Inclusive Early Childhood Education for Children with Disabilities in Indonesia Anna Hata, Sheila Town, Joko Yuwono, Shinsaku Nomura May, 2023 Inclusive Early Childhood Education for Children with Disabilities in Indonesia Acknowledgement This report was prepared by: Anna Hata, Sheila Town, Joko Yuwono, and Shinsaku Nomura. This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank, supported by funding from the Inclusive Education Initiative. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions © 2023 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for non-commercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. Contact Information The authors can be contacted at snomura@worldbank.org. Photo Credit Cover Photo: World Bank Page 15,19,21: World Bank Acknowledgements This report was written by Anna Hata (Consultant), Sheila Town (Consultant), Joko Yuwono (Consultant), and Shinsaku Nomura (Senior Economist) from the Education Global Practice, East Asia and Pacific Region (HEAED). The authors are grateful for overall guidance provided by Cristian Aedo (Practice Manager, HEAED). The report benefited from peer review comments from Deepti Samant Raja, Ruchi Kulbir Singh, and Rabia Ali as well as inputs, contributions, and comments from the wider Indonesia team working on education, social protection, and health, nutrition and population. The team appreciates Elisabeth Yunita Ekasari for the operational support to the team and Sheila Town for editorial support. The study benefited greatly from a series of discussions and consultations with government officials from the Directorate of Community Education and Special Education (PMPK) and the Directorate of Early Childhood Education Program (Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini or PAUD) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology (MoECRT). It also benefited from multiple focus group discussions with stakeholders, including participants from schools, district and provincial educational offices, parents of children with disabilities and representatives of organisations working with people with disabilities in Indonesia. The authors appreciate the discussions, consultation workshops of the preliminary findings, feedback received from the Government of Indonesia including MoECRT, and provincial and district offices of education, development partners including UNICEF and representatives of civil society and academia. This work received support from the Inclusive Education Initiative, which is financed by the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad) and the U.K. Government’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO). The findings and recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or of the countries they represent. 4 Executive summary Children with disabilities are often left out of the education system globally, and in Indonesia they still tend to be overlooked at preschool level. People with disabilities are estimated to comprise 15 percent of the world’s population, and in many countries children with disabilities are more likely to remain out of school than other children across all education levels.1 Globally, having disabilities can double the chance of never accessing school,2 and even if they go to school they tend to drop out before completing primary education. Indonesia is no exception, and despite the government’s efforts in recent decades, in particular, inclusive early childhood education (ECE) for children with disabilities is still significantly overlooked in policy, practice and empirical research. Rather, inclusive education policy and programs often highlight primary and secondary education, meanwhile inclusion is not a key focus in ECE in Indonesia. This study addresses the dearth of research on inclusive ECE in Indonesia. Given the critical importance of access to education from the early years onwards, and the potential positive impact of ECE on children’s lives, this study has a specific focus on children aged four to six. It examines current practices and key issues from multiple perspectives to tackle several interrelated issues – What makes preschools inclusive for children with disabilities? How does inclusive ECE work? Why does it work in this way? – with an aim to inform future policy formation and practice. In terms of method, this study comprises multiple focus group discussions with key stakeholders, reaching almost 70 participants across Indonesia, ranging from teachers, school principals, school committees, parents of children with disabilities, local organizations working with people with disabilities, NGOs and teacher associations, to local and central governments from different sectors including education, health, social affairs and child protection. Multilevel analysis of this rich data revealed hidden and complex issues related to inclusive ECE in Indonesia. Gaps are identified between policy interventions, school dilemmas and struggles in classrooms, and between the supply and demand side, especially considering the perspectives of parents of children with disabilities, who tend to be overlooked despite their key role in their children’s education. Meanings of ‘inclusive’ preschools and ‘qualified’ teachers are questioned and redefined based on the analysis of multiple perspectives. The analysis prompts a review of the understanding of ‘inclusive’ preschools from simply providing access by declaring that a preschool is inclusive, to focusing on the importance of the process of inclusion. Teacher quality remains a key challenge and requires transformation, from no or one-off training that tend to leave teachers unskilled in practice, into an ongoing, more relevant and effective training model that meets teachers’ needs. Moreover, the study reveals wider structural issues including the economic burden borne by parents of children with disabilities that can affect their children’s access to education and their learning outcomes, and it shows the great need for synergies across sectors and systems at multiple levels, which leads to the recommendation for a multi-sectoral approach to inclusive preschool education in Indonesia. Inclusive preschools need to be promoted not merely for but with multiple stakeholders. Current interventions are often assumed to meeting expectations and demands of teachers and parents, but this study reveals gaps and how the current dynamics can create perverse results, resulting in the effective exclusion of children with disabilities. There is a need to create spaces to enable continued discussion and support for teachers, parents, local governments, and communities that will lead to more effective, fair and sustainable development of inclusive preschool education in Indonesia. 1 UNICEF (2021) 2 WHO & World Bank (2011) 5 Ringkasan Eksekutif Anak-anak penyandang disabilitas seringkali tidak diikutsertakan dalam sistem pendidikan di dunia. Di Indonesia, mereka masih cenderung terabaikan, khususnya di tingkat Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini (PAUD). Penyandang disabilitas diperkirakan mencapai 15% dari populasi dunia. Jika dilihat dari semua jenjang pendidikan di banyak negara, anak-anak penyandang disabilitas cenderung tidak bersekolah dibandingkan dengan anak-anak non-disabilitas.1 Secara global, dapat dikatakan bahwa penyandang disabilitas punya kemungkinan lebih besar untuk tidak pernah mengakses bangku sekolah.2 Bahkan jika mereka bersekolah pun, mereka punya kecenderungan untuk putus sekolah sebelum menyelesaikan pendidikan dasar. Hal ini pun terjadi di Indonesia. Meskipun pemerintah telah melakukan berbagai upaya selama beberapa dekade terakhir ini, namun pendidikan anak usia dini inklusif bagi anak penyandang disabilitas masih terabaikan secara signifikan, baik dalam kebijakan, praktik, maupun penelitian empiris. Kebijakan dan program pendidikan inklusif yang ada lebih sering menyoroti pendidikan dasar dan menengah. Inklusi belum menjadi fokus utama dalam pendidikan anak usia dini di Indonesia. Kajian ini membahas kelangkaan penelitian tentang Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini Inklusif (PAUD Inklusif) di Indonesia. Mengingat pentingnya akses terhadap pendidikan sejak usia dini hingga ke jenjang selanjutnya dan potensi dampak positif pendidikan anak usia dini bagi kehidupan anak, kajian ini difokuskan pada anak usia empat hingga enam tahun. Studi ini mengkaji praktik-praktik yang terjadi saat ini sekaligus isu-isu utama dari berbagai perspektif untuk menjawab beberapa pertanyaan yang saling berkaitan, khususnya yang bertujuan untuk menginformasikan pembentukan kebijakan dan praktik di masa depan, yaitu: Apa saja faktor yang membentuk pendidikan anak usia dini inklusif? Bagaimana cara kerja PAUD Inklusif? Mengapa PAUD Inklusif dapat bekerja dengan cara seperti ini? Studi ini menggunakan metode diskusi kelompok terfokus dengan para pemangku kepentingan utama, melibatkan hampir 70 peserta dari seluruh Indonesia, mulai dari guru, kepala sekolah, komite sekolah, orang tua anak penyandang disabilitas, organisasi lokal yang bekerja dengan penyandang disabilitas, lembaga swadaya masyarakat dan asosiasi guru, hingga pemerintah daerah dan pusat dari berbagai sektor termasuk pendidikan, kesehatan, sosial, dan perlindungan anak. Hasil analisis multilevel terhadap data yang diperoleh dari studi ini mengungkap isu-isu yang tersembunyi dan kompleks terkait pendidikan anak usia dini inklusif di Indonesia. Hal-hal yang berhasil diidentifikasi adalah adanya kesenjangan hubungan antara intervensi kebijakan, dilema yang terjadi di sekolah dan kesulitan-kesulitan yang dihadapi di kelas, serta sisi penyediaan dan permintaan. Identifikasi ini mempertimbangkan perspektif orang tua anak penyandang disabilitas yang cenderung terabaikan, padahal merekalah yang punya peranan penting dalam pendidikan anak-anak mereka. Makna pendidikan anak usia dini “inklusif” dan guru yang “berkualitas” dipertanyakan dan didefinisikan ulang berdasarkan analisis multiperspektif. Analisis ini kemudian mendorong peninjauan ulang terhadap pemahaman tentang pendidikan anak usia dini yang “inklusif” karena makna “inklusif” tidak hanya sekadar tempelan semata, namun “inklusif” sebagai sebuah proses terjadinya inklusi. Kualitas guru juga masih menjadi tantangan utama dan diperlukan adanya suatu perubahan terkait hal ini. Selama ini pelatihan untuk guru hanya dilakukan satu kali dan cenderung massal, atau bahkan di beberapa daerah tidak ada sama sekali. Kurangnya pelatihan untuk guru ini menjadikan guru tidak terampil sehingga kualitas pengajaran menjadi rendah. Dibutuhkan suatu model pelatihan baru yang berkelanjutan, relevan, dan lebih efektif. Selain itu, studi ini juga mengungkap isu-isu struktural yang lebih luas, termasuk beban ekonomi yang ditanggung oleh orang tua dari anak penyandang disabilitas K yang nantinya dapat mempengaruhi akses pendidikan dan hasil belajar anak, dan perlunya sinergi antar sektor dan sistem di berbagai tingkatan kebijakan sehingga dapat berujung pada rekomendasi pendekatan multisektor untuk PAUD Inklusif di Indonesia. 