) and Program Technical Committee (PTC) at national level, and consultative committee at district level and a technical team at local level. The PSC provides programmatic and strategic guidance, direction and oversight to the program. The PSC is chaired by the PS of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development and co-chaired by the PS for Planning of the MoFEPD. It comprises the MoNREM; the MoLHUD; the MoLGRD; the MITC; the MoITT; and the PPP Commission. The Director of Irrigation Services serves as Secretary of the PSC. The PSC meets at least twice a year, or more frequently upon need, and is responsible for inter-sectoral coordination and facilitation, approval of annual program of activities and approval of work plan and budget, monitoring implementation and results (including audits), policy guidance and recommending corrective actions that may be necessary. The Program Technical Committee (PTC), on the other hand, provides a multi-sector advisory and consultative platform to review technical reports, synthesize information and insight on program preparation and implementation issues. The PTC is co-chaired by the Director of Irrigation Services in MoAIWD and the director of planning in MoFEPD. Members include Director-level representatives of the Departments of: Water Resources (DWR); Department of Irrigation (DoI); National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW); Department of Energy (DoE); Environmental Affairs Department (EAD); Department of Surveys (DoS); Department of Fisheries (DoFi), Department of Forestry (DoF), Department of Agricultural Extension Services (DAES); Department of Youth and Gender; Department of Lands; and DNRDM; as well as representatives of EGENCO and MITC. The Project Coordinator serves as Secretary of the PTC. The PTC meets at least three times per year and is responsible for: technical guidance and oversight of program activities (including reports and studies), review and synthesis of suggestions and recommendations from studies, reports and by the consultative committee and submits these to the PSC for review and decision. The PTC may decide to form sub-committees by Component to streamline its activities beyond the joint meetings. The Project Management Team (PMT) comprises of civil servants and recruited professionals for project management, coordination and monitoring. This team is housed in the MoAIWD. These Ministries, agencies and committees provide oversight of the delivery of the project, including the environmental and social aspects, and meet regularly and effectively. Expereince from Phase 1 is that this is an effective management arrangement as it enables redress measures to be implemented timely. The Ministry has experience in implementing projects in accordance with financing agencies environment and social policiesnd documenting compliance, including through the works undertaken on Phase 1 so far. It has regularly trained staff in ministry and districts on compliance with E&S issues, with support of 64 | P a g e MoNREM. The PMT assumes responsibility for all day to day management and coordination needs under the project, including fiduciary, safeguards, M&E, safeguards, citizen engagement and grievance redress mechanism. The PMT is comprised of competitively recruited experts and will be complemented with technical assistance on quality assurance, planning and M&E. The PMT is a fully integrated project team. Besides the recruited component leads, fiduciary staff and safeguards, M&E/GRM staff, it includes professional staff from the main government agencies involved in the SVTP-I who are assigned to work on this project. All project operational modalities are detailed in the Project Implementation Manual, with gantt charts, flow charts, responsibilities. A component Lead is responsible for comprehensive management, liaison and coordination of the respective pillar, under the guidance of the project coordinator. The safeguards coordinators lead all implementation, monitoring and compliance documentation of the safeguards instruments and liaise frequently with the service providers on issues related to safeguards, health and safety, etc. The same applies to the M&E, Communications and GRM officer, who will be responsible for maintaining the project Management Information System, lead communications and manage the Grievance Redress Mechanism with relevant committees. The responsible Implementing Agency (the Ministry of Agriculture) has the overall responsibility for coordinating and monitoring implementation of the ESIA recommendations, as well as its required updates. This updated ESIA (and the Phase 2 ESMP) will be provided to the Director General of the Malawi Environmental Protection Authority (MEPA), who will be responsible for reviewing the ESIA through the Technical Committee on the Environment (TCE). MEPA, coordinates and facilitates sustainable management of the environment and natural resources in Malawi. As such it is responsible for harmonization of national environmental policies and legislation, enforcement of legislation, capacity building, and compliance monitoring. The Director General of MEPA may arrange for public consultations as part of the EIA process, in order to sensitise the communities and to create awareness. The TCE may require to carry out their own site and works assessment before making the appropriate recommendations to MEPA, through the Director General. MEPA will evaluate the recommendations of the TCE and make appropriate recommendations for approval. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife is mandated to protect and conserve wildlife in protected areas such as National Parks and Wildlife Reserves in collaboration with other stakeholders especially boarder zone communities. It has concessionaires in some parks, notably in Majete Wildlife Reserve while maintaining overall responsibility. The DNPW has been a key consultee in the update of this ESIA, particularly with respect to the proposed works in Lengwe National Park and the Natural Resource Management proposals. The details of the SVTP organogram will be developed and agreed during the development of the PAD and at appraisal time. GBV Threat in SVTP Project The construction of the canal under SVTP will result into an influx of migrant workers into the area especially skilled labor, expatriates and even locals. The labor influx associated with infrastructure projects such as dams and roads when not well managed, can have serious negative consequences on host community and this threat is substantial under the SVTP. This influx of labor may have a bearing on the Gender Based Violence (GBV), Violence Against Children (VAC) HIV and Sexual Transmitted Infections (STIs) depending on the way the receiving population relates with the migrant workers. The groups that will be at high risk of GBV, VAC and Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) are women and girls. The receiving population may also try to use under aged children in selling some food items and other merchandise to the workers at the time when the children are supposed to be in school. This may induce child labor. The Project affected people, the communities and the workers may have GBV grievances and they need to be provided with avenues for launching and resolving GBV grievances. The GBV Strategy Under the SVTP 1 To ensure that GBV mitigation activities are well coordinated and timely executed, the project recruited a GBV Service provider in order to : 65 | P a g e To enhance mechanisms to prevent and respond to GBV and SEA due to labor influx. i. To enhance partnerships and coordination mechanisms at district and community levels for effective implementation of GBV/SEA. ii. To monitor implementation of various measures to address risks of GBV and SEA associated with civil works in the project area. iii. To support community-based prevention of GBV and SEA in the project area, including supporting at risk groups. Through the GBV Service Provider the project has formulated a GBV strategy besides the mainstream Grievance Redress Mechanism strategy. The GBV Strategy includes the GBV pathway, the process through which GBV cases are taken through for survivors to get the right assistance from designated institutions to handled GBV cases in the district. Through this strategy the project also revamped the One Stop Centre at the Chikwawa District Hospital, a centre where all the required personnel to assist GBV survivors are located under one roof. Thus, the facility has a medical practitioner, police officer and social welfare officer, the most immediately needed personnel to assist a GBV survivor. The project also identified GBV Champions in all the project communities and were imbedded in the Grievance Redress Committees so that they can specifically deal with GBV issues in their respective communities. The project also implemented a GBV Code of Conduct, and every employee is mandated to sign this Code of Conduct as a commitment to ensuring that they will not engage in GBV/SEA/SH. These activities will continue to be implemented throughout the SVTP 1 lifespan to ensure that GBV/SEA/SH threats are mitigated for successful completion of all civil works. Gender Based Strategy Under the SVTP 2 The SVTP will continue building on the foundation of GBV mitigation measures established under the SVTP 1. Thus, the Project will continue to engage a GBV Service provider to oversee GBV/SEA/SH issues for the whole project. The service provider shall be responsible for implementation of all GBV/SEA/SH mitigation measures and handling of cases whenever they occur. SVTP 2 shall also continue to support the GBV mitigation structures established at local level (GBV Champions) as well as the One Stop Centre to ensure that there is an effective coordination in the implementation of the mitigation measures. SVTP 2 shall also ensure that Contractors and their employees have subscribed to the GBV Code of Conduct and also ensuring that all employees have signed the Code of Conduct. SVTP 2 will periodically review the capacity of the Service provider to ensure that the entire catchment area is well covered in terms of GBV mitigation measures such as sensitization meetings and monitoring visits. This shall require additional staff on the part of the Service provider. To be able to achieve this, SVTP 2 will need to budget for more staff and resource to support the GBV Service provider and capacity building training for all staff to be involved in GBV mitigation measures. Discussions were held with the GBV Service Provider on the possibility of extending their services beyond SVTP 1. In principle the GBV Service Provider agreed to such an extension and presented their requests for consideration in case of such an extension. SVTP 2 will also commit more resources to facilitate timely GBV risk assessments when such studies are required and also to ensure that there is constant capacity building of all relevant stakeholders at various levels. All the Safeguards Documents for SVTP II have incorporated the strategies to be followed under the SVTP II. Thus, the Labour Management Plan (LMP), Stakeholder Engagement Plan (SEP), the Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP) and the Process Plan (PF) have specifically outlined all the required GBV mitigation measures to be followed by various stakeholders at various levels including how such measures shall be monitored. 66 | P a g e 5.4.2 Project Level The MoAIWD will be responsible for the implementation of the ESMPs and for compliance auditing, through the PMT. The Supervising Engineer (KRCC) has in its team an environmental, social and health and safety specialists who is responsible for the day to day supervision of environmental performance of the Construction Contractors and for monthly reporting of environmental performance which is submitted to the MoAIWD. Malawi’s Environmental Affairs Department (EAD) and Ministry of Labour and Vocational Training (OHS Inspectorate) will conduct monitoring and inspection of civil works construction in accordance with statutory requirements especially compliance to ESMP, C-ESMP and OHS Manual in line with Environment Management Act of 2017 and Occupational Safety, Health and Welfare Act, 1997. The Department of National Parks and Wildlife and African Parks (the concessionaire that manages Majete) are also key consultees regarding the implementation of canal construction within the Majete Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park, and work closely with the supervising engineer to ensure works are proceding in accordance with requirements of the ESIA/ESMP. The Ministry of Local Government is responsible for local government and its linkages with traditional authorities. It has a role in community participation in the formulation and implementation of developmental and environmental programmes through Districts. The country is divided into three regions Northern, Central and Southern regions. Malawi has 28 districts. The Phase I project is entirely located within Chikwawa District in the Southern Region, whereas phase II covers part of Chikwawa district from the northern boundary of Lengwe National Park through to Ngabu and extends Bangula in Nsanje District. Within each of these districts there are formal and traditional institutions. Formal institutions include the District Councils, headed by District Commissioners. The traditional institutions are headed by Traditional Authorities whose areas of jurisdiction are known as Area Development Committees, headed by chiefs. Each of these traditional authorities is composed of villages which are the smallest administrative units, and the villages are presided over by village headmen. Traditional Authorities are important interlocutors for social and environmental issues at local level. The District Councils, under the general direction of the District Commissioner, will work closely with project staff to take stock of the progress for each project activity in their respective areas of jurisdiction. The Council will hear the views of the communities on the progress, expected benefits and challenges being faced during the implementation period of the projects and the anticipated challenges during time of exit. The District Commissioner will also be the moderator between conflicting views and interests of both the communities on one hand; and the implementing and executing agencies on the other. Where the safeguards staff of the PMT or Supervising Engineer observe activities or conditions at Project construction sites or on adjoining sites which do not comply with the requirements of the ESMP, as incorporated into the construction contract documents, they shall forthwith advise the Supervising Engineer who shall instruct appropriate measures to bring the works back into compliance. On no account shall the safeguards staff give directions to any contractor, employed under a Contract with the MoWDI, in relation to any non-compliance. The instruction shall define the non-compliance with the contract and shall note the time and date of the non-compliance as well as the measures that need to be undertaken by when to bring the works back into compliance. The contract will set out the process and arrangements of enforcement, including the remedies that may be bought to bear in the event of a non-compliance. 67 | P a g e 6. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT 6.1 CLIMATE The study area has a tropical climate marked by hot temperatures and two distinctive seasons: the dry and the rainy seasons. The dry season starts in May and ends in October while the rainy season starts in November and ends in April. The following graphs show the main figures related to climate: temperature, humidity, rainfall and sunshine duration. Data are taken form Nchalo Illovo, Makanga Station (from 1971 to 2014). Figure 14: Monthly Rainfal and Temperature Averages for Chikwawa ( Source: Ngabu Metereological Station (2015) ) EFFECTIVE RAINFALL AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION In the field of agriculture, the notion of effective rainfall is important as it subtracts from the amount of rainfall, the amount of water that is unusable for crop (for plant intake) due to rapid evaporation (not enough time to reach roots) deep percolation or rapid runoff to surface water. In the Study area, effective rainfall is, on a yearly average, 48% lower than rainfall, which mean that only 52% of rainfall is effective rain (BRLi, 2015). Evapotranspiration is the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from soil and transpiration by plant, it therefore designates water losses. In the Study area, the balance between rainfall (intake) and evapotranspiration (offtake) only shows a surplus of water between February and April. In the dry season, soil moisture drops to zero. Surplus of water only occurs when the soil is saturated after the first heavy rains. Overall, the region is semi-arid, meaning that the Study area generally suffers from a soil moisture deficit (Per Aagaard, 2012). 6.2 LOCAL TOPOGRAPHY The description of the topography of the Study area helps to understand the physical environment in which the Project will take place. The Study area is included in the Lower Shire Valley, which covers the southernmost part of the Shire River after Kapichira falls. 68 | P a g e The Study area starts at the EGENCO reservoir just upstream of the Kapichira falls. At this point, where the water intake will be located, the altitude is 144 masl. After the reservoir, the Shire River flows down the dam spillway and Kapichira falls, the altitude drops about 50 meters and the Shire in incised in a gorge 10 additional meters below ground level. The Lower Shire plain is the only area in Malawi where the elevation is below 150 masl. Local topography is characterized by the following features: • The Shire River, with gentle slopes after the Kapichira falls and flowing in the middle of the Study area. The river’s valley has formed a vast central low land wetland called Elephant marsh surrounding the Shire River and receiving its water during the rainy season. • Majete Wildlife Reserve in the North has a few hills reaching up to 780 masl. Majete escarpment marks the end of Majete to the North West where the Mwanza, an important tributary to Shire River, flows in a large valley. • On the Shire left bank (to the North East): the Thyolo Escarpment with steep slopes has the highest hills of the area with summits up to 1,500 masl. Short seasonal streams with small watersheds originate in this area and quickly empty their water in the Elephant marsh during flash floods. • To the South East, Mulaka Hills that range in the 300s masl. These hills are located in Nsanje district. • To the West, in Lengwe National Park, the topography is flatter with spares hills (Thambani Hills, the Salambidwe Hill, the Marangwe Range and the Matundwe Range) that climb up to 300 masl. This area marks the limit of the watershed between the Zambezi River (to the West, in Mozambique) and the Shire River (to the East). The feeder canal roughly follows the 145 masl topographic contour line toward the plain. The following figure shows the topography of Chikwawa district (Nsanje District and Mulaka Hills are not shown) Mozambique is on the left. Figure 4: Topography of Chikwawa District Source: Montjerezi, 2012 69 | P a g e 6.3 RIVER GEOMORPHOLOGY The study area is included in the Lower Shire catchment from the Kapichira Hydroelectric Power Station reservoir (downstream the confluence with the Mkurumazdi River) to the end of Elephant Marsh (downstream the confluence with the Ruo River). The Lower Shire has two distinct morphological facies:  From Kapichira to Chikwawa, the Shire River covers a distance about 20 km falling below the surrounding land flanked by alluvial terraces. - The right-bank tributaries include the following intermittent rivers originating from the Majete Escarpment: Mwambezi, Masakale, Kadeya and Manyumwa. - The main left-bank tributary is the perennial river called Likhubula which originates from the Thyolo Escarpment.  From Chikwawa to Chiromo, the Shire River covers a distance of about 100 km through a broad alluvial plain constituted by tertiary unconsolidated sediments. - The right-bank tributaries include the following intermittent rivers originating from the Thambani Hills, the Salambidwe Hill, the Marangwe Range and the Matundwe Range (in Lengwe NP area): Nthumba, Nkombedzi wa Fodya, Phwadzi, Namikalango, Nyakamba, Mikombo Chibuala, Mafume, Lalanje and Thangadzi West. The Mwanza River is the main right- bank tributary, it is intermittent and flows from the Mount Xalacongue and pours its waters into the Shire River at Nchalo. - The left-bank tributaries include the following intermittent rivers originating from the Thyolo Escarpment (including the Cholomwani Hills and the Kalulu Hills): Mwamphanzi, Nkhuzi, Nanzolo, Nkhate, Chilengo, Livunzu, Mulunga Wang ono, Wankwazi, Kalulu, Mbazi, Nkwezo, Milole, Milole Mwana, Mankhala, Kalulu, Thangadzi East, Chinolo, Chidima, and Phalamanga. The Ruo River is the main left-bank tributary, it is perennial and flows from the Mulanje Mountain and pours its waters into the Shire River at Chiromo. The river beds of the Lower Shire River and its tributaries are very mobile in the alluvial plain regarding the highly erosive and spreadable soil characteristics: river bed can move, split, deepen or dig of several meters after severe floods. Sheetflood erosion is also taking place (Figures 12 and 13). Figure 15: River Bed Split in the Nkombedzi Wa Fodya River 70 | P a g e Figure 16: River Bed Digging and Deepening by Erosion in the Namikalango The overall Lower Shire River Basin from Kapichira Dam to Chiromo Bridge (including Ruo River) covers a drainage area of about 11 470 km². The main morphological characteristics (area, perimeter and Gravelius compactness coefficient) of the sub-basins are given in the Table 4 The Gravelius compactness coefficient is defined as the ratio between the perimeter of the subbasin and the circumference of the circle with the same area. This index is determined from a topographic map by measuring the perimeter of the watershed and its surface. It is close to 1 for a catchment of almost circular and therefore compact form; but greater than 1 when the basin is of elongated shape. Table 4 : Morphological Characteristics of the Lower Shire Tributaries Gravelius River Basin Area (km²) Perimeter (km) Coefficient Mwambezi 169 103 2.2 Masakale 107 87 2.4 Nthumba 202 126 2.5 Mwanza 1844 436 2.9 Nkombedzi Wa Fodya 1057 249 2.2 Namikalango 180 106 2.2 Nyakamba 107 98 2.7 Chibuala 141 95 2.3 Mafume 96 95 2.7 Lalanje 99 95 2.7 Thangadzi West 407 149 2.1 71 | P a g e Likhubula 600 181 2.1 Mwamphanzi 312 150 2.4 Nkhuzi 24 40 2.3 Nkhate 57 57 2.1 Chilengo 79 65 2.1 Mulunga Wang ono 20 39 2.5 Mulunga Wamkurd 27 42 2.3 Wankwazi 20 32 2.0 Mbazi 63 54 1.9 Nkwezo 13 22 1.7 Milole Mwana 23 38 2.2 Kalulu 14 22 1.7 Chinolo 10 32 2.9 Chidima 5 17 2.1 Thangadzi East 53 66 2.5 Ruo 4828 523 2.1 Source: BRLi, 2016 With the exception of the Likhubula, Mwamphanzi and Ruo, the left-bank tributaries of the Shire River are smaller than the right-bank ones. The Gravelius compactness coefficient is superior to 1.5 for all the sub-basins, and to 2 in almost all cases. This underlines that the watersheds of the tributaries have lengthened shapes which fosters the spreading of surface runoff. Figure 14 shows the Lower Shire River Profile from Kapichira Dam (147 masl.) to Chiromo Bridge (60 masl.). The average slope of the Lower Shire River is extremely gentle of about 1‰. 72 | P a g e The picture can't be display ed. Figure 17: Lower Shire River Profile from Kapichira Dam to Chiromo Bridge (Source : Source: NWRMP, 1986) The Figure 20 shows the profile delineations based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, SRTM 1 of 4 representative tributaries: Mwanza, Ruo, Thangadzi West and East. The average slopes and the slope breaks between the escarpments and the plain are more marked for the left-bank tributaries which accelerates the surface runoff. 1 Jarvis, A., H.I. Reuter, A. Nelson, E. Guevara, 2008, Hole-filled SRTM for the globe Version 4, available from the CGIAR- CSI SRTM 90m Database (http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org). 73 | P a g e Figure 18 River Profiles of Mwanza, Ruo, Thangadwi West and East (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) 6.4 RIVER HYDROLOGY The hydrology of the Study area is dominated by the outflows from Lake Malawi, which flows through Lake Malombo and feeds the Shire River. WATER RESOURCES The flow in the Shire River is highly regulated by the water level in Lake Malawi, in conjunction with the lake’s natural outflow controls (a sand bar at 471.5 m above sea level , across the mouth of the Shire), and by the artificial influence of the Kamuzu Barrage at Liwonde (ATKINS, 2011). There are several hydropower stations and dams on the Shire River between the Lake Malawi and the Kapichira Falls: the Nkula, Tedzani and Kapichira hydropower stations. The justification for building the Kamuzu Barrage as a control gate at Liwonde was to mitigate the possibilities of failure to maintain the design flow of 170 m³/sec for hydropower in the middle reach of the Shire River. The barrage is designed to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, by retaining water when the Lake level is relatively high and by releasing it at times when the flow would otherwise have been too low (Kumambala, 2009). Moreover, there are two major water abstraction points that also influence the flow in the Shire River at Kapichira (NORPLAN, 2013): • Irrigation scheme of Mtengula: 5 m³/s for peak water demand. • Drinking water supply for Blantyre Water Board: 2 m³/s maximum including possible extension. 74 | P a g e The Shire River runoff at Kapichira is therefore highly influenced by the flow regulation of the Lake Malawi and Kamuzu Barrage and water abstractions for irrigation of Mtengula and drinking water supply for Blantyre (ATKINS, 2011) and (SMEC, 2014). To take into account this upstream influence and to be consistent with the FS, the following flow estimates have been considered for the water resources assessment: • NORPLAN (2013) and NIRAS/DHI (2017) for the upstream part (flow at Kapichira); • from SMEC (2014) for the downstream part (runoff for Mwanza River, right-bank and left-bank tributaries); and from • BRLi (2016) for the Ruo River2. Water Resources data are covered in the chapter on hydrology. The upstream part of the basin at Kapichira Dam controls approximately 80% of the average annual flow of the whole basin at Chiromo Bridge. The intermediary part of the basin from Kapichira to Chiromo (including Mwanza but not Ruo) only contributes for about 5%. The remaining 15% are driven by the Ruo River. During the dry season, 95% of the total flow at Chiromo are controlled by the upstream basin at Kapichira. The contribution of the intermediary basin is close to nil and the inflow of the Ruo River brings about 5%. During the wet season, about 75% of the total flow at Chiromo are controlled by the upstream basin at Kapichira. The contribution of the intermediary basin counts for about 5% to 10% and the inflow of the Ruo River rises up to 20% and to 25% of the peak flow. Thus, on the one hand, the Elephant Marsh hydrological behaviour during the dry season is almost entirely driven by the upstream basin of the Shire River at Kapichira and consequently the main leverage for action to satisfy the minimum environmental flow for Elephant Marsh is the Kamuzu Barrage. On the other hand, during the wet season, the Elephant Marsh inundation is mainly due to the Shire River but also to the Ruo River that brings more than the quarter of the inflow in the wetlands. FLOODING Floods inundate low-lying areas such as Lower Shire Valley and particularly in Chikwawa and Nsanje Districts which are more vulnerable to floods than higher elevated areas. The places that are more exposed to the flood risk include the floodplains of the Mwanza, Nkombedzi- wa-fodya, Thangadzi West and Lalanje on the west bank of the Shire River and the places close to the confluence of the Ruo and the Shire rivers, especially Sankhulani, Makhanga and Bangula; and low- lying areas along the banks of the Shire River from Chiromo to Nsanje. Flooding problems in the lower stretches of the Shire River and the Ruo River floodplain (Elephant Marsh) are due to the concomitance of the high-flow periods of both water courses (see previous section). The flood phenomenon is characterized by a slow dynamics with peak flow durations of one to three months. By inundating 265 km² mainly inside the Elephant marsh and by stranding more than 20,000 people, the floods of January 2015 were the most severe and the more devastating floods in living memory in the Shire Valley. The following figures show the extent of floods. 2 A GR2M hydrological model was implemented (Mouehli, 2003). The calibration was made with the historical time series discharge for the Ruo River at Sinoya South (4721 km²). The statistic calculations were made for the reference period from 1979-2009 as in (JICA, 2014) and (SMEC, 2014). 75 | P a g e Figure 19: Aerial View of the Shire River and Ruo River at Chiromo Bridge and of the Elephant Marsh Photo Credit ©2015 WWFA 76 | P a g e Figure 20: Extent of January 2015 flood (in blue) Source: BRLi, Aurecon 2015 Due to the flow intensity of the Ruo River cascading from the Mulanje Mountain, its inflow in the Shire River is forced back at the confluence of the two rivers. The buildup of water pressure exerts an immense force on the Bangula - Makhanga road embankment, often breaching the road, as it was the case in January 2015. 77 | P a g e Flooding problems that occur within the sub-basins of the Lower Shire River tributaries are partly a consequence of sediment deposition in river channels, reservoirs and floodplains, which originate from degraded catchments. As a result, there is substantial loss of arable land and damage to irrigation infrastructure. The flood phenomenon is characterized by fast dynamics with peak flow durations from few hours to few days and it can be described as “flash floods”. The Mwanza River causes flooding over a very wide area, extending to and covering the low-lying areas of the Lengwe National Park, the Illovo Sugar Estates and villages around Tomali, Beleu and others. In less than 24 hours, the flow can pass from zero to more than 100 m³/s as observed for the flash flood that occurred January 27th 2016 during the baseline mission (Figure 18 and 19). Figure 21: Mwanza River at the Bridge of the M1 National Road, completely dry the January 26th 2016 Photo Credit ©2016 BRLi 78 | P a g e Figure 22: Mwanza River at the Bridge of the M1 National Road, completely overflowed the January 27th 2016 Photo Credit ©2016 BRLi IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE Climate change can impact the hydrological conditions through changes in precipitation and evapotranspiration. Due to the large surface area of Lake Malawi as compared to the catchment area, the Shire River is more vulnerable to increased evaporation than most rivers of Malawi. The IPCC Fifth Assessment Report3 summarizes the results of 42 different Global Circulation Models (GCMs) in the regional summary for Africa (IPCC, 2013). Table 6 below and the Figures 13,14,15 and 16 on the next pages shows the changes on an annual basis, + 2.1°C increase in temperature at the horizon 2100 and between -2% and -5% decrease in precipitation. These simulations are based on the RCP4.5 45 emission scenario characterized by: • Greenhouse gas emission: medium-low mitigation. • Agricultural area: very low for both cropland and pasture. • Air pollution: Medium. 3 IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp. 4 Stabilization without overshoot pathway to 4.5 W/m2 (~650 ppm CO2 eq) at stabilization after 2100 (Clarke et al. 5 ; Smith and Wigley 2006; Wise et al. 2009) — GCAM 79 | P a g e Table 5: Temperature and Precipitation Projections by the CMIP5 Global Models for South Africa Region The figures shown are averages over the South Africa region (Seneviratne et al., 2012) of the projections by a set of 42 global models for the RCP4.5 scenario. The area-mean temperature and precipitation responses are first averaged for each model over the 1986–2005 period from the historical simulations and the 2016–2035, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 periods of the RCP4.5 experiments. Based on the difference between these two periods, the table shows the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles, and the lowest and highest response among the 42 models, for temperature in degrees Celsius and precipitation as a percent change. On one hand, the available climate projections for the Shire River basin at the horizon 2100 do not give grounds for changing the average estimates for flow and runoff. This is partly due to the fact that the Shire/Lake Malawi lies in the transition zone between South Africa climatology and East African climatology, and this probably adds a level of uncertainty. However, on the other hand, it must be expected that the variability (which is already large) increases, and that the extremes (both floods and droughts) will be more pronounced. This variation will be more directly felt in the tributaries since the Lake will act as a buffer for most upstream variations. Figure 23 : Time Series and Maps of Temperature Change Southern Africa December-February 80 | P a g e (Top left) Time series of temperature change relative to 1986–2005 averaged over land grid points in Southern Africa (35°S to 11.4°S, 10°W to 52°E) in December to February. (Top right) Same for sea grid points in the West Indian Ocean (25°S to 5°N, 52°E to 75°E). Thin lines denote one ensemble member per model, thick lines the CMIP5 multi-model mean. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081–2100 in the four RCP scenarios. (Below) Maps of temperature changes in 2016–2035, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 with respect to 1986–2005 in the RCP4.5 scenario. For each point, the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of the distribution of the CMIP5 ensemble are shown; this includes both natural variability and inter-model spread. Hatching denotes areas where the 20-year mean differences of the percentiles are less than the standard deviation of model-estimated present-day natural variability of 20-year mean differences. Figure 24: Time Series and Maps of Temperature Change Southern Africa June-August (Source: IPCC, 2013 ) 81 | P a g e (Top left) Time series of temperature change relative to 1986–2005 averaged over land grid points in Southern Africa (35°S to 11.4°S, 10°W to 52°E) in June to August. (Top right) Same for sea grid points in the West Indian Ocean (25°S to 5°N, 52°E to 75°E). Thin lines denote one ensemble member per model, thick lines the CMIP5 multi-model mean. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081–2100 in the four RCP scenarios. (Below) Maps of temperature changes in 2016–2035, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 with respect to 1986–2005 in the RCP4.5 scenario. For each point, the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of the distribution of the CMIP5 ensemble are shown; this includes both natural variability and inter-model spread. Hatching denotes areas where the 20-year mean differences of the percentiles are less than the standard deviation of model-estimated present-day natural variability of 20-year mean differences. Source: IPCC, 2013 Figure 5: Time Series and Maps of Precipitation Change Southern Africa October-March 82 | P a g e (Top left) Time series of relative change relative to 1986–2005 in precipitation averaged over land grid points in Southern Africa (35°S to 11.4°S, 10°W to 52°E) in October to March. (Top right) Same for sea grid points in the West Indian Ocean (25°S to 5°N, 52°E to 75°E). Thin lines denote one ensemble member per model, thick lines the CMIP5 multi-model mean. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081–2100 in the four RCP scenarios. (Below) Maps of precipitation changes in 2016–2035, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 with respect to 1986–2005 in the RCP4.5 scenario. For each point, the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of the distribution of the CMIP5 ensemble are shown; this includes both natural variability and inter-model spread. Hatching denotes areas where the 20-year mean differences of the percentiles are less than the standard deviation of model-estimated present-day natural variability of 20-year mean differences. Source: IPCC, 2013 Figure 6: Time Series and Maps of Precipitation Change Southern Africa June-August (Source: IPCC, 2013) 83 | P a g e (Top left) Time series of relative change relative to 1986–2005 in precipitation averaged over land grid points in Southern Africa (35°S to 11.4°S, 10°W to 52°E) in April to September. (Top right) Same for sea grid points in the West Indian Ocean (25°S to 5°N, 52°E to 75°E). Thin lines denote one ensemble member per model, thick lines the CMIP5 multi-model mean. On the right-hand side the 5th, 25th, 50th (median), 75th and 95th percentiles of the distribution of 20-year mean changes are given for 2081–2100 in the four RCP scenarios. (Below) Maps of precipitation changes in 2016–2035, 2046–2065 and 2081–2100 with respect to 1986–2005 in the RCP4.5 scenario. For each point, the 25th, 50th and 75th percentiles of the distribution of the CMIP5 ensemble are shown; this includes both natural variability and inter-model spread. Hatching denotes areas where the 20-year mean differences of the percentiles are less than the standard deviation of model-estimated present-day natural variability of 20-year mean differences. During the preparation of SVTP Phase II, greenhouse gas (GHG) accounting was conducted for the project using EX-ACT model6. The results of the model show that the SVTP can constitute a sizeable net carbon sink of -278,099 tCO2 eq over 20 years, thus −13,905 tCO2 eq annually, due to the introduction of improved crop management practices and technologies. The cropping activities constitute an absolute carbon sink with a carbon balance of -1,040,743 tCO2 eq in the with-project scenario. The increased use of fertilizer and insecticides/herbicides, partially compensated by a reduced use of energy, would lead to an increase of 730,224 tCO 2 eq. A detailed analysis of how the results were arrived at is shown in Annex 3. 6 http://www.fao.org/tc/exact/ex-act-home/en/. 84 | P a g e 6.5 SHIRE RIVER WATER QUALITY Shire River water quality has been dealt with in the following studies: • Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) Shire River Basin Management Programme (Phase I) Project Final Environmental and Social Assessment Report. • Atkins (2011) Water Resources Investment Strategy. Component 1 – Water Resources Assessment. Government of the Republic of Malawi. Unfortunately, in these studies the level of information provided about the sampling methods does not allow to rely on their analysis as explained here below. According to Atkins (2011), the presence of high levels of Iron (Fe) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS, mainly silt) in the Shire River makes water unsuitable for irrigation due to the risk of damage to equipment by causing clogging and deterioration of equipment or through stimulating algal growth, which in turn clogs valves, pipelines or filtering equipment. The presence of heavy load of silt will also necessitate constant mechanical removal at the water intake. Nitrate and phosphate, common pollutants in agricultural areas, were not identified as key water quality determinands causing poor or unsuitable water. Unfortunately, Atkins (2011) talks about “current water results” in the report but does not provide them. Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) presents three different water quality results in their report: • Results for the Shire River from an old study from Saka and Ambali (1999)  • Results for the Shire River from an old study from Lakudzala et al. (1999). • Results for Shire tributaries, although nothing is said about the origin of the data (they were collected during the rainy season in 2012). Some results are shown in the following tables. Table 6: 1999 water quality for Shire River Sample location pH Phosphates (mg/l) Nitrates (mg/l) Chikwawa bridge 7.28 1.12 1.12 (Shire River) Nchalo (Shire River) 7.42 2.94 0.94 Chiromo bridge (Shire 7.60 0.55 0.55 River) Source: adapted from Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) quoted from Saka and Ambali (1999) Table 7: 1999 Water quality for Shire River Parameter (mg/l) Sulfate Nitrate Phosphate Mercury Lead (Pb) SO42- NO3- PO43- (Hg) Shire River upstream from Not confluence with Illovo flood control 14.9 <0.01 Not detected 1.0 detected drain Illovo effluent water on flood control Not Not 2.7 <0.01 Not detected drain detected detected Parameter (mg/l) Sulfate Nitrate Phosphate Mercury Lead (Pb) SO42- NO3- PO43- (Hg) 85 | P a g e Shire River downstream confluence Not 2.7 <0.01 Not detected 0.96 with Illovo flood control drain detected Not Not Shire River downstream of Illovo 5.4 <0.01 Not detected detected detected Source: adapted from Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) quoted from Lakudzala et al (1999 ) Due to their dates (17 years old), these results cannot be considered reliable anymore. One time data were also collected at various points in Shire tributaries during the rainy season of 2012. Due to the high flow variability of these tributaries, these data are not ideal for an analysis of water quality. The following table presents the results, it shows that turbidity and total suspended solids have high figures, tributaries can indeed transport large quantities of material during the rainy season. Table 8: Water quality at some Shire tributaries - Turbidity Nitrate NO3 Phosphate Sample TDS (ppm) TSS (ppm) (NTU) (mg/l) PO43-(mg/l) Mwanza river 44.98 794 253 0.765 10.80 Lower Mwanza 84.75 2205 2813 2.875 6.87 river Likhubula river 158.50 715 101 2.600 1.67 Mkulumadzi river 42.90 1150 895 0.945 1.300 Mkudzi river 155.50 439 242 1.588 3.05 Mwamphanzi river 78.00 630 402 1.625 1.57 Source: adapted from Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) There are no data for coliforms (fecal and total) although given the high population density, coliforms are a potential issue. These water quality data have to be compared to water quality standards for aquatic ecosystem. Unfortunately, Malawi does not have any guidelines for water quality for the safeguard of ecosystems. The closest country that has such guidelines is South Africa as shown in table 11 (South Africa Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 1996). Both Nitrate and Phosphate are important criteria since the area is intensively cultivated. In addition, parameters related to turbidity are also important since the area is subject to flash floods with high loads of sediments. The tributary rivers are Mesotrophic according to Water, Waste & Environment Consultants (2013) results for phosphate and nitrate. Mesotrophic systems are usually productive with a risk of nuisance growth of aquatic plant but low risk of toxic algal blooms. TSS values for tributary rivers are higher than the normal background concentration which also limits suitability of habitats. According to these guidelines, TDS can only be assessed using long term water quality follow-up. Table 9: South Africa guidelines for aquatic ecosystem < 0.5 mg/l 0.5 - 2.5 mg/l 2.5 - 10 mg/l > 10 mg/l Nitrate NO3- Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic Hypertrophic (mg/l) conditions conditions conditions conditions Phosphate < 5 mg/l 5 - 25 mg/l 25 - 250 mg/l > 250 mg/l PO43(mg/l) Oligotrophic Mesotrophic Eutrophic Hypertrophic conditions conditions conditions conditions 86 | P a g e Background concentration is < 100 mg/l Any increase in TSS concentrations must be limited to < 10 % of the TSS background TSS concentrations at a specific site and time Concentrations should not be changed by > 15 % from the normal cycles of the water body under unimpacted conditions at any time of the year; and the amplitude and frequency of natural cycles in TDS concentrations should not be TDS changed. Regarding drinking water, Malawi has standards that are close to those from the World Health Organization. Given the baseline situation in the valley with high human pressure on water resources, domestic use standards for surface water are not attainable especially for turbidity, fecal coliform and total coliform, it is therefore not recommended to drink water from any surface water. The Elephant Marsh General Adaptive Management Plan covering the period 2018-2022 revealed that Elephant Marsh had an average monthly Phosphorus concentration of between 0.005 and 0.113 mg/l, between 0.1 and 0.28 mg/l of Ammonium and between 0.0075 and 0.36 mg/l of Nitrate. The study further reported that indigenous plants had a total uptake of nitrogen in the order of 475 kg N/ha/yr, while total phosphorus uptake was in the order of 77 kg P/ha/yr. Table 10: Water Quality at Illovo Discharge Area SAMPLE Conductivity TDS BOD COD pH SS mg/L (µs/cm3 ) mg/L mg/L Unscreened 610 308 effluent 5.74 400 623 651 Inlet dam 5.05 552 520 261 522 577 Outlet dam 5.06 544 517 256 586 598 Dilute effluent to irrigation 6.15 96 212 288 303 Discharge point 6.85 76 765 386 283 298 River water D/S 7.1 20 302 151 162 175 River water U/S 7.03 12 300 149 277 289 MBS (National standards for Drinking water, Boreholes and Shallow wells MS733:2005) 6.0-9.5 - 3500 2000 - - Source: MIWD, Central Water Laboratory, 2019 Given inadequacies in surface water quality data, SVTP will conduct a baseline data collection before the first farm blocks receive irrigation water that will form the basis for water quality monitoring. 6.6 SOIL, EROSION, SEDIMENT TRANSPORT AND GEOLOGY The Lower Shire valley is densely populated with over one million people living in the two most southern districts of Malawi, namely Chikwawa and Nsanje. Chikwawa and Nsanje districts form the Shire Valley Agricultural Development Division (SVADD) covering about 684,000ha. The large population pressure on the area causes severe erosion and degradation of land and water resources. In this context, the ESIA ToRs has requested to provide with a baseline characterization 87 | P a g e of soil in the Study area. In addition, this section presents the local geology and describes the pattern of erosion and sediment transport. Soil surveys were already executed during the colonial period. The Atlas of Malawi (1983) shows a soil map based on work from the early 1960’s (University of East Anglia, A.Young & P.Brown). The two major soils in the lower part of the Lower Shire Valley are Alluvial Soils and Vertisols (with gleys), being subdivisions of Calcimorphic and Hydromorphic Soils. A different Soil Map of Malawi, however with similar legend approach (based on Young/Brown) was drawn by N.W.Lowole, showing dominant Vertisols around Ngabu, and also further upslope Vertisols associated with coarser gravelly soils. The Soil Map of the World (FAO-Unesco, 1973) shows prominent units of Vertisols and Eutric Fluvisols (in association with Solonchak) in the Lower Shire valley bottom and Chromic Cambisols in association with Chromic Luvisols on the adjacent lower hill slopes. The FAO Soil Legend and related Land Evaluation methodology was introduced to Malawi in the 1980’s and the country was subsequently systematically mapped using FAO soil classification (Govt. Malawi, 1991). In 1991, the Government of Malawi produced a map called the “Malawi Soil Classification Map” (Land Resources Department, MoA) using the FAO soil classification. Several CODA reports (CODA, 2005-2008) contain important soils information, in particular tender documents with soil map (CODA, 2008). These tender documents contain the results of soil surveys done by SOGREAH (1992), an Australian company using 1975 Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975, 1987, 1999) for soil classification as well as FAO Guidelines for Soil Description (1977). The area covered is located South of Chikwawa, around Kasinthula, and only forms Zone I-1 of the current Project (North of Mwanza River, North of Illovo). The soil map is shown in the following Figures 22 and 23. 88 | P a g e Figure 27: Zone I-1 Soil Map by CODA (2006) overlaid with current project map 89 | P a g e Figure 28: Zone I-1 Soil Map by CODA (2006) The following table presents the Legend of the Soil Map of the Zone I-1. Table 11: Soil Map of Zone I-1 Order Suborder Great Group Subgroup Symbol Fluvent Ustifluvent Typic Ft Entisol Psamment Ustispamment Typic St Typic Et Cambisol Ochrept Ustochrept Fluventic Ef Vertic Ev Typic At Haplustalf Arenic Ar Alfisols Ustalf Vertic Av Typic Nt Natrustalf Salorthidic Ns Chromustert Typic Ct Vertisol Ustert Pellustert Typic Pt The mapped soil units are linked with physiographic elements, such as three Shire river terraces, alluvium and pediment (see glossary). One would expect different soil patterns over the upper, middle and lower Shire terraces but all three show largely the same soil variety: dominantly Haplustalfs and Ustochrepts with subordinate Ustifluvents. Pediment units have Ustrochrepts as most typical soils. The occurrence of Natrustalfs indicates local presence of soils with high sodium saturation. The dambo west of Kasinthula is the only area where Vertisols were mapped. 90 | P a g e Accompanying soil analytical data could not be located; hence a check on classification is not possible. Although the soil map legend presents an interesting approach, clear spatial relationships between physiographic units and soils could not be confirmed. Another CODA (2006) report (incomplete, without cover page, annexes or maps) entitled “SVTP Soil and Land Survey” presents results of soil investigation carried out in 2005. The report describes and discusses a set of 14 representative soil profiles with analytical data, located in various Project Zones. These profiles are presented as representative soil families and grouped together in main groups, such as fluvic group, salic group and vertic group. Since pit locations are not available, the information remains general. The report describes the overall variation of soils in the Lower Shire valley as deep, medium to fine textured, brown to very dark-grey in colour, and well to very poorly drained. Soils in the uplands and hills are predominantly moderately deep, medium textured, well- drained and yellowish brown (FAO: Cambisols and Luvisols). Slightly saline soils occur mostly in lower positions and depressions; otherwise soils have a slightly acidic to neutral reaction and show a deficiency in phosphor and nitrogen. The soils in the floodplains are predominantly deep medium to fine textured with variable drainage and are classified Fluvisols, Cambisols, Vertisols and Gleysols (FAO). The analyzed soil profiles do not yield alarming data in terms of salinity or alkalinity; included are three clayey profiles (50-60% clay), probably Vertisols, ph <7.5 (very slightly alkaline). This CODA (2006) report also presents results of Land Evaluation following FAO methodology. Illovo has established an impressive soil database (Illovo, 2015). The information received includes: • a summary report with management recommendations based on the results of soil survey and analysis (2013-15) covering the various Illovo Nchalo estates; and • an excel file with results of soil chemical analysis of a large number of samples from soil profiles (same survey). Illovo soil maps were not made available. Illovo uses the South African Soil Classification (SA Soil Classification Working Group, 1991) which may not always be the most appropriate to define soils in other countries. Correlation with the World Reference Base (WRB) is made, but not in any detail and the correlation contains unfortunate errors and irregularities. This is largely a result of different WRB and SA approaches in defining and interpreting diagnostic criteria especially the ones related to structure and wetness, and also horizons as argic, cambic and vertic; WRB Nitisols, Albeluvisols and Ferralsols are incorrectly interpreted and out of the question in these alluvial soils; many Arenosols do not fit textural requirements; Luvisols should not be correlated with duplex soils). However, the overall data provide important information on the status of soils and their general distribution over the various Nchalo Estates, and hence also of the defined Phases and Zones of the Shire Valley Irrigation Project. Illovo (2015) makes three main groups of soils (all soil profiles are described as having alluvium/colluvium parent material): 1. Well drained youthful soils (Cambisols, soil association A) constituting 59% of Estates 2. Black cracking clays (Vertisols, soil association H) comprising 22% of Estates 3. Duplex soils (Luvisols, soil association C) comprising 6% of Estates The remaining 13% covers a variety of other soils and associations, including Calcisols, Nitisols, Gleysols, and Arenosols. The above group percentages are weighted averages; the variability over the various estates is very large. For instance, the percentage of Vertisols over the estates is as follows: 5-10% in Nchalo, Kaombe and Kando, 39% in Kasinthula and 76% in Alumenda. 60% of Alumenda. Vertisols have a high water table with gley within 90cm, 17% have an Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP) of >15, however very few profiles qualify as sodic (ESP>15). Clay contents are mostly around 50% and pH averages around 8.5 which is a common value for calcareous Vertisols in poorly drained positions. Salinity is normally low, well under level required for qualification of a salic horizon. Vertisols in estates other than Alumenda have generally somewhat lower pH and ESP values. Vertisols are reported to occur on older terrace deposits South West of Alumenda but also extensively on the lower part of the plain near Alumenda in seasonally or permanently wet areas particularly towards Elephant marsh or dambo area. 91 | P a g e The younger and mostly weakly developed soils such as Cambisols, Arenosols and Gleysols exhibit little profile differentiation and their chemical data do not vary much (see Illovo, 2015). Other moderately developed soils are also reported, such as Luvisols, Nitisols and Calcisols. Some of these soils are highly calcareous soils (Calcisols). Salinity levels diagnostic for a salic horizon were not recorded; apart from one or two profiles the measured Electric Conductivity (EC) remained far from critical EC values. Some soils (Cambisols, Vertisols, Calcisols) may have relatively high sodium levels (ESP>10 and some with ESP>15), and could have developed a natric horizon and classify as Solonetz. However, required other characteristics for a natric (evidence of clay translocation and clay enrichment in B horizon or structure) were not evident from data and descriptions. Although there is no clear evidence of sodic soils (Solonetz), sodicity or alkalinity should always be closely monitored. Figure 29: Soil map used by KRC (based on FAO classification) The map below shows an already existing soil pattern with notes on areas still under survey or completed by Illovo. The soil expert of the 2017 ESIA consultant estimated the surface of heavy Verstisol to be 4000 ha based on information available and a reconnaissance survey. It was the consultant’s opinion that the occurrence of Vertisols in Areas B and C was underestimated in earlier surveys and recommended htat Vertisols need special management or in cases cannot be used. In area C, the occurrence of heavy Vertisols was shown by the Shire Valley ADD Chief Land Resources Conservation Officer in the currently abandoned research area at Ngabu. In Area B, at least two locations of strongly developed Vertisols were shown by Korea Rural Corporation Soils Specialist. KRC subsequently mapped identified Vertisols and during detailed design special measures will be developed for these areas or they will be included in set-aside lands. 92 | P a g e Figure 30: Soil map used by KRC (Source: FAO. 2006. AQUASTAT Country Profile – Malawi.) 93 | P a g e 6.7 AQUIFER AND GROUNDWATER The main aquifer units in the Study area in order of increasing importance as groundwater resources, are: • the weathered and/or fractured basement rocks; • Karoo and Cretaceous sedimentary rocks; • weathered and/or fractured basalts faults; and • the unconsolidated alluvial deposits. In the Study area geological structures such as faults, folds and fractures provide flow-paths for migration of underlying or adjacent under pressure saline groundwater within the aquifer system which causes groundwater to be brackish or saline in most areas (Monjerezi et al., 2011, 2012 and 2012a). The following figure shows the main faults of the Study area. Figure 31 Main faults in the Study area Source: Adapted from Monjerezi, 2012 Monjerezi et al. (2011) have sampled groundwater in 247 boreholes in Chikwawa district. The results of chemical analyses and field measurements have revealed that Electric Conductivity (EC) varied considerably from 35 to 36,000 µS cm-1, and correspondingly Total Dissolved Solids ranged from 16 to 26,539 mg L-1. These two measurements are used to detect salinity in water. Based on these 94 | P a g e data, the vast majority (91%) of groundwater sampled is classified as brackish and 5% as saline. WHO guidelines for Na, Cl-, SO2-4 and Mg in drinking water (WHO, 2004) were respectively exceeded in 42%, 29%, 15% and 35% of all groundwater samples (Monjerezi et al., 2011). In addition, Barium, Boron, Chromium and Lead had concentrations exceeding WHO drinking water guidelines in 6.5%, 9.7%, 16.1% and 64.5% of all samples respectively; these toxic metals were influenced by saline content of water (Monjerezi et al., 2012a). These sampled groundwater are used by local communities as drinking water supply (there are about 305 boreholes in the district of Chikwawa and many temporary hand dug wells). In general, the salinity in groundwater increases gradually as it flows towards Shire River. In the region, there is a spatial variation in groundwater salinity with extreme gradients in chemical composition over short distances; however there is not a significant variation with depth of groundwater (Monjerezi et al., 2011). The high salinity close to the Shire River indicates that the river is not significantly influent to the underlying water table, suggesting a negligible or very slow movement of water from the river into the aquifer. Saline soils are found in some zones along the Elephant marsh on the Western bank (Monjerezi et al., 2011) which is caused by evaporation of brackish and saline shallow groundwater along the Mwanza Fault. The Karoo rocks are dissected by faults which are also responsible for intrusion of mineralized groundwater and soil salinization (Monjerezi et al., 2012). The following figure shows spatial distribution of water salinity (EC in µs/cm) in relation with geological faults (Shire River is shown in the center as well as Illovo estate). Irrigation using water brackish or saline water results in a fertility decrease of the irrigated soil. 95 | P a g e The picture can't be display ed. Figure 32: Electrical Conductivity (EC) of groundwater ( Source: Adapted from Monjerezi et al. (2012) ) 96 | P a g e 7. SOCIOECONOMIC BASELINE 7.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter includes baseline assessment of the current socioeconomic features of the Study area. The proposed project targets close to 100,000 small holder farming households who will benefit from gravity irrigation. The Project extends between 25-40 kilometres wide from Kapichira Falls to Bangula. The crops to be grown include maize, sorghum, cotton, rice and high value crops such as tomatoes, onions, beans and sweet potatoes. 7.2 METHODOLOGY The social baseline was collected for the 2017 ESIA through focus dissusion groups and through social and economic assessments carried out under the COWI assignment on Communication, Community Participation and Resettlement Policy Framework (COWI, 2016). The baseline study incorporates both primary and secondary research. Primary research activities included community observations, selected focus groups meetings with community members, traditional leadership, and women’s group combined with key informant interviews with district council officials, members of the civil society groups particularly non-government organizations. Information on household characteristics was obtained from surveys conducted by COWI (2016), a consultant working on communication, community participation, land tenure and resettlement policy framework who have conducted a detailed household survey within the Project area. Focus Discussion Groups (FDGs) aimed at identifying community characteristics, opportunities, needs, priorities, issues, challenges specifically related to food security, employment, land tenure, economic activities, education, health, water and sanitation. Participants were also be asked to identify groups that may be considered vulnerable, disadvantaged and marginalized. Community observations focused on describing physical infrastructures such as health facilities, schools, transport, land use, markets, and water supply facilities. A checklist has been prepared to assist in obtaining information during community observations. Secondary data for key socioeconomic issues with the project area was obtained through preliminary desktop research. A number of reports as described in reference section were reviewed. Data gaps identified during desktop research included the following: • Some available data and information are too outdated for a social baseline study (6-15 years old). Normally, social data should not be older than five years considering the various socioeconomic changes that could happen within a 5-year period. • There was lack of information on traditional authorities located within the project area. Most of the data contained general information for the district and no specific data were provided Key secondary sources used include: • Government of Malawi – various reports from ministries, development plans, policies, legislation, census • Non-governmental organization and other civil society organizations publications and articles • Academic papers and journal articles 97 | P a g e Community observations focused on identifying physical infrastructures such as health facilities, schools, transport, land use, markets, water supply schemes, cultural sites, religious sites, and recreational sites. A checklist was prepared to assist in obtaining information during community observations. Primary and secondary data gathered was analyzed by the rural sociologist. Quantitative and qualitative data was populated into Excel spreadsheets and organized in tables and graphs. Averages and percentages were calculated while patterns and trends were noted. Surveys responses provide valuable information on perceptions and opinions on socioeconomic conditions in the study area. The purpose of consultations was to solicit views and opinions of different people on the proposed project; to determine how the project will affect them and how best the project will be implemented to minimize adverse social impacts on the communities within the area. The consultative meetings involved key NGOs working in the traditional area and Traditional Authorities (TAs). Traditional leaders concern by the Project are as follow: • TA Kasisi in Chikwawa • TA Chapananga in Chikwawa • TA Katunga in Chikwawa • TA Maseya in Chikwawa • Paramount Chief Lundu in Chikwawa • TA Ngabu in Chikwawa • TA Mbenje in Nsanje TA Makhwira and TA Mlolo, on the eastern side of Elephant marsh, are outside the Project. However, some baseline information were collected for the biophysical environment. Minutes of consultation are included in annex, the full ESIA will study the concerns raised by some of the stakeholders during surveys. 98 | P a g e Figure 33: Traditional Authorities 99 | P a g e 7.3 CONSULTATION RESULTS The general perception of the stakeholders about the project was positive and traditional leaders stated that the project dates back to the 60s. However, after Traditional leaders and communities were sensitized the project did not materialize. Consultations restarted in 2008 but did not continue. Since 2015 TAs have been invited to a number of meetings where they were informed that there was now commitment by both the Malawi Government and donors to implement this project. However, there is still concern among Traditional leaders and communities in the project area that these consultations may not be different from the previous ones which ended without the project being implemented. The meetings and stakeholder consultations conducted in preparation for the SVTP II echoed similar sentiments as those expressed in 2015 during the initial stakeholder consultation meetings. The key issues and questions raised by stakeholders consulted in the project area are as follows: • Drowning of livestock in the main canal; the canal will obstruct access of livestock to communal grazing land and water. • The canal is a drowning hazards for wildlife in Lengwe National Park attempting to cross it or falling in it. • Splitting of Lengwe National Park into wet eastern and dry western parts by the canal. This will hinder animal migration. • Increased cases of illegalities in Lengwe National Park through poaching and logging as the canal construction opens up the park to non DNPW staff • Splitting of villages by the main canal is a concern. • Local leadership should be consulted before implementation of any resettlement. The project should prioritize water distribution to smallholder farmers than private companies. Relocation of graveyards will not be accepted unless in extreme cases • The Project should provide equal employment opportunities for men and women during construction of the canal and ancillary facilities and women shall be included in Water Users Association during operation phase. • There were interests in knowing if farm inputs shall be provided to smallholder farmers and if the use of water from the irrigation canal shall involve any fees. • Has the project considered flood issues in the design? • How will the people whose houses and properties affected by main canal be compensated? • Fear of having crocodiles occupying canals and drains. Crocodiles were actually observed by the consultant in one of the drain of Illovo during the January 2016 mission. • How will the project benefit disabled people and youth in the area? These issues have been considered during subsequent project design and where relevant are incorporated below in specific measures or covered by the Resettlement Policy Framework. 7.4 SOCIAL INDICATORS 7.4.1 Population and demographics The two districts in which the SVTP is earmarked are similar in many respects including population densities, level of development, education and health facilities and other socio-economic factors. 100 | P a g e With regard to demography, according to Population Projections carried out in 2018, the district population of Chikwawa is estimated to reach 603,037 in 2021 consisting of 294,922 females and 308,115 males (NSO, 2018). Much of the population is said to reside in the area of TA Ngabu. It is estimated that the population growth rate for Chikwawa District is 2.7 percent per annum which is lower than that of Malawi. Elsewhere in Nsanje, the combined population of those that live in the urban area and its conurbations and those that were rural-based was estimated at 299,512 (NSO, 2018). The population was projected to rise to 316,213 in 2021 with a female population getting to 165,150 and male population getting to 150,963. At Traditional authority level, TAs Mlolo and Mbenje have higher population. 7.4.2 Household size Although each of the districts will have its own average household size, it is known that the average household size for the southern region districts of Malawi is 4.3 persons compared to 4.4 for the central and 4.8 persons for the northern districts (Population and Housing Census, 2018). According to the results of the survey conducted in the area, average household size for the sampled population is 4.9 in Phase 1 and 5.1 in Phase 2 (COWI, 2016). Apparently, the difference in household size between the Study area and the Southern Region was attributed by the difference in population sample size (COWI collected sample only in the study area). COWI survey showed that there are more men than women in the study area, which is also a difference with the 2008 census. This is in sharp contrast with the population projection arrived at by the National Statistical Office (NSO, 2018). 7.4.3 Gender aspect The COWI household survey conducted in the project sites revealed gender inequalities in agriculture undertakings. It was observed that women spent more time on farming activities yet decisions on sale of farm produce were largely made by men. Discussions with women groups such Chambuluka, Namatchuchu, Joliji, and Misili Womens Club under Development Aid from People to People (DAPP) revealed that women carried more farming activities and household chores whilst men were engaged in casual labour in Illovo estates. Consultations with Illovo and Zikomo Cane Cutting Company, a contractor for Illovo indicated that 70 percent of casual labourers are men. It was evident that farming activities on small scale are predominantly carried out by women. On sale of farm produce and livestock, women indicated that the decision is solely made by men. Proceeds from the sales are not shared equally and rarely do men disclose to their wives the total amount realised from the sale. One major challenged raised by women was food insecurity during floods and prolonged dry periods. This is well collaborated in the 2018 Population and Housing Census (NSO, 2018) report and the 2020 SVTP Baseline Report. With household sizes of 4.3, Chikwawa and Nsanje report high orphanhood of 15.8 and 15.5 respectively. The 2017-2017 Integrated Household Survey (HIS) Report (NSO, 2018) shows that more men than women own land exclusively with 32.7% in Chikwawa and 31.1 in Nsanje compared to 25.8% and 18.9% for women in that respect. Land is co-owned by 19.4% and 20.5% of the residents in Chikwawa and Nsanje in that order. An investigation was also conducted on level of engagement of women in government and NGOs sponsored projects implemented in the project area. It was observed that government sponsored projects under Local Development Fund (LDF), Malawi Social 101 | P a g e Action Fund (MASAF) promote gender equality on labour force working on such projects. The District Community Development Officer for Chikwawa indicated that in some projects the number of women working on government sponsored projects is more than that of men. Projects such as Farm Income Diversification Program (FIDP) and Ubale Project being implemented by NGOs in the project area number of women beneficiaries is surpasses that of men. One reason is that most men are largely engaged in casual labour in Illovo Estates which pays more money than projects compared to government sponsored projects. For instance, under LDF projects the payment is MK7,200 for 12 days which is three times less what one could get from Illovo. Further, some projects do not pay cash but rather farm inputs and food and this is less attractive to men in the area who prefer getting cash. However on decision regarding the use of land at household level, it was discovered that largely adult male (40 percent) made decisions in both phase areas of the project area. Adult male and female jointly were also predominantly involved in decisions concerning use of land. 7.4.4 Vulnerable people Vulnerable, disadvantaged and marginalized groups which include the poor, disabled, orphans, the elderly youth, women, and children are many in the project area and these groups are impacted heavily by poverty and economic shocks. During focus group discussions conducted in traditional authorities Kasisi, Chapananga, Katunga, Maseya, Lundu, Ngabu and Mbenje, participants reported orphans and elderly as most vulnerable groups. Youth from 15 to 35 years of age are considered marginalized since they have higher levels of unemployment. Female headed households were also considered as marginalized groups as most of them do not have property and land rights due to cultural norms. 7.4.5 Education Attainment and quality Nsanje and Chikwawa have low literacy rates of 56% and 58% respectively (NSO, 2018). In Chikwawa, it is reported that around 81% of the population have no educational qualification where as 10% have primary school qualifications. Those with Junior Certificate, MSCE and tertiary qualification are at 6%, 2% and 1 % in that order. Net enrolment rates in primary schools in Chikwawa are higher for girls (84%) than boys that stand at 83%. In secondary schools, however, enrolment rates are higher for boys (14%) than girls (7%). Droput rates in Chikwawa are higher at secondary school level (4%) compared to primary schools (1%). On the other hand, in Nsanje, it is reported that around 76% of the population have no educational qualification where as 10% have primary school qualifications. Those with Junior Certificate, MSCE and tertiary qualification are at 8%, 4% and 2% in that order. Net enrolment rates in primary schools Nsanje are higher for girls (84%) than boys that stand at 84%. In secondary schools, however, enrolment rates are higher for boys (13%) than girls (11%). Dropout rates in Nsanje are lower in secondary schools (2.6%) compared to primary schools (3.1%) 102 | P a g e 7.4.6 Settlements and Community Organization Settlement in the study area are largely nucleated around social infrastructures such as markets, schools and water supplies. Communities are organized according to families and relations in the area with common cultural beliefs and language. The ethnic group in the project area is predominantly the Sena as shown in Figure 33. The Mang’anja are second largest ethnic group followed by the Lomwe. However the rest of the proportion is shared by the Ngoni, Chewa, Tonga, Tumbuka, Nyanja, Yao and other ethnic groups. Needless to say, the area has an eclectic structure of culture and traditions. Household Ethnic Group in the Project Area Other Tumbuka Tonga Sena Mang’anja Chewa Ngoni Nyanja Lomwe Yao 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 Number of Households Phase 2 Phase 1 Figure 34: Household ethic groups The majority of the residents are Christians with some Muslims and atheists. Most adults are married and a considerable number of single adults. Polygamy is practiced by a few men in the area. 7.5 INFRASTRUCTURE 7.5.1 Housing Most dwellings in the project area are made of materials that can be sourced locally, such as bricks, grass, poles, clay (see next figures). During the field visit, it was observed that modern homes more often are made of burnt bricks, cement and roofed with corrugated iron sheets, whereas older homes are commonly made of sunburnt bricks or mud and are grass thatched. Table 14 provides a comparative analysis of population and housing characteristics of households in Chikwawa and Nsanje against households at national and regional revels. 103 | P a g e Table 12: Population7 and housing for Chikwawa and Nsanje against regional and national conditions National Southern Chikwawa Nsanje Observations average region Levels and trends in urbanization Population (people) 603,037 316,123 18,898,441 8,420,081 Lower than Annual growth rate (%) 2.5 2.1 2.9 2.8 average density Population density 116 154 186 244 and growth rate. (persons/km2) Urbanisation centres> 5,000 inhabitants 2.3 9 19 15.9 (%) Housing conditions Household size (people) 4.6 4.3 Owner occupancy Occupancy tenure (%) dominant, rented 65.8 65.6 72.4 -owned 72.9 dwellings is an 11.1 5.5 12.2 -rented 12.3 urban 23.1 28.9 15.4 -other 14.8 phenomenon only. Size of dwelling (%) Smaller size - one room for sleeping 45.6 47.8 41.3 40.3 dwelling prevalent. - two rooms for sleeping 38.2 34.7 38.5 40.7 Majority lives in dwellings using traditional State of permanency (%) materials and -traditional dwelling 39.3 35.5 31.5 28.1 construction -semi-permanent 14.5 17.8 23.2 23.0 techniques. -permanent 46.2 46.6 45.3 48.9 However, some improvements in durability since 1998. Construction materials (%) Floor -earth, sand, dung 85.6 87.0 78.5 77.1 Majority of -cement, bricks, etc. 14.1 12.8 21.2 14.1 dwellings are Walls susceptible to -mud flood damage. 19.2 13.5 9.7 4.3 Flood proofing of -unburnt bricks 35.9 36.6 32.3 50.7 individual -burnt bricks 38.2 44.3 58 42.2 dwellings may not Roof be feasible. -grass thatch 74.6 76.3 53.8 66.9 -corrugated iron 24.9 23.0 45.8 32.1 7 Source: NSO, Population Projections 2018-2050 Report, 2018 104 | P a g e Figure 36: Permanent dwelling and traditional dwelling in the study area 7.5.2 Access roads The project area has 4 classes of roads namely the Main Road (M1), Secondary Roads (S152, S136 and S151), District Roads (D379, D380, D383 and D385) and numerous unclassified roads. The major road linking the urban centers is M1 which connects the project area to the major cities of Malawi. It is a new upgraded road, and the only asphalted road in the Study area, which has eased transportation problems that were experienced in the area. There are 3 Secondary Roads, 2 Tertiary Roads and 839 Unclassified Roads that are regularly maintained and connect small trading centers to major urban centers in the project area. Driving outside the M1 during rainy season could be difficult and the roads on the eastern side of Elephant marsh become impassable due to flooded tributary rivers (flash floods). Common modes of transport in the project area, include motorcycles, bicycles (shapa or kabaza), vehicles and ox-carts. Most household in the project area own push bicycles (66%) and a small percent own motorcycles and ox-carts. The common modes of transport used to access health facilities and trading centers in the area are push bicycles and motorcycles. 7.5.3 Telecommunication The Study area is covered by mobile network from both Airtel and Telekom Networks but communities complained that the network signal is very weak especially when moving away from the M1 road. The SVTP Baseline survey conducted in 2020, indicated that 55% of the male headed households have own a cellular phone compared to 23 of the female headed households. 105 | P a g e 7.5.4 Water supply Communities within the project side heavily rely on boreholes, public tap, protected wells and perennial rivers to draw for domestic purposes. However, households predominantly use borehole water as indicated in SVTP Baseline Report of 2020. The report reveals that tube well or borehole were the main sources of drinking water for 76 % and 75% of male and female headed households, respectively. Most households, (about 97%) have their main sources of water within one kilometre from their homes and only a few households, that is, 2 percent and 3 percent of male and female headed households, respectively, have their main sources of water beyond one kilometer. These findings are below those reported by the 2016-2018 HIS as shown in Table below: Table 13: Proportion of Population with access to potable water by source Water Source Proportion Served Chikwawa Nsanje Improved water source 86.5 95.6 Borehole 73.9 91.6 Piped into yard 11.6 1.4 Piped into dwelling 1.0 2.5 Open well in yard 2.9 1.8 Protected well in yard 0.4 0.5 Sring, river, dam 10.2 2.1 An increase in the percentage of households with piped water within their houses, water piped into their dwelling or piped to a household yard/plot will be indicative of an improvement in households’ living standards. 106 | P a g e Figure 37: Unprotected well from river bed 7.5.5 Sanitation and hygiene Across the Study area, households go to great efforts making water safe. It was learned in the survey that households employ a number of sanitary methods, both traditional and modern in keeping the water free from germs. The methods include: boiling, chlorination/waterguard, filtering and covering the water containers. However the most common methods employed in both phase areas was covering the container. In phase 1 42% of the people cover their container while 24% chlorinate their water with waterguard and 26% employ other methods. The proportions were virtually similar in Phase 2 (COWI, 2016). Covering water only allows to protect water from dust and insects. The SVTP Baseline Study revealed that 74 percent and 70 percent of male and female headed households had toilet facilities in the project impact area. About 76 percent and 71 percent of male and female headed households had toilet facilities in the comparison area. This agrees with the findings from Focus Group Discussions where members expressed that ownership of toilets at household level had improved as compared to the previous years. They explained that the work was facilitated by non-governmental organisations like Goal Malawi and World Vision. As expected, the most common toilet type is the traditional type (a latrine). The Ministry of Health aims to achieve universal and equitable access adequate sanitation and hygiene for all. This includes ending open defecation. In general, sanitation coverage in Chikwawa is higher that in Nsanje where 12.1% and 19.3% do not have access to any form of sanitation (Table 14) 107 | P a g e Table 14: Sanitation Coverage in Chikwawa and Nsanje (Source: NSO, 2017) Category Ckikwawa Nsanje Access to improved sanitation 71% 51.7% Flush toilet 0.7% 1.6% VIP 0.3% - Tradtion pit latrine with roof 70% 50.1% Tradtion pit latrine without roof 17.0% 29.0% None 12.1% 19.3% 7.5.6 Health facilities There are a number of health facilities within the project areas. Main referral health facilities within reach of the communities include Chikwawa District Hospital and Nsanje District Hospital. A number of dispensaries and clinics are located in the project area and these include Mankhokwe, Tengani, Phokera, Mitole, Nchalo and Kasinthula. Key informant interviews with health personnel at nearest health centres indicated that malaria, diarrhea, bilharzia and STIs are the most frequent diseases. According to results of the key informant interviews with health officials from nearest health centres conducted in the project area, malaria is a significant problem and the leading cause of deaths in the project area. The Chikwawa District Health Office reported in 2016 that malaria is the most commom disease in Chikwawa whereas bilharzia (Schistosomiasis) is an emerging concern. Table 15: Common Diseases in Chikwawa TOP MOST REPORTED DISEASES IN CHIKWAWA Data element 2013/2014 2014/2015 2015/2016 Malaria 148,122 171,543 131,626 Other skin conditions 31,522 38,391 36,741 Common injuries and wounds 18,508 20,620 21,008 Eye infection 10,265 15,011 16,774 Oral conditions 9,231 8,973 11,240 Case treated as STI - new 8,317 8,844 12,183 Dysentery 2,982 4,061 3,926 Ear infection 5,210 3,897 4,710 Schistosomiasis - new 2,265 1,852 2,290 The issues identified in the focus group discussions held in TAs Kasisi, Katunga, Lundu, Mbenje, Maseya, Chapananga and Ngabu as fafilitated by COWI in 2016 continue to prevail. Participants identified lack of medicine and drugs in hospital for common diseases, lack of malaria test kits, inadequate staff, lack of bed spacing, lack of equipment for sting other diseases are common major problems experienced in all six health centres. 