.·,
FISHERY
Sector Policy Paper
_, . ~
• •. *** HD9450.6 .S431982
••
• li~i~i~f~~l~l i
SLC030269
D o
I
rso.6
S43
982
!
FISHERY
Sector Policy Paper
SECTORAL LIBRARY
!NTERNI\TIONAL BANK
FOR
RECONSTRUCTiO~ AND DEVELOPMENT
AUG 1 61984
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
WASIIINGTON, D.C.
The World Bank
Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.
FISHERY
Sector Policy Paper
December 1982
This paper was initially prepared for
presentation lo the Executive Directors of the
World Bank., It was written by Alfredo
Sfeir-Younis and Graham Donaldson. Vera
Ullrich and Barbara Koeppel provided valuabie
assistance. Emmanuel D'Silva edited the
manuscript for publication.
©1982
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/
The World Bank
1818 H Stree.t, N.W.
Washington, b.C. 20433, U.S.A.
All rights reserved.
Manufactured in the United States of America.
Library of Cbngress Cataloging in Publication Data
Sfeir-Younis,!Alfredo, 194 7-
Fishery sector policy paper.
Prepared b:y Alfredo Sfeir-Younis and Graham Donaldson.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Fishery policy. 2. Fish trade. 3. Food
supply. I. Donaldson, Graham, 1937- . II. Title.
HD9450.6.S43 1982 338.3'714 82-23700
ISBN 0-8213,0138-1
First Printing; December 1982
I
FISHERY
Contents
Page
Summary ......................................... 5
Chapter 1: Status and Prospects of World Fisheries , .. 10
Supply Trends ....................... , ............ 10
Consumption Patterns ... .. ... . ......... .. .. .. ..... 16
Nutritional Importance .. . .... . ......... . .......... 20
Chapter 2: Changing Conditions for World Fisheries . 21
Extension of Jurisdiction: A New Dimension ... .. .... 21
Issues Concerning Fishery Development ............ . 24
Chapter 3: Structure and Dynamics of the Industry . . 27
Large-scale Fisheries ............................... 27
Small-scale Fisheries ..... .. ........ .. ... .. . ... .. . . . 29
Aquaculture .. .. ... . . , ........... . ................ 32
Economic Contribution of Fisheries ...... . .......... 35
Processing and Marketing: Critical Functions ......... 35
Chapter 4: Development Objectives, Constraints,
and Options .................................... 38
Development Objectives . .. . ...... . . .... .. . . .. .... . . 38
Development Constraints .......................... 40
Development Options and Strategy ............. .. ... 42
Designing the Investment Program .. . ............... 43
Chapter 5: The Role of the World Bank . .. .. .. ..... 47
Past Problems with Bank-supported Projects ......... 49
Recent Trends and Future Strategy . . ...... . .. . ..... 52
Sector Management ............................... 54
Environmental Considerations . .. ... . .... . . .... .. .. . 56
List of Tables
Page
1. Present Fish Catch and Potential for
Major Groups of Species . .. ............. . ..... 11
2. Estimated Production and Potential of
Aquaculture in Asia ........................... 13
3
4
3. Past Consurpption and Projected Demand of
Fishery Products in Developing Countries ...... . 17
4. Leadirig Countries in the Harvest of Selected
Species, 1973-1978 ...... . .. , ... . ... . .. . ... .. . 22
5. Relative Importance of Small-scale Fisheries
(SSF) .. .. ......... . . . ......... . ............ . . 30
6. World Bank Lending for Fishery Projects,
Fiscal 1964-81 .. . .. ... . .. ... . . .... .. . ..... .... 48
7. World Bank Lending for Fisheries,
by Project Components, Fiscal 1948-81 . ....... . . 50
List of Figures
1. Annual World Fish Landings, 1948-77 . .. .... . . . 14
2. World ,Production of Aquatic Organisms
by Type of Economy, 1966-75 .... . ........... . 15
3. Distribution of World Catch by Continents,
1977 . .. . .. ...... ... . .. ...... ..... ....... . . .. 16
4. Propo~tion of Fresh Fish in Overall Fish
Consumption, 1951-71 . .. .. . . . . ..... . ... . .. . .. 19
5. The Extended Economic Zones and Scope
for Fisheries ....... . ........ : ................ 81
Annexes
1. Glossary . . .... .. . . ... . ...... . .. .. ... . .... . . .. 65
2. Classification of Principal Fishing Gear ...... . . . . 67
3. Production of Protein Foods for Direct
Human Consumption, 1948-75 ............ . . ... 68
4. Production of Food for Indirect Human
Consumption, 1948-75 . . .. . . ...... .... .... .... 69
5. Potential Effects of Extended Jurisdiction
of the Extended Economic Zones •.............. . 70
6. The Main Fishing Countries ................... 73
7. Fishery Pr oducts: World Catch of Aquatic
Organisms .. . . .. . ... .. .. .. . ....... .... .. .. .. . 74
8. World Catch by Selected Countries ......... .... 77
9. Largest Producers of a Sample of
Aquaculture Products, 1975 ..... .. .......... . . 78
References ..... .. . .... . .. .. .... .. ........... ... .. . 79
Summary
Fishery is an important sector in most developing countries;
in many cases, it contributes over 5 percent to the gross na-
tional product (GNP). Some 12 million fishermen are to be
found in these countries, and at least an equal number are
employed in related support and marketing activities. Fish is
an important source of animal protein. The average per-capita
consumption of fish currently exceeds thirteen kilograms a
year. In Asia, over I billion people rely on fish for their pri-
mary source of protein.