1 UNICEF (2021) 2 WHO dan World Bank (2011) 6 Table of Contents Acknowledgements 3 Executive Summary 4 1 Introduction 8 1 Overview of inclusive education and early childhood education in indonesia 9 2 Regulatory frameworks related to inclusive pre-school education in indonesia 10 3 Purpose of the study and methodology 11 2 Key Findings 12 1 Access and quality of inclusive pre-schools 12 1.1 Supply side challenges 12 1.2 Demand side challenges 13 2 Teacher quality 16 2.1 Issues 16 2.2 Teacher training 18 2.3 Guidelines to implement inclusive ECE 19 3 Governance 20 3.1 Coordination 20 3.2 Budget 20 3 Conclusions and Recommendations 22 1 Conclusions 22 2 Recommendations 22 References 29 7 Acronyms ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder BAN-PAUD National Accreditation Agency for Early Childhood Education (Badan Akreditasi Nasional– Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini) BOP Education Operational Assistance (Bantuan Operasional Pendidikan) ECE Early Childhood Education ECED Early Childhood Education and Development DSU Disability Service Units FGD Focus group discussion GoI Government of Indonesia GPK Teachers trained in inclusive education (Guru Pembimbing Khusus) KB Play group (Kelompok Bermain) Himpaudi Early childhood teacher association IDR Indonesian Rupiah IE Inclusive Education IEP Individual Education Program MoECRT Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology MoH Ministry of Health MoHA Ministry of Home Affairs MoRA Ministry of Religious Affairs MoSA Ministry of Social Affairs MoWECP Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and Child Protection MSS Minimum Service Standards NGO Non-Government Organization PAUD Early Childhood Education Program (Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini) Puskesmas Sub-district Community Health Clinics SPS Early Childhood units (Satuan PAUD Sejenis) SSET (Directorate of) Secondary and Special Education Teachers TK Preschool (Taman Kanak-kanak) TPA Day care centers (Tempat Penitipan Anak) UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund WHO World Health Organization 1 8 Introduction Early Childhood Education (ECE) for children with b) isolation of families of children with disabilities in disabilities matters as it can disrupt the disability communities -poverty cycle, however it requires both parental c) limited coordination of policies and services of ECE involvement and coordination across sectors at national and local level. Inclusive early childhood Key issues in teacher competence include 1) lack of education and development has been promoted to knowledge and skills in assessing the characteristics provide children with disabilities with opportunities to and learning needs as well as developing individual have equal learning opportunities, socialize with their education programs (IEPs) and curricula for children peers, participate in society over time and provide better with disabilities,7 2) lack of training to improve their chances throughout life. 3 Early identification, assessment competence, 8 3) teachers’ negative attitudes toward and intervention matter because poor health, nutrition, children with disabilities.9 In addition, families of learning and safety can result in development delays, children with disabilities and low-income families may exacerbate the effect of disabilities, impede access to especially find it difficult to access education and health primary education and reproduce the disability-poverty services to obtain appropriate early identification.10 In cycle where disability leads to poverty and poverty many inclusive schools, parents of typically developing leads to disability. 4 For this cycle to end, ECE is a key children do not have sufficient knowledge about opportunity for policy intervention, especially in low- and inclusive schools and children with disabilities, which middle-income countries. Cross-sectoral approaches can lead to discriminatory attitudes.11 and parental involvement is crucial to ensure equitable access to ECE for children most in need, especially Moreover, poor coordination of policies and services young children with disabilities. of ECE in Indonesia has been a fundamental issue.12 In addition to the education sector, the health and social However, inclusion in ECE5 has received very limited sectors play an important role in providing support for attention compared to primary and secondary young children with disabilities and their families, but education in Indonesia. According to existing studies, it is unclear how health, social and education sectors one of the greatest challenges is the lack of early coordinate effectively at a local level to support early identification, assessment and early intervention identification of children with disabilities prior to the mechanisms 6 to support access and quality of learning start of primary education. The lack of a mechanism to for children with disabilities. Key barriers include; provide early identification and intervention of children a) lack of teacher competencies in early identification with disabilities is a key issue because this can have and intervention significant impacts on children’s development, school 3 UNESCO (2020) 4 UNESCO (2020); WHO & World Bank (2011) 5 In this study, ECE in Indonesia mainly focuses on TK A and B, ages 4-5 and 5-6 6 In this study, key terms are defined as follows to clarify different phases of support, based on World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (2012). Early identification can include screening and follow-up systems that can ensure that children who are identified through screening subsequently receive assessments and appropriate services. Assessment is the process to better understand the needs of children with disabilities and their families. This can include a diagnosis and assessment of strengths of the child and needed interventions. Identification and assessment can involve teams of trained professionals. Early intervention refers to service provision based on early identification and assessment. This study focuses on inclusive early childhood education as key service provision, which can ensure optimal development for children with disabilities by providing opportunities for learning focusing on the needs of each child. It is important to critically analyze current situation and identify key challenges in each phase including early identification, assessment and intervention. 7 Ardianingsih & Mahmudah (2017); Nurhayatun & Budi Susetyo (2020) 8 Diana et al. (2017); Ujianti (2020) 9 Nurhayatun & Budi Susetyo (2020) 10 Suhendri et al. (2019) 11 Arman & Kurniawati (2019) 12 Formen & Nuttall (2014) 9 readiness and educational transition. Without adequate such as teachers from one kindergarten,13 without fully early identification and interventions, these children’s examining the causes of key issues in each context, development remains unknown and teachers cannot including differences between urban and rural areas, provide appropriate education services to them. as well as structural causes. This study therefore seeks to fill in the research gaps, by exploring feasible Previous research tends to analyze implementation of mechanisms for early identification, assessment and inclusive education in ECE with very limited sample sizes interventions for children with disabilities in Indonesia. 1 Overview of inclusive education and early childhood education in Indonesia Despite efforts to expand policies and support to the subsector at a national level, and there is also the promote inclusive education, children with disabilities potential for local governments to assign higher priority are still underserved in Indonesia’s education system to ECE as it lies within their remit, and local budgets are overall. While 99,467 children with disabilities were available for ECE services. enrolled in inclusive schools in 2020,14 almost 30 percent of those with disabilities do not have access to Based on MoECRT data, Indonesia has a total of education, and of those enrolled in school, 46 per cent 205,613 Early Childhood Education and Development do not complete primary education, compared to 95 per (ECED) centers under MoECRT, of which 96,958 are cent for children without disabilities. Currently, inclusive preschools for children aged four to six, most of which schools tend to serve children attending mandatory are privately run.18 Indonesia’s ECED services under education (aged 7-18), and only 19.5 per cent of inclusive MoECRT consist of a formal system including preschools schools serve children aged 4-6. Meanwhile only 13 (Taman Kanak-Kanak or TK) serving children aged four per cent of inclusive schools have teachers trained to six in a classroom, formal setting, (referred to here as on inclusive education, and out of a total of more than preschools and the focus of this study), and a nonformal 3.3 million15 teachers in Indonesia, so far a total of system including playgroup (Kelompok Bermain or KB), 8,603 are trained in inclusive education as of 2022, the day care centers (Tempat Penitipan Anak or TPA) and greater proportion of whom are from public schools (70 similar Early Childhood units (Satuan PAUD Sejenis or percent).16 SPS) serving children from birth to age six.19 While the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MoRA) oversees significant While early childhood education is acknowledged to numbers of mainly private preschools, data on these is be a key stage in human development, in Indonesia in the process of collection. Preschools are administered it is not included in mandatory education and thus by city/district governments in the decentralized receives significantly fewer resources. According to the education system in Indonesia, while the central World Bank (2020), the Directorate of ECED received government is responsible for an overall supervision. only 4.5 percent of the MoECRT budget, or about IDR The overwhelming majority of preschools are private 1.8 trillion, despite the proven benefits of investment institutions, and 95 percent are private. 20 This large in ECE and limited access to ECE among children from percentage of private institutions imposes a challenge disadvantaged backgrounds in Indonesia.17 Thus, for the central government to ensure equitable access to there is considerable room for increasing funding to ECE. 21 13 Anggia & Harun (2019) 14 DAPODIK, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology (MoECRT), (2021) 15 https://dapo.kemdikbud.go.id/guru 16 SSET (2022). Availability Of Special Supervisor Teachers (GPK) in Education Units Organizing Inclusive Education (SPPI) 17 Indonesia Public Expenditure Review: Spending for Better Results, World Bank, 2020. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33954 18 DAPODIK, Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology (MoECRT) (2023), downloaded January 2023 19 In this study, the term preschool is used to refer to the formal education system under MoECRT targeting children aged four to six. In line with MoECRT, the term ECE includes various programs in formal and nonformal systems under MoECRT targeting children aged 0-6, known as Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini or PAUD. In Indonesia, while the majority of ECED services are provided by the MoECRT, other institutions also provide formal and nonformal early childhood e services including the Ministry of Religious Affairs (MoRA), Ministry of Home Affairs (MoHA) and the National Population and Family Planning Board (Badan Kependudukan dan Keluarga Berencana Nasional or BKKBN). Data on 20 Dapodik 2022. 21 Iskandar, 2020. 10 2 Regulatory frameworks related to inclusive preschool education in Indonesia Inclusive preschools for children with disabilities are level where the responsibility for education service doubly overlooked in Indonesia’s regulatory framework. delivery lies, oversight of preschools is decentralized From the aspect of inclusive education, early childhood to districts, with no specific references to inclusion. 22 education is not highlighted, and from the aspect of early Presidential Regulation No. 60/2013, on Holistic and childhood development, inclusion is not a key focus. Integrated Early Childhood Development focuses on Preschool is referenced in adequate accommodation addressing the needs of children up to the age of six in regulations, and more is now being done to link it to the areas of health and nutrition, stimulation education, Disability Service Units as they are gradually established moral-emotional development, with an emphasis on throughout the country, and the Ministry of Religious access, equity and sustainability of services. It does not Affairs includes preschool in its scope for inclusive however refer to inclusive education specifically and religious schools at all levels, however, frequently does not define stimulation education. Further, current inclusive preschool education unfortunately slips into national strategic plans (2020-24) for expansion of gaps between policies. preschool education do not make reference to inclusive education. 23 While Indonesia has a clear framework for inclusive education (IE), this covers mandatory education from Teacher training on inclusive education at preschool age seven, not early childhood. In a previous study, the level under MoECRT is provided by the Directorate World Bank found that the Government of Indonesia (GoI) of Secondary and Special Education Teachers (SSET). through the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and The blended online and in-person training course Technology (MoECRT), has set a clear legal framework offered24 includes how to recognize the characteristics for Inclusive Education. MoECRT Regulation No. 70/2009 of children with disabilities among a broader curriculum, regulates implementation of IE, including definitions of following theory with practical observed activities. 