108 | P a g e 7.5.7 Electricity supply In the project area, urban areas and trading centres such as Chikwawa Boma, Nsanje Boma, Nchalo, Bereu, Phokera, Ngabu and Bangula are powered by Electricity Supply Commission of Malawi (EGENCO) from Kapichira powerstation. Households in most rural areas use solar lanterns, candles and kerosene lamps for lighting in their households. The connection to national electricity grid is still low in the project area and the households indicated that electricity is still not affordable. Households in most rural areas use solar lanterns, candles and kerosene lamps for lighting in their households. In Chikwawa, 0.3% of the population uses electricity for cooking comparead to 0.5% in Nsanje and 5.9% and 6.1% in that order for lighting. The most common source of energy for cooking is firewood both widely used in the urban and rural areas in the project area. Charcoal is used in the urban area because it is relatively expensive. Extensive dependence on firewood significantly contributes to deforestation subsequently effecting water retention processes and cause soil erosion and sedimentation. 7.6 LAND 7.6.1 Land tenure For more details on land tenure this report refers to the Resettlement Policy Framework Document. In Malawi, land is divided into four major categories: customary, government, public and private. The Land Act of 1965 and the National Land Policy of 2002 recognizes these categories of land. A majority of the land in the SVTP area is customary land (81%), 18% being private land, and 1% other. The proportion of customary land is higher in Phase 2 (90%) than in Phase 1 (75%) probably due to the existing large estates within this area. The household survey found that 16% of the land was under disputes. The disputes were, however, not of such a magnitude to negatively affect the project. Of all the land cases, 45% of the disputes were with the neighbour, 25% with the village head, 21% within the family, and 9% with others. Land disputes are generally solved by those involved (43%), by chiefs (50%) or formally by Village Head (VH), Traditional Authority (TA) or the Courts (49%). Female headed households have a preference for settling disputes by VHs (95%) and male headed households by the VH, TA or the Courts (95%). SVTP has instituted a Grievance Redress Mechanism (GRM) in line with the World Bank Environmental and Social Framework (ESF) by which grievances emanating from project actions are resolved. Most of land use fall in four categories: rainfed agriculture; irrigated agriculture; livestock and grazing and fishing. About two thirds of Shire Valley Agricultural Development Division (SVADD) is customary land, controlled by the Chiefs (Traditionnal authorities). Customary land are recognized at Traditional Authority level but not at the Department of Lands level. Land for cultivation is allocated by the chief and a farmer can claim traditional rights to land he has once farmed but no legal rights. Land not used for cultivation can freely be used by anybody for grazing. Customary land includes grazing lands, markets, grounds, graveyards. Private land is held either under free hold title or leasehold title. Private land or estates cover only a small percentage of the ADD. 109 | P a g e Public land is held in trust by the Government and includes Lengwe National Park, Majete and Mwabvi Wildlife Reserves, various Forest reserves, railways, roads, and towns. Leased land includes private farm and settlements which are on private leasehold agreement within the district. The proposed project will be implemented on both customary and public land. However, land is a contentious issue in the project area and in many areas it has resulted in tensions between communities and private companies accused of grabbing land from locals. Most of the people in the project area are without recognized land tenure rights and very few have been able to secure recognized title deeds for themselves. Securing land rights in the project area largely depends on inheritance in the project area. The Sena who follows patrilineal system kinship, land belongs to men and is transferred from fathers to sons while Mang’anja who follows matrilineal system kinship, land is transferred along matrilineal lines. In patrilineal system, women do not own land while in matrilineal kinship they have access to own land. However, from an interview that was conducted with the District Social Coordinator (DSC) and the community members, both in Chikwawa and Nsanje, 95% of the households are virilocal (household located in the village of the man) and only 5% are uxorilocal (household located in the woman’s village) therefore giving much land ownership powers to men than women. Inequalities in land distribution, access and ownership are a common problem in the area. According to the Socio-economic Baseline report of the SVTP (2020), 28 percent of the the beneficiaries in the project area indicated being safe with respect to security of tenure of land of whom 25% were males while 34 % were females. Customary tenure is the predominant landholding system in the SVTP , constituting 66 % of the project land area. In customary areas, land is held by families usually by a male member (81%), sometimes by a female member (15%), and less frequently both men and women (usually as spouses) are joint rights-holders to their land (4%). Of the male land owners,35% is under the age of 35 and of the female owners 29%. Almost all landholders (92%) have acquired their land by inheritance directly from either their father or mother. Almost all land has been allocated. Land scarcity means that access to land through allocation by a family head or traditional authority (chief, group village head or village head) is now uncommon. Tenure is generally perceived as secure, probably due to the centrality of inheritance law in the customary landholding system. Traditional authorities have no direct role or influence on how land is assigned to family heirs. Land transfers or sales to non-family members or to persons from outside the community or village are prohibited, unless they are sanctioned by chiefs 7.6.2 Land size Land holding size for majority of communities in the project area ranges from 0.1 ha to 1 ha. About 43.2% of the smallholder farmers interviewed in the project area have 0.1ha or less of land for both settlement and cultivation. About 29 % of the farmers have 0.1 to 0.5 ha whilst 17.8 % of the farmers have land sizes more than 0.5 ha (COWI, 2016). 7.6.3 Land Use 7.6.3.1 Agricultural Rainfed Production Land is mainly used for rain fed agriculture (69%) and settlement (28%). Only 2% of the land is irrigated and less than 0.5% set aside for grazing, business, renting and other uses. The better off and rich more often use their land for business, grazing and woodlots. The poor more often rent out or sell their land to obtain some cash if they are not able to develop it. Over 70% of the respondents 110 | P a g e in the household survey had 3 to 4 parcels. The total area held by households is small, 23% had a landholding of less than 0.81hectares, 19.8% had 0.81 to 1.22 hectares, and 30.7% had 1.22 to 2hectares. A parcel of land is held in the name of the head in 96% of the households. This percentage is higher in male (98%) than female (86%) headed households and lowest in young female headed households aged younger than 36 years (66%). Southern Region has the highest proportion of female owned parcels in Malawi because of the matrilineal societies living within the area. Although, the two districts have matrilineal societies, men often make decisions on land and land transactions. Agriculture remains the single most important sector of the economy as it employs about 80% of the workforce. Chikwawa district has a total of 126,201 farm families comprised of 65 % and 35% male headed and female headed households. The Makande plain is the major area of agricultural production in the Agricultural Development Division (ADD). Mean annual rainfall is 700-800mm. Mean monthly temperature is 25-30 degrees in the growing period. Agriculture provides the major source of livelihood for the district. Food crops grown in the district include maize, rice, sorghum, various horticultural crops, and sweet potatoes. MAIN CHALLENGES TO RAINFED PRODUCTION Rainfall is erratic in the Study area more especially in the western bank of the Shire River. This has a big impact on food security. MAIN PESTS AND PEST MANAGEMENT In the Study area, the main pests of rainfed production and pest management are the following (more details in the Pest Management Plan): • Cotton: - Pest: aphids and African borer are the main pests of cotton, however none of these diseases are problematic in the Study area. - Pest control: is made by manual spraying of chemicals, no protective clothing is used by workers. • Cereal: - Pest: armyworm, stalk borer and termites are the main pests of maize and sorghum. No control is done. - Pest control: chemical spraying is only used in case of massive attack. • Cereal storage: - Pest: the large grain borer and weevils are major pests of cereals during the storage of the grains. - Pest management: chemicals are widely used to control storage pests. The Pest Management Plan (PMP), which is a separate report, will further study pests and pesticides and propose management measures for the Project. 7.6.3.2 Irrigated Agriculture Irrigated sugarcane and other crops are grown on both sides of the Shire River. The largest and most developed of these schemes are Nchalo Sugar Estate (in total 13,805ha including Nchalo, Alumenda and several smaller estates) and Kasinthula Smallholder Irrigation Scheme (755ha) on the western bank and government schemes such as Nkhate (253ha) and Muona Irrigation Scheme (60ha) on the eastern bank. There are also a number of small-scale farmer self-help irrigation schemes using treadle pumps. Average rice yields under controlled 111 | P a g e irrigation is 3000 kg/ha for one crop. Locally two crops are achieved of either rice alone (summer + winter) or rice (summer) and maize or beans (winter). MAIN PESTS AND PEST MANAGEMENT In the Study area, the main pests of irrigated agriculture and pest management are the following: • Sugar cane - Pest: aphids are a major problem in the area. Thrips are present and rodents are widely spread. - Pest control: the control of pests is done by chemical aerial spraying. Protective clothing is used in Illovo estate but not in outgrower schemes. • Sugar diseases: - Diseases: smut is a major problem in the area. - Disease control: control is done by manual eradication of the infected plants. Hot water treatment is used for seedcane to prevent the spreading of diseases at the plantation stage. The Pest Management Plan (PMP) will further study pests and pesticides and propose management measures for the Project. PROSOPIS JULIFLORA In addition, in the Study area a non-native shrub is invading several areas of arable and grazing lands. It also widely grows in ditches along the M1 road. The shrub originates from South America and has been introduced to Malawi for life fencing for maize garden (Shackleton, 2014). Although it is invasive, it is considered a valuable shrub for several reasons : it is a source of fuelwood, a source of pole, timber and fencing for maize garden. However, it is considered as a nuisance by communities since disadvantages are more significant than their advantages (Chikuni, 2005). According to Chikuni (2005), the issues with this shrub are the following: because of its spines and rapid colonization, it blocks footpath and limits grazing areas, it also takes up land set for agriculture. In Kenya, it is also known to wound gums of goats affecting their health (Shackleton, 2014). 7.6.3.3 Livestock and Grazing Patches of mixed low altitude savanna and severely degraded grassland are used for grazing of mainly cattle, goats, sheep and pigs. Approximately 12 percent of the farm families own livestock. The area carries one of the highest livestock populations in Malawi. With the exceptions of few ranches, livestock are kept on communal land under free range conditions. There is little productive relationship between livestock production and crop production. Occasionally crop residues and stubble are used for feeding livestock. Animal manure is rarely used to improve soil fertility for crop production. Traditionally, livestock particularly cattle are kept for social status and only sold if cash is needed. The quantity of animals is more important than their condition and optimum exploitation for produce and cash. For this reason output from traditional animals farming is limited, despite large numbers of livestock. Meat, milk and eggs are used for home consumption and sold locally to a limited extent. Results from COWI household surveys conducted in the area indicated that most of livestock owners graze their livestock in communal lands and this was very evident during field visit in 112 | P a g e the project area. There are a number of conflicts in the study area over livestock grazing land especially during the growing season from December to May. For the most part, cattle and goats feed on other people’s crops. Otherwise, frequency of conflicts plummet after harvesting crops. Interviews with the District Livestock Officer both in Chikwawa and Nsanje as well as community members, revealed that there are no special corridors for livestock in the study area. Livestock, pass anywhere according to the discretion of the headman and that is one of the reasons contributing to conflicts with livestock farmers and crop farmers. Figure 38: Livestock Population in Chikwawa 113 | P a g e Table 16:: Livestock population in Chikwaw YEAR CATTLE GOATS SHEEP PIGS CHICKENS RABBITS G/FOWLS TURKEYS G/PIGS DUCKS Indigenous Broilers Layers BAs 2006-2007 76588 108107 2895 19454 283353 3111 1564 6892 801 31442 211 273 23774 2007-2008 84946 115797 2730 33365 369193 3209 1373 7413 1207 41754 140 1207 29448 2008-2009 94799 128803 2698 40885 333782 3485 3485 8925 1085 47158 153 344 35289 2009-2010 101230 148765 3262 50648 397991 48628 3392 11718 1254 57995 270 217 40014 2010-2011 110553 170835 4092 57585 452457 35225 8192 13343 1946 63415 235 312 42916 2011-2012 112002 188976 4840 66014 452068 3138 1856 12659 2525 65463 198 504 49232 2012-2013 128670 219037 5367 75747 490727 3996 2154 16642 3604 63235 210 528 52479 2013-2014 133687 196443 5621 81462 501394 35225 2002 13343 3630 60211 235 423 56329 2014-2015 142893 212463 5897 86733 546229 43821 2471 12659 4218 61333 198 518 571 24 2015-2016 151229 221037 6233 92619 551205 46444 2709 16642 4961 6302 314 572 578316 2016-2017 158116 305501 7034 84983 705305 2199 2687 10152 4900 58766 310 515 59287 2017-2018 163798 324732 7722 92360 897483 3333 1483 18929 5306 52960 317 502 63440 Source: Chikwawa District Agriculture Office 2017 114 | P a g e 7.6.3.4 Gender aspect In both Phase 1 and Phase 2 of the project area gender and decision making on land-use is dominated by adult male. Adult male make most decisions regarding land-use as presented in figures 38 and 39. Other members of Other (specify) the household 0% 20% Minor male Adult male 0% 40% Adult male and female jointly 25% Adult female 15% Figure 39: Gender and Decision Making on landuse at Household Level: Phase 2 7.6.3.5 Settlement Pattern Like most of the settlement patterns, there is a propensity of dense settlements at trading centres, and business centres; the settlement pattern in the study area takes a similar setting with much of the population concentrated at Chikwawa Boma, Nchalo, Ngabu, Bangula and Nsanje Boma. Such places offer business opportunities and have medical and facilities that foster better living standards. Nchalo is the most densely populated area in the entire study area beacause of Illovo Sugar Company that offers a lot of job opportunities and a wide spectrum of business streams. On the other hand, Shire River banks are relatively populated due to farming and fishing activities. The river bank is fertile and idea for farming as well as grazing livestock. Areas further from Shire River and urban area are sparsely populated. 7.6.4 Economics The economy of the study area is largely agro-based with households engaged in crop production. Maize is the main food crop grown in the project area while cotton is the main cash crop grown by smallholder farmers in the area though sugarcane cultivated in Illovo sugar estates could be regarded as the main cash earner in the study area. Livestock production and fish farming is also a key economic activity in the area for local masses. Areas of tourist attraction in the study area includes Lengwe National Park and Majete Wildlife Reserve have allowed the developement of economic activities for communities such as the Majete community campsite and community based organisation which are engaged in various income generating activities. Sections below provide a discussion of main economic activities undertaken in the study area. 115 | P a g e 7.6.4.1 Crop Production The project area is largely an agro-based economy relying heavily on rainfed agriculture except for large commercial farming being undertaken by Illovo and medium scale irrigation schemes such as Phata and Kasinthula. In addition, winter cropping contributes to both food and income security.During the 2015 to 2021 growing seasons, sweet potato has increased in production whereas maize production has declined. This vests in sweet potato becoming a coping mechanism as indicated in Table and figure below.The main cash crops in the project area for smallholder farmer are cotton and pigeon peas. Table 17: Crop Production (Mt) in Chikwawa from 2015 to 2021 Growing Season Crop 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 2019-2020 2020-2021 Total Maize 53,870 53,843 43,668 107,177 104,793 88,829 452,180 Rice 9,154 10,031 9,218 7,904 12,848 14,192 63,347 Sorghum 19,562 18,419 16,666 44,966 43,889 24,141 167,643 Millet 10,441 8,526 7,139 17,197 16,210 10,414 69,927 Cotton 9,070 12,761 7,332 11,877 40,839 14,369 96,248 Pigeon Peas 14,796 9,680 16,323 22,708 18,058 14,184 95,749 Phaseolus Beans 8,357 8,983 8,634 12,751 9,820 11,228 59,773 Cow Peas 5,075 4,744 4,944 6,733 7,402 6,811 35,709 Sesame 1,142 1,131 1,160 2,247 2,207 3,526 11,413 Sweet Potato 123,725 130,834 137,984 189,635 121,766 163,328 867,272 Sorghum remains a coping crop owing to its resilience to droughts and dry spells that frequent the project area. 116 | P a g e 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 - Maize Rice Sorghum Millet Cotton Pigeon Phaseolus Cow Peas Sesame Sweet Peas Beans Potato Figure 40: Crop Production in Chikwawa in 2020-2021 season Table 18: Crop Production in Nsanje (Mt) from 2015 to 2021 Growing Season Crop 2015-2016 2016-2017 2017-2018 2018-2019 2019-2020 2020-2021 Total Maize 30,906 30,906 23,692 41,311 36,603 6,331 169,749 Rice 2,237 1,688 2,179 1,709 2,704 2,717 13,234 Sorghum 3,272 3,272 3,239 4,065 3,306 6,331 23,485 Millet 3,586 4,344 4,154 4,001 4,807 7,217 28,109 Cotton 113 165 227 330 801 426 2,062 Pigeon Peas 2,672 1,792 2,097 3,041 2,398 2,736 14,736 Phaseolus Beans 1,738 1,135 1,830 3,045 2,912 4,513 15,173 Cow Peas 2,440 2,444 2,488 3,342 2,980 3,133 16,827 Sesame 721 805 719 991 909 1,547 5,692 Sweet Potato 83,971 81,952 93,365 189,635 121,766 163,328 734,017 117 | P a g e While sweet potatoes dominated production, Nsanje depicts a different picture with respect to food crops in that sorghum and millet play a more important than maize Graph of Crop Production (Mt) in 2020-2021 Growing Season for Nsanje District 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 80,000 60,000 40,000 20,000 - Figure 41: Crop Production in Nsanje in the 2020-2021 season There are number of smallholder irrigation schemes in the project area which largely depend on residual moisture along Shire, Mwanza, Mkombezi, Mnthumba and Thangadzi rivers. The predominant crop in these schemes is maize and primary for food. One major challenge experienced by farmers is unreliable water from nearby wells and lack of pumping equipment to draw water from nearby rivers. At Mkombezi Irrigation Scheme, farmers divert water from Illovo canal to irrigate their crops. 7.6.4.2 Livestock production Livestock farming is also a key economic activity in the project areas especially rearing of cattle, goats, pigs and poultry. Most of the agricultural produce sold are at the nearest trading centres. Traders from nearest townships and urban centres also flock to the project areas to purchase farm produce. Results from COWI household surveys conducted in the area indicated that most of livestock owners graze their livestock in communal lands and this was very evident during field visit in the project area. 118 | P a g e 7.6.4.3 Fishing Fishing in the study area is largely undertaken in Shire River and in a few fish farming ponds. Fishing forms a key economic activity for households located along the Shire River especially during periods when crop production is very low due to flooding and prolonged dry spells. Common fish found in the Shire include Clarias gariepinus (Mlamba), Clarias ngamensis and Oreochromis mossambicus. Discussions with fisheries officials in Chikwawa district indicated that the current supply of fish is low in the region as such dried fish is imported from Mozambique to meet the demand. It was estimated that the average price of fish was MK523.53 per kilogram translating into a total value of MK128,578,968 in 2014/15. Currently, there are 231 fish farmers in the study area with 51 fish ponds covering an estimated area of 25 hectares. In terms of fishery, about 1,830 people are involved in this activity benefiting an insignificant percentage of households. More information on fish species and their value as food source is in section 8.7. 7.6.4.4 Employment A large section of population in the study area especially those in TAs Lundu, Maseya and Katunga are employed directly by Illovo or indirectly through contractors as permanent and seasonal casual laborers. Illovo’s contribution to the local economy is enormous. The company directly and indirectly employs as many as 10,000 people in Lower Shire and also supports close to 2,500 workers throughout outgrowers. The indirect labour force is outsourced during weeding harvesting and pest control. Traditional leaders and communities indicated that income earned from employment in Illovo Estates provides significant revenues for families to complement crop production in the area which at times is adversely impacted by weather shocks. Casual labour is the second largest and vital source of income for most households in the study area with 22% in phase 1 and 12% in phase 2 as shown in Figure 44. 7.6.4.5 Income On annual incomes, about 53 percent of the respondents indicated that they make about less than MK100,000 (+/-150 $US) while 43 percent of the respondents generate about MK100,000-500,000 (150-715 $US) annually. Only 4% of the respondents indicated to generate more than MK500,000. From the survey, it was clear that about 84.3 percent of the respondents in the project area live below one dollar per day. 119 | P a g e Figure 42: Source of Income 7.6.4.6 Benefits from Parks Majete Wildlife Reserve has proved economically beneficial to surrounding communities since a number of people have been employed in the Park and earns incomes. At the community level there is collaborative management of the Park to enhance community ownership and commitment to conserve the Park. Community members are allowed to harvest some of the products in the park such as grass and herbs. They are also allowed to place bee hives to harvest honey as an income generating activity. Community Based Organizations (CBOs) have also been established in villages around the Park undertaking environmental and income generating activities. Profits from such activities are shared by committee members to improve their livelihoods and excess funds assist needy communities and projects. For example, Park Management have donated four maize mills to four CBOs as part of income generating activity. In terms of corporate responsibility Majete Wildlife Reserve have managed to construct a number of school blocks and teachers houses in the area and have been paying school fees for some needy students. Lengwe National Park has proved economically beneficial to surrounding communities as well. At the community level joint management structures were established to ensure co- management of the Park and foster community commitment to conserve the Park. Community Based Organizations (CBOs) were established in all villages which surround the 120 | P a g e Park through which Park Management support various community level development projects. 7.7 HEALTH ISSUES 7.7.1 Introduction Malawi has a high density of population. This population is young (under 15 years represent 47% of the population) with an annually growth rate of 3.3% (Malawi National Statistical Office and ICF Macro, 2011). The greatest part of the population lives in rural areas where the country suffers from the burden of major tropical transmitted diseases like malaria and schistosomiasis. In addition, a severe food crisis affected the country in 2001-2003. This famine has had a part of responsibility in the high level of HIV infection rate through transactional sex for food or gifts (Loevinsohn, 2015). The rapid decrease of the under-five mortality rate from 145 per 1,000 live births in 2000 to 110 in 2010 and 85 in 2014 shows a clear improvement in the health preventive and curative activities. However, with a ratio of 0.03 physicians for 1000 inhabitants, the access to high level care is difficult especially for the rural population. In this context, the ESIA ToRs has requested to provide with a baseline characterization of health issues in the Study area. In addition, there is a common concern about the development of large scale irrigation schemes and the increase of waterborne diseases. 7.7.2 Water-Related Diseases Some infectious diseases are related to water by their way of transmission: • Malaria and its Anopheles mosquitoes vectors breeding in still water; • Schistosomiasis and aquatic snails used as obligate intermediate hosts; • Soil transmitted worms using muddy places; • Cholera or leptospirosis germs possibly present in freshwater. The expansion of irrigation areas can increase the intensity of transmission of these diseases. However, there is never a direct and proportional link between the quantity of surface water and the quantity of related diseases. Conversely, the scarcity of water can also increase their transmission due to population influx near the water places and associated difficulties in hygiene. The scarcity of food or money have negative effects on human behaviour. On the contrary, irrigation can have positive effects on health through increase of money income, of food production and its regularity and through some changes in human behaviour. The vulnerability of communities to changes depends on their adaptive capacity, which requires both appropriate technology and responsive public health systems. The availability of resources depends on social stability, economic wealth, and priority allocation of resources to public health (Sutherst, 2004). 7.7.2.1 Malaria Malaria is caused by the parasite Plasmodium falciparum. It continues to be one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in Malawi. It is estimated that the country experiences between 4 and 6 million episodes of malaria annually. The transmission by Anopheles gambiae s.l. and An. funestus s.l. mosquitoes is perennial with a seasonal increase during the rainy season (Mathanga et al., 2015). In Chikwawa district, the estimated entomological 121 | P a g e inoculation rate for Plasmodium falciparum is of 172 infective bites per human/year which is a high transmission rate (Boudowa et al., 2015). As in other African countries, children under the age of five years bear the highest burden of malaria with annual incidence rates as high as 1,160 episodes per 1,000 children. Surveys carried out in primary schools show a rate of 40% to 60% of the pupils infected by Plasmodium falciparum (asymptomatic carriers) (Mathanga et al., 2012). At the same time, 20% of pregnant women are also asymptomatic carriers. The Malawian Ministry of Health has developed a National Malaria Strategic Plan 2011-2016 to reduce its burden through improved diagnosis, appropriate treatment, and integrated vector management. It recognises the use of Long-Lasting Insecticide-treated Nets (LLIN) as an important intervention for the control of malaria. The plan includes free distribution of LLINs to children born in health facilities, to children attending their first visit under the Expanded Program on Immunization and to pregnant women at their first visit to an antenatal care clinic (Ministry of Health, 2014). The policy supports national distribution campaigns every two to three years and targets pregnant women and children under five, considered the most vulnerable populations. According to surveys, approximately 50% of children and pregnant women sleep under a treated net. The intermittent preventive treatment strategy during pregnancy has been recommended since 1993: all pregnant women have to take at least two treatment doses of sulfadoxine- pyrimethamine during routine antenatal care visits. The last two years have seen alternative distribution channels, including community-based mechanisms. National surveys have shown that the proportion of women who took at least 2 doses of preventive treatment during pregnancy is less than 60%. As in other Sub-Saharan countries, the clinical diagnosis of malaria has to be confirmed at all levels of health structures, using malaria rapid diagnostic tests or light microscopy. The recommended treatment regimen of uncomplicated malaria is an artemisinin-based combination therapy. The first line drug is artemether-lumefantrine. Parenteral artesunate replaces quinine as the recommended medication for the treatment of severe malaria. Theoretically, these drugs are available without cost in health facilities. However, between 2004 and 2010, the proportion of under-five children with fever who used an anti-malarial drug the day of or day after diagnosis remained low at approximately 25%. In Malawi, fever and malaria remain the highest reported illness at 45% of the reported illnesses. The southern region has the highest reported cases in Malawi at 46%. Chikwawa district has a prevalence rate of fever and malaria of 50.3% whereas Nsanje stands at 45.4%. Illovo Estate distributes insecticide impregnated nets to its workers and their relatives. Of course, this distribution does not ensure a real use of the bed nets. When the weather is very hot, it is not comfortable to sleep under a net, especially in little houses with a corrugated iron roof. Out of Illovo, the free distribution of bed nets is only to pregnant women and children through the public health structures. Some surveys show that about half of the under-five sleep under a bed net but the surveys do not provide any detail on the sort of net used. An old net without impregnation by insecticide, with holes or not well tucked under mattress is ineffective against malaria transmission. Illovo workers and relatives have an access to prompt diagnosis and treatment of a malaria attack in one of the seven clinics of the estate. The workers of the other sugar estates (outgrowers) do not have a similar access to care. As the rest of the population, they have to go to one of the health facilities. Some of these facilities have biological tests for the diagnosis and free malaria treatments. However, other facilities are without any drugs and may only refer the patients to other health centres, sometimes as far as 15 km away. Therefore, outside of Illovo Estate, malaria is not well managed in the Study area. In fact, this link is weak because the vector mosquitoes do not breed in the channels with running water. Their larvae grow in small and shallow pools of still water, often temporary pools. It is more 122 | P a g e forest clearing to make farmland that causes an increased production of Anopheles than irrigation. These mosquitoes can however benefit from terminal channels left in non-running water or from poorly maintained drainage channels. The development of irrigation in the Chikwawa and Nsanje does not deeply upset the situation: these lands are already widely used for rain-fed crop production and are therefore a strong support for the production of Anopheles. With a transmission rate greater than 100 infected bites per person per year leading to an overload of infections, the increase in water may increase the Anopheles production in some places but will not induce a genuine change in malaria pattern. 7.7.2.2 Schistosomiasis Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a chronic disease caused by parasitic flat worms of Schistosoma genus. Two major forms exist in Malawi, the urogenital and the intestinal schistosomiasis caused by different Schistosoma species, Schistosoma haematobium and S. mansoni, respectively. In order to complete their lifecycles, schistosomes worms require obligate aquatic snail hosts. Human beings are the reservoir of the parasites and the source of infection of the snails. The distribution of the susceptible populations of Bulinus and Biomphalaria snails broadly outlines the endemic areas where urogenital and intestinal schistosomiasis can occur. There is a close association between the species of parasites and the species of snails. Snail can only proliferate within narrow ranges of temperature, pH and of salinity. However, these conditions are often observed in tropical areas especially in irrigated schemes. The infection of human beings occurs through healthy skin in contact with water where infective forms of the parasites move after leaving the snails. Schistosomiasis is the group of infectious diseases the most closely linked with the use of water for agricultural production or fishing in tropical areas. The prevalence of the infection by Schistosoma is often described as the highest in adolescents and young adults (Makaula et al., 2014). However, infection occurs as early as childhood, when children follow their mothers in activities in fresh water such as washing clothes or irrigating rice or gardening. A survey in Chikwawa district in 2012 showed that 45% of the mothers and 18% of the children were infected with urinary schistosomiasis, with a range from 5% to 60% depending on the villages. The intestinal schistosomiasis was rare in children but present in 21% of the mothers. A co-infection with both S. haematobium and S. mansoni was estimated to be 8% in mothers (Poole et al., 2014). It is a surprising observation because it was previously assumed that this area was only endemic for urogenital schistosomiasis (Chipeta et al., 2013). The 2017-2022 district social economic profiles (SEP) for Chikwawa and Nsanje indicate that the prevalence of Schistosomiasis in the two district is 9.5% and 10.4% in that respect. The workers of Illovo estate benefit from protective clothes and boots and from sensitization. In case of symptoms of schistosomiasis, they are treated in one of the clinics. Their relatives have also access to free treatment. The workers of outgrowers and also the neighbouring population may be free treated in Kasinthula bilharzias health post. A microscope examination of urine is done there but not an examination of faeces because of the lack of knowledge on intestinal schistosomiasis in the area. Seven hundred outpatients were tested in this health post in 2015 and 400 treated. 7.7.2.3 Soil-transmitted helminthiasis Among the infections by soil-transmitted helminths, the most common are ankylostomiasis (hookworm infection) and ascariasis (ascaris worm infection). Hookworm infection affects over half a billion people globally. These worms live in the small intestine. The most significant risk is anaemia secondary to the loss of iron and proteins in the gut. The infection is done through the skin and commonly caused by walking barefoot through wet areas contaminated with human fecal matter. 123 | P a g e Ascariasis has no or few symptoms, especially if the number of worms is small. Symptoms increase with the number of worms present in the gut (abdominal swelling or pain, diarrhea). The infection occurs by eating food or drink contaminated with Ascaris eggs coming from human feces. About one billion people globally have ascariasis. Various surveys in Malawi, especially in the south of the country, show evidence of low levels of prevalence for both ankylostomiasis and ascariasis, below 10% of the children are infected (Bowie et al., 2004, Phiri, 2000, and Msyamboza et al., 2010). It is slightly surprising but the results of the various surveys are similar. They are consistent with the observation of lower intestinal schistosomiasis prevalence in comparison with the urinary one. It can be partially explained by a certain use of pit latrines for defecation. The expansion of irrigated land can foster an increase of these infections, especially by hookworms. 7.7.2.4 Onchocerciasis Onchocerciasis – or “river blindness” – is an eye and skin disease caused by the filarial worm Onchocerca volvulus transmitted by repeated bites of infected blackflies (genus Simulium). These flies breed in fast-flowing streams. Adult flies bite mammals present near the rivers and streams. In the human body, the worms produce larvae that migrate to the skin and eyes. Infected people show symptoms such as severe itching and various skin lesions. Some infected develop eye lesions which can lead to permanent blindness. Onchocerciasis is present in southern Malawi in the highlands area of Thyolo, Mwanza and Mulanje (Courtright et al., 1995 and Mustapha et al, 2005). Because the blackflies live near the fast-flowing streams, the flat areas are free of this disease as is the case for the existing irrigation schemes. SVTP is therefore not at risk of onchocerciasis. The feeder, the secondary and the tertiary canals will not be places for Simulium breeding because of their slow current speed. The only case where the Simulium could occur is at the weir installed to stop tiger fish invasion of the upper Shire River (if the weir creates riffles downstream). 7.7.2.5 Cholera Cholera is an acute infectious diarrhea caused by the ingestion of food or water contaminated with a pathogenic strain of the bacterium Vibrio cholera. It affects both children and adults and can kill within hours. About 80% of people infected do not develop any symptoms, although the bacteria are present in their feces and are shed back into the environment, potentially infecting other people. The cholera transmission uses the fecal-oral route and is closely linked to inadequate environmental management where minimum requirements of clean water and sanitation are not met. Its transmission is caused by human to human contacts (dirty hands in contact with food or water). In Africa, human beings are the only reservoir of the infectious agent. Cholera outbreaks in Malawi occurred every year since 1998 with a maximum of 33,500 cases in 2001-2002. A decrease of the annual number of cases has been observed since this period. Cholera outbreaks in the Southern region of Malawi occur during the rainy season (sometimes throughout the year), including the 2015-16 rainy season. Nsanje, Chikwawa and Blantyre districts are major hotspots. Unsafe water sources, lack of maintenance of broken boreholes, frequent breakdown of piped water supply, low coverage of pit latrines, lack of hand washing facilities, salty borehole water, cross-border spread of the disease from Mozambique, and socio-cultural issues (“Chlorine-treated water smells and tastes bad”, perception of the disease as witchcraft) are some of the causes of the persistent cholera outbreaks (Msyamboza, 2014). Biological analysis show that the quality of drinking water from wells in southern Malawi is very poor, frequently polluted with fecal matter. Approximately 80% of the shallow wells tested in the dry season and 100% of the wells in the wet season do not meet the drinking water standard guidelines for total 124 | P a g e coliforms bacteria set by the Ministry of Water Development (Pritchard, 2007). Heavy rains are a risk factor for cholera outbreaks because they bring excreta in wells and in water collections. Cholera outbreaks can however occur independently of rain. The irrigation is not by itself a risk factor for the spread of cholera. However, a bad use of the canals with open defecation inside the water or on the banks could increase its transmission. 7.7.2.6 Leptospirosis Leptospirosis is caused by various bacteria of the genus Leptospira that affects humans and animals. Without treatment, leptospirosis can lead to kidney damage, meningitis, liver failure, respiratory distress, and even death. The bacteria are spread through the urine of infected animals, especially rodents, which can get into water or soil and can survive there for weeks or months. Humans may be infected through contact with water, soil, or food contaminated with the urine of animals. The bacteria enter the body through skin or mucous membranes. Leptospirosis is an occupational hazard for farmers, especially in tropical areas with wetlands. It is known to be present in some sugar cane plantations. However, data on this disease are scarce in Malawi. Bacteria have been observed in livestock but there are no data for human beings (Myburgh et al., 1989). The use of boots and protective clothes by the farm workers reduces the risk of infection but swimming or wading in fresh water remain a risk factor. The expansion of irrigated lands may result in cases of leptospirosis in the communities, the use of protective clothes being rare and wading being a too pleasant activity for young people. Before any excess of concern for this disease, it would be of interest to carry on serological surveys in samples of the population and also to inform the health workers. Leptospirosis attacks may be easily confused with others febrile attacks like malaria and consequently poorly treated. 7.7.3 HIV infection and AIDS The burden of the HIV infection is high in Malawi. After a peak at probably 22.8% in 1999 among the 15-49 adults, the estimated prevalence was 10.6% in 2010 in the same population (Zulu et al., 2014). In 2012, the whole population living with HIV infection in Malawi was estimated at 1.13 million. The Southern part of the country seems be slightly more affected than the two others regions. The 2016- 2017 HIS shows that in Chikwawa district, the prevalence rate was 9.5% compared to 11.7% in Nsanje. The medical personnel interviewed during key informant interviews indicated that HIV/AIDS prevalence rates have been decreasing in the two districts though cases are frequently registered in dispensaries located close to urban centres. Deaths related to HIV/AIDS have significantly dropped in the areas because of antiretroviral therapy available in dispensaries and increased patients accessing the therapy. However, it was indicated during the FDGs that provision of voluntary counselling and testing programmes should be scaled up in the project area. 7.7.4 COVID 19 COVID-19 virus spreads primarily through respiratory droplets or contact with contaminated surfaces. The risk of exposure to COVID-19 depends on the likelihood of coming within 1 metre of others,or having frequent physical contact with people who may be infected with COVID-19, and through contact with contaminated surfaces and objects. The project will have to adhere to all COVID 19 prevention measures to ensure that workers as well as the communities around are protected for the virus. All relevant stakeholders will be invoved in ensuring that all processes regarding prevetion or treatment of COVID 19 are put in place. 125 | P a g e 8. CULTURAL HERITAGE 8.1 INTRODUCTION This section deals with cultural heritage in Project’s study area. The principal objectives of this section are to: • Present existing information on cultural heritage ; • Describe findings from field surveys ; • Identify and describe cultural resources and their values. This report is based on three main sources of cultural heritage surveys in the Study area: • Cultural heritage surveys by the Malawi Department of Antiquities (MDoA) carried out from November 23 to December 13 2015. • Cultural heritage surveys by the consultant cultural heritage specialist carried out from January 24 to February 6 2016. • Previous cultural heritage surveys in the Chikwawa and Nsanje Districts (done at different periods for example by Robison in 1973). The following section details the methodology of the consultant cultural heritage specialist to undertake cultural heritage assessment in the Study area. 8.2 METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH OF THE STUDY The methodology of this study consisted of three distinctive components: • Desktop assessment • Fieldwork assessment • Meeting with relevant stakeholders Disussions with MDoA indicate that no new information or changes have occurred in the value that would suggest a change in archaeological conditions within the study area. Excavation of xxx sites occurred during the course of the Phase 1 works, during which artefacts were carefully excavated, documented and studied, and subsequently taken to Chiradzulu warehouse for storage. Further excavations in advance of construction works for Phase 2 are expected to occur at 14y locations. The following description of the archaeological baseline provides the context and overall understanding of the cultural heritage of the Lower Shire Valley within the study area. 8.2.1 Desktop Assessment Several types of published data were available, which includes articles and books. The consultant used the Section of Archaeology’s bibliographic database at the Royal Museum of Central Africa (RMCA) in Tervuren, Belgium as well as the library of the Malawian Historical Society in Blantyre. In addition, graveyard localization for the Study area were provided by COWI consultant and the MDoA provided the consultant with their cultural heritage survey report. Even though unpublished data also exists for the Project’s immediate impact area, the consultant was unable to use it as it comprises data for a doctoral research project by a postgraduate student from the University of Leiden in The Netherlands. 126 | P a g e 8.2.2 Fieldwork Assessment For this study, fieldwork was carried out from January 24 until February 6, 2016. One expert and one guide/translator made up the team covering the area for both SVTP I and SVTP II • Dr. Noemie Arazi (Cultural Heritage Specialist for the consultant and Research Associate at the University of Brussels, Belgium) • Mr. Charles Chikwana (Junior Clerk at the District Commissioner’s Office of Chikwawa) Mr. Oris Malijani a representative from the MDoA accompanied the team during their last three days of fieldwork. Fieldwork consisted essentially of interviews and pedestrian surveys. Interviews were conducted with Paramount Chief Lundu and Traditional Authorities as well as with elderly people and cultivators, which allowed the team to introduce themselves to the communities and access essential information on their territory. The team’s work was presented as an opportunity to voice the inhabitant’s concerns over cultural heritage issues such as the preservation of sacred sites. The team also explained the search for archaeological sites (stone tools, potsherds, slag, concentrations of charcoal, etc.), and their importance for reconstructing the country’s prehistory and history. All the cultural heritage sites mentioned during the interviews were visited and their geographical positions registered with a hand- held GPS. Further to the identification of sites that have a cultural, spiritual or religious significance for local communities, a common role of field survey is also the assessment of the potential archaeological significance of places where development is proposed. This is usually connected to construction work, which in this case concerns the canal, associated infrastructure work and the clearance and leveling of land for the areas earmarked for irrigation. The assessment determines whether the area of impact is likely to contain significant archaeological resources and makes recommendations as to whether the archaeological remains can be avoided or rescue excavations are necessary before development work can commence. Considering the vast terrain of the Study area, it was decided to cover as much ground as possible of the Canal RoW and the areas earmarked for irrigation that have not yet been visited by the MDoA. The methodology chosen was field walking in grids or along lines called transects, which has formed the backbone of archaeological survey fieldwork, at least where visibility is fairly good. A team walks slowly through the target area looking for artifacts or other archaeological indicators on the surface. The method works best on either ploughed ground or surfaces with little vegetation. On ploughed surfaces, as the soil is turned regularly artifacts will move to the top. Each site or find spot was recorded with a handheld GPS to produce the map of cultural heritage sites (see Map of Cultural heritage sites). 8.3 RESULTS The results, especially on the archaeological data, should be viewed as preliminary in nature as all interpretations are based on surface finds (no trial excavations were carried out neither any C-14 dating). Considerable numbers of sites were identified, indicating the area’s wealth in cultural resources. 8.3.1 Desktop Assessment Even though the Lower Shire Valley is known for boasting considerable numbers of cultural sites, only a limited amount of published data is available on its archaeology and any other types of heritage resources. 127 | P a g e The Cultural heritage surveys by the Malawi Department of Antiquities (MDoA) carried in 2015 has identified several sites numbered CK1 to CK45 most of which are pottery sherds and stone tools likely from the Iron Age. Some findings were collected for further analysis. The cultural heritage map shows their location. One of the most important publications on the area remains the work by Keith Robinson, who conducted extensive archaeological surveys in southern Malawi and made small-scale excavations along the Lower Shire Valley (Robinson, 1973). The main area investigated by Robinson was along the western bank of the Shire River from the Kapichira Falls in the north to Chiromo in the south, mainly focusing on the western tributaries of the Shire, which overlay the Study area. Robinson noted in 1973 a number of surface occurrences of stone artefacts in the nature of camp sites mainly on raised ground near streams and rivers. The usual material included white quartz, rock crystal and dolerite, which he attributed to the Late Stone Age as they contained microlithic elements. He also found cores and flakes on the Chombwa stream, which he described as Middle Stone Age, but no thorough analysis of this material nor any C-14 dating was undertaken. Robinson’s surveys mainly included the identification of Iron Age sites. The following sites are shown on the cultural heritage map and located in the Study area, some archeological sites have already been salvaged. In Chikwawa District Robinson’s surveys comprise surface scatters at Miwawa Water Hole at the southern boundary of Majete (CK2a), at Phwadzi Stream I (CK4a) and II (CK4b), at the north and south bank of the Nkhombedzi wa Fodya stream (CK5a and CK5b), at the Madziabango stream (CK5c), at Changalumbe Bridge (CK7a), at the north bank of the Lalanje stream (CK9a). In Nsanje District Robinson found Iron Age material on the south bank of the Lulanje (NS1), at the river bank by the Thangadzi Bridge (NS2) and around Chisomba Village (NS4). He identified one shrine known as Nyangu, the ceremonial queen mother to the Kalonga of the Chewa (Maravi) peoples, situated in a grove of trees near the headquarters of Chief Chapananga (Cole- King 1973). These sites are localized on the Cultural heritage map. Robinson’s excavations were carried out at two Iron Age sites at the Phwadzi Stream (I and II), which yielded one charcoal sample that has been dated to AD 500. This date falls within the Early Iron Age period of Malawi, which extends up to the end of the first millennium AD. In southern Malawi the Early Iron Age is mostly represented by a pottery style that is known as Nkope ware. The basic vessel form of Nkope ware are globular pots with everted rims and bowls with flattened and thickened or inturned rims, mainly showing broad line incisions and comb stamped patterns (for an example of Nkope ware see next figure). The latter was made using an implement with relatively large and square teeth. At the end of the Early Iron Age appears a distinct pottery style called Kapeni ware, which is also present in the Lower Shire Valley. Kapeni pottery exhibits thin walled ceramics with everted rims, decorated with a combination of bold oblique, vertical and horizontal channeled incisions (see next figure). The Late Iron Age covers more or less the second millennium BC and includes wares known as Mawudzu (see next figure) - dated to around the 14th to 18th centuries - and Nkhudzi (see next figure) – dated to around the 18th century up to the present, which are equally present within the Project’s impact area. The former exhibits straight rimmed pots, decorated with incised, impressed and stamped motifs of herring bone patterns and oblique lines, while the latter often exhibits fine, bichrome red and black pottery. 128 | P a g e 129 | P a g e Figure 43: Examples of Nkope Pottery, Early Iron Age ( Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date) Figure 44: Examples of Kapeni Pottery, Terminal Early Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date ) 130 | P a g e Figure 45: Examples of Mawudzu (or Maudzu) Pottery, Late Iron Age ( Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date) Figure 46 : Examples of Nkhudzi Pottery, Late Iron Age (Source: Rachel Warren, unknown date ) An important element of the Lower Shire Valley is that it was home to the Lundu Kingdom. The power of the Lundus was founded on the strategic position they occupied in relation to trade between the Portuguese and the interior and on the agricultural production of the Shire Valley that was critical to the survival of the Portuguese settlements in times of drought. Cotton was also provided for trade 131 | P a g e (Schoffeleers, 1987). According to oral traditions, a legendary figure with super human powers, known as Mbona, lived in the Lower Shire Valley during the rise of the Lundu Kingdom. Mbona is said to have had magic powers of bringing rain, creating wells of water on sandy lands, creating forests where they did not exist and hiding from enemies by turning into other creatures such as a guinea fowl. When he died his head was cut and placed at Khulubvi sacred groove, located in the Nsanje District. This place has become an important sacred site to the Mang’anja people, who inhabit the area and worship the spirit of Mbona. From this site other sacred sites developed in the Lower Shire Valley where Mang’anja people gathered to worship the spirit of Mbona. In addition to the Khulubvi sacred grove, they include the following group of sites: • Nyandzikwi sacred site on the junction of Bangula and Maraka road in group village headman Lundu in Nsanje District • Mwala Umodzi shrine, located near Mgwiriza Village within the course of the Thangadzi River • Kaloga sacred cave site, located within the area near Kanyimbi village in the Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve • Chifunda Lundu, located close to the present day headquarters of Paramount Chief Lundu • Nkhadzi sacred site, located in the area of group village head man Ngabu in Nsanje district • Mtsakana rain shrine, in the vicinity of group village headman Zimara, T.A. Maseya in Chikhwawa District • Konde Dzimbiri rain shrine is located in the area of sub T.A. Mphuka in Chikhwawa District In spite of Malawi’s decline in traditional ceremonies, those sites keep their sacred character and still attract people for various traditional practices and expressions. Because of their historical importance, the Khulubvi sacred grove as well as the aforementioned associated shrines have been submitted in 2010 on the tentative list to acquire the UNESCO status of World Heritage Site,and the designation process is still underway. Another site of cultural importance within the Project’s study area is a Baobab tree within the Majete Wildlife Reserve where David Livingstone, the famous Scottish missionary, put up a camp when he visited the area. The grave of Thornton, one of the members of Livingstone’s expedition, is located at Maganga village, few kilometres from Majete. The grave, also situated under a baobab tree, is a gazetted monument (Chikwawa 301: Vol. VI.No.3) but is situated outside of the Project’s study area. Livingstone’s Baobab tree in the Majete Wildlife Reserve, in contrast, might become part of another tentative list submission, which runs under the title of Malawi Slave Routes and Dr. David Livingstone Trail. Indeed, from the submission list it is not clear whether this specific area of Livingstone’s journey falls within the trail that has been submitted for World Heritage status. It should also be mentioned that the MDoA covered this area during the first phase of their cultural heritage impact assessment but no particular mention is made on that tree. However, Park management showed the consultant the tree and the grinding stones underneath it as shown in the following picture. The Livingstone Baobab is called CKL on the cultural heritage map. There have also been recent investigations carried out in the area, namely by Menno Welling from the University of Leiden in The Netherlands. He conducted several excavations for his doctoral degree between 2001-2005, researching the area’s Lundu Kingdom. The latter was present from at least 1500 AD to 1860 AD. Welling’s data however remains unpublished and as a consequence inaccessible for other researchers and/or heritage professionals. 132 | P a g e Figure 47: Grinding stone and "Livingston" Baobab (Source: BRLi (2015) ) 8.3.2 Fieldwork Assessment The consultant cultural heritage specialist spent eight days on active fieldwork during which four sacred sites and thirty archaeological sites were identified. Four graveyards were also recorded as well as three find spots of isolated objects that are of scientific interest. The latter include two percussive stones and one enormous piece of slag. The full list of identified sites are shown on the cultural site map. It was decided to use the same site numbers for the consultant discoveries as the one used by the MDoA survey report in order to stay consistent (starting with CK for Chikwawa district and NS for Nsanje district). 8.3.2.1 Sacred Sites In order to access and record sacred sites, the team needed to meet with Paramount Chief Lundu. In spite of two official meetings, at which Traditional Authorities (TAs) were also present, only four sacred sites were shown to the consultant Cultural Heritage Specialist. They include a sacred forest behind Paramount Chief Lundu’s Residency (also known as Mbewe ya Mitengo), Chifunda Lundu (the Lundu’s former enthronement site), the site of Mawira and the sacred hill known as Mangalangala. • Mbewe ya Mitengo (CK50) is located behind Chief Lundu’s Residency (in Zone A of the Study area). According to oral traditions this is the place where the ancient Lundus resided. It was also used for sacrifices and initiations. Welling carried out archaeological excavations at Mbewe ya Mitengo. The material is exposed at the Tisunge Cultural Center, which is located just behind the site. According to Paramount Chief Lundu, Mbewe ya Mitengo is a protected site and cannot be impacted by any development. Even though we did not enter the site, we passed around it when visiting the Tisunge Cultural Center. • Chifunda Lundu (CK51) is associated with the worship of Mbona (see previous section). It is said that Mbona rested there as he was coming from Kaphirintiwa to establish his own capital at Mbewe ya Mitengo (the present day headquarters of Paramount Chief Lundu). In the past, whenever the enthronisation of a new chief was taking place, he was supposed to be anointed at Chifunda Lundu before going to Mbewe ya Mitengo. The site displays heavy boulders underneath dense vegetation and covers around 20m2. No associated material culture was visible on the day of visit. The site does not seem to be in use any longer. However, according 133 | P a g e to Paramount Chief Lundu no negative impacts such as land transformation activities can be made on this site. But it does not seem in danger of any impacts as it is located outside of Zone A figure 7). • Mawira (CK52) can be described as a water source that is of cultural significance to the area’s local community. It is located in Zone A of the Study area next to the Mwanza river. Its importance is linked to the water’s hot temperature, which contrasts with the cool temperatures of the Mwanza River. According to the inhabitants of Azyuda there is always water to be found at that spot even during a dry spell. The site is located in the territory which falls under the authority of Paramount Chief Lundu, who did not mention anything on that particular site. Hence, additional information is required on possible mitigation measures in case that site should be negatively impacted. On a scientific perspective, hot springs along the Mwanza are common and originate from upwelling from the Mwanza Fault, representing the most recent stages of the Cretaceous hydrothermal activity (Per Aagaard, 2011). • Mangalangala (CK53) is a sacred hill, located close to the site of Mawira. The site was pointed out to us by the people who live in Azyuda. Even though we have not visited the hill we were able to take its coordinates as it is visible on Google Earth. The hill is considered sacred as it is visited by women who have difficulties conceiving as well as in times of drought. Again, Paramount Chief Lundu did not mention anything on this particular site during our meeting. However, given its height any future irrigation activities should leave the hill untouched. Graveyards tend to be protected by dense vegetation in small patches of forest as access by strangers is not permitted. The map of cultural heritage shows the graveyards identified during the field work. In addition, the landuse plans developed for each community should the locations of graveyards (PLEASE CONFIRM THIS IS COR). Relocation of graveyards will not be accepted unless in extreme cases. 8.3.2.2 Archaeological sites Thirty archaeological sites were identified, which mainly consist of open-air sites showing surface scatters of materials such as pottery, metal objects, slag, charcoal and earth (daga) house remains. They were mostly found in cultivated fields, either showing a flat or slightly elevated surface. The latter are often associated with termite mounds. As neither excavations were carried nor any C-14 dating, their age remains mostly unknown. Some sherds however appear to be relatively freshly broken at some sites and might therefore constitute modern material. Others in contrast are well embedded in the soil and might therefore be older in age. Only a handful of sites showed stylistic similarities with pottery known from dated sites. It is therefore problematic at this stage to attribute any preliminary statements on age ranges. However, we know from Robinson’s excavations that the Lower Shire Valley has been occupied since at least the Early Iron Age and even since the Middle Stone Age (as evidenced by the Tomali gravel pits at the Chomwa stream, which contain deposits of 20,000-100,000 year-old stone tools). As regards to iron production, ‘indigenous’ smelting might have occurred in the study area as two occurrences of iron slag were noted (see next figure). However, none of the elderly people interviewed remembers any smelting event in the area and none knew of any of their parents who had produced iron. 134 | P a g e Figure 48: Iron Age Slag found close to Chafudzika (CK71) ( ( Source: BRLi (2016) ) Stone artefacts were limited to grinding and percussive stones. Even though these tools tend to be associated to the Stone Age, their use can still be observed in present-day households. We were able to see the use of a percussive stone in the manufacturing of a straw mat. 8.3.3 Determination of Site Significance and Values In order to define the mitigation measures of the sites located within and/or in proximity of future development zones, sites need to be classified according to their importance and the required appropriate intervention. The following categories have been defined for the cultural resources identified in this study. Each category implies specific mitigation measures that will be defined in the ESIA: • Low Priority Site: no special measure is necessary; • Medium Priority Site: further monitoring during construction to ascertain final priority/importance is necessary; • High Priority Site: protection measures shall be implanted. The prioritization of a site is not a definite measure of its scientific importance but rather a temporary classification regarding potential and further mitigation requirements. In this regard, some high priority sites may well be re-evaluated as non-important after further study. The criteria used to define the value of a site are multiple and complex. However, regarding the area’s archaeological sites the aim is to understand both the history of the people in the region (chronology) and the way of life of past populations (palaeo-ethnography). In this context these criteria can be summarized as follows: • Age of the finds; • Density and/or variety of the finds; • Context of the finds; • Social significance of the finds. In addition, precursory archaeological knowledge of the area can also influence the value of a site. 135 | P a g e Age is a self-explanatory criterion: the older a site is, the more important it is. This is because old sites are rare and finding one is an opportunity to understand the distant past of an area. Most often, sites more than 15,000 years old (Early or Middle Stone Age) are found during major construction works (roads, mines, and pipelines) because they are buried deep underground. To be considered important, a site must also present a high density and/or variety of artifacts. Isolated finds are very difficult to interpret since a representative sample of the material is needed in order to be able to understand the activities carried out at the site by prehistoric peoples. Artifacts must also be in primary context (i.e. as the prehistoric people left them) in order to be exploitable from a scientific standpoint. If natural (erosion, digging animals) or anthropological phenomena have disturbed a site too heavily, the association and position of artifacts cannot be interpreted. Most of the time, a site is discovered because part of it is unearthed by erosion or digging; archaeological interventions will therefore focus on the part of the site that is still undisturbed. Recent sites (tombs, monuments, shrines) can be of high social significance (i.e., be "sacred") to local populations and, in that case, should not be damaged either by archaeologists or by construction activities unless proper compensation is negotiated. In this regard, burial sites or any other sites considered as sacred by local communities are always classified as ‘High priority sites that shall not be lost at all costs’. When taken together, a preliminary site prioritization classification can be illustrated in the following table. Table 19: Site priorization Old Age Primary context High Artefact High social Priority Density or significance Variety Yes Yes Yes Yes High Yes Yes Yes No High No Yes Yes Yes High Yes Yes No No Medium No No No Yes Medium No Yes No Yes Medium No No Yes No Low Prior archaeological knowledge of the area where a site is found is also an important criterion. Medium Priority sites could eventually be re-classified as High Priority sites if no High Priority sites are discovered in a region that was previously unexplored. As no excavations were carried out neither any C-14 dating, it has been difficult to make any preliminary interpretations on age ranges of the identified sites. Furthermore, pottery found on the surface has shown considerable signs of wear and erosion. This has made it difficult to identify characteristic decoration types, representative of distinct periods. The criteria of “Age of Finds” is therefore difficult to apply in this preliminary stage of the study. However, the other two criteria such as “Primary Context” and “High Artefact Density or Variety” have been useful to determine whether an archaeological site can be classified as High, Medium or Low Priority. All sacred sites have been categorized as High Priority (see above explanation). Sites of critical value for cultural heritage are considered to be“(i) the internationally recognized heritage of communities who use, or have used within living memory the cultural heritage for long- standing cultural purposes; or (ii) legally protected cultural heritage areas, including those proposed 136 | P a g e by host governments for such designation (examples include World Heritage Sites and Nationally Protected Areas)”. Sites of the former type (i) within the study area include Mbewe ya Mitengo, Chifunda Lundu, Mawira and Mangalangala, while the latter type (ii) include the associated shrines of the Khulubvi Sacred Grove (see previous section) and Livingstone’s Baobab tree in the Majete Wildlife Reserve that might be part of the Dr. Livingstone’s Trail submitted on the tentative list to acquire the UNESCO status of World Heritage Site. The Malawi Deprtment of Antiquities Museum has been doing more excavations during the implementation period and have continue to discover evidence of communal life during the iron age in the area. Most of the findings have not been of archaeological significance. They they have however, excavated 214 artefacts including iron dagas and pottery which have been taken to their laboratories for carbon dating. The Carbon dating report is yet to be shard with the project. 8.4 CONCLUSION AND LIMITATIONS CONCLUSION The findings of the cultural heritage study have revealed that the Project’s impact area is endowed with cultural resources from past and present. Indeed, the archaeological material indicates that its occupational history might go as far back as the Early Iron Age. LIMITATIONS The vast size of the study area, and the rainy season during which the consultant Cultural heritage specialist field work was carried out have posed challenges to cover large samples of the study area. Moreover, site formation processes seem to work in such a way that many sites are eroded by weathering and sheetflood erosion, down washed and displaced along the Shire tributaries. Therefore, some sites that were identified by either the MDoA or the consultant Cultural heritage specialist (especially pottery and shreds) could be washed away before construction starts. 137 | P a g e 9. NATURAL HERITAGE This section presents various natural sites of particular landscape value and with unique natural features in the Study area. In the Study area, three parks are gazetted, they are legally protected areas: • Lengwe National Park; • Majete Wildlife Reserve (formally called Majete Game Reserve); • Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve. • Matandwe Forest Reserve In addition to their role as biodiversity reserve, these parks and reserves are important landscape features since they represent the last natural forested areas in the valley. Although Elephant marsh is not gazetted under national law, it has been designated a Ramsar Site and is considered a natural heritage site, especially due to its important size and its location in the center of the valley. Elephant marsh was gazetted as a game reserve in 1897 and degazzetted in 1922 (Dudley, 1997). To accord with the ESF (ESS6), where projects affect an area that is legally protected or internationally recognised, the World Bank requires that any activities undertaken are consistent with the legal protection status and the management objectives. Mitigation should be applied so as not to compromise the integrity, conservation objectives or biodiversity importance of the areas. Figure 47 shows the locations of the National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Forest Reserves and Elephant Marsh Ramsar Site within the Study area. 138 | P a g e Figure 49: National Parks, Wildlife Reserves, Forest Reserves and Elephant Marsh Ramsar Site in the study area 139 | P a g e 9.1 MAJETE WILDLIFE RESERVE 9.1.1 Status of the Reserve Majete was established as a game reserve in 1955. Majete is a reserve under the National Parks and Wildlife Act (2017) and its boundaries are gazetted under the Government Notice No. 146 of 1976. It covers an area of 689 km2. The Park has been managed by African Parks since 2003. Since then, the number of tourists has significantly increased to 6000 (in 2012), 8000 (in 2015) and 11,000 (in 2019) according to Park management (personal communication). Majete is the main touristic attraction in the Lower Shire Valley. Prior to 2003, only a few Antelope remained in Majete Wildlife Reserve due to hunting, and the forest was denuded for firewood/charcoal. African Parks fenced the park, employed more scouts, enguaged, established initiatives to support local communities, and started reintroducing animals. Elephants, lions, giraffes, cheetahs, rhino, buffalo, warthog, and in 2021 wild dogs have all been subsequently reintroduced and today the park supports more than 5000 animals of 16 species and acts as a source of animals for reintroduction for other reserves. The reserve supports approximately 300 species of bird, including four species of vulture. 9.1.2 Main Landscape Features Prior to its management transfer to African Parks, Kapichira falls was the reserves main touristic attraction, particularly in the rainy season (ULG Northampton-Price Waterhouse consultants, 2000). African Parks now manage the reserve as five zones. • Mkulumadzi Concession Zone: this zone is an exclusive tourism area with a high-end lodge in the Mkulumadzi catchment; • High Intensity Tourism Zone: Thawale lodge and a camp site are located in this zone, a road network is in place that allows access from Thawale and the camp site to game viewing activities. Most trails are located in this zone. The topography is largely flat and gently sloping toward the River. Kapichira falls are located in this area, it is the only place of this zone with small rocky cliffs. • Low Intensity Tourism Zone: is zoned for low impact and low density tourism activities, water distribution and vegetation types result in low densities of animals it is therefore less suited for game viewing. This zone is kept free of permanent structures. It has a more pronounced topography. The Shire shoreline in this part of the Park is flat and sandy. • Resource Use Zone: the Resource Use Zone is zoned for multiple consumptive resource use which includes collection of natural resources on an organised basis by registered community members such as thatching grass, reeds and bamboo. • Utility Zone: is where the headquarter and offices are located (Mathithi headquarters). The intake and the first 6km of the irrigation canal pass through or close to Majete Wildlife Reserve. The main terrestrial habitats found along the canal alignment are “Riverine and Alluvial Associations” and “Low Altitude Mixed Tall Deciduous Woodland”. According to Sherry (1989, quoted by ULG Northampton-Price Waterhouse consultants, 2005), these habitat are dominated by the following plant species. • Riverine and Alluvial Associations: - Trees : Acacia tortilis, Acacia galpinii, Breonadia microcephala, Cordyla africana, Kigelia africana, Lonchocarpus capassa, Sterculia appendiculata and Hyphaene benguellensis 140 | P a g e - Shrubs: Allophylus sp., Cardiogyne africana, Combretum mossambicensis, C. paniculatum, Dalbergia arbutifolia and Grewia sp. - Grasses : Cynodon, Digitaria, Leptochloa, Panicum, Phragmites and Urochloa • Low Altitude Mixed Tall Deciduous Woodland are Widespread in the river valleys of the lowerlying eastern area. - Trees : Adansonia digitata, Acacia nigrescens, Combretum imberbe, Sclerocarya caffra, Sterculia quinqueloba, Terminalia sericea and Xeroderris stuhlmannii. - Shrubs : Combretum mossambicensis and Grewia spp. - Grasses : Digitaria, Heteropogon and Urochloa The following picture shows the area that has been crossed by the feeder canal (taken from the fuse dike). Figure 7: Majete at Feeder canal location (Source: BRLi (2015) ) Figure 51: Kapichira falls and Shire River from Majete 141 | P a g e 9.1.3 Current threats and challenges Since the park is managed by African Parks, the past threats that were related to poaching and illegal timber extraction are no longer issues. According to the Park Draft Business Plan 2015, the current challenges are coming from increasing pressure from high density population in surrounding communities. These communities have grievances in terms of benefits sharing and resources extraction that could lead to potential human wildlife conflicts and representing a poaching potential around the reserve. The park is also facing challenges that related to soil erosion (around water pond and fences) and to the constant maintenance of the 142 km of electrical fence. Figure 46 shows the deforestation around the park. Forests are in green while deforested areas are in pink. Figure 52: Changes in Forest Cover (Source: GeoterraImage, 2012 ) Other challenges come from the fact that the reserve is completely fenced, severing large animal movement, creating a closed ecological system. There is no culling to regulate population, but some animals are translocated to other sites (sable, waterbuck, kudu, eland and zebra are translocated to other parks in Malawi). In 2017, 200 elephant were translocated to Nkhotakota. HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT There is no human wildlife conflict since the park is fenced. However with the development of irrigated agriculture in the vicinity of the reserve, human wildlife conflcts could arise. ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY The reserve is fenced therefore they are no movement of large mammals outside of the reserve. Inside the Park, movement of large mammals is dictated by several factors, water availability being an important one especially in the dry season. The largest water body is the Shire River with the Kapichira reservoir attracting many species. In addition, Mkurumadzi River in the Northern part of the reserve is also a perennial river. There are 13 springs and pools and 8 artificial water points (AWP) as shown in the Zoning map. 142 | P a g e 9.1.3 Management Objectives The document called “Majete Wildlife Reserve, 5 years Business Plan 2015-2019” is intended to guide the management of MWR and to implement strategies. It defines the reserve’s objectives and goals. The plan priotises enhancement of biodiversity conservation and restocking of game, financial sustainability through enhanced tourism, community engagement and environmental education. Implementation of SVTP during the Intake + 6 kilometres canal, has offered good lessons. With good planning African Parks have guided the contractor through construction works in the park, alternate water sources for game have been provided hence reducing human wildlife conflicts, upgraded tourism facilities and ranger accommodation have been put in place. It has been established that restoration activities along the canal alignment will require more time that will transcend Phase – I and more resources should be availed. In the long tern, measures require support that enhance tourism and financial sustainability of Majete. 