The total catch of fish in the world has remained fairly stable
for the past decade at around 70 million metric tons yearly. It is
estimated that this catch could increase to 120 million tons by
managing heavily exploited stocks better and by intensified
fishing of lightly harvested stocks. Of the 70 million tons of fish
caught, some 50 million tons are consumed by human beings;
the remainder is reduced to fishmeal, oil, and other by-
products.
The introduction in the 1970s of Extended Economic Zones,
up to 200 miles from shore, changed the context of fishery
development and management. By 1979, five developing
countries-Chile, China, India, the Republic of Korea , and
Peru, with 25 percent of the world's catch-were among the
ten largest fishing nations. Many developing countries have
entered into joint ventures and established licensing arrange-
ments to achieve controlled exploitation of their offshore
stocks. However, the bulk of underexplo_ited fish stocks are in
tropical inshore areas of developing countries; they offer po-
tential to small-scale domestic fisheries.
Structure and Dynamics of the Industry
Although there is a natural progression from small-scale
(artisanal) to large-scale (industrial) fisheries, the two often
exist side by side, often together with aquaculture. Generally,
large-scale fisheries have more limitations and carry higher
risk than small-scale ones. Fish stocks in offshore areas are
highly mobile. Rising capital requirements and high energy
costs have increased operating expenses for large boats more
than for small boats; they have similarly affected onshore
processing and storage. The technology employed also re-
5
6
quires highly trained personnel-crew, technicians, and
managers. The resources required are all in short supply in
developing countries. However, the economies of scale are
significant, especially where substantial stocks are available.
Small-scale fisheries provide most of the fish consumed by
people in developing countries. Their advantage lies in pro-
ducing for the local market and in drawing on stocks in inshore
coastal or riverine fishing grounds. Because millions of arti-
sanal fishermen are scattered throughout rural and coastal
areas, development of this sector requires decentralized
efforts. Storage and marketing are major limitations on
small-scale fishery development, especially in areas that lack
transport infrastructure and shore facilities. Where they are
designed to permit it, such facilities can serve both large and
small boats. Although conflicts between the two are frequent,
they can be minimized by appropriate planning and manage-
ment.
Aquaculture is the smallest but fastest-growing part of
fisheries. There are several million fish farmers, mainly in
South Asia and Southeast Asia, each usually managing a pond
less than one hectare in size. Where there is no aquaculture, it is
usually because there is no tradition of eating fish. It could also
be that supplies from capture fisheries provide for the existing
market, or that the availability of land or water is limited.
Where there are markets, and land and water are available,
recent changes in technology relating to feeding, domestica-
tion of new species, and management have made aquaculture
an attractive prospect. Aquaculture has several advantages:
relatively low fuel costs, lack of dependence on a fickle re-
source base, and potential for integration with agriculture.
Development Goals, Constraints, and Options
For those countries that have the resources, the develop-
ment of fisheries can produce considerable benefits. The ben-
efits often include (i) increased employment and incomes, (ii)
improved diets through increased availability of protein, (iii)
additional earnings of foreign exchange through the export of
high-value fish and mollusks, for which there is a substantial
and growing market in developed countries, and (iv) conserva-
tion of the natural resource base for harvesting in the future.