768 IE, objectives, types of children with disabilities, and the teachers have completed an additional optional module role of central and local governments. Implementation on identification of special needs at a preschool level. remains a challenge, with many requirements unmet and/ The curriculum includes the application of the concept or unmonitored. For example, districts are expected to of early childhood education, early childhood growth establish at least one inclusive school per sub-district and development, how to recognize the characteristics and one teacher along with necessary equipment and of children with disabilities, applying early childhood tools to accommodate children with disabilities, and learning methods, developing lesson plans, conducting while this is starting to become a reality in the better- early childhood development assessments, health resourced and more populous districts in Java, other and nutrition maintenance for early childhood, ethics islands are some way behind. The regulations do not and character for teachers and education staff, and cover preschools as they are not part of mandatory communication with parents. However, existing training education. is largely one-off and the effectiveness is unknown. In addition to MoECRT training, Education Offices in districts Meanwhile early childhood development is covered and other organizations may offer teacher training under several other government regulations, however for inclusive preschool, including universities, local or inclusion is not a key focus. Central government is international NGOs, and other initiatives such as through responsible for standard setting in the education sector, MoECRT’s digital platform, namely Teacher Sharing (Guru and under the Ministry Decree 137/2014 on education Berbagi). However, the number of preschool teachers standards for preschools, there is no specific reference who have been trained by them is unknown at this point. to standards for inclusive schools. The decree focuses on standards for achievement, content, process, Under Indonesia’s decentralized system, preschool assessment, teaching, facilities and infrastructure, service delivery is the responsibility of districts, and management and financing. At provincial and district the role of the central Ministry is to set standards and 22 Law No. 23, 2014 on Local Government. 23 Strategic Plan of the Directorate General of Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary Education, 2020-2024, Ministry of Education, Research, Culture and Technology (MoECRT) (2022) https://paudpedia.kemdikbud.go.id/uploads/pdfs/TINY_20220804_181944.pdf 24 Program Guru Belajar Multi Seri | seri PAUD Diklat Berjenjang Dasar (kemdikbud.go.id) 11 oversee quality. Since preschool is not part of mandatory and localized way through sub-district Community education, districts do not have specific obligations for Health Clinics (Puskesmas). Medical officers carry out it. At preschool level, districts and sub-districts are also periodic health checks, including dental check-ups, responsible for early childhood healthcare, through the head circumference measurements, immunizations, Ministry of Health’s community health centers. Meanwhile provide vitamins and conduct routine children’s health Presidential Regulation No. 60/2013 concerning Holistic- checks. While there are doctors and nurses available Integrative Early Childhood Development aims to meet in Puskesmas, child development specialists and the diverse and interrelated essential needs of children psychologists would not tend to be available, particularly simultaneously, systematically, and in an integrated in rural or remote areas. 3 Purpose of the study and methodology Following recent studies on inclusion in mandatory Child Protection (MoWECP), National Commission for education,25 this study aims to fill gaps in knowledge Disabilities. The FGDs were used to gain an in-depth regarding the current practices, barriers and enablers in understanding of issues related to inclusive preschool inclusive education at preschool level in Indonesia. This education in Indonesia, to encourage groups to study focuses on kindergartens under MoECRT and aims voice their opinions, and to explore collective views. to answer the following research questions: 1) What are Participants were purposefully selected from a chosen the current practice and challenges in early identification, sector, to discuss current practices, challenges and areas assessment and intervention for children with disabilities of improvement related to inclusive education for young in ECE in Indonesia? 2) What are feasible and practical children with disabilities in Indonesia. Each FGD included ways to address the current challenges and promote approximately 15-20 participants. FGD data were good practices? analyzed employing thematic analysis. Focus group data were triangulated with other qualitative and quantitative Given the lack of data and information on practices and sources including pre-questions to teachers and field policy implementation related to inclusive preschool visits. As for school participants, 30 participants from education in Indonesia, this study uses focus group ten preschools were selected including eastern, central discussions with key stakeholders to learn more and western Indonesian locations at the request of the about the issues. This study comprehensively covers Directorate of ECED in MoECRT to reach preschools stakeholders representing the supply side (central and beyond Java islands to understand the key issues. A local governments, school principals, teachers, school combination of well-performing, sufficient and struggling committees), the demand side (parents of children with kindergartens was included, both private and public, disabilities) and various community actors supporting to gain a fuller picture of the situation in Indonesian the implementation of inclusive education at an ECE inclusive preschool education. Targeted cities/districts level (teacher associations, local NGOs, organizations of consisted of wide-ranging geographical areas including persons with disabilities, academia). Aceh, West Java, DKI Jakarta, East Java, Bali, East Kalimantan, North Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, and Focus group discussions took place with inclusive West Papua. This study included discussions on current preschool stakeholders in 2022. Four focus group practices and challenges related to young children discussions (FGDs) were conducted online in September with various types of disabilities including children with 2022 including school-level actors (teachers, school autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit and principals, school committees), parents of children aged hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), speech delay and visual four to six with and without disabilities, local communities impairment. As a limitation of the analysis of FGD data, working with people and children with disabilities, teachers and parents of children with disabilities did not and representatives of local and national government mention specific experiences related to children with officers from relevant ministries including the MoECRT, physical disabilities and thus the key challenges faced by MoRA, Ministry of Social Affairs (MoSA), Ministry of these children may be missed in the analysis. Health (MoH), Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and 25 Hata, Anna, Joko Yuwono, Ruwiyati Purwana, and Shinsaku Nomura. (2021) “Embracing Diversity and Inclusion in Indonesian Schools: Challenges and Policy Options for the Future of Inclusive Education”. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/535361634052935364/ embracing-diversity-and-inclusion-in-indonesian-schools-challenges-and-policyoptions-for-the-future-of-inclusive-education 2 12 Key Findings 1 Access and quality of inclusive preschools 1.1 Access and quality of inclusive preschools '' 1.1.1 Availability of inclusive preschools, I want to ask, what is an trained teachers and learning resources inclusive school? Inclusion in Many provinces still lack any kind of ECE center and the supply of any school, maybe not in private inclusive preschools remains insufficient. Of 96,958 preschools, only school but in public school, 149 are inclusive accounting for 0.15 percent of all preschools, and only should be supported by the 18 inclusive preschools are public and the remaining 131 are private. 26 It Government. How about the is estimated that there are 2,633 children with disabilities enrolled in implementation of inclusive preschools, including 335 in public and 2,298 in private preschools. 27 schooling? We can tell that it Children with disabilities account for only about 0.07 percent of all children enrolled in preschools under MoECRT. 28 cannot be like, from Monday to Friday all these children with Inclusive preschools are limiting their intakes of children with disabilities catch up with their disabilities. In addition to the shortage of inclusive preschools, available peers. So, what do you mean inclusive preschools tend to set a quota system to limit the number of by inclusive? Is it like we make children with disabilities who can enrol, sometimes to only one or two per preschool, making their enrolment further difficult and inequitable. As a certain inclusive programs in result, parents of children with disabilities often face difficulties and even preschools, which have quotas, if they find an inclusive preschool they sometimes find there is a long for example, ten, and preschools waiting list, as reported in this study. The limits to access to education can accept three out of ten, so due to small quotas for children with disabilities by preschools is also they can use some certain time, highlighted as a key issue among parents of children with disabilities. dedicated time for these three Parents stressed the need to increase or cancel quota systems as a first step to improve inclusive education for young children with disabilities. 29 children to be treated based on their needs? Can preschools provide teaching assistants? Inclusive school has become 26 DAPODIK, MoECRT 2022 In this report, the term inclusive preschools is used to refer to preschools that misunderstood. Psychologists accommodate children with disabilities based on Dapodik data. However, the Dapodik data relies on an estimation of the number of children with disabilities which is self-reported by are private, therapists are the ECE centers. Since there is no verification system for the reported data, more accurate data on the number of preschools that accomodate and provide appropriate environments private, and preschools also '' for children with disabilities is needed. provide teaching assistants 27 DAPODIK, MoECRT 2022 28 DAPODIK, MoECRT 2022 who are also private. 29 In Indonesia, the MoECRT Regulation No. 1/2021 concerning Admission of new students in preschool, primary school, secondary school and vocational schools articulates pathways for new student admission system, including an affirmation pathway for children with disabilities. Local governments are expected to develop technical instructions for accepting students with disabilities following the regulation. The quota for the number of children with disabilities often depends on local government/schools. According to the findings of - A father of a girl with autism, this report, preschools tend to set small quotas for children with disabilities because of the expectation that teachers would have difficulties if there were no limit, due to the lack of Bandung, West Java their capacities and resources. 13 There are limited numbers of preschool teachers to accept more. The quota system, caused by the lack trained in inclusive education. Teacher training on IE of teachers and their capacity, resulted in denial of provided by the Directorate of SSET has been taken by enrolment of children with other types of disabilities only 738 ECE teachers, which accounts for about 0.15 such as a child with a visual impairment who wanted percent of all preschool teachers. 