9.2 LENGWE NATIONAL PARK 9.2.1 Status of the Park The park was established as a game reserve in 1928 and declared a national park in 1970. It was recognized as one of the two only places in British Colonial Africa were Nyala antelope occurred. In 1928 its size was 520 km2. In 1975, it was extended to its actual size (UICN/UNEP Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas, 1987) and re-declared a National Park by Establishment (Amendment) Order 1975, dated 26 August 1975, and published as Government Notice No.149 of 1975 (LNP Park Plan, 2005). The original park covered the area called the “Old Lengwe” also called the Eastern Salient while the extension called the “Uplands Unit” covers the border with Mozambique and reach North as far as the Mwanza River. The actual size of the LNP is 887 km2. The park is managed by the DNPW. In 2000, the number of paying visitors in the park was only 584 (LNP Park Plan, 2005). In 2015, the number of paying visitors had remained steady at 556 (LNP, General Management Plan 2016-2020, 2015). Tourism revenue levels remain low in the park due as there is no concession fee that is supposed to be collected from the tour operator in normal circumstances, and a general decline for tourism at Lengwe and has been contributed by following factors:  Low wildlife diversity and numbers that makes Lengwe less attracting than adjacent African Park’s Majete  Low infrastructure standards especially roads (plus bridges) that affect accessibility for game drives  The covid 19 pandemic that has greatly affected 2020 visits such that DNPW granted a waiver for overnight visitors to Nyala Lodge 143 | P a g e Table 200: Revenue Generation in Lengwe National Park (Source: DNPW) Category 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Number of 759 775 404 296 94 Visitors Personal 1,211,890 1,426,985.00 694,465 722,650 358,080 Entry Fee Vehicle Entry 550,900 610,060.00 475,405 290,150 171,550 Fee Guide Fee 13,900 6,950.00 27,800 22,500 15,000 Total (MMK) 1,776,690 2,043,995 1,197,670 1,035,300 544,630 Total (US$) 2,238 2,574 1,507 1,302 685 9.2.2 Main Landscape Features Old Lengwe, where the canal will pass, is the best preserved area of the Park and is dominated by tree savanna and thickets of high ecological value because it is one of the last remaining habitat of the Nyala. The topography is rather flat varying from 60 to 150 masl. The Wester part of the LNP, called the Uplands Unit, is gently undulating to about 300 masl with a few hills close to 400 masl. Touristic and management infrastructures are located in the Eastern end of the park close to the park entrance gate (in the Old Lengwe). Nyala lodge has accommodation for tourists. Most trails are located in the Old Lengwe. The park is divided into zones for management purposes, see figure 7: • The Uplands Unit should be designated as “Wilderness Areas” with the development of base camps the only permitted infrastructures. • “Semi-Wilderness Areas” with two sub zones: - The “Central Wild Area”, which is the main part of the Old Lengwe with the actual road network and the Nyala Lodge, used for wildlife viewing from vehicles and hides. It includes the thicket forest vegetation. - The “Outer Wild Area”, which consists of the area surrounding the Central Wild Area designated for self-catering exclusive camps. • The “Resource Use Zones”: are areas where controlled use of natural resources by the surrounding communities are permitted. These areas will be divided based on the original landholding of traditional authorities. 144 | P a g e • “Utility Areas”: are sites for management offices and visitors infrastructures. Also, the 2005 LNP Park Plan had foreseen an area further inland of Old Lengwe and a new lodge as well as new scout camps in the Uplands Unit (Center camp, Ngande, Chilangbangombe, Makungwa). 9.2.3 Vegetation of Lengwe National Park There are four broad vegetation communities (Table 19) that occur in the park (Hall-Martin 1974, Shaxon 1977, Clarke 1983, Sherry 1996, Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett 2002) that will be affected by the canal construction. Table 211: Summary of Vegetation of Lengwe Vegetation Type Characteristics Medium-short mixed open Dominated by Combretum, Diospspyros, and mopane woodland Colophospermum species. With tree density of 110 per hectare, an average height of 5 to 10 metres and an average diameter of 60 centimetres, the tree stand is old and mature. Tall-mixed closed alluvial riverine Composed of Acacia, Cordyla, Lonchocarpus, woodland Hyphaene, and Kigelia species. With tree density of 525 per hectare, an average height of 25 metres and an average diameter of 130 centimetres, the tree stand is old and mature. Lowland thicket-forest Composed of Pterocarpus lucens, Newtonia, Lecaniodiscus, and Cleistochlamys species. The vegetation is largely thorny and interspaced with Acacia negresis Lowland tree savanna Acacia and Combretum species With tree density of 28 per hectare, an average height of 5 to 10 metres and an average diameter of 140 centimetres, the tree stand ranges from mature to old. The terrestrial habitats of LNP that will be crossed by the canal includes Acacia and Combretum savanna and large blocks of thicket which in some areas is dominated by the shrub Small-leaved bloodwood (Pterocarpus antunesii). These thickets are made of dense tall shrubs or small trees between 3 and 8 meters high. Small patches of deciduous forest also occur along the route of the canal in Old Lengwe. There is no wetland in the Park however riparian woodlands dominated by the very tall tree Sterculia appendiculata are present along the Nkombedzi Wa Fodya River. According to Dowsett and Lemaire- Dowsett, (2002), it is the best preserved riparian forest of the Park, where such communities are scares and rare. Around the Namitala River, riverine thicket dominates again. According to Dowsett and Lemaire-Dowsett, (2002), Cola mossambicensis as presented in the habitat map of Old Lengwe (see map) is not the correct species present along Namitala River but the area is rather dominated by Cola clavata. The majority of the canal alignment will pass through open wooded grassland with sparse trees, as shown on figures 49 and 50 below. The following picture shows the area that will be crossed by the Bangula canal in the southern part of the Park. 145 | P a g e Figure53: Area where the Bangula Canal crosses the park (tree savanna) 9.2.4 Fauna of Lengwe National Park Lengwe National Park contains the northern most naturally occurring population of the Nyala antelope (Tragelapus angasii) originating in South Africa and extending to Zimbabwe and Mozambique before finally reaching southern Malawi. The conservation of this large mammal species is the prime objective of conservation of Lengwe and its populations is closely monitored through animal counts. Nyala have been re-introduced to Majete Wildife Reserve. The large mammals of Lengwe National Park have been studied in some detail over the years through the annual game counts that are undertaken by DNPW and Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi (WESM). Animal population estimates show that impala has been the species with the highest population over the last decade, followed by buffalo (Syncerus Caffe). The Nyala Antelope Tragelaphus angasi is the third most populated species whose population has not recovered since the culling that occurred in 1990s. Nyala represents the northern most naturally occurring range for this species and has been the prime focus for the protection of the Initial Lengwe. Other large mammal species of interest that are found but in small numbers include kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), suni (Neotragus moschatus) and porcupine (Erethizon Dorsaum). Areas around Lengwe are also well known as a habitat for Temminck's Ground pangolins (Smutsia temminckii) which have been released into Lengwe. However, there are no records for its population estimates but only its mortality. Lengwe does not have prominent carnivores, however there are some species of nocturnal carnivores such as genet (Genetta genetta), civet (Civettictis civetta) and serval cat (Leptailurus serval). There are also a number of other interesting mammal species to be found at Lengwe such as the Tree Hyrax Dendrohyrax arboreus, the Red Squirrel Paraxerus palliates, the Reedbuck Redunca arundinum, and the Night Ape Galago moholi. Though there has been little effort to study mammals in the Extension Area of Lengwe, the first game count in 2019 showed that there are some remnant populations of at least klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus), bush buck (Tragelaphus sylvaticus) and common duicker (Sylvicapra grimmia). 146 | P a g e Sightings of migratory elephants and lions are occasionally reported by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife and the surrounding communities. Annex 1.1 is a summary of common mammals found in the park including their IUCN Redlist classification. Thicket communities as found in the North-Western part of Lengwe are highly valuable habitats for many species not only mammals (such as the Nyala) but also birds who thrive in their closed canopy. The park is endowed with over 300 bird species, that include the woolly necked stork, trumpeter hornbill, bearded scrub-robin, yellow-spotted nicator and all three species of snake eagle found in Malawi. 9.2.5 Ecological Continuity ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN THE UPLANDS UNIT AND THE EASTERN SALIENT LNP has two distinctive areas, the Old Lengwe which was the first National park and its western extension called the Uplands Unit that was included in the Park latter. These two areas are distinctive due to several factors: • Habitats: Old Lengwe has lowland thickets – forest dominated by Pterocarpus trees and lowland tree savanna with Acacia while the western part is covered by woodland and upland woodland. • Water availability: water holes are artificially providing water for wildlife in the Old Lengwe while the Uplands Unit lacks permanent water sources. After rains, there are also natural pools in Old Lengwe, in addition during the rainy season floods from Nkombedzi wa Fodya river feeds water to natural pools. Historically, the main ecological corridor for water dependent animals was between the Old Lengwe and the Shire River when most mammals were moving toward permanent water during the dry season (Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire, 2005). The area between Lengwe and the River was covered with dense thickets allowing movement of species, now it is totally replaced by sugar plantation. • Park management: Old Lengwe is more intensively scouted by rangers than the Uplands Unit. A new scount centre has been established in Western Lengwe in an effort to contain poaching. The Uplands Unit is intensively encroached by communities as deforestation for agricultural land is visible on Google Earth, human settlement is usually associated with animal poaching. In addition, an earth gravel road separating the Old Lengwe from the western part is intensively used by communities and cattle. • Topography: the Old Lengwe is below 150 masl while the Upland Unit reach up to 380 masl with rocky outcrops. The Old Lengwe has some woodlands that form part of the transition zone into the Uplands unit which maintain some form of ecological continuty. However, several wildlife species such as the Buffalo and Nyala are believed not to occur in the Uplands Unit (Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire, 2005) although the area has not been surveyed for many years. Accordig to Max Del Buffalo, Elephants, believed to be from Mozambique, have lately been spotted in Western Lengwe. ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY WITHIN OLD LENGWE Within the Old Lengwe, there is some movement of large mammals. However, most of the time they are located close to ponds in the eastern end of Old Lengwe. The canal will pass through Old Lengwe covering a distance of 13.9 km starting at point (16o 15’ 48.03” south, 34o42’15. 79” East on the park’s northern boundary and ends at 16o 19’ 22 . 27” South , 34o45’46.65” East on the southern border as shown by the blue canal line in figure 52 below 147 | P a g e The canal passes through a thicket of thorny vegetation for about 3 kilometres south of North Thicket Road. This thicket is an area favoured by nyala, potentially because it affords them protection. No reliable information has been obtained to determine Nyala movement in and out of Old Lengwe (as there are no telemetric monitoring of animal movement). However, Old Lengwe is subject to floods from Nkombedzi Wa Fodya, during which animal are known to move to the Western part of the Park. In addition, discussion with the Lodge manager (Max Del Bufalo, personal communication, 2016) and field observations have revealed that animal do move westward outside the thicket for grazing; the movement is however believed to be limited. It is noted that nyala are not restricted to thickets in Majete Wildlife Reserve. Owing to encroachment and agriculture expansion, LNP as an ecosystem has had its integrity impacted over time. An aerial survey conducted by Precision in 2021 shows that out of a total of 9,501 Ha surveyed, 94.4% has remained intact in its natural state whereas 5.6% has been modified by man representing 8,972 Ha and 529 Ha in that order. ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY BETWEEN LENGWE NATIONAL PARK AND MAJETE WILDLIFE RESERVE Regarding large mammals, there is no ecological continuity for them between LNP and MWR due to the presence of a fence in MWR. LNP and MWR are only a 5 km appart in the northermost part of LNP. They are in fact only separated by the Mwanza river valley. There is no ecological continuity for large mammals between LNP and Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve due to the density of population between the two parks. Due to the heavy population density, ecological continuity for large mammals outside parks and between parks was already at stake in the 50’s, in addition poaching and animal conflicts were already taking place at that time (Mitchell, 1951). 9.2.6 Current threats and challenges Illegal wood logging (for wood in Old Lengwe and for agricultural land in the Uplands Units), illegal cattle grazing in Old Lengwe, and pressure from surrounding communities in extracting resources has affected the state of LNP. In addition, illegal hunting is also severely affecting wildlife in the park. In addition, fragmentation of Old Lengwe because the natural path to the Shire River was cut by sugar plantation decades ago created a dry place where wildlife can no longer fetch for natural water. Water has been a limiting factor for wildlife since. Using different dates on Google Earth reveals that the Uplands Unit is under recent intense illegal wood clearing activities to claim land for agricultural activities as shown in the following pictures (taken at the same location at coordinates 16°4'23.16"S; 34°27'1.59"E at the border with Mozambique). No reliable data exist to quantify encroachment, however it seems to cover around one quarter of the Uplands Unit and affects most flat land of this zone. In the Old Lengwe, where rangers are more present, there is less noticeable forest clearing for agricultural activities. LNP Park Plan (2005) highlights the lack of ranger patrols in the Uplands Unit that affects the efficiency of protecting the Park in this area. 148 | P a g e Figure 54: LNP in 2001 (Northern part of the Uplands Unit) Figure 55: LNP in 2013 (Northern part of the Uplands Unit) In addition, Old Lengwe is surrounded by Illovo sugar estate and a fence keeps wildlife from entering Illovo sugar estate. These pressures have fragmentized wildlife habitats. HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT Buffalos are frequently reported to enter Illovo estate and destroying hectares of plantation looking for water and food during dry months. In 2005, a herd of 50 buffalos entered the estate, destroying 3,000 ha of plantation; the fence had been vandalized and destroyed (IOL news, 2005). Fencing has been installed along parts of the Lengwe National Park boundary, including along the Southern boundary (with Illovo estate) and along the northern boundary where there is much community agriculture. However, the fence is not entire around the whole park and even the stretches that are fenced are sometimes subject to vandalism. 149 | P a g e 9.2.3 Management Document The park management plan produced under the Shire River Basin Management Program (SRBMP) Component B, Sub component B4 called “Lengwe National Park, General Management Plan 2016- 2020 work document” defined the overall objective to “rehabilitate LNP to a standard that allow for the efficient and effective management of its natural resources to the benefit of wildlife, communities, and tourism”. Details of the plans on how to achieve this are described in the most recent Management Plan for Lengwe covering the 2021-2025 period. The plan seeks to realized the DNPW’s policy outcomes of: Improved conservation and management of Malawi’s wildlife resources; Improved private sector investment in wildlife conservation and management; Increased stakeholder participation in collaborative management of wildlife resources; and mainstreamed climate change, gender, HIV and AIDS in wildlife programs and policies. The overall strategic objective for Lengwe National Park is to restore, conserve and manage wildlife for the benefit of the present and future generations. This will be realsied through pursuit of the following sub-objectives:  To adequately monitor wildlife resource for efficient monitoring of the PA;  Improve Park management & eco-tourism infrastructure;  To develop sustainable finance mechanism for efficient management of the park;  Reduce illegal wild life use through increased law enforcement; and  To Improve community engagement, participation and provision of sustainable IGAs and conservation-based investment. 9.3 MWABVI WILDLIFE RESERVE and Matandwe Forest Reserve These reserves will not be directly affected by construction works or the establishment of the command areas. However they provide important natural resources in the Lower Shire Valley and therefore the project will be considering how to support and enhance the nature resources in these reserves as part of Component 4 works. Given the proximity of the park to the potential irrigable areas, it is antincipated that human wildlife conflicts will increase. 9.3.1 Status of the Reserves Originally called the Tangadzi Stream Reserve in 1928, Mwabvi Wildlife reserve was gazetted in 1951, in 1982 it was reduced (de-gazetted) of about 60% (UICN/UNEP Directory of Afrotropical Protected Areas, 1987). The park covers an area of 104 km2 and is managed by the same staff as Lengwe National Park. The Reserve is drained by the Thangadzi River which is a wide seasonal river and is crossed by several small hills that stand out with their thick tree coverage in a flat agricultural landscape. 9.3.2 Matandwe Forest Reserve The reserve was gazetted in 1929 for water catchment conservation and other biodiversity services. According to the 2012 to 2017 forest reserve strategic area plans, MFR has a total area of 26,381 hectares (ha). However, this size could be much smaller than the actual size now since the reserve has been encroached and excised several times. The forest reserve is located in the Rift Valley scarp zone, comprising a range of hills including Mulaka in the north and Natundu in the south. In the northwest, the reserve is bordered by Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve. The forest reserve extends from approximately 16037’S just south of Bangula to 16055/S along Malindi river. The soils are lithosols 150 | P a g e (shallow and stony on steep slopes). The vegetation is open canopy woodland of hills and scarps dominated by Brachystegia species, especially B. boehmii and a degraded form of Uapaca kirkiana (National Atlas of Malawi, 1983). 9.3.3 Management Document Recognising the benefits of a co-ordinated approach to the management of these two resources, a single Integrated Management Plan8 has been prepared for the reserves. The main objectives for managing the reserves vest on two pillars, namely: protected area management and community engagement. Management objectives that foster protected area (PA) management are:  To reduce illegal activities in MMPAC;  Strengthen law enforcement capacity to combat illegal activities in PA;  To improve protected area management and ecotourism infrastructure facilities and equipment;  To adequately monitor biodiversity for efficient management of the MMPAC;  To strengthen collaboration and coordination amongst stakeholders on PA management; and  Improve habitat management Objectives meant to steer community engagement, on the oethr hand, are as follows:  To improve capacity to manage and regulate community resource use programs;  To build capacity and improve community support and participation in sustainable management of natural resources; and  To improve livelihoods for local communities through facilitating and promoting sustainable IGA’s and conservation-based investments 9.4 ELEPHANT MARSH Elephant Marsh is designated as a wetland of inetrnation importance under the Ramsar Convention and has recently been established as a Community Consrevation Area, following the recommendations of the work undertaken as part of the the Shire River Basin Management Program (SRBMP) “Climate resilient livelihoods and sustainable natural resources management in the Elephant Marshes, Malawi” initiative. 9.4.1 Wetland Biodiversity of the Marsh Elephant marsh is dominated by grasses such as the common reed (Phragmites australis), sedges (Cyperus sp.), Hippo grass (Vossia cuspidata) and the cattail (Typha sp.). Floating plant colonies are also present such as the invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and the invasive water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes). Aquatic plants aredominated by the mosquito fern (Azolla nilotica) and the invasive Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta). In the marsh, there are no riparian forest and only few ligneous plants mainly palm trees. In areas where land has been reclaimed from the wetland, rice and maize are cultivated as recession agriculture. 8Matandwe-Mwabvi Protected Area Complex (MMPAC), Integrated Management Plan, Departments Of Forestry And National Parks And Wildlife, Malawi October 2021 151 | P a g e The most common bird species observed by the consultant during field visits in Elephant marsh are the Kingfishers (Alcedo Atthis and A. cristata), the African Fish Eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), Cormorant (Phalacrocorax lucidus), Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis), Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea), African openbill (Anastomus lamelligerus) and the Coucal (Centropus sp.). Crocodiles are common in the marsh, they were also observed by the consultant during the rainy season mission (January 2016), sandbanks of the marsh are used as nests by female crocodiles. Hippopotamus are said to be common in the marsh but the population is declining due to past animal conflicts (see next section) (Dudley, 1997). The Elephant marsh is also an attractive habitat for herpeto fauna (reptiles and amphibians) and wetland dependent insects such as dragonflies. The ecological surveys that have been carried out in the marsh in the framework of the SRBMP (Sub-study n°4: Biodiversity surveys carried out by MRAG) provide valuable and up-to-date information on biodiversity..  Butterflies. Based on biodiversity surveys done by MRAG Ltd (2016), butterfly surveys conducted in June 2015 collected 62 species one of which is a new record for Malawi and one of which is a new subspecies. Their habitats in Elephant marsh where area with high vegetation as well as village graveyards close to the marsh.  Herpetofauna (reptile and amphibian). Based on biodiversity surveys done by MRAG Ltd (2016), it is considered that amphibian diversity and populations numbers still reflect in great part that originally existing in the Elephant Marsh. However, reptiles are considered to show reductions in the numbers, and possibly even local extirpation, of arboreal snakes (Boomslang and Twig Snake), larger terrestrial species (Puff adder), and specialised aquatic species (Zambezi Flap- Shelled Terrapin and Floodplain Viper).  Flora. Based on biodiversity surveys done by MRAG Ltd (2016), flora surveys conducted in the marsh in June 2015 identified 130 plant species. 9.4.2 Current Threats and Value of the Elephant Marsh The Elephant Marsh is dependent on Shire River floods and its numerous meanders to feed water to hygrophilous plant communities and sustain habitats for herpetofauna and waterbirds. There are currently many threats to the wetland as presented in this section. SUGAR CANE PUMPS In the past, some Shire river meanders have been naturally blocked by sand bars or silt deposit or artificially by dikes. An example of meander blockage is illustrated in the following figure showing Alumenda feeder canal (all figures are taken at the same location). Based on photointerpretation, following a reduction of flow in Shire (probably by silt deposit or sand bars), a man made dike was built on a meander to increase flow in the Shire toward Alumenda pumping station canal, probably to bring sufficient water to sugar cane pumping stations. This derivation of water has made available new lands for agriculture in the vicinity of the blocked meander thanks to reduction in soil moisture (reduction of inundated area). Incursions of subsistence farmer in this area has locally reduced the quality of the wetland. The meander eventually became an oxbow used as drainage and irrigation; but lost all hydroconnection with the Shire River 152 | P a g e Figure 56: Original situation with a meander of the Shire in the marsh (2010) Figure 57: Manmade dyke to increase flow to the Shire 153 | P a g e Figure 58: Ongoing encroachment of subsistence farmers following blockage of meander (2016) SILT DEPOSITION Erosion is taken place in the Shire catchment bringing heavy loads of silt to Elephant marsh through tributaries. Deforestation for charcoal business and agricultural activities on Thyolo escarpment is partly responsible for erosion in the Study area. As tributary rivers velocity decrease when entering the marsh, their transport capacity decreases as well leading to silt deposition. Sheetflood erosion (as presented in the soil section) also brings heavy loads of suspended material in the marsh. In the marsh, erosive river bank cultivation is also responsible for the silt load. LAND RECLAMATION FOR AGRICULTURE (DIMBA AGRICULTURE) Many areas in the wetland have been drained to claim land for agriculture. Cultivation in the wetland takes place on every available land, the growing population in the valley has put a lot of pressure on land as shown in the following figures 56, 57 and 58 (all figures are taken at the same location). Recent surveys show an expansion of agriculture into the wetland as confirmed byu the survey conducted by Precision in 2021. Out of a total of 5,077 Ha surveyed, only 47% had remained in its natural original form representing 2,388 Ha whereas 2689 Ha had been converted to agriculture land representing 53%. 154 | P a g e Figure 59: Original situation in the marsh (2006) Figure 60: Beginning of encroachment (2011) 155 | P a g e Figure 61: Ongoing encroachment (2016) Figure 62: Agriculture expansion into Elephant Marsh (Precision 2021) Before the existence of the Kamuzu barrage (Liwonde barrage), water in the Shire was dependent on the outflow from Lake Malawi, when the water would drop below 471.5 masl, the outflow would stop and no water was flowing in the Shire River (Norplan, 2013). According to several sources quoted by Dudley (1997), from 1908 to 1935 due to low rainfall, the outflow of Shire stopped flowing and Elephant marsh was intensively cultivated thanks to land availability during these dry years. Maize, cotton and rice were (are) the main crops in the marsh. During wet years, cultivation was very restricted due to the wetness conditions. As it is the case with many wetlands, wet conditions have a 156 | P a g e positive effect on the ecosystem but a negative effect on livelihoods. The downstream area, where pools are located is less encroached by dimba agriculture. INVASIVE PLANTS Water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) are observed in the marsh. However, they currently do not form vast colonies (consultant observations, 2015, 2016). According to various references, in past years their invasion seemed higher. Other potential invasive plants are the water fern (Salvinia molesta), the Kariba Weed (Salvinia molesta), the Parrot’s Feather (Myriophyllum aquaticum) and the Red Water Fern (Azolla filiculoides). HUMAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT Around the Elephant marsh and Shire River, populations are affected by crocodiles predation due to the fact that some communities rely on the permanent water for their livelihood or to wash clothes, bath or fetch water (since groundwater is of poor quality). In addition, dry season grazing by livestock coincides with the breeding season for crocodiles, a period when they are most active and aggressively protecting their nests or hatchlings. Some reports also suggest that reduction in natural preys leads crocodiles to turn to humans for food (Compass, 2000). In 1996, an aerial survey of the marsh counted 311 hippos and 249 adult crocodiles (Bartlett and Pasteur (1996) quoted by Dudley, 1997), which is much lower than the 2601 hippo counted in 1991 by Simons et al. and the 1620 counted by Mkanda in 1994. The sudden drop is believed to be caused by a drought that has led to a decrease of Shire flow and wetland size and a reduction of grassland surface leading to increased hippo-human conflicts, crop damage and uncontrolled hippos hooting that followed (Dudley, 1997). Growth of human population and conversion of grassland to agricultural lands have also led to an increase in conflicts due to crop damage by hippos (Compass, 2000). KAPICHIRA DAM AND HYDROPOWER The current Kapichira dam and hydropower scheme has little effect on the Elephant marsh as the dam is a run-of-the river scheme, meaning that the retention time of the water in the reservoir is very short (what comes in goes out). The Kapachira environmental assessment written in 1991 concluded on minimal impact of the hydropower scheme on the wetland unless the Lake level drops significantly. Lower fish catches, river bank erosion, reduced crocodile breeding, increase in dimba agriculture and reduction of marsh land where the main expected impacts in case of lake level drop (Dudley, et al., 1991). ELEPHANT MARSH VALUE The Elephant marsh is one of the most productive ecosystems in Malawi. As presented in the Socioeconomic and Aquatic ecology sections, it provides forage for livestock, fertile soils for crop production and fish. The marshes and riverside flats provide excellent folder and watering points for livestock as well as grazing sites during the dry season when the grass is more accessible. Cultivation in wetland offers year-round moisture and fertile alluvial soils increasing yield compared to rain fed summer crop. In addition to agriculture, the marsh is a place where fisheries are taking place, especially in the southern end where pools are located. One crocodile farm is also in the marsh (Shire Crocodile limited), it exports crocodile skins. The wetland also has another important function, in times of floods it acts as a vast reservoir for overspill of flood waters from both the Shire and Ruo rivers. On the other hand, these livelihood activities affect elephant marsh. Growing land occupation in the marsh has resulted in degradation of the wetland ecosystem. It is in fact a semi-natural environment, where water availability is dictated by Kamuzu dam upstream. As mentioned earlier, water level had been subject to important natural fluctuation in the past leading to dryness conditions and increased 157 | P a g e in agricultural activities in the marsh. Since the Kamuzu dam was built, it has allowed to sustain water in the Shire River and improve ecological health of the marsh thanks to regulated water flow. 9.4.3 Management of Elephant Marsh The management of Elephant Marsh is governed by the 2018-2021 Elephant General Management Plan whose aim is s to ensure that: The integrity of the Elephant Marsh is maintained and enhanced, together with the natural functions that these wetlands perform and the benefits that they supply, including the sustainable utilisation of wetland resources, without undermining future adaptive capacity. With a people-centred approach, the plan has been developed to address the identified threats which includes:  Conservation and maintenance of wetland function within the Elephant Marsh, including measures to restore or rehabilitate some areas that have been identified in the surveys as degraded; and  Enhancing the productivity of ecosystem services, including increasing yields, quality and value as appropriate and reducing inputs and post-harvest losses. To realise the plan’s aspirations, the following objectives are advanced:  Develop and promote cooperative conservation of the hydrology, flora and fauna of the Elephant Marsh taking into account the full variety of wetland uses;  Develop and promote the sustainable and wise use of wetland resources while minimising impacts by enhancing the productivity of resource utilization;  Strengthen policies and institutional capacities for the effective management of the Elephant Marsh; and  Strengthen the knowledge base to support conservation, management, planning and restoration efforts and raise awareness of the important role of wetlands, their ecosystem functions and livelihood values Under Phase-I of SVTP, the following have been attained:  Applying METT Scores, the area brought under conservation have moved upwards from 14 hactares at start of SVTP to 54 hactares against a target of 68 hactares;  A planning and monitoring system has been established and is being used for the fisheries sector;  Guidelines for the establishment of Community Conservation Areas (CCAs) around the Elephant Marsh have been developed and are being applied. Kaombe CCA is at advanced stage to establish the CCA. 158 | P a g e 10. ECOLOGY This section describes the terrestrial, wetland and aquatic habitats present in the study area, considers the biodiversity value of these areas and whether there are areas of natural or critical habitat present. The World Bank ESF (ESS6) requires a differentiated risk management approach to habitats based on whether they are ‘modified’, ‘natural’, ‘critical’ habitats, and this chapter identifies the different habitat types that are present. 10.1 LAND COVER and habitat types Relevant information about land cover and condition of the land in Chikwawa, including recent changes, is presented in the Atlas of Malawi Land Cover and Land Cover Change 1990-2010 (FAO, 2013). Based on this Atlas, the following table 22 below shows the main land cover per district using the FAO Land cover classification and codes. Figure 60 shows main land cover types. Table 22: Land cover using FAO Land Cover Classification Percentage of land cover in Chikwawa District Percentage in land cover in Nsanje District (%) (%) Open Woodland with Herbaceous Layer 40.1 Open Woodland with Herbaceous Layer 34.0 (TREO) (TREO) Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small 22.6 Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small 29.9 Sized Field(s) (AGHS) Sized Field(s) (AGHS) Closed Herbaceous Vegetation with 8.1 Closed Herbaceous Vegetation with 1.5 Sparse Trees - Trees and shrubs Sparse Trees - Trees and shrubs savannha (HBCL) savannha (HBCL) Post Flooding Cultivation Of Small Sized 6.4 Post Flooding Cultivation Of Small Sized 3.2 Percentage of land cover in Chikwawa District Percentage in land cover in Nsanje District (%) (%) Field(s) Of Herbaceous Crop(s) Field(s) Of Herbaceous Crop(s) Cultivated Dambo (AGFL) Cultivated Dambo (AGFL) Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small 6.4 Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small 3.9 Sized Field(s) + Sparse Trees (AGTR) Sized Field(s) + Sparse Trees (AGTR) Built Up Area(s) (URBA) 3.6 Built Up Area(s) (URBA) 4.7 Closed Herbaceous Vegetation On 3.4 Closed Herbaceous Vegetation On 11.1 Permanently Flooded Land Permanent Permanently Flooded Land Permanent marsh (HBFP) marsh (HBFP) Irrigated Herbaceous Crop(s) With Large 3.4 Irrigated Herbaceous Crop(s) With Large 0.4 to Medium Sized Field(s) Sugar Cane to Medium Sized Field(s) Sugar Cane (ASUG) (ASUG) Closed Broadleaved Deciduous Trees 2.2 Closed Broadleaved Deciduous Trees 5.6 (TREC) (TREC) Closed to Open Shrubland (Thicket) 1.4 Closed to Open Shrubland (Thicket) 1.9 (SRCO) (SRCO) Other 2.4 Other 3.8 Source: Adapted from FAO (2013) 159 | P a g e NATURAL TERRESTRIAL VEGETATION Natural habitat is restricted to remanent pockets around cemeteries, and to the parks and reserves; even the parks and reserves have been subject to selective logging and tree removal in places, either for charcoal production to create grazing areas. The Natural Habitats that remain fall within the following FAO land cover classifications: • Open Woodland with Herbaceous Layer (TREO): this class includes habitats that are mainly covered by trees, with open canopy and herbaceous layer. Most of the Lengwe and Majete parks and hilly area fall under this category. • Closed Broadleaved Deciduous Trees (TREC): this class includes dense forested areas. • Closed Herbaceous Vegetation with Sparse Trees - Trees and shrubs savannah (HBCL): this class includes dense grassland with sparse trees and shrubs. • Closed to Open Shrubland (Thicket) (SRCO) : this class includes thickets without trees. The last large remaining thicket forest is located in Old Lengwe. It has to be considered a highly important habitat. AQUATIC VEGETATION This class includes transitional areas between purely aquatic ecosystem and terrestrial ecosystem with hydrophytic vegetation (vegetation dependent on damp condition), also called wetland:  Closed Herbaceous Vegetation on Permanently Flooded Land Permanent marsh (HBFP): this class refers to wetlands such as Bangula lagoon and the Elephant marsh. CULTIVATED AND MANAGED TERRESTRIAL AREAS Modified habitat forms the majority of the terrestrial vegetation types in the Lower Shire Valley. These are areas where human activity has substantially modified the vegetation types through clearing for agriculture, even though the land may then be abandoned for periods of time. This class refers to areas where the natural vegetation has been removed and replaced by other types of vegetation of anthropogenic origin mainly for agricultural activities (FAO, 2013). • Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small Sized Field(s) (AGHS) • Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s) With Small Sized Field(s) + Sparse Trees (AGTR) • Irrigated Herbaceous Crop(s) With Large to Medium Sized Field(s) Sugar Cane (ASUG), refers to Illovo and outgrowers • Post Flooding Cultivation Of Small Sized Field(s) Of Herbaceous Crop(s) Cultivated Dambo (AGFL): refers to “dimba agriculture” carry out in dambo and in Elephant marsh. URBAN AREAS This class refers to areas that have an artificial cover such as construction and towns, extraction activities (mines and quarries) (FAO, 2013). The main urban areas are Chikwawa, Nchalo, Ngabu and Bangula. LAND COVER CHANGES Figure hh shows the land cover and habitat types identified for the 2017 ESIA. Recognising that woodland was the only remaining natural habitat type present in the study area, the extent of the woodland remaining has been remapped for this update and is show in Figure ii. By comparing the two, it can be seen that there are no significant changes in the baseline tree cover within the study area, and although some small changes in expanse of urban areas and of modified habitat types has 160 | P a g e occurred, the ecological baseline is not considered to have significantly changed from that described in the 2017 ESIA. 10.2 Modified Habitats The Study area is extensively used for agricultural activities and has been densely inhabited for a long time leading to changes in land cover. This population density has created pressure on ecological functions and habitats. In fact, the catchment is largely modified which means that a large loss of natural habitat, biota and basic ecosystem functions has occurred. Modified habitats are throughout the valley, including in the hilly area of Thyolo escarpment and Mulaka Hills, where intense deforestation is taking place mainly for charcoal production. In the vast plain, where the command areas will be developed, most forests have been cleared to give way for agricultural activities. Patches of remnant forests and thickets are still present around cemeteries but have no potential to shelter any of the large mammals that are observed in the surrounding parks. A small reserve called the Nyasa Wildlife sanctuary is present in the Kaombe Sugar cane estate. Another sanctuary, the Nyala Park at Nchalo is located within Illovo Estate. In this plain, natural forests would have been classified as “Broad leaved relatively dry woodlands and intergrades to savanna” characterized by the following species: Adansonia sp.(Baobab) Cordyla sp. Combretum sp. and Acacia sp. With Acacia and Combretum as dominant ligneous species. The density of Baobab is remarkable in several areas of the plain, perhaps reflecting its cultural status as well as limited value as a timber resource. The main past and current threats and pressures on habitats are: • Logging and land transformation: land transformation to claim forested areas and thickets for agriculture (or cutting wood for charcoal) has started to take place a long time ago . According to the FAO Land Cover Atlas (FAO, 2013) in Chikwawa no land cover change was observed since 2000 while in Nsanje 5 to 10 % of natural vegetation have been cleared for agricultural activities since 2000. • Unsustainable fishing practice: the use of inappropriate fish gears such as small meshed seine nets and mosquito nets destroy the breeding grounds and catch both the juveniles and the adult fish. During upstream migration in tributaries, some fishermen install nets across rivers, catching all fishes. • Encroachment in Parks: in many reports, encroachment is mentioned in all three parks, in Majete this situation has stopped, unfortunately it is not the case with Lengwe as presented in sections hereunder. • Incursion in wetland by subsistence farmers: according to nineteenth century reports there was already at that time a very large population in the area occupying the Shire’s banks doing dimba agriculture (Young, 1868 quoted by Dudley, 2005). 10.3 Natural TERRESTRIAL HABITATS Natural habitats in the Study area are confined to parks and reserves, including Majete Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park. Pockets of natural habitat also occur around cemeteries within the valley. These are described in detail in Chapter 9 of this ESIA. The project has in place measures to avoid the remaining areas of natural habitat as far as possible, and has designed measures to protect or enhance natural resources (including natural habitats) throughout the study area. 161 | P a g e 10.4 WETLAND HABITATS This section deals with wetland habitats. The Aquatic Ecology section further details topics related the value of wetlands for fishes. The main wetlands of the Study area are part of the Shire River floodplain. Downstream from Kapichira falls, the floodplain covers a narrow area of less than a few hundred meters wide. After Mwanza River junction, the floodplain expands and gradually covers a wider area (called the Elephant marsh). The name Elephant marsh does not refer to a wetland entity but rather to a cultural entity, it is not an independent system with natural boundaries. It is in fact part of the larger Lower Shire floodplain. Elephant marsh stretches between the confluences of the Mwanza and Ruo Rivers with the River Shire. After the junction with Ruo, another wetland system is present: the Bangula Lagoons which is part of the Ndindi Marsh. In total, the whole Lower Shire floodplain cover about 1,100 km2 (between Malawi and Mozambique) (Chimatiro, 2004). During the rainy season, all seasonal tributaries of Shire River bring water to the marsh while during the dry season only Shire and Ruo feed the wetland with water. In addition, possible seepages from the Thyolo escarpment bring water to the marsh. As mentioned earlier (see hydrology section), Elephant Marsh hydrological behaviour during the dry season is almost entirely driven by the upstream basin of the Shire River and the Kamuzu Barrage water management while during the wet season, the Elephant Marsh inundation is also caused by the Ruo River. Ruo River feeds an important pool in the marsh named “Tomaninjobi Pool” where fishing activities take place. Ruo has a wide watershed and during the dry season it joins with Shire at the outflow of the Elephant marsh. During the rainy season, it floods a vast area on the western end of the study area (at the border with Mozambique). Outside of parks, there are no large riparian forest nor other wetland worth mentioning in the Study area. Some rivers are still bordered with a 10-15 meters wide riverine forests to maintain banks. It has been reported from many sources quoted by Dudley (1997) that the Elephant marsh had been dry many times in the early 20th century since it was dependent on Lake Malawi level. Dambos are broad valleys that are waterlogged for some months during the wet season, they are fed by rain water or sometimes by groundwater. Dambos geomorphology differs from rivers as they do not form bed channels. The high water table, with little lateral movement, causes anaerobic conditions in the subsoil, thus precluding most woody species. Dambos are moisture-determined habitats. However, in the Study area water does not stay long enough to allow hydrophilic plants to thrive; these are non-wetland Dambos. The biggest dambo is called Mphonza Dambo. 10.5 WILDLIFE This section presents wildlife recorded from the Study area. The majority of the large mammals and rarer species are associated with the habitats within the Wildlife Reserves (particularly Majete) and National Park, although Elephant Marsh supports a number of interesting bird species. MAJETE In terms of wildlife, the reserve that had once lost most of its large mammals was restocked with the following mammals: leopard, lion, black rhino, elephant, buffalo, zebra, sable antelope, Lichtenstein’s hartebeest, eland, impala, nyala and warthog. All of these species populations are increasing. 162 | P a g e The main wildlife animals are with 2015 number: Black rhino (confidential), Buffalo (1319), Bushbuck (400), Bushpig (400), Crocodile (50), Duiker (800), Eland (320), Elephant (389), Grysbok (50), Hippopotamus (85), Impala (2000), Klipspringer (50), Kudu (1022), Leopard (12), Lichtenstein hartebeest (80), Lion (5), Nyala (300), Porcupine (200), Reedbuck (400), Sable (1337), Warthog (800), Waterbuck (1782) and Zebra (571) (Majete aerial census results, 2015). The reservoir along Majete and the Shire River represent highly valuable aquatic habitats since they are vast permanent water sources for many animal and the only large water body during the dry season (elephant, hippopotamus, lion and crocodile are frequent in these areas). Birds also forage in the Shire. LENGWE Lengwe was created to protect the endemic Nyala as well as the thicket communities. . Wild dogs, elephant, rhinoceros, zebra, hippopotamus, sable antelope, roan antelope, waterbuck and most big cats are absent from LNP (Dowsett and Dowsett-Lemaire, 2005). There are about 119 reported species of mammals in Lengwe National Park of which two require attention with restect to protection and habitation conservation as stipulated in the table below. Table 23: Mammals of concern found in LNP IUCN Red No SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME VERNACULAR NAME Datalist Vulnerable due to 1 Manis temminckii Pangolin Ngaka illegal trade Nearly threatened 2 Syncerus caffer Buffalo Njati due to poaching Source: DNPW, 2021 A detailed list of mammals of LNP is shown in Annex 1.1 for further refrence. From the annex, most of the animals are common and of least concern based on IUCN assessment. Animal counts in Lengwe National Park The following table presents species with special conservation status and population trend. According to Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire (2005), in LNP population counts are made by the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) and the Wildlife Society of Malawi (WSM). There are bias in the counts for all species and the figures vary significantly between sources and from one year to the other. One of the explanation provided by Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire (2005) comes from the census method that differs between the DNPW and the WSM. The first uses walked transect counts while the later uses water holes counts. Both used a single method while a combination of method is more appropriate. The main bias for transect comes from the fact that some species are highly mobile and could be counted twice (leading to overestimation). The water holes count is not precise for species that drink at night (buffalo) or that rarely drink (Impala) (leading to underestimation). 163 | P a g e From these figures( Table 20), it can be concluded that Impala population is increasing and Nyala population increased up to the year 2017. LNP Park Plan (2021), concludes that Impala population are increasing at the expense of Nyala and that counts by the MWS are close to reality. In addition, Nyala have more specific niche requirement than Impala which makes the Impala a good competitor under variable habitats such as those fund in Old Lengwe (Mkanda, 1996). LNP Park Plan also considers Nyala absent in the Uplands Unit (Western part of the Park). Buffalos are generally absent from the Uplands Unit (Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire, 2005) although there have been sightings of four heards as late as early 2021 (DNPW). However, for other species the great variability makes conclusion difficult on population trend as well as on carrying capacity of the Park for these animal. Counts by the WSM show a recent drastic decrease of Impala population along with other species. According to MWS, poachers are frequently hunting in the Old Lengwe and are responsible for this significant decrease in wildlife (MWS website, 2016). There has never been any animal re-introduction in the LNP. 164 | P a g e Table 24: DNPW versus WESM Animal Census Species Institution Buffal Common Impala Nyala Warthog Kudu Bush pig Bushbuck Grysbok Suni Year Responsibl o duiker e (Synce (Aepyceros (Tragelaphus (Phacochoeru (Tragelaphus (Potamochoeru (Tragelaphus (Raphicerus (Moschus (Nesotragus rus melampus) angasii) s africanus) strepsiceros) s larvatus) scriptus) sharpie) grimmia) moschatus) caffer) DNPW 1047 2533 565 199 144 0 0 0 0 0 2011 WESM - - - - - - - - - - DNPW - - - - - - - - - 2012 - WESM 40 418 432 80 17 0 101 0 0 3 DNPW 2118 3098 511 168 120 0 24 24 6 24 2013 WESM 20 64 212 116 3 0 17 0 0 0 DNPW 1362 3105 327 43 105 86 31 0 18 37 2014 WESM 0 335 321 53 11 0 118 0 0 11 DNPW 850 3396 296 62 12 12 105 12 49 12 2015 WESM 0 104 200 24 1 0 28 0 0 5 DNPW 936 3031 101 99 37 25 111 12 0 62 2016 WESM 0 260 149 59 5 0 140 0 0 12 DNPW 776 2009 136 99 12 0 37 12 37 37 2017 WESM 37 127 89 5 6 0 48 0 0 4 DNPW 904 2073 154 104 36 0 81 36 63 58 2018 WESM 3 172 86 28 10 0 71 0 0 4 DNPW 936 1060 148 197 0 0 25 0 12 62 2019 WESM 45 99 85 23 0 5 40 0 0 5 DNPW 1678 1392 86 62 99 0 49 12 49 12 2020 WESM 3 309 125 23 13 8 111 0 0 15 Source: DNPW, 2020 165 | P a g e Counts from Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve and CONSOLIDATED LIST OF MAMMALS Mwabvi is endowed with a high population of buffaloes, giraffes, warthogs, antelopes among the higher herbivores (DNPW, 2020). Although there have been some cases of animal-human conflicts especially with the buffalo population, the presence of these higher herbivores is so significant as the population of such animals continues to face challenges even at the world‟s scale. These animal- human conflicts are being addressed through community awareness meetings and strengthening local governance institutions. There is tourism potential in Mwabvi Game reserve because of the geographical position which is a corridor to Mozambique. Apart from Shire River, the inland port, there were other tourist attractions such as Buffaloes, Kudus, Sable Antelopes, Impalas, and Warthogs. Owing to the parks poor accessibility, animal counts (Table 25) are seldom conducted by both the DNPW and WESM. Table 25: Game Count in Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve by Year Species 2019 2020 Buffaloes 0 58 Common Duicker 2 2 Grysbok 1 0 Impala 0 12 Kudu 2 7 Suni 1 0 Bushpig 0 2 Grand Total 6 81 Source: DNPW Dowsett and Dowsett Lemaire (2002) produced a document in which they consolidate their observations on wildlife and report observations from other wildlife experts for the three parks (Lengwe, Majete and Mwabvi) in the Study area. The following table is adapted from their work and is adds newly re-introduced wildlife in the Majete Wildlife Reserve since it has been managed by African Parks. Table 26: Common mammals in the three parks Family Species Lengwe Majete Mwabvi Soricidae (shrews) Crocidura hirta OL Four-toed Hedgehog Atelerix Erinaceidae x albiventris Pteropodidae Rousettus aegyptiacus x Nycteris macrotis x Nycteridae (slit-nosed bats) Nycteris thebaica x Rhinolophus fumigatus x Rhinolophidae (nose-leafed Rhinolophus clivosus X bats) Hipposideros commersoni X Hipposideros caffer x X Scotophilus viridis X Vespertilionidae (pipistrelle Pipistrellus nanus X bats) Nycticeius schlieffenii X X Scotoecus albofuscus X Molossidae (free-tailed Tadarida pumila X bats) Tadarida condylura X 199 | P a g e Family Species Lengwe Majete Mwabvi Greater Bushbaby Otolemur X X X crassicaudatus Lorisidae (galagos) Lesser Bushbaby Galago moholi X X X Zanzibar Galago Galagoides X X X zanzibaricus Yellow Baboon Papio cynocephalus X X X Vervet Monkey Cercopithecus Cercopithecidae (monkeys X X X pygerythrus and baboons) Blue Monkey Cercopithecus X X X albogularis Canidae (dogs) Side-striped Jackal Canis adustus X X Cape Clawless Otter Aonyx Mustelidae (mustelids) X capensis Two-spotted Palm Civet Nandinia X binotata African Civet Civettictis civetta X X X Rusty-spotted Genet Genetta X X X rubiginosa Bushy-tailed Mongoose Bdeogale X X crassicauda Viverridae (civets etc.) Large Grey Mongoose Herpestes X X X ichneumon Slender Mongoose Galerella X X X sanguinea White-tailed Mongoose Ichneumia X albicauda Banded Mongoose Mungos mungo X X X Dwarf Mongoose Helogale parvula X X Hyaenidae (hyaenas) Spotted Hyaena Crocuta X X X X Leopard Panthera pardus X X (recent) X Felidae (cats) Lion Panthera leo (recent) Serval Felis serval X X X Wild Cat Felis libyca X X X X Elephantidae (elephants) African Elephant Loxodonta africana (recent) Rhinocerotidae Black Rhino Diceros bicornis X Family Species Lengwe Majete Mwabvi (rhinoceroses) (recent) X Equidae (horses) Burchell's Zebra Equus burchelli (recent) Yellow-spotted Dassie Heterohyrax X X X Procaviidae (hyraxes) brucei Tree Hyrax Dendrohyrax arboreus X X X Orycteropodidae (Ant bear) Ant bear Orycteropus afer X X X Wart Hog Phacochoerus aethiopicus X X X Suidae (pigs) Bush Pig Potamochoerus porcus X X X Hippotamidae Hippopotamus amphibius X (hippopotami) Lichtenstein's Hartebeest X Sigmoceros lichtensteinii (recent) Bovidae (antelope etc.) Grey Duiker Sylvicapra grimmia X X X Klipspringer Oreotragus X X X 200 | P a g e Family Species Lengwe Majete Mwabvi Sharpe's Grysbok Raphicerus X X X sharpei Suni Neotragus moschatus X X X Impala Aepyceros melampus X X X Sable Antelope Hippotragus niger X X X Buffalo Syncerus caffer X X (recent) Greater Kudu Tragelaphus X X X strepsiceros Nyala Tragelaphus angasii X X Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus X X X X Eland Taurotragus oryx (recent) Reedbuck Redunca arundinum X X Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus X Manidae (pangolins) Pangolin Manis temminckii X X X Sun Squirrel Heliosciurus mutabilis X X X Sciuridae (squirrels) Bush Squirrel Paraxerus cepapi X X X Red Squirrel Paraxerus palliatus X X Hystricidae (porcupines) Porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis X X X Greater Cane Rat Thryonomys Thryonomyidae (cane rats) X X swinderianus Silvery Mole-rat Heliophobius X argenteocinereus Bathyergidae (mole-rats) Common Mole-rat Cryptomys X hottentotus Hare Lepus saxatilis X X X Leporidae (hares) Red Rock Hare Pronolagus rupestris X X Four-toed Elephant-shrew X X X Petrodromus tetradactylus Macroscelididae Peters's Short-snouted X X X (elephantshrews) Elephantshrew Elephantulus fuscus Checkered Elephant-shrew X X Rhynchocyon cirnei Ol :Old LEngewe only, X (recent) since the change in management in Majete Wildlife Reserve BIRDS The number of birds occurring in the Lower Shire three reserves is very high, with between 340,350 species recorded as resident or regular migrants; another 50-60 species occur as irregular visitors or vagrants. The maintenance of important bird habitats such as well-developed deciduous forest and thicket is essential for the survival of several vulnerable bird species. Old Lengwe has the best preserved thickets in the Study area (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett, 2002). The Shire Valley is also of importance as wintering ground for a number of Palearctic migrants such as Palearctic raptors (including the IUCN endangered Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis), rollers and bee-eaters, and very large numbers of several passerine species. The very rare and IUCN endangered Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis, was observed in small numbers throughout the area (Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett, 2002). Elephant Marsh qualifies as a ‘wetland of international importance’ based on its waterbird populations both relative to the total number of waterbirds present (>20 000) and relative to certain waterbird 201 | P a g e species exceeding the relevant 1% population thresholds9. The 2016 bird census in the Elephant Marsh established the existence of 20,238 bird population drawn from 199 bird species of which 68 were water birds . Eight of the waterbird species that have been recorded at Elephant Marsh or at least in the lower Shire River area are globally threatened species. These are: Madagascar Squacco Heron, Lesser Flamingo, Wattled Crane, Southern Crowned Crane, Great Snipe, Bar-Tailed Godwit, Curlew Sandpiper and African Skimmer. However for only one of these species, African Skimmer, does the Elephant Marsh appear to be a significant locality. 10.6 Rare and Scarce Species in Lower Shire Valley IUCN STATUS The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) holds a worldwide-recognized database of species with special status called the IUCN Red List. Searches on IUCN Red List were carried out to identify the status of species recorded from the valley, and the findings are presented in the following tables.. Table 27: IUCN status of Terrestrial Species recorded from the study area Taxonomy Location & system Habitat Assessment Extinct, Critically Forest, Savanna, Endangered, Chordata Malawi, Terrestrial Shrubland, Grassland, Endangered, (vertebrate) Rocky areas Vulnerable, Near Threatened Common name Latin name Habitat Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis Hills and mountains Parleactic Migrant, Endangered Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Woodlands Resident and common in LNP, Vulnerable Acrocephalus Basra Reed-warbler Marshland Endangered griseldis Southern Ground- Bucorvus Woodland and savanna Vulnerable hornbill leadbeateri Stierling's Dendropicos Brachystegia woodland Near Threatened Great spotted eagle Clanga clanga Woodland and savanna Parleactic Migrant, Rare in LNP, Vulnerable Lappet-faced Torgos Woodland and dry Resident but rare in Vulture tracheliotos savanna LNP, Endangered Purple Roller Eurystomus azureus Woodland African migrant, Near threatened Red-necked falcon Falco chicquera Woodlands Resident and common in LNP, Near threatened Southern-banded Circaetus Woodlands Resident and common Snake Eagle fasciolatus in LNP, Near threatened 9 Anchor Environmental (2016), Biodiversity of the Elephant Marsh 202 | P a g e Taxonomy Location & system Habitat Assessment Extinct, Critically Forest, Savanna, Endangered, Chordata Malawi, Terrestrial Shrubland, Grassland, Endangered, (vertebrate) Rocky areas Vulnerable, Near Threatened Common name Latin name Habitat Western Red-footed Falco vespertinus Woodlands Resident and common Falcon in LNP, Near threatened White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps Woodlands Resident and common occipitalis in LNP, Critically Threatened Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Woodlands, wetlands, Resident but rare in grasslands LNP, Near threatened Buffalo Syncerus caffer Woodland and savanna Near threatened Woodpecker stierlingi White-backed Open wooded savanna Gyps africanus Critically Endangered Vulture (Acacia) Olive-headed Ploceus Brachystegia woodland Near Threatened Weaver olivaceiceps Open woodland, Polemaetus Martial Eagle wooded savanna, bushy Vulnerable bellicosus grassland Sagittarius Grasslands, lightly Secretary bird Rare, Endangered serpentarius wooded savanna Temminck's Ground Smutsia temminckii Savanna woodland Vulnerable Pangolin Stephanoaetus Forest, woodland, Crowned Eagle Near Threatened coronatus savanna and shrubland Terathopius Bateleur Grasslands, savanna Near Threatened ecaudatus African Strawcoloured Eidolon helvum Riverine forest, savanna Near Threatened Fruit-bat Commerson's Hipposideros Savanna woodland Near Threatened Leafnosed Bat vittatus habitats For R. cirnei : Near Threatened Closed-canopy For R. cirnei shirensis: Rhynchocyon cirnei Elephant shrew woodlands, and riparian not studied by IUCN shirensis thickets but rare in the LNP (LNP Park Plan, 2005). Woodland, savanna and Extinct* (re-introduced Black Rhinoceros Diceros bicornis shrubland at Majete WR) Woodland, grassland Leopard Panthera pardus Near Threatened savanna and forest 203 | P a g e Table 28: Terestrial Plant Species recorded from the study area: IUCN Red data List status No Scientific Name English Name IUCN Data Redlist Milicia {= Chlorophora} Nearly 1 excelsa threatenedT 2 Monodora stenopetala Oval green-apple Vulnerable The camwood Nearly 3 Baphia spp genus threatened The rattle-pod Nearly 4 Crotalaria sp. genus threatened Nearly 5 Dalbergia melanoxylon African blackwood threatened Available in LNP Lannea schweinfurthii but nearly 6 False marula {stuhlmanii} threatened globally Available in LNP but nearly 7 Cola mossambicensis threatened globally Available in LNP Clerodendrum 8 but endangered myricoides globally The following table shows the results for wetland species, these species are to be considered potentially present in Elephant marsh. Table 29: IUCN status of Wetland Species recorded from the study area Location & Taxonomy Habitat Assessment system Extinct, Critically Endangered, Chordata Malawi, Wetlands (inland) Endangered, (vertebrate) Freshwater Vulnerable, Near Threatened Common name Latin name Habitat Swallow wetlands fringed Madagascar Ardeola idae with vegetation and Endangered Pond-heron adjacent trees Grey Crowned- Balearica wetlands such as crane regulorum marshes, pans and dams Endangered with tall Hirundo Blue Swallow Montane grassland Vulnerable atrocaerulea African Clawless Aonyx capensis Permanent river Near Threatened Otter Hippopotamus Wetland and permanent river Hippopotamus Vulnerable amphibius Spotted-necked Hydrictis Freshwater (stream, river, Near Threatened Otter maculicollis reservoir) 204 | P a g e LOCALLY RARE BIRDS According to Dowsett-Lemaire & Dowsett (2002), the Lower Shire is a biogeographical limit for a number of thicket/forest birds with restricted distribution in South-Eastern Africa. These include the Gorgeous Bush Shrike Malaconotus viridis, Rudd's Apalis ruddi, Grey Sunbird Nectarinia veroxii, Woodwards' Batis fratrum, Barred Long-tailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx montanus and the Black- andWhite Flycatcher Bias musicus; the grassland species the Lemon-breasted Canary Serinus citrinipectus is also a south-eastern endemic. The almost total disappearance of thicket vegetation in the Shire Valley outside wildlife reserves means that thickets in Lengwe and Mwabvi are of the utmost importance for the survival of these relatively rare species. LOCALLY RARE PLANTS In Majete, Kabwazi et al. (2000) notes that Holmskioldia spinescens (a deciduous shrub), Hyphaene crinata (shrub) and a Holostylon species occur in only a few areas of the reserve and should be regarded as rare. In Lengwe, Kabwazi et al. (2000) mentions that Euphorbia lividiflora (red-flowered Euphorbia), Croton megalocarpus (tree), Croton pseudopulchellus (tree), Hygrophila pilosa (perennial herb), Maerua parviflora (shrub), Ziziphus pubescens (tree) and a species of Spermacose (Rubiacea) should be regarded as rare. In Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve, there is a rare tree known locally as “Mwabvi” from which the name of the reserve come from. The 2021-22 IUCN assessment adds the plants listed in Table 16 below to those requiring attention due to vulnerability and their becoming endangered. 10.7 AQUATIC ECOLOGY The study area has been the subject of many studies on fishes, this section is therefore based on desktop review on the most important fish species. 10.7.1 Introduction This section covers the aquatic ecology baseline with the major fish species present and a sample of some important fish species classified as ‘other’ fish species by the Department of Fisheries of the Lower Shire Valley. The fish species described here are mainly from the families of Cichlidae, Cyprinidae and Claridae. Malawi is endowed with numerous water bodies that include Lakes Malawi, Malombe, Chilwa, Chiuta and the Shire River. Lake Malawi is a hot spot for fish biodiversity with an estimated over 1,000 fish species some of which are still not yet described (Ngatunga, 2001). Another important feature about the lake is that most of the fish species (over 90%) in the lake are endemic. Hence, the Lake Malawi National Park was declared a natural heritage site for fish biodiversity in the world by UNESCO. The Malawian major water bodies are stratified for fisheries statistical and administrative reasons. In addition, Shire River is divided into 3 distinctive environments, the Upper Shire, the Middle Shire and the Lower Shire, each with distinctive features and fish species biodiversity (Osborne 2000; Tweddle & Willoughby, 1979). This section concentrates on fish from the Lower Shire. LOWER SHIRE RIVER ECOSYTEM The fish fauna of Malawi are divided into the Lake Malawi and the Lower Shire fish fauna. The Lake Malawi fish fauna comprise all the fish in the lake, all its tributaries and the Shire River up to the Middle Shire or the rapids. 205 | P a g e The Lower Shire fish fauna shares the same ecology with the lower Zambezi fish species because of the absence of any physical barrier between the Lower Shire and the Zambezi River. The Kapichira Falls and the Middle Shire rapids are physical and ecological obstacles to the upstream migration of the Lower Shire fish fauna into the Lake Malawi basin, however the only absolute barrier to upstream fish migration is the Kapichira falls (Tweddle, Lewis, Willoughby, 1979). Thus, fish cannot migrate from the Lower Shire to the Middle Shire. Regarding downstream migration, some fishes from Upper Shire survive when descending the falls and the EGENCO long spillway, although many are left injured and weakened from the harshness of the spillway. Therefore, the Lower Shire and associated marshes support a Lower Zambezi fish fauna, separated physically and ecologically by the rest of the Shire River. Downstream movement of species from Lake Malawi to the Lower Shire explains the presence of a few upstream species in the Lower Shire, however due to the harshness of the EGENCO spillway and the water intake of the powerstation only a few common species are present in the Lower Shire. In addition, the tiger fish from the Lower Shire and Zambezi River is such an aggressive predator that scientists believe that it is the reason why endemic fish species from upper Shire have not succeeded in colonizing Lower Shire (and not only because of the dangerous falls of Kapichira) (Tweddle, Lewis, Willoughby, 1979). Figure 63: Spillway 10.7.2 Fisheries The Lower Shire River sustains an important river-floodplain fishery (where fish production is highly dependent on the quantity of annual flooding) contributing to about 4.2% of total fish landings in the country (FAO, 2015). The fish in the Lower Shire are caught mainly for subsistence by small-scale fishermen providing livelihoods for about 1,830 people. These people are either gear owners or fishing crew members (Frames survey, 2015). The fisheries in the Lower Shire like in Lake Malawi are multi-species hence fishers use multiple gears to catch them. Fishery regulations are not well enforced. More than 60 species are reported to be caught in the Lower Shire fishery, but only three namely, “Mlamba”, the African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus), “Chikano” (Clarias ngamensis ) and “Mphende”, the Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are of commercial importance. Both the Clarias gariepinus and the Clarias ngamensis are considered a single species. These three contribute to 90% of the total fish catch in the Lower Shire. Tilapia constitutes about 51 % of total catches from Lower Shire River and Clarias sp. to 42% (FAO, 2015). Although Tilapia is a worldwide invasive species, it is endemic to the Lower Shire and the Lower Zambezi River (Chimatiro, 2004). 206 | P a g e The most recent fish catch statistics for the major fish species in Chikhwawa and Nsanje districts are as tabulated below (Department of Fisheries, 2021): Table 30: Fish catches in the Lower Shire between 2011 and 2020 Mphende/Other Total Year tilapia Chikano Mlamba Kambuzi Others (tons) 2011 13.61 0 59.65 6.3 180.41 259.97 2012 99.84 0 171.72 74.91 384.65 731.12 2013 402.94 0 164.32 48.24 49.15 664.65 2014 358.78 0 177.41 43.42 123.48 703.09 2015 350.67 76.73 157.66 40.03 100.57 725.66 2016 290.31 123.75 130.11 28.37 68.35 640.89 2017 236.43 6.34 144.42 51.96 81.44 520.59 2018 363.61 8.29 207.14 47.69 119.56 746.29 2019 510.53 13.35 454.95 52.76 260.08 1,291.67 2020 744.01 4.49 374.06 54.37 119.71 1,296.64 Source: Department of Fisheries There was an increment in fish catches over those caught in the period 2015 to 2020. The catch was higher than the other years because water levels were low and people were using beach seine nets as well. The floods that occurred in the period favoured catching of cat fish. Total Fish Catches (Tons) by Year 1400 1,291.67 1,296.64 1200 1000 731.12 703.09 746.29 800 664.65 640.89 600 520.59 400 259.97 200 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Figure 64: Graph Showing Fish catches in the Shire Valley The main fishing methods in the Lower Shire include seine nets, gill nets, fish traps, scoop nets, cast nets and encircling fish fence. Gill nets are the commonest fishing gears used and dug-out canoes and plank boats without engines are the main fishing crafts employed. 207 | P a g e CHALLENGES There is a seasonal fluctuation of fish catches linked to the flooding pattern of Shire River which is influenced in part by the operations of the Kamuzu Barrage (Chimatiro, 2004). Water Hyacinth blooms is another issue problem in the area adversely affecting the fishery. The challenge in managing fishery resources in Malawi is that the artisanal fishery which includes the Shire River is “open-access” in character. Due to weak enforcement by the Malawi Department of Fisheries, many fishers continue to fish without any access restrictions. In fact, as opposed to Lakes Malawi and Malombe, the fishery in the Shire River appears to be unregulated due to lack of enforcement. The lagoons and marshy areas (such as Elephant marsh) are getting shallower and narrower due to soil deposition brought about by flooding. Hence huge soil deposition may in future affect the marshes which are hot spots for fish breeding in the area. 10.7.3 Description of the Fish Species in the Lower Shire Valley This section presents the Tilapia, the African Catfish as well as other fish species in the Lower Shire whose catch is small and are hence characterized as “others” by Fisheries Department. These “other” species include: • Straighfin Barb, “Matemba” (Barbus paludinosis); • “Nkholokolo” (Synodontis njassae); • Tigerfish (Hydrocynus vittatus); • Lake Salmon, “Mpasa” (Opsaridium microlepis); • Redeye labeo, “Ningwi” (Labeo cylindricus); • “Kadyakolo” (Barbus eurystomus); and • “Ngumbo” (Barbus Johnstonii). In addition, Marcusenius macrolepidotus an important catch of gillnet fishery is presented hereunder. The 49 fish species presented are either the most common or the ones with special status (IUCN assessment). In the main report, the 10 most important fish species for subsistence and commercial fisheries are presented. For each fish description, the following criteria has been developed by BRLi to reflect potential issues and challenges that fishes will face due to the Project implementation. Therefore, these criteria have been considered as part of the impact assessment: • Habitat requirements and regional extent: this criterion helps to understand where the fish is present in the region and the world. It describes in which habitat the fish is usually found; • Water quality requirements: this criterion helps to understand what the requirements of the fish are in terms of temperature, pH or turbidity; • Water flow requirement: this criterion describes whether the fish thrives in fast moving water of slow moving water such as pools; • Ability to pass obstacles: this important criterion describes the ability of the fish to jump or pass over obstacles as the project will involve many infrastructures such as canal, siphon and weirs; • Life cycle (migration, spawning and maturing): this important criterion describes the life cycle of fishes; • Important habitats and sensitive life cycle stage: this criterion describes the important habitats and life cycle stage for each fish. The term “important” designate the predilection habitat of the fish and the sensitive phase of the fish life cycle. This criterion will help to assess the significance of impact in the impact assessment; • Actual threats and protection status: this criterion gives an actual indication on the status of the fish and whether it is rare or has an IUCN status (based on March 2016 consultation of IUCN Red List); 208 | P a g e • Value as food source for population and value in the food chain: this criterion describes the value of the fish as a protein source for communities; • Distribution, status of endemicity and relative abundance: this criteria is similar to the first one, it gives additional information about the relative abundance of the fish in the Study area; • Status (native, allochthonous or invasive): this criteria describes the fish in term of its status as native, allochthonous (introduced) or invasive (introduced and aggressively competing with other species). It also describes whether the fish, if transported outside of its natural range, may become invasive or not. As presented earlier, many species use elephant marsh either for spawning in vegetation, or as their main habitat. The terms “marshy area”, “swamps”, “pools” in the following sections all refer to ecosystems that constitute the Elephant marsh. 10.7.3.1 Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT The natural native habitat of O. mossambicus is the eastern coastal region of Africa where the species is found in riverine and coastal lagoon habitats (Fryer and Illes, 1972). The species is found in abundance in the Lower Zambezi river in Mozambique where it has derived its name, as the Mozambique tilapia, i.e., O. mossambicus. The species migrated from its natural habitat in the Zambezi River and inhabits the marshy and lagoon areas of the Lower Shire Valley (Tweddle et al., 1982) where it has been confined due to the natural barrier between the Lower Shire / Zambezi fish fauna and the Lake Malawi fish fauna. The species was introduced to the US through aquaculture and has established itself through accidental or intentional introductions in the river systems of Texas, Florida and Alabama (Brown, 1961; Courtney, 1961; Bruton and Bolt, 1975). O. mossambicus has also been introduced in many African and Asian countries where aquaculture is being practiced. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS Temperature O. mossambicus is one for the tropical fin fishes of Africa. It tolerates a wide range of temperature. The optimum temperature for growth is above 19oC and for reproduction is above 22oC (Trewavas, 1983). These conditions are prevalent in the Lower Zambezi River and the Lower Shire. In the natural habitats, Trewavas (1983) reported that O. mossambicus does not tolerate temperatures below 10oC. Salinity O. mossambicus tolerates a broad range of water salinity (Trewavas, 1983). The species thrive in fresh water up to the salinity levels of 40 ppt, it can reproduce in estuarine waters with salinity levels as high as 34.5 ppt (Knaggs, 1977; Dial and Wainright, 1983). This is one of the features common to all tilapias which enable them adapt a wide range of environmental conditions and hence their world-wide distribution (Trewavas, 1983). pH O. mossambicus can tolerate a wide range of pH from 3.1 (acidic conditions) to 8.5 (alkaline conditions). This feature also accounts for their adaptation to a wide geographical range (Trewavas, 1983). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT The O. mossambicus inhabits riverine and coastal lagoons (Fryer and Iles, 1972), hence does not like fast flowing waters but areas that are sheltered such as the marshes and lagoons in the rivers. In the Lower Shire, the fish inhabits the marshy areas such as Elephant and Ndindi marshes as well as the lagoons (Tweddle et al., 1982). 209 | P a g e ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES O. mossambicus as a tilapia cannot negotiate rapids as Barbus species, Opsaridium species and Labeo species (Trewavas, 1983). The O. mossambicus migrates to other areas when there is no physical obstacle in the water body. The O. mossambicus that are found in uplands is due to artificial introductions either accidentally or intentionally. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) Fishes in the genera “Oreochromis” are mouth brooders of eggs and young. All fish species in the family “Cichlidae” practice long-term parental care of young (Trewavas, 1983). Female O. mossambicus mature when they have attained a body length of 150-160 mm and males mature after attaining a longer body length of between 170 and 180 mm (Hodgkiss and Man, 1978; Arthington and Milton, 1986). However, due to the unstable flow conditions in the Lower Shire valley, the fish matures at an earlier stage (Chimatiro, 2004). The breeding season for Oreochromis species is stimulated by high minimum water temperatures (22-25oC) (Trewavas, 1983) hence in the Lower Shire, Oreochromis species breed almost throughout the year due to the high temperatures, but peaking during the rainy season. Mature males develop breeding colors, especially during the onset of the first rains and migrate to shallow waters along the river banks where they construct nests on sandy and or muddy bottoms. Mature females also develop breeding colors and are attracted to the nest by the colors of the males. When the eggs are laid on the nest, the male fertilizes them and the female picks up the fertilized eggs and incubates them in the buccal cavity situated below the lower jaw of her mouth (Trewavas, 1983). The juveniles inhabit the shallow or marshy waters and migrate to deep waters as they grow. IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE O. mossambicus inhabits the sheltered areas of the river such as the marshy areas and lagoons. It also breeds on the shallow areas which are usually the river banks (Trewavas, 1983). Hence the marshy and lagoon areas are important habitats for all the stages of the life cycle of the species and the shallow areas and river banks are important for reproduction and recruitment of juveniles. The seining of the marshy areas and river banks especially during the breading season destroys the breeding grounds and nests of the fish. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS O. mossambicus is not yet red listed by IUCN but it is classified as a “Near Threatened” species. Three scenarios are putting the O. mossambicus under threat in the Lower Shire. The closure of the Barrage at Liwonde to regulate the water flow for generating power at Nkula, Tedzani and Kapichira results in occasional reduced water levels along the marshy areas of the Lower Shire Valley, hence exposing the fish to fishers or predations and disturbs the breeding cycle (Tweddle, 2015). The second threat is the invasion of the water hyacinth which comes from the upper course of the Shire. These weeds invade the breeding sites of the fish. The third threat is the open access and poorly regulated fisheries that take place in the Lower Shire. Fishers are using inappropriate fish gears such as small meshed seine nets including mosquito nets. These gears destroy the breeding grounds and are non- selective, hence catch both juvenile and the adult fishes. Regarding protection status, although the fisheries regulations exist, there is weak enforcement in the area. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN Mphende (Oreochromis mossambicus) is the main fish species that has commercial value to the local fishers in the Lower Shire. Its catch from the Lower Shire constitutes to about 51 % of total catches from the area. The species is seconded only by the catfishes in terms of its commercial value in the Lower Shire Valley (Tweddle et al., 1982; Chimatiro, 2004). The species is important for both subsistence and commercial fishing. The species is also used for aquaculture at Kasinthula, Illovo and some small-scale fish farms in the Lower Shire. 210 | P a g e Regarding the food chain Oreochromis mossambicus are generalists and opportunistic omnivores that consume detrital material, vegetation ranging from diatoms, macro-algae to rooted plants, invertebrates and small fish (Bowen 1979, Mook, 1983, Trewavas, 1983). Diets differ depending on location-specific resource availability. This fact was also reported by De Silva et al., (1984) who reported that O. mossambicus populations in different water bodies fed on different diets and trophic strategies ranged from detritivory to herbivory to near exclusive carnivory with individuals preying on small fish and invertebrates. This feature makes the fish adaptable a wide range of environmental conditions on the globe. In the Lower Shire, O. mossambicus is reported to feed mostly on algae, detritus and plankton, with preference to zooplankton (Pullin and Lowe McConnel, 1982). O. mossambicus is caught and eaten by people, its juveniles are predated upon by scavengers such as catfishes and predators such as tiger fish and crocodiles. Hence, O. mossambicus is a very important fish species in the food chain in the area. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE The lower Shire area is rich in nutrients that are washed away from upland streams and are deposited in the valley. The nutrients boost the growth of phytoplankton and zooplanktons. The abundance of phytoplankton and zooplanktons which are natural food for tilapias creates a conducive environment for O. mossambicus to reproduce and grow in the area. The presence of marshes around Chikhwawa and Nsanje Districts such as Elephant marsh creates favorable environment for O. mossambicus to construct breeding nests, breed and raise its young ones without being predated hence there is high survival rate for the species from juvenile to adulthood (Tweddle et al, 1978). The Valley has several lagoons and oxbows along the Shire that also act as breeding grounds for O. mossambicus because these areas are shallow, have high primary productivity and hence abundant fish food is available for the fish. The fish catch statistics show that the catch of O. mossambicus has been stable over years. Hence, O. mossambicus is abundant in the Lower Shire. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. O. mossambicus is a prolific breeder and suppresses all other Oreochromis species in the Lower Shire, hence O. mossambicus remains the predominant Oreochromis species in the Lower Shire and the lower Zambezi River. In addition, O. mossambicus is invasive in other region of the world. It has thrived in alien environments where it has been introduced, either intentionally or accidentally (Moyle, 1976). Intentional release has often been for the purpose of plant or pest (e.g. Mosquito) control (Moyle, 1976). Intentional release has also been done to establish populations for spot fish, bait fish or commercial fish farming (Shapovalov et al., 1981). There have been accidental releases of O. mossambicus from hatcheries, fish farms, aquariums and zoos (Dial and Wainright, 1983; Grabowski et al., 1984; Courtenay and Stauffer, 1990). O. mossambicus poses a threat to local native fish species through competition for food and nesting space (Courtenay et al., 1974). Oreochromis mossambicus has thus been nominated by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) to be among the 100 of the world’s worst invasive alien fish species (Courtinay, 1989). Although some Lake Malawi fish fauna including tilapias may manage to descend the rapids, they do not established in the Lower Shire due to the suppression by O. mossambicus. 10.7.3.2 Catfishes (Clarias gariepinus) Originally, more than 100 different species of the Genus Clarias were described in Africa. However, a systematic revision based on morphological, anatomical and biographical studies has been carried out by Teugels (1982), who recognized 32 valid species. With this revision, all the large African Catfish species now belong to the subgenus Clarias. However, in the earlier systematic studies on the large African catfish species, Boulenger (1911) recognized five species within this subgenus. The five described species were: Clarias anguillarus, Clarias senegalensis, Clarias lazera, Clarias mossambicus and Clarias gariepinus. In 1982, Teugels revised the subgenus Clarias and found only two species (C. gariepinus and C. anguillaris), all the catfishes in the Zambezi and Lower Shire including C. ngamensis are now referred to as the African Catfish, Clarias gariepinus. 211 | P a g e HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT Clarias gariepinus, is one of the most important tropical catfish species and its distribution range is from the Nile to West Africa and from Algeria to Southern Africa. It also occurs in Asia Minor (Israel, Syria and South of Turkey). By contrast, Clarias anguillaris has a more restricted distribution and is found in Mauritania, most West African basins and in the Nile. C. gariepinus lives in freshwater lakes, rivers and swamps as well as man-made habitats, such as oxidation ponds or even sewage system (Teugels, 1982). Due to its importance in aquaculture, C. gariepinus was introduced in countries far from its natural habitat such as Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia and India. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS Clarias gariepinus is very tolerant to muddy water and conditions of low dissolved oxygen. Studies have shown that the species can survive turbid water where there is no oxygen at all because they are capable of respiring atmospheric air through a super-bronchial organ and can survive for days in air as long as there is moisture. This fish walks on land under damp conditions if necessary by extending pectoral spines and crawling (Skelton, 2001). The super-bronchial organ develops early in life at about 7 days after spawning when the juveniles are known as ‘swim up fries’ because they come to the water surface to breathe atmospheric air directly. Furthermore, Clarias gariepinus can tolerate a wide range of temperature from 8oC to 35oC; salinity ranging from 0 to 12 ppt; and also has a wide range of pH, turbidity and tolerate high densities (Hecht et at 1988). Hence Clarias species are usually the last fish remaining when water bodies dry up, as was the case with Lake Chilwa when it dried up in 1996 (EAD, 2000). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT Clarias species are the amongst the commonest fish species in rivers, lagoons and estuaries but are not representative of open lakes, though occasionally they may go into the Lake Malawi especially if they are migrating opposite the direction of the flow of flooded rivers. Hence during their normal life, C. gariepinus inhabits muddy and turbid areas of the rivers and is also found in large numbers in the marshy areas of the Lower Zambezi and Shire Rivers. ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES C. gariepinus migrates to higher ground to spawn by swimming against river flows during the rainy season when rivers flood. During the onset of first rains, the fishes congregate at the mouths of tributaries and the flooding stimulates their migration. They cannot climb or negotiate against physical obstacles. However, they may pass through dam walls and other obstacles if they are submerged by flooding waters. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) The size to first maturation of catfish in the Lower Shire is 193 cm (Chimatiro, 2004) which was within the range reported for the species in other water bodies (Bruton, 1979; Merron, 1996). Catfish resides in rivers as adult. In the Lower Shire, C. gariepinus grows fast during the first two years and reaches physiological maturity (Chimatiro, 2004). The fast growth rates during the first two years are typical of fish species that reside in unstable environments (Bruton and Allanson, 1974; Hecht et al., 1988). The fast growth rate enables juveniles to rapidly evade predation (Welcomme, 2001; Lowe McConnel, 1967). Both the mature males and females develop gonads which remain dormant until the onset of the rains. Final oocyte maturation is achieved when rivers flood. Spawning mostly takes place at night in the shallow, inundated areas of the rivers, lakes and streams (Quick and Bruton, 1983). Catfish lays a large number of small eggs which when fertilized stick on substrate such as vegetation (Welcomme, 2001). There is no parental care for ensuring the survival of the catfish offspring except by the careful choice of a suitable site and substrate. Development of eggs and larvae is rapid, and the larvae are capable of swimming within 48–72 hours after fertilization (Hecht et al., 1988). 212 | P a g e IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important life cycle stage for C. gariepinus in the Lower Shire is during spawning migration. There is a need for flooding to stimulate final oocyte and gonad maturation. If there is less or no flooding or physical barriers to their shallow breeding sites then C. gariepinus breeding is adversely affected (Chimatiro, 2004; Tweddle, 2015). In addition, since there is no parental care of the fertilized eggs, there is a need to protect the shallow breeding sites such as the marshes so that fry to juvenile survival is optimized. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS The species is not IUCN red-listed, it is listed as being of “Least concern”, hence the populations are healthy. It is reported that reproduction in the flood plain is governed by the flood regime in terms of timing, amplitude, pattern and duration (Jackson, 1961). In the tropical and sub-tropical rivers, fishes either migrate upstream during flooding periods in order to spawn (Kok, 1980) or span during the peak flooding without migrating (Merron, 1991). Spawning for C. gariepinus in the Lower Shire was reported to be synchronized with the rising and peak of the flood regime (Chimatiro, 2004; Tweddle and Willoughby 1979). Hence, rising temperature and reduction in floods constitute a disturbance to the flood plain fish species. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN The catches from the catfishes in the Lower Shire comprise 41% of the total catch and is superseded only by that of O. mossambicus (Chimatiro, 2004). Clarias species are completely omnivorous, consequently they prey, scavenge or grub on virtually any available organic food including fish, birds, frogs, small mammals, reptiles, snails, crabs, shrimps, insects, other invertebrates and plant matter such as seeds and fruit and also feeds on plankton when available (Skelton, 2001). The catfish larvae are preyed upon by dragonflies for them to complete their life cycle. Frogs, predatory fish and birds also feed on the catfish fry. Hence, the catfish is an important fish species in the food chain in the Lower Shire. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Clarias gariepinus is indigenous in the Malawian waters and is found in almost all the riverine environments. In the Lower Shire, the C. gariepinus is in abundance and catches have been stable over the years, constituting the second largest catch from the O. mossambicus. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. Catfishes are opportunistic feeders and will take any fish species which is abundant. They respond quickly to newly available food sources and will change their feeding patterns to match organisms freely available. The versatility of their physical adaptations enables them to survive almost all conditions (De Moor & Bruton, 1988; Bruton, 1977). When introduced outside of its native range, their generalized feeding habits and mobility make Catfishes extremely efficient predators posing a threat to indigenous fish, amphibian and invertebrate populations. Several countries have reported adverse ecological impacts after the introduction of Catfishes. Studies conducted in 1972 in central Africa suggest that these species have profound negative ecological effects on aquatic insect communities. Insect diversity in the Coleoptera order can be reduced by up to 78% and Hemiptera by 66% by Catfishes (De Moor & Bruton, 1988; Bruton & van As., 1986). Hence C. gariepinus is a potential invasive species if introduced in alien areas. It has been identified as agents of loss of native biodiversity. 213 | P a g e 10.7.3.3 Straightfin Barb (Barbus paludinosis) HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT Barbus paludinosus (matemba) is a small fish that belong to the Cyprinidae family. It is widely distributed in Malawian waters from the upper reaches of rivers, the middle and lower reaches. Work by Tweddle et al., (1998) listed a number of Barbus species and their habitats in Malawi. They are also widely distributed within Africa and are found in Burundi, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Uganda. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS B. paludinosus is a freshwater fish species that inhabits rivers, freshwater lakes, freshwater marshes and inland deltas. WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT Barbus paludinosus requires fast flowing rivers for spawning within the river and spawning migration. However, for habitat it prefers marshy and protected areas (Macuiane et al., 2009). ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES Barbus paludinosus does not have the ability to pass through obstacles. However, if the obstacles are submerged with flooding waters the fish can pass through. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) Mature male and female B. paludinosus respond to the physical and chemical water quality changes and congregate at river mouths. They breed throughout the year but their breeding peaks during the rainy season. Final oocyte maturation is usually accomplished by flooding. The fish migrates to upstream and spawn where there is suitable substrate such as grass, sand or gravel. The eggs hatch and the fry feed on zooplankton and detritus. As the juveniles grow older, they descend the rivers and inhabit the main river courses, marshy areas and inland deltas (Macuiane et al., 2009). The juveniles feed mostly on zooplankton and reaches maturity within 1 to 2 years. IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The B. paludinosus in the Lower Shire is found all over the river course. However, it likes marshy areas such as the Elephant marshes for food and shelter. Other important habitats are the mouths of tributaries where the mature male and female fish congregate before onset of rains in readiness for spawning migration. Therefore, the river mouths needs to be preserved. The breeding grounds in the upper reaches of streams where the fish breed are also important. It is documented that the fish species in the Barbus and Cyprinidae have a homing instinct hence they return to the breeding grounds where they were spawned to breed as adults (Ngatunga, 2001). It is not clear whether the fish can use alternative breeding grounds if their spawned area is destroyed and is not available. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS B. paludinosus is readily abundant in Malawian river system and is therefore not listed as endangered or threatened fish species by IUCN; rather it is classified as being of least concern. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN The catch of B. paludinosus in the Lower Shire is low. B. paludinosus is caught by seine nets or fish traps for both food and sale. However, due to their low catch, the catches are mostly used for subsistence consumption. B. paludinosus feeds on zooplankton and detritus, is caught for food and is predated upon by scavengers such as the African 214 | P a g e catfish, predators such as crocodiles and Tiger fish. Hence, the species play an important role in the food chain in the Lower Shire. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE B. paludinosus is indigenous to Malawian water bodies both in the Lake Malawi and Lower Shire fish fauna. It is widely distributed and are in abundance hence not red listed by IUCN. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. B. paludinosus as well as all other fish species in the Cyprinidae are not invasive. They do not easily adapt to alien environments and easily lose out when competing with locally adapted fish species. 10.7.3.4 Synodontis njassae HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT S. njassae is found in the African waters in Lake Malawi, the Lower Shire and Zambezi river (Konings, 1990). Hence, the fish is endemic to the Lake Malawi and Zambezi waters. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS pH The S. njassae prefers alkaline water conditions ranging from 7.6 to 8.4 (Konings, 1990). Temperature The S. njassae prefers water temperature ranging from 23 to 28oC (Konings, 1990) WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT The S. njassae is referred to as hardy, but prefers clean and well filtered water in rivers and lakes. However, due to its hardiness it tolerates a wide range of environmental conditions (Konings, 1990). ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES S. njassae does not climb over physical obstacles, rather it is a rock dwelling and prefers to use rocks as bed cover for their dwelling environment. Therefore, the fish cannot pass through any physical obstacles (Konings, 1990). LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) In natural environments, the fish matures after attaining 190 mm between the first and second years (Konings, 1990). The fish is found patrolling around rock piles during their normal stay in their natural environments. The species spawns between October and December in sandy and muddy substrate. It is caught in large numbers in these substrates during the breeding season at night, suggesting that the spawning activities take place during the night. The fish natural food is zooplankton and detritus when young and it also feeds on phytoplankton as it grows and matures to adulthood (Konings, 1990). 215 | P a g e IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important habitat for the S. njassae during its normal life as adults is piles of rocks. During spawning, its important habitats are sandy and muddy substrates. Therefore, these sites need to be protected in the Lower Shire for efficient recruitment of the species. Unlike other fish species in the Cyprinidae family, S. njassae does not migrate upstream to breed. Therefore, its important habitat in the Lower Shire is the river course itself, where there are rocks and shelters such as marshes. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS According to the IUCN, the S. njassae is of least concern as its stocks are healthy in the Malawian waters. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN S. njassae is caught by fish traps especially during its breeding season both for food and for sale. However, due to their low catch, the species is mostly used for subsistence consumption. The fish feeds on zooplankton, phytoplankton and detritus. Its young are preyed upon by scavengers and predators, hence it plays an important role in the food chain. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE S. njassae is widely distributed and in abundance in the rocky habitats in the Lake Malawi and the Lower Shire valley (Konings, 1990). STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. The S.njassae is rock dwelling and has never been reported to be found outside their natural environment. It is therefore not an invasive fish species. 10.7.3.5 Tiger fish (Hydrocynus vittatus) HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT In Africa, tiger fishes are found in many rivers and lakes on the continent and are fierce predators with distinctive, proportionally large teeth. They are found in Congo river system and Lake Tanganyika and are the largest member of the Alestidae family. The Tiger fish in Zambezi is another famous species which is called Hydrocynus vittatus. This species is found in Okavango Delta, Zambezi River (Including the Lower Shire), Lake Kariba, Cabora Bassa and Jozini dam in South Africa. Both the goliath and alestidae tiger fishes are of African origin. Individual tiger fishes have interlocking, razor-sharp teeth, along with streamlined, muscular bodies and are extremely aggressive and are aquatic predators who often hunt in groups to chase the prey. WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS Hydrocynus vittatus prefers water temperatures between 19 to 28oC, with stable pH that is around 7.5. It prefers two types of habitats, i.e., deep water of more than 1200 mm with fast flowing water and relatively deep (>700 mm) environments with no flow to fast flow (0-1.35 m/s). The species uses water column and over hanging vegetation for taking cover from its predators such as crocodiles (Skelton, 2001). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT The water flow requirement for Tiger fish is either no flow at all (0 m/s) to fast flowing (0-1.35m/s) in the resident rivers. Hence, the fish thrives in a wide range of river flow velocities (Skelton, 2001). 216 | P a g e ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES The Tiger fish migrates to rivers and tributaries to breed during the rainy season, but it is a poor climbers of physical barriers unless the structure is completely submerged by the flooding waters. However, the fish can jump out of the water to catch low flying birds. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) H. vittatus matures after 2 years in its natural habitat. It breeds for just a few days each year during the rainy season, which is usually from December to January. The ripe fishes (male and females) migrate up rivers and smaller tributaries to the breeding grounds where the water is shallow and there is submerged vegetation. The male and female fishes return to the main river where the eggs hatch. The hatched larvae and fry remain in the shallow waters as Juveniles until the next flood waters force them into the main river. IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE Adult H. vittatus can adapt a wide range of habitats and environmental conditions. However, they become vulnerable as they congregate along the river habitats to breed. When the ripe fish is caught, the breeding cycle is disrupted. In addition, the fish lay eggs on shallow breeding areas where submerged substrate is available. If the substrate or the breeding grounds are not available, the fish might not be able to breed. The flooding waters also assist the juveniles to return to the main river courses. Hence, flooding is very important for breeding, survival and completion of the fish life cycle. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS H. vittatus is widely distributed in its natural environment in the African waters. In some water bodies, the species has been locally depleted due to heavy fishing pressure that is exerted on them, however, due to its general common abundance IUCN has listed the H. vittatus as being of least concern for the Central, Eastern, North Eastern, Southern and West Africa, which includes the Lower Shire. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN H. vittatus is a very important fish species as food for the people in the Lower Shire. It is caught for subsistence use in home or for sale (commercial). It is also used for spot (angling) and hence a commercial fishery that could attract tourists. The catches of H. vittatus are low compared to O. mossambicus and Catfishes, hence the catches are lumped together with other species in the ‘other’ fish catches category which together contribute about 10% of the total catches in the Lower Shire area. In the Lower Shire, they are caught using hook and line, gillnets and also by nonselective gears such as seine nets. H. vittatus occupies a very important role in the food chain among the aquatic organisms in the Lower Shire. The fish is considered primarily as a carnivore and is one of the major predators in the Lower Shire valley. It moves in schools and prey on other fish species. It swallows the prey as a whole, hence it can predate on prey fish that is up to 40% of their body size. The main predation pressure from H. vittatus is upon fishes of small size, the danger of predation becoming progressively less until a critical length, usually when 18-20 cm is reached, above which a prey fish is reasonably safe from predation. Although the bulk of its diet is fish, it also consumes some detritus and plant matter displaying some omnivorous characteristics. The tiger fish in the Lower Shire comes from the Zambezi River and uses the valley to find food usually preying on the tilapias and other fish species and also for spawning. The fish breeds on the sheltered lagoons and marshy areas, as such Elephant Marsh provides a suitable environment for its breeding and raising of young ones. The fish is preyed upon by crocodiles, hence species are at the center of a very important food chain in the Lower Shire. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE H. vittatus is indigenous and widely distributed to the Lower Shire and Zambezi Rivers. 217 | P a g e STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. H. vittatus is resident of the Lower Shire and during the normal times, it is found around the marshes (Elephant and Ndindi) in search for fish to prey upon. It is not invasive but is a predatory species. Kapichira falls is a barrier that has kept the Tiger fish from moving upstream the Lower Shire and preying on Lake Malawi fish fauna. Hence, the tiger fish is confined to the Lower Shire area in Malawi. 10.7.3.6 Lake Salmon (Opsaridium microlepis) HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT Opsaridium microlepis is endemic to Lake Malawi and is the largest of all bariliine cyprinids, attaining a weight of at least 4 kg. It is a pelagic (open water) predator, which spends most of its life in the lake but ascends affluent rivers to spawn. The fish lives in open waters throughout the year but congregates and run up larger affluent rivers to spawn during its breeding season, which is mostly at the end of the rainy season, i.e. from March to June. The fish mature after 2 to 3 years in the lake. In the Lower Shire valley, the fish descends from the middle Shire River (Tweddle and Lewis, 1983). WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS O. microlepis prefers pelagic or open water conditions of Lake Malawi, where it is endemic. The fish inhabits the Lake waters as adults. When it has attained sexual maturity it ascends rivers to breed and returns to the Lake. The fish prefers water temperatures 20 and 28oC, a pH of around 78. The juveniles inhabit the upper river courses as yearlings and descend to the Lake when the second year floods rescind (Tweddle and Lewis, 1983). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT As adults and residents of the pelagic (open water) zones of the Lake, O. microlepis does not have a specific water flow requirement. When the fish has ripe gonads, it requires flooding of the rivers as a stimulant for them to ascend the rivers to spawn. Mpasa is a late spawners so it does not migrate with the first flash flooding of the rivers. The spawning requirements for Mpasa is well oxygenated flowing water. ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES O. microlepis has powerful streamlined bodies that enables it to negotiate waterfalls and rapids (Tweddle and Lewis, 1983) and also speeds to catch prey fish. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) The fish begins to gather at river mouths at the beginning of the rainy season in December, but does not migrate up the rivers until the end of the rainy season, when the waters become clear or less turbid and this time is around March to July. The peak breeding season is from April to June (Tweddle, 1982). Most Lake Salmon (Mpasa) that are caught from the Lake are taken from near river mouths during the breeding season. The spawning requirements for Mpasa is well oxygenated flowing water and silt free gravel through which the stream can percolate. Young O. microlepis stay in the river during the first 3-4 months of life and shoals of fry can be seen in shallow waters during and after the breeding season. Most juveniles of 7-20 cm descend to the lake or main river course with the onset of the first rains at an average age of 6 months. Juveniles of Mpasa are omnivorous feeding on zooplankton, phytoplankton, microphytes and insects. The fish has extended breeding season, which serves to reduce the chances of loss of a whole year class resulting from drought or other adverse conditions. O. Microlepis is a partial spawner that makes staggered runs and fractional spawning strategy and releases eggs in a series of spawning activities over a period of time to ensure that eggs hatch over a period of several months. Short periods of unfavorable conditions will have little effect on total recruitment (Tweedle and Lewis, 1983). 218 | P a g e IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important habitats for O. microlepis are the river mouths during their upward migration to breeding areas or downward migration from the spawning sites. The species spawns in shallow waters upstream and it is its important habitat. Mpasa is vulnerable to catch when it migrates to the spawning grounds and when it is returning from their breeding sites upstream. The other important stage is during the juvenile stage especially when it has to spend a year in the river, waiting for the second year floods. It is possible to lose the whole year class due to drying of spawning rivers and predation. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS Mpasa is classified as critically endangered by IUCN. The population of the fish is scarce and the catch has almost collapsed because fishes were being caught during their upward migration, meaning, they were harvested before spawning. The spawning takes place in the shallow waters hence the fish are vulnerable when spawning. Fishermen are not allowed to completely close river mouths with traps to allow the fish to reach the breeding grounds. However, these regulations have not been effectively enforced. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN Mpasa is a pelagic predator and in the Lake. In the Lowe Shire, Mpasa feeds mostly on young of the Cichlids such as O. mossambicus and other tilapias. It is less abundant in the Lower Shire probably because it mostly descends from the Upper Shire and the spillway is a harsh environment for a fish. O. microlepis is palatable and has been caught for both subsistence and commercial fishing. Its juveniles are preyed upon by predators such as other fish species, e.g., the catfishes and frogs. The adults are preyed upon by crocodiles, hence the Mpasa occupy an important niche in the Lower Shire area. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE Mpasa is endemic to Lake Malawi but it is now less abundant in the water bodies of Malawi. Its size to first maturity has declined and its fecundity has increased suggesting that the fish has been subjected to intense fishing pressure which targets the larger fishes. In the Lower Shire, Mpasa catches are low, hence the fish catches in the Lower Shire is lumped together in the ‘other’ fish category. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. O. microlepis as well as all other Cyprinids are poor colonizers of alien environments. The species is a migratory predator but is not invasive. Although the species is endemic in the Lake Malawi fish fauna through “escapees” it is present in the Lower Shire River. 10.7.3.7 Redeye labeo (Labeo cylindricus) HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT Labeo cylindricus has a wide distribution from Chad and the Congo basin to Kenya and Southwards to Northern Natal. In Lake Malawi, this rock dwelling Labeo inhabits areas of the lake wherever a rocky substrate on which algae grows is found. It also inhabits the middle and lower reaches of rivers (e.g. the Lower Shire) where similar environmental conditions exist (Jackson, 1961). 219 | P a g e WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS Labeo cylindricus requires well oxygenated water, temperatures ranging from 20 to 28oC, pH values of 7.5 to 8.5 in the lake, rivers and streams. The species is rocky dwelling in Lake Malawi and in the Lower Shire it is also found in the sheltered areas such as marshes. WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT For their normal life, L. cylindricus does not need any water flow as it inhabits the actual river courses where shelter is available in the form of rocks. However, as a fish species in the Cyprinidae family, L. cylindricus is stimulated to migrate to breeding sites with the first flash floods. ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES L. cylindricus is able to climb through natural physical barriers. This fish has a wide ecological tolerance and uses its mouth and broad pectoral fins to climb damp surfaces of barrage rocks and weirs (Jackson, 1959). This feature has allowed the species to survive heavy fishing pressure compared to Labeo mesops which has completely disappeared from the Malawian Lake and river system. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) The fish reaches first sexual maturity within two years after it has spawned. This species browses on the algae that grow on rocks and other places. In the Lake, the fish has a well-marked breeding season, from December to January and the breeding season is very short because the fish is a complete spawner, i.e. all the eggs in the ovary ovulate and are spawned at the same time. The fish ascends flooded rivers and weirs (Jackson, 1959) to migrate to breeding sites. The eggs are laid among rocks, where they hatch and the juveniles grow to adulthood within two years, but return to the main river course within one year. IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important habitats for L. cylindricus are shallow rocky areas of rivers and lakes. The fish uses these habitats for both feeding on algae and also for breeding. The important life stage is when the species is migrating to breed in the spawning sites and when the eggs have hatched into fry because the fish is a complete spawner, hence once a yearling is lost, there is a loss of all the juveniles. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS L. cylindricus are listed as of ‘least concern’ by IUCN because it is found in abundance in its endemic habitats such as the Lake Malawi basin. However, there is a need to protect the rocky and marshy areas of the Lower Shire which are the breeding sites of the fish. In addition, there is a need to ensure enough flooding to induce spawning migration of the fish. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN L. cylindricus is consumed by people and constitute an important fish species for both food and sale. However, its full commercial utilization is limited due to their lower abundance in the Lower Shire Valley. The fish feeds on algae on rocks and hence helps to clean up rocks. The juveniles are predated upon by carnivorous fish and the adult fish are preyed upon by large predators such as Tiger fish and crocodiles. Therefore, L. cylindricus occupies a niche in the food chain in the Lower Shire. 220 | P a g e DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE In Malawi, the L. cylindricus is widely distributed in Lakes Malawi, Chiuta and Chilwa; the Shire River, including the Lower Shire. The fish used to constitute an important fishery since the 1970s and now the catches have declined especially in the Lower Shire. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. L. cylindricus is not among the invasive fish species. It specializes in dwelling on rock or marshy and protected areas of the river courses or the main lake. 10.7.3.8 Barbus eurystomus HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT B. eurystomus is endemic to Lake Malawi and its tributaries. It is found in the Lower Shire through escapees from the Middle Shire because it is found in abundance in the Lake Malawi and the Upper Shire. In the Lower Shire, it inhabits the main river course but likes the marshy areas and lagoons to avoid predators WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS The water quality requirement for B. eurystomus is similar to other cyprinids, i.e., temperatures ranging between 19 and 28oC and pH values between 7.5 and 8.5. In the Lower Shire, it tolerates turbid water during the rainy season (Jackson, 1959). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT The species inhabits sheltered areas of the rivers or the open water. Ripe males and females congregate along the river mouths just before the first rains and they are stimulated by flooding to migrate rivers to breed (Jackson, 1959). ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES B. eurystomus has a large size and do not pass through physical barriers unless the structures are submerged in water (Jackson, 1959). LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) The fish matures within 2 years and may grow to over 50 cm in length and attain 2.5 kg in weight (Jackson, 1959). Adult fishes spend most of their lives in lakes and or main river course but prefer sheltered areas such as marshes. The fish ripes gonads at the on-set of the first rains and migrates to flooded rivers early in the rainy season to breed. Its breeding season is very short, from November to December and it is a complete spawner (Jackson, 1959). IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE B. eurystomus is caught in large numbers near river mouths at the on-set of the rains as it prepares or migrates to breeding sites. The other important life stage is the juvenile stage because the species remains in the river for a year before it returns to the main watercourse such as the Shire. Hence, there is need for the rivers to flood so that its recruitment is completed. The species also inhabits marshes for protection. 221 | P a g e ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS This species is not classified by the IUCN. However, there is a need to enforce fisheries regulations on migratory fish species because the fish is subjected to high fishing intensity during spawning migration. It should be a concern that there is a decline in the catches of B. eurystomus in the Malawian waters including the Lower Shire. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN Barbus eurystomus grows to large size and is commonly caught in gill nets and fish traps especially during the on-set of first rains as the fish ascends rivers to spawn. It is a very important food source for people in the Lower Shire. B. eurystomus mainly feeds on mollusks (Betram et al, 1942). The species is predated upon by tiger fish and crocodiles and hence occupy a niche in the food chain in the Lower Shire area. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE The B. eurystomus is endemic and is relatively abundant, though catches show declining trends in Lake Malawi waters including the Lower Shire. In the Lower Shire, the catches are very low, hence the fish catch statistics are lumped together with the fish species that are less abundant in the area under ‘other’ fish species category. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. B. eurystomus as any other fish species in the Cyprinidae family is a poor colonizer of alien environments when introduced. Hence, the species is not invasive but endemic in the Malawian waters. 10.7.3.9 Barbus johnstonii HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT The natural habitat for B. johnstonii is freshwater lakes and rivers. It is endemic to Lake Malawi and is found in the Lake Malawi and its tributaries in Tanzania and in the Lower Shire and lower Zambezi River in Mozambique (Jackson, 1959). WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS The water quality requirement for B. johnstonii is similar to other cyprinids, i.e., temperatures ranging between 19 and 28oC and pH values between 7.5 and 8.5. In the Lower Shire, it tolerates turbid water during the rainy season (Jackson, 1959). WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT This freshwater fish is found in small groups in underwater habitats in rivers and lakes (Frose and Pauly 2006). Hence, there is a need to maintain adequate water levels in the Lower Shire. ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES The B. jonhstonii resides under water in the river course in shoals. It also migrates in groups with males and females to the breeding grounds. It cannot pass through physical barriers unless the barriers are submerged with floodwater. 222 | P a g e LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) B. johnstonii grows to more than 30 cm in standard length and over 4 kilograms in body weight. For spawning, the species migrates towards rivers' headwaters during the rainy season. The Lake populations do not return from their spawning grounds until the dry season has started (Jackson, 1959). IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important habitats for the B. johnstonii are the marshy areas where it resides to seek shelter in the Lower Shire. In addition, the fish stays in the breeding grounds throughout the rainy season, therefore any disturbances to the water levels in the tributaries disturb their breeding activities. The fishes are also easily caught in the shallow waters as they spend more time breeding there (Frose and Pauly 2006). ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS B. johnstonii is listed as “Least concern” by IUCN. However, the catches in the Lower Shire have declined significantly during the recent years. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN B. johnstonii is omnivore, but adult fishes like to eat smaller fishes in particular. The B. johnstonii does not constitute an important component of the Lower Shire fisheries. It is preyed upon by predators such as Tiger fish and crocodiles. Hence, the fish plays a role in the food chain in the Lower Shire. DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE The distribution of B. johnstonii in the Malawian waters has declined over the years. In the Lower Shire, the catches have declined, hence the species does not constitute a major fishery in the area. STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. B. johnstonii just as any other fish species in the Cyprinidae family is a poor colonizers of alien environments when introduced. Hence, the species is not invasive but endemic in the Malawian waters. 10.7.3.10 Marcusenius macrolepidotus HABITAT REQUIREMENTS AND REGIONAL EXTENT M. macrolepidotus was formerly considered to be widespread but it is now restricted to the middle and Lower Zambezi river system (including the Lower Shire) and the Buzi system, south of the Zambezi (Taugels, et al. 1990). WATER QUALITY REQUIREMENTS The species is adapted to the freshwater demersal environment with pH ranging from 7.0 to 10; and temperature ranging from 22 to 24oC. 223 | P a g e WATER FLOW REQUIREMENT The species inhabits well-vegetated, muddy bottom marginal habitats of rivers and flood plains. The species moves inshore after dark and has been recorded to move up tributaries in shoals during flood season. ABILITY TO PASS OBSTACLES The fish has no ability to negotiate physical barriers unless it is submerged in floodwater. The fish swims against the floods hence they can climb over submerged physical barriers. LIFE CYCLE (MIGRATION, SPAWNING AND MATURING) M. macrolepidotus breeds during the rainy season in shallow vegetated localities and the female may carry up to 6,000 eggs which spawn on the substrates usually vegetation. Juveniles grow to adults in the sheltered lagoons (Taugels, et al. 1990). IMPORTANT HABITATS AND SENSITIVE LIFE CYCLE STAGE The important habitats are the shallow vegetated areas in the marshy or sheltered areas such as lagoons where the fish breeds. ACTUAL THREATS AND PROTECTION STATUS M macrolepidotus is classified by IUCN as of least concern due to its relative abundance and wide distribution. VALUE AS FOOD SOURCE FOR POPULATION AND VALUE IN THE FOOD CHAIN M. macrolepidotus is classified as the fourth most important commercial fish species in the Lower Shire (gillnet fishery). The fish is caught for both subsistence and commercial fishing in the Lower Shire. The fish feeds on invertebrates, especially midge and mayfly larvae and pupae that is taken from the bottom and off plant stems, hence plays an important role in the food chain in the area (Taugels, et al. 1990). DISTRIBUTION, STATUS OF ENDEMICITY AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE The fish is widely distributed in the Lowe Shire and caught in large quantities before, during and part of the rainy season at the Shire / Ruo confluence and in the open lagoons (Tweddle and Willoughby, 1979). STATUS (NATIVE, ALLOCHTHONOUS OR INVASIVE) The species is native. 10.7.3.11 Other fish species This section presents fishes that are present in the Lower Shire River, but are less abundant than the previous species. Their habitats are briefly presented as well as their IUCN status (starting from near threaten). More details are provided in annex. • Protopterus annectens brieni, inhabits muddy areas. Spawns in roots of aquatic vegetation; • Megalops cyprinoides, inhabits the Shire, lagoons and swampy area. Spawns offshore; • Anguilla bicolour and Anguilla nebulosa labiate, inhabits the Lower Shire and lagoons. Classified Near threaten by the IUCN. Spawns offshore; 224 | P a g e • Hippopotamyrus discorthynchus, inhabits the Shire, lagoons and swampy area. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Mormyrus longirostris, inhabits the center of Shire rather than the banks. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Alestes imberi, inhabits lagoons and marshes. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries and floodplain to spawn; • Hemigrammopetersius barnardi, inhabits fast flowing part of Shire. Spawns in roots of aquatic vegetation; • Micralestes acutidens, inhabits clear, and standing water (pelagic) of Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Distichodus mossambicus, inhabits swift flowing water, rapids or quiet, deep, sandy or rocky pools of Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus afrohamiltoni, inhabits still, vegetated waters of Shire, and marginal pools and lagoons. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus choloensis, inhabits of rock sills around falls. Classified as vulnerable by the IUCN due to its limited distribution. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus haasianus, inhabits swamps and floodplains in well-vegetated habitats. Spawns in the Shire floodplain; • Barbus kerstenii, inhabits fast flowing, sluggish and temporary streams. Spawns in the Shire floodplain; • Barbus macrotaenia, inhabits marshy areas and slow flowing streams. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus marequensis, inhabits rocky rapids and deep pools. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus radiatus, inhabits marshes and marginal vegetation the Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn. • Barbus trimaculatus, inhabits shallow water near river outlets or swampy areas. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus lineomaculatus, inhabits fast flowing sections of Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus toppini, inhabits slow flowing sections of Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barbus viviparous, inhabits flood plains of the Shire and pools and shallow streams with vegetation. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Barilius zambensis, inhabits shallow pools below rocky rapids. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Labeo congoro, inhabits strong flowing rocky stretches of Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Labeo altivelis, inhabits the Shire. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Leptoglanis rotundiceps, inhabits fairly shallow water of the Shire and tributaries. Spawns in sand; • Heterobanchus longifilis, inhabits quite waters of Shire and deep pools. Migrates upstream into Shire tributaries to spawn; • Malapterurus electricus, inhabits rocks or roots in turbid or black waters with low visibility. Spawns in the Shire in dug holes; • Chologlanis neumanni, inhabits rocky and fast flowing section of Shire. Data on spawning are not available; • Synodontis zambezensis, inhabits pools and slow-flowing reaches of perennial and seasonal rivers and the Shire. Data on spawning are not available; 225 | P a g e • Aplocheilichthys hutereaui, inhabits stagnant water in pools and swamps. Spawns in the Shire floodplain; • Aplocheilichthys katangae, inhabits shallow vegetative part of Shire where it also spawns; • Nothobranchius orthonotus, inhabits temporary water pools and may also be found in swamps intermittently connected to floodplains where it also spawns in bottom sediments; • Haplochromis philander, inhabits vegetated zones of Shire where it also spawns; • Psudocrenilabrus philander, inhabits vegetated zones of Shire where it also spawns; • Oreochromis placidus, inhabits quiet pools with marginal vegetation where it also spawns; • Oreochromis squamipinnis, inhabits sheltered areas of Shire where it also spawns. The fish is classified Endangered by IUCN; • Oreochromis shiranus, inhabits lagoons and marshy areas where it also spawns; • Tilapia rendalli, inhabits well-vegetated water along Shire where it also spawns; • Glossogobius giuris, inhabits Bangula lagoon and marshy areas. The species migrates to the sea to spawn (amphidromous migration); • Ctenopoma multispinis, inhabits vegetated riverine backwaters, floodplain lagoons, swamps and isolated pans where it also spawns. 10.7.4 Herpetofauna Amphibians are well represented in sub-Saharan Africa, where approximately 600 species have been recorded. Amphibians are of increasing scientific concern as global reports of declining amphibian populations continue to increase. Although there is no consensus on a single cause for this phenomenon, there is general agreement that the declines in many areas, even in pristine protected parks, are significant and do not represent simple cyclic events. Frogs have been aptly called bio-indicator species, whose abundance and diversity is a reflection of the general health and well-being of aquatic ecosystems. They are important components of wetland systems, particularly ephemeral systems in which fish are either excluded or of minor importance. In these habitats, they can be dominant predators of invertebrates, many of which may impact significantly on humans (e.g. as vectors of disease, such as mosquitoes and bilharzias snails) or their livestock and/or crops. Reptiles also form a significant component of vertebrate faunas in Africa. With the exception of land tortoises, all terrestrial reptiles are carnivorous, although some larger lizards do supplement their diet with vegetable matter in certain seasons. Reptiles therefore play an important role in nutrient cycling within ecosystems, and in population control of their prey items. Most snakes are specialist feeders, taking specific and limited food classes, and this is often reflected in their common names, i.e. egg- eaters, slug-eaters, centipede eaters, etc. They are usually habitat generalists, occupying a wide range of habitats and vegetation types, provided their primary prey is present. In contrast, most lizards take a wide-range of insect prey, and niche separation between sympatric species usually occurs via habitat selection and/or diel activity (e.g. most geckos are nocturnal). Congeneric species especially occupy different habitats that are determined more by the habitat physical and substrate characteristics rather than the presence of specific plants and/or soil. The herpetofauna of Malawi in general is not well-known, and has not been recently reviewed. Mercurio (2011), in his review of Malawi amphibians, noted: “After 145 years of herpetological studies with about 50 scientific publications only, the status of knowledge of amphibians and reptiles of Malawi….. is still rudimentary.” There is fuller documentation for amphibians than reptiles, with a number of monographic reviews of the country’s frogs, either at a national level (e.g. Stewart 1967, Mercurio 2011) or as part of larger regional compilations (Poynton & Broadley 1985-1991; Channing 2002). There is no comparable national review of Malawian reptiles, although local surveys and summaries exist (e.g. Loveridge 1953a-c, Stevens 1974, Broadley 2000, etc.). The need for an updated assessment of the diversity and conservation status of reptiles and amphibians of Malawi is essential. The first specimens collected in the Lower Shire Valley were obtained by Dr Kirk while on the Livingstone expedition (Günther 1864). Loveridge (1953a,b) reported on an expedition to 226 | P a g e Nyasaland, but did not visit the Elephant Marsh. The snakes of Malawi were covered by Sweeney (1961), whilst Stevens (1974) published an annotated checklist covering the herpetofauna of southeastern Malawi. There are few historical herpetological surveys within the Elephant Marsh or its surroundings. Loveridge (1953c) documented a herpetological collection made by the Berner-Carr Entomological Survey of the Shire valley in 1952, and included 15 amphibians and 14 reptiles. Blaylock (1963) reported on two trips (1961-2) to the lower Shire River, including the capture of 163 snakes in 14 days from a camp 10 km upstream from Chiromo. The habitat comprised low scrub next to the swamp and included (taxonomy updated): 97 Western Green Snake Philothamnus angolensis, 31 Olive Grass Snakes Psammophis mossambicus, 10 Spotted Bush Snake Philothamnus semivariegatus, 4 Stripe-bellied Sand Snake Psammophis orientalis, 4 Brown House Snake Boaedon capensis, 3 Semiornate Snakes Meizodon semiornata, and single specimens of Mozambique Spitting Cobra Naja mossambica, Olive Marsh Snake Natriciteres olivaceus, Rhombic Egg-eater Dasypelis scabra, and the Zambezi Blind Snake Afrotyphlops mucruso. Other herpetofauna recorded included the reed frog Hyperolius marmoratus, and the lizards Trachylepis striata, T. varia and Chamaeleo dilepis. At Tengani in the lower Shire Valley below Chiromo Philothamnus semivariegatus, Psammophis orientalis, the Puff-adder Bitis arietans, the Snouted Cobra Naja annulifera, and the second Shire record of the Floodplain Viper were also collected. Broadley (1996) reported on a small herpetological collection from the Elephant Marsh (quarter degree square 1634Bd; western edge of the Elephant Marsh near the boundary of the Lengwe National Park). It included the first record from Malawi and north of the Zambezi of the water snake Lycodonomorphus obscuriventris, and prompted Broadley to raise it to a full species (it was previously a subspecies of L. whytei). It remains the only Malawi record of this rare snake. Other species from the Elephant Marsh included: the frogs Xenopus muelleri, Amietia angolensis (= A. quecketti see below), Ptychadena anchietae, Phrynobatrachus mababiensis, Afrixalus brachycnemis complex (= A. crotalus) and A. fornasinii; and the snakes Natriciteres olivacea and Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia. The herpetofauna of the entire Zambezi drainage basin was summarised by Broadley (2000), including a summary of the reptiles and amphibians from the lower Shire valley. His summary is incorporated into Tables 24 and 25, below. Two short field surveys on the study area were conducted by MRAG (2016). The first occurred for five days (5-9 July 2015) during the dry season. A wet season survey was undertaken for five days (17-21 January 2016). All surveys used visual encounter survey methods. Diurnal searches involved active search of specific microhabitats, particularly beneath cover such as decaying logs or mats of vegetation. Nocturnal surveys for amphibians were undertaken in wetlands and surrounding woodland. A total of 25 amphibian species was recorded, representing 74% of the known amphibian fauna of the region. Five were previously unrecorded from the Lower Shire Valley, but known from adjacent areas. Eight species previously recorded from the Lower Shire Valley and Elephant Marsh were not encountered in this study. These species may have been inactive during the survey periods or overlooked. In contrast, only 21 species of reptiles were recorded, representing 46% of the 58 reptile species known from the Lower Shire Valley. Seven other common species were reliably reported to occur in the region. Two species were added to the regional herpetofauna list during the surveys and two species overlooked in the most recent surveys were reconfirmed. None of the amphibian species known to occur are considered threatened or of conservation value. The existing amphibian fauna is considered to be similar to the original fauna before human impact, except for the possible reduction of tree frogs as a result of the loss of riparian trees. The reptile fauna is considered to be significantly impacted, with large snakes, particularly arboreal species, present in reduced numbers. Historical records show that two iconic reptiles of Malawi wetlands, the Zambezi Soft-Shell Terrapin Cycloderma frenatum and the Swamp Viper Proatheris superciliaris, both occurred in the Elephant Marsh region. These species were not recorded and are in danger of becoming regionally extinct, if not already so. Large Nile crocodiles Crocodylus niloticus (>3 m) are still common in the Shire River and Elephant Marsh, but there are concerns for their continued survival. The main source of human-crocodile conflict and consequent hunting is the damage to gill nets set overnight for fishing. In addition, the crocodile farm in the area harvests eggs as well as a few adults for breeding stock. 227 | P a g e Unfortunately, the lack of historical detailed surveys of the Elephant Marsh herpetofauna precludes objective assessment of the ‘health’ of reptile and amphibians communities in the region. No population estimates of the historical herpetofauna are available and it is therefore impossible to quantify possible reptile or amphibian declines or even local extirpation. Due to the extensive wetlands still present there is unlikely to have been extensive loss of amphibian biodiversity or numbers. The loss of their predators, such as snakes and large fish, may have led to increased juvenile recruitment as well as declines in adult mortality. However, these would be balanced by the loss of habitat stability resulting from hydrological changes such as increased flooding, greater water turbidity and siltation. The loss of trees, both along the riparian edge as well as marsh margin, may have affected the survival of tree frogs (Leptopelis sp.), which were not recorded during the present surveys. Conversely, the extensively modified marsh fringes are dried and have reduced vegetation cover than originally and this may have allowed a toads and puddle frogs to inhabit these areas in greater numbers than previously. It is thus probable that much of the original amphibian diversity in the region remains as healthy populations, and this is indicted by the high percentage (>73%) of the amphibian diversity recorded during the survey. Anecdotal observations by a long-term (30+ years) resident with an interest in reptiles (Tony Leiato, Land Preparation Manager, Illovo; pers. comm. November 2015) indicated some potential declines in large reptiles. Puffadders were considered once very common in the 1990s in the vicinity of the Illovo sugarcane plantations, but have now become much rarer, whilst the Boomslang (Dispholidus viridis), Twig Snake (Thelotornis capensis) and Swamp Viper (Proatheris superciliaris) have not been seen in the region in the last 30 years, although all were recorded earlier (Loveridge, 1953c; Blaylock, 1963; Broadley 2000). Similarly, the Soft-shelled Terrapin (Cycloderma frenatum) was observed in the Shire River above Chikwawa 30 years ago, but has not been seen for over 15 years. The general impression in the field during the field surveys was of reduced reptile density and diversity. Certainly, the likelihood of repeating Blaylock’s (1963) capture of 163 snakes in 14 days upstream from the floodplain upstream from Chiromo now seem unlikely. No specimens of his two dominant species, the Western Green Snake (Philothamnus angolensis, 97 specimens) or Olive Grass Snake (Psammophis mossambicus, 31 specimens), were even observed during the current surveys. Many of these snakes, e.g. Boomslang. Twig snake and Spotted Bush Snake, are all arboreal and their current rarity or even absence in the Elephant Marsh, may be linked to their visibility (all are diurnal) and the loss of trees. Chameleons were also not recorded during the surveys and, again, their apparent rarity may be linked to tree loss. It is likely that there is a reduction in snake numbers due to the direct persecution by the high numbers of people now living within the marsh, and indirectly from the extensive habitat destruction and frequent fires. In summary, is is considered that amphibian diversity and populations numbers still reflect in great part that originally existing in the Elephant Marsh. However, reptiles are considered to show reductions in the numbers, and possibly even local extirpation, of arboreal snakes (Boomslang and Twig Snake), larger terrestrial species (Puffadder), and specialised aquatic species (Zambezi FlapShelled Terrapin and Floodplain Viper). 10.8 Critical Habitat Assessment ESS 6 (Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Management of Living Natural Resources) defines critical natural habitats as areas with high biodiversity importance or value. They include: a. habitats of importance to Critically Endangered or Endangered species (as listed in IUCN Red List) b. habitats of importance to endemic or restricted-range species c. habitats supporting globally or nationally significant concentrations of migratory or congregatory species d. highly threatened or unique ecosystems e. ecological functions or characteristics that are needed to maintain the viuability of the biodiversity values described in a-d. Critically Endangered and Endangered species recorded from the study area of SVTP are described earlier in this chapter, and Chapter 9 describes the habitat types that are present. 228 | P a g e The intake and first 2.5km of canal (including fish barrier) is currently being constructed through Majete Wildlife Reserve as part of the SVTP-I project. The works are carefully controlled to minimise impacts on the reserve (for example the canal in MWR will either be buried or walled to ensure no harm to elephants and other wildlife) and are being undertaken to the satisfaction of Arfican Parks and DNPW. In addition to the agreed mitigation measures, compensation continues to be provided as described in the ESMP for Phase 1 with the objective of maintaining the value of the park to wildlife. Information regarding the mitigation and compensation arrangements being undertaken in Majete Wildlife Reserve can be found in the Phase 1 ESMP and are not further discussed here. Lengwe has been designated as a National Park in particularly for supporting the endemic, northern- most population of Nyala. Although the Nyala is designated Least Concern by IUCN, the endemic population that has remained at Lengwe is of biodiversity interest. The Nyala is associated in Lengwe with a large (approximately 25km2) area of dense thicket, potentially for the protection it provides to them. The thicket vegetation is what gives Lengwe its name and is broadleaf, closed canopy deciduous woodland and thicket comprised of various species including Colophosprnum mopane (Mopane), Dalbergia melanoxylon (Blackwood / Zebrawood), Combretum imberbe (Leadwood), Cactacae kalonga. The thicket is a large component of the best game viewing area in the Park. Because the thicket is of significance to an endemic species, it is considered to be Critical Habitat. 10.9 ECOLOGY STUDY LIMITATIONS The Ecology section is based on a mix of field visits and bibliographical data. However, no invertebrate surveys data (such as insect and aquatic invertebrate) and no recent data on herpetofauna were available during original baseline. These were included from the MRAG 2016 study, which carried out detailed surveys, findings of which were included in the ESIA recommendations as relevant. In addition, there is no data on the carrying capacity of the Elephant marsh for animal at risk of conflict with human: the hippo and crocodiles. 229 | P a g e 11. IMPACT ASSESSMENT METHOD The ESIA relies on the following method for impact assessment. 11.1 METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impacts significance is assessed using a standardized method based on the integration of 4 criteria: 1. Affected components’ value 2. Impact intensity 3. Impact extent 4. Impact duration In addition, in order to separate risks from actual impacts, the probability of impact occurrence is assessed in all cases CRITERIA #1 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIAL COMPONENTS VALUE Each component of the socioeconomic and biophysical environment is analysed according to its value in the study area. Value assessment is based on experts’ knowledge on the component, field surveys, public consultations, discussions with NGOs, bibliographical sources, safeguards policies from the World Bank, etc. It is also a mean to put in writing stakeholders opinion about a component and to take them into account. Value analysis does not take into account foreseen impacts, it is purely based on the component intrinsic value. Three threshold levels are defined during the assignment: Low, Moderate and High values. A low value component does not represent an important socioeconomic or cultural feature for local communities or it does not have a high ecological value. A high value component is a significant feature for communities; it is either an important livelihood source or an element of cultural significance for communities. A high value component can also possess an important ecological value (rare plant, sensitive habitat, etc.). A high value component is also an element of particular significance for funding agencies (and presented in safeguard policies). A moderate value is between low and high. CRITERIA #2 IMPACT INTENSITY Impact intensity refers to level of disruption on the component. Disruption of natural component refers to death of species, displacement, fragmentation and loss of habitats. Disruption of socioeconomic components refer to loss of income, erosion of traditional ways of life, etc. The resilience of each component to changes is also taken into account. Three threshold levels of intensities are defined: Low, Medium and High. A low intensity refers to an impact that will not disturb significantly livelihood and ecological elements and that will not affect the function of the component or its characteristics. High intensity refers to an impact that takes place during a critical phase of biophysical components (breeding period, migration, spawning, etc.) or socioeconomic components (harvest, etc.). It is an impact that affects a component beyond its resilience. A medium intensity is between low and high. CRITERIA #3 IMPACT EXTENT Each impact is defined by its geographical extent. Three levels are established: punctual impact, local impact and regional impact. 230 | P a g e Punctual impacts affect a component on a very small scale of the study area, i.e. a small proportion of the study area population (people or wildlife). Local impacts affect a component on the entire or the majority of the detailed study area in opposition to regional impacts that affect a component on a larger scale and outside the detailed study area boundaries. CRITERIA #4 IMPACT DURATION Each impact is described according to its duration. Temporary and permanent impacts are distinguished based on their reversibility: temporary are reversible and permanent are irreversible (or last throughout the Project lifespan). IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE DETERMINATION Impact significance is based on the four previous criteria. The following table presents the impact importance determination. Positive impact is assessed using the same four criteria. Intensity Extent Duration Environmental and Social Component value Positive impact Negative impact Low Moderate High Low Moderate High Regional Permanent Temporary Local Permanent High Temporary Punctual Permanent Temporary Regional Permanent Temporary Local Permanent Medium Temporary Punctual Permanent Temporary Regional Permanent Temporary Local Permanent Low Temporary Punctual Permanent Temporary Major - Major + Moderate Moderate + Impact - significance Minor - Minor + Negligible Negligible Major impacts represent high level of perturbation of the component, these impacts are seldom mitigable and most of the times require compensation or Offsets, followed by measurable monitoring measures. Moderate impacts represent noticeable perturbation of the component, however these impacts can be mitigated and need to be monitored. Minor impacts, most of the time, only require mitigation measures without the need for monitoring. 231 | P a g e Negligible impacts do not require any particular measures. IMPACT OCCURRENCE PROBABILITY Assessment of the probability that an impact will take place is based on consultant experience on similar assignments and each expert knowledge. It allows to develop preventive measures for risks and mitigation measures for impacts. Three thresholds are used. Analysis of the baseline coupled with Project characteristics concludes that High probability the impact will take place. Potential occurrence Based on previous experiences, it is possible that the impact will occur. Analysis of baseline coupled with Project characteristics only reveals a risk Risk (low probability) of impact occurrence. 11.2 DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTING ACTIVITIES The impact assessment is based on the following description of impacting activities, which takes into account the lessons learned from the construction of Phase 1 of SVTP.. 11.2.1 Pre-construction Pre-construction phase: this phase included all technical studies (including the ESIA and the design) as well as the tender process for the selection of a construction contractor and scheme operator. Decisions that will be taken at this stage are important milestones that could influence the environmental and social soundness of the Project. Key activities undertaken prior to construction will include detailed design of the works (including identifying locations for quarries, borrow pits and disposal sites), land tenure and resettlement activites. 11.2.2 Construction During the construction phase the canal infrastructure will be built. In addition, land levelling and preparation of the command areas for irrigated agriculture will be undertaken, as each of the farms becomes established. The canal infrastructure includes thewater intake, fish barrier, main and secondary canals, night storage, bridges and underpasses, siphons and culverts, and will require major workforce and machinery deployment, waterworks, earthworks and land leveling, rock blasting, vegetation removal, concrete production and quarrying for material. An estimated 14.7 Ha and 65.4 Ha of land will be cleared in Majete Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park respectively. An estimated 2,4 km for Majete and 10,9 km stretch of Lengwe will be affected by the 60 m right of way (RoW) Rock blasting will occur where there are rock outcrops (granite). This has occurred in Majete and may also occur in Lengwe. These are impacting-generating activities. 11.2.3 Operation Operation phase: is the operation of the irrigation scheme through the water intake (irrigation of the command area in the valley). It will also include production of various crops. Operation of the scheme will generate impacts and will require overpassing many challenges. Most impacts during operation will come from the flow reduction in the Shire (due to water abstraction), the presence of a long open canal, and the challenges that people will face due to radical changes in their livelihood strategies, introduction of invasive alien species, pests However, the purpose of the Project is to bring positive economic benefits. 232 | P a g e 11.3 Cumulative Impacts OP 4.01 and ESF/ESS1 requires the environmental and social risk assessment of projects to consider the cumulative risks and impacts throughout the project’s lifecycle. The cumulative impact assessment undertaken as part of the 2017 ESIA has been reviewed and updated as part of the current study, to take into consideration any recent projects that have occurred and to identify any projects that may be planned for the future that could also impact these key receptors. Cumulative and induced impacts are not presented separately in this ESIA but are considered within each of the impact assessment chapters below. However, this section provides a summary of the key findings in relation to cumulative impacts. Cumulative impacts are defined in the ESF as the incremental impacts of the project when added to impacts from other relevant past, present and reasonably foreseeable developments. To understand the cumulative impacts the key receptors that may be affected incrementally or in combination need to be identified, together with the other projects that are to be taken into account. The first stage of a Cumulative Impact Assessment is to identify the key receptors that may be affected incrementally or in combination with other projects. In the case of SVTP, the key receptors are River Shire, Elephant Marsh Ramsar Site, Lengwe National Park and Majete Game Reserve. Transformation of the valley by the project will result in impacts to these key receptors not only from direct landtake (as the irrigation canal is built and the command areas are established during the three phases of the program), but also indirectly from water abstraction and an increase in agricultural chemicals and other wastes that may pollute the watershed. However, if these receptors are subject to changes as a result of other projects occurring at the same time as SVTP, the combination or cumulative effects may be more profound. Therefore as part of the update of this ESIA, a review has been undertaken to identify other planned or likely developments that may also impact these features. To identify new or proposed projects, water licencing authority records have been reviewed, and consultation undertaken with the main businesses and operations in the Lower Shire, including Shire Best and Agricultural District Division. No new licences have been issued for the abstraction of water from the River Shire since 2017, and no new projects have been undertaken within the study area, except for small scale nature resource improvement projects within Majete Game Reserve, Lengwe National Park and a small scale catchment improvement project on farm land. Three proposed projects were identified:  Mpatamanga Hydropower scheme Approximately 12km upstream of SVTP and to the north of Majete Game Reserve is the proposed location for the Mpatamanga Hydropower Scheme, which is expected to be composed of two dams, a HPP dam and a flow regulation dam. The scheme is likely to be developed with private sector involvement, including in terms of detailed design development, is currently in the planning phase. The project has completed an Environmental Flow assessment, and is reviewing and updating this as part of a rapid Cumulative Impact Assessment. A full Cumulative Impact Assessment will be required for the project in due course, and a key consideration of this will be the implication for the supply of water to SVTP as well as impacts downstream, for example on Elephant Marsh. Mpatamanaga hydropower project will not remove water from the River Shire, but may have a regulating effect on the hydrological regime, similar to the effect of the other other hydropower projects along the upper reaches of the Shire River, and this may affect sediment transportation patterns along the river. As with the other hydroelectric power plants in the upper and middle reaches of the River Shire, the water reaching Mpatamanaga will be larely controlled by the Kamuzu barrage. The justification for building the Kamuzu Barrage as a control gate at Liwonde was to mitigate the possibilities of failure to maintain the design flow of 170 m³/sec for hydropower in the middle reach of the Shire River. The barrage is designed to reduce the risk to an acceptable level, by retaining water when the Lake level is relatively high and by releasing it at times when the flow would otherwise have been too low. 233 | P a g e Figure 65: Location of Mpatamanga in the Lower Shire Valley The project information document indicates that an estimated 121 households from three small villages (Chaswanthaka and Chikira villages in Blantyre District and Kambalame in Neno District) and a school (of about 800 students) and about 43-50 households along the main transmission line and access roads, will be affected by the construction works. The project will also impact local livelihoods and generate increased social risks related to construction-induced immigration. Local communities will also be exposed to the risk of flooding, accidental drowning, and exposure to vector-borne disease during operation. A detailed analysis and evaluation of the impacts of Mpatamanga Hydroelectric Power Project will become clear as detailed designs get completed and at finalisation of the project ESMP.  Malawi Watershed Services Improvement Program With a focus on the upper and middle reaches of Shire Valley (and other catchments in Malawi), the project will identify and implement measures to introduce more sustainable methods of landscape management practices, with the aim of protecting and enhancing watershed services. When fully implemented, the project will improve the quality and reliability of the watershed services upstream of SVTP. Sub-project improvements are currently in the planning stages, but will be designed to slow the discharge of runoff water into the Shire during rainfall fall events, reducing erosion and reducing the sediment loading. Through MWASIP, 7 large scale and small scale irrigation schemes capable of irrigation 690 Ha of land will be developed alongside upgradinging of gravity fed water supply schemes. Building on experiences of previous failures of such schemes, the project will support catchment management activities in the middle Shire Catchment Area to reduce siltation and enhance water retention. 234 | P a g e The actual water abstraction figures for these interventions will become known during studies and detailed designs of the schemes towards late 2022 to early 2023. The map below shows catchment areas targetted by MWASIP. Figure 66: Targetted Watersheds Under MWASIP  Pesscane Prescane, a local company (Press Holdings) to the Lower Shire River Valley, is a producer of high grade ethanol that is used for blending with petrol. As part of its expansion drive, the company is developing an irrigation scheme that will abstract 2,5 M3 per second of water from the Shire River upstream of the Elephant Marsh. Presscane also has a long- term plan to connect with the SVTP irrigation network, and therefore there will be no additional abstraction to consider in addition to that of SVTP. Majete Game Reserve and Lengwe National Park No other developments have been identified that will directly affect Majete or Lengwe negatively at the location of the SVTP works. Illegal logging, encroachment of cattle grazing and poaching impacts have been recorded in past from Majete Game reserve and are known to occur from time to time in Legnwe National Park, although strengthened management practices and community engagement in Majete Game Reserve has reduced the number of events dramatically, according to African Parks. As part of SVTP-II, measures will be taken to assist Lengwe National Park achieve its management objectives, including through investments in fencing, ranger services, human-wildlife conflict management, and enhancement of facilities to promote conservation and increase tourism. 235 | P a g e As part of SVTP-I, studies on potential wildlife corridors to enhance the natural movement of animals between Majete Game Reserve (which needs to reduce numbers of some key species, including elephant) and Lengwe National Park (which is currently devoid of many species) were undertaken. If these studies identify a feasible option for linking the parks, the opportunity may be persued subject to full and complete consultation with local communities. The linking of these parks may result in significant benefits to both parks and animal numbers in the long term. River Shire and Elephant Marsh With respect to the River Shire and Elephant Marsh, the ESIA reviewed and described the cumulative impacts of the water abstraction for SVTP on the hydrological functioning of the River and Elephant Marsh. In undertaking this assessment, the Illovo and Mtengula irrigation schemes (5 m³/s for peak water demand), the Blantyre Water Board abstraction (2 m³/s maximum), and a program of measures described and assessed as part of the Shire River Basin Management Program (SRBMP) were taken into account. The study concluded a Moderate residual impact for the cumulative abstraction of water on Shire River and Elephant Marsh, on the assumption that the Illovo irrigation scheme pumping stations would be shut and that no further provision is made for an environmental flow from Kamuzu Barrage. Kamuzu Barrage is reported to be highly influential on flow regulation in the River Shire. The Shire River runoff at Kapichira is therefore highly influenced by the flow regulation of the Lake Malawi and Kamuzu Barrage. The Elephant Marsh hydrological behaviour during the dry season is almost entirely driven by the upstream basin of the Shire River at Kapichira and consequently the main leverage for action to satisfy the minimum environmental flow for Elephant Marsh is the Kamuzu Barrage. On the other hand, during the wet season, the Elephant Marsh inundation is mainly due to the Shire River but also to the Ruo River that brings more than the quarter of the inflow in the wetlands. SVTP does not impact the flow regime in the Ruo River. As described, the intake that is constructed as part of SVTP Phase 1 will extract 50m3/s from Kapichira reservoir, which is the maximum amount of water that is needed to irrigate the 43,370ha of SVTP. The maximum net abstraction will be 32m3/s, considering the move of Illovo from direct river pumping to using water from the SVTP scheme. The net abstraction is equivalent of 10% of the low flow (dry season month of peak irrigation demand), and therefore 90% of the current water will still flow along the River Shire and to Elephant Marsh. The operator of the canal and canal infrastructure is responsible to ensuring that no unauthorized abstractions occur from the canal network, and for ensuring that the water needed to meet the demand in the farms is abstracted from Kapichira reservoir. The SOCFEs will be established with consultant support and in order to be as financially viable as possible will make use of efficient water (and resource) use processes that are designed to meet exactly the needs of the crops. This will reduce wasteage as well as farm run-off, further ensuring the maximum designed water extraction will not be exceeded. Due to the flat nature of the irrigated land, SVTP is not predicted to be a major source of sediments washed into the River Shire and Elephant Marsh. However, there will be increases in the use of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and other farm chemicals during farm operations as part of the SVTP scheme. Over time, there may be an accumulation of these within the River Shire and particularly within Elephant Marsh. A monitoring program has been integrated into SVTP project to enable early identification of any changes that may result in the flora or fauna of elephant marsh as part of SVTP and to allow for adaptive management practices (such as substitution of chemicals or altered use arrangements) to be introduced into operations. Malawi Watershed Services Improvement Program (MWASIP) With a focus on the upper and middle reaches of Shire Valley (and other catchments in Malawi), the project will identify and implement measures to introduce more sustainable methods of landscape management practices, with the aim of protecting and enhancing watershed services. When fully implemented, the project will improve the quality and reliability of the watershed services upstream of SVTP. The interventions undertaken are expected to have a moderating effect on run-off reaching the River Shire, which in turn will reduce erosion and the sediments washed into the river. Mpatamanga Hydropower scheme Upstream of SVTP (and to the north of Majete Game Reserve) is the proposed location of the Mpatamanga Hydroper Scheme, which is expected to be composed of two dams, a HPP dam and a 236 | P a g e flow regulation dam. The scheme is being developed with private sector involvement, including in terms of detailed design development, and although the project has completed an initial Environmental Flow assessment, it is reviewing and updating this as part of a Cumulative Impact Assessment due to report in 2023. An ESIA for the project is understood to be in preparation. Although Mpatamanga will not alter the volume of water reaching Kapichira reservoir, the presence of the dams and the operating regime are expected to have a regulation effect on the hydrological flows and may have an impact on the transport of sediments along the river, although what this may mean for the River Shire and Elephant marsh will be determined only once the detailed studies for the project are completed. 