The major constraints encountered in promoting fishery
development are (i) the mobility of stocks (not only is it difficult
to locate them, the ·risk is also there that they will move across
7
national boundaries); (ii) the lack of organizational and institu-
tional arrangements at the local ievel, including the limited
availability of support services such as repairs arid provision of
spares, and access to credit; and (iii) institutional coristraints at
the regional and national levels that include a limited capacity
to plan, implement, and regulate the development of the sec-
tor.
Recognizing these many constraints, the options for fishery
development include:
(a) expanding inshore fisheries by increasing the number
and size of boats allowed by the natural-resource en-
dowmerit;
(b) developing aquaculture as a key activity in the rural
economy by integrating it with agricultural or other
activities;
(c) providing infrastructure, including ports and landing
piers, fish hatcheries, ice plants, cold storage, transport
systems, marketing centers, and distribution networks;
(d) improving marketing chains;
(e) upgrading extension and research services and training
systems;
(f) strengthening administration;
(g) strengthening the institutions that provide credit, estab-
lish land and water rights, and regulate fishing rights;
and·
(h) establishing community fishing organizations such as
cooperatives.
Because the structure of the fishing industry in most de-
veloping countries is predominantly small in scale, because
more equitable distribution of benefits is often a high priority,
and because resources are scarce and large-scale operations
require a far greater share of capital, most low-income and
middle-income countries will probably design a strategy fo-
cused on artisanal fisheries and aquaculture. The choice
between these two, or the degree of emphasis on each, will
depend largely on the natural-resource endowment at a coun-
try's disposal.
Issues that deserve special attention in fishery projects in-
clude: (i) organizing an industry that involves people in re-
mote, scattered villages; (ii) rationalizing the credit system that,
until now, has tended to be inaccessible to small-scale fisher-
men; (iii) resolving conflicts attached to land tenure in the case
of aquaculture; (iv) enforcing regulations; and (v) developing
8
processing and marketing systems and other ancillary services
without which an increase in production achieved through
investment in harvesting will be sacrificed.
Role of the World Bank
Between fiscal 1964 and fiscal 1981, the World Bank 1
provided $259 million in loans for twenty-seven fishery proj-
ects (that cost, in all, nearly $4 70 million). The projects can be
classified into four broad categories: boat building, construc-
tion and improvement of ports, development of small-scale
fisheries, and aquaculture. Within these areas, funds have
been allotted in the following proportions: boat building (32
percent); ports (27 percent); technical assistance (13 percent);
fish ponds (15 percent); onshore infrastructure (5 percent);
processing and marketing (4 percent); and the remainder (3
percent) for working capital, project preparation, repairs, and
maintenance.
The major objective has been to increase production for
export. Nearly 60 percent of the loans were utilized for large-
scale fishery development; it included the building of large
vessels, as well as the facilities to service them. Processing and
marketing, on the other hand, have represented a small share
of total lending.
A review of the Bank's experience in developing countries
reveals that some significant problems have emerged in the
implementation of fishery projects. Because of inadequate
assessment of the social, institutional, and economic con-
straints on fisheries, the rates of return on investments to
fishermen, as well as to the countries, have repeatedly been less
than expected. In some cases, investments have been made in
large-scale fisheries that have proved inconsistent with an ap-
propriate overall strategy. While most small-scale fishery proj-
ects assisted by the Bank are not yet completed, it has been
found difficult to coordinate the various elements of fis~eries
among the large number of participating fishermen.
Recently, in response to priorities established by developing
countries, emphasis has shifted to financing inshore coastal
'References to the World Bank include the Internatio11al Bank for Recon-
struction and Development (IBRD) and the International Development Asso-
ciation (IDA). The financial year of these two institutions runs from July 1 to
June 30. All costs are in US dollars.
9
fisheries, with the aim of increasing the flow of benefit~ to the
rural pqpulation and raising the standard of living of fisher-
men's families. Support for small-scale fishery projects is in
keeping with the Bank's main development objectives.
At present, twenty fishery projects, with an estimated total
Bank involvement of approximately $540 million, are in-
cluded in the Bank's lending program for the period fiscal
1982-86. The lending program will mainly focus on small-scale
fisheries. Developing countries may also be prepared to invest
in industrial fisheries; in such cases, in