30 Moreover, MoECRT to enrol in the school. Thus, the limited number of Regulation No. 70/2009 concerning Inclusive Education trained teachers in preschools is becoming one cause for Students with Disabilities and Potential Intelligence of rejection of children with disabilities at enrolment, by and/or Special Talents specifies the requirement for preschools that are listed as inclusive. one GPK (teacher trained in inclusive education) per school, but this standard does not always meet the Preschools do not tend to have adequate actual needs of some inclusive schools who receive infrastructure, facilities or resources to provide many children with disabilities. The FGDs verified that adequate accommodation to children with disabilities. the lack of trained teachers to implement inclusive Lack of equipment and learning materials for children education remains a key challenge across regions. with disabilities is another common issue among While some city/districts have established Disability inclusive preschools. During the FGD, teachers and Service Units (DSU) to support the implementation of school principals described the lack of equipment, inclusive education at all levels including preschools, especially learning media for children with disabilities, as the expectation that schools can accept all children one of key challenges in both urban and rural areas. In with disabilities cannot be met when trained teachers West Papua, a teacher reported that they have received are lacking at school level. A public inclusive preschool no training nor financial support for learning materials in Samarinda, East Kalimantan is one of many schools for children with disabilities from the local government, that does not have enough trained teachers, and as a while they have children with disabilities in the consequence, the school limits the number and type classroom. As a result, teachers make learning media for of children with disabilities who can enrol. Currently children, by recycling garbage or whatever they have at the school has one to two children with ASD, and the hand to make flash cards and others. principal expressed that it is impossible for the school 1.1.2 Quality standards of inclusive preschools The current ECE strategic plan only sees disability Curriculum and Assessment Organization through as a component of quality, and monitoring is limited, annual monitoring and evaluation activities. However, preventing detailed investigation across a wide range what is measured in the monitoring of preschool of inclusive ECE for children with disabilities. While the education for children with disabilities is unclear. ECE 2020-24 strategic plan of the MoECRT Directorate of ECED31 refers to Sustainable Development Goal 4 Quality standards for preschools in Indonesia do not and the need to ‘ensure inclusive and equitable quality specifically including children with disabilities. While education and promote lifelong learning opportunities the Government of Indonesia has established the for all’, the document does not go into specific detail Minimum Service Standards (MSS) in 2005 to ensure regarding inclusive ECE, nor does it set targets for one year of quality preschool education for children expansion of inclusive ECE. Rather, it focuses on aged 5-6, and updated it in 2018, it has not covered increasing quality, access and resources generally. inclusive education for children with disabilities. As The plan refers to an inclusion index that aims to score for the curriculum, MoECRT developed a national ECE schools based on levels of tolerance, commitment to curriculum in 2013 aiming at the holistic development nation building and multiculturalism, and understanding, of all children to prepare for primary school, but no awareness and behavior towards children with specific reference for children with disabilities was disabilities/ special needs. According to Government included. The ECE curriculum sets a framework for early Regulation No. 57/2021 which has been amended by learning and development and the MSS address the Government Regulation No. 4/2022 concerning National needed standards to achieve learning and development, Education Standards, this is to be overseen by MoECRT including contents emphasizing child-centered and play- representatives from the Educational Standards, based learning, and the process entailing the regular 30 DAPODIK, MoECRT 2022 31 Rencana Strategis Direktorat Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini 2020-2024, https://paudpedia.kemdikbud.go.id/uploads/pdfs/TINY_20220804_181944.pdf 14 '' Inclusive school could be wrongly conceptualized. The inclusion mentioned in school might be misunderstood. If a school cannot accept children with disabilities, make it '' clear from the very beginning. Don’t accept and declare the school is inclusive because the process is not like that. - A father of a girl with autism, Bandung, West Java use of lesson plans to plan, implement and evaluate children with disabilities is one of key causes of ad learning experiences. 32 However, this study revealed that hoc implementation of inclusive education. In practice, capacity to apply the curriculum and MSS for children this study revealed that some local governments assign with disabilities is largely unknown among teachers even ‘inclusive preschools’ in a top-down approach with if they are trained in IE. limited quality assurance and government support to accommodate children with disabilities, by issuing a While an accreditation system serves as a quality list of preschools mandated to accept children with assurance mechanism for preschools in Indonesia, 33 disabilities merely for local governments to declare that there is no specific reference to children with they have reached their targets. As a result, the quality disabilities in the existing accreditation system. The of inclusive preschools varies widely across and within National Accreditation Agency for ECE, known as Badan districts. It is not uncommon for inclusive preschools to Akreditasi Nasional-Pendidikan Anak Usia Dini (BAN- have no teachers trained on inclusive education by the PAUD), was established in 2006, as the government government, no or limited budget to hire psychologists entity to develop educational standards. In 2008, the GoI and qualified teachers, and to find that children with launched the accreditation system to monitor the quality disabilities are rejected or segregated from children of ECED services at the central level and to support without disabilities within preschools. In this context, it is quality improvement by local governments and ECED understandable that parents of children with disabilities institutions. However, the accreditation process does criticize current inclusive preschools for rejecting not include a focus on quality issues related to children enrolment, discouraging interactions among children with disabilities. Thus, in addition to quality standards, with and without disabilities within preschools, and for accreditation system for inclusive ECE for children with putting the financial burden on parents to secure teacher disabilities remains unclear at a national level. assistants and psychologists for their children to learn in the preschool. Thus, quality standards and accreditation The lack of quality standards, accreditation system systems need to include specific consideration for and proper monitoring of inclusive preschools for children with disabilities. 1.2 Demand side challenges Since resources for inclusive preschools are severely of children with disabilities from low social economic limited, the onus is on parents to cover the cost of status and/or remote areas who tend to have less access assessments, therapy, other needs and educational to economic resources for additional or better-quality support. The FGDs with parents of children with medical support and consultations for their children, and disabilities revealed the high out-of-pocket costs for where these services are not available, travel may be parents for consultation and diagnosis from doctors, required for families in remote areas. psychologists and other professionals for their children with disabilities as well as teaching assistants. One Parents in the FGDs frequently noted how their parent moved to another province in search of better children faced challenges including bullying, labelling support for their child with a disability when he learned and exclusion, casting doubt on the quality of services that West Java is prioritizing inclusive education. This for young children with disabilities. The most common indicates the situation might be even harder for parents issue shared by parents of children with disabilities 32 World Bank (2022) “Pilot Program Evaluation of Online Disability Identification and Continuous Learning Support Program for Children with Disabilities in Rural Indonesia.” 33 World Bank (forthcoming) 15 was their experience of exclusion from education. This disabilities are self-motivated to learn, this may not included rejection at enrolment, limited per school always the case. In fact, parents’ denial of their own quotas for children with disabilities, and segregation children with disabilities is reported. A caregiver who and bullying within preschools. 30 percent of parents of is taking care of a child with a speech delay expressed children with disabilities participating the FGD reported the need for communication with teachers to learn that their children with disabilities had been rejected by the best ways to explain and help other parents to preschools, which regard these children as ‘disturbing accept their condition. This case indicates the need of others’, inhibiting their access to education from early education and support to not only for parents but also years. Negative attitudes of teachers were often caregivers of children with disabilities, especially in a reported by parents of children with ASD, while a child sociocultural environment where extended families also with visual impairment experienced bullying by their take care of young children. Moreover, education for peers in a preschool and needed to move to another disability inclusion should not be limited to parents of preschool. The prevalence of these issues highlighted children with disabilities but all parents. It was widely the need for a paradigm shift for inclusive education acknowledged among participants that there are many from focusing attention on mere access to school into parents who are not aware of their child’s condition what is happening within school, and how to make when they join preschool and some parents only realize schools truly inclusive for children with disabilities. their children’s special needs once their children enter primary school and find that the child struggles. Thus, The FGDs revealed that parents of children with inclusive preschools can provide an important space disabilities and parents of children without disabilities for families of children with and without disabilities to tend to lack understanding of how to support children interact, co-learn and work to create more equitable with disabilities. While some parents of children with environment for all children. A father questioned the value of making his daughter fit in to the education system that tends to emphasize specific academic aspects or finding where she belongs and can fulfil her ambitions. “I am looking for answers. What can she do in life? Will she be independent? I hope to find a way forward for her so she can sustain herself, look after herself, adjust to others, and not be hampered by her disabilities. I want her to fulfil her ambitions, this is what we want to help her do. Can she take a non- academic track, be an athlete, follow her special interests? Have a useful life? Build her self-esteem?” - A father of a girl with autism, Bandung, West Java 16 2 Teacher quality 2.1 Issues '' Early identification It is acknowledged that preschool teachers generally We get support from a psychologist do not have the skills and knowledge to identify or support children with disabilities, and lack of teacher to offer parenting classes and training also affects the identification of children with disabilities. A teacher in North Sulawesi has children teacher sharing sessions. Some with disabilities in her classroom but has received no parents only realize their children teacher training to support them. She reported that teachers have problem in finding any kind of literature have disabilities when they start that guide teachers to learn how to identify, interact with school. While teachers may have and support learning for children with different types of disabilities such as speech delay and ADHD. As a result, a sense of this, they are not teachers had to find a way on their own. Some teachers qualified to diagnose. They can in rural areas to learn how to identify children with disabilities via YouTube, especially since the pandemic, find appropriate learning materials when they understand what is '' which affected the increased use of social media. As identification of children with disabilities requires professional knowledge and skills, it is clearly risky to needed. leave teachers reliant on the internet only where teachers need to filter the information and may not always know - a school principal, the data source or its reliability and relevance. Manado, North Sulawesi '' Assessment In addition to the lack of teacher training and proper We need ideas about what works resources, lack of school budget affects multi- disciplinary assessments as it discourages both for children with disabilities, what public and private preschools from collaborating can help with sensory issues and '' with health professionals. Assessments of types of disability requires specialist inputs. The majority of what is safe preschools in Indonesia are private with a wide range of qualities and budgets, and the lack of budget for - a school principal, private preschools in rural areas inhibits what should be Manado, North Sulawesi a multi-disciplinary identification process. For example, a private inclusive preschool in West Papua told how a psychologist was supposed to do early screening and assessment for children, but the school staff hesitated to use the service because they had to pay. Financial support is crucial for preschools with limited resources, and the financial struggles among inclusive schools in rural areas in particular should be acknowledged.34 34 While the MoECRT provides training on identification of children with disabilities to targeted teachers, in practice, it is not uncommon that various instruments are used. Sometimes the quality and relevance of instruments is variable. The process of early identification and assessment often depends on the local governments/schools. Further discussions on issues with assessment of children with disabilities in inclusive schools in Indonesia can be found in Hata,A., Yuwono, J., Purwana, R., Nomura, S. (2021) “Embracing Diversity and Inclusion in Indonesian Schools: Challenges and Policy Options for the Future of Inclusive Education”. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/535361634052935364/embracing-diversity- and-inclusion-in-indonesian-schools-challenges-and-policy-options-for-the-future-of-inclusive-education 17 Early intervention Teachers need support to be able to provide and encourage interaction with peers. Thus, quality differentiated teaching for children with disabilities standards for ECE services as set by the MSS are not so that they can fulfil their potential. Lack of proper adequately adapted or implemented for children with training and mechanisms for teachers to learn how disabilities. to teach children with disabilities in the classroom is a common issue especially in rural areas. The lack of Parents criticized current inclusive preschools that training on how to interact with children with different often do not promise inclusion in the process of types of disabilities, and how to create and use learning learning at this key stage of their children’s lives and media based on their needs, and evaluation of training socialization. The perception was often that when were common obstacles that schools face in different teachers have negative attitudes toward interaction city/districts including Samarinda in East Kalimantan, between children with and without disabilities, this can Menado in North Sulawesi and Fakfak in West Papua. An result in segregation of children with disabilities within educator from an inclusive preschool emphasized this, preschools. Parents of children with disabilities often saying clearly; “We don’t really understand what kind of regard preschools as a key place for social interaction equipment to use for the children”. Thus, similar to the that is essential for building their children’s self-esteem identification issue, the lack of training and mechanism and friendships, and many referred to it as their prime to support learning of children with different needs interest for their children, valued above academic in rural areas may be putting a lot of responsibilities prowess. The parents want their children to build on teachers who struggle but have to find a way to their skills in various aspects which are all considered support children with disabilities in daily practices in the important for school transition and social inclusion. classroom. Parents’ confusion occurred partly due to the lack of consideration of what parents value with regard to their children’s education that often emphasizes the need for social interaction, above and beyond the need for them A mother also emphasized the need of starting to learn how to read, write and count. with a view to see that difference is not lacking. '' A triangular approach that assures parental What we need is to build the involvement in the assessment of their children’s changing needs is essential, but teachers often self-esteem of children with lack skills to build partnerships with the families of disabilities. They are not less children with disabilities. The triangular approach is often characterized by continued collaboration between than others. I believe once their parents, schools and health professionals, to ensure self-esteem is built, they can feel '' that they inform each other regarding types of learning activities, therapies, goals, school transitions and as good as the others. expanding options of their children’s life path. Parents of children with disabilities emphasized their need to talk - A mother of a girl with visual with both schools and health professionals, sometimes impairment, Garut, West Java. becoming a bridge between the two. However, one third of teachers participating in this study had no procedures in place to communicate regularly with families about daily issues, family issues, priorities, resources and Teachers often lack systems and tools to monitor needs of the child. In preschools, parental involvement the progress of children with disabilities, and matters to promote children’s learning and development classrooms are hardly adapted for children with more than primary and secondary education, and disabilities to accommodate individual needs and their role matters more for children with disabilities encourage interaction with peers. The FGDs revealed so that they can ensure that every support is aligned. that more than half of teachers participating in this The current gap between parents’ expectation and study did not have systems or tools to monitor the the lack of teachers’ skills to promote teacher-family progress of children with disabilities. Moreover, nearly partnerships can affect children’s learning experience seventy percent of teacher participants reported and outcomes, and family involvement therefore needs that their classrooms were not adapted for children to be considered as part of the inclusive preschool with disabilities to accommodate individual needs environment. 18 '' What we expect from sending our children to school is that they will have a social life. But the suggestion from the psychiatrist concept and purpose of inclusion, to the extent that they question the role of the Government in supporting inclusive schools. '' is home schooling. So, what are the best On the other hand, preschools are often regarded as options? It is confusing. inclusive by parents when they ensure the importance of creating spaces and times for social interactions, - A father of a child with autism, providing children with disabilities a choice of Bandung, West Java suitable environments and opportunities adjusted to their needs. Parents of children with disabilities Parents emphasized that the process of inclusion also appreciated preschools as being inclusive when makes preschools inclusive, rather than just physically their children are treated equally. These parents’ accepting children with disabilities and declaring insights from their experiences clearly indicate their that the school is inclusive. Inclusion is a process perspectives on what is inclusive preschool and what is that needs to be better defined and understood. not, and their experiences reveal hidden issues such as Segregation and privatization of inclusive education how implementation often puts parents of children with system within preschools, which requires parents to pay disabilities into a more financially constrained situation for psychologists, therapists and teaching assistants, and makes it harder for them to improve the process of is perceived by the parents in the discussion as a learning and socializing that matters for their children’s huge burden, and a result of misunderstanding of the education and life prospects. 2.2 Teacher training Although the SSET Directorate has made great efforts NGOs and Himpaudi highlighted the need of continued to provide training for inclusive teachers, only a small teacher training to address practical challenges at school number of teachers have been able to avail of it, and level. more consistent, local level, frequent training is needed to build a cadre of teachers to promote inclusive Official teacher training for children with disabilities is education. While training from the central government limited especially in rural areas. Government Regulation is key for teachers supporting children with disabilities No.13/2020 on Adequate Accommodation for Students in preschools, its effectiveness in improving teachers’ with Disabilities, Articles 23 and 33 emphasizes the practice may be limited if the mode of delivery by the obligation for districts to support the implementation central government is dominated by current one-time of inclusive education in formal education at all levels mass teacher training. This is because the key issue including preschool, and promotion of staff quality is faced by trained teachers is that they still often do not included. However, teachers, principals, local NGOs know how to teach children with disabilities in their and Himpaudi stressed during the FGDs that local schools and have almost no one to ask questions and governments do not always have a full understanding help them once the training is over and they are finding of inclusive education and capacity to provide teacher they need to respond to real life, diverse needs. The training on inclusive preschool education. Participants FGDs verified that the majority of teachers from inclusive from private inclusive preschools in North Sulawesi and preschools received training on inclusive education only West Papua reported they had received no teacher once in the past. Multiple local NGOs who have expertise training from local government to support children with in supporting children with disabilities in Indonesia and disabilities. The lack of proper training for teachers provide teacher training at a local level emphasized that has negatively affected identification of children preschool teacher knowledge and skills are insufficient, with disabilities, provision of learning materials and and current one-off training by the government is not pedagogy in the classroom, making it difficult for some equipping teachers with adequate understanding school education staff to trust their local governments’ on how to provide learning support for children with commitment to implementing inclusive education. While disabilities, making teachers feel overwhelmed. NGOs some local governments have training on inclusive ECE, and Himpaudi (ECD teacher associations) stressed that participants found these existing training insufficient to the core issue is not necessarily teachers rejecting the maximize teacher capacity. Hence, regulatory obligation concept of inclusive education, but rather the lack of of local government to provide teacher training on teachers across the country with fundamental skills to inclusive education is not adequately enacted in teach children with disabilities. Thus, teachers, local preschools. 19 2.3 Guidelines to implement inclusive ECE The government’s guidelines on inclusive A principle mentioned; '' preschool education may not be recognized nor used at a school level, and school staff have a For what we can get from YouTube or Google, strong need for practical guidelines to support sometimes we have to know the source and the children with disabilities in classrooms. The correct one, so we need to filter the information. Directorate of ECE published six guidelines for Standard Operating Procedures in 2018 and four So, if the video comes from the Directorate, or teacher material sources in 2021, all of which the government or the World Bank, it could be are available on Directorate ofECE’s website. 