237 | P a g e 11.4 Impact assessment of the Natural Resources Management (NRM) component Activities planned under this component are designed to protect or improve the natural resources within the valley, including the protected areas. They will involve studies and minor works and are expected to have minimal or no negative environmental impacts, are expected to result in long term benefits. However, as the scope of these works has not yet been fully designed, each project will be screened for environmental and social risks prior to any works occurring. The screening will be sufficient to allow for appropriate best management practices regarding health and safety, waterworks, earthworks, etc. to be identified and incorporated into the works through the preparation of a specific ESMP. The project will ensure that proper mitigation measures have been put in place against all potential negative social impacts. Separate documents, the Process Framework and the Ressetlent Plan Framework have been produced, outlining all the processes to be followed in compensating or dealing with all social issues. Examples of civil works that may be undertaken includes contruction of staff houses, drilling of bore holes and road construction. As required by national legislation, the works will be subject to full ESIA or an ESMP subject to screening by EAD. 11.5 IMPACT ASSESSMENT LIMITATION This ESIA has considered the Detailed Design for the Phase I works, but is based on the FS design for Phase 2 works. As such it sets out requirements that need to be considered during the detailed design of the Phase 2 works, although it is not know with certainty if the precise location, nature, or scale of SVTP environmental impacts is as predicted. 238 | P a g e 12. PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT 12.1 INTRODUCTION The impact assessment starts with the Physical environment, as most impacts derive from changes to physical components: water, soil, flow, etc. LIMITATIONS One important limitation that needs to be further refined by the Detailed Design study is the precise location of areas that may be unsuitable or challenging for irrigation due to their soil properties. This ESIA has located some heavy Vertisols, based on photointerpretation and on field work by the ESIA Soil Specialist. . The Feasibility Study consultant has carried out field testing of these heavy Vertisols and concluded that most of them are indeed irrigable with specific management measures. These measures will need to be further specified during Detailed Design. To the extent that certain project-area farm lands are not technically well suited for irrigation, they will be available for other uses such as livestock grazing or planted woodlots. In addition, certain non-irrigated Setaside Lands will keep the limited remaining areas of natural habitats from being cleared for irrigated agriculture. Impact identification matrix on the physical environment The following impact identification matrix tabulates the components against the impacts that are considered during the preconstruction, construction and operation stages of the project.. Components Pre-construction Construction Operation Impacts from water Siltation of Elephant works: canals and marsh: waterbodies, water intake including Elephant construction will marsh, erosion and necessitate crossing sedimentation pattern rivers and will involve will be modified water works such as because of changes to building small dams flow and weirs, culverts, siphons and installing Reservoir gabions to stabilize sedimentation rivers. These will affect pattern: the water the geomorphology intake will impact Geomorphology of and water quality of reservoir rivers rivers sedimentation pattern Water abstraction : Up to 50m3/s will be extracted from the Shire system at Kapichira reservoir Hydraulic transparency: where a canal crosses a river, if culverts are not adequately designed No impact during pre- and installed they can Hydrology construction phase act as dam and 239 | P a g e Components Pre-construction Construction Operation flood villages upstream. Flash flood phenomenon can damage hydraulics infrastructure Impacts from water works: canals and water intake construction will necessitate crossing rivers and will involve water works such as building small dams Water quality and weirs, culverts, impairment : the siphons and installing scheme will impair gabions to stabilize water quality rivers. These will affect (including the geomorphology groundwater) as a and water quality of result of farm chemical Water quality rivers use Changes in soil properties and rising water table: irrigated agriculture can lead to Impacts from several changes in soil earthwork and land leveling : canal properties construction will (salinization, soil necessitate important sodicity, waterlogging, excavation of earth etc.). Irrigation can rise and rocks and the water table (leading to command salinization and Soil and groundwater area will be levelled waterlogged soil) 240 | P a g e 12.2 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE The following table shows the value of components. Component Component value River geomorphology is a moderately valued component. Most rivers geomorphology are subject to important natural changes due to flash floods and erosion. Siltation of the reservoir is Geomorphology of rivers however an important issue River hydrology is a highly valued component. Communities are directly dependent on river flow and, based on historical records, any change in the past has led to significant economic Hydrology and social changes Water quality is a moderately valued component as there is not much attention provided to water quality in the study area Water quality although it is an important element for aquatic life Soil is a highly valued component in the study area as people Soil & Groundwater depend directly on its properties for agriculture 12.3 GEOMORPHOLOGY OF RIVERS 12.3.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction of the scheme, canal and water intake construction will necessitate crossing rivers and will involve water works such as building weirs, culverts, siphons and installing gabions to stabilize rivers. These will affect the geomorphology, hydrology and water quality of rivers. As noted during ESIA preparation through field observation and confirmed by satellite imagery analysis, tributary riverbeds are very mobile: river beds can move of several tens of meters after severe floods. • During SVTP operation, some relatively minor changes might be expected in sedimentation patterns within the Elephant Marsh due to (i) modestly reduced dry season Shire River flows and (ii) sediment arriving from irrigation drainage canals (although the irrigated farmland will be very flat and not highly erosive). The March 2017 SRBMP Management Report on Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resources Management in the Elephant Marsh concludes that, in recent decades, changing the amount of sediment load in the marsh has had little effect on the delivery of ecosystem services. The Marsh has been remarkably resilient to sedimentation as well as flow changes, having experienced significant fluctuations in both over its recorded history. • During operation of the scheme, the water intake will change sedimentation pattern in the reservoir (Reservoir sedimentation pattern). This change could lead to impact on EGENCO powerstation water intake. Sedimentation patterns are currently affecting Elephant Marsh, as described in the baseline chapter. In addition to the sediment transported along the Shire River (some of which is removed at Kapichira as part of the EGENCO management of the reservoir), sedimentation sources are the tributary rivers and streams and the run off from agricultural schemes along the East Bank of the Shire River. Proposals underway and as part of other projects (including SRBMP, MWASIP) are designed to improve agricultural practices and reduce erosion within the River Shire Catchment. Despite the scale of SVTP, it is not expected for the additional sedimentation to increase significantly 241 | P a g e the cumulative impacts of sedimentation on Elephant Marsh, although monitoring should be undertaken to confirm if changes are occurring, with a view to integrating sediment traps at outfalls, if necessary. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impacts from water Siltation of Elephant Reservoir work. During marsh. During sedimentation construction, some operation of the pattern. The water actions and scheme, erosion and intake will change infrastructures will modify geomorphology sedimentation pattern sediment deposition of rivers will be modified pattern in the reservoir Value of the affected Moderately valued component Intensity Low Low Extent Punctual Local This impact is the Duration Temporary Permanent subject of an independent study for Significance Negligible Minor the SVTP “Hydraulic Modeling of Intake for Potential occurrence the SVTP (Artelia)”. Occurrence (as the type of water Impact assessment High probability probability works in tributary and mitigation have rivers are not known) been informed by this report. 12.3.2 Mitigation measures Impacts from water work The following mitigations are recommended to limit impact on geomorphology of river: • Any work across a river will have to take its mobility into account to avoid having rivers shifting and no longer flowing through canals. Therefore, design of the river passages shall involve installing gabions or riprap on riverbanks. In addition, it is recommended not to cross a tributary river in a meander but rather where the river is flowing in a straight line. • When finetuning the command area in the Design phase, it is recommanded to avoid developing irrigated fields too close to any river and to take into account river mobility. It is proposed to avoid all areas that are in the 1 in 10 year floods of rivers and to stabilize sharp meanders with gabions and riprap. These important aspects shall be taken into account in the Design study to safeguard rivers from being channelized and crops from floods. Siltation of Elephant marsh Two mitigation measures could be implemented to reduce the impact on Elephant marsh. These are related to further targeted work in the catchments and on the Kamuzu Barrage, both under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation, and Water Development: • One is related to the Lower Shire River watershed management, which includes investments by 242 | P a g e MoAIWD as well as the Forestry Department under the ongoing Shire River Basin Management Project. These investments seek to reduce land degradation and enhance forest cover, thereby reducing erosion and the resulting sediment load within the Shire River and the Elephant Marsh. • After the ongoing upgrading of the Kamuzu Barrage on the Shire River is completed, it is possible- but not guaranteed--that Barrage operations will be able to release more water during the dry season, thereby incrementally benefiting the Elephant Marsh. Located in Liwonde (well upstream of the entire SVTP project area), the Kamuzu Barrage partially regulates water levels in Lake Malawi, the primary water source for the Shire River and Elephant Marsh. This ESIA discusses the feasibility of releasing more water from Kamuzu barrage in the Hydrology section. Although average flows will be reduced, there will still be periods of high flow during the rainy season, which will (i) flush out excess sediments from the Elephant Marsh and (ii) help restore the Marsh to its normal full size. Other mitigations are related to best management practices in the command area such as good maintenance of drains, proper stabilization of dikes and banks, etc. Some of these will be the responsibility of the Bulk Water Operation for the SVTP scheme. It is also expected that the SRBMP will define and implement appropriate conservation measures that will also control soil erosion in the hilly upper and middle catchment areas, particularly along drainage lines and other watercourses. These measures will also help to reduce flooding and waterlogging in the lower Shire Basin. Most importantly for the Elephant Marsh, the SVTP Natural Resources Management Component will serve to improve the protection and management of this major wetland ecosystem, facilitating more sustainable uses by restricting the clearing of marsh areas for cultivation and the potential over-harvesting of a wide range of natural resources. 12.4 HYDROLOGY The flow data presented in this report are based on Chickawawa gauging station only and the data from gauging station in Liwonde were not used. 12.4.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During operation of SVTP, canal capacity will be 50m3/s, and this is the maximum amount that will be extracted from the Shire system at Kapichira reservoir (Water abstraction). This is a consumptive demand as this amount will not be released directly back in the system (about half will be released back to drains and to the water table). This will lead to modest environmental impacts on Elephant Marsh and minor impacts on tourism at Kapichira Falls: - Although the proposed SVTP represents a significant new consumptive demand in the Shire River, the EGENCO Hydropower Station has much larger non-consumptive water demands which are likely to take precedence over irrigation requirements at times of low flows. This means that, at times of low flows, irrigation demands from the SVTP would not be exercised and flows would be maintained for power generation demands. - The high demand for the Kapichira Hydropower Stations also gives to rise to issues regarding sharing of water. - The impact of water abstraction is a transboundary impact since part of the amount that will be withdrawn from the Shire will be lost to Mozambique. - The presence of a water intake conveying water from the reservoir close to villages will likely create, on the long-term, new expectations and new water demands from people, industries, etc. For example, Chikwawa will receive 1,240 m3 daily through a pipeline for drinking water. Therefore, discussions on water allocation and water rights could become more significant 243 | P a g e although the maximum capacity of the irrigation system’s Main Canal intake is set at 50 m3/s and this will not increase over time. Hydrology impact assessment can be divided in three: • Hydrologically negative changes downstream of EGENCO Powerstation tailrace, which could lead to impacts on the Elephant Marsh; • Hydrologically positive changes due to the significant reduction of the use of existing pumping stations along Elephant Marsh. This will partially counter-balance the flow reduction in the marsh; • Hydrologically negative changes below the dam and upstream of the hydropower tailrace, which will lead to dry season flow reductions over the Kapichira Falls, a tourist attraction within the Majete Wildlife Reserve. The following figure illustrates these three types of impacts. Figure 67: Hydrological Impacts Impact downstream of EGENCO tailrace The water demands for the SVTP and for the EGENCO power generation (Kapichira I installed capacity: 64.8 MW and Kapichira II, 64.8 MW) are presented in the table below (source: KRC, 2016). The flow reduction downstream of the hydropower tailrace is presented (in percentage terms). When both Phases I and II of SVTP developed, the Shire River flow reduction will be up to 9.4% downstream of the tailrace during a typically normal year and up to 12.4% during especially dry years (considering the net abstraction that reflects the conversion from current pumping to gravity-fed irrigation) (Source data & results: MoAWI Chickwawa Gauging station (1L12), 2017). although they borrow large amount of water, Kapichira I and II are not affecting Elephant Marsh since the hydropower scheme is a run-of-river scheme where all turbinated water is released downstream of the tailrace (non-consumptive demand). Figures show the “without Illovo scenario” since although it is expected for Illovo to participate in the SVTP scheme, the agreement is not completed yet. 244 | P a g e Table 31: Water Demands for SVTP and EGENCO at Kapichira Dam % of average flow % of average flow EGENCO Kapichira (m³/s) SVTP (Median year)* (dry year) I+II Jan 20.0 3.1 4.4 269.2 Feb 22.3 3.1 4.2 269.2 Mar 24.8 3.5 4.9 269.2 Apr 26.8 3.9 5.4 269.2 May 32.7 4.8 6.6 269.2 Jun 34.5 5.3 6.9 269.2 Jul 43.1 7.2 10.0 269.2 Aug 47.8 8.8 10.8 269.2 Sep 50.0 9.4 11.9 269.2 Oct 47.4 8.6 12.4 269.2 Nov 37.2 7.0 10.5 269.2 Dec 25.6 4.7 7.2 269.2 Source data & results: MoAWI Chickwawa Gauging station (1L12), 2017 • The Figure below presents the availability of water by showing the 50% (Median Q50) and 80% (Quinquennial dry year Q80%) dependable monthly flows as well as the water requirement for SVTP without or with Illovo and with Kapichira I and II. 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Q50 Q80 With Illovo With Illovo & Kapichira I+II Figure 68: Water availability and demand at Kapichira Dam (using same hydrological data from DWR used in TFS) Source data & results: MoAWI Chickwawa Gauging station (1L12), 2017 The previous graph shows that: 245 | P a g e • The water supply exceeds largely the irrigation requirement for SVTP without or with Illovo when taken alone. In addition to predicion on impact, the risk of having illegal motor pumps along the stretch of the feeder canal will create additional small consumptive demands and could affect tail enders. As such, illegal water connections by communities have to be given consideration. Partial closure of existing pumping stations along Elephant marsh The FS report mentions that existing pumping stations could be operated when drought is expected (around once every 5 years). Occasional use of the existing pumping stations (by opposition to constant use) will reduce the effect of hydrological impact on Elephant marsh since water that will be brought by irrigation will no longer be pumped. Most stations utilization, except for Kaombe, could be reduced significantly during Phase I (sugar cane fields irrigated by Kaombe pumping station are concerned by Phase II). According to the FS report, the total amount of water pumped per average year is 9 m3/s. During the wettest months, pumps are taking 6m3/s and during the driest months, pumps are taking 13 m3/s. The “positive” impact from partial closure of pumps is small but noticeable. It represents 30% to 25% of the flow in comparison to the 20.5 to 51.3 m3/s that will be withdrawn from the Shire system. Impact below the dam and upstream of the hydropower tailrace: impact on Kapichira falls This area is the most severely impacted area hydrologically. Since the scheme has been designed to optimize resource utilization with 80% assurance of supply in the critical months of September and October it is likely that flow over the falls will be very low in those months. Good records are missing for flows over the spillway, but in dry years with low lake levels (such as e.g. 2015) the flow over the falls has been known to be so low as to render the falls invisible in the dry season. It is clear from the data that the factor influencing the most the fate of the falls is the operation of the reservoir for hydropower (Kapichira I+II). As is shown in figure 8 the water availability is mainly an issue in the dry season as during the rainy season the flows are much less affected when flows in the Shire are higher and irrigation demands significantly lower. SVTP will therefore likely lead to a significant increase in the number of months per year with low flows over Kapichira Falls, the number of months being strongly dependent on reservoir management decision and future flow releases at Kamuzu Barrage. The importance of this change is limited because: --From a visual standpoint, the Kapichira Falls are already compromised by the view of the Kapichira Dam wall at the crest of the Falls; --While an attractive sight overall, the Kapichira Falls are not considered to drive tourist visitation to the Majete Wildlife Reserve, which attracts tourists mainly because of its wildlife, overall scenery, and good visitor facilities. This finding was reinforced during discussions with Majete Reserve managers. --Unlike some waterfalls with a high vertical drop, the Kapichira Falls have a gentler slope and do not have any unique “spray ecosystem” zone with distinctive plants or other species in the vicinity of the falls. A seasonal reduction in flows over the falls will therefore not significantly affect the local biodiversity. --The tailrace of the HEP is immediately downstream of the falls where the Shire cuts a deep gorge and there will always be water at the toe of the falls. The impact is therefore limited to the area where the water cascades down rocks and boulders until it reaches the Shire. The spatial extent of this impact is therefore very limited and over a harsh section with variable flows in the baseline situation. 246 | P a g e Table 302: Number of months when the flow is (will be) lower than 20m3/s Kapichira I+II Kapichira I+II Kapichira I+II & SVTP Nb Months (current & SVTP with without situation) Illovo Illovo 2013 0.4 6.5 7.6 2014 0.0 9.8 9.9 2015 2.4 10.1 10.2 Mean 0.9 8.8 9.2 Min 0.0 6.5 7.6 Max 2.4 10.1 10.2 Table 313: Number of months when the flow is (will be) lower than 10m3/s Kapichira I+II Kapichira I+II & Kapichira I+II & Nb Months (current SVTP without SVTP with Illovo situation) Illovo 2013 0.4 5.8 6.6 2014 0.0 9.2 9.5 2015 1.5 10.0 10.1 Mean 0.6 8.4 8.7 Min 0.0 5.8 6.6 Max 1.5 10.0 10.1 During operation of the scheme, where canals or new farm roads cross a river, if ever culverts are not adequately designed, they can act as dam and flood villages upstream. Careful design of canals also has to take into account flash flood phenomenon that can damage the hydraulic infrastructures (Hydraulic transparency). All tributary rivers are reactive and have small watershed (except Mwanza and Ruo) originating in hilly areas, flowing through the plain and then to the Elephant Marsh where Shire flows. Flash floods in these rivers lead to sudden increase of water level, with high bedload transport capacity, especially right bank rivers where topography is more pronounced. When these rivers reach the plain, their currents become weaker and sediment deposit are finer, ultimately silt plumes reach the Elephant Marsh. Erosion on hill slopes increases the phenomenon. In the plain, these tributary rivers can easily flood villages due to diffuse river beds. In addition, tributary river beds are mobile, within a few years, river bed can move of several tens of meters. 247 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Hydraulic transparency. Water abstraction. Up to When crossing the canal 50m3/s will be extracted from tributary rivers can flood the Shire system upstream village if culverts are not properly sized Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Low Extent Regional Punctual Duration Permanent Temporary Significance Major (and cumulative) Minor Occurrence probability High probability Potential occurrence 12.4.2 Mitigation measures Water abstraction In the future, it might be feasible to mitigate the impacts from reduced flows to the Elephant Marsh (and in the Shire River generally below the planned irrigation intake) by releasing more water from the Kamuzu Barrage. However, this cannot be guaranteed at this time, it will depend upon (i) Lake Malawi water levels, which naturally fluctuate over time and (ii) regulation of water flows at the Kamuzu Barrage to meet electricity generation and irrigation demands.. One potential risk is having illegal pumping taking place along the western part of the canal, where no SVTP irrigation is planned (because pumping would be required). Illegal pumping using motor pumps will need to be addressed or regulated by the SVTP Bulk Water Operator to ensure that it does not significantly reduce the water available to the planned SVTP irrigation areas. In any case, since SVTP abstraction from the Shire River will be strictly limited to 50 m3/s by the size of the Main Canal intake, any unauthorized water abstraction from the canal will be an SVTP management problem but not really an environmental problem, since no additional water will be taken from the Shire River or lost to the Elephant Marsh. For project planning purposes, it is therefore presumed that, at full SVTP development, the flows available to the Elephant Marsh will be reduced by a maximum of 32 m3/s, which represents the maximum gross abstraction of 50 m3/s at the Main Canal intake minus the 18 m3/s currently pumped from the Shire River (mainly by Illovo Sugar) that SVTP would replace. For Phase I of SVTP development, the maximum net abstraction would be only 12 m3/s. This translates to a net abstraction at full SVTP development of not more than about 10 percent of the Shire River’s flow during September, the dry season month of peak irrigation water demand. As modeled in the hydromorphological study on the Elephant Marsh (MRAG, 2016), the impacts on Elephant Marsh of water abstraction are expected to be moderate. Based on a 33-year horizon analysis of the potential effects of alternative future scenarios of flow and/or management on the ecological condition of the Elephant Marsh, using a pre-2015 morphological template and taking into account the cumulative impacts of future basin development including SVTP, the conclusions are that: • The Marsh is fairly resilient to short-term flow and sediment changes, having experienced significant fluctuations of both in its history. • Development and climate change in the short term do not represent a significant threat to the long-term integrity and sustainability of the Elephant Marsh, but may represent a threat in the longer term if overlain on dry periods such as those known to have occurred in the past. 248 | P a g e • The most immediate and significant threat to the integrity and sustainability of the Elephant Marshes is pressure from subsistence users, including the clearing of marsh vegetation for flood-recession agriculture and over-harvesting of fish and other natural resources. The MRAG report recommends improved management practices within the Elephant Marsh, many of which will be supported under the SVTP Natural Resources Management Component. Regarding the Kapichira Falls, the current flow over the falls is controlled by EGENCO by opening the sluice gates of the Kapichira Dam on the Shire River (ATKINS, 2011 and NORPLAN, 2013). In effect, there currently appears to be no formal requirement for an environmental flow discharge at the sluice gates. The actual dry season flow over the falls is usually around 30m 3/s but during lower water conditions (such as in the 2016 drought), there is little or no flow now over the falls. The by-passed river section at the dam toe until the toe of the water falls is 900 meters long. After 900 m, the tailrace from the hydropower station releases all flow, restoring the original flow of the Shire River since Kapichira is a run-of-river hydropower facility (what comes in goes out quickly). It is in this by-passed section that provides an attractive view for tourists at the Majete Wildlife Reserve when water flows over the falls are high (particularly during the wet season). Historically, the falls have seen great variation in flows, particularly in the early 20th century when lake levels were low and did not sustain Shire flows. In terms of mitigating such large fluctuations, Kamuzu Barrage was constructed and is currently being upgraded and an improved Shire Basin Plan and Operational Decision Support system (ODSS) is being installed for use by the MoAIWD, the Shire Basin Agency and EGENCO (former EGENCO). It will improve data driven operations of Kamuzu Barrage and downstream infrastructure and over time improve efficiency of operations, within the overall allocations set for different sectors within sustainable limits under the Shire Basin Plan, in which the allocation at Kapichira has been modeled for the critical months of September and October. In the rainy season irrigation demands drop significantly, to 20 m3/s for the month of January (for SVTP I and II combined) while flows in the river are higher, resulting in a Q80 flow over the falls of over 200 m3/s for most of the season. The Project will support the development of operational rules for Kapichira Reservoir between EGENCO and the scheme operator under MoAIWD, based on monitoring during project duration. To inform the operating rules, the project will support monitoring of the actual flows over the fall during SVTP-I before canal operation starts, under the auspices of both EGENCO and MoAIWD to have better reference of the flow situation over the falls in the wet and dry season as well as localized biodiversity, and to include consideration for safeguarding minimum environmental releases as determined necessary over the spillway. Regarding the transboundary impacts of SVTP, the Shire River in Malawi is part of the Zambezi basin which is under the oversight of the Zambezi Commission. The Commission has been contacted through a Riparian Notification Letter to the governments of all the other Zambezi River Basin countries (Mozambique, Tanzania, Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) and the commission no reservations against SVTP. Hydraulic transparency The estimates of the frequency peak flows for the sub-basins of right-bank tributaries intersecting the SVTP canals are given in the table below (calculations based on the flood frequency relationship established by Mkhandi & Kachroo, 1998). Based on these data, culverts and under passages have to be carefully designed and super-sized to allow dry passage of wildlife, the Q100 shall be taken into account to size box culverts and culverts. Another rationale to make large culverts is that larger culverts are less likely to result in flooding of the main irrigation canals; such flooding can lead to the entry of Lower Shire/Zambezi fish species into the canal system, posing an invasive species risk for Lake Malawi. In addition, tributaries that are crossed by the primary canal have to be stabilized with gabion or rip rap and the primary canal shall always cross a river perpendicularly and in a place where the river is flowing in a straight line (to reduce the impact of river mobility). The Design study has taken this measure into account for Phase 1 and will do so for Phase 2. 249 | P a g e Table 324: Peak flow of right bank Shire tributaries Catchment Area at SVTP Canal Peak Flow (m³/s) Tributary rivers name (km²) Q2 Q10 Q20 Q50 Q100 Mwambezi 160 41 111 138 171 195 Masakale 102 34 91 113 140 160 Nthumba 70 29 77 96 119 136 Mwanza 1621 112 304 377 467 535 Nkombedzi Wa Fodya 418 62 168 209 259 297 Namitalala 65 28 75 93 116 132 Phwadzi 219 47 127 158 196 224 Namikalango 140 39 105 130 161 184 Nyakamba 78 30 81 101 125 143 Mikombo 47 24 65 81 100 114 Mafume 61 27 73 90 112 128 Lalanje 77 30 81 100 124 142 12.5 WATER QUALITY 12.5.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction of the scheme, canal and water intake construction will necessitate crossing rivers and will involve building culverts, siphons and installing gabions to stabilize rivers. These will affect the water quality of rivers (Impacts from water works). Concrete wash water, for example, can pollute water by increasing its pH. Water works could increase turbidity, especially during construction of the water intake in the reservoir. There is a risk of oil/chemical spills from refueling of machinery and storage of fuel barrel. The following picture shows an example of inadequate oil storage taking place when machinery is working in river. Figure 69: Poor oil management (Source: BRLi, 2015 ) 250 | P a g e • During operation of the scheme, drainage from irrigated fields will impair water quality (including groundwater) (Water quality impairment). Drainage will transport pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers and silt. The chain of consequences will be long, as these pollutants will impact aquatic life in many ways: - Pesticides and herbicides may be toxic and some are known to induce mutation in herpetofauna and fish species and affect the food chain up to piscivorous birds and fishes; - Fertilizers are known to induce eutrophication and changes in plant communities especially when flow is low. This could worsen invasive plant colonization of Elephant marsh; - Silt are known to transport pollutants (as they cling on silt) and to impact fish by smothering eggs and affecting gills of many species (impacts on fish are discussed in a separate section). ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impacts from water works. Water quality impairment. Construction activities will Drainage in watercourses will bring silt and other pollutants impair water quality to rivers Value of the Moderately valued affected component Intensity Low Medium Extent Punctual Local Duration Temporary Permanent Significance Negligible Moderate Potential occurrence (as the High probability Occurrence probability type of water works in tributary rivers are not known) Physical environment Impact assessment 12.5.2 Mitigation measures IMPACTS FROM WATER WORKS Several mitigations are possible to limit impact from water works on water quality, they apply to the construction contractor: • Work close to tributary rivers shall be carried out during the dry season when rivers are dry • Best management practices shall be implemented for water work, such as : - Mandatory use of silt floating fences in the reservoir when building the water intake; - Mandatory use of silt fences when working close to rivers; - Not store any materials within 10m of a watercourse; - Refueling activities away from any waterbody (at least 100 m); - No evacuation of concrete wash water in waterbodies; - Emergency spills containment kit in all vehicles and machinery. • Request in tender documents that companies develop and share a method for environmentally friendly water work (reservoir and river) and spill containment, as part of the tender evaluation. 251 | P a g e WATER QUALITY IMPAIRMENT Several mitigations are possible to limit impact from drainage: • Since the command area will remain at a certain distance from the marsh (to avoid floods), several settling pond could be designed to allow silt and attached pollutants to settle in ponds rather than reaching the marsh. However, this would also reduce the amount of water that returns back to the marsh and these ponds would be washed away during floods. This mitigation is therefore not recommended unless monitoring indicates that siltation and pollution from SVTP is a cause of significant change in the River Shire and Elephant Marsh. • The Integrated Pest Management Plan has developed measures to ensure that only authorized pesticides are used. • Measures presented in section 6.4. to limit erosion will also bring benefits to water quality. 12.6 SOIL & GROUNDWATER 12.6.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction of the scheme, canal construction will necessitate excavation of earth and the command area will be levelled (Impacts from earthwork and land leveling). Based on the current feasibility study (KRC, 2016), the volume of earthworks for the canal is as follows (for a lined canal, estimated based on information provided from the Feasibility study): - Feeder canal excavation for the canal bed: +/- 1 Mm3 - Feeder canal backfilling for embankment: +/- 1 Mm3 - Bangula canal excavation for the canal bed: +/- 0.8 Mm3 - Bangula canal backfilling for embankment: +/- 0.8 Mm3 • Excavated material may not always be suitable for backfilling material, therefore there space to deposit spoil material is needed. Opening of borrow pits and quarry will lead to numerous risks on safety of local population (and possibly on habitats. • Irrigated agriculture can lead to several changes in soil properties. Salinization, soil sodicity, waterlogging, loss of soil are common risk under gravity irrigation ( Changes in soil properties and rising water table). In addition, there is a risk associated with the presence of poorly drained Vertisols in Zone B and C (see figure 24). - Salinisation and Alkalinisation: soils with a high risk of further salinisation or alkalinisation need special attention. However, available analytical data sets indicate that such areas are limited in size and can be sustainably managed with good management. Salinity levels in the project area are generally low and if levels should go up, soils can be easily flushed with excess drainage water. Alkalinity is in fact a more serious problem but occurrence of alkalinity at any serious scale is not indicated by available analytical data. Impact of the Project on soil salinisation is not expected as the Project is supposed to ensure good management levels. - Soil erosion: with respect to a possible increase of erosion in irrigated land, the Project is not expected to cause an increase of runoff, flooding and erosion as most land is currently already under cultivation, in a rather flat area and because it is anticipated that Project infrastructure and conservation measures will further control erosion. The great majority of land included in the Project is already used as rainfed arable land and this land will only change to another agricultural use, namely irrigated land. In fact, the project will improve the quality of land wherever possible in order to construct economically sized land parcels. 252 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impacts from earthwork and Changes in soil properties land leveling. Construction of and rising water table. the canal system will lead to Several changes in soil important earth movement properties could take place in the command area Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity High Medium Extent Local Punctual Duration Temporary Permanent Significance Moderate Minor Occurrence probability High probability Risk (low probability) 12.6.2 Mitigation measures IMPACTS FROM EARTHWORK AND LAND LEVELING Several measures can be implemented during construction, they apply to the construction contractor: • Some spoils from excavation could be used as soils for agriculture, soils could be given back to communities to level land or spread in the command area. Soil cannot be sold by the contractor to surrounding communities; • No spoils can be stored even temporarily close to waterbodies including Elephant marsh or parks; • Unusable spoils shall not be left in mounds but shall be flattened at the end of construction and revegetated; • Borrow pits shall have gentle slopes to minimize the risk of injuries and death; • Borrow pits and quarries location shall be done in consultation of local authorities to minimize impacts on land users; • Borrow pits and quarries shall not be left unrestored at the end of work and shall be filled with unusable soil to reduce their depth or shall be transformed into wetlands or livestock drinking ponds where appropriate; 253 | P a g e Figure 70 Borrow pit with dangerous steep slopes (left) and typical impact from blasting (right) ( Source: BRLi, 2015 ) Suitable borrow pits to be transformed into wetlands are those that are impermeable and filled with water even during the dry season. The following pictures shows a borrow pit where slopes could be transformed and native plant could be planted. Ideally, the wetland creates different habitats with different depth of water and limits the access to cattle. Figure 71: Suitable borrow pit for the creation of a wetland (Source: BRLi, 2017) CHANGES IN SOIL PROPERTIES Monitoring of soil properties is highly recommended. Soil water levels and salinity will require very close monitoring to provide early warning of problems. It is recommended to follow typical parameters that help detect acidity or alkalinity of the soil such as pH, Cation exchange capacity (CEC), Magnesium (Mg2+), Calcium (Ca2+), Organic matter (OM), Organic carbon (OC) and Exchangeable Sodium Percentage (ESP). Areas rated as non-suitable for irrigation within the Project area can be evaluated for other land uses, such as infrastructures but also for settlement, amenities, grazing, set aside conservation land and forestry. It is expected that, after the land evaluation exercise of the FS or the Design study, such unsuitable areas have been identified and mapped with a definition of their characteristics. Future uses 254 | P a g e should be determined in land use plans at design phase, in which community preferences, e.g. as for forestry and woodlots can be reflected. The planning of multi-purpose areas has also to be incorporated in overall land use planning, both inside and outside the Project area. However, it is presently not yet possible to precisely map these areas since the FS has not identified non-suitable areas. This ESIA has identified some lands that could be designated as set aside lands. They are described in a section hereunder. Encompassing land with serious limitations or risks, such as very poorly drained areas with severe risk of flooding, will also have certain limitations for other uses. Future use of such land will have to be carefully planned for. Sustainable land use planning may help to establish a balance between all intended land uses, including large-scale agro-industry, small-scale irrigation, settlement, forestry and nature conservation. For poorly drained Vertisols, rice could be included as a crop, for which use the current Project areas of Zone B and C could even be slightly enlarged, extended down slope or sideways. The use of rice with associated irrigation infrastructure and constructions will also help to control current severe erosion by flooding (sheet and gully erosion). 255 | P a g e 13. IMPACT ON SOCIOECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE 13.1 INTRODUCTION This section focuses on three elements: socioeconomic, cultural heritage and natural heritage impact and mitigation. Natural heritage refers to the two parks: Majete Wildlife Reserve (MWR) and Lengwe National Parks (LNP). Natural heritage impact assessment deals with all impacts on these parks that are not related to biodiversity such as impact on tourism, infrastructures and landscape. Impacts on biodiversity are studied in the last two chapters of this report. Other socioeconomic impacts are presented and assessed and some mitigations are provided. However, to avoid repetition with the Communications, Community Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement, many references are made to the Resettlement Policy Framework study,. 13.2 IMPACT IDENTIFICATION MATRIX ON SOCIOECONOMIC, CULTURAL AND NATURAL HERITAGE Components Pre-construction Construction Operation Rapid social changes: there is a risk that people do not change their lifestyle and develop skills rapidly enough to adapt to the new irrigated environment Hinterland effect: the development of irrigation may be Village associated with an reorganization and increase in human resettlement: the activity and local project will lead to economy, which may major changes in lead to additional terms of land pressure on resources Settlement, occupation and will (wood for charcoal, community necessitate physical fish, etc.) and organization and land and economic associated increase in tenure displacement waste products Workers influx: the project will require important workforce consisting of foreign workers. Land will also be required for machinery storage and workers camps. Inadequate There is a risk that maintenance of buildings and amenities do not canals and respect quality infrastructures: there standards is a risk that the irrigation system is not Permanent loss of adequately and Infrastructures buildings and other regularly maintained 256 | P a g e Components Pre-construction Construction Operation infrastructures: canals could necessitate destroying buildings and other infrastructures Disruption of access : canals will cross roads, trails, path disrupting access for communities and cattle to grazing sites or to urban centers Risks associated with labour influx management and demand for local employment including the spread of infectious sexually transmitted diseases Exacerbation of GBV/SEA/SH and possible security and crime related risks Disturbance to existing agriculture: The various components of project Potential delays in work will disturb irrigated agriculture cropping practices development: any since some delays in the project households will control completion or skills physically different acquisition could delay areas of land the benefits Job opportunities: Over supply of work will require crops: increase in unskilled and skilled production could labour for construction reduce prices and and thus providing affect rain fed employment producers opportunities to the Benefits of irrigated communities around agriculture: the the project area project overall goal is to benefit local communities Reduction of fisheries: with less water in Elephant Irrigated Agriculture 257 | P a g e Components Pre-construction Construction Operation marsh, fishery could be impacted Impacts on livestock rearing: The loss of most communcal grazing areas due to the formation of farm blocks will have an effect on the traditional livestocks rearing methods. The Project will require adaptation of this livelihood strategy Construction risk and nuisances: communities and workers are at risk during construction Community Safety and works including for Health canals and quarries Bilharzias: The Project will lead to an increase of bilharzia in the command area Drownings: the Construction Risks: presence of primary The risk of workers canals may lead to getting injured or drownings getting infected with diseases like COVID Occupational Safety 19 and Health Increase workload: with increasing yield, the project may add to the workload of women considering that most of the agricultural work is done by women The increased influx of people from other districts could increase the risk of diseases spreading faster and the deterioration of Gender aspect security in the area. 258 | P a g e Components Pre-construction Construction Operation Risk of unfair distribution of benefits: access to financial services is a strong barrier to women and youth empowerment. Ther is high likelihood that women may continue to be excluded from the economic benefits of the project if measures to address this vice are not put in place. Impacts on vulnerable people: landless people could be disadvantaged by the Project and land distribution . The search for economic opportunies could increase women vulnerability to Vulnerable people GBV/SEA/SH Loss of physical cultural heritage: the canal alignment route and borrow pits will affect some known and unknown cultural heritage sites Cultural heritage (mainly pottery) Impact on tourism: Loss of ownership of Decision on the type construction activities park management on of canal and its in MWR and LNP and the western side of alignment: decisions close to Ng’ona lodge LNP: with the canal regarding the canal will have deleterious severing the park in layout during the impacts on tourism two and the weak design stage will have presence long term impacts on Impact on Majete of rangers in the parks buildings, roads and western part of the infrastructures : park, management Tender process and Malaria research may lose camp, Heritage “ownership” of the selection of a center, Entrance gate, western part of the construction Wildlife research park contractor: the tender camp, Community process for the camp site, electric Impact on Kapichira selection of the Project fences, access road to falls attractiveness : construction contractor the park, access to the viability of the represent a high risk Kapichira falls viewing falls as a sight to see Natural heritage for parks as it is site will all be for tourists may be 259 | P a g e Components Pre-construction Construction Operation disturbed by compromised on long construction of the term with reduced Feeder canal flows Positive economic impact as a result of park’s improvement activities/projects a crucial step in the Impact on Lengwe The presence of development of roads and canals inside parks binding environmental infrastructures: the will be long-term measures fence and park roads agent of changes: will be impacted the presence of canals and other infrastructures inside parks will require additional efforts and inputs from park management in order to maintain parks’ integrity. Canals may become agents of negative changes in parks as their management will have to deal with a new stakeholder (the scheme operator), whose decision and actions may negatively impact parks. In LNP, the maintenance road along the canal may be used by communities as “travel path” as it is the case with an existing road inside the park 13.3 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE Component Component value This component, as most socioeconomic components, is highly Settlement, community valued since it relates to important topics for communities, organization and land tenure stakeholders and funding agencies 260 | P a g e Infrastructures are moderately valued components. Outside of the Kapichira dam, the study area does not have buildings nor Infrastructures any construction of high interest. Economics Gender aspect Vulnerable people Health and safety Cultural heritage These components, as most socioeconomic components, are highly valued since they relate to important topics for Natural heritage communities, stakeholders and funding agencies 13.4 SETTLEMENT, COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION AND LAND TENURE Most impacts on these topics are addressed in the study called “Preparation and implementation of a Communications, Community Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement Policy Framework (CCPLTRPF, COWI, 2016)” and its various components: Communication strategy, Gender and youth strategy study, Grievance redress mechanism, Resettlement Policy Framework, Stakeholders’ views report. This ESIA does not repeat the impact assessment and the proposed mitigation on gender and vulnerable people, land tenure and resettlement carried out by COWI but presents a summary of the conditions here. The initial consultations that led to the CCPLTRF report were based on the whole project and not only for SVTP-I. As such there most of the information that was collected from the stakeholders collected in the preparatory meetings for SVTP-II echoed what had already been epresssed in the 2016 ESIA Report. These have dully been recorded in the LMP and the SEP. Land Use Change The impacts related to land use change are loss of land holding and assets on land; loss of communal resources; loss of public property; disturbance to livelihoods and loss of access to natural resource base; food security risks; impacts to social networks and community organization. Mitigation measures have been put in place to address the impacts. Impacts related to resettlement are however minimal as areas earmarked for irrigation blocks are not heavily habited – a few dwellings/structures. All relocated PAPs will be compensated for all losses incurred. Land Tenure and Consolidation The land tenure and consolidation impacts include social exclusion of women and vulnerable groups from land ownership, elite capture and social conflicts. The project is, however, encouraging joint land registration as far as possible. Women are encouraged are to participate in the project activities. According to the Socio-economic Baseline report of the project (2017), a majority of the land in the SVTP area is customary land (81%), 18% being private land, and 1% other. The proportion of customary land is higher in Phase 2 (90%) than in Phase 1 (75%) probably due to the existing large estates within this area. The household survey found that 16% of the land was under disputes. The disputes were, however, not of such a magnitude to negatively affect the project. Of all the land cases, 45% of the disputes were with the neighbour, 25% with the village head, 21% within the family, and 9% with others. Land disputes are generally solved by those involved (43%), by chiefs (50%) or 261 | P a g e formally by Village Head (VH), Traditional Authority (TA) or the Courts (49%). Female headed households have a preference for settling disputes by VHs (95%) and male headed households by the VH, TA or the Courts (95%). Land is mainly used for rain fed agriculture (69%) and settlement (28%). Only 2% of the land is irrigated and less than 0.5% set aside for grazing, business, renting and other uses. The better off and rich more often use their land for business, grazing and woodlots. The poor more often rent out or sell their land to obtain some cash if they are not able to develop it. Over 70% of the respondents in the household survey had 3 to 4 parcels. The total area held by households is small, 23% had a landholding of less than 0.81hectares, 19.8% had 0.81 to 1.22 hectares, and 30.7% had 1.22 to 2hectares. A parcel of land is held in the name of the head in 96% of the households. This percentage is higher in male (98%) than female (86%) headed households and lowest in young female headed households aged younger than 36 years (66%). Southern Region has the highest proportion of female owned parcels in Malawi because of the matrilineal societies living within the area. Although, the two districts have matrilineal societies, men often make decisions on land and land transactions. 13.4.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During pre-construction, the project will lead to major changes in terms of land occupation and will necessitate physical and economic displacement including acquisition of land for the canal and other infrastructures. According to COWI (2016), economic and/or physical resettlement will concern for Phase I 21,000 households and for Phase II 27,367 households (Village reorganization and resettlement). However, only 10 settlements will be directly impacted by the canal alignment and will have to be physically resettled. During construction, some lands will also be temporarily be required. The experience with Illovo and land acquisition is still, 50 years later, in people’s mind and local communities are suspicious of the government and SVTP trying to alienate customary lands. Construction will also disrupt existing access patterns. • During construction, the Project will necessitate important workforce consisting of foreign workers. Land will be required for machinery storage and workers camps. There is also a risk that buildings and amenities do not respect quality standards (Workers influx). Worker influx from other regions in Malawi and from Mozambique can also lead to impacts and conflicts with local communities because of settlement, development of shanty towns, employment, sexual transmitted disease, and disrespectful behavior toward women. In addition, both Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve and LNP are at risk by people migrating to the command area and using them as sources of wood to build new houses. The same risk could come from the important resettlement activities that will take place and the need for new building material for resettled communities. Mwabvi is not surrounded by the irrigation scheme but only at 3 km from Phase II Zone D (figures 6 and 24). The Matandwe Forest Reserve, close to Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve, suffers from logging and gardens from surrounding forest dependent communities. It is also is at risk also from increase logging for building material because of its lack of official management (it is actually managed by Traditional Authorities). Mwabvi is accessible by road while the forest reserve is only accessible by trails. The two small reserve: Nyasa and Nyala wildlife reserve are privately owned and are not at risk. • During operation of the scheme, there is a risk that farmers do not change their lifestyle and develop skills rapidly enough to adapt to the new environment (Rapid social changes). The entire agricultural system including its livestock components will be forced to make dramatic adjustments. These changes may overwhelm local coping mechanisms and may generate social resistance. • During operation of the scheme, the development of irrigation may be associated with an increase in human activity and local economy, which may lead to additional pressure on resources (wood for charcoal, fish, etc.) and land (Hinterland effect). 262 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Village Workers influx. Rapid social Hinterland reorganization Land will be changes. There effect. Increase and necessary and is a risk that in human activity resettlement. there is a risk people do not and local Major changes that change their economy may are foreseen in infrastructures do lifestyle and lead to additional terms of land not respect develop skills pressure on occupation quality standards. resources (wood Influx could be for charcoal, fish, associated with etc.) and land social impacts Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity High Medium Medium Medium Extent Local Punctual Local Local Duration Permanent Permanent Temporary Permanent Significance Major Moderate Minor Moderate Occurrence High probability Potential Risk (low High probability probability occurrence probability) 13.4.2 Mitigation measures VILLAGE REORGANIZATION AND RESETTLEMENT The current CCPLTRPF assignment aims at identifying social impacts, collecting people’s grievances and communicating about the Project. The Communication strategy report provides a tool to ensure social acceptability of the Project. The projects social impacts include labour influx, comflict over use of resources, conflict with local communities, GBV/SEA/SH, development of shanty towns, disturbance in social fabric, (ARTHER add more here) Regarding resettlement, with current knowledge, some avoidance measures were proposed by COWI at the Resettlement Policy Framework stage, the complete set of measures will be developed in the Resettlement Action Plan (RAP) which is still to be produced once the Design studystarts. The Resettlement Policy Framework includes a method for valuation for compensation of agricultural produces, forest and fruit trees. WORKERS INFLUX Recruitment policies Recruitment policies will need to consider social issues and project acceptability. Considering the high local impact of the Project in terms of land and disruption of existing lifestyles, it is recommended to maximise local employment. Local benefits would be maximised and some of the negative impacts of construction mitigated if residents, especially the most severely project affected people (PAPs), are given priority for employment. The project will therefore prepare a labour influx plan. Measures will be put in plavce to address GBV/SEA/SH, security, crime , workers accommodationa and transportation. The need to have women and youth employment was also highlighted in the Gender and Youth Strategy (COWI, 2016). This will require: 263 | P a g e • That the tender document for the construction contractor clearly specify a deliberate policy to target the locals where possible by bidding firms. To accomplish this, the contractor shall be encouraged to work in liason with the District Labour Office to ensure that the policy is professionally implemented. This is also a mitigation against abuse by the employers as experience has shown that ón the gate’ recruitment is prone to abuse. For example, women have particularly been subject of abuse when they present themselves at the contractors campsite gate to look for employment. . • Land occupation The social risks will include development of shanty towns which will in turn lead to poor health and living conditions as these are not planned areas, competition of resources, waste management and conflicts with local communities. Mechanisms shall be put in place to avoid the creation of shantytowns by people looking for employment or seeking to do business within the construction site. Such mechanisms shall include local enforcement measures and sensitisation against such a malpractice. LNP shall be aware of the risk of workers influx and encroachment and increased logging activities in the park as some its western parts are already occupied by settlements. This risk also applies toMwabvi Wildlife Reserve and the Matandwe Forest Reserve. These reserves are located outside the Project area but close enough to be affected by population influx and associated need for building material (wood) and land (3 km from Phase II Zone D). There is a risk of increased encroachment in Elephant marsh as well. To mitigate this impact, additional rangers provided by the DNPW shall be present in Mwabvi during the construction phase., Additional rangers shall be hired to strengthen the patrolling in the area in order to keep away illegal loggers away from the protected areas.. Workers code of conduct All employees shall be required to sign a Code of Conduct , (Annex xxxx) The main aim of the Code of Conduct is to prevent and/or mitigate the social risks within the context of infrastructure development interventions for the SVTP 2. The Codes of Conduct are to be adopted by contractors. The social risks that may arise include but not limited to Gender Based Violence (GBV), Violence Against Children (VAC), HIV and AIDS infection/spread, and occupational health and safety. Contractor’s Personnel shall: 1. carry out his/her duties competently and diligently. 2. comply with this Code of Conduct and all applicable laws, regulations and other requirements, including requirements to protect the health, safety and well-being of other Contractor’s Personnel and any other person; 3. maintain a safe working environment including by: a. ensuring that workplaces, machinery, equipment and processes under each person’s control are safe and without risk to health; b. wearing required personal protective equipment; c. using appropriate measures relating to chemical, physical and biological substances and agents; and d. following applicable emergency operating procedures. 4. report work situations that he/she believes are not safe or healthy and remove himself/herself from a work situation which he/she reasonably believes presents an imminent and serious danger to his/her life or health; 5. treat other people with respect, and not discriminate against specific groups such as women, people with disabilities, migrant workers or children; 264 | P a g e 6. not engage in Sexual Harassment, which means unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature with other Contractor’s or Employer’s Personnel; 7. not engage in Sexual Exploitation, which means any actual or attempted abuse of position of vulnerability, differential power or trust, for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting monetarily, socially or politically from the sexual exploitation of another; 8. not engage in Sexual Abuse, which means the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions; 9. not engage in any form of sexual activity with individuals under the age of 18, except in case of pre-existing marriage; 10. complete relevant training courses that will be provided related to the environmental and social aspects of the Contract, including on health and safety matters, Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA), and Sexual Harassment (SH); 11. report violations of this Code of Conduct; and 12. not retaliate against any person who reports violations of this Code of Conduct, whether to us or the Employer, or who makes use of the grievance mechanism for Contractor’s Personnel or the project’s Grievance Redress Mechanism. 13. not consume alcohol or any form of drugs while working on site, including while while riding or driving vehicles to and from the site . 14. not make any disrespectful gestures or use any swearing words to anyone either in the community, or along the access road. 15. not drive any vehicle or operate any machinery unless they are in possession of a valid licence to do so and have provided that licence beforehand to HR 16. not ride on any vehicle other than when there is a seat fitted as part of staff transport • • The Contractor will prepare and implement the C-ESMP, OHS and LMP. In addition, the contractor will put in place measures to ensure compliance with community and occupational health and safety measures for prevention of accidents. Table xxx below describes the possible mitigation measures for OHS and CHS. • Table xxx: Possible mitigation measures for the potential risks Potential Risks Mitigation measures Occupation, Safety and Health  Provide appropriate PPE to workers; Risks during construction  Train workers regularly on occupational safety and health risks prevention;  Enforce the use of PPE by workers;  Put appropriate warning signs in areas with high risk of safety; and  Facilitate the formation of Occupational safety, Health Welfare Committee at each construction site.  Risk assessments prior to any construction activity Risk of communicable diseases-  Sensitize workers and surrounding communities on Spread of HIV/AIDS, Cholera and different communicable diseases including Sexually Malaria to workforce and Local Transmitted Diseases and ways of preventing them; Community 265 | P a g e  Encourage workers and communities to go for voluntary screening/ medical check-up/testing;  Provide Information, Education and Communication materials on different communicable diseases including Sexually transmitted diseases; Contractor’s noncompliance with  Contractors will sign Code of Conduct before local labour laws and regulations- commencement of construction works, which Lack of protection for workers contains among other issues, labour related laws and regulations;  Sensitize workers on labour related issues and regulations to ensure that the contractor is compliant. Increased risk of influx of migrant  Engage much of nonskilled labour force from workers- Competition over local surrounding communities to minimize the risk of resources migrant workers and associated negative impacts. In situations that the required skills are found within the surrounding communities these should be given priority; Gender Based Violence-  Sensitize surrounding communities on dangers and Suppression of women rights prevention of Gender Based Violence  Provide equal employment opportunities to men, women, youth and the disabled  Prepare, adopt and implement worker’s code of conduct Child labor-Disturbance of child’s  Sensitize surrounding communities on issues of education, health and safety child labour;  Employ people that are aged 18 and above;  Prepare and adopt a child labor policy Risk of contracting HIV/AIDS-  Sensitize workers and surrounding communities on Risk extended to both workforce HIV and AIDS; and local Community  Provide free condoms to workers;  Provide Information, Education and Communication materials on HIV and AIDS to workers Sexual Exploitation and Abuse-  Prepare and implement GBV/SEA, SH Action plan Both for workforce and local  Carry out community sensitization communities particular under  Women and girl’s social and economic aged girls empowerment  Prepare, adopt and implement worker code of conduct Discrimination and exclusion of  Development of WGRM vulnerable groups;  Development of deliberate policy for gender equality 266 | P a g e Labor disputes and conditions of  Establishment of WGRMC employment.  Development of LMP Sexually transmitted diseases The risk of sexually transmitted diseases such is always high in construction projects of the nature of SVTP 2 which triggers an influx of people from other areas in search of employment or business opportunities. Reducing this risk will start by sensitizing staff and neighbouring population as well providing an easy access to condoms. Prohibition of prostitution will be enforced (see code of conduct). The contractor shall have a clinic where workers shall get primary health care. Clinic staff shall be involved in the sensitisation of the workers and the neighboring communities on the prevention and treatmment of STDs. Grievances during construction SVTP 2 shall utilise the already developed Grievance Redress Mechanism implemented under SVTP 1. Grievance Redress Committees shall be established in all the areas surrounding the project area. The committees shall be formed at Group Village Headman Level, Traditional Authority level, District level and National Level. A comprehensive GRM mechanism has been fully described in the RPF and SEP. Every contractor shall be encouraged to form a Workers Committee which shall act as a mediator between management and the workers during conflict resolution processes. HINTERLAND EFFECT Providing for adequate woodlots and grazing land set-aside areas, as part of the SVTP’s participatory land use planning process for the irrigated farming communities, will reduce pressures to encroach upon nearby protected areas to obtain construction wood, fuelwood, or livestock forage. Some measures of the SRBMP will also aim at improving use of natural resources especially in Elephant marsh. 13.5 INFRASTRUCTURES 13.5.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction, canals could necessitate destroying buildings and other infrastructures (Permanent loss of buildings and other assets). At current stage, the number of infrastructures is not precisely known as the Design study has not started. The Resettlement Policy Framework and the future Resettlement Action Plan will provide details about affected infrastructures. The risk to infrastructures could also come from blasting activities. • During construction, the canal will cross roads, trails, path disrupting access for communities and cattle to grazing sites and urban centers (Disruption of access). The estimated number of affected roads and footpaths is provided in the Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF). According to the RPF, 10 tarred roads, 57 gravel roads and 17 footpaths will be severed by canals for Phases I and II. In addition, most canals (except at plot level) will become a barrier to walking and a serious hazard for cattle and people trying to cross. Personal observations from the Consultant of people and domestic animal crossing an under-construction lined canal with slope 1H/1.5V reveal that: - in the absence of a nearby bridge, during construction, people are forced to cross lined canal, some of them slip especially elderly people. - many juvenile cows try to fetch for stagnant water and end up stuck and sometimes wounded in the canal, this happens regardless of the presence of cattle bridge. It is very difficult to take them out; - mature cows do not usually take risks; 267 | P a g e - goats have no problem entering and exiting a dry canal. It is probable that given the time necessary to rescue the cow on the following pictures (more than 15 minutes and the help of three people and a rope), if the canal would have been filled, the animal would have probably drawned. Figure 72: Stuck cow in a lined canal (BRLi, 2017) • During operation, there is a risk that the irrigation system and infrastructures proposed in this ESIA to mitigate impacts are not adequately and regularly maintained (Inadequate maintenance of canals and infrastructures). The risk may also come from the fact that water hyacinth is present in Kapichira reservoir and may invade canals, that silt will be deposited in canals and that community may use canals as waste dumps. • ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Permanent loss of Disruption of Inadequate buildings and other access. Canals may maintenance of assets. Canals could sever footpaths and canals and necessitate to pass cattle paths infrastructures. through several There is a risk of buildings and assets canals and water intake siltation and invasion of plants in canal and drainage channel Value of the affected Moderately valued component Intensity Low Medium Medium Extent Punctual Local Local Duration Permanent Permanent Permanent Significance Minor Moderate Moderate Occurrence probability High probability High probability Risk (low probability) 13.5.2 Mitigation measures PERMANENT LOSS OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER ASSETS As mentioned in the Resettlement Policy Framework, resettlement of people or communities is the last option that should happen. In the design of SVTP 2 efforts were made to avoid village areas and graveyards as much as possible. Changes to the original designs were proposed in oder to reduce the number of affected people. The result of the proposed changes is a reduction of affected villages from 19 to 6 and affected houses from 121 to 26 in Phase I (a similar investigation has not been done for phase 2 yet.) (COWI, 2016). In order to mitigate destruction of structures during construction, , it will be important to assess risk to infrastructures by doing a groundtruthing survey of wells, houses, churches, buildings, etc. Groundtruthing shall involve local authorities and the construction contractor. 268 | P a g e DISRUPTION OF ACCESS Bridges shall be built to allow for access across canals where existing footpaths and roads are impacted (10 tarred roads, 57 gravel roads and 17 footpaths will be severed by canals). In addition, these footpaths and bridges shall be strong enough to allow cattle to pass. It is recommended that they be built as the canal progresses to avoid forcing people and cattle to travel long ways to cross the canal or crossing the trench affecting the canal banks and leading to safety risks. People/cattle bridges shall be built every kilometre of main canals. Therefore, the Project may require up to 133 people/cattle bridges. As discussed in the baseline report, there is no identified livestock route in the area. As such, movement of cattle is diffused in the Study area, therefore sufficient provision for additional livestock bridges shall be planned. Sensitization to livestock owner is also recommended so that they take less risk for their livestock by: • not using canal maintenance roads with their livestock ; • carrying out with them ropes in case of juvenile cows entering the canal In the command area, some footpaths shall also be designed to allow people to cross secondary canals, these shall be 1.5 m wide. Spacing between these footpaths shall not be more than 1 km. In addition, whenever a canal crosses a seasonal river, box culverts shall be large enough to allow people to walk under the canal. It is not recommended to build people/cattle bridges in Branch canals or smaller canals as the presence of livestock in the command area will lead to conflicts with farmers. INADEQUATE MAINTENANCE OF CANALS AND INFRASTRUCTURES The scheme operator will be responsible for the maintenance of the main canals (lined canals), the water intake and the other associated structures, including: • Bridges (cattle, pedestrian and vehicle) ; • Silt traps • Night Storage • Safety stairs and ladders for villagers to exit in case of falls ; • Wildlife passes ; • Tiger fish barriers ; • Wildlife fences; • A trash rack against water hyacinth and debris at the water intake. Creation of bylaws to regulate the use of the canal shall also be made to avoid people throwing garbage in the canal, building informal (and often dangerous) bridges, or degrading the canal. Therefore, maintenance shall be accompanied by some form of law enforcement. Water user associations will be responsible for the maintenance of tertiary canals, small drains, and in field irrigation. It will also be important to train farmers and management entities in maintaining their drains and canals as well as not to use the canal as a waste dump. This is a major responsibility and requires a significant level of managerial and technical skills and physical resources (facilities and equipment). The creation and training of such water management entities is a major task and will require (i) enactment of the relevant legislation, (ii) significant social preparation, and (iii) intensive hands-on support and training at start-up and over the initial years of operation, and (iv) provision of facilities and equipment. Failure, or delay, in operationalising the on-farm management will result in inefficient use of water and poor system maintenance, with lower crop yields, wasted water, an increased risk of impeded drainage, groundwater rise and secondary salinisation, and significantly reduced project benefits. 269 | P a g e In addition to trash rack sized to stop the water hyacinth, the current method to remove the water hyacinth at Kapichira reservoir (biocontrol using insects) shall continue on a regular basis to avoid having the plant invading canals and night storages. 13.6 Irrigated Agriculture Most impacts on these topics are dealt with in the study called “Preparation and implementation of a Communications, Community Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement Policy Framework” and its various components: Communication strategy, Gender and youth strategy study, Grievance redress mechanism, Resettlement Policy Framework, Stakeholders’ views report. 13.6.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction, work will disturb cropping practices since some households will control physically different areas of land (Disturbance to existing agriculture). New lands may not be ready for cropping immediately because of timing, lack of water, or the need for land preparation including levelling, boundaries and drains. • Work will require unskilled and skilled labour for construction creating local employments ( Job opportunities). • During operation of the scheme, people will have to change their habits in terms of livelihood strategies. People in the valley, while incredibly poor, adapt to their situation by having flexible livelihood choices depending on the environment. They grow cotton and maize if there is adequate rainfall. They have goats, cattle and chickens and move the cattle and goats around to whatever pasture is available. They fish in the river and floodplains. They grow maize (dimba farming) on the floodplain, following the river down so that the crops get the moisture in the soil and survive long enough to be harvested before the water table drops too low. These livelihood strategies will be profoundly modified by the project as people will rely mainly on irrigated agriculture. Any delays in the Project completion, adaptation from people to irrigated agriculture or skills acquisition could delay the benefits ( Potential delays in irrigated agriculture development). The project relies on a knowledge-, inputs- and labour- intensive model of production at the field and household level. This model is untested at household level under the environmental, social, economic and institutional conditions prevailing in the study area. If the model is not feasible, there will also be a delay in project benefits as potential solutions are tested and applied. • During operation of the scheme, increase in production from irrigated fields could lower price at local markets and affect rain fed producers (Over supply of crops). • The project overall goal is to benefits local communities (Benefits of irrigated agriculture). The Project positive impact in term of income will bring indirect changes such as improved health and education, new agribusiness investments, economic development and increase in wage labor. • During operation of the scheme, with less water in the Shire River, fishery in Elephant marsh could be impacted (Reduction of fisheries). Currently, fisheries are already declining due to rapid human population growth, there is also an issue with regulation and use of illegal gears. The project impact will create an additional pressure on this resource. Fishing is a particularly important livelihood activity in the eastern and southern parts of the marsh. The value of the fish caught from the marsh could be between US$1.5 – 8.8 Million per year (Anchor Environmental Consulting, 2016). The DRIFT report (Ecosystem Functional Model by Southern Waters in association with Streamflow Solutions, Anchor Environmental and MRAG for the SRBMP, 2016) does not foresee a reduction of open water surface (but depth) in the marsh (where most fishery takes place) however it foresees a reduction in rooted vegetation where spawning takes place. 270 | P a g e The project construction and operation will require adaptation of livestock rearing activities ( Impacts on livestock rearing). The canals and command areas will represent obstacles to movement of cattle mainly toward Elephant marsh and will reduce the land available for grazing. The presence of vast irrigated areas could lead to conflict between cattle owners and farmers. In addition, smallholder livestock farmers fear that they might be deprived of access to crop residues from SVTP which are likely to be sold to the highest bidder. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Disturbance to Job opportunities. Potential delays in existing agriculture. Work will require irrigated agriculture New lands may not be unskilled and skilled development. Any ready for cropping labour for construction delays in the project immediately because completion or skills of timing, lack of acquisition could water, or the need for delay the benefits land preparation including levelling, boundaries and drains Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity Medium Medium Medium Extent Local Local Local Duration Temporary Temporary Temporary Significance Minor Minor (positive) Minor Occurrence probability High probability High probability Potential occurrence Over supply of Benefits of Reduction of Impacts on crops. Increase irrigated fisheries. Fishery livestock The in production agriculture. The could be rearing. could lower project overall impacted by project will fed prices and affect goal is to benefits SVTP require rain local adaptation of producers communities livestock rearing activities Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity Medium High Low Medium Extent Regional Local Punctual Local Duration Permanent Permanent Permanent Permanent Significance Major Major (positive) Minor Moderate Occurrence Risk (low High probability Potential High probability probability probability) occurrence 271 | P a g e 13.6.2 Mitigation measures DISTURBANCE TO EXISTING AGRICULTURE According to the Resettlement Policy Framework (RPF), loss of annual crops would be avoided by starting the project after the harvest. In addition, the RPF has recommended the construction of bridges and footpaths across the canal to allow people to continue accessing their fields or to commute. These passages shall be built as the canal progresses and not at the end to avoid creating a long trench with dangerous embankments. Land acquisition and land consolidation shall be planned in advance of construction, so that farmers have some time to adjust to their farming new conditions before the additional stress of physical construction. Land acquisition shall be phased according to the Project (Phases I and II). JOB OPPORTUNITIES As mentioned in the previous section, job creation shall bring benefits to the community as long as local employment is favored. POTENTIAL DELAYS IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT Resources shall be provided to support the delivery of advisory services, adaptive research and development, the strengthening of research-extension-farmer linkages, the improvement of market linkages, and increased pluralism in market delivery. These resources could be provided by the Ministry of Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Development and the Proposed organizational setup presented in the Agricultural Development Planning Strategy study (PWC, 2016). OVER SUPPLY OF CROPS In order to avoid oversupply of crops at local market, the project shall focus on exporting crops and food processing. . Measures to mitigate the impact are developed in the in the Agricultural Development Planning Strategy study (PWC, 2016). BENEFITS OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE The overall goal of the Project is to increase livelihood of communities. The benefit from the Project will also influence several other socioeconomic indicators: general health and education level of the community, etc. These positive side-effects can be numerous and relatively easily achieved: • Greater food security than rain-fed production and increase in the monetary income will reduce poverty and food shortage. • Change in behaviour and acceptance of new mentality particularly associated with health. • Increased access to efficient health system. • Better access to schools. • Development of agribusiness in the area. Enhancement measures are well detailed in the Agricultural Development Planning Strategy where efficient organization of producers are proposed. Institutional measures will also be developed as well as assistance and training to producers once the Project starts. 272 | P a g e REDUCTION OF FISHERIES Impacts on fisheries has been compensated by creating fish farms in Phase 1. Factors to consider for fish farming are presented in the “Agricultural Development Planning Strategy” study (PWC, 2016). SVTP-II will expand fish farming in the command area so as to enhance income and food security. IMPACTS ON LIVESTOCK REARING Mitigation for smallholder livestock farmers were discussed in consultation meetings by the consultant in charge of the Agricultural Development Planning Strategy (PWC, 2016). The following mitigations reflect smallholder grievances: • Construction of drinking spots along the main canals. Drinking spots shall take the form of pipes or cattle troughs. One cattle trough should be installed at each village at a location outside of it and on both side of the main canals. A first estimate would be 40 cattle troughs (20 on the western side and 20 on the eastern side) of which 10 will be in Phase 1. These troughs shall be made of concrete to limit seepage and the quality of concrete shall be equal to the quality of the lining for the canal. Their size shall be around 5 by 5 meters. • Phasing the installation of people/cattle bridges as canal construction progresses is being undertaken to avoid creating a long trench without any passage for cattle. • Construction of people/cattle bridges. People/cattle bridges shall be installed at each km along the main canals (a total of 133 people/cattle bridges),. Bridges shall be made of concrete and include high walls to avoid accidents. Establishment of conflict management structures at village level and guidelines to deal with farmer’s conflicts. • Formalization of the marketing of crop residues and organic manure to foster strong collaboration between livestock and irrigation farmers and to ensure reciprocal gesture in the disposal of crop residues by crop farmers in exchange for manure. • In order to ensure that crop residues are available to smallholder farmers, small scale farmers shall have access to the crop residues realized from crops grown on their traditional land parcels. • Some lands that cannot be farmed (see section on set-aside land) shall be designated as grazing areas and, if possible, planted with grass in consultation with livestock owners. • Command areas form vast continuous patches of land outside of roads, urban places and rivers. They offer very few direct access to Elephant marsh grazing sites. It will therefore be important to designate cattle corridors so livestock can access the marsh. This will not only reduce the risk of conflicts between farmers and livestock owners but also the risk of conflicts with people living in urban place (Nchalo, Ngabu, Chikwawa). At this stage, these corridors cannot be proposed, but the Detailed Design study for Secondary Canals and infield works shall take this measure into consideration. 13.7 HEALTH AND SAFETY 13.7.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: • During construction, the public and workers are at risk from construction work along canals (Construction risk and nuisances). The main risks are related to collision and dust from vehicles and trucks. Other risks related to worker safety include: - Risk of public entering unfenced construction sites with dangerous machinery, blasting etc - Risk of construction materials extending beyond site boundaries and causing a hazard and nuisance to neighbours 273 | P a g e - Risk of falling into excavations, particularly at night - Risk of ground collapse in excavations - Risk of cement burns from prolonged working with wet concrete - Risk of disease and illness due to improper welfare facilities along the linear construction site - Risk of drowning in water filled structures - Risk of electrocution - Risk of injury working with steel rebar - Health hazards associated with working with hydrocarbons, paints, solvents, waterproofing and other construction chemicals - Risk of silicosis and other health hazards from inhalation of dust - • During operation of the scheme, an increase of waterborne disease in the command area, mainly bilharzia, is expected (Bilharzias). Other diseases could see their prevalence increased due to the Project, for example as a result of coming into contact with chemicals used for pest management or weed control. The improper use of farm chemicals and fertilizers can also present an explosion risk. • During operation of the scheme, the presence of canals and night storage may lead to drownings (Drownings). Figure 73: Trucks and pedestrians sharing construction roads & rubbish in construction camps (Source: BRLi, 2015 ) ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Construction risk Bilharzias. An Drownings. The and nuisances. The increase of bilharzia in presence of main public and workers are the command area is canals may lead to at risk from expected drownings construction works along canals Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity Medium Medium High Extent Punctual Local Local Duration Temporary Permanent Permanent Significance Major Moderate Major Occurrence probability Potential occurrence High probability Potential occurrence 274 | P a g e 13.7.2 Mitigation measures CONSTRUCTION RISK AND NUISANCES The Contractor shall be required to undertake a risk assessment of all activities and design safe systems of work prior to undertakeing any activites. The apporoach to the risk assessment and arrangements for the safe system of work should be described in the OHS Manual, which is to be prepared, reviewed and approved prior to the start of any works. Key considerations will be: - Vehicle speed and dust control on public roads (for example, dust control through the use of Venase where this doesn’t present a risk to adjacent watercourses or disrupt wildlife) - Provision of worker transport - Trucks to be fitted with cargo nets/sheeting to prevent fall of materials - Blasting protocol, that includes advance notice and checks to confirm absence of public and workers from blast zone - Fencing signs and barriers to prevent unauthorized access to dangerous areas - Shoring and supports in excavations - Edge protection, fencing, lighting and warning signage for excavations - Segregated pedestrian and vehicle routes - Provision of appropriate and best practice PPE to respond to the risk assessment, including appropriate gloves and boots to prevent contact with wet cement - Welfare facilities, including ‘portaloos’, hand washing facilities, cooking and eating facilities at regular locations along the work site - Bunded and secure storage facilities for all chemicals, fuels and hazardous materials, with MSDS sheets and clear labelling of all containers - Waste management processes, including for the safe collection, storage and disposal of hazardous materials - Life preservers, throw ropes, fencing and warning signs to be present near areas of open water - First aid and medical facilities equipped to respond to potential injuries at each worksite - System for reporting, recording and investigating near misses, minor injuries and lost time injuries - Emergency preparedness plans - Reporting mechanisms for unsafe working practices, free from threat of retribution - Induction, training and safety awaress schemes, including incentives and rewards 275 | P a g e Figure 74: Working in damp condition around a pumping station (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) • The Supervisor Engineers TOR shall be explicit on the need to supervise health and safety and required the Supervising Engineer to have access to suitably experienced health and safety specialists to review and approve contractor submissions (OHSM, method statements, safe systems of work), to participate in training of workers, to audit and supervise the safety of construction activities, and to undertake investigations into incidents to ensure root causes of incidents can be properly established and system changes identified. The bid documents shall require the contractor to prepare a Method Statement Implementation Plan for undertaking safe excavations, and shall require the operator to submit details of their safety protocols for working near water. These submissions from the bidders shall be considered as part of the bid evaluation process. BILHARZIAS (ALSO CALLED SCHISTOSOMIASIS) In order to reduce the burden of schistosomiasis, the following actions shall be implemented: 1) reduction of the contact between water and human by the use of boots and protective clothes. This reduction of contacts with water is feasible with farm workers but not with children and adolescents. 2) reduction of the infection of the snail’s fauna by avoiding defecating in or near water and avoiding urinating in water. Health sensitization is the only efficient way to reduce the release of feces or urine in water. It only can be obtained by a long-term strategy of education including scholar education. 3) the elimination of the snails by molluscicides. This action is neither realistic nor sustainable at the scale of thousand hectares of irrigated area and hundreds of kilometers of canals. However, thorough and regular maintenance of the canals by the scheme operator and farmers, particularly the elimination of aquatic plants, reduces the proliferation of snails. Drying up canals during several weeks is also efficient. This will be done for secondary and tertiary canals after the dry season. 4) preventive mass campaigns of treatment with praziquantel. To be efficient, these campaigns have to be done with the entire population and repeated each year. Praziquantel is not an expensive drug and it is well-tolerated. It is effective against both urinary and intestinal schistosomiasis, resulting in a reduction of the severe forms but not in an interruption of their transmission. 276 | P a g e OTHER WATERBORNE DISEASES NOT DIRECTLY LINKED TO IRRIGATION SCHEMES Soil-transmitted helminthiasis Measures against soil-transmitted helminthiasis are: • use of pit latrines for defecation • washing hand after defecation • protection of the feet by shoes • protection of the food from flies These measures are possible with the workers and generally with adults but more difficult to obtain from the children and adolescents. Systematic mass treatment with a deworming drug is not useful because of the apparently low level of parasitism in the area. Surveys among pupils would be of interest to confirm this low prevalence. Cholera Regarding Cholera, its prevention is similar with intestinal schistosomiasis but with a stronger implication: schistosomiasis is a chronic disease which does not kill (or rarely after a long delay without treatment) while cholera can kill in few hours. Defecation in pit latrines, hand washing with soap, access to clean water are the main weapons to prevent cholera transmission. Cholera transmission is prevented by sanitation and by personal hygiene actions:  Use of latrines for defecation or at least, defecation away from houses, paths, water pools and supplies, places where children play, etc. and covering feces with earth or sand (“The cat method” for ending open defecation).  Handwashing with water and soap after defecation and before any contact with food or drink. Washing is efficient with any ordinary soap even with dirty water.  Drinking safe water and safe water use for cooking, teeth brushing, children bathing. The easiest way to obtain safe water is to put 2 at 3 ppm of chlorine (five to ten drops of bleach for 10 litters of water). The disinfecting power of free chlorine persists from 24 to 48 hours. Malaria As mentioned in the Baseline report, Malaria is not directly linked to irrigation schemes as the area is already surrounded by puddles, wetlands and dambos. Suppressing its transmission, given the environmental conditions of South Malawi lowlands, is not possible at the present time. However, the incidence of malaria attacks and their severity can be reduced. The main action to minimize the incidence is to reduce the contacts between Anopheles mosquitoes and human beings by the use of insecticide treated bed nets during the night. The nets should be in good condition, well bordered. Depending on the insecticide, the fabric and the manner of impregnation, this impregnation is efficient to repulse mosquitoes during six months to two years at best. Selling nets is more effective than distributing them for free (often, free mosquitos nets end up being sold as fish nets for quick cash). The increase in cash income associated with awareness can promote these purchases. The irrigation project may be a good opportunity to promote health education and use of bed nets for all, not only for children and pregnant women. House-spraying is not realistic, less efficient and use much more insecticide than the impregnation of the nets. The best way to reduce malaria attack severity is a prompt and exact diagnosis and a prompt treatment by an effective drug. The Malawian ministry of health guidelines prescribe to use an oral artemisin combined therapy like arthemeter plus lumefantrine for uncomplicated attacks and parenteral artesunate for the severe ones. These drugs are highly effective. The prevention of the effects of malaria during pregnancy on the foetus is done by a preventive intermittent treatment with sulfadoxine-pyremithamine. At present time, various health structures in the Study area do not have 277 | P a g e any anti-malarial drugs. Improvement of the health structures in staff and in equipment is absolutely necessary to reduce malaria burden. However, nothing can be done regarding canal or drain design or the irrigation techniques to reduce the prevalence of malaria. Onchocerciasis Regarding Onchocerciasis, because of the strong link between the Simulium blackflies and running water in streams and rivers, there is no risk of invasion by these vectors of onchocerciasis in the lowlands along the bank of the Shire River and canals. The possible presence of Simulium larvae at the tiger fish barrier is more anecdotic than of health interest. DROWNINGS It is recommended to carry out sensitization at primary schools to inform children about the danger of canals. Children are curious and will inevitably “test” the canal; sensitization shall be on going and shall use simple illustrations and involve teachers. It is also recommended to build large concrete stairs at each village crossed by a main canal (Feeder, Bangula and Supini). The primary purpose of these stairs would be to allow people to access water without danger. These stairs shall be large enough so that people can use them to fetch for water and clean their clothes (10 meters wide). An estimate, based on density of villages around main canals, gives about 40 stairs for the whole scheme (20 on the western bank and 20 on the eastern bank). It is not recommended to: • build stairs on both side of a canal at any location, it could be interpreted as an invitation to cross the canal (especially at time of low low). • build stairs north of Chikwawa as the area has very little population density (although this may change in the near future). • decrease the slope of the canal bank as the canal could become available to cattle. Experience from a long canal in Namibia has revealed that not much could be done to evacuate a drowning adult cow anyway. In areas where ramps with gentle slope will be built for canal maintenance, the concrete shall have a higher coefficient of friction or shall be textured to improve grip (with a broom), gritty material can also be added to the surface. This way, if an animal comes to drink it will have a better grip to exit the area. Access for cattle to these ramps shall not be encouraged (fence, etc.). Stairs shall only be built at village level to maintain a certain level of control over the use of canal. To reduce the incidence of drowning, fixed ladders shall be fixed every 500 m on both side of the canal along the full length of the Feeder, Bangula and Supini canals (with alternating position as well). Fixed ladders shall be installed in night storages as well (as mentioned in the FS). Due to their greater depth night storages shall also be fenced. It is also recommended that the general population be informed about the presence of the canal and the restriction of access and use that apply to people (no fishing, no canoe, no motor pump, etc.). The water intake shall never operate rapidly; gates shall be opened progressively to avoid creating a sudden increase of water in the canal. Discussions with irrigation specialists have raised one limitation with fixed ladders : as they are made of iron they often are stolen. Alternatives to iron shall be studied such as hard plastic (replaceable plastic railing) or recycled half rubber tires embedded in the concrete lining (with holes to avoid retaining stagnant water). Notches can also be made directly in the concrete to offer some grip to people trying to exit the canal. 278 | P a g e 13.8 GENDER ASPECT AND VULNERABLE PEOPLE 13.8.1 Description of impacting activities • With increasing yield, the project may add a burden to the workload of women (Increase workload for women). However, on the other hand with improve access to water thanks to the presence of canals, women will travel shorter distance to get domestic water (fetching for water is “traditionally” done by women). Water shortage and distance to travel to collect water are serious constraints in the study area. • Access to financial services is a strong barrier to women and youth empowerment ( Risk of unfair distribution of benefits). Women often depend on their own capital and other informal sources of capital. In the study area, businesses owned by women are less likely to be registered by government authorities compared to those operated by men. This makes women less likely to access credit from formal banks as they would not have certificates of registration. • Landless people and squatters could be disadvantaged by the project (Impacts on vulnerable people). The Project may become a burden to Risk of unfair the workload of distribution of Impacts on women but on the benefits. Access to vulnerable people. Increase workload other hand time spent financial services is a The Project benefits for women. strong barrier to to get water should may not reach decrease with women and youth vulnerable people Improved access to empowerment water Value of the affected Highly valued component Low (the negative impact is Intensity counterbalanced by Medium Medium the positive effect) Extent Local Local Local Duration Permanent Permanent Permanent Significance Minor (positive) Moderate Moderate Occurrence probability Potential occurrence High probability Potential occurrence 13.8.2 Mitigation Measures The Gender and Youth Strategy Study (COWI, 2016) has developed a series of measures to mitigate impacts from the Project in the “Proposed guidelines and activities” section. These measures aim at the preparatory phase as well as the Project implementation stage. The following are mitigation measures that are developed in the Gender and Youth Strategy Study (COWI, 2016). 279 | P a g e PREPARATION PHASE Preparation phase are measures that were already implemented by the consultant (COWI, 2016). Recruitment and capacity of consulting /project teams/missions • Ensure that all terms of reference for consultants and staff have a gender aspect/expert in them ; • Train/orient all project staff and consultants on gender and youth issues, including orienting them on SVTP ; • Where possible, ensure that the composition of staff at all levels is at least 50% women, to be in line with the 50:50 policies. Implementation of stakeholder consultation process, community mobilisation and engagement for the SVTP • Implement communication activities at all levels in the project area (ADC and VDC levels)  Develop community mobilisation guidelines that incorporate gender issues. • Ensure information education and communication materials are accessible to the illiterate, especially women. • Ensure women, youth and the poor are included in all field level activities, meetings and capacity building processes. Preparatory studies, baselines data collection, analysis and reporting • Orient all enumerators on gender and youth issues related to Chikwawa and Nsanje • Ensure that all data collection instruments are able to collect gender and youth disaggregated data. • Ensure that all data collection tools are gender/youth-audited by the CCPLTRPF Gender and Youth Expert • Ensure that data is analysed and disaggregated by sex and age to capture gender and youth issues. Institutional development and formation of irrigation options, water user institutions, SVTP governance and management committees • Ensure that gender and youth issues are used as criteria for choosing the SVTP irrigation institutional model. • Ensure that women, youth and poor people are represented and actively participate in irrigation management entities • Train all irrigation management entities on gender and youth issues • Ensure women, youths and poor are included in the management, governance, implementation and technical teams of SVTP • Build capacity of individual farmers on gender and youth issues, including decision making at household level • Ensure no discriminatory practices are being used to limit participation of women and youth. • Ensure that voices of women, youths and poor are heard by management of the water management entity • Implement positive discrimination, if the irrigation or water users committees do not have representation from women, youths and the poor 280 | P a g e Land redistribution, resettlement policy framework and grievance mechanism • Ensure that PAPs are gender, age and poverty defined, so that it is known who is most affected by resettlement • Ensure that women, youths and poor are also provided with land in the schemes. Government can lease off land and reallocate equitably amongst beneficiaries. • Ensure that women and youths and poor who lose land are appropriately compensated. During compensation, ensure that all household members have access and control of the compensation by adopting a household livelihood and planning approach that is being implemented in Chikwawa by the Ministry through IRLAD project. • Ensure that District Council teams, Committees and experts that value lost assets during compensation, value land as well, not just structures on it. • Ensure that District Council teams, Committees and experts that value lost assets during resettlement planning do not sexually abuse women or girls (or any form of gender based violence) • Ensure that land assessment teams include women and youths and ensure that land losses of female headed households are assessed by female officials/experts. Whoever does the valuation should be gender trained. • Ensure that gender and youths sensitive spaces are created for women to lodge their grievances on unfair practices. • Ensure that grievances by women are handled by women. Traditional leaders should ensure that women are included in any primary justice structures that they have in place or are to be created. • Encourage land being registered jointly in the name of the woman and the man. Impact on Socioeconomic, Cultural and Natural Heritage Monitoring and evaluation of gender and youth activities • Ensure that the intervention logic of any project being designed has SMART and gender and youth sensitive indicators and take into account poverty • Ensure that monitoring the progress made in applying gender and youth approaches in irrigation projects is regularly undertaken. • Ensure that all indicators at input, output, outcome and impact level are disaggregated by gender, age, household headship, location and marital status, where necessary. Indicators that can be used are included in the annexes. • Ensure that programme targets are gender and youth disaggregated • Ensure that monitoring and evaluation terms of reference and teams have gender and youth expertise. PROJECT CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION PHASE Policy level commitment to mainstream gender and youth issues in the SVTP • Promote SVTP as multiple-use (irrigation, domestic and livestock uses) irrigation and water programme. • Ensure that women enjoy de jure and de facto equality in access to land and other property, including inheritance and purchase. • When water management institutions do not have any or few women and youth, introduce appropriate institutional measures, such as minimum quotas for women and youth to increase participation of women and youths 281 | P a g e • Provide improved coordination among concerned water management institution to facilitate the implementation of multiple-use water projects. • Support equal employment opportunities in water management institution for both genders and for youth and older people. • Provide and support capacity building around gender and youth issues in water management entities with particular attention to extension staff. • Ensure effective linkages with gender and youth ministries and CSOs Land administration, allocation and tenure arrangements for women, youth and poor people • Conduct participatory assessments to understand the social organization of agricultural production and the specific gender and youth division of labour in the project area. • Implement mechanisms to ensure that the landless are also provided land and participate in irrigation activities • If irrigation schemes involve land titling or retitling, new land titles should be granted to women or to husbands and wives jointly. Youth should also be included. • Disaggregate land ownership data by gender and age to understand land ownership issues amongst women and youth. • Conduct local/grassroots advocacy work with traditional leaders to improve land ownership by women and jointly by woman and man • Ensure that irrigation schemes have both commercial as well food security objectives by adopting integrated farming systems, nor jus commercial mono-cropping Construction of various irrigation infrastructure and installation of equipment • Ensure that women and youth are involved so that they also benefit from the employment created, where feasible. Ensure gender sensitive resettlement in terms of targeting, compensation and provision of services to new locations. • Provide social safeguards to protect women and girls from being sexually abused Gender and youth division of labour • The irrigation scheme should provide labour for irrigation activities in the farm. The irrigation model should not allow farmers to work using their own labour in the blocks. • Ensure that planners involved in the projects are aware of women’s and youth contributions to farm and household production to enable them design plans that are appropriate for women. • Irrigation designs should carefully evaluate the availability of women’s and men’s work in the family and expected impacts of intervention on women’s and men’s income, time use, and social power. • Community labour contribution to irrigation projects should take into consideration the contribution of women and men at household level. Where possible, this labour should be for to compensate for time lost. • Provide appropriate labour and time saving technologies to those beneficiaries, especially those who are already overburdened with labour at household level. Access and control over economic and social benefits from participation irrigation services • Income from irrigation at household level should be transparently used by adopting participatory expenditure management at household level • Provide equal access to training, finance/credit and related irrigations services for men, women and youths. 282 | P a g e • Provide training opportunities for the youth and women in advocacy and engagement and inclusion • Provision and promotion of (agriculture-related) vocational skills for youths which will enhance the growth of the sector • Monitor use of irrigation income/earnings at household level Water user organizations and other institutional arrangements. • Ensure that by-laws of irrigation schemes/WUAs or its constitution provide equal opportunities for all members. Ensure that it has some affirmative actions that favour the disadvantaged groups. • Ensure that there are no discriminatory practices that are being used to limit participation of women and youth, even when bylaws provide for equal opportunity. These may include high membership fees, landlessness, access to water etc. • Implement positive discrimination, if the criteria for irrigation scheme or WUA membership is discriminatory Socio-economic empowerment of women and youths in and around irrigation schemes • Improving access to finance to enable women and youths participate in irrigation technology and value addition • Integrate/promote village loans and savings and income generating activities in irrigation schemes • Training women and men on human rights and the importance of women’s participation in decision making at all level Introducing functional literacy classes in water management institutions to improve women’s and illiterate men’s ability to read and write so that they can effectively participate in agricultural decision making processes Designing and implementing multiple use irrigation services • Implement a strong consultation process during the planning and implementation stages to understand gender dynamics • During implementation, conduct training programs addressed to women to help them manage and maintain the points of supply will also be necessary. Ensure that planners understand women’s and girls’ water needs as women and girls will be the main users of those watering points • Translate multiple water needs into affordable small- and medium-scale technical irrigation designs • Ensure that water points are created for domestic and other social uses, especially livestock. • Introduce community water points because tap water may not be feasible as houses are not mostly permanent. Irrigation scheme management and farmer management • Ensure that all farmers consolidate their land so that no single farmers is identified by or works on their own land. • When forming groups, ensure that membership fees are affordable and those that cannot afford are supported with cash transfers to be able to pay • Adopt management arrangements that have been used for the Phata Irrigation Schemes where possible • Ensure that farmers are organised in a way that ensure women and youth participate in the activities of the scheme and benefit from it 283 | P a g e • Implement gender training programmes for staff and communities around the schemes • Implement gender sensitive transparent and accountable irrigation revenue management • Adopt agronomic principles that use technology other manual labour and ensure that farmers are paid when they provide labour. Reaching the poorest and most vulnerable groups • Ensure that the vulnerable and often-overlooked groups such as women, youths, PLHIV, elderly, landless workers and poor women farmers are included in all stages, including during consultation, resettlement and land reallocation, during implementation and monitoring and evaluation. • In order to determine the vulnerablesrapid vulnerability assessments should be included in the consultation processes. Monitoring and evaluation of gender and youth activities • Ensure that the intervention logic of any project being designed has SMART and gender and youth sensitive indicators • Ensure that monitoring the progress made in applying gender and youth approaches in irrigation projects is regularly undertaken. • Ensure that all indicators at input, output, outcome and impact level are disaggregated by gender, age, household headship, location and marital status, where necessary. Indicators that can be used are included in the annexes. • Ensure that programme targets are gender and youth disaggregated Ensure that monitoring and evaluation terms of reference and teams have gender expertise. Gender and youth capacity building and sensitization at various level • Cabinet level: - Presidential directives - Gender and youth briefings and awareness sessions - Policy briefs on gender and youth • Ministries and departments: - Establish focal points in ministries - Train planning and monitoring and evaluation officers on gender and youth - Joint planning and monitoring teams - Technical support on gender and youth • District Executive Committee Members : - Allocate resources for gender and youth analysis, gender and youth training and mainstreaming - Train of the District Executive Committee on gender and youth - Establish focal points in sectors - Joint planning and monitoring teams - Technical support on gender and youth • Community structures : - Orient local leaders (such as Councillors, Traditional Leaders, Religious Leaders on gender and youth issues and women’s and youth’ rights - Train of the ADCs, VDC and AECs on gender and youth - Conduct gender and youth analysis together with District and Community Teams - Train community-based volunteers in gender and youth issues such as gender and youth participation in decision making - Conduct participatory gender and youth analysis, planning and monitoring at community level 284 | P a g e - Establish local gender and youth forums or advocacy groups • Household level : - Sensitisation of men, women and youth on the roles and importance of women and youth and women’s and youth’ rights In addition, impact on landless and vulnerable people is addressed in the Resettlement Policy Framework (COWI, 2016), this will be further be studied once the Resettlement Action Plan is produced. 13.9 CULTURAL HERITAGE 13.9.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: During construction, excavation of the canal will affect some known and unknown cultural heritage sites mainly pottery (Loss of physical cultural heritage). No sacred sites will be affected by the canals. Based on COWI work (2016): - The actual main canal alignment is not running through graveyards with the exception of one case where a branch canal is crossing a graveyard. The canal alignment is proposed to be modified to avoid this situation. - Religious structures, such as local churches and other places of worship, were also recorded as points of special interest during the land use mapping by COWI. A significant number of religious structures were identified, but none will be affected by the main canal or the branch canal alignments. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Loss of physical cultural heritage. During construction, excavation of the canal will affect some known and unknown cultural heritage sites. Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Low Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Minor Occurrence probability High probability 13.9.2 Mitigation measures Due to the identification of 87 cultural heritage sites (46 by the MDoA and 41 by BRLi), of which more than half might be impacted by the Project’s land-transformation activities, mitigation measures will be necessary. The World Bank’s ESS 8 (Cultural Heritage) states that “as an integral part of the EA process, the borrower develops a physical cultural resources management plan that includes measures for avoiding or mitigating any adverse impacts on physical cultural resources, provisions for managing chance finds, any necessary measures for strengthening institutional capacity, and a monitoring system to track the progress of these activities”. This management plan needs to be consistent with the country’s overall policy framework and national legislation and needs to take into account institutional capabilities with regard to physical cultural resources. 285 | P a g e Concerning the institutional capabilities of managing physical cultural resources, it is important to mention that Malawi has limited financial and professional resources to implement holistic cultural heritage management projects. Under these circumstances, a strategy of avoidance of all sites as the primary goal of the project, is not achievable. The fact that considerable numbers of archaeological sites have been discovered and many more sites may be buried underneath the surface, indicates the high probability that the sites buried underneath the surface will be revealed once land-transformation activities start. PHASE 1: PRE-CONSTRUCTION DATA COLLECTION The following measures shall be implemented before construction starts: • Artifact collection using hand excavated shovel pits or augers to assess the depth of sites and range of artifacts and controlled excavation of high priority sites. One element is to be noted: many of these sites were identified in or along rivers in 2016 by the consultant and there is a chance that flash floods have washed them away; • All artifacts collected shall be catalogued and described, and curated in Malawi through a governmental institution (MDoA). Artifacts could be exposed in the valley at the Tisunge! Lower Shire Heritage Centre at the entrance of LNP; • Appropriate analyses of collected artifacts such as ceramics, copper objects and slag, etc. will be completed as they are collected; • A report will be issued describing and interpreting the cultural resources found and placing them within a broader cultural-historical framework; and • Publication of results in peer-reviewed journals. PHASE 2: MITIGATION PLAN DURING CONSTRUCTION (FOR DETAILS SEE MANAGEMENT PLAN) During construction, the following mitigations shall be implemented: • Contractor training and awareness program based on identified cultural sites, sacred sites and graveyards; • Selective archaeological monitoring of surface clearing and earth work during construction in areas with poor surface visibility and/or a high probability for cultural resources buried below the surface; assessment of artifacts recovered during land transformation activities; training of Malawian students in archaeological monitoring; • Salvage excavations at sites deemed as of high priority; • Once the initial period of archaeological monitoring and salvage excavations is over, the Project will apply Chance Find Procedures (see annex aa). 13.10 NATURAL HERITAGE This section describes impacts on parks on a socioeconomic aspect (tourism, management and infrastructures). The section on “Terrestrial habitat and wildlife” discusses impacts on parks from an ecological point of view (wildlife movement, etc.). Measures have been developed in close consultation with concerned park management. 13.10.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified several activities and impacts presented in the following sections. 286 | P a g e 13.10.1.1 Decision on the type of canal and its alignment route During pre-construction stage (design stage), decisions regarding the canal layout will have long term consequences on parks. The current canal alignment route (based on the FS) is 2.45km inside Majete Wildlife Reserve and 14km inside Lengwe National Park (Bangula canal). Technical studies have evaluated the feasibility of several options inside Majete to minimize impacts. Detailed design studies are underway for Main Canal 2 that includes the LNP section. This section presents some base case scenarios that were taken into consideration during the detailed design of the canal through Majete Wildlife Reserve, and will be considered further for the detailed design of Phase 2. OPEN VERSUS CLOSED CANAL Majete Wildlife Reserve (managed by African Lengwe National Park (managed by the Parks) Government) An open canal leads to significant impacts as: An open canal leads to impacts as:  An open canal is not compatible with  The open Bangula canal will pass through the touristic activities as the Feeder canal “Central Wildlife Viewing Area” which is the passes in the “High Intensity Tourism area where most wildlife are located and Zone” and that it will have to be heavily tourists are visiting the park. An open canal fenced or walled to keep large animals may lead to, depending on its layout, (elephants, hippo, crocodiles, etc.) from significant wildlife drownings. entering the canal and : - Risking their life (the canal will be a However, in LNP, an open canal can be seen death trap) as an opportunity to provide water for wildlife since the park suffers from water shortage. - Damaging the canal - Using the canal as a pathway to access areas outside the reserve and entering in conflict with communities An open canal will represent a physical and aesthetic barrier for tourists; MWR will lose its attractiveness in the eastern side of the Park. From discussion with African Parks, a closed canal is the favored of the two options as it will minimize impacts on several level (tourism, wildlife movement, risk of drowning, etc.) EARTH VERSUS LINED Majete Wildlife Reserve (managed by African Lengwe National Park (managed by the Parks) Government) Earth canals look more natural than lined canals. Therefore, having a lined canal has an impact on landscape. Lining in canal is one of the factor that leads to drownings as concrete gets slippery and the smooth surface of concrete does not allow animal to have a good grip. 287 | P a g e CURRENT ALIGNMENT ROUTE OF THE CANAL Majete Wildlife Reserve (managed by African Lengwe National Park (managed by the Parks) Government) The current alignment route of the canal which The current alignment route of the canal which runs along a 2.45 km route inside MWR could runs along a 14 km route inside LNP leads to be optimized to short cut the reserve as it leads numerous impacts. However, there is no to numerous impacts (as presented in sections possible short cuts for a gravity canal (as hereunder). presented in sections hereunder). A canal may become an opportunity for wildlife if properly designed, as water is scares in LNP. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Decision on the type of canal and its alignment. Decisions regarding the canal layout during the design stage will have long term impacts on parks Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity High Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Major Potential occurrence (as no decision will Occurrence probability probably be made before the Design study) 13.10.1.2 Tender process and selection of a construction contractor During pre-construction phase, the tender process for the selection of the project construction contractor represents a high risk for parks (and all other social and environmental components) as it is a crucial step in binding environmental measures. This tender process represents a high risk for MWR and LNP for several reasons: • The construction contractor may not have any environmental sensitivity nor a proactive attitude (no environmental policies or no expert among its staff, etc.), or may not have any experience in work in sensitive areas such as parks. • The tender document and the contractor’s contract may not include sufficient binding environmental measures or may not have any leverages in case of non-compliances. • Parks management need efficient and clear lines of communication with contractor and the Supervising Engineer, in the event of non-compliance with requirements. 288 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Tender process and selection of a construction contractor. The tender process for the selection of the Project construction contractor represent a high risk for parks as it is a crucial step in the development of binding environmental measures Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity High Extent Local Duration Temporary Significance Major Occurrence probability Risk (low probability) 13.10.1.3 Impact on tourism Construction activities in MWR and LNP will have a detrimental impact on the enjoyment of the parks, and is expected to affect tourism from a financial point of view, especially at MWR since: • Aesthetic aspects of tourism will be compromised at the Kapichira dam with the water intake structure and make this location no longer viable for tourism. • Work will create visual disturbances to visitors and impact the natural experience during the construction process. Physical excavation, blasting and terracing along the path of the canal and access roads will affect landscape. • Noise from equipment will impact visitors experience at day visitor center, headquarters and Thawale lodge. The path of the canal passes close to the community campsite and during construction will make this a very unattractive destination and as a result affect business at the campsite. The revenue from this campsite goes directly to the community which they utilize for social welfare and community projects. This revenue will be significantly impacted due to loss of business during construction. • Work will lead to intense truck traffic inside MWR, most likely along Mkulumadzi Road (because of topographic constraints and cliffs, the access road along the Feeder canal route will most likely not be practicable for trucks). An estimate of 100,000 m 3 will be excavated for the canal in addition to the 560,000 m3 to 640,000 m3 of dredged sediment at the reservoir (water intake) (Artelia, 2016). Depending on the duration of work inside MWR, this will lead to a tremendous amount of trucks passing inside the reserve as shown in the following table. Table 334: Estimation of the number of trucks Indicative work Number of trucks passing through the reserve (given a load of 25 m3 per duration inside truck) for a total of 100,000 m3 of earth (canal excavation in MWR) + MWR* 560,000 m3 to 640,000 m3 of dredged sediment 420 trucks travelling for 6 days in a week represents an average of 70 loaded trucks per day or about 6 trucks per hour or about 1 loaded truck every 10 minutes. Trucks will travel back, therefore the number of loaded and unloaded trucks passing through the reserve will be about 1 truck every 5-8 minutes, 21850 1 year trucks per year are estimated to be employed in a year. 289 | P a g e 420 trucks travelling on week days represents about 70 loaded trucks per day or about 6 per hour or about 1 loaded truck every 10 minutes. Trucks will travel back, therefore the number of loaded and unloaded trucks 2 years passing through the reserve will be about 1 truck every 10 minutes • The visual, aesthetic and noise impacts will make MWR a less attractive destination for tourists than other parks during the construction process (the number of paying tourists was around 8000 for the year 2015). • LNP will be affected but to a lesser extent since construction will take place far from the main activities which are concentrated at the eastern end of Old Lengwe. In addition, LNP does not attract as many visitors as indicated below. Table 345: Revenue Generation in LNP (source: DNPW) Year Category 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Number of Visitors 759 775 404 296 94 Personal Entry Fee 1,211,890 1,426,985.00 694,465 722,650 358,080 Vehicle Entry Fee 550,900 610,060.00 475,405 290,150 171,550 Guide Fee 13,900 6,950.00 27,800 22,500 15,000 TOTAL MK 1,776,690 2,043,995 1,197,670 1,035,300 544,630 Totals USD 2,238 2,574 1,507 1,302 685 Boat trips in MWR will not be affected during the construction process since the jetty is located on the other side of the spur dike (training dike) opposite to the water intake. Ng'ona lodge (also called Mwembezi lodge) is a private property (the land tenure was not verified by the consultant, the owner of the lodge declared she owns the land around the lodge) that will be affected by work as the road that leads to the lodge will be used by machinery and trucks, this road follows flat land and cannot be diverted due to changing topography. The owner of the Lodge was met at time of the Consultant last mission to present the impacts. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impact on tourism Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity High for MWR, Low of LNP and Ng’ona lodge Extent Local Duration Temporary Moderate (MWR) / Minor (LNP and Ng’ona Significance lodge) Occurrence probability High probability 290 | P a g e 13.10.1.4 Impact on Majete buildings, roads and infrastructures During the FS, it was feared that construction of the canal would negatively impact on several buildings and infrastructures of Majete Wildlife Reserve, namely, Malaria research camp, Heritage center, Entrance gate, Wildlife research camp, Community camp site, electric fences, access road to the park, access road to Kapichira falls viewing site are the closest infrastructures to the future canal. Certain tourism roads will no longer be viable during construction because they will be used by construction machinery or very close to the construction site (Hall-Martin, start of Mkulumadzi road along Shire and Kapichira falls road). Chikwawa to Majete main road (D135) condition will be affected due to regular use of heavy construction equipment and passage of trucks. Many electric fences will directly be affected in areas where the canal crosses (exit point of reserve close to office, entrance and exit points at the entrance gate complex and along Mwambezi river), shutting down electric fences during construction may lead to animal escape outside MWR. Boreholes for drinking water (for reserve staff housing) could be damaged due to blasting. The following figures are buildings that are relatively close to open section of the canal (based on information provided by the FS report). • Office building located 120 meters from the canal: the contractor applied controlled blasting of the rock material and there was no damage to office building; • Entrance gate positioned at 400 meters: This was used only during the first stages of construction. The canal alignment is the one being used and the entrance gate has not suffered an damage; • Heritage center at 425 meters from the cana: Being furthest from the canal, there are no reported cases of damage that can be attributed to the construction works; • Community camp site at 225 meters (and 200 from the buried section of the canal): the site did not have reported negative impacts; • Wildlife research camp at 290 meters: it survived the impacts of the construction works and remains in good shape; • Certain tourism roads will no longer be viable during construction: An alternate 2.2 kilometre road has been constructed including the Paul Taylor bridge for use by tourists to Kapichira reservoir and Hamilton Falls; • Chikwawa to Majete main road (D135) condition will be affected: The road is regularly refurbished to maintain its usability collaboratively between the contractor and EGENCO; • Many electric fences will directly be affected in areas where the canal crosses (exit point of reserve close to office: SVTP supported the shifting and construction of the new electrictric fences • Entrance and exit points at the entrance gate complex and along Mwambezi river), shutting down electric fences during construction may lead to animal escape outside MWR: There have no reported cases of animal escape nor human wildlife conflict since the start of construction works; • Boreholes for drinking water (for reserve staff housing) could be damaged due to blasting SVTP provided financial resources for drilling 3 boreholes as part of mitigations measures and enhancement of park management under Sub-Component 2.2 of SVTP-I. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impact on Majete buildings, roads and infrastructures. Infrastructures will be disturbed by construction of the Feeder canal Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium 291 | P a g e Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 13.10.1.6 Impact on Kapichira Falls attractiveness The small reservoir is created by EGENCO dam to feed the hydropower plant. At the dam wall, a flow over Kapichira Falls that bypasses the turbines is currently released by sluice gates. During SVTP operation, the attractiveness of Kapichira Falls as a tourist attraction will be reduced over more months of the year. With a flow of less than 10 m 3/s, due to the presence of large boulders, the falls become more or less “invisible” to visitors Figure 75: "Invisible" falls at 5m3/s (November 2016) (Source: BRLi, 2016 ) The number of months in which this may occur is expected to increase from about 6.6 months (as in 2013) to over 10.1 months in dry years when both SVTP I and SVTP II are constructed. This is a noticeable difference from the baseline situation as effectively there will be no environmental flow over the Falls in the dry season, leaving only a flow during the rainy season. However, in terms of their attractiveness for tourism, the most impressive flows over the Falls are during the rainy season, when the difference in flow with and without SVTP will not be very noticeable. It is also important to note that, based on discussions with Majete Wildlife Reserve managers, tourist visitation to Majete is not dependent upon the Kapichira Falls. Although these falls are an attractive spot to visit within the Reserve (and most impressive during the wet season), tourist visitation to the Reserve is driven by other factors--notably Majete’s diverse and abundant wildlife, extensive natural habitats, and comfortable facilities. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impact on Kapichira falls attractiveness. With SVTP, the attractiveness of the falls from a tourism standpoint will be less (due to reduced flows) except during the wet season (JanuaryMarch). 292 | P a g e Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability Impact on Socioeconomic, Cultural and Natural Heritage 13.10.1.6 Impact on Lengwe roads and infrastructures Construction of Bangula canal will have an impact on fences and access roads of Lengwe National Park. The canal crosses paths inside the park at 4 locations: • North Thicket Drive, • South Thicket Road, • Makanga Drive • Tsanya Drive These paths are used by tourist to travel in Old Lengwe. They were upgraded with World Bank funds (SRBMP) in 2015. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Impact on Lengwe roads and infrastructures. The fence and park roads will be impacted Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Local Duration Temporary Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 13.10.1.7 Loss of access for park management on the western side of LNP Construction and operation of Bangula canal will split the park in two and could hamper the passage of rangers and aggravate the weak message of ownership that management sends, due to low presence of rangers in the western part of the park. The park has porous boundaries and surrounding villages do not fully accept the presence of a park (personal communication with park staff, 2015) as many use it as grazing area (personal observation, 2015, LNP General Management Plan GEF, 2016), as a source of timber (personal observation, 2015, satellite imagery interpretation, 2016) and as a source of bush meat (WESM, 2016). Deforestation, poaching and village encroachment are identified as the most threatening ecological issues of LNP by the general management plan (GEF, 2016). If the canal crosses the Park, a new infrastructure inside the Park, it may be interpreted by villages as a message that park management is “letting go” the western part of the park, leading to increasing occupation in this area and utilization of the Park resources. The presence of a canal could also become very attractive for livestock owner as watering point, further increasing the presence of cattle in the park. 293 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Loss of ownership of park management on the western side of Lengwe. Construction and operation of the Bangula canal will split the park in two, communities may interpret this to mean weak ownership by DNPW Value of the affected component Highly value Intensity Medium Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability Potential occurrence 13.10.1.8 The presence of a canal inside parks will be long-term agent of changes Three new situations will bring challenges to park management: • the presence a linear infrastructure inside parks ; • the presence of new stakeholders with different interests ; • new chains of responsibilities in decision making process. The presence of a canal and the water intake will require additional efforts and inputs from MWR and LNP management in order to maintain parks’ integrity. Negative impacts from linear infrastructures crossing natural habitats are well documented in Africa and the Feeder and Bangula canals will probably not be the exceptions. These canals may become agents of negative changes as management will have to deal with new stakeholders (the construction contractor and the scheme operator during operation), who’s interests and actions may negatively impact them. Operation may also bring unexpected impacts from surrounding communities with increase encroachment as it is the case with linear infrastructures. In addition, there is a possibility that new impacts arise due to changes in layout, changes in scheme operator and unexpected events. If any such unexpected event takes place, the decision making chain of responsibilities may be too complex to allow parks to rapidly take action because of the presence of new stakeholders with fundamentally different interests: • the construction contractor who’s interest will be to deliver infrastructures within the timescale and the allocated budget; • the scheme operator who’s interest will be to ensure delivery of water to water user associations within its budget (and, without proper sharing of information, may not be aware of all environmental and social risks); • park management who’s interest is the safeguard of wildlife and habitats while maintaining tourism financially viable. Other risks may come from mitigation measures themselves as they may not work on the short and long terms since they are no or few return of experiences in Africa for many of the proposed mitigations (for example, the fish barrier and wildlife passes are not proven in Africa). The maintenance road along the canal will also represent an agent of change especially in LNP where communities may wish to use it as a travel path, as it is the case with an existing “unformal” road inside the park. The following are examples of unpredictable impacts that could arise: • Changes in wildlife behaviors regarding the canal: wildlife entering the canal to travel (causing damages to structures, leading to wildlife-human conflicts, etc.); • The canal becoming very attractive to wildlife as drinking spots, as the quality of water will be better than in the reservoir or puddles from boreholes; 294 | P a g e • Accident involving wildlife: what will happen if an antelope falls in the canal, breaks its legs and needs assistance to be extracted from the canal? What will happen if an animal drowns and dies in the canal? Who will pay for such unexpected impacts, who will extract the dead animals from the canal? How will maintenance interventions on the canal be planned? Who will pay for maintenance of wildlife passes? An animal in distress in a canal could give parks a bad image is the situation is filmed and published on social media, etc. • Poaching from maintenance staff: what will happen if an employee of the irrigation operator is caught poaching? All these represent risks that are difficult to assess. In LNP, there is a risk that the Project aggravates existing issues in the Park: • There is a risk that livestock use wildlife passes or drink from the canal, as currently in some areas cattle rearing takes place inside the park and law enforcement do not seem to efficiently fight this (farmers are even burning grazing sites inside the park to prepare for the rainy season); • There is a risk that poachers have an easier time hunting wildlife close to the canal as it may become a drinking spot; • There is a risk that the canal may be used by villagers either to shortcut their travels (to the other side of the park) or to fetch for water. • There is a risk that buffalos be tempted to exit the park and enter in surrounding fields. It has been reported that, in 2013, buffalos entered Illovo fields and remain there for a while causing damages to crops. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE The presence of a canal inside parks will be long-term agent of changes. The presence of canals and other infrastructures inside parks will require additional efforts and inputs from park management in order to maintain parks’ integrity Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability Potential occurrence 295 | P a g e 13.10.1.9 Summary of impact significance Impacts Significance Occurrence probability Decision on the type of canal and its alignment route: Major Potential Decisions regarding the canal layout during the design stage will occurrence have long term impacts on parks Decision on the status of canals inside parks: the presence of Moderate Potential canals inside parks will require a clear definition of their status occurrence Tender process and selection of a construction contractor: Major Risk (low the tender process for the selection of the project construction probability) contractor represent a high risk for parks as it is a crucial step in development of binding environmental measures Impact on tourism: Touristic activities will be compromised High during construction activities across MWR and LNP and Ng’ona probability lodge Moderate / (MWR) Minor (LNP and Ng’ona lodge) Impact on Majete buildings, roads and infrastructures : Moderate High Infrastructures will be disturbed by construction of the Feeder probability canal Impact on Kapichira falls attractiveness: The viability of the falls Moderate High as a sight to see for tourists may be compromised on long term probability with reduced flows Impact on Lengwe roads and infrastructures: Construction of Moderate High the Bangula canal will have an impact on fences and access roads probability of Lengwe National Park Loss of ownership of park management on the western side Moderate Potential of Lengwe: Construction and operation of the Bangula canal will occurrence split the park in two, this could be interpreted as a message of weak ownership The presence of a canal inside parks will be long-term agent Moderate Potential of changes: The presence of canals and other infrastructure occurrence inside parks will require additional efforts and inputs from park management in order to maintain parks’ integrity 13.10.2 Mitigation measures 13.10.2.1 Decision on the type of canal and its alignment route Several avoidance and mitigation measures were considered during the design development of the layout of the canal. The following sections show the different options that were considered prior to arriving at the final design for the canal. CANAL OPTIONS 296 | P a g e Open or buried canal Open canal Buried canal A canal that follows Earth canal Lined canal topographic line A canal with siphons A canal that follows to short cut topographic line topographic line A canal with siphons to short cut topographic line Open versus buried canal MWR: To avoid open canal through MWR, the Designer favored a part buried and part walled/fenced canal in the area where the canal runs within the park fences. The buried canal sections have been designed to sustain the passage of vehicles and large animals such as elephants. The walls and fences along the open stretches of the canal have been provided to prevent animals from accidentally falling into the canal. LNP: Although the design is not yet progressed, there is less incentive to have a closed canal in Lengwe mainly because wildlife suffers from water shortage and a well-designed canal could even be an opportunity to have more water available for wildlife. More water could event lead to an increase of the carrying capacity of the Park. Earth versus lined canal MWR & LNP: an earth canal looks more natural than a lined canal and is an option still being considered for LNP. Since soil permeability is very high in MWR, water leakage would be an issue for an earth canal in this location, and it was decided to line the canal. In addition, given the presence of large mammals in MWR who enjoy using watercourses to bath such as elephant and hippopotamus, an earth canal was expected to fail repetedly due to damage by animals. The FS has stated that soil properties allow for an earth canal in LNP (on the basis of two permeability tests) and this will continue to be considered during design development. 297 | P a g e Changing the alignment route to reduce impacts (MWR) As it is gravity fed, the canal has to follow topographic contour lines. The question of changing the alignment route to short cut topographic lines were addressed and the FS has identified areas where an inverted siphon will allow to short cut topographic lines. In addition, in many areas, the micro topography is very irregular as shown in the following figure along the canal foreseen alignment route meaning the level will be influenced by the need to achieve a cut and fill balance, and minimise the import or export of spoil to the wildlife reserve. ). Figure 76: Example of the micro topography along one km of the Feeder canal (between KP 2.8 and 3.6) Figure 77: FS Alignment of the Feeder canal inside MWR (source: BRLi, 2016 ) A water intake on the left bank of the reservoir beside EGENCO water intake The need for a canal inside MWR was consideredduring the design development, and particularly during mitigation workshops (November 2016). One consideration was moving the water intake to the left bank of the reservoir with an aqueduct crossing Shire River around the EGENCO tailrace. The riverbed and banks at this location are made of large rocks, and having the intake at this location would avoid the need to enter MWR. Unfortunately, due to the lower topography on the east bank of Shire, this option would have a significant economic expense for an irrigation scheme that revolves 298 | P a g e around gravity irrigation. In addition, EGENCO has the intention to develop more infrastructures on this site. Therefore mitigating a canal option inside of MWR was cosndiered the feasible option. Summary of options for a canal inside MWR A number of different options were considered for the canal through MWR, considering environmental, tourism, technical and economic criteria, before arriving at the alignment that has been constructed, including: (i) location of the intake at Kapichira Dam, rather than Hamilton Rapids to greatly reduce the impact on MWR (adopted); (ii) location of the intake on the Left (East) Bank of the Shire River, completely out of MWR (rejected due to high cost and significant technical limitations with a canal crossing the Shire); (iii) location of the intake below Kapichira Dam (rejected, because pumping stations would be required, which would substantially raise the operating costs for the new irrigation farmers and make the project less financially viable); and (iv) locating all of the Main Canal underground within the Majete Reserve (rejected because it would complicate construction of the invasive fish barrier, because the planned decorative walls will effectively prevent most wildlife from entering the canal, and because of the high investment and maintenance costs associated with underground canal). The guiding principle has been to optimize the canal alignment so there is as little canal as feasible inside of MWR, as much as possible is buriedand it is as far as possible from the reserve buildings (entrance gate, etc.). CONCLUSION These options were presented to African Parks as part as stakeholder consultation, during the design development, for example recognizing the preference for a buried canal would be better than a lined canal, but if stretches of the canal were to be open, there would be vehicle and wildlife passes and walls/fences installed to avoid drowning. These requirements have been met in the design that is being constructed, such that the entire length of the Main Canal within Majete is either buried, covered, or walled off to prevent wildlife (including all large mammals) from falling into the canal. African Parks has plans to develop two areas impacted by the Feeder canal It must be noted, that there is a large portion of MWR that is not fenced, but still falls under the MWR management to the East of the main road where the proposed canal will now run through. MWR reserves the right to develop this area and has a plan to do so. African Parks has approved one project within MWR boundary: a small area for non-dangerous wildlife observation (antelopes, etc.) for school trips and children. This area is located on the Feeder canal alignment route between KP 1.25 and 1.65. In this area, the canal will be open and and incorporates mitigation to minimise children and animal drowning. The construction of an artificial wetland was proposed in ESMP for Phase 1 to provide water for wildlife by creating a small wetland which would become an important asset. The wetland was designed to be around 30 meters in diameter and would have been lined with concrete to avoid seepage, with a depth of 0.5 m, it would have required about 350 m3 of water from the canal, filled every two days, this would be the equivalent of 1230 m3 per week (or 0.002 m3/s) which is negligible in regard to the volume of water in the canal. On the request of African Parks and DNPW, the wetland was removed as it would have necessitated clearance of large area in the park and its justification was weak because the Shire river and Kapichira reservoir are in proximity as sources of water. Another project is under study along the canal alignment route: the development of housing and lodge units at the southern tip of MWR. Buried canals reduce aesthetical impacts and erase the need for wildlife passes. However, a buried canal does not mitigate all impacts such as those related to construction activities since it requires blasting activities. 299 | P a g e Figure 78: Planned Developments in MWR 300 | P a g e CHANGING THE ALIGNMENT ROUTE TO REDUCE IMPACTS (LNP) When undertaking the development of the detailed design in Lengwe National Park, topographic constraints (as illustrated on the topographic map below) as well as the impact on the environment need to be considered. The objective will be to optimize the alignment so that it has minimcal impact on thicket habitat and other areas of particular importance for wildlife. Figure 79: Elevation constraints in LNP 13.10.2.2 Decision on the status of canals inside parks The canals shall remain within the MWR and LNP “administration” and the right-of-way of canals shall not be alienated from MWR and LNP. Access to the intake and canals for maintenance will be managed in accordance with African Parks and LNP access restrictions (and inspection to avoid poaching). This means that there shall not be any independent access gate to canal maintenance road inside MWR and LNP. Scheme operator staff shall enter and exit parks by following conditions stipulated in the MoUs between DNPW, African Parks and the operator. In case of wildlife passages (and other civil engineering infrastructures within the park), the MOU shall clearly define the roles and responsibilities of the parties with respect to ongoing maintenance. For example, the operator will be responsible for the structural integrity of the structures and any vegetation of features that may affect this, however the surfacing or surface vegetation on overpasses will be the responsibility of the relevant park authority. TheMemorandum of Understanding between the project operator and African Parks/LNP will ensure long-term commitments. 13.10.2.3 Tender process and selection of a construction contractor The tender process for the pre-selection and selection of a construction contractor is a crucial step, it is at this stage that risks can be partly managed. It is therefore strongly recommended that: • the tender document requires that the construction contractor has several references in work in parks or environmentally sensitive areas and that these references be verified to ensure that work went well (reputation of the contractor shall be checked before the selection). In order to verify the contactor’s reputation the following method shall be applied: 301 | P a g e - The bidding document and contract shall reflect the new requirements of the World Bank as highlighted in the document “Summary of Environmental, Social, Health and Safety (ESHS) Enhancements Standard Procurement Documents (SPDs) & Standard Bidding Documents (SBDs)” One of its requirement is that: “Applicants/Bidders/Proposers are now required to make a declaration listing any civil works contracts that have been suspended or terminated by an employer and/or performance security called by an employer, for ESHS reason/s.” - The Procurement specialist shall include “qualification criteria” such as : ▪ Number of past failures to complete the contract. ▪ Length of time in business. ▪ Self-assessment of past client relationship ▪ Self-assessment of other relationships (surrounding communities and stakeholders) presenting past claims by NGOs, claims by traditional authorities, etc. ▪ Description of past injuries where the bidder is required to provide with a list of past injuries and deaths on construction site ▪ Past projects concerned by an ESIA, ESMP and RAP and monitoring and auditing activities - A “Tender Panel” shall be put in place for any pre-qualification process. This panel shall assist the Procurement Specialist in the evaluation of each criteria. - For each of these criteria, the bidder shall provide answers and the tender panel will confirm if the bidders have met the qualification criteria. Investigation could be done by the procurement specialist in compliance with national regulation. • the tender document will include all applicable environmental and social measures from the Environmental and Social Management Plan (ESMP). • the tender document will quantifies needs in terms of mitigation to ensure that the contractor adequately budgets mitigations such as rehabilitation of areas affected by earth work. • the tender document requires the contractor to have a environmental specialist in its staff (in addition to a social and health and safety specialist) that reports to and consults with African Parks and LNP on a regular basis. • the contract includes sufficient leverages in cases where the contractor does not respect the various site sensitivities. For example, withholding of payment for noncompliances. • local law enforcement will be involved in cases of serious unlawful activities such as poaching and SEAH. • that the tender document and the contract will clearly state roles and authority of African Parks and LNP (DNPW) as well as chains of responsibilities during construction. • the contract will include obligation of termination for work in a set timeframe (and details of any compensation for African Parks and DNPW in the event of the the completion date being missed will be set out in the ESMP). • In addition, DNPW shall be deeply involved in the development of the detailed design for the canal through Lengwe National Park. • African Parks and the DNPW shall have the full authority to stop work and request quick action in cases of serious non-compliances and offences; to this end they shall establish close working relationships with the Supervising Engineer. 13.10.2.4 Impact on tourism The following mitigations will reduce impacts on tourism: 302 | P a g e • The most important mitigation is the provision of funds for compensation due to loss of business. With about 1 truck passing every 10 minutes, tourism will be affected and, even if work is confined, wildlife will probably hide further inside the reserve (this leads to other impacts as detailed in Chapter 8). A fund for losses shall be provided for the time of construction in addition to fund to produce pamphlets or online advertisements prior to work and after work is over to present the work and to advertise the reserve after work (distribution of vouchers, etc.).. • During operation, the transportation of dredged sediment from Kapichira Reservoir, discussion shall be engaged at Government level about ways to dispose of this sediment so it is not stored or disposed within the MWR. This will be covered, as necessary in a Dredged Materials Management Plan to be developed by the Operator and EGENCO. • African Parks requested that particularly noisy construction operations are restricted to between January and February which has the fewest tourists In addition, noisy operations (blasting, dredging, etc.) will be preplanned with warnings, and shall not take place during Friday through Sunday and holidays (days which receive a majority of the overall tourist visitation) in other months of the year. To minimize disturbance to wildlife as well as tourists, blasting will only be allowed during 11 am to 2 pm (the hottest hours of the day, with generally the least wildlife activity). • Earth works shall be limited to the path of the canal and all bare soil shall be rehabilitated at post construction in consultation with African Parks. The same rule applies to LNP and rehabilitation shall be done in consultation with DNPW. This requires that DNPW, African Parks and the contractors should identify storage areas outside the parks unless, otherwise, agreed in advance. • Excavated materials shall be dumped in predetermined area such as a quarry, outside MWR/LNP or only in designated areas specified by African Parks/DNPW. • Surplus materials suitable for road surfacing shall be used for upgrade of road surfaces in MWR/LNP under the supervision of MWR management/DNPW. • The contractor will have to restore the road from Chickwawa to the reserve and budget this restoration. • Temporary construction roads and tracks shall be limited to immediately adjacent site along the canal in the predefined footprint (10m) from the canal path, these roads and tracks shall be rehabilitated upon completion of construction based on decision by AP (either decommissioned or kept and upgraded for visitors). • The dredger for the water intake (as part of the preparation for the water intake) shall operate during week days and during day time as construction works are not permitted at night inside MWR. Dredged spoils cannot be stored in MWR (even temporarily). • The FS report has recommended that noise and dust barriers be installed close to MWR offices and community camps to reduce visual, air quality and noise impacts. African Parks, however, indicated that the noise barriers did not reflect an economic sense as noice would still be heard despite the capital intensive nature of the barriers. On this premise, the noise barriers were foregone. • Other compensation proposed by MWR management include: - Grading the actual road from Chickwawa to the reserve. This is done jointly with EGENCO. - Providing a pipeline to extract some water from the canal for water supply for MWR staff village of around 30 households. The actual borehole for the staff village gives yield issues in the dry season. • Ng'ona lodge (also called Mwembezi lodge) is a private property and the impact from the canal construction and the canal RoW shall be assessed in development of the RAP. 303 | P a g e Mitigation and compensation includes dust control (with the same frequency as MWR), access road repair, compensation for loss of business, production of information pamphlet for clients, compensation for loss of tree, etc. The lodge will however probably not be affected by noise (as it is located 30m lower than the canal). 13.10.2.5 Impact on Majete buildings, roads and infrastructures Since the Feeder canal is passing very close to many MWR buildings, mitigation and compensation in case of damages to building and infrastructures should be planned: • None of the Majete buildings have been affected by the construction works to date in Phase 1. • Hall Martin drive has been rerouted by the contractor, under the direction of African Parks, to maintain tourist routes through the park, and to keep away from the construction areas. Roads that cross the construction areas have been shut to tourist traffic. A vehicle bridge is being installed at Kapichira falls road and on the road to Ng'ona lodge (outside MWR property). • The Contractor is regularly maintaining Chikwawa to Majete main road (D135) in good condition, although dust remains an issue. Dust control measures are regularly put in place along Chikwawa to Majete main road (and within the park), although even with project vehicles abiding with speed limits, dust can still be generated by project and public vehicles using the road. • Compensation has been provided to African Parks for new fencing alongside the works. • A pipeline to bring water to the rangers housing compound (about 30 houses) is within the detail design, but not yet cosntructed. 13.10.2.6 Impact on Kapichira falls attractiveness An interesting mitigation that was considered would be to implement timed releases at the sluice gates and to inform MWR visitors on time and season where the falls will be visible. Timed releases of flow is however not recommended since: • effective coordination of timing of flow releases between EGENCO and African Parks would entail high transaction costs and limited likelihood of real success (visually impressive flows at a guaranteed, pre-arranged time of day are not very likely to happen in practice); • daily flushing of the falls would be harmful to aquatic and terrestrial wildlife adapted to the dry season Kapichira Falls environment of relatively dry falls with numerous dry boulders and some trickles and pools of water. As mentioned above, the most impressive flows over the falls will remain during the rainy season which will be less impacted by SVTP. 13.10.2.7 Impact on Lengwe roads and infrastructures Where Bangula canal crosses roads, a vehicle bridge shall be installed. Based on available map of the park, there are four roads that will need to cross the canal: • North Thicket Drive • South Thicket Road • Makanga Drive • Tsanya Drive 304 | P a g e In addition, the project may impact boreholes for watering point that were funded by the SRBMP. These will have to be avoided or rebuilt to a new location if necessary since Bangula canal may also be utilized to create watering points. Access to the canal RoW by the construction contractor shall be done from outside of the Park (northern and southern part) and not from existing touristic roads. However, during operation, access to the canal service road shall be done by the Park’s entrance only and not by an independent road. 13.10.2.8 Loss of ownership of park management on the western side of Lengwe As part of mitigation for SVTP impacts, a permanent ranger camp for a team of rangers should be installed along the Bangula canal to keep poachers and settlers away. In that case, it is suggested to install this scout camp close to a wildlife pass as presented in the next sections. Park management also has to require its staff to move further west from their usual rounds. 13.10.2.9 The presence of a canal inside parks will be long-term agent of changes In order to prepare for long term risks and to ensure that stakeholders interests and mainly those of parks are not affected by others, clear chain of responsibilities have to be defined taking into account all possible situations and “worst case scenarios”. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) shall be signed between African Parks and the scheme operator for MWR and between the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) and the scheme operator for LNP to ensure long-term commitments. It is recommended that this MoU clearly states that African Parks and the DNPW shall never be responsible for animal damages to project infrastructures and that maintenance of all wildlife passes and other infrastructures proposed in this ESIA shall be done (and budgeted) by the scheme operator (including the fences or walls around the canal). Regarding LNP, it is recommended to: • Establish 3 ranger camps at the canal entrance and exit and one in the extention area following the DNPW standard of 6 houses per camp as minimum requirement. • Install an artificial wetland on the eastern side of the canal; • Align mitigation measures with the General Management Plan of LNP (GEF,20210), and thereby assist some of the existing problems (including poaching, illegal wood clearing, lack of reliable fence and buffalo entering Illovo field, current issue with Bailey Bridge that has collapsed, lack of field equipment, vehicles and communication equipment, road surfaces etc.) to ensure that they are not aggravated as part of the project. : - Installing fences to keep wildlife within the park and outside of the construction area. - Provision of security rangers for construction staff - Building a new bridge across Nkombedzi Wa Fodya River to replace the current Bailey Bridge (however this will be done before Phase II because it is completely destroyed). Design studies are now underway for this bridge supported by Sub-Component 2.2 of SVTP-I. - Improving existing infrastructures and equipment of the park, including roads. - Improving existing drinking spots for wildlife by providing 10 water holes. 305 | P a g e 14. ECOLOGY IMPACT ASSESSMENT 14.1 INTRODUCTION This section deals with impacts of the Project on biodiversity. The following impact identification matrix tabulates the components against the impacts that are considered during the preconstruction, construction and operation stages of the project. 14.2 IMPACT IDENTIFICATION MATRIX ON ECOLOGY Pre-construction Construction Operation Rapid change in land cover: the Project will lead to No impact during pre- significant changes in Land cover construction phase land cover Loss of Critical Habitat (thicket) in LNP: the project may result in impacts to the expanse of thicket in Old Lengwe, which is one of the reasons for designation of the park and is key habitat to an endemic population of Nyala Habitat fragmentation: with the canal passing through MWR and LNP, wildlife habitats Disturbances of will be fragmentized wildlife and vegetation: work will Drowning hazard for generate noise and wildlife: open disturbance to canals represent a Terrestrial habitats habitats and startling drowning hazard for and wildlife wildlife wildlife Changes in plant composition in Elephant marsh: reduction of flow due to abstraction of 50m3/s will affect plant composition Wildlife-human conflict: There is a risk that hippos and Wetland habitats and crocodiles enter the wildlife drains and cause 306 | P a g e wildlife – human conflicts (and casualties). Irrigated field will become very attractive for wildlife in the vicinity of MWR and LNP. Risk of Tiger fish invasion in the upper Shire: floods from the Shire in canals could lead to invasion of the Tiger fish in Lake Malawi Reduction of suitable habitat for fish in the Elephant marsh: reduction of flow will lead to decrease of suitable habitats in the marsh Disturbance to fish migration to Disturbance to fish spawning sites: migration to permanent spawning sites: infrastructures and works in temporary channelization of rivers could lead to tributary rivers could Aquatic habitats and disturbances of fish disturb fish migration fish migration to spawning sites 14.3 AFFECTED COMPONENT VALUE Component Component value Land cover is weakly valued since the area is an agricultural Land cover area with heavy pressure on land cover from this activity Terrestrial habitats and wildlife Wetland habitats and wildlife These three components are highly valued as natural habitats Aquatic habitats and fish are fragile and the thicket in LNP is considered critical habitat. 307 | P a g e 14.4 LAND COVER DESCRIPTION OF IMPACTING ACTIVITIES The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: The project construction and operation will lead to significant changes in land cover ( Rapid change in land cover). Based on an average right-of-way (RoW) of 45 m around main canal for Phase 2 and the detailed design for Phase 1, and the extent of the command areas shown in Figure 12, the project will permanently change approximately 34 571 ha of land cover types (FAO, 2013) to irrigated crops and, to a lesser extent, to canals and maintenance roads. However, most of the land cover type affected are already cultivated or urbanized, and the project has ensured through the agricultural commercialization manuals that no natural habitat types will be lost from the command areas. Despite this, about 4900 ha of natural habitat will be lost to the canal infrastructure as it passes through approximately 2.5km of Majete Wildlife Reserve and 14km of Lengwe National Park, and compensation for this loss is to be provided. Table 36 below lists the areas of each land cover type that occurs within each command area (but it should be noted that this does not mean that it will be lost to the farm layout). Table 356: Land cover changes Land Cover types Command areas and canals Area (ha) A 486.6 B 913.9 C 570.0 Built Up Area(s). These are urbanized areas (Nchalo, Ngabu, D 738.4 Chikwawa, Bangula etc.) I1 312.6 I2 190.0 Bangula canal 59.0 TOTAL 3270,5 I1 12.3 Closed Broadleaved Deciduous Trees. This class includes dense forested areas I2 70.6 (natural or semi natural) Bangula canal 13.4 TOTAL 96,3 B 13.1 C 1 357.0 A 19.1 Closed Herbaceous. B 645.5 This class includes dense grassland with sparse C 950.5 trees and shrubs (natural or semi natural) D 201.6 I1 208.0 I2 29.2 Bangula canal 10.4 308 | P a g e Feeder canal 10.8 TOTAL 2088,2 A 442.5 B 28.0 Open Woodland with Herbaceous Layer. D 988.0 This class includes habitats that are mainly I1 648.7 covered by trees with open canopy and herbaceous layer. Most of LNP, MWR and hilly I2 199.8 areas fall under this category (natural or semi natural) Feeder canal 120.5 Supini canal 7.1 Bangula canal 87.8 TOTAL 2522,4 A 861.2 I1 103.9 Post Flooding Cultivation. I2 188.9 Refers to “dimba agriculture” carry out in dambo Supini canal 19.5 Bangula canal 7.1 TOTAL 1180,6 A 2 886.4 Rainfed Herbaceous Crop(s). Refers B 2 037.5 to areas of rainfed agriculture C 7 736.5 Land Cover types Command areas and canals Area (ha) D 1 490.8 I1 2 732.3 I2 255.4 A 130.7 B 3 179.3 I1 3 114.7 Feeder canal 70.9 Supini canal 24.1 Bangula canal 243.0 TOTAL 23 901,60 A 141.8 Rivers Feeder canal 7.7 Bangula canal 1.3 TOTAL 150,8 Other I1 3.9 GRAND TOTAL 34 571,30 309 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Rapid change in land cover. The command area will lead to significant changes in land cover Weakly valued (highly valued land cover types Value of the affected component such as those found in LNP and MWR are discussed in the terrestrial habitat section) Intensity High Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 310 | P a g e Figure 80: Landcover Map in Command Area (Source: Precision, 2021) MITIGATION MEASURES Most changes to land cover are inevitable. However, impacts within Majete Wildlife Reserve and Lengwe National Park shall be compensated by planting schemes to enhance the areas and assist them in achieving their management objectives. Add description In addition, farm layouts within the command areas will be advised so they do not affect natural habitat, as part of the fine tuning. In addition, large baobab and small communal forests shall be avoided (not clear-cut) when developing the command area. It is recommended, that before clearing forest or bushes, the following protocol be followed by the Engineer in charge of work plans and supervision of work: 311 | P a g e • Make sure that there are no protected trees, shrubs or plants (National Parks and Wildlife Act (Act No. 11 of 1992) by requesting a clearance from the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DPNW); • Establish contact with the DNPW to know what is the procedure in case of protected tree in the canal right of way; • Make sure that all cut trees return to their owners; • Make sure that borrow pits, roads and other infrastructures do not destroy protected trees or community forests. The following two pictures show, based on the consultant’s return of experience in construction of irrigation schemes, two failed mitigation measures to safeguard protected trees and the reason why they failed. They are shown as examples to avoid. The construction contractor took the advice from the Engineer to protect the tree at the borrow pit site because of its protected status. However, the contractor’s poor judgement and lack of environmental sensitivity has left the tree dead in one season. Roots were dried by exposed sun (the mound is about 5 meters high). What should have been done: a protection area of at least 10 meters should have been delineated with construction fences, and the slope should have been more gentle to avoid affecting soil property where the tree is rooted. Figure 8: A Poorly Pretected Tree (Source: BRLi, 2017) The protected tree was in the way of the canal, the project spend tens of thousands to avoid it by creating a bend in the canal route. However, nearby excavation, the drainage ditch on the left, compaction and earth fill to create the maintenance road have left the soil impervious to water and has created drainage. The tree died in one season. What should have been done: the avoidance measures shall not have been implemented and the tree should have either been cut and the lost compensated in close consultation with authorities or the access road should not have completely surrounded the tree. Any action leading to changes in soil properties will affect vegetation. Figure 9: A well protected tree (source: BRLi, 2017) 312 | P a g e 14.5 Terrestrial Habitats And Wildlife This section describes impacts on parks on an ecological point of view (wildlife movement, etc.) The section on “Natural heritage” discusses impacts on parks from a socioeconomic perspective (tourism, management and infrastructure). The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts. 14.5.1 Loss of CRITICAL NATURAL HABITAT As discussed in Chapter 10, on the basis of the presence of an endemic population of Nyala, the thicket habitat in Lengwe National Park is considered to be Critical Habitat according to the definition in ESS6. The alignment of the canal set out in the FS will pass through the western edge of the thicket requiring loss of about 24.8ha (~1% of the total area of thicket). In addition, there will be an additional approximately 25ha fragment of thicket remaining on the west side of the canal, which will be fragmented from the main area of thicket by the canal. In isolation, this fragmented area may be too small to support viable populations of Nyala and other thicket dependent species, and therefore is also considered as part of the habitat loss, resulting in about ~2% of the entire thicket area being lost to the canal infrastructure. The existing areas of the different thicket types are as follows: • 28.74 ha of Sterculia appendiculata riverine thickets, • 260.11 ha of Small-leaved bloodwood thickets, and • 278.35 ha of Acacia nigrescens thicket Further discussion regarding the impacts on the fragmented areas is provided in section 14.5.3, below. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Loss of Critical Habitat (thicket) in LNP: the project may result in impacts to the expanse of thicket in Old Lengwe, which is one of the reasons for designation of the park and is key habitat to an endemic population of Nyala Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Major Occurrence probability High probability Two options are being invetigated regarding the canal alignment in Lengwe National parks, namely: Option 1: Involves the canal alignment of 14 km in Lengwe Pational Park of which about 2.5 km pasess through the thicket. This option is shorter than option 2 and as such has less ecological footprint. It also would lead to less excavation because it is relatively flat and would as such impose less with respect to soil spoil management. The issue to be resolved is that the canal would affect a stretch of the thicket in Lengwe that is considered part of a critical habitat for Nyala. 313 | P a g e Figure 83: Option 1 for Canal Route Option 2: Proposes aligning the canal west of the option 1 proposal. This option would avoid passing through the thicket in Lengwe National Park and of about the same length. The canal would not affect the thicket but the proposed alignment would involve a lot of excavation and require measures for soil spoil and management. Figure 10: Option 2 Canal Route 314 | P a g e 14.5.2 Disturbances of wildlife and vegetation During construction of the scheme, work will generate noise and necessitate forest clearing in the right-of-way (RoW) destroying some habitats and startling wildlife. In LNP, the canal RoW will destroy about 24.8 ha of thickets and 34.9 ha of tree savanna. In MWR, the canal RoW will destroy 25 ha of forest. Construction activities will have several impacts on wildlife and vegetation: • Scaring of wildlife (and potential casualties) due to construction in an area where they are accustomed to access without disturbance (this will have direct impact on tourism as well, as wildlife observation will decrease). In MWR, some animals have moved inside the reserve whereas those that are more tolerant to humans and noise visit the construction area from time to time. Due to lack of fences in many areas in LNP, some wildlife may be tempted to exit the park and lead to human-animal conflicts (especially buffalos); • Persecution of slow moving animal (snakes) from workers; • Changes in habitat quality (risk of invasive plants colonization on bare soil and risk of increasing turbidity in the reservoir due to waterworks). The invasive tree Prosopis glandulosa was often observed in the Study area, this tree often colonizes ditches; • Animals will not be able to cross canals under construction to access Shire river below the Kapichira dam wall (MWR) and to access the western part of Old Lengwe (LNP) as the excavation will create an impassable trench; • Increased poaching risk with foreign and transient construction crews operating in and adjacent to MWR and LNP. • Old Lengwe is already surrounded by heavy anthropogenic activities (such as the Illovo scheme) and villages that create pressure on the ecosystem. The additional command areas that are to be created by SVTP-I and SVTP-II adjacent and close to Lengwe National Park will provide further pressure on the Park • In addition, resettlement activities will take place in the command area. Resettlements are known to increase pressure on natural resources mainly trees for logs to rebuild houses and on available land to resettle people. This impact is difficult to assess but was raised by a traditional authority during a consultation meeting with COWI consultants (COWI, 2016). LNP, Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve and Matandwe Forest Reserve which are close to the SVTP-II are at risk. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Disturbances of wildlife and vegetation. Forest clearing will permanently destroy valuable habitats and work will startle wildlife Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 14.5.3 Habitat fragmentation Canal construction and operation will fragment wildlife habitats in Lengwe National Park and Majete Wildlife Reserve. Open stretches of canal will form a barrier to movement of some species, and other species may fail in their attempts to cross the canal. Fragmented habitat areas are separated from their main units and will no longer form continuous habitats. Habitat fragmentation can lead to the “edge effects” along forested areas. The edge is the area where natural habitats come in contact with manmade habitats or infrastructures (canal, road, transmission line, etc.). Edge effect causes abrupt changes in vegetation covers and reduces the 315 | P a g e true surface of forest, leading to colonization of new species. Edge effect also leads to local changes in soil characteristic from a cooler, darker and moister to a warmer, more exposed and dryer environment due to solar radiation. This change brings higher mortality of trees and shrubs along the edge. Habitat fragmentation can lead to changes beyond the line of contact with construction activities. The entire length of the canal will be in siphone form and underground and as such is not expected to tp present barrier to animal movement. This excludes the flume that will be open but fenced to prevent animals falling into canal. As for Lengwe National Park, an option of open canal was adopted as this would provide water to wildlife in the water deficient areas, In addition, a biodiversity management plan (BMP) will be developed and implemented for the park. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Habitat fragmentation. Canals will permanently fragmentize habitats especially in parks Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity High Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Major Occurrence probability High probability 14.5. 3 Drowning hazard for wildlife During operation of the scheme, the open canal will represent a hazard for the two following reasons: • animals will inevitably fetch for water in main canals as the water will be clearer than in any other water sources and more easily available especially during the dry season. The Feeder canal will convey up to 50m3/s during the peak of the dry season which is also a stressful time for wildlife. • with a lined canal, banks will be slippery and any animals that enter the canal will struggle to escape by climbing up the banks due to lack of grip. This represents a risk for animal health even when water level is low as animals could get stuckand die from the heat or starvation. Snakes are known to “fall” and not be able to escape as well (Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society, 2016). Slopes of 1 Vertical / 1.5 Horizontal and upto 1 Vertical / 2 Horizontal would be especially difficult for wildlife to escape. One example in Namibia shows that without proper planning and implementation of mitigation measures, canals can become death traps for thousands of wildlife. The Grootfontein – Omatako Canal (260 km) was built in the 80’s, it is an open lined canal with steep and lined slopes (U-shaped canal). This canal is going through game farms as well as other natural habitats severing migration route of grazing animals. The canal was built 30 years ago and is still in operation. A newspaper from Johannesburg (the Star of Johannesburg, 1990) mentioned that the number of dead animal was more than 8,000 per year including endangered species. The estimate annual death is about 4,700 warthogs, 1,500 hares, 300 baboons and scores of antelopes, cheetahs, wildcats, foxes and jackals (large cats are not at risk because of their jumping abilities). Personal communication with the Namibia Environment and Wildlife Society (2016) also revealed that snakes, aardvarks, warthogs, kudu, oryx and eland are amongst the victims of drowning in this canal. The Namibian Afrikaners online newspaper called “Republikein” also reveals that casualties include domestic animals (cow and goats). In addition, the newspaper mentions that the cost of supervising the canal and the effort required to remove trapped wildlife is significant. According to the Republikein, some small animals such as pangolin are known to dig and destroy canal embankment which causes water loses and seepage. According to the article, omission to close fences and gates by maintenance staff as also 316 | P a g e led to wildlife intrusion in fenced areas (the Republikein, 2016). The Grootfontein – Omatako Canal is still called the “Killer canal”. Figure 85: Wildlife casualties in Grootfontein – Omatako Canal (Source: the Republikein, 2016 ) Discussion with Piet Heyns (personal communication, 2016) who was during planning, construction and management of the canal the Head of the Planning Division and later the Director of the Investigations and Research in the Department of Water Affairs in Namibia has confirmed that the number of casualties was and still is very high and removal of dead animals is very expensive and therefore often neglected. According to him, the largest group were/are snakes and antelopes. According to M. Heyns, many solutions were tested in order to reduce casualties: such as escape gentle slopes (escape structures) with “guides” in the canal to force the animal to use the escape structure. However, most animals when faced with “guides” were swimming on the opposite direction (and up and down the canal) and finally drowning in agony. In parks and reserve, an agonizing animal or an animal in distress is a disturbing experience for visitors and could really affect the image of MWR and LNP (tourists publishing a dying animal on social media will affect the image of parks). The following is a picture from the non-efficient escape structure with the “guide” Figure 76 Figure 86: Inefficient escape structure (Source: Heyns, 2016 ) 317 | P a g e M. Heyns mentioned that regular farm fences were inefficient to keep wildlife from entering due to the fact that many antelopes (oryx, kudu, eland) could jump over 1.6 m high fences. Today, this canal has not seen any efficient action to fight against drowning and the cost of maintenance is affected by this issue. M. Heyns also said that, based on his experience, regardless of the fence many small animals could pass under the fence or across and drown in the canal. According to him, the only way to reduce casualties in parks is to cover or bury the canal. He also mentioned that the structure should be strong enough to allow passage of intruding wildlife. With the presence of elephants in MWR, this issue is rather serious. M. Heyns sent the consultant a picture of a wildlife pass that was installed in commercial game farms along the Grootfontein – Omatako Canal to reduce the number of drownings. Figure 87: Overpass in Namibia (Source: Heyns, 2016 ) Therefore this impact concerns not only protected areas and wildlife reserves, but also the whole length of the canal will be accessible to smaller wildlife as well as domestic animals. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Drowning hazard for wildlife. Open canals represent a drowning hazard for wildlife Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity High Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Major Occurrence probability High probability 318 | P a g e 14.5. 4 Summary of impact significance assessment Loss of Disturbances of Habitat Drowning Critical wildlife and fragmentation. hazard for Habitat vegetation. Forest Canals will wildlife. An open (thicket) in clearing will permanently canal will LNP: the permanently fragmentize represent a project may destroy valuable habitats drowning hazard result in habitats and work especially in parks for wildlife. There impacts to will startle is also a risk that the expanse wildlife hippos and of thicket in crocodiles enter Old Lengwe, the canal and which is one cause wildlife – of the human reasons for conflicts designation of the park and is key habitat to an endemic population of Nyala Value of the Highly valued affected component Intensity Medium Medium High High Extent Punctual Punctual Punctual Punctual Duration Permanent Permanent Permanent Permanent Significance Major Moderate Major Major Occurrence High High probability High probability High probability probability probability 14.6 Mitigation measures 14.6.1 Loss of CRITICAL NATURAL HABITAT Now that the detailed design work for Phase 1 canal has been completed (Phase 1 finishes at the border of Lengwe National Park), further optioneering of alignment through Lengwe can be undertaken with a view to minimizing the loss of thicket habitat. In order not to preclude any alignment options in Lengwe National Park, the end point for Phase 1 has been carefully selected. A key aim of SVTP will be to assist Lengwe National Park address some of the issues that are affecting the wildlife use of the park, including availability of water, poaching, human encroachment, and lack of infrastructure. The measures to be taken forward will be aligned with the management objectives for the park (as described in Lengwe National Park – General Management Plan 2021- 2025 prepared as part of SVTP-I) and will be described along with the options considered and final route selection in a Biodiversity Management Plan for Lengwe National Park to be prepared in 2022. The Biodiveristy Management Plan (BMP) will be prepared prior to preparing the tender for the Constractor for working through Lengwe National Park, and this BMP will nclude details of the mitigation and compensation measures to be provided. As a minimum, the measures will include: 319 | P a g e  findings of an updated tree survey of the final alignment together with proposals for the sensitive removal of the trees, ensuring the valve of the timber is retained for management activities in the National Park  a monitoring program for wildlife in the park  provision of a minimum of 5 overpasses and one underpass suitable for wildlife to pass across the canal without entering the water. These may be combined with connections of roads, but shall be oversized and comprise shrub/savannah habitat as well as road  use of armourflex, earth banks for open areas of the canal, with slack (less than 1:2.5) sides to minimise drowning and allow passage of wildlife  provision of waterholes for wildlife  habitat enhancement measures in parts of the park that are currently of sub-optimal value for wildlife  fencing of the park and particularly the canal entrances to the park, to prevent access from outside of the park along the route of the canal, and to minimise animals from exiting the park  construction of ranger camps  provision of facilities (camps, routes, water, etc) for rangers and scouts to ensure adequate patrolling and security of the Park 14.6.1 Disturbances of wildlife and vegetation Lengwe National Park and Majete Wildlife Reserve The mitigation measures being delivered to minimise impacts to wildlife in Majete Wildlife Reserve are detailed in the Phase 1 ESMP. Learning from the experiences of Phase 1, the following measures will be adopted on SVTP Phase 2 at Lengwe National Park. • The construction program through Lengwe National Park will be phased such that except for a haul road along the alignment of the canal, no open unfinished excavation of longer than 1km will be worked at any one time. Although several stretches may be worked at the same time, for example to enable the construction of overpasses and underpasses, there shall be a gap of 1km between the areas of construction activity where only haul operations and vehicle movements between working areas will be permitted. • The boundary of each construction area will be marked by fencing such that it is clear where the boundaries of the working area are: no works shall occur outside of these boundaries and no materials will be stored or allowed to spill beyond these areas. No workers will be allowed to stray beyond these areas. • Temporary fences will be established around excavations suitable to prevent incursion by animals and humans. Temporary fencing shall also be used around stores of materials (including any hazardous materials and wastes) to prevent access and minimise the chances of the wastes dispersing into the park. As agreed with DNPW and the Supervising Engineer, these fences will be wildlife approved and electrified. • New or upgraded water points will help encourage animals away from the construction area and will therefore be provided as detailed in the BMP • Regular sensitization induction training will be provided to all workers engaged in construction activities in the National Park • No construction camps shall be allowed in Lenge National Park, and no waste materials including construction spoil shall be deposited within the park • Construction vehicles shall access the construction areas only along the alignment of the canal, and not use any of the existing roads within the Park (except where these also follow the alignment of the canal). All vehicles entering the park will be cleaned of all mud and earth, to prevent accidental transport of invasive species of plant 320 | P a g e • Speed limits shall be set at 15km/hour for all vehicles and trucks in LNP • Workers shall be transported in buses from the entrance of the park to working areas. Welfare facilities shall be provided in association with the working areas. These shall comprise; rest areas; canteen/eating areas; hand washing facilities; latrines. Latrines shall not be pit latrines, but of the ‘portaloo’ type so that all materials are carrying in and taken out of the park, and nothing is left in the park. • Workers will be provided with an induction that explains the rules of working within the park, and reminds workers of the need to respect working boundaries and wildlife within the park, as well as the health and safety requirements for undertaking their duties. No hunting of any sort will be permitted by any staff in the park, and intentionally causing harm/injury to any animal or polluting any part of the park, as well as damaging any vegetation outside of the working area will be reported to the relevant authorities and result in dismissal from the contractor’s workforce • All workers will be provided with identification badges, which shall be shown to security prior to admission to the park. The identification badge shall indicate that the date on which the worker received the induction for working within the park. Any workers without a badge or who have not received the induction within the last 6 months will be forbidden to enter parks. Workers cannot spend the night in the park. • Extra law enforcement personnel shall be provided to the satisfaction of DNPW (to increase patrol and law enforcement effort) during construction phase. Costs shall be covered by project financiers. • No fires shall be permitted in the park • Vegetation removal shall be limited to the permanent footprint of the canal, plus a 10m working width either site. Cleared vegetation shall be removed from the park, unless agreed otherwise with DNPW. • Post construction soil rehabilitation, planting and seeding shall be done progressively, as each working area is completed. The restoration proposals will be agreed for each section with DNPW, as part of a restoration plan prepared and submitted for approval within 3 months fo the start of works in each section. 14.6.2 Habitat fragmentation ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY IN MWR As shown on figure pp, approximately 1.25 km (50%) of the canal inside the reserve will be buried to allow free passage of animals over the top. It is expected for vegetation to regenerate over the top of the canal in the buried sections, allowing for some continuity of habitat types on both side of the canal. In the sections with open canal, a wall topped with a fence (electyfied in key locations) is being constructed to prevent animals from falling into the canal. ECOLOGICAL CONTINUITY IN LNP During the detailed design of the canal through Lengwe National Park, the designers will work closely with the environmental specialists and DNPW to minimise impacts to ecological continuity in the Park. This includes provision for the passage of animals typically found in the park through, over or under the canal, as well as considering the alignment of the canal to minimise fragmentation of habitat types such as the thicket. Underpasses will be provided where the canal is elevate, and may be designed in association with crossings of rivers. In these cases the crossings will be ‘over engineered’ to ensure that dry passage 321 | P a g e is provided except at times of flood. As a minimum the crossings will be designed to retain dry passage except during a 1:100 year flood. An underpass will only offer limited passage since many animal move in herds and the limited size of the box culverts may not allow herds to pass. Overpasses shall have very mild slopes (1 Vertical / 8 Horizontal), and be wide enough for herds to cross (no less than 50 meters wide), The overpasses shall have walls at the edge and shall have walls and fences on either side to guide wildlife to the overpasses. In LNP, where the canal will be open (see Natural Heritage section), it is suggested to install five wildlife overpass and one wildlife underpass. Wherever possible, overpasses shall be located in open areas to avoid them becoming a focus for poaching. Overpasses can be shared with vehicle bridges, although the road should be defined and vegetaion facilitied to establish alongside. It is necessary to install bridges for vehicle at all locations where an existing path crosses the canal. Based on actual map of LNP, the canal will cross paths at 4 locations (see maps on impact in LNP), bridges shall be designed to allow wildlife passage (with very gentle slopes and fences on the side). There is no need to install specific pedestrian passes in LNP. Locations for the underpasses and overpasses to be confirmed during the detailed design are shown on Figure pp. Compensation planting and habitat creation works in the park will be designed with the agreement of DNPW. Consideration will be given to the creation of a large wetland that will take water from the canal. The wetland could be around 30 meters in diameter and shall be lined with concrete to avoid seepage, with a depth of 0.5 m, it would require about 350 m3 of water from the canal, filled every two days, this would be the equivalent of 1230 m3 per week (or 0.002 m3/s) which is negligible in regard to the volume of water in the canal. The wetland will allow the park to achieve an overall net gain from a conservation standpoint, and if installed on the western part of the canal may minimise the chances of villagers bringing their cattle inside the park to fetch for water. BUFFER ZONES AROUND LNP AND ENCROACHMENT A 100m buffer zone has been incorporated into the design between the park and the command areas. No land shall be irrigated in the buffer zone. Since communities in Zones A and B will benefit from the SVTP, and since most illegal wood cutting activities and illegal grazing originate from these communities, part of their inclusion in the scheme shall be conditional on the acceptability of a “no illegal wood clearing rule” and a “no grazing rule” at each village level. Village headmen shall sign a contractual agreement or some form of engagement to respect this rule prior to their inclusion in the scheme. . 14.6.3 Drowning hazard for wildlife • The design of the water intake at Kapichira reservoir shall ensure that no crocodiles and hippos can enter the canal. For that, the trash rack or screens at the intake shall be designed to prevent juvenile crocodiles (as well as adults) from entering, as well as water hyacinth, as far as possible. This may require grill spacing of 5 cm, unless other methods are incorporated to prevent the survival of juvenile crocodiles in the canal. • The open areas of canal through Majete Wildlife Reserve will be surrounded by a wall and fence, with the fence electrified stretches where African Parks have identified the greatest risk of large animals trying to pass through. • Despite the wall and fence providing a barrier to larger species, it may not provide hindrance to other species. Therefore the design has included escape ramps at regular locations, as shown on Figure vv. • Animal escape ramps comprising roughed areas of slack slope (1:2.5) are provided every 250m along the canal, on alternate sides. In between these areas, escape ladders are provided, mainly for human escape. • 322 | P a g e - Having a shallower and wider canal without fence rather than a narrow and deep canal to ensure that wildlife do not drown should form part of the design solution, especially through Lengwe National Park. Consideration will be given to how to minimise damage to the cana as this solution is progressed.l - If an earth canal is feasible in LNP, it may not lead to drowning as animal who enter the canal may exit it because of the better grip earth offers as shown in the following pictures, which also shows some damage to the canal walls starting to occur.. Figure 88: Earth offers better grip than concrete (Source : BRLi, 2017) - A solution against animal damaging the earth canal in LNP could be an earth canal lined with insitu- or prefabricated concrete mats, such as the flexible matrix of cellular concrete blocks provided by Armorflex ®. (see examples in figures dd, and cc. The mat offer good grip for animals to exit canals but nevertheless should be installed at a gentle slope of 1 Vertical / 3 Horizontal through the park. A comparative cost of the Armorflex technology against earth canal is provided in table dd. Table 3637: Options to avoid drowning of wildlife in LNP Type of Earth only Earth canal + Lined canal + Lined canal + canal Armorflex ® fences on both walls on both inside LNP sides sides Unit cost (USD 346 346 + 1000 439 + 22 (11x2) 439 + 800 per meter) (400x2) Cost for 14 km 4,850,400 4,850,400 + 6,147,600 + 6,147,600 + (USD) 14,000,000 = 308,000 = 11,200,000 = 18,85,400 6,455,600 17,347,600 (excluding the cost of fence maintenance) Based on: KRC, 2016 for the cost of Bangula canal (lined and earth canal), African Parks for cost of electric fences (22 USD per meter for fence on both side of the canal) and for cost of a wall (800 USD per meter for a wall on both side of the canal) and Technicrete, 2016 for the cost of Armorflex® Figure 84 Prefabricated concrete mats (Armorflex ®) 323 | P a g e Figure 11: Armorflex (Source: ISG Infrastructure Specialist Group, 2016) WILDLIFE DROWNING OUTSIDE LNP AND MWR In addition to the animal escape ramps comprising roughed areas of slack slope (1:2.5) provided every 250m along the canal, on alternate sides (and the escape ladders in between) cattle troughs as described in (see chapter 13) will be provided and these will reduce the likelihood of domestic animals and small wildlife from drowning in the canals as they would be able to reach water more easily in at the troughs. 324 | P a g e 14.7 WETLAND HABITATS AND WILDLIFE 14.7.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts. Table 38: Impact on wetland Theme Baseline Project (Phases I and II) In the dry season, damp conditions are maintained thanks to several factors: • The marsh is a depression, water remain stagnant in many areas, • The Shire and its branches and accompanying alluvial water tables, • Seepages from the Thyolo The Project will slightly reduce the escarpment on the west bank of volume of water flowing into the Shire Sources of water the marsh River from Kapichira Reservoir The project will not change much of the wetland hydrology during the rainy season, however, since irrigation requirements are less and therefore abstraction will be limited. The project will affect the critical period for wetland plants by reducing the Shire flow during the dry season, affecting more the edge of the marsh where conditions may no longer allow wetland plants to grow. The eastern edge is the area where water recedes earlier after the rainy season floods; it will be more severely affected. This area is also intensively cultivated (dimba agriculture). Dimba is also called recession agriculture, therefore, The critical periods for wetlands plants with reduced flow (and in the absence are not the rainy season when most of controls), people would move areas are damp in the marsh or further into the wetland to cultivate submerged; the critical period is the land at the peak of the dry season, Critical period for dry season when water is irregularly further increasing pressure on wetland wetland plants distributed. plant during a critical period. Wetland zones The baseline has described three  Flow reduction will lead to 325 | P a g e zones in the marsh:  changes in plant communities. The surface that will affected is • Area where dimba agriculture however difficult to assess. takes place. Dimba takes place in Dimba agriculture and facultative wetland that is the least damp wetland plants will take more during the dry season space at the expense of obligate • Areas where the soil is wetland plant species. permanently damp and where Some areas where the soil was dimba agriculture is not taking permanently damp inside the place thanks to high water level marsh may be encroached by • Areas of pools, where water people who lost their dimba field submerges the ground. due to reduced wetness at the edge of the wetland and who will find new suitable conditions further inside the wetland. Baseline reports presented historical facts that linked increased dimba agriculture with flow reduction. This statement is also supported by the DRIFT report, which has identified the eastern, central and southern part of the marsh as potential new suitable area for dimba agriculture.  Water level will be lower in pools during the dry season. This could affect fishing activities and rooted aquatic plants. 14.7.2 Changes in plant composition in Elephant Marsh During operation of the scheme the reduction of flow due to abstraction of up to 50m3/s (with a maximum net abstraction of about 32 m3/s) will reduce the size of some plant communities in the wetland due to less favour water regime. The impact is influenced by several factors: • The higher demand for SVTP will be during the dry season when up to 50m3/s will be directly withdrawn from the Shire River; the dry season is also when the marsh is under more stress due to shortage of water; • The existing sugar estates--which have a fixed area of cultivable land--will reduce their pumping from the Shire River in direct proportion to the newly available, gravity-fed water they will be able to purchase from SVTP. This will locally moderate the impact, since the actual capacity of pumping stations is around 21 m3/s and up to 18 m3/s is pumped in the dry season; • The Elephant Marsh includes many cultivated areas with flood-recession (dimba) agriculture in its drier portions; these may shift from wetlands to “drylands” as a result of reduced dry season Shire River flows. This transition is illustrated by satellite imagery treated by infrared to highlight plant activity, since dimba agriculture shows less plant activity at the peak of the dry season than does natural wetland vegetation. The DRIFT report (Ecosystem Functional Model by Southern Waters in association with Streamflow Solutions, Anchor Environmental and MRAG for the SRBMP, 2016) states that the western part of the marsh is expected to react more strongly to flow changes in the Shire River than other areas of Elephant Marsh. 326 | P a g e • The Application Efficiency for furrow irrigation is 64% (KRC, 2016), which means that about one third of the water at each furrow-irrigated plot is returned to the natural environment. In this figure, part of the water goes to the water table along drains (seepage), part of it evaporates and part of it returns to surface water at Elephant marsh (as the marsh is the final receptor of drainage). The percentage of each pathway is not easily assessable. Any return irrigation flows to the Elephant Marsh (via surface water or groundwater) are considered beneficial to the Marsh from a hydrological standpoint. However, SVTP impacts upon the Elephant Marsh (including a maximum seasonal reduction of about 10% in flows to the Marsh at Phase II development) have been calculated without taking irrigation return flows into account. This is because such return flows are likely to shrink over time, since farmers might well switch to more water-efficient irrigation techniques (sprinkler or drip irrigation). As mentioned in the baseline report, a wetland is an area where hygrophilous plant species thrive. Hygrophilous plants are those that require a certain moisture level during a certain length of the year. For most wetland plants, there are thresholds under which they can no longer grow and give way to terrestrial plants. These thresholds are unique to each plant species, most of which have not been scientifically studied in this regard. However, the DRIFT report presents a few thresholds for key species such as Phragmites reed grass and Papyrus. Phragmites are internationally known as facultative wetland plants because they can withstand seasonally dry conditions, in contrast to Papyrus which are known to be obligate wetland plant species (which cannot withstand dryness). Determining how changes in flow will affect the area of wetland is rather difficult without long-term follow up. However, several statements can be made to describe what will qualitatively change from baseline to Project. The SRBMP Sub-study 4: Biodiversity of Elephant Marsh, Final version (Anchor Environmental Consulting Report, 2016) makes the following statements about the impacts of reduced Shire River flows (including those attributable to SVTP) on the Elephant Marsh: “Marsh vegetation will be impacted by reduced flow, as drying will reduce the ability of marsh plants to resprout and therefore to persist and will also make it easier to clear marsh areas for cultivation.” “Reduced flow through the Elephant Marsh will reduce the extent and flooding of lake and permanently inundated habitats as well as lessen the extent (and possibly frequency) to which the flood plain is flooded. These changes will affect the biodiversity of the Elephant Marsh directly as flow, sediments, vegetation and marsh fauna are intricately linked. Reduced flow through the Elephant Marsh will also facilitate encroachment by people and increase the extent of cultivation and natural resource harvesting.” A modest reduction in the wetland area of Elephant Marsh could also change local sources of livelihood, with incremental increases in dimba cultivation and potential reductions in fishing. The recent report on Ecosystem Services of the Elephant Marsh (Anchor Environmental Consulting, 2016) estimates the total annual provisioning value of the Marsh at approximately US$5 million per annum. Most of this value is from fish and thatching grass. 327 | P a g e CONCLUSION ON IMPACT ON ELEPHANT MARSH In the light of this analysis on impacts, the Project will not lead to “significant conversion or degradation” of the Elephant Marsh. Water abstraction of about 10% of Shire River flow (full development of Phases I and II) at the peak of the dry season is not likely to result in the elimination of the Elephant Marsh, a severe diminution of its integrity, or a substantial reduction in its ability to maintain viable populations of its native species. However, some change is to be expected in the area covered by different wetland plant species. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Changes in plant composition in Elephant marsh. Flow reduction will reduce the size of Elephant marsh Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 14.7.3 Human Wildlife Conflicts (HWC) With the Project’s irrigated fields and somewhat reduced flows to the Elephant Marsh, human wildlife conflicts (HWC) would be expected to increase in the absence of special mitigation measures. The actual situation in the Project is already unique, as HWC in and around the Elephant Marsh have generally worsened over time. HWC are also expected to increase with the increase in irrigated agriculture especially irrigable areas in the vicinity of MWR, LNP and Mwabvi Wildlife Reserve. Absent adequate mitigation measures, SVTP would be expected to aggravate the following existing situations: • Any reduction in the wetland area of the Elephant Marsh may shrink the available habitat and food resources for hippopotamus and crocodiles. The SRBMP Sub-study 4: Biodiversity of Elephant Marsh Final version (Anchor Environmental Consulting Report, 2016) states: “Crocodile-human interactions will increase if human numbers and encroachment into the remaining uncultivated regions of the Elephant Marsh persist. This will be exacerbated as fish stocks, the natural food of crocodiles, dwindle and crocodiles have to hunt for alternative prey”; • During the dry season, there will be increased availability of fresh forage for hippopotamus closer to the Elephant Marsh thanks to irrigation; • The irrigation drainage canals into the Elephant Marsh are likely to provide aquatic pathways for crocodile movement (currently crocodiles occupy Illovo drains as observed during the ESIA study); • A projected increase of dimba agriculture around the Elephant Marsh (if not adequately controlled through SVTP’s Natural Resources Management Component) could increase human wildlife conflicts (particularly with hippopotamus); • The development of irrigation blocks and increase the abundance of water close to MWR, LNP and Mwabvi will attract wildlife to green fields. This will generate human wildlife conflicts with game incursions into farms. 328 | P a g e ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Wildlife-human conflict. There is a chance that hippos and crocodiles will enter the irrigation drains and cause wildlife – human conflicts (and some casualties). Irrigated fields may become attractive for wildlife as a food source. Value of the affected component Highly valued Intensity Medium Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability Potential occurrence 14.7.4 Mitigation measures 14.7.4.1 Changes in plant composition in Elephant marsh This impact is largely unavoidable since withdrawing water from the Shire River is the basis of the Project. The water intake will be dimensioned to abstract a maximum of 50 m3/s from the Shire River. However, since some of the canal water will simply substitute for irrigation water that is currently pumped from the river, the maximum net abstraction will be 32 m3/s at full development (Phase II) and only 12 m3/s for Phase I. Based on the World Bank’s International Waterways Notification Letter, this translates to a net abstraction at full SVTP development of not more than about 10 percent of the Shire River’s flow during September, the dry season month of peak irrigation water demand. For Phase I, this maximum seasonal reduction in flows to the marsh would be only about 3 percent. The Project will mitigate these impacts and enhance the conservation of the Elephant Marsh through support for: • hydrological and biological monitoring; • designation of Elephant Marsh as a Community Conservation Wetland Area, and establishing programs with associated communities to adopt sustainable practices on Elephant Marsh This improved protection and management of the Elephant Marsh begun during the Phase I Project and will continue and expand during Phase 2, including as part of the Natural Resources Management Components of the project. The monitoring will begin under Phase 2. It will facilitate adaptive management to mitigate impacts of reduced flows, such as through the establishment of different Wetland Area Use Zones that could limit further conversion of the drier wetland areas to flood-recession (dimba) agriculture. 14.7.4.2 Human-Wildlife Conflict (HWC) Conflicts in Elephant Marsh between people, hippopotamus and crocodiles are currently the most common. CROCODILES Crocodiles are present in Illovo drainage, it is unlikely that, with SVTP, the situation will be different. Crocodiles can move on land and in the water therefore there is little direct actions that can be undertaken, the risk will never be eliminated. To reduce the risk it is recommended to implemented the following measures: 329 | P a g e • Sensitize people not to use drains to bath or to bring cattle for water. • Design drains with steep bank slopes to keep crocodiles from exiting them and attacking people. • With the installation of cattle troughs along the canal, the access to the Shire for livestock would be less important • Install a crocodile fence across every connecting drain with the Shire. Each crocodile fence shall be fixed to the drain bed and grounded using concrete and shall be high enough to stand out during a flood. Wire mesh shall remain sharp at the top of the fence. On ground, it shall be wide enough to discourage crocodiles from moving on land and circulate around the fence to reach the drain. Such fences would need to be maintained and debris removed on a regular basis to avoid having the fence destroyed, as drains will be maintained by farmers there is a risk that they will be neglected. In addition, any major floods in the Shire River would most likely destroy the fence. Regular replacements are to be foreseen. Chances to see crocodiles climbing fences are also to be expected. All these elements are serious limitations to the success of a crocodile fence. In addition, fences would restrict movement of other species from drains to the wetland. HIPPOPOTAMUS Hippopotamus will be attracted to forage in irrigated fields. Some measures can be proposed as part of the Community Conservation Area work to minimise the Human Wildlife Conflict when this arises: • Sensitize people not to stay late in their field, as hippopotamus are known to enter fields at night; • Adapt crop in the command area so that cotton (non-edible crop) is cultivated closer to the Shire and food crops further away; • Install along irrigated fields thorny branches (acacia branches) to keep hippopotamus from entering. However, it has been reported that even barbed wire are not efficient against hippos. In fact, walls could be the only efficient measure (UNDP, 2016) given the size of the irrigation scheme, efficient actions are rather limited and death of hippopotamus due to conflicts are likely to take place. • Install trenches around crop fields ENVIRONMENTAL FLOW As with other impacts, the environmental flow with adaptation from Kamuzu barrage has another reason to be implemented, it will safeguard crocodiles and hippopotamus habitat and food supply and will help to minimize conflicts with farmers. BUFFALOS ENTERING FIELDS LNP will have nieghbhouring irrigated fields, to avoid all encounter with buffalos, it will be important to fence the whole Old Lengwe section of the park (finalize the current fencing process). 330 | P a g e 14.8 AQUATIC HABITATS AND FISH 14.8.1 Description of impacting activities The impact matrix has identified the following activities and impacts: 14.8.2.1 Disturbance to fish migration to spawning sites During construction of the scheme, works at the crossing points of temporary rivers could lead to disturbances of fish migration. Permanent infrastructures and channelization of tributary rivers could disturb fish migration to spawning sites as well. During construction, the main risk comes from damage from crossings of rivers, and from accidental pollution to watercourses. Crossings rivers in construction vehicles by fording or by installing culverts will result in damage to the bed and banks. Culverts may result in barriers to the migration of fish if they are poorly placed or undersized. Another impact comes from the operation of the scheme where natural rivers will be used as drainage canal collecting polluted water from the scheme and being modified to convey drainage water. River channelization reduces suitable sites for spawning. Figure 90: Inadequate culverts in an earth dike across a seasonal river (Source: BRLi, 2015) ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Disturbance to fish migration to spawning sites. Works and infrastructures in temporary rivers could lead to fish migration disturbances Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity Medium Extent Punctual Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability Potential occurrence 331 | P a g e 14.8.2.2 Risk of Tiger fish invasion in the upper Shire The Lower Shire River is an independent ecoregion from the Middle Shire and Upper Shire in terms of aquatic fauna. The Lower Shire River belongs to the Lower Zambezi fish fauna and, since Kapichira falls constitute a barrier to upstream movement, all the totally aquatic 'Lower Zambezi' species of the Lower Shire River are absent upstream from Kapichira falls (Tweddle et al., 1979). Lake Malawi (Upper Shire) fish fauna is mainly endemic (several species of endemic cichlids) and fish are adapted to lacustrine conditions (low flow conditions). The separation in fish fauna between the Lower and Upper Shire has always existed. However, there is a risk that SVTP will provide a route for the migration of tiger fish to other stretches of the Shire, with adverse consequences for the important acquatic life present. Figure 91: The tiger fish (Source: Angle Zambia, 2016 ) ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Risk of Tiger fish invasion in the upper Shire. The water intake could lead to Tiger fish invasion of Middle and Upper Shire and Lake Malawi Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity High Extent Regional Duration Permanent Significance Major Occurrence probability Potential occurrence 14.8.2.3 Reduction of suitable habitat for fish in the Elephant marsh During operation, reduction of flow will lead to reduction of habitat suitability in the marsh. With flow reduction, especially at Phase II, many areas will be less submerged, leading to reduction of suitable fish habitats. In addition, slower water may lead to more silt being deposited in the marsh, which will further degrade the habitat. The correlation between flow and fish catch was proven to be highly significant, whenever there was a flow reduction, the number of fish declined (Tweddle et al., 1994). The DRIFT report (Ecosystem Functional Model by Southern Waters in association with Streamflow Solutions, Anchor Environmental and MRAG for the SRBMP, 2016) does not foresee a reduction of open water surface (but depth) in the marsh (where most fishery takes place) however it foresees a reduction in rooted vegetation where spawning takes place. 332 | P a g e Lastly, the increase drainage of pollutants (fertilizers and pesticides) will impact aquatic habitats. ASSESSMENT OF IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE Reduction of suitable habitat for fish in the Elephant marsh. Reduction of flow will lead to reduction of habitat suitability in the marsh Value of the affected Highly valued component Intensity Low Extent Local Duration Permanent Significance Moderate Occurrence probability High probability 14.8.3 Mitigation measures 14.8.3.1 Disturbance to fish migration to spawning sites In order to reduce impact on fishes during construction, the detailed design for Phase 1 and the emerging design for SVTP should incorporate the following: • Where the canal crosses rivers, the crossings will be in oversized culvert (1:100 year flood level), to maintain continuity of passage for aquatic life during flash floods. • For SVTP-II, during construction, the contractor will be required to construct ‘Irish drains’, where the banks and bottom of the river are protected by a concrete pad on which vehicles drive. Temporary crossings in culvert will only be permitted with the approval of the Supervising Engineer, and only be permitted between March and November, to avoid creating barriers during flash floods • All work in temporary rivers shall be prohibited from November to March and shall be concentrated between July and October to minize impacts on migrating fishes. 333 | P a g e Figure 92: Poor design of the culvert (Source : Bibliothèque nationale du Québec, 1997 ) 14.7.2.2 Risk of Tiger fish invasion in the upper Shire “If there is one thing the history of evolution has taught us it's that life will not be contained. Life breaks free, it expands to new territories and crashes through barriers, painfully, maybe even dangerously…” Professor Ian Malcom, quote from the movie Jurassic Park (1993). A fish barrier is currently being construted as part of SVTP-I to ensure that tiger fish can not pass through. The fish barrier is xxm high, and to ensure its safety, it is being constructed within the Majete Wildlife Reserve. A cross section of the fish barrier being constructed is provided in figure 93 below. Figure 93: Cross section of fish barrier being constructed as part of SVTP-I 334 | P a g e 14.7.2.3 Reduction of suitable habitat for fish in the Elephant marsh In order to mitigate the impact on Elephant marsh not much could be done in terms of civil engineer infrastructures. Installing weirs or dikes to maintain a level of water at some key locations is not recommended as important floods would destroy them. In the SRBMP study “Climate resilient livelihoods and sustainable natural resources management in the Elephant Marshes, Malawi” details are set out of thef institutional measures to implement to ensure adequate natural resources management which will help to improve biodiversity in the marsh as well. These have been progressed as part of SVTP-I with the establishment of the first CCA in the marsh, and the construction of fish ponds, and will be continued as part of Component 4 (Natural Reserve Management) measures of SVTP-II Kamuzu barrage could assist in providing an environmental flow to assist Elephant Marsh. 14.7.2.3 Lessons Learnt in Phase I Mitigation Measures Several lessons were learnt in the course of implementing Phase I activities which could be very useful in the implementation of Phase II activities. The following are the most notable one: 14.7.2.3.1 Payment of Compensations is an On-going Exercise. It was generally thought that after paying compensations to the group of PAPs who had been identified during the RAP exercise that would be the end of the activity. On the contrary, the experience during the implementation of SVTP 1 has shown that payment of compensations should be regarded as an on-going exercise considering that some grievances that occur do require payment of compensations and therefore there cannot be a cut-off date for compensations. The project just has to be prepared to pay compensations throughout the construction period. 14.7.2.3.2 Livelihood Restoration Activities must be demand driven. During the implementation of SVTP I, vulnerable PAPs were provided with farm inputs, maize seed and fertiliser as a way or restoring their livelihoods following their replacement. It was, however, noted that the inputs did not meet the needs of the PAPs. Firstly, the PAPs expressed concern that maize is not really their staple food. They would have appreciated much if they had received sorghum or millet seed, which is their main staple food. A big lesson was learnt; livelihood restoration activities need to be demand driven based on a proper assessment. As such, different people would demand interventions according to their various economic activities. 14.7.2.3.3 PMT must always be vigilant against threat of GBV cases The main lesson learnt during the SVTP I is the unpredictability nature of the occurrence of GBV incidents. GBV incidents can occur when they are least expected and therefore the Project must have all the necessary mitigation measures and support systems must be in place and ready at all times. 14.7.2.3.4 The GBV Service provider is an important player The sensitivity and unpredictability of GBV issues requires alertness on the ground. There is need for constant sensitisation and reinforcement of mitigation measures. PMT cannot always be on the ground to do this. The arrangement in SVTP I where a GBV Service Provider was engaged to manage GBV mitigation measures has proved to be very vital in the fight against this vice in project implementation and SVTP II would do well to adopt this as it ensures. 335 | P a g e 14.7.2.3.5 GRM Structures Are Crucial in Resolving issues SVTP I has relied much on the various GRM committees to resolve all grievances form the communities. The fact that community leaders have been involved in grievance resolution has been crucial as the leaders have used their knowledge of the people and the history of their respective areas to resolve the issues. SVTP II will do better to adopt the system used under SVTP I. 14.7.2.3.6 The Power of Collaboration with Stakeholders Safeguards activities have benefited much from collaboration with other stakeholders, particularly relevant Government departments. This lesson would also be helpful in the implementation of SVTP II. 336 | P a g e 337 | P a g e 15. IMPACT ASSESSMENT CONCLUSION This Impact assessment report is based on several bibliographical researches and consultations with various stakeholders as well as external experts on wildlife behavior. The ESIA has highlighted several significant impacts, all of which can however be mitigated to acceptable levels as long as adequate budget is dedicated to mitigation measures. TENDER PROCESS FOR A CONSTRUCTION CONTRACTOR The selection of a construction contractor and the inclusion of appropriate mitigation measures in call for tender and contract is a crucial step in ensuring delivery of the mitigation measures. Contractors must be clear as to the obligations they are to meet, and be provided with sufficient information to guide understanding of what they should do to meet these obligations. For SVTP-I the bidding process was used to carefully select two contractors, one with experience of working in sensitive areas to be responsible for the works that affect Majete Wildlife Reserve. A similar approach will be taken in SVTP-II to ensure that the contractor engaged to construct within Lengwe National Park can demonstrate suitable experience of working in protected areas. WORK IN Majete Wildlife Reserve The mitigation measures being delivered as part of SVTP-I in Majete Wildlife Reserve are as described in this ESIA and set out in the Phase 1 ESMP. The works are progressing in accordance with program, and are being closely monitored by African Parks. Alignment and TYPE OF CANAL INLENGWE NATIONAL PARK The detailed design of the canal through Lengwe is yet to be undertaken. During the detailed design process, an alignment will be selected that avoids or minimizes impacts to the thicket, and careful consideration will be given to locating the wildlife overpasses and underpass. In addition, the design of the canal cross section, as well as the surfacing of the canal will be considered to minimise fragmentation effects. Watering points shall be provided in Lengwe National Park, and compensatory planting and habitat creation measures will also be undertaken, to include a wetland area. In designing the works, DNPW will be consulted. A Biodiveristy Management Plan will be prepared to describe the mitigation proposals to be put in place in Lengwe National Park. ELEPHANT MARSH Although not directly affected by works, the abstraction of water for SVTP may result in some localized changes to the extent of marsh vegetation in Elephant Marsh. Hydrological and botanical monitoring will be designed and implemented as part of SVTP, and the information used will assist with the implementation of Community Conservation Area initiatives to be undertaken on Elephant Marsh as part of the Natural Resource Management Works of SVTP.. 15.1 RESIDUAL IMPACTS This section presents residual impacts, if mitigations are implemented impacts can reach an acceptable level. Table 26 Residual impacts 338 | P a g e Residual Impacts Significance Explanations impact Impacts from water work. Impacts will be reduced with During construction, some Negligible Negligible mitigation but not actions and infrastructures will suppressed modify geomorphology of rivers Siltation of Elephant marsh. Reduction of flow cannot be During operation of the scheme, Minor Minor mitigated, the impact will erosion and sedimentation remain pattern will be modified Reduction of the impact can be slightly achieved if pumping stations of Illovo Water abstraction. Up to remain shut down and if Major (and 50m3/s will be extracted from the Moderate drainage is efficient. cumulative) Shire system However, they are no provision for an environmental flow from Kamuzu barrage Hydraulic transparency. When If infrastructures (box culvert, crossing the canal tributary rivers etc.) are properly Minor Negligible dimensioned, the impact can flood upstream village if culverts are not properly sized should be negligible Impacts from water works. Impact will be reduced with Construction activities will bring Negligible Negligible mitigation but not eliminated silt and other pollutants to rivers Water quality impairment. Impact will remain the same Drainage in watercourses will Moderate Moderate as pesticides and fertilizer impair water quality will inevitably be used Impacts from earthwork and If mitigations are land leveling. Construction of Moderate Minor implemented the impact can the canal system will lead to be reduced important earth movement Changes in soil properties and rising water table. Several Proper soil management will Minor Negligible changes in soil properties could reduce the impact take place in the command area Village reorganization and The RAP report will address resettlement. Major changes Major Minor impacts from village are foreseen in terms of land reorganization occupation Workers influx. Land will be If mitigations are necessary and there is a risk that implemented, including the infrastructures do not respect Moderate Minor strict application of the Code quality standards. Influx could be of conduct, the impact can be associated with social impacts reduced Rapid social changes. There is a Impact will be reduced with Minor Minor risk that people do not mitigation but not eliminated. 339 | P a g e change their lifestyle and The current CCPLTRPF develop skills assignment aims to collecting people grievances and communicate about the Project. The Communication strategy report provides a tool to ensure social acceptability of the Project. Hinterland effect. Increase in human activity and local Mitigations for this impact are economy may lead to additional Moderate Moderate difficult to address in an ESIA pressure on resources (wood for charcoal, fish, etc.) and land Impact will be reduced with Permanent loss of buildings mitigation but not eliminated, and other assets. Canals could Minor Minor however, the RAP will necessitate to pass through compensate according to the several buildings and assets World Bank requirements If all measures to ensure Disruption of access. Canals continuity of access are may sever footpaths and cattle Moderate Minor fulfilled, the impacts will be paths mitigated Inadequate maintenance of If all measures to ensure canals and infrastructures. proper maintenance of There is a risk of canals and canals and infrastructures Moderate Minor water intake siltation and are implemented by the invasion of plants in canal and scheme operator, the impact drainage channel will be mitigated Disturbance to existing agriculture. New lands may not Impact will be reduced with be ready for cropping mitigation but not eliminated, immediately because of timing, Minor Minor the risk still needs to be lack of water, or the need for land adressed preparation including levelling, boundaries and drains If the employment Job opportunities. Work will Minor Moderate recruitment policy is require unskilled and skilled (positive) (positive) implemented, the positive labour for construction impact can be enhanced Potential delays in irrigated agriculture development. Any The impact will be reduced delays in the project completion Minor Minor with mitigations but not or skills acquisition could delay eliminated the benefits If this issue is addressed in Over supply of crops. Increase future studies (agriculture in production could lower prices Major Minor development, agribusiness and affect rain fed producers development), this risk will be significantly reduced This major positive impact Benefits of irrigated will be enhanced thanks to agriculture. The project overall Major Major training of farmers, creation goal is to benefits local (positive) (positive) of water user associations, communities etc. 340 | P a g e Reduction of fisheries. Fishery Reduction in fishery (if it Minor Minor could be impacted by SVTP occurs) will hardly be mitigable. The SRBMP will develop more good management measures for fisheries If appropriate mitigations to Impacts on livestock rearing. ensure that livestock owners The project will require Moderate Minor have access to grazing adaptation of livestock rearing areas, the impact will be activities mitigated. Impact will be reduced with Construction risk and mitigation but not eliminated nuisances. The public and Minor Minor as they will always remain a workers are at risk from level of nuisance (noise, important works along canals dust) and risks of collision Impact will be reduced with Bilharzias. An increase of mitigation such as mass bilharzia in the command area is Moderate Minor treatment but will not be expected eliminated Reduction of the drowning Drownings. The presence of risk can be achieved with main canals may lead to Major Moderate sensitization and safety drownings ladders, but never eliminated Increase workload for women. The Project may become a burden to the workload of Minor Minor women but on the other hand (positive) (positive) time spent to get water should decrease with Improved Gender and Youth Strategy access to water Study (COWI, 2016) has Risk of unfair distribution of developed a series of benefits. Access to financial measures to mitigate these services is a strong barrier to Moderate Minor impacts. women and youth empowerment Impacts on vulnerable people. The Project benefits may not Moderate Minor reach vulnerable people Reduction of the impact can Loss of physical cultural be achieved, however, they heritage. During construction, will always remain a certain excavation of the canal will affect Minor Minor level of impacts as some known and unknown excavation may unveil (or cultural heritage sites. destroy) unknown cultural heritage material Loss of Critical Habitat The canal alignment and (thicket in Lengwe) and design has been optimized in decision on the type of canal MWR and is currently Major Minor and its alignment. Decisions underconstruction. The regarding the canal layout during detailed design for the canal the design stage will have long in Lengwe National Park is 341 | P a g e term impacts on Lengwe yet to be undertaken but National Park and Majete measures to minimise Wildlife Reserve habitat loss and fragmentation are expected to be possible. Tender process and selection of a construction contractor. A high quality construction The tender process for the contractor has been selected selection of the Project and is working through construction contractor Major Moderate Majete Wildlife Reserve. A represent a high risk for parks as similar approach shall be it is a crucial step in the taken for the works through development of binding Lengwe National Park. environmental measures Impact on tourism. Construction within Majete Construction activities in MWR has coincided with the and LNP and close to Ng’ona outbreak of the COVID lodge will have deleterious pandemic. As a result of impacts on tourism travel restrictions, less international travel from Moderate outside of Africa. This has (MWR) / Minor obscured the true impact of Minor (LNP and the works on tourism in Ng’ona lodge) Majete. Nonetheless, the mitigation measures to minimise disturbance have been undertaken. Mitigation measures for Lengwe will ensure the works have minor effect on tourism. Impact on Majete buildings, Controls during works as roads and infrastructures . described in the ESMP have Infrastructures will be disturbed Moderate Minor been implemented to minise by construction of the Feeder disturbance to the park canal Impact on Kapichira falls attractiveness. The viability of As explained in the report, no the falls as a sight to see for Moderate Moderate realistic mitigation can be tourists may be compromised on implemented long term with reduced flows If appropriate infrastructures Impact on Lengwe roads and are implemented as part of Minor infrastructures. The fence and Moderate the detailed design, they positive park roads will be impacted could become an opportunity for LNP 342 | P a g e Loss of ownership of park management on the western If appropriate side of Lengwe. Construction compensations such as a and operation of the Bangula Moderate Minor new ranger scout are canal will split the park in two, funded, the impact will be this could be interpreted as a mitigated message of weak ownership The presence of a canal inside parks will be long-term agent of changes. The presence of If responsibilities are clearly canals and other infrastructures Moderate Minor stated in agreements, the inside parks will require impact will be reduced additional efforts and inputs from park management in order to maintain parks’ integrity Rapid change in land cover. If set aside lands are The command area will lead to Moderate Minor implemented at Design, the significant changes in land cover impact will be reduced Disturbances of wildlife and With compensation vegetation. Forest clearing will measures (planting of trees) permanently destroy valuable Moderate Minor and mitigation during work habitats and work will startle are implemented, the impact wildlife will be reduced Habitat fragmentation. Canals Major Minor With a buried canal in MWR Residual Impacts Significance Explanations impact will permanently fragmentize and wildlife overpasses in habitats especially in parks LNP, the impact will be reduced If the appropriate measure is taken against animal Drowning hazard for wildlife. intrusion in the canal the An open canals represent a Major Moderate impact will be reduced for drowning hazard for wildlife large animals, however small animals will always be at risk of drowning. Changes in plant composition The impact is not mitigable, in Elephant marsh. Flow as they are no provision for Moderate Moderate reduction will reduce the size of an environmental flow from Elephant marsh Kamuzu barrage Wildlife-human conflict. There is a probability that hippos and The risk is hardly mitigable, crocodiles enter the drains and however it mainly concerns cause wildlife – human conflicts Moderate Moderate Phase II as Phase I is far (and casualties). Irrigated field from Elephant marsh will become very attractive for wildlife. Disturbance to fish migration If work is done outside the to spawning sites. Works and spawning season and infrastructures in temporary Moderate Minor crossings and culverts rivers could lead to fish migration properly sized, the impact disturbances will be reduced 343 | P a g e The fish barrier being Risk of Tiger fish invasion in constructed at Majete the upper Shire. The water Wildlife Reserve will prevent intake could lead to Tiger fish Major Nil the passage of Tiger Fish to invasion of Middle and Upper Shire and Lake Malawi the upper reaches of the Shire River Reduction of suitable habitat The risk is hardly mitigable. for fish in the Elephant marsh. However, SRBMP may Reduction of flow will lead to Moderate Moderate propose measures to reduction of habitat suitability in mitigate impact the marsh 344 | P a g e 16. BIBLIOGRAPHY A brief review of the Fish Stocks and dependent Fisheries of Lake Malawi http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/S7047E/S7047E04.htm#ch4 FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department A Cultural Heritage Impact Assessment Report (Malawi Department of Antiquities, MDoA, 2015) Agricultural Development Planning Strategy (PWC, 2016) Armorflex : http://www.incaconcrete.co.za/armorflex.php Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the Elephant Marsh, Malawi Management Plan for the Elephant marsh (Anchor Environmental Consultants in association with MRAG and Southern Waters for the Shire River Basin Management Program, 2016) Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the Elephant Marsh, Malawi Hydromorphology study (Anchor Environmental Consultants in association with MRAG and Southern Waters for the Shire River Basin Management Program, 2016) Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the Elephant Marsh, Malawi Sub-Study 4: Biodiversity of the Elephant Marsh (Anchor Environmental Consultants in association with MRAG and Southern Waters for the Shire River Basin Management Program, 2016) Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the Elephant Marsh, Malawi Analysis of the potential effects of alternative future scenarios of flow and/or management on the ecological condition of the Elephant Marsh (Ecosystem Functional Model (DRIFT) (Report Prepared by Southern Waters in association with Streamflow Solutions, Anchor Environmental and MRAG for the Shire River Basin Management Program, 2016) Climate Resilient Livelihoods and Sustainable Natural Resource Management in the Elephant Marsh, Malawi. Sub-Study 3. Ecosystem Services of the Elephant Marsh. Anchor Environmental Consulting Report No1652/2. December 2016. Climate resilient livelihoods and sustainable natural resources management in the Elephant Marshes, Malawi. Ministry of Water Development and Irrigation. P117617. Description of the livelihoods in the area of the Elephant Marsh Report November 2016 Submitted by MRAG in association with Southern Waters, Anchor and Stream flow solutions. Comparative Road Dust Suppression Capacity of Molasses Stillage and Water on Gravel Road in Zimbabwe J. Gotosa , G. Nyamadzawo , T. Mtetwa , A. Kanda and V. P. Dudu1. Editor(s): (1) Francisco Marquez-Linares, Nanomaterials Research Group, School of Science and Tech., University of Turabo, USA.: http://www.sciencedomain.org/review- history.php?iid=695&id=31&aid=6468 Concrete wall: http://concreteva.com/what-we-do/walls/ Elephant crossing fence: http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2573840/The-elephant- didntforget-avoid-electric-fence.html Feasibility Study reports KRC (2016) Final version is dated December 2016 First observation of African tigerfish Hydrocynus vittatus predating on barn swallows Hirundo rustica in flight G. C. O'Brien, F. Jacobs, S. W. Evans, N. J. Smit First published: 19 December 2013 Fish screen pictures: http://www.screeningsystems.com/products/316b-Compliant---Fish- HandlingScreens Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Sediment Transport and Deposition.” Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. 5 Dec. 2014. Web. < http://www.fondriest.com/environmentalmeasurements/parameters/hydrology/sediment-transport- deposition/ > 345 | P a g e Full publication history UNDP (2016) Fencing crops against hippopotamus. http://www.gm.undp.org/content/gambia/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/ Sample_Success_Story_2.html Fury over Namwater’s planned closure of water canal: https://www.newera.com.na/2015/08/07/fury-namwaters-planned-closure-water-canal/ Guide L'aménagement des ponts et des ponceaux dans le milieu forestier © Gouvernement du Québec Ministère des Ressources naturelles Dépôt légal, Bibliothèque nationale du Québec, 1997 ISBN : 2-550-31791-2 Hydraulic model study at the headpond of Kapichira dam. Artelia (2016) Implementation Service Provider (ISP) for Flood Risk Management (SRBMP-1) Independent Environmental Impact Assessment for the Upgraded Kamuzu Barrage (December 2011) IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group. Barrier against elephant. 2003 https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/hecfencen.pdf Lengwe National Park, General Management Plan 2016-2020 work document (Component B, Sub component B4) Lewis, D. (ed.), 1988 Predator-prey relationships, population dynamics and fisheries productivities of large African lakes. CIFA Occas. Pap., (15): 154 p. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/S7047E/S7047E00.htm#TOC Managing the risks of adverse impacts on communities from temporary project induced labor influx from the Environmental and Social Safeguards Advisory Team (ESSAT) of the World Bank 2016. Mount Kenya Trust. Elephant underpass. http://www.mountkenyatrust.org/projects/elephantcorridor Pest Management Plan for the SVTP (BRLi, 2016) Precision blasting (2016) CN Plant Hire & Rock Blasting: http://www.cnplanthire.co.za/rockblasting/ Preparation and implementation of a Communications, Community Participation, Land Tenure and Resettlement Policy Framework (PCCPLTRPF). COWI (2016) Public-Private Partnership (PPP Feasibility study). BRLi (2016) Shire River Basin Management Program (Phase I) Project Final Environmental and Social Assessment Report (July, 2013) Some observations on the predatory feeding habits of Hydrocynus Vittatus Castelnau in Lake Kariba http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/S7047E/S7047E09.htm FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department 16 Bibliography The feeding habits of an introduced piscivore, Hydrocynus vittatus (Castelnau 1861) in a small tropical African reservoir TATENDA DALU, BRUCE CLEGG, LIGHTONE MARUFU & TAMUKA NHWATIWA PANAMJAS PanAmericanJournal of Aquatic Sciences The Republikein (2016) Die ‘waterpad’ na Windhoek gee problem http://www.republikein.com.na/nuus/die-waterpad-na-windhoek-gee-probleme/ The Star of Johannesburg, 1990 346 | P a g e ANNEXES 347 | P a g e Annex 1.1: Mammals of Lengwe National Park Legend (Source: https://www.iucn.org/resources/conservation-tools/iucn-red-list-threatened- species) VERNACULAR IUCN Red No SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME NAME Datalist 1 Suncus lixus The greater dwarf shrew LC 2 S. varilla The lesser dwarf shrew NE 3 Erinaceus albiventris Hedgehog LC Four-toed elephant- NE 4 Petrodomus tetradactylus shrew 5 Elephantulus Snouted elephant shrews LC Short-snouted elephant DD 6 E. fuscus, shrew 7 E. myurus The rock elephant shrew LC Wahlberg’s LC 8 Epomophorus wahlbergi Mleme epaulettedfruit bats Peters’ epauletted fruit DD 9 E. crypturus Mleme bats 10 Epomops dobsonii Dobson’s fruit bat Mleme LC 11 Rousettus aegyptiacus Egytptian fruit bat Mleme LC 12 Tadarida midas Midas Freetailed bat Mleme DD 13 T. condylura Angola freetailed bat Mleme DD 14 T. aegyptiaca Egyptian freetailed bat Mleme LC 15 T. pumila Little freetailed bat Mleme NE 16 Vespertilio spp Vesper bats Mleme NE 17 Miniopterus fraterculus Lesser long-fingered bat Mleme LC Schreibers’ long-fingered NE 18 M. shreibersii. Mleme bat 19 Myotis welwitschii Welwitsch’s hairy bat Mleme LC 20 M. bocagei Rufous hairy bat Mleme NE 21 P. ruepellii Rüppell’s bat Mleme NE 22 Pipistrellus kuhli Kuhl’s bat Mleme LC 23 P. nanus The banana bat Mleme LC 24 Chalinolobis variegatus Butterfly bat Mleme NE Rendall’s -tailed serotine NE 25 E. rendall Mleme bat 26 E. hottentotus Long-tailed serotine bat Mleme LC 348 | P a g e VERNACULAR IUCN Red No SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME NAME Datalist 27 E. melckorum Melck’s serotine bat Mleme NE 28 E. capensis Cape serotine bat Mleme LC 29 S. dinganii The yellow house bat Mleme LC 30 S. viridis Lesser yellow house bat Mleme LC 31 Nycticeius schliefdenii Schlieffen’s bat Mleme NE 32 Scotoecus albofuscus Thomas’s house bat Mleme DD 33 S. hindei House bat Mleme NE 34 K. argentata Damara woolly bat Mleme LC 35 Nycteris hispida Hairy slit-faced bat Mleme LC 36 N. macrotis Greater slit-faced bat Mleme LC 37 N. thebaica Common slit-faced bat Mleme LC 38 R. hildebrandti Hildebrant’s NE 39 R . fumigatus Rüppell’s NE 40 R. clivosus Geoffroy’s NE 41 R. darling Darling’s NE 42 R. landeri Lander’s NE 43 R. blasii Peak-saddle LC 44 R. simulator Bushveld NE 45 R. capensi Cape horseshoe bat NE 46 H. commersoni Commerson’s NE Sundevall’s leaf-nosed NE 47 H. caffer Muleme bat 48 Galago crassicaudatus Brown greater galago Changa NE 49 Papio ursinus Chacma baboon LC 50 Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon Nyani LC 51 ercopithecus pygerythrus Vervet monkey Pusi NE 52 Cercopithecus albogularis Samango or Blue monkey Ntchima LC 53 Manis temminckii Pangolin Ngaka VU 54 Lepus saxatilis Scrub hare Kalulu LC 55 Pronolagus rupestris Smith’s red rock LC Heliophobius NE 56 Silvery molerat argentocinereus 57 Cryptomus hottentotus Common molerat NE 58 Hystrix africaeaustralis Cape Porcupine Nungu LC 59 Pedetes capensis Spring hares Kalulu LC 60 Graphiurus murinus Woodland dormouse LC 61 Heliosciurus rufobrachium Sun squirrel LC 62 Paraxerus palliatus Red squirrel LC 63 Paraxerus cepapi Tree squirrel LC Ntchezi LC 64 Thryonomys swinderianus Greater canerat wamkulu 349 | P a g e VERNACULAR IUCN Red No SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME NAME Datalist Ntchezi LC 65 Thryonomys gregorianus Lesser canerat wangóno 66 Otomys angoniensis Angoni vlei rat LC 67 Pelomys fallax Groove-toothed mouse LC 68 Acomys spinosissimus Spiny mouse LC 69 emniscomys spp Single-striped mouse NE 70 Rhabdomys pumilio Striped mouse LC 71 Dasymys incomtus Water rat LC 72 Thamnomys dolichurus Woodland mouse NE Mozambique woodland NE 73 Thamnomys cometes mouse 74 Mus minutoides Pygmy mouse LC Grey-bellied pygmy LC 75 Mus triton mouse The multimammate NE 76 Praomys natalensis mouse 77 hallomys paedulcus Tree mouse NE 78 Aethomys namaquensis Rock mouse LC 79 A. chrysophilus Red veld rat LC 80 Tatera leucogaster Bushveld gerbil LC 81 Cricetomys gambianus Giant rat LC 82 Dendromus melanotis Grey climbing mouse LC 83 D. mesomelas Brants’ climbing mouse LC 84 D. mystacalis Chestnut climbing mouse LC 85 D. nyikae Nyika climbing mouse LC 86 Steatomys pratensis Fat mice LC 87 Crocuta crocuta Spotted hyaena Fisi LC 88 Felis lybic African wild cat Vumbwe NE 89 Felis serval Serval Cat Nuzi NE 90 Canis adustu Side-striped jackal Nkhandwe LC 91 Mellivora capensis Honey badger Chiuli LC 92 Poecilogale albinucha Striped weasel LC 93 Ictonyx striatus Striped polecat LC 94 Nandinia binotata Tree civet Fungwe LC 95 Civettictis civetta African civet Fungwe LC 96 Genetta genetta Common genet Mwili LC 97 Paracynictis selousi Selous’ mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC 98 Bdeogale crassicauda Bushy-tailed mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC 99 Herpestes ichneumann Large grey mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga NE 100 Galerella sanguinea Slender mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga NE 101 Rhynchogale melleri Meller’s mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC 102 Ichneumia albicauda White-tailed mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC 350 | P a g e VERNACULAR IUCN Red No SCIENTIFIC NAME ENGLISH NAME NAME Datalist 103 Mungos mungo Banded mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC 104 Helogale parvula Dwarf mongoose Nsulu/Nyenga LC Nkumba- LC 105 Orycteropus afer Ardvark (antbear) nkumba Yellow-spotted rock LC 106 Heterohyrax brucei dassie 107 Dendrohyrax arboreus Tree dassie LC 108 Potamochoerus porcus Bushpig Nguluwe LC 109 Phacohoerus aethiopicus Warthog Njili/Kaphulika NE 110 Sylvicapra grimmia Grey (Common) duiker Gwape LC 111 Oreotragus oreotragus Klipspringer Chinkhoma LC 112 Ourebia ourebi Oribi Chowe LC 113 Raphicerus sharpei Sharpe’s grysbok Tungwa LC 114 Neotragus moschatus Suni Kadumba LC 115 Aepyceros melampus Impala Nswala LC 116 Syncerus caffer Buffalo Njati NT 117 Tragelaphus strepsiceros Kudu Ngoma LC 118 Tragelaphus angasii Nyala Boo LC 119 Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck Mbawala LC 351 | P a g e Annex 1.2: Birds of Lengwe National Park IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 1 Abdim's Stork Ciconia abdimii Resident, Rare LC 2 African Barred Owlet Glaucidium capense Resident, Rare LC 3 African Black Swift Apus barbatus Resident, Rare LC 4 African Broadbill Smithornis capensis Resident, Rare LC 5 African Crake Crecopsis egregia Resident, Rare LC Stephanoaetus NT 6 African Crowned Eagle Resident, Common coronatus 7 African Cuckoo Cuculus gularis Resident, Rare LC 8 African Cuckoo-Hawk Aviceda cuculoides Resident, Rare LC 9 African Firefinch Lagonosticta rubricata Resident, Rare LC 10 African fish Eaglee Haliaeetus vocifer Resident, Rare LC 11 African Golden Oriole Oriolus auratus Resident, Common LC 12 African Goshawk Accipiter tachiro Resident, Common LC 13 African Grey Hornbill Lophoceros nasutus Resident, Common LC 14 African Hawk Eagle Aquila spilogaster Resident, Rare LC 15 African Hoopoe Upupa africana Resident, Common NE 16 African Jacana Actophilornis africanus Resident, Rare LC 17 African Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus LC 18 African Mourning Dove Streptopelia decipiens Resident, Common LC 19 African Moustached Warbler Melocichla mentalis Resident, Rare LC Anastomus LC 20 African Openbill Stork Resident, Common lamelligerus 21 African Palm Swift Cypsiurus parvus Resident, Common LC 22 African Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone viridis LC 23 African Penduline-Tit Anthoscopus caroli Resident, Common LC 24 African Pied Wagtail Motacilla aguimp Resident, Common LC 25 African Pipit Anthus cinnamomeus LC 26 African Pygmy Kingfisher Ispidina picta African Migrant, Rare LC Acrocephalus NE 27 African Reed Warbler African Migrant baeticatus 28 African Rock Martin Hirundo fuligula Resident, Rare NE 29 African Scops Owl Otus senegalensis Resident, Rare NE 30 African-barred owlet Glaucidium capense Resident, Rare LC 352 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist Chalcomitra LC 31 Amethyst Sunbird Resident, Rare amethystina 32 Arnot’s Chat Myrmecocichla arnoti Resident, Common NE 33 Arrow-marked Babbler Turdoides jardineii Resident, Rare LC Muscicapa LC 34 Ashy Flycatcher Resident, Common caerulescens 35 Ayres’s Hawk Eagle Hieraaetus ayresii Resident, Rare LC 36 Barn Owl Tyto alba Resident, Common LC 37 Barn Swallow Hirundo rustica Migrant, Common LC 38 Barred Long-tailed Cuckoo Cercococcyx montanus African Migrant, Rare LC 39 Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis Migrant, Rare EN 40 Bateleur Terathopius ecaudatus Resident, Com EN 41 Bat-like Spinetail Neafrapus boehmi Resident, Rare LC 42 Bearded Scrub-robin Cercotrichas LC quadrivirgata 43 Bearded Woodpecker Thripias namaquus Resident, Common LC 44 Bennett’s Woodpecker Campethera bennettii Resident, Rare LC 45 Black (Yellow-billed) Kite Milvus migrans African Migrant LC African Migrant, LC 46 Black Cuckoo Cuculus clamosus Common 47 Black Cuckoo Shrike Campephaga flava Resident, Common LC 48 Black Goshawk Accipiter melanoleucus Resident, Rare LC Psalidoprocne African Migrant, LC 49 Black Saw-wing pristoptera Common 50 Black Stork Ciconia nigra Resident, Rare LC 51 Black-and-white Flycatcher Bias musicus Resident, Rare LC 52 Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla Resident, Common LC Eupodotis LC 53 Black-bellied Bustard Resident, Rare melanogaster Circaetus gallicus LC 54 Black-breasted Snake Eagle Resident, Rare pectoralis 55 Black-collared Barbet Lybius torquatus Resident, Common LC 56 Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax Resident, Rare LC 57 Black-crowned Tchagra Tchagra senegalus Resident, Common LC 58 Black-headed Heron Ardea melanocephala Resident, Rare LC 59 Black-rumped Buttonquail Turnix nanus African Migrant, Rare LC 60 Black-shouldered Kite Elanus axillaris Resident, Rare LC 61 Black-throated Wattle-eye Platysteira peltata Resident, Common LC 62 Black-winged Red Bishop Euplectes hordeaceus Resident, Common LC Himantopus LC 63 Black-winged Stilt Resident, Rare himantopus Camaroptera LC 64 Bleating camaroptera Resident, Common brachyura 65 Blue Quail Excalfactoria adansonii African Migrant NE 353 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist Parlearctic Migrant, LC 66 Blue-cheeked Bee-eater Merops persicus Common Trochocercus LC 67 Blue-mantled Flycatcher Resident, Common cyanomelas 68 Blue-spotted Dove Turtur afer Resident, Rare LC 69 Böhm’s Bee-eater Merops boehmi Resident, Common LC 70 Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus Parlearctic Migrant, Rare LC African Migrant, LC 71 Broad-billed Roller Eurystomus glaucurus Common 72 Broad-tailed paradise whydah Vidua obtusa Resident, Rare LC 73 Bronze Mannikin Lonchura cucullata Resident, Rare LC Rhinoptilus LC 74 Bronze-winged Courser Resident, Common chalcopterus 75 Brown-backed Honeyguide Prodotiscus regulus Resident, Rare LC 76 Brown-crowned tchagra Tchagra australis Resident, Common LC Poicephalus LC 77 Brown-headed Parrot Resident, Rare cryptoxanthus 78 Brown-hooded Kingfisher Halcyon albiventris Resident, Common LC 79 Brown-necked (Cape) Parrot P. fuscicollis fuscicollis Resident, Rare NE 80 Brubru Nilaus afer Resident, Common LC 81 Bully Canary Crithagra sulphurata Resident, Rare LC 82 Burchell’s Coucal Centropus burchellii Resident, Common NE 83 Burnt-necked Eremomela Eremomela usticollis Resident, Common LC 84 Bushveld Pipitica Anthus caffer Resident, Common LC 85 Cabanis bunting Emberiza cabanis Resident, Rare LC 86 Cape bunting Emberiza capensis Resident, Rare LC 87 Cape Turtle Dove Streptopelia capicola Resident, Common LC Dendropicos LC 88 Cardinal Woodpecker Resident, Common fuscescens 89 Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Resident, Rare LC 90 Chestnut-backed Finch Lark Eremopterix leucotis Resident, Common LC 91 Chinspot Batis Batis molitor Resident, Common LC Cinnamon-breasted Rock African Migrant, LC 92 Emberiza tahapisi Bunting Common 93 Collared Palm Thrush Cichladusa arquata Resident, Common LC 94 Collared Sunbird Hedydipna collaris Resident, Common LC 95 Common Bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus Resident, Common LC Parlearctic Migrant, LC 96 Common Buzzard Buteo buteo Common Parlearctic Migrant, LC 97 Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus Common 98 Common Moorhen Gallinula chloropus Resident, Rare LC 99 Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC Rhinopomastus LC 100 Common Scimitarbill Resident, Rare cyanomelas 354 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist Parlearctic Migrant, LC 101 Common Swift Apus apus Common 102 Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild Resident, Common LC 103 Coppery Sunbird Nectarinia cuprea Resident, Common LC 104 Crested Barbet Trachyphonus vaillantii Resident, Common LC Dendroperdix LC 105 Crested Francolin Resident, Common sephaena 106 Crested Guineafowl Guttera pucherani Resident, Common LC 107 Croaking Cisticola Cisticola natalensis Resident, Rare LC Lophoceros LC 108 Crowned Hornbill Resident, Common alboterminatus 109 Cut-throat Finch Amadina fasciata Resident, Rare LC 110 Dabchick Tachybaptus ruficollis Resident, Rare LC 111 Dark-backed Weaver Ploceus bicolor Resident, Common LC 112 Dark-caped Bulbul Pycnonotus capensis Resident, Common LC 113 Dickinson’s Kestrel Falco dickinsoni Resident, Rare LC African Migrant, LC 114 Diederick Cuckoo Chrysococcyx caprius Common 115 Dusky Flycatcher Muscicapa adusta Resident, Rare LC 116 Dwarf Bittern Ixobrychus sturmii African Migrant, Rare LC Erythropygia LC 117 Eastern Bearded Scrub Robin Resident, Rare quadrivirgata 118 Eastern Black-headed Oriole Oriolus larvatus Resident, Common LC 119 Eastern Nicator Nicator gularis Resident, Common LC Parlearctic Migrant, LC 120 Eastern Red-footed Falcon Falco amurensis Common, NTH* 121 Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca Resident, Rare LC African Migrant, LC 122 Emerald Cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus Common 123 Emerald-spotted Dove Turtur chalcospilos Resident, Common LC Parleactic Migrant, LC 124 European Bee-eater Merops apiaster Common 125 European Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC Parleactic Migrant, LC 126 European Hobby Falco subbuteo Common Parleactic Migrant, LC 127 European Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus palustris Common 128 European Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 129 European Roller Coracias garrulus Migrant, Common, NTH* LC 130 European Sand Martin Riparia riparia Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 131 Familiar Chat Cercomela familiaris Resident, Rare LC 132 Fan-tailed Widowbird Euplectes axillaris LC 133 Fiery-necked Nightjar Caprimulgus pectoralis Resident, Common LC Mirafra LC 134 Flappet Lark Resident, Common rufocinnamomea 355 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 135 Fork-tailed Drongo Dicrurus adsimilis Resident, Common LC 136 Freckled Rock Nightjar Caprimulgus tristigma Resident, Rare LC 137 Gabar Goshawk Micronisus gabar Resident, Rare LC 138 Gaboon Nightjar Caprimulgus fossii Resident, Common LC 139 Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 140 Giant Eagle Owl Bubo lacteus Resident, Common LC 141 Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima Resident, Rare LC 142 Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus Resident, Rare LC 143 Golden-rumped Tinkerbird Pogoniulus bilineatus Resident, Common LC 144 Golden-tailed Woodpecker Campethera abingoni Resident, Rare LC 145 Goliath Heron Ardea goliath Resident, Rare LC Acrocephalus LC 146 Great Reed Warbler Migrant, Rare arundinaceus 147 Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator glandarius African Migrant, Rare LC Parleactic Migrant, Rare, VU 148 Great Spotted Eagle Clanga clanga VUL* 149 Great White Egreat Ardea alba Resident, Rare LC 150 Great White Pelican Pelecanus onocrotalus Resident, Rare LC Greater Black-backed LC 151 Cisticola galactotes Resident, Common Cisticola Lamprotornis LC 152 Greater Blue-eared Starling Resident, Common chalybaeus 153 Greater Honeyguide Indicator indicator Resident, Common LC Rostratula LC 154 Greater-painted Snipe Resident, Rare benghalensis 155 Green Coucal Ceuthmochares aereus Resident, Common LC 156 Green Indigo bird Vidua codringtoni Resident, Rare LC 157 Green Pigeon Treron australis Resident, Rare LC Parleactic Migrant, LC 158 Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Common 159 Green Shank Tringa nebularia Parlearctic Migrant, Rare LC 160 Green Twinspot Mandingoa nitidula Resident, Rare LC 161 Green Wood Hoopoe Phoeniculus purpureus Resdent, Common LC Camaroptera LC 162 Green-backed Camaroptera Resdent, Common brachyura 163 Green-backed Heron Butorides striatus Resident, Rare NE 164 Green-capped Eremomela Eremomela scotops Resdent, Common LC 165 Green-winged Pytilia Pytilia melba Resdent, Common LC 166 Grey Go-away Bird Crinifer concolor NE 167 Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Resident, Rare LC 168 Grey Hornbill Tockus nasutus Resdent, Common LC Corythaixoides LC 169 Grey Lourie Resident, Common concolor 170 Grey Penduline Tit Anthoscopus caroli Resident, Common LC 356 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 171 Grey Sunbird Cyanomitra verreauxii Resident, Common LC Camaroptera NE 172 Grey-backed Camaroptera Resident, Common brevicaudata 173 Grey-headed Bush Shrike Malaconotus blanchoti Resident, Common LC 174 Grey-headed Sparrow Passer griseus Resident, Common LC 175 Grey-headed Kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala African Migrant, Rare LC 176 Grey-rumped Swallow Pseudhirundo LC griseopyga 177 Gymnogene Polyboroides typus Resident, Common LC 178 Hadeda Ibis Bostrychia hagedash Resident, Common LC 179 Half-collared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata Resident, Common LC 180 Harlequin Quail Coturnix delegorguei Resident, Common LC 181 Harmekop Scopus Scopus umbretta Resident, Common LC 182 Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris Resident, Rare LC 183 Heuglin’s Robin Cossypha heuglini Resident, Common LC 184 Hildebrandt’s Francolin Pternistis hildebrandti Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 185 Holub's Golden Weaver Ploceus xanthops Resident, Rare LC 186 Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus Migrant, Rare LC 187 Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus Resident, Rare LC 188 Horus Swift Apus horus Parleactic Migrant LC 189 House Martin Delichon urbicum Parlearctic Migrant, Rare LC 190 Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 191 Jacobin Cuckoo Clamator jacobinus Resident, Common LC Lagonosticta LC 192 Jameson’s Firefinch Resident, Common rhodopareia 193 Klaas’s Cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas Resident, Common LC 194 Knob-billed Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos Resident, Rare LC 195 Kurrichane Buttonquail Turnix sylvaticus Resident, Common LC 196 Kurrichane Thrush Turdus libonyana Resident, Rare LC 197 Lanner Falcon Falco biarmicus Resident, Rare LC 198 Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos Resident, Rare EN 199 Large-striped Pipit Anthus lineiventris Resident, Rare LC 200 Laughing Dove Spilopelia senegalensis Resident, Common LC 201 Lazy Cisticola Cisticola aberrans LC 202 Lead-coloured Flycatcher Myioparus plumbeus Resident, Rare LC 203 Lemon-breasted Canary Crithagra citrinipectus Resident, Common LC 204 Lesser Black-winged Plover Vanellus lugubris Resident, Common LC Lamprotornis LC 205 Lesser Blue-eared Starling Resident, Common chloropterus 206 Lesser cuckoo Cuculus poliocephalus Migrant, Rare LC 207 Lesser Honeyguide Indicator minor Parlearctic Migrant, Rare LC 208 Lesser Masked Weaver Ploceus intermedius Resident, Common LC 357 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 209 Lesser Spotted Eagle Clanga pomarina Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC Acrocephalus LC 210 Lesser Swamp Warbler Resident, Rare gracilirostris 211 Levaillant’s cisticola Cisticola tinniens Resident, Common LC 212 Lilac-breasted Roller Coracias caudatus Resident, Common LC 213 Little Bee-eater Merops pusillus Resident, Rare LC 214 Little Egret Egretta garzetta Resident, Rare LC 215 Little Sparrow Hawk Accipiter minullus Resident, Rare LC 216 Little Spotted Woodpecker Campethera cailliautii Resident, Common LC Erythrocercus LC 217 Livingstone’s Flycatcher Resident, Common livingstonei Kaupifalco LC 218 Lizard Buzzard Resident, Common monogrammicus 219 Long-billed Crombec Sylvietta rufescens Resident, Rare LC 220 Long-crested Eagle Lophaetus occipitalis Resident, Rare LC Long-tailed (Mountain) LC 221 Motacilla clara Resident, Rare Wagtail 222 Long-tailed Paradise Whydah Vidua paradisaea Resident, Common LC 223 Madagascar Bee-eater Merops superciliosus Resident, Common LC 224 Malachite Kingfisher Corythornis cristatus Resident, Rare LC 225 Marabou Stork Leptoptilos crumenifer Resident, Common LC 226 Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 227 Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus Resident, Rare, END* LC 228 Mascarene Martin Phedina borbonica Resident, Common LC 229 Miombo Barred Warbler Calamonastes undosus Migrant, Rare LC 230 Miombo Blue-eared Starling Lamprotornis elisabeth LC 231 Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus Parleactic Migrant, Rare LC 232 Mosque Swallow Cecropis senegalensis Resident, Rare LC 233 Mottled Spinetail Telacanthura ussheri Resident, Rare LC 234 Mourning Dove Zenaida macroura Resident, Common LC 235 Namaqua Dove Oena capensis Resident, Common LC 236 Narina Trogon Apaloderma narina Resident, Common LC 237 Neddicky Cisticola fulvicapilla Resident, Common LC 238 Olive Tree Warbler Hippolais olivetorum Resident, Rare LC Chlorophoneus LC 239 Orange-breasted Bush Shrike Resident, Rare sulfureopectus 240 Orange-winged Pytilia Pytilia afra Resident, Rare LC 241 Ovambo Sparrowhawk Accipiter ovampensis Resident, Rare LC Lophoceros LC 242 Pale-billed Hornbill Resident, Common pallidirostris 243 Pale-chanting goshawk Melierax canorus Resident LC 244 Pallid Flycatcher Melaenornis pallidus Resident, Common NE African Migrant, LC 245 Paradise Flycatcher Terpsiphone Common 358 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 246 Parasitic Weaver Anomalospiza imberbis Resident, Common LC 247 Pearl-spotted Owlet Glaucidium perlatum Resident, Rare LC 248 Pel’s Fishing Owl Scotopelia peli Resident, Common LC 249 Pennant-winged Nightjar Caprimulgus vexillarius Resident, Common LC 250 Pied Crow Corvus albus Resident, Rare LC 251 Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis Resident, Rare LC 252 Pink-backed Pelican Pelecanus rufescens Resident, Rare LC 253 Pin-tailed whydah Vidua macroura Resident, Rare LC 254 Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Resident, Rare LC 255 Purple Indigobird Vidua purpurascens Resident, Rare LC 256 Purple Roller Eurystomus azureus African Migrant NT 257 Purple-banded Sunbird Cinnyris bifasciatus Resident, Common LC Gallirex LC 258 Purple-crested Turaco Resident, Common porphyreolophus 259 Racket-tailed Roller Coracias spatulatus Resident, Common LC 260 Rattling Cisticola Cisticola chiniana Resident, Common LC Parleactic Migrant, NE 261 Red-backed Mannikin Spermestes nigriceps Common Parleactic Migrant, LC 262 Red-backed Shrike Lanius collurio Common 263 Red-belled Helmet Shrike Prionops caniceps LC 264 Red-billed Firefinch Lagonosticta senegala Resident, Rare LC Buphagus NE 265 Red-billed Oxpecker Resident, Common erythrorhynchus 266 Red-billed Quelea Quelea quelea Resident, Common LC 267 Red-capped Robin Chat Cossypha natalensis Resident, Common LC 268 Red-chested Cuckoo Cuculus solitarius Resident, Rare LC 269 Red-collared Wydah Euplectes ardens Resident, Common LC Streptopelia LC 270 Red-eyed Dove Resident, Common semitorquata 271 Red-faced Cisticola Cisticola erythrops Resident, Common LC 272 Red-faced Crombec Sylvietta whytii LC 273 Red-faced Mousebird Urocolius indicus Resident, Common LC African Migrant, LC 274 Red-headed Quelea Quelea erythrops Common 275 Red-headed Weaver Anaplectes rubriceps Resident, Rare LC 276 Red-necked Falcon Falco chicquera Resident, Common NT 277 Red-necked Francolin Pternistis afer Resident, Common LC Hypargos LC 278 Red-throated Twinspot Resident, Common niveoguttatus 279 Red-winged Starling Onychognathus morio Resident, Rare LC 280 Reed Cormorant Microcarbo africanus Resident, Common LC Retz’s Red-billed Helmet LC 281 Prionops retzii Resident, Common Shrike 359 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 282 Richard’s Pipit Anthus richardi Resident, Rare LC 283 River Warbler Locustella fluviatilis Resident, Rare LC 284 Rudd’s Apalis Apalis ruddi Resident, Rare LC Ephippiorhynchus LC 285 Saddle-billed stork Resident, Rare senegalensis 286 Scaly-throated Honeyguide Indicator variegatus Resident, Common LC Chalcomitra LC 287 Scarlet-chested Sunbird Resident, Common senegalensis Sagittarius EN 288 Secretary Bird Rare serpentarius 289 Shelley’s Francolin Scleroptila shelleyi Resident, Rare LC 290 Shikra Accipiter badius Resident, Common LC 291 Short-winged Cisticola Cisticola brachypterus Resident, Common LC Andropadus LC 292 Sombre Bulbul Resident, Common importunus 293 Sourthen MaskedWeaver Ploceus velatus Resident, Rare LC Melaenornis LC 294 Southern Black Flycatcher Resident, Common pammelaina 295 Southern Black Tit Melaniparus niger Resident, Rare LC 296 Southern Blue Waxbill Uraeginthus angolensis Resident, Common LC Southern Brown-throated LC 297 Ploceus xanthopterus Resident, Common Weaver 298 Southern Carmine Bee-eater merops nubicoides Resident, Common LC Southern Grey-headed LC 299 Passer diffusus Resident, Common Sparrow 300 Southern Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri Resident, Common VU 301 Southern Hyliota Hyliota australis Resident, Common LC 302 Southern Red Bishop Euplectes orix Resident, Rare LC 303 southern Red-billed Hornbill Tockus rufirostris Resident, Common NE Southern Yellow-billed LC 304 Tockus leucomelas Resident, Common Hornbill 305 Southern-banded Snake Eagle Circaetus fasciolatus Resident, Common NT 306 Speckled Mousebird Colius striatus Resident, Common LC 307 Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis Resident, Rare LC 308 Spotted Dikkop Burhinus capensis Resident, Common LC 309 Spotted Eagle Owl Bubo africanus Resident, Common LC Parleactic Migrant, LC 310 Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata Common Plectropterus LC 311 Spur-winged goose Resident, Common gambensis 312 Squaco Heron Ardeola ralloides Resident, Rare LC 313 Square-tailed Drongo Dicrurus ludwigii Resident, Common LC 314 Starred Robin Erithacus rubecula Parleactic Migrant LC 315 Steppe Eagle Aquila nipalensis Parleactic Migrant EN 316 Striped Cuckoo Tapera naevia Resident, Common LC 360 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 317 Striped Kingfisher Halcyon chelicuti Resident, Common LC 318 Swallow-tailed Bee-eater Merops hirundineus Resident, Rare LC 319 Tambourine Dove Turtur tympanistria Resident, Rare LC 320 Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Resident, Common VU 321 Tawny-flanked Prinia Prinia subflava Resident, Common LC 322 Temminck’s Courser Cursorius temminckii African Migrant, Rare LC 323 Thick-billed Cuckoo Pachycoccyx audeberti Resident, Common LC 324 Thick-billed Weaver Amblyospiza albifrons Resident, Rare LC Parleactic Migrant, LC 325 Three-banded Plover Charadrius tricollaris Common 326 Thrush-Nightingale Luscinia luscinia Resident, Common LC 327 Tropical Boubou Laniarius major Resident, Common NE 328 Trumpeter Hornbill Bycanistes bucinator Resident, Rare LC 329 Variable Indigo bird Vidua funereal Resident, Rare NE 330 Variable Sunbird Cinnyris venustus Resident, Rare LC 331 Verreaux's eagle-owl Bubo lacteus Resident, Common LC 332 Village Indigo bird Vidua chalybeata Resident, Rare LC 333 Village Weaver Ploceus cucullatus Resident, Rare LC 334 Vincent Bunting Emberiza vincenti Resident NE Cinnyricinclus LC 335 Violet-backed Starling Resident leucogaster 336 Violet-backed Sunbird Anthreptes orientalis Resident LC 337 Wahlberg’s Eagle Hieraaetus wahlbergi African Migrant, Rare LC 338 Wattled Starling Creatophora cinerea African Migrant, Rare LC 339 Western Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus cinereus Resident, Common LC 340 Western Banded Snake Eagle Circaetus cinerascens Resident, Common LC 341 Western Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus Resident, Common NT Parleactic Migrant, LC 342 White Stork Ciconia ciconia Common 343 White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus Resident, Common, CR 344 White-bellied Sunbird Cinnyris talatala Resident, Common LC White-breasted Cuckoo- LC 345 Ceblepyris pectoralis Resident, Common shrike Cercotrichas LC 346 White-browed Scrub Robin Resident, Common leucophrys White-browed Sparrow- LC 347 Plocepasser mahali Resident, Common weaver 348 White-crested Helmet Shrike Prionops plumatus Resident, Common LC 349 White-faced Duck Dendrocygna viduata Resident, Rare LC 350 White-faced Owl Otus leucotis Resident NE 351 White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis Resident, Common CR 352 White-throated Swallow Hirundo albigularis African Migrant, Rare LC Parlearctic Migrant, LC 353 White-winged Whydah Euplectes albonotatus Common 361 | P a g e IUCN No. ENGLISH NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME REMARKS Red Datalist 354 Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus Resident, Common LC 355 Wood Owl Strix woodfordii Parlearctic Migrant, Rare LC 356 Wood Sandpiper Batis fratrum Resident, Rare LC 357 Woodwards’ Batis Batis Batis fratrum Resident, Rare NE 358 Woolly-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus Resident, Rare, VUL* NT 359 Yellow Bishop Euplectes afer Migrant, Rare LC 360 Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Resident, Rare LC 361 Yellow White-eye Zosterops senegalensis Resident, Common LC Chlorocichla NE 362 Yellow-bellied Eremomela Resident, Common flaviventris 363 Yellow-bellied Greenbul Nectarinia venusta Resident, Rare LC Neodrepanis VU 364 Yellow-bellied Sunbird Resident, Rare hypoxantha 365 Yellow-billed Bulbul Alophoixus LC phaeocephalus 366 Yellow-billed Egret Ardeaaynch brachyrh Resident, Rare NE 367 Yellow-billed Kite Milvus aegyptius LC 368 Yellow-billed Oxpecker Buphagus africanus Resident, Common LC 369 Yellow-billed Stork Mycteria ibis Resident, Common LC 370 Yellow-breasted Apalis Apalis flavida Resident, Common LC 371 Yellow-fronted Canary Serinus mozambicus Resident, Common LC Pogoniulus LC 372 Yellow-fronted Tinkerbird Resident, Common chrysoconus Yellow-throated Bush LC 373 Gymnoris superciliaris Resident, Common Sparrow 374 Yellow-throated Petronia Pytilia hypogrammica Resident, Common LC 362 | P a g e Annex 1.3 Plants of Lengwe National Park Legend IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 1 Azolla nilotica Free-floating aquatic ferns LC 2 Marsilea sp. Creeping ferns NE 3 Peperomia pellucida Wild pepper NE 4 [Milicia {= Chlorophora} excelsa] NT 5 Maclura {= Cardiogyne} africana African osage orange LC 6 Ficus bussei {= zambesiaca} Zambezi fig LC 7 Ficus capreifolia Riverine sandpaper fig LC 8 Ficus ingens Red-leaved rock fig LC 9 Ficus sur {= capensis} Cape fig LC 10 Ficus sycomorus Sycamore fig LC [F. abutilifolia {= soldanella}, F. 11 craterostoma, F. sansibarica, F. sonderi, F. LC verruculosa] 12 Boehmeria platyphylla NE 13 Laportes penducularis NE Plicosepalus kalachariensis {= Loranthus 14 NE curvifolia} 15 Loranthus spp NE 16 Thesium scandens NE 17 Opilia campestris {= celtidifolia } NE 18 Jasminium fluminense NE 19 Olax dissitiflora Small-fruited olax LC 20 Ximenia americana Small sourplum LC 21 Ximenia caffra Large sourplum LC 22 Aristolochia albida {= petersiana} NE 23 Achyranthes aspera NE 24 Amaranthus sp. NE 25 Celosia triguna NE 26 Psilotrichulm sp. NE 27 Pupalia sp. NE 363 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 28 Boerhavia diffusa NE 29 Boerhavia erecta NE 30 Commicarpus sp NE 31 Corbichonia sp. Vygies (small annuals) NE 32 Mollugo sp NE 33 Portulaca sp. NE 34 Talinum sp. NE 35 Nymphaea nouchali {= caerulea} Water lily (mauve flowers) LC 36 Nymphaea lotus Water lily (white flowers) LC 37 Cissampelos mucronata Blue lotus LC 38 Cocculus hirsutus NE 39 Tiliacora funifera NE 40 Tinospora caffra NE 41 Tinospora tenera NE 42 Cleistochlamys kirkii Purple cluster pear LC 43 Friesodielsia obovata Northern dwaba-berry LC 44 Monanthotaxis obovate NE 45 Hexalobus monopetalus LC 46 Xylopia parviflora Bitterwood LC 47 Artabotrys brachypetalus Purple hook-berry LC 48 Artabotrys monteiroae Red hook-berry LC 49 Annona senegalensis LC 50 Monodora junodii LC 51 Monodora grandidieri Green-apple LC 52 Monodora stenopetala Oval green-apple VU 53 Gyrocarpus americanus LC 54 Argemone mexicana (Naturalised) NE 55 Cladostemon kirkii Three-finger bush LC 56 Capparis erythrocarpos Caper-bush NE 57 Capparis tomentosa Woolly caper-bush NE 58 C. sepiaria LC 59 Boscia salicifolia Willow-leaved shepherd’s tree LC 60 B. angustifolia, B. mossambicensis NE 61 Cadaba kirkii Large-flowered worm-bush LC 62 C. termitaria NE 63 Maerua angolensis Bead-bean LC Maerua decumbens {= edulis, = Courbonia 64 NE glauca} 65 Maerua juncea LC 66 Maerua parvifolia LC 67 [M. kirkii, M. triphylla] LC 364 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 68 Thilachium africanum Cucumber bush LC 69 Kalanchoe sp. Kalanchoe LC, VU 70 Pittosporum viridiflorum LC 71 Trichocladus ellipticus LC 72 Parinari curatellifolia LC 73 Rourea {= Byrsocarpus} orientalis Short-pod LC 74 Mimosa mossambicensis LC 75 Albizia amara Bitter albizia LC 76 Albizia anthelmintica Worm-cure albizia LC 77 Albizia glaberrima Low Veld albizia LC 78 Albizia harveyi Sickle-leaved albizia LC 79 Albizia versicolor Poison-pod albizia LC [A. antunesiana, A. tanganyicensis, A. 80 LC zimmermannii] 81 Acacia adenocalyx Small-leaved acacia LC 82 Acacia ataxacantha Flame acacia LC 83 Acacia galpinii Monkey-thorn LC 84 Acacia goetzei Purple-pod acacia LC 85 Acacia grandicornuta Horned thorn LC 86 Acacia hockii NE 87 Acacia nigrescens Knob-thorn tree NE 88 Acacia nilotica Scented thorn LC 89 Acacia polyacantha White-thorn NE 90 Acacia robusta Splendid acacia LC 91 Acacia schweinfurthii River climbing acacia LC 92 Acacia sieberiana Paperbark LC 93 Acacia tortilis Umbrella thorn LC 94 Acacia welwitschii Delagoa thorn LC 95 Acacia xanthophloea Fever tree LC 96 A. erubescens LC 97 A. Senegal NE 98 A. amathethophylla {= macrothyrsa} NE 99 A. karroo LC 100 A. gerrardii 101 Faidherbia albida Winterthorn LC 102 Dichrostachys cinerea Sickle-bush LC 103 Amblygonocarpus andongensis LC 104 Newtonia hildebrandtii Lebombo wattle LC 105 Xylia torreana LC 106 Elephantorrhiza spp The sumach bean genus LC 107 Entada spp The splinter bean genus LC 365 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 108 Burkea Africana Red syringa NE 109 Guibortia conjugata NE 110 Colophospermum mopane Mopane (Tsanya) LC 111 Brachystegia boehmii* Prince-of-Wales’ feather LC 112 Brachystegia glaucescens Mountain acacia NE 113 [B. allenii LC 114 B. utilis] LC 115 B. spiciformis LC 116 B. microphylla NE 117 B. manga LC 118 Tamarindus indica Tamarind (Bwemba) LC lc Afzelia quanzensis Pod mahogany LC 120 Julbernardia globiflora Munhondo LC 121 [J. paniculata] LC 122 Bauhinia tomentosa Yellow-tree bauhinia LC 123 [B. petersiana] LC 124 Piliostigma {= Bauhinia} thonningi Monkey bread tree NE 125 Cassia abbreviata Long-tail cassia LC 126 Senna {= Cassia} petersiana Eared cassia LC 127 Senna {= Cassia} singueana Winter cassia LC 128 [Peltophorum africanum] African Wattle LC 129 Chamaecrista absus (Forb) LC 130 Cordyla africana Wild mango LC 131 [Swartzia madagascariensis] LC 132 Xanthocercis zambesiaca Nyala tree LC 133 [Pericopsis angolensis] LC 134 Bolusanthus speciosus Tree wistaria LC 135 [Baphia spp] The camwood genus NT 136 Crotalaria sp. The rattle-pod genus NT 137 Indigofera sp. The indigo genus LC 137 Tephrosia virgata LC 139 [Mundulea sericea] LC 140 [Millettia spp] The panga panga genus DD 140 Sesbania bispinosa River bean LC 142 Sesbania rogersii NE 143 {Sesbania tetraptera NE 144 Ormocarpum kirkii Small caterpillar pod LC 145 [O. trichocarpum] LC 147 Aeschynomene indica False-teeth tree LC 366 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 148 Dalbergia arbutifolia Climbing river dalbergia LC 149 Dalbergia boehmii Large-leaf dalbergia LC 150 Dalbergia fischeri Fischer’s dalbergia LC 151 Dalbergia lacteal NE 152 Dalbergia melanoxylon African blackwood NT 153 [D. nitidula] LC 154 Dalbergiella nyasae Mane-pod NE 155 Pterocarpus angolensis Mukwa, Bloodwood LC Thorny teak, Small-leafed 156 Pterocarpus lucens subsp. antunesii LC bloodwood 157 Pterocarpus lucens Large-leafed bloodwood LC 158 Pterocarpus rotundifolus Round-leafed bloodwood NE 159 Philenoptera {= Lonchocarpus} bussei Narrow lance-pod NE Philenoptera violacea {= Lonchocarpus 160 Rain tree LC capassa} 161 Xeroderris stuhlmannii Wing pod NE 162 Erythrina livingstoniana Aloe erythrina NE 163 E. abyssinica LC 164 E. latissimi NE 165 E. lysistemon LC 166 Rhynchosia sublobata Shaggy-bush NE 167 Abrus sp NE 168 Lablab niger Climbing bean NE 169 Dolichos sp NE 170 Mucuna sp. Buffalo bean NE 171 Vigna sp. Cow pea NE 172 Hugonia orientatis {= africana} NE 173 Balanites maughamii Y-thorned torchwood LC 174 [Fagara spp] The knobwood genus NE 175 [Fagaropsis angolensis] NE 176 [Oricia bachmannii] LC 177 Vepris zambesiaca Rare woodland vepris LC 178 Teclea nobilis Small-fruited teclea LC 179 [T. myrei] NE 180 [Clausena anisata] LC 181 Citropsis daweana Wild citrus LC 182 [Harrisonia abyssinica] LC 183 Kirkia acuminata White syringa LC 184 Commiphora africana Poison-grub commiphora LC 185 Commiphora mossambicensis Pepper-leafed commiphera NE 186 C. caerulea LC 367 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 187 C. edulis LC 188 C. marlothii LC 189 C. viminea (= merkeri) LC 190 C. mollis LC 191 C. pyracanthoides Cork Tree LC 192 C. zanzibarica LC 193 [Khaya anthotheca {= nyasica}] Mahogany VU 194 [Entandrophragma caudatum] LC 195 Turraea nilotica Small mahogany LC 196 [T. floribunda] LC 197 [Ekebergia capensis] LC 198 Trichilia capitata Small Trichilia LC 199 Trichilia emetica Natal mahogany LC 200 [T. dregeana] LC 201 Securidaca longipedunculata Violet tree NE 202 Tapura fischeri Leaf-berry tree LC 203 Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Kudu-berry LC 204 Flueggea virosa White-berry bush LC 205 Phyllanthus pinnatus {= kirkianus} Woody cushion NE 206 Phyllanthus ovalifolius {= guineensis} Small-fruited phyllanthus LC 207 [P. inflatus, P. reticulatus] LC 208 Drypetes gerrardii Hairy drypetes LC 209 Drypetes mossambicensis Lowveld drypetes NE 210 [D. natalensis] LC 211 [Hymenocardia acida, H. ulmoides] LC 212 Antidesma membranaceum Pink tassel berry LC 213 Antidesma venosum Tassel berry LC 214 [Antidesma vogelianum] NE 215 [Uapaca genus] The mahobohobo genus NE 216 [Cleistanthus genus] The umzithi genus NE 217 Bridelia carthatica Knobby bridelia NE 218 Bridelia mollis Velvet bridelia LC 219 [B. micrantha] LC 220 Croton megalobotrys Fever-berry croton LC 221 Croton megalocarpus LC 222 Croton pseudopulchellus NE 223 C. menyhartii NE C. sylvaticus LC 224 Erythrococca sp. Red-berry NE 225 E. menyharthii LC 368 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist E. polyandra NE E. trichogyne LC 226 Mallotus oppositifolius LC 227 Alchornea laxiflora Lowveld bead-string LC 228 Neoboutonia melleri LC 229 Acalypha chirindica False-nettle LC 230 Schinziophyton (Ricinodendron) rautanenii LC 231 Excoecaria bussei Pawnbroker tree NE 232 [Maprounea africana] NE 233 Euphorbia cooperi Lesser candelabra tree LC 234 Euphorbia lividiflora Red-flowered euphorbia LC 235 Euphorbia matebelensis Three-forked euphorbia NE 236 E. halipedicola NE E. ingens LC E. tirucalli LC Margaritaria discoidea {= Phyllanthus 237 Pheasant-berry LC discoideus} 238 Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra Marula NE 239 Lannea discolor Live-long LC 240 Lannea edulis Tsambatsi NE 241 Lannea mossambicensis NE 242 Lannea schweinfurthii {stuhlmanii} False marula NT 243 Ozoroa insignis subsp. reticulata African resin tree LC 244 Rhus spp The rhus genus NE 245 Gymnosporia {= Maytenus} senegalensis Confetti tree LC 246 [G. putterlickioides] NE 247 [Maytenus undata] LC 248 [Pterocelastrus echinatus] LC 249 [Pleurostylia spp] The coffee-pear genus LC 250 Hippocratea indica Paddle-pod NE 251 [H. buchananii, H. parvifolia] NE 252 Allophylus chaunostachys Forest dotted allophylus LC 253 [A. africanus] LC 254 Deinbollia nyikensis LC 255 Deinbollia xanthocarpa Soap-berry NE 256 [Glenniea africana] NE 257 Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius River lytchi NE 258 Haplocoelum foliolosum Northern galla plum LC 259 [Pappea capensis] LC 260 [Aporrhiza nitida] NE 261 [Blighia unijugata] LC 369 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 262 [Dodonaea angustifolia {= viscosa}] NE 263 Zanha africana Velvet-fruited zanha NE 264 [Z. golungensis] LC 265 Ziziphus mauritiania Masau - introduced NE 266 Ziziphus mucronata Buffalo-thorn LC 267 Ziziphus pubescens Small jujube NE 268 [Z. abyssinica] LC 269 Berchemia discolor Bird plum LC 270 [Rhamnus prinoides] LC 271 Rhoicissus revoilii Grape genus LC R. tridentata LC 272 Cyphostemma subciliatum Cobas NE 273 Cyphostemma sp. Cobas NE 274 Cayratia gracilis NE 275 Cissus integrifolia NE 276 Cissus quadrangularis Quadrangular cissus NE 277 Cissus rotundifolia Round-leafed cissus NE 278 Corchorus sp LC 279 Grewia bicolor False brandybush NE 280 Grewia flavescens Donkeyberry LC 281 Grewia forbesii NE 282 Grewia lepidopetala Green-haired cross-berry NE 283 Grewia pachycalyx Large-flowered white cross-berry NE 284 Grewia stolzii Green-petalled cross-berry NE 285 Grewia sulcata Stellar cross-berry NE [G. inaequilatera, G. micrantha, G. 286 NE microcarpa, G. praecox,] G. subspathulata LC False Grey Raisin 287 Triumfetta sp DD 288 Abutilon sp. Abutilon (herbaceous) DD 289 Hibiscus vitifolius Hibiscus (tough herbaceous plants) NE 290 Hibiscus vulgaris Hibiscus (tough herbaceous plants) NE 291 Azanza garckeana Snot-apple NE 292 Kosteletskya adoensis NE 293 Adansonia digitata Baobab NE 294 Dombeya kirkii River wild pear NE 295 D. burgessiae LC D. rotundifolia LC 296 [Triplochiton zambesiacus] LC 297 Sterculia africana† Tick tree, African star-chestnut LC 370 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 298 Sterculia appendiculata† Tall star-chestnut NE 299 Sterculia quinqueloba Large-leafed star-chestnut NE 300 Cola sp*. Coshwood DD 301 C. mossambicensis] NT 302 Waltheria indica NE 303 Ochna leptoclada NE 304 O. gambleoides LC O. holstii LC O. polyneura NE O. rovumensis LC O. schweinfurthiana LC 305 Brackenridgea zanguebarica NE 306 Psorospermum febrifugum LC 307 Garcinia livingstonei African mangosteen NE 308 [G. huillensis] NE 309 [Monotes engleri] LC 310 Oncoba spinosa Fried egg flower, Snuff-box tree LC 311 Xylotheca tettensis Northern African Dog-rose LC 312 [Scolopia stolzii] The thorn-pear genus NE , S. zeyheri thorn-pear LC 313 Flacourtia indica Flacourtia LC 314 Dovyalis sp. Kei-apple LC 315 [D. caffra] LC 316 Tricliceras sp. {= Wormskioldia} Pimpernel DD 317 Adenia gummifera NE 318 Ammannia sp. LC 319 Combretum apiculatum Red bushwillow LC 320 Combretum collinum Variable bushwillow LC 321 Combretum adenagonium {= fragrans, = ghasalense} Four-leafed combretum NE 322 Combretum hereroense Russet bushwillow LC 323 Combretum imberbe Leadwood LC 324 Combretum molle Velvet bushwillow LC 325 Combretum mossambicense Shaving-brush combretum LC Burning bush combretum, flame 326 Combretum microphyllum NE combretum 327 Combretum zeyheri Large-fruited bushwillow LC 328 Combretum sp. 371 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 329 C. celastroides LC C. holstii NE C. padoides NE C. pisoniflorum NE C. psidioides LC 330 Pteleopsis myrtifolia Stinkbush willow NE 331 Terminalia sericea Silver terminalia LC 332 Terminalia stenostachya Rosette-leaved terminalia NE 333 T. gazensis, T. prunioides, T. trichopoda LC 334 Syzygium spp The waterberry genus DD 335 Heteropyxis dehniae {= natalensis}] Lavender tree LC 336 Schefflera umbellifera False Cabbage Tree LC 337 Cussonia spp DD 338 Heteromorpha arborescens The cabbage tree genus LC 339 Steganotaenia araliacea Carrot tree, popgun tree LC 340 Myrsine africana NE 341 Rapanea melanophloeos NE 342 Plumbago zeylanica NE Englerophytum {= Bequaertiodendron} 343 LC magalismontanum] 344 Mimusops sp DD 345 [M. obtusifolia {= fructicosa},] NE M. zeyheri The milkwood genus LC 346 Manilkara mochisia Lowveld milkberry LC 347 Euclea sp. Euclea, Guarri LC 348 E. crispa, E. natalensis, LC E. schimperi NE 349 Diospyros kirkii Pink jackal-berry LC 350 Diospyros mespiliformis Rhodesian ebony LC 351 Diospyros quiloensis Crocodile-bark jackal-berry LC 352 Diospyros senensis Peeling-bark diospyros LC 353 Diospyros squarrosa Rigid star-berry LC [D. lycioides, D. natalensis, D. loureiriana {= 354 LC usambarensis}] 355 Schrebera trichoclada Wooden-pear LC 356 [Schrebera alata] LC 357 [Olea capensis] LC 358 Azima tetracantha Bee-sting bush, Needle bush LC 359 Salvadora persica Mustard tree LC 360 Strychnos decussata Cape teak LC 372 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 361 Strychnos innocua Dull-leafed monkey orange LC 362 Strychnos madagascariensis Shiny-leafed monkey orange LC 363 Strychnos potatorum Grape strychnos, Black bitterberry NE Spiny monkey orange, Green 364 Strychnos spinosa LC monkey orange 365 S. cocculoides, S. henningsii, S. pungens LC 366 Nuxia oppositifolia Water elder LC 367 Buddleja salviifolia Butterfly bush LC 368 Acokanthera oppositifolia LC 369 Carissa spp The carissa genus LC 370 Holarrhena pubescens Jasmine tree LC 371 Diplorhynchus condylocarpon Wild rubber, Horn-pod tree LC 372 Tabernaemontana elegans Toad tree LC 373 Rauvolfia caffra LC 374 Adenium obesum LC 375 Strophanthus courmontii Poison rope LC 376 Strophanthus kombe NE 377 Strophanthus nicholsonii NE 378 Wrightia natalensis NE 379 Ancylobotrys petersiana Liana NE 380 Landolphia kirkii Liana NE 381 Calotropis procera NE 382 Marsdenia {= Dregea} macrantha NE 383 Marsdenia {= Gymnaema} sylvestris NE 384 Pentarrhinum insipidum NE 385 Pergularia daemia {= barbata} NE 386 Sarcostemma viminale NE 387 Cryptolepis apiculata NE 388 Cryptolepis obtusa NE 389 Cryptolepis ovata NE 390 Tacazzea apiculata NE 391 Secamone parvifolia NE 392 Evolvulus nummularius NE 393 Ipomoea aquatica LC 394 Ipomoea {= Turbina} stenosiphon Morning glory NE 395 Ipomea sp. DD 396 Jacquemontia tamnifolia NE 397 Convolvus sagittatus NE 398 Cordia goetzei Blue-bark cordia NE 399 [C. abyssinica, C. pilosissima,] NE C. sinensis LC 373 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 400 Ehretia amoena Stamperwood, Sandpaper bush LC 401 Heliotropium sp. DD 402 Trichodesma zeylanicum Bells of St. Mary (Herbaceous) NE 403 Lippia javanica NE 404 Vitex payos Chocolate berry LC 405 [V. doniana, V. madiensis, V. mombassae] LC 406 Clerodendrum ternatum NE 407 Clerodendrum wildii NE 408 Clerodendrum sp. Tinderwood, Cat’s whiskers DD 409 C. glabrum LC C. myricoides EN 410 Hoslundia opposita (Shrub) NE 411 Karomia {= Holmskioldia} spinescens Wild Chinese hats NE 412 {Holmskioldia tettensis LC 413 [Iboza riperia] Ginger bush NE 414 Leucas glabrata NE 415 Ocimum sp. DD 416 Orthosiphon australis NE 417 Premna senensis Skunk bush LC 418 Solanum incanum {= panduriforme} Poison apple, Bitter apple LC 419 [S. aculeastrum, S. giganteum] LC 420 [Halleria lucida] Tree fuchsia LC 421 Cycnium adonense The ink plant (Herbaceous) NE 422 Lindernia {= Ilysanthes} parvifolia NE 423 [Tecomaria capensis] LC 424 Markhamia obtusifolia Golden bean tree LC 425 Markhamia zanzibarica Zanzibar bean tree LC 426 M. acuminata LC 427 Stereospermum kunthianum Pink jacaranda LC 428 Kigelia africana Sausage tree LC 429 Ceratotheca sesamoides Wild foxglove NE 430 Utricularia sp. DD 431 Anisotes spp. DD 432 Asystasia gangetica NE 433 Barleria spinulosa NE 434 Blepharis maderaspatensis NE 435 Crabbea velutina NE 436 Crossandra puberula NE 437 Duosperma quadrangulare NE 438 Ecbolium sp DD 439 Elytraria acaulis NE 374 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 440 Hygrophila pilosa NE 441 Hypoestes verticillaris NE 442 Isoglossa floribunda NE 443 Justicia betonica NE 444 Justicia flava NE 445 Justicia striata NE 446 Justicia whytei NE 447 Megalochlamys strobilifera NE 448 Monechma debile NE 449 Phaulopsis imbricata LC 450 Ruellia patula LC 451 Hymenodictyon floribundum Firebush LC 452 [H. parvifolium] LC 453 Crossopteryx febrifuga Crystal-bark LC 454 [Breonadia salicina {= microcephala}] LC 455 [Tarenna neurophylla] NE Cantunaregam spinosa {= Xeromphis 456 Thorny bone-apple NE obovata} 457 [Aïdia micrantha] NE 458 Gardenia sp. Gardenia DD 459 [G. imperialis, G. ternifolia {= jovis-tonantis LC G. resiniflua NE 460 [Rothmannia spp] The rothmannia genus DD 461 [Feretia aeruginescens] NE 462 Tricalysia junodii var. kirkii {= T. allenii) Smooth bark tricalysia NE 463 Tricalysia sp. DD 464 [T. capensis ] LC [Sericanthe {= Neorosea}andongensis, S. 465 NE jasminiflora] 466 Heinsia crinita Small false gardenia LC 467 [Polysphaeria lanceolata] NE 468 Vangueria sp. Wild medlar DD 469 [V. apiculata, V. infausta] LC 470 Tapiphyllum velutinum Velvet leaf LC 471 [Vangueriopsis lanciflora] NE 472 Canthium angustifolium Turkey berry or rock alder NE 473 Canthium grandifolium Turkey berry or rock alder NE 474 [C. frangula] NE Psydrax livida {= Canthium huillense} 475 LC Bushveld canthium 476 P. martinii, NE 375 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist P. parviflora {= Canthium vulgare} LC 477 [Tarchonanthus camphoratus] LC 478 [Chrysanthemoides monilifera] LC 479 Bidens pilosa Blackjack (Chisoso/Kazota) NE 480 Blumea aurita NE 481 Gnaphalium indicum NE 482 Nidorella microcephala NE 483 Pterocaulon decurrens NE 484 Sphaeranthus angolensis NE 485 Limnophyton sp Water plantain LC 486 Lagarosiphon sp DD 487 Ottelia exserta LC 488 Acroceras macrum NE 489 Alloteropsis semialata NE 490 Andropogon gayanus Blue grass NE 491 Andropogon schirensis Stab grass NE [A. appendiculatus, A. chinensis, A. 492 NE eucomus, A. huillensis] 493 Aristida adscensionis Annual three-awn NE A. congesta, A. junciformis, A. rhiniochloa, 494 NE A. scabrivalvis 495 Bewsia biflora NE Bothriochloa bladhii, B. insculpta, B. 496 NE radicans 497 Brachiaria deflexa False signal grass NE 498 Brachiara sp Signal grass DD 499 B. brizantha, , B. nogropedata, B. serrata NE B. eruciformis LC 500 Cenchrus ciliaris Buffalo grass LC 501 Chloris virgata Feather-top chloris NE 502 C. gayana, C. pycnothrix, C. roxburghiana NE 503 Chrysopogon serrulatus NE 504 Cymbopogon excavatus Broad-leaved turpentine grass NE 505 [C. plurinodis NE 506 Ctenium concinnum Sickle grass NE 507 Cynodon dactylon Couch grass NE 508 Dactyloctenium aegyptium Common crowfoot NE 509 Dactyloctenium sp. Crowfoot NE 510 D. giganteum NE 511 Dichanthium annulatum NE 376 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 512 Digitaria milanjiana Milanje finger grass NE [D. diagonalis, D. longiflora, D longifloras, 513 NE D. ternata,] D. velutina LC 514 Diheteropogon amplectens Broad-leaved bluestem NE 515 Dinebra retroflexa NE 516 Echinochloa pyramidalis Antelope grass LC 517 Echinochloa spp. Water grass LC 518 E. colona, E. holubi LC 519 Elionurus muticus NE 520 Eleusine coracana Wild African Finger millet LC 521 Enneapogon cenchroides, E. scoparius NE 522 Enteropogon macrostachyus Mopane grass NE 523 Eragrostis sp. Love grass DD E. aspera, E. capensis, E. cilianensis, E. 524 ciliaris, E. curvula, E.cylindriflora {= NE rigidior}, E.heteromera, E. inamoena, E. 525 lehmanniana, E. nindensis, E. racemosa, E. NE rotifer, E. superba, 526 E. trichopora, E. viscosa NE 527 Eriochloa meyeriana LC 528 Eustachys paspaloides NE 529 Hemarthria altissima LC 530 Heteropogon contortus Spear grass NE 531 Hyparrhenia filipendula Fine thatching grass NE 532 Hyparrhenia sp. DD 533 H. hirta NE 534 Hyperthelia dissoluta NE 535 Imperata cylindrica LC 536 Ischaemum afrum Turf grass NE 537 Ischaemum sp. DD 538 I. fasciculatum NE 539 Leersia hexandra LC 540 Leptocarydion vulpiastrum NE 541 Leptochloa uniflora NE 542 L. {= Diplachne} fusca LC 543 Lepturus radicans NE 544 Loudetia simplex Common russet grass NE 545 Melinis repens NE 546 [Microchloa caffra] NE 377 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 547 Miscanthus junceus NE 548 Monocymbium ceresiiforme NE 549 Oplismenus burmannii Basket grass NE 550 Oryza punctata* Wild rice LC 551 Panicum maximum Guinea grass NE 552 P. coloratum LC P. deustum NE P. ecklonii NE P. repens LC P. schinzii NE 553 Paspalum distichum, P. scrobiculatum LC P. urvillei NE 554 Pennisetum purpureum Elephant grass LC 555 Perotis patens NE 556 Pogonarthria squarrosa NE 557 Phragmites mauritianus Mauritian common reed LC 558 P. australis LC 559 Rottboellia cochinchensis {= exaltata} NE Guineafowl grass 560 Sacciolepis sp. DD 561 Schmidtia pappophoroides Sand quick NE 562 Shizachyrium sanguineum NE 563 Sehima sp. NE 564 Setaria palustris NE 565 Setaria (Cymbosetaria) sagittifolia Arrow grass 566 Setaria sp DD 567 S. sphacelata LC S. pumila NE S. incrassata NE S. lindenbergiana NE S. megaphylla NE 378 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist S. verticillata NE 568 Schmidtia pappophoroides NE 569 Sorghastrum bipinnetum ? NE 570 S. halepense, S. versicolor NE Sorghum bicolor LC 571 Sporobolus sp DD S. africanus, S. festivus, S. fimbriatus, S. 572 NE panicoides, S. pyramidalis, S. stapfianus LC 573 Stereochlaena cameronii NE 574 Themeda triandra NE 575 Trachypogon spicatus NE 576 Tragus berteronianus Carrot seed grass NE 577 Tricholaena monachne NE 578 Trichoneura grandiglumis NE 579 Tristachya leucothrix NE 580 Urelytrum agropyroides NE 581 Urochloa mosambicensis Bushveld signal grass NE 582 [U. panicoides, U. oligotricha] NE 583 Coleochloa setifera NE 584 Cyperus alternifolia NE 585 Cyperus sp. NE 586 Fimbristylis hispidula DD 587 Kyllinga cartilaginea NE 588 Mariscus sp. LC 589 Scirpus sp. DD 590 Phoenix reclinata LC 591 Hyphaene petersiana {= crinata} Ilala palm LC 592 Borassus aethiopum Borassus palm LC 593 Raphia farinifera LC 594 Pistia stratiotes Water Lettuce LC 595 Amorphophallus sp DD 596 Stylochiton natalensis NE 597 Lemna minor Common Duck Weed LC 598 Wolffia sp. LC 599 Aneilema sp. DD 600 Commelina africana Commelina LC 601 Commelina benghalensis Commelina LC 602 Chlorophytum sp. (Tall herbaceous flowers) DD 379 | P a g e IUCN Data No Scientific Name English Name Redlist 603 Asparagus africanus Wild asparagus LC 604 Gloriosa suberba Flame-lily LC 605 Dipcadi longifolium (Bulbous plant) NE 606 Ledebouria {= Scilla} sp. DD 607 Urginea zambesiaca NE 608 Crinum sp. Crinum lily LC 609 Sansevieria longifolia Sansevieria LC 610 Dioscorea sp. DD Siphonochilus kirkii {= Kaempferia sp. listed 611 NE in Kwabazi et al (2000)} 612 Microcoelia exilis (Epiphyte) NE 613 Microcoelia sp. (Epiphyte) DD 380 | P a g e ANNEX 2: MINUTES OF MITIGATION WORKSHOPS 381 | P a g e Table 37: Minutes of Nsanje Workshop Questions raised during the workshop Answers from the Consultant At this stage, the ESIA could not identify individual protected trees, the Department of forestry will be involved whenever there What will happen if there is a need to cut is a risk of destruction of protected trees valuable or protected trees? (whenever the canal passes across forested areas). This is added in the ESIA/ESMP in addition to the need to protect woodlands as set aside lands No, canal access will be strictly forbidden Will canal be accessible for canoe? for canoe Indeed, however the ESIA role is not to Water level in the Shire is already going assess the feasibility of the Project but to down, is the Project feasible? assess impacts. The FS has assessed the feasibility of the Project. The primary canal and branch canals will be under the management of an operator. Who will maintain the canals? People will have to maintain their plots, tertiary canals and drains Could the canal overflow and flood No, water in the canal is controlled by villages? gates at the water intake No, fencing will not withstand (stolen, vandalized, etc.), in addition the length of the canal (160 km) would make this very Could the canal be fenced to keep children expensive. However, the ESIA/ESMP from drowning? recommends regular sensitization in school about the risks for children associated with the canal No, the objective of the scheme is Will the water be safe to drink? irrigation. Some pipes may be built to provide with drinking water. Ok, the ESIA/ESMP has highlighted this in There is concerns over the spread of HIV the Code of conduct An Affirmative Action Recruitment Policy How to ensure that local people will be will have to be implemented so that hired in the construction process? contractor hire local people to work Answer by provided by Boniface Nthakomwa (SVTP) : same as PATHA out How will the water fees be collected? grower model (participants related to this example) No, in Nsanje it will be open and lined Can the canal be buried? (burying a canal is too expensive) Normally not, however if the canal cannot avoid infrastructures, they will be rebuild to Will there be any school impacted? good standards (according to the OP 4.12 from the World Bank) 382 | P a g e Shire River is part of the Zambezi What about transboundary impact? commission, they have been contacted (riparian notification) 160 0. Table 38: Minutes of Chikwawa Workshop Question raised during the workshop Answer from the Consultant Shire water level is low (same level than in 1997), the barrage is managed by the Ok, this is taken into account National Water Authority To compensate for lower water level in the Dimba agriculture cover a vast area, a Elephant marsh is it possible to build a pipeline would not solve the issue and pipe to bring water to dimba agriculture? would cost a lot If Kamuzu barrage releases more to compensate for impacts of SVTP it will Ok, this will be taken into account in the impact Liwonde National Park ESIA. (inundations) Comment on the PowerPoint : WESM has highlighted that Impact on Majete Wildlife Reserve are not acceptable as African Parks has invested millions in a prime touristic area that is now under threat from Impacts and mitigation on MWR are construction work and the presence of a presented in depth in the ESIA canal, in order for the World Bank to comply with their policies, it has to give impacts and mitigation a serious consideration. Comment on the PowerPoint : a Impact from the Tiger fish is dealt with in participant has highlighted the risk from the ESIA the Tiger fish Comment on the PowerPoint: How to The best way to ensure that is to verify the propose more measures to ensure that a contractor reputation good construction contractor is selected? Comment on the PowerPoint : WESM has highlighted that Elephant poaching was major during work close to Liwonde Ok National Park in 2003, bringing a contractor inside a park is a risk The water intake shall have a trash rack This concern is dealt with in the with appropriate size to keep juvenile ESIA/ESMP crocodiles from entering Comment from WESM: are local people Yes it was presented as part of the fully aware of the fact that there will be a Consultation work from COWI water fee? How will the project mitigate risk during In MWR the work area will be fenced (as construction of the canal (risk of animal described in the ESMP) falling in the trench)? Slow moving animal (snakes) shall be A measure has been added in the protected from persecution from workers ESIA/ESMP 383 | P a g e Who will have the authority to stop work in Details are added in the ESIA/ESMP cases on non-compliances? 384 | P a g e ANNEX 3: GREENHOUSE GAS ACCOUNTING ANALYSIS COUNTRY : Malawi Shire Valley Transformation Program – phase 2 (P179575) 1. Motivation. The World Bank Environment Strategy (2012) adopted a corporate mandate to account for the Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions for investment lending. The quantification of GHG emissions is an important step in managing and ultimately reducing emissions as it provides an understanding of the GHG mitigation potential of the Shire Valley Transformation Program (SVTP) and can support sectoral strategies toward low-carbon development. This analysis looks at both phases (1 and 2) of the SVTP. 2. GHG accounting methodology. The environmental externalities of the Program were estimated using the EX-ACT tool, based on an excel-sheet, developed by FAO[1] to provide estimations of the impact of AFOLU (Agriculture, Forestry and Other Land Use) Programs and policies on the carbon balance. The World Bank has adopted EX-ACT, to estimate the impact of agricultural investment lending on the GHG emission and carbon sequestration in the program area. The carbon balance is defined as the net balance across all GHGs expressed in CO2 equivalents (CO2e) that will be emitted or sequestered due to Program implementation (with-program: WP), as compared to a business-as-usual scenario (without program: WOP). EX-ACT is a land-based accounting system, estimating CO2e stock changes (i.e. emissions or sinks of CO2) expressed in equivalent tons of CO2 per hectare and year. The tool was designed using mostly data from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPCC) Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (NGGI-IPCC, 2006), which furnishes EX-ACT with recognized default values for emission factors and carbon values in soils and biomass (the so-called “Tier 1 level” of precision). 3. The GHG accounting calculations are based on characteristics in the climatic conditions and the land use and crop management practices for with-program and without-program situations (as defined in the financial models of the Economic and Financial Analysis. 4. Assumptions in the EX-ACT model. The SVTP proposes a broad range of investments and activities that were captured with the GHG accounting tool EX-ACT. The assumptions for this analysis were informed by discussions during Program preparation and are aligned to the assumptions of the Results Framework and Economic and Financial Analysis (EFA) of the Program. 5. The SVTP-2 is situated in the Lower Shire Valley of southern Malawi. The climate and moisture regime for Malawi is tropical dry. The Program implementation duration is 12 years (SVTP-1 for 6 years, SVTP-2 for 6 years) and the capitalization period assumed to be 13 years. Dynamics of implementation are assumed to be linear over the project period. The SVTP aims to enhance agriculture and livestock productivity through investments in improved agriculture and livestock practices in an intervention area of approximately 43,000 ha. The benefits of SVTP would come from improvements of productivity, as well as crop diversification and a shift from low value to high value crops (sugar cane, maize, legumes (pigeon pea, dry beans), cotton, vegetables and fruits (bananas, mangoes, citrus), for domestic and export markets), and not or to a very minor degree from the expansion of the cultivated area. In addition, the Program would support investments in livestock intensification and aquaculture. The SVTP will support the adoption of improved water management and improved production technologies such as improved seeds, crop husbandry practices, fertilization, and horticulture technologies. 385 | P a g e 6. The GHG calculation in EX-ACT is based on the following elements, which are derived from the Results Framework and EFA: (a) incremental crop production from productivity increases in the targeted value chains, with a shift from traditional cultivation to improved agronomic practices; (b) additional fuel consumption due to marketing and transport of the additional production; (c) increased use of fertilizer and agro-chemicals. The assumptions for the GHG calculation are summarized in the table below. Table 1. Data inputs to EX-ACT in the Without and With Program Scenario Activities Without Program Scenario With Program Scenario Crop production Sugarcane 13,300 ha (pumping Sugarcane 13,300 ha (gravitation-led of water from the Shire River irrigation) with electric pumps) Sugarcane new 1,700 ha (gravitation-led irrigation Traditional maize: 29,700 ha Two cropping seasons: produced using traditional Cycle 1 (total 28,000 ha): production technologies (1 cropping season) Fruit trees (banana, citrus, mango) 3,361 ha Maize 1,400 ha Cotton 7,746 ha Pulses 15,493 ha Cycle 2 (total 28,000 ha):: Fruit trees (banana, citrus, mango) 3,361ha Pulses: 12,317 ha Maize 11,622 ha Vegetables: 700 ha Animal production Traditional cattle rearing by Intensive livestock production by members targeted households in the of the SOCFE. Livestock intensification has a intervention area negative impact on GHG. Energy use Sugarcane companies are Reduction of 1,000 MT of diesel due to the currently using electric or use of gravitation for irrigation of sugarcane thermic energy Consumption of Traditional farmers is the Additional use (MT/annum) of fertilizers has fertilizer and agro- intervention area are using low been calculated for 43,000 ha on the basis chemicals or no fertilizers and agro- of the crop-budgets.: (insecticides, chemicals in the rain-fed Ammonium nitrate: 850 MT herbicides) production systems Potassium chloride: 136 MT Single superphosphate: 340 MT NPK 23:21:0: 9451 MT CAN: 4558 MT DAP: 775 MT Ammonium sulfate: 775 MT 386 | P a g e 7. Results show that the SVTP can constitute a sizeable net carbon sink of -278,099 tCO2 eq over 20 years, thus −13,905 tCO2 eq annually, due to the introduc on of improved crop management practices and technologies. The cropping activities constitute an absolute carbon sink with a carbon balance of -1,040,743 tCO2 eq in the with-project scenario. The increased use of fertilizer and insecticides/herbicides, partially compensated by a reduced use of energy, would lead to an increase of 730,224 tCO2 eq. 8. The monetary value of the GHG balance has been estimated and taken into account as economic benefit of the project in the Economic and Financial Analysis. The Guidance Note on Shadow Price of Carbon in Economic Analysis (September 2017) recommends “projects’ economic analysis use a low and high estimate of the carbon price. The economic analysis[2] uses a low and high estimate of the carbon price starting at US$38 and 77, respectively, in 2018 and increasing to US$65 and 131 by 2042. Carbon market prices are the market value of CO2e emission reductions or sequestration (offsets) that are registered and sold through various market structures. Table 2. Detailed results of the EX-ACT, comparing the Without and With Program Scenario [1] http://www.fao.org/tc/exact/ex-act-home/en/. [2] World Bank. Shadow price of carbon in economic analysis, Guidance note. November 12, 2017 Annex 4: Workers Code Of Conduct Code of Conduct for the Contractor and Contractors Personnel SHIRE VALLEY TRANSFORMATION PROGRAMME DATE CONTRACTOR’S CODE OF CONDUCT 387 | P a g e We/I……., have signed a contract with THE MALAWI GOVERNMENT for the CONSTRUCTION OF AN IRRIGATION CANAL in CHIKWAWA District under the SHIRE VALLEY TRANSFORMATION PROGRAMME. We/I commit to implement measures to address environmental and social risks related to the Works, including the risks of gender-based violence, sexual exploitation, sexual abuse, and sexual harassment. This Code of Conduct is part of our measures to deal with environmental and social risks related to the works. It applies to all staff, laborers and other employees at the Works Site or other places where the works are being carried out. It also applies to the personnel of each subcontractor and any other personnel assisting us in the execution of the works. All such persons are referred to as “Contractor’s Personnel” and are subject to this Code of Conduct. This Code of Conduct identifies the behavior that we require from all Contractor’s Personnel. Our workplace is an environment where unsafe, offensive, abusive, or violent behavior will not be tolerated and where all persons should feel comfortable raising issues or concerns without fear of retaliation. REQUIRED CONDUCT Contractor’s Personnel shall: 1. Carry out his/her duties competently and diligently; 2. Comply with this Code of Conduct and all applicable laws, regulations and other requirements, including requirements to protect the health, safety and well-being of other Contractor’s Personnel and any other person; 3. Maintain a safe working environment including by: a. ensuring that workplaces, machinery, equipment and processes under each person’s control are safe and without risk to health; b. wearing required personal protective equipment; c. using appropriate measures relating to chemical, physical and biological substances and agents; and following applicable emergency operating procedures; 4. Report work situations that he/she believes are not safe or healthy and remove himself/herself from a work situation which he/she reasonably believes presents an imminent and serious danger to his/her life or health; 5. Treat other people with respect, and not discriminate against specific groups such as women, people with disabilities, migrant workers or children; 6. Not engage in Sexual Harassment, which means unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature with other Contractor’s or Employer’s Personnel; 7. Not engage in Sexual Exploitation, which means any actual or attempted abuse of position of vulnerability, differential power or trust, for sexual purposes, including, but not limited to, profiting monetarily, socially or politically from the sexual exploitation of another; 8. Not engage in Sexual Abuse, which means the actual or threatened physical intrusion of a sexual nature, whether by force or under unequal or coercive conditions; 9. Not engage in any form of sexual activity with individuals under the age of 18, excepting case of pre- existing marriage; 10. Complete relevant training courses that will be provided related to the environmental and social aspects of the Contract, including on health and safety matters, and Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA), and Sexual Harassment (SH); 388 | P a g e 11. Not use illegal substances; 12. Not use physical violence; 13. Properly use company property and protect it. Not steal, waste or be careless with company property; 14. Respect speed limit, all traffic signs and regulations inside and outside the construction area; 15. Follow rules laid out by Majete Wild Reserve while within their premises; 16. Report violations of this Code of Conduct; and 17. Not retaliate against any person who reports violations of this Code of Conduct, whether to us or the Employer, or who makes use of the grievance mechanism for Contractor’s Personnel or the project’s Grievance Redress Mechanism. RAISING CONCERNS If any person observes behavior that he/she believes may represent a violation of this Code of Conduct, or that otherwise concerns him/her, he/she should raise the issue promptly. This can be done in either of the following ways: 1. Contact management through HR and Social and Safeguards Officers. 2. Contact PMT through the Social Safeguards Specialist or GBV/SEA Service Provider in writing at these phone numbers………. 3. Put the grievance in a grievance box provided at strategic location in the project area. 4. Contact any member of the Grievance Redress Committees set for the community and for workers. The person’s identity will be kept confidential, unless reporting of allegations is mandated by the country law. Anonymous complaints or allegations may also be submitted and will be given all due and appropriate consideration. We take seriously all reports of possible misconduct and will investigate and take appropriate action. We will provide referrals to service providers that may help support the person who experienced the alleged incident, as appropriate. The complete GBV Plan and Grievance Redress Mechanism Plan can be consulted at the HR and Social Safeguards offices. There will be no retaliation against any person who raises a concern in good faith about any behavior prohibited by this Code of Conduct. Such retaliation would be a violation of this Code of Conduct. CONSEQUENCES OF VIOLATING THE CODE OF CONDUCT Any violation of this Code of Conduct by Contractor’s Personnel may result in serious consequences, up to and including termination and possible referral to legal authorities. This document is solely held by (name of contractor), it shall not be used, reproduced, altered or conveyed to third parties, partially or fully, without explicit authorization. Electronically issued document after approval of the original. FOR CONTRACTOR’S PERSONNEL: I have received a copy of this Code of Conduct written in a language that I comprehend. I understand that if I have any questions about this Code of Conduct, I can contact ........................................[enter name of Contractor’s contact person with relevant experience] requesting an explanation. Name of Contractor’s Personnel: 389 | P a g e ...................................................................................................... Signature: ...................................................................................................... Date: (day month year): ...................................................................................................... Countersignature of authorized representative of the Contractor: Signature: ...................................................................................................... Date: (day month year): ...................................................................................................... ATTACHMENT 1: Behaviors constituting Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (SEA) and behaviors constituting Sexual Harassment (SH) The following non-exhaustive list is intended to illustrate types of prohibited behaviors: (1) Examples of sexual exploitation and abuse include, but are not limited to: • A Contractor’s Personnel tells a member of the community that he/she can get them jobs related to the work site (e.g. cooking and cleaning) in exchange for sex. • A Contractor’s Personnel rapes, or otherwise sexually assaults a member of the community. • A Contractor’s Personnel denies a person access to the Site unless he/she performs asexual favor. • A Contractor’s Personnel tells a person applying for employment under the Contract that he/she will only hire him/her if he/she has sex with him/her. (2) Examples of sexual harassment in a work context • Contractor’s Personnel comment on the appearance of another Contractor’s Personnel (either positive or negative) and sexual desirability. • When a Contractor’s Personnel complains about comments made by another Contractor’s Personnel on his/her appearance, the other Contractor’s Personnel comment that he/she is “asking for it” because of how he/she dresses. • Unwelcome touching of a Contractor’s or Employer’s Personnel by another Contractor’s Personnel. • A Contractor’s Personnel tells another Contractor’s Personnel that he/she will get him/her a salary raise, or promotion if he/she sends him/her naked photographs of himself/herself. 390 | P a g e