35 our main guide. This is the right one, this is set. However, the effectiveness and actual use of The media is to be designed for disabilities at these guidelines may be quite limited, because different levels. That’s what we need. So even teachers and school principals in inclusive preschools may not know about their existence though the teacher does not have background and often face the lack of useful resources to in special education, they can access it, they teach children with disabilities as a key barrier in can learn from the video, the right lesson from practice. the video. This is needed because our teachers here are very passionate about supporting The FGDs verified the fact that teachers often children with disabilities, but they don’t know '' have problem in finding any kind of literature that guide teachers to learn how to identify, where to go, they don’t know which way to go. interact with and support learning for children with different types of disabilities. As a result, '' teachers had to find a way on their own, often relying on social media. There was agreement We need a catalog for media for children with among school actors from urban and rural areas disabilities. The issue with Google and YouTube is on the strong need for official resources from that we need the information to be filtered so it '' the central and local government, showing how to support children with disabilities in practice, is relevant for our needs and available here. including how to identify their needs, which - Principal, preschool in North Sulawesi province learning resources are suitable for which type and severity of disability as well as to support what kind of skills of children. Given the increasing use of social media such as YouTube and concerns among school actors about the quality, legitimacy and reliability of information coming from it, participants requested the government to create an official resource or catalog to support the implementation of inclusive education at a school level. The strong sense of the lack of useful guidelines among school staff may be attributed to the gaps between the government’s guides that tend to offer general information and the needs of teachers and principals who require more practical information. 35 Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology (MoECRT) (2023b), https://paudpedia.kemdikbud.go.id/ 20 3 Governance 3.1 Coordination Intersectoral coordination for inclusive preschools provinces and districts are now required to establish is lacking at national and local levels due to the lack DSUs to support the inclusion and accommodation of of legal requirement and guidelines for financing all children with disabilities in education at all levels. mechanisms to establish Disability Service Units The relatively new Government Regulation No. 13/2020 (DSU), despite the nature of inclusive education does not yet have derivative regulations regarding the and ECE, both of which require rigorous cross- provision of DSU, so at this stage only a very limited sectoral approaches to policy agenda settings and number of districts/cities have DSU, and the number interventions. At the national level, intersectoral is estimated to be only 25 DSUs as of January 2023. 36 coordination is at the discretion of each Ministry and is Several regencies and cities have already moved to likely to only occur when specifically requested. There is develop them however, including Solo City, Salatiga no legal requirement for regular meetings or exchange City, Padang City, and Yogyakarta City using local of information between the Ministries of Health, government funds. Thus, there is a need for a regulation Education Culture Research and Technology, Religious that clearly prescribes guidelines for establishment and Affairs, Social Affairs and Women’s Empowerment financing mechanisms of DSU, including at preschool and Child Protection. At provincial and district levels, level. Teachers in a private school in West Papua have experienced the lack of support from local governments to implement inclusive education and said; '' For special training to handle children with disabilities, no, teachers have not received any kind of training like that, because in fact, the local government’s education office '' does not fully understand what the word inclusion means. 3.2 Budget MoECRT provides Educational Operational Assistance and maintenance, and to cover honoraria. For 2022, (BOP) per capita grants to registered public and BOP PAUD is minimum IDR 600,000 per year, per child private schools at all levels across the country, but in preschools registered with MoECRT, and additional it is insufficient for inclusive preschools that need grant for children with disabilities, BOP PAUD-ABK further financial budgets to provide adequate support (IDR 2 million) per year, per child is provided if the children with disabilities. Under annually updated preschools apply for the grant. 37 Inclusive preschools regulations, the funds (known as BOP PAUD) are do not receive specific allocations through BOP PAUD transferred directly to schools including preschools as it applies a per capita approach. However, the through the state budget by the Ministry of Finance grants are perceived as being insufficient by principals from the Directorate of ECED. BOP PAUD funds can of inclusive preschools, especially when it comes to be used for accepting new students; for resources hiring psychologists and child development specialists for libraries/reading corners; resources for activities to identify and support children with disabilities, or including learning, play, assessment, health, nutrition providing additional teaching assistants. and hygiene, administration, staff development, utilities 36 MoECRT, 2023 37 MoECRT Regulation No. 2/2022. 21 Funding specialist advice is out of reach for most between inclusive preschools and health organizations. preschools. The FGDs revealed that principals of inclusive The lack of financial and coordination support can preschools often have to find psychologists by themselves discourage inclusive preschools especially in rural areas because psychologists and child development specialists from collaborating with health professionals, resulting in would not tend to be available in Puskesmas (sub-district widening the existing gaps in access to quality preschool Community Health Clinics) in rural or remote areas. education by disability and geographical regions. However, due to the limited funds from BOP, it is hard to identify, attract and retain psychologists on low pay. As a While BOP PAUD for children with disabilities is limited, result, some inclusive preschools, including private ones, resources spent for preschool education remains feel hesitant to pay and use the service by psychologists low, and additional financial support from district and no longer work with them even if preschools governments is lacking. While district governments understand the need of psychologists to conduct early can add resources at their discretion, and data on this screening and identification of disability. One principal is not currently available. FGDs revealed that inclusive managed to connect to Grahita (Indonesian organization preschools struggle with the lack of support for children of psychologists) , which is a private organization, for with disabilities from local government, but it may not be child assessments and developed a Memorandum of easy for them to negotiate directly. Educators expressed Understanding with them. However, principals emphasize frustration during the FGDs and requested stronger the need for professional and legal assistance especially commitment from local governments for inclusive for identification of disabilities. Principals of inclusive education. It is as perceived challenging for inclusive preschools struggle to find cost-effective solutions and schools to directly communicate and negotiate with the request a clear explanation of the issues from the central local government when the school is unsatisfied with government. Thus, the current health and education the current lack of support for children with disabilities. coordination in inclusive preschools often relies on the Thus, the central government’s leadership to hold will and personal connection of principals of inclusive district/city governments responsible for providing preschools, rather than on governmental support. This is financial and technical support for inclusive preschools because the current BOP PAUD is insufficient for inclusive is indispensable, and local governments have it in preschools to retain psychologists, in addition to the their power to increase spending on and monitoring of lack of government initiatives to facilitate coordination inclusive ECE. 3 22 Conclusions and Recommendations 3.1 Conclusions Inclusion in preschools needs to mean more than just increasing the number of inclusive preschools without access to the school building. While the Directorate clarifying what inclusion means at this level. Teacher of ECED has made efforts to promote equitable access training on inclusive ECE requires a transformative to education for children with disabilities, the analysis change, given the large gaps between current teacher shows inclusive ECE in Indonesia is still largely in a training schemes offered by the government and phase of simply opening preschools to children with teachers’ struggles and lack of skills in practice to truly disabilities, while the process of inclusion has not been accommodate children with disabilities and ensure quality well focused. The variable quality of inclusive preschools learning experiences and outcomes. Fundamentally, and the lack of teacher quality and skills results in the there is also a need for stronger governmental support exclusion of children with disabilities to and within to integrate multiple sectors (education, health and social preschools and discourages parents of children with protection) at multiple levels (national, local, school). The disabilities to send their children to preschool. It is key economic burden on parents of children with disabilities to revisit what and how to develop inclusive preschools should also be acknowledged and mitigated especially where children with disabilities can build their self- for those from local social economic status because esteem, teachers feel confident and parents of children financial constraints can inhibit their children’s access to with disabilities are able to trust them with their children. and quality of education. Hence, the recommendations here include needed support for families of young Therefore, the quality of inclusive preschools should children with disabilities. Recommendations emphasize be focused simultaneously with more effort to the importance of a four-pronged approach to inclusive increase the number of inclusive preschools. Since ECE, that is, strengthening coordination between almost all preschools and inclusive preschools are different ministries including education, health and social private, quality assurance and monitoring by the central protection, and families of children with disabilities, to government is key. Thus, it is recommended to prioritize address complex challenges and promote more just and the establishment of quality standards rather than just sustainable inclusive ECE in Indonesia. 3.2 Recommendations 1. Access to and quality of inclusive preschools Quality standards and monitoring of inclusive preschools Recommendation 1: Review and revise the quality standards of preschools to accommodate children with disabilities, including both structural and process quality. Quality standards for ‘inclusive’ preschools should include not only structural factors (e.g., number of qualified teachers, facilities, resources) but also process factors (e.g., interaction between peers). This is because the role of inclusive ECE is not only to enhance academic readiness of all children to enrol in primary school, but also to nurture their social skills to understand differences and learn that difference is not less. This point was strongly stressed by participants who face and address discrimination based on disability in ECE and society including parents of children with disabilities and Organizations of Persons with Disabilities. Drawing on the quality standards, instruments to measure the quality of inclusive preschools for children with disabilities should be developed. Stakeholder engagement should be enhanced to contextualize quality standards and instruments for children with disabilities in Indonesia. The Inclusive Classroom Profile (ICP) 38 can serve as a useful reference to 38 Soukakou, E (2016). Inclusive Classroom Profile Manual 23 develop instruments covering both process and structural quality of inclusive ECE, with adaptation to the Indonesian context. It is recommended to conduct research to examine the status of quality of preschools focusing on the needs of children with disabilities, ideally piloting the quality standards and instruments developed to inform future policies. Research should include both urban and rural areas, and private and public, because quality issues and causes can be largely different by geographical areas and school types. Table 1: Dimensions of process quality and structural quality applied to inclusive preschool education in Indonesia Process quality Structural quality Focus • Relationships and interactions • Staff qualification, child-teacher ratios, between children and adults group size, infrastructure and learning • Interaction between children with environments, and other quantifiable disabilities and teachers elements • Interactions between children • Staff qualification in attitudes, knowledge, Example with and without disabilities skills to accommodate children with of quality disabilities dimensions to • Partnership between school, be measured families of children with • Availability of access to health professionals disabilities and health sector • Availability of spaces for children with • Family involvement in early disabilities to learn with their peers identification, assessment and according to their needs interventions • Availability of adequate support and resources for teachers and inclusive preschools Measurement • Instruments to measure • Policies, records, review of physical space examples interactions including children with disabilities at preschool level through classroom observation Source: Created by the authors Recommendation 2: Develop an accreditation system for inclusive preschool, to improve both the quality and equity of preschools for children with disabilities. Based on the quality standards of preschools to accommodate children with disabilities, an accreditation system of inclusive preschool should be developed. It is important to consider integration with the existing accreditation system for ECED services in Indonesia and make the accreditation process easy to understand for users. Once the accreditation system for inclusive ECED is established, effective dissemination activities should be conducted to ensure that preschools, local governments and other key stakeholders are aware how the process works in practice. Training related to the accreditation process for principals should be provided to facilitate the process. Incentives should be provided to preschools, such as additional funding that is available only for accredited inclusive preschools, funding the accreditation process for those in rural and remote areas, and networks of accredited inclusive preschools to provide and exchange good practices. It is recommended to conduct research on the impact of the accreditation system for inclusive preschools on children's academic and social skills, as the accreditation system of inclusive preschools develops. Recommendation 3: Conduct rigorous monitoring regularly to examine whether established standards are being implemented by preschools that accommodate children with disabilities. Monitoring of preschool should be revised to attend to needs of children with disabilities and should be conducted regularly with school leadership by the central and local governments because the situation of preschools changes over time. Recommendation 4: Set a regulation to increase the number of inclusive preschools to ensure every sub-district has at least one inclusive preschool especially in rural areas, drawing on the quality standards. Given the significant shortage of inclusive preschools and inequitable distribution, the number of inclusive preschools need to be increased but the quality should be ensured as mentioned above. There is a need for regulations to promote access to inclusive schools at every level of education including preschool, in every sub-city/district. 24 2. Teacher quality Recommendation 5: Overhaul teacher training for inclusive preschool education to promote a more targeted, tailored and triangulated approach. In the field of inclusive education for children with disabilities, preschool teachers play an important role in constructing children’s experiences to promote their engagement with peers and learning and facilitating collaboration with families of children with disabilities and health sectors at a school level. However, findings show that the number of trained teachers is still very limited, and even if they are trained, their knowledge and skills are insufficient to deliver adequate teaching for each child with a disability, due to the current teacher training that attempts to offer one-off training for all with general information rather than practical information. Since expertise and continued training is required for teachers to gain sufficient capacity, not only increasing the number of teachers trained on IE from pre-service training, but also provision of more focused training for targeted teachers will likely benefit to prepare highly qualified teachers. Providing preschool teachers with adequate support and resources can be more influential in nurturing teachers’ positive attitudes to children with disabilities, than merely increasing their basic knowledge of disability. While knowledge of disability or teachers’ previous experiences teaching children with disabilities can bolster teachers’ attitudes in primary and secondary school settings, knowledge nor experience may not have direct impacts on teacher attitudes at preschool. 39 This is because preschool education is characterized by varying teacher-student-ratios, larger parent involvement, younger age of children and varying curriculum demands. In-depth training in inclusive education can have positive effects on teacher attitudes, but the effects can be limited for some disabilities especially children with behavioral disorders such as ASD who are often perceived as ‘disturbing’ by teachers as this study showed. Thus, teacher support should be tailored to disability types, contexts of inclusive preschools and practical challenges. Training at ECE level should provide teachers with experiences in promoting a triangular approach; the collaboration between preschool, parents and health professionals. A triangular approach, that assures parental involvement in the assessment of their children’s changing needs in collaboration with schools and health professionals, is perceived by parents of children with disabilities as a key factor to enable meaningful learning, interaction, and choice for children with disabilities to progress through preschool. A promising practice of such an approach is found in a preschool in Garut where there are regular visits from the local Puskesmas (community health center) and parents have opportunities to have holistic consultations about their children’s condition and needs. Given the lack of teachers with the skills to assist family involvement, training should provide teachers with practical experience. 40 Recommendation 6: Review the contents of guidelines of inclusive preschool education to improve relevance for teachers’ practical needs and revise a dissemination strategy to reach teachers directly. Given the lack of skills and use of existing guidelines among teachers at a preschool level, guidelines should provide more practical and detailed information especially regarding; a. identification of disability types and learning needs in a multidisciplinary approach; b. systems and tools to create individual lesson plans and monitor children’s progress, inclusive pedagogy using adequate resources depending on type and level of disability, adaptation of classroom for children with disabilities to accommodate individual needs and encourage interaction with peers; c. collaboration with families of children with disabilities and health professionals including psychologists, throughout the whole process from early screening, assessment, intervention to transition to primary education. Moreover, the dissemination strategy of the guidelines should be revised to reach teachers directly to improve actual use. Alternative ways include developing a special webpage that is easily accessible to teachers and using a teacher management system to keep teachers updated. 41 39 Lee et al. (2015) 40 The importance of multidisciplinary assessment is further discussed in World Bank (2022) “Pilot Program Evaluation of Online Disability Identification and Continuous Learning Support Program for Children with Disabilities in Rural Indonesia”, and Hata,A., Yuwono, J., Purwana, R., Nomura, S. (2021) “Embracing Diversity and Inclusion in Indonesian Schools: Challenges and Policy Options for the Future of Inclusive Education”. https://documents.worldbank.org/en/ publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/535361634052935364/embracing-diversity-and-inclusion-in-indonesian-schools-challenges-and-policy- options-for-the-future-of-inclusive-education 41 Further discussion on inclusive curriculum can be found in Kim, K., Noah,Y., (2022) “Options to Improve Indonesia’s Inclusive Education Curriculum” https:// documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/099518410122279091/idu0dad87aa7026c704be90be150661a8086fac5 25 3. Governance Support for local governments and preschools Recommendation 7: Develop a regulation that clearly prescribes guidelines for establishment and funding mechanisms of DSU for district/city governments, including preschool children as targets. This study identified that district/city governments strongly influence the success or failure of inclusive preschool education. A key factor of successful local government regarding inclusive preschools is having a Disability Service Unit (DSU) or equivalent working group to promote a collaborative multistakeholder approach at a local level. Currently very few districts/cities that have DSU despite its crucial role, partly due to the lack of knowledge and capacity of local governments and partly due to the fact that it is a recent requirement. Clear guides on establishment and funding mechanisms are necessary for coverage of DSUs to expand, including preschool children because inclusion of children with disabilities in ECE matters to improve their access and completion of primary and secondary education. At preschool level, districts are responsible for child education, healthcare and protection. Local regulations could obligate district level coordination supporting routine meetings between government departments of health, education and social welfare. DSUs should also proactively collaborate with local NGOs that have key roles in identifying out of school children with disabilities, supporting their enrolment in preschool, and providing continued teacher training. Recommendation 8: Provide governmental support to strengthen coordination between preschools and psychologists especially in rural areas. While districts are responsible for early childhood healthcare in coordination with Puskesmas (sub-district community health centers), findings show that psychologists are not available in Puskesmas especially in rural areas and it largely depends on preschool principals’ will and capacity to reach psychologists due to the lack of governmental support. Local coordination between preschools and psychologists should be supported by the government and this will require targeted interventions by district governments and inclusive preschools in rural areas. National level coordination between education and health sectors at ECE level, such as between the Directorate of ECED and Indonesian organization of psychologists, would assist district governments and preschools to coordinate with psychologists locally. The role of health professionals will be to collaborate with schools and parents of children with disabilities and strengthen the triangle approach- the partnership between families, health professionals and teachers- at school and community levels in a regular manner to improve the identification process and address the changing needs of children with different types of disabilities. Recommendation 9 : Set up a model inclusive preschool in each sub district. A promising practice of inclusive preschool education shows that developing a model inclusive preschool in each sub district is effective when resources are limited (see Box 1 below). To develop a model preschool, district/city governments are recommended to provide training for targeted teachers to identify and teach children with disabilities, provide continued mentoring services to teachers and preschools, secure access to psychologists/doctors, and promote teacher-family partnerships. The model inclusive preschool can demonstrate the importance of collaboration between local government and inclusive preschool to enable training within, between and beyond inclusive preschools. Continued refresher training at school level is necessary for teachers to expand their capacity. Training can be offered by actors beyond preschools such as special education teachers, psychologists and doctors, and local NGOs. Teachers in successful inclusive preschools also learn about children’s individual needs along with their parents. Teachers of the model inclusive preschool can then become mentors for teachers in other preschools in the sub-district to maximize the ripple effect. 26 Box 1: Promising practices in Bandung, Inclusive City In Bandung, recent commitments by the Mayor have led to a series of consistent efforts to include children with disabilities in schools. In 2017, then Mayor Ridwan Kamil declared Bandung an ‘Inclusive City’. This new affirmative approach aimed to address the needs of children with special needs, including those from poor families and those with special talents as well as those with both physical and mental disabilities and local budgets are available to support inclusion. The Bandung City Inclusive Working Group (PokJa) was set up to support schools using a collaborative multistakeholder approach, with an initial focus on primary and secondary age groups. The PokJa discusses children’s needs and identifies suitable resources for them, coordinating with school supervisors. In 2018 the working group extended its support to one inclusive preschool per sub-district and began training teachers to help identify disabilities, alongside 60 Bandung-based psychologists. According to an officer from Education Department, Bandung: “All schools receive funds for inclusion, and we have set up a model inclusive preschool in each sub district. We want to demonstrate that children with disabilities can participate in education. Each preschool has access to a psychologist, the city funds 60 of them. After stopping during the pandemic, we have now developed a support system with mentoring services and since 2021 we have 12 ‘school centers’ that support the inclusive preschools. Our resources are limited so we are using this model approach. We want to make sure that when a child with disabilities joins an inclusive school, we do no harm by exposing them to teachers who lack skills.” These efforts are beginning to have impacts, while there is acknowledgement that this is a learning process. A principal from Bandung noted that, “We have a mechanism for teacher training which includes how to stimulate children with disabilities and how to understand the child’s characteristics and needs. We review assessments together with other teachers. We have a doctor next door who supports us. A month ago, Bandung city government offered in classroom teacher training for inclusive schools. We joined, it was a refresher and included peer learning sessions.” A teacher from the same preschool confirmed, “We get annual refresher training and learn from special teachers about stimulation. I have children with autism in my class this year and am learning about their individual needs along with their parents. I have to find ways to keep them engaged, identifying their special interests and finding books and materials for them.” Recommendation 10: Establish a referral system in each sub-district to support preschools in dealing with the lack of qualified teachers. Findings show that one cause of exclusion of children with disabilities at enrollment in preschool is the mismatch of children’s disability type and teacher quality, especially when the preschool has only one teacher who has skills on specific type of disability only, despite having children with disabilities with different disability types seeking to enrol. However, this issue is overlooked in current regulations which tend to assume that having one qualified teacher per preschool is enough to improve access of children with disabilities. The referral system should be built at each district/city government where a preschool can ask for the government’s support to a) gain a qualified teacher/professional or b) assist the family of children with disabilities to reach another preschool in the catchment area that has qualified teachers. Given the lack of qualified teachers within the formal ECE subsector, coordination with special schools, local NGOs and other professionals should be strengthened. Enabling support from special schools will require coordination between provincial and district/city governments because special schools are under the authority of provincial governments while preschools are governed by district/city governments. Thus, central government support is important to expand the district/city governments’ capacity to build an effective referral system. 27 Support for families of children with disabilities Recommendation 11: Further accommodate young children with disabilities in Indonesia’s social safety net programs. The World Bank has previously recommended that the conditional cash transfer Family Hope Program (PKH) could target out-of-school children from poor households, meanwhile the Smart Indonesia Program (PIP) could be adjusted to cover the costs of preschool education. 42 These changes would generally benefit young children with disabilities however further initiatives would be needed to cover the additional costs of including children with disabilities from age four. The Social Assistance for Persons with Severe Disability (ASPDB) program is an existing vehicle that, if expanded, could reach far greater numbers of young children with disabilities, however the fact that recipients must have a medical diagnosis is a challenge to be overcome. Kartu Prakerja, 43 the pre-employment card through which unemployed people over the age of 18 can access a wide range of training and learning opportunities, also offers a model that could be adapted for children with disabilities. Recommendation 12: Provide flexible options for accessing resources for children with disabilities. Parents and schools need to be able to access specialist resources such as doctors, psychologists, child development specialists, therapists, and equipment including mobility aids, learning materials, and so on. The Kartu Prakerja model, that is open to all Indonesian citizens aged 18 and over to access training and have a card to purchase services, allows great flexibility and choice, so users can apply for the courses that interest them and may benefit them. These resources may be available locally or online. This model could be explored and adapted as a way to connect families of children with disabilities and their schools to the resources they need, and to pay for them. Another innovative way to connect to specialist advice is already available through existing Indonesian apps such as Halodoc, 44 which enables online consultations via chats with doctors and psychologists and could be paid for by a card system such as Kartu Prakerja. Halodoc is linked to Indonesia’s health care system and offers a cost-effective way of connecting to doctors across the country, and those who instal the app can select based on their own preference. It does not yet offer video consultations; however photos can be uploaded, and doctors prescribe through the app so that users can either order for delivery or handle at their preferred pharmacy. This route to accessing services bears further exploration, as it would enable parents and schools, particularly those in rural and remote areas, to access timely and cost-effective expertise. Recommendation 13: To promote parental education, community health posts or Posyandu should be encouraged to support families of children with disabilities. The Posyandu is where parents regularly meet health workers and can gain information about social safety net programs, and operates at a community level within each sub-district. Findings show that parents of children with disabilities do not always know how to support the development and education of their children with disabilities especially in rural areas, and teachers in inclusive preschools tend to have limited knowledge on how to support and communicate with families of children with disabilities. In this case, Posyandu staff and volunteers should be able to share education and useful information for parents of children with disabilities. Sub-district heads should make Posyandu a key focal point to provide holistic information and education for parents of children with and without disabilities. Posyandu should also support parents of children with disabilities by connecting them with health support, available social safety net programs, and coordinate with inclusive preschools to ensure access to education. 42 World Bank (2020) 43 Kartu Prakerja is described here. https://www.apec.org/docs/default-source/publications/2021/11/2021-aepr/2021-aepr---annex-b_case-studies. pdf?sfvrsn=d89b175f_4 44 https://www.halodoc.com/ 28 Table 2: Summary of Recommendations Recommendations Timeframe Lead in Implementation Access and quality of inclusive preschools 1. Quality standards Review and develop quality standards of inclusive preschools Short term Central (led by Directorate of for children with disabilities including both process quality and ECED), with local stakeholders and structural quality academia Develop instruments to measure the quality of inclusive Short term preschools for children with disabilities, enhancing stakeholder engagement for contextualization Conduct research to examine the current status of quality of Short term Directorate of ECED, academia, preschools focusing on the needs of children with disabilities, development organizations including urban and rural areas, and private and public preschools 2. Accreditation Develop accreditation system of inclusive preschool, based on Short term Central (led by Directorate of system the quality standards ECED) Disseminate the accreditation system to ensure preschools are Mid-term Central (led by Directorate of aware of the process ECED), with local governments Provide training related to the accreditation process for Mid-term principals Provide incentives and funding the accreditation process for Mid-term preschools in rural areas Conduct research on the impact of accreditation system for Long term Directorate of ECED, academia, inclusive preschools on children's academic and social skills development organizations 3. Monitoring Conduct rigorous, regular monitoring to examine whether Long term Directorate of ECED, local established standards are being implemented by preschools governments and schools that accommodate children with disabilities 4. Regulation Set a regulation to increase the number of inclusive preschools Mid-long term Central to ensure every sub-district has at least one inclusive preschool, drawing on the quality standards Teacher quality 5. Teacher training Overhaul the teacher training of inclusive education at an ECE Short-Mid term Central (led by Directorate of ECED level, to promote more targeted, tailored and triangulated and SSET) approach 6. Guidelines Review the contents of guidelines to enhance relevance to Mid-term Central (led by Directorate of ECED teachers’ practical needs, and review the dissemination strategy and SSET) to reach teachers directly Governance Support for local governments and preschools 7. Develop a regulation that clearly prescribe guidelines for establishment and funding Short term Central mechanisms of DSU for district/city governments, including ECE age group children 8. Provide governmental support to strengthen coordination between preschools and Short term Central (MoECRT, MoH), with psychologists in rural areas districts, sub-districts 9. Set up a model inclusive preschool in each sub-district Mid term District governments with support from the center 10. Establish a referral system in each sub-district to support preschools Mid-term Support for families of children with disabilities 11. Further accommodate young children with disabilities in Indonesia’s social safety net Mid-term Central (MoECRT, MoSA) programs 12. Provide flexible options for accessing resources for children with disabilities Mid- term Central (MoECRT and MoH) 13. To promote parental education, Posyandu should include a focus on children with Mid-term District governments and sub- disabilities district heads Source: Created by the authors 29 References Anggia, D., & Harun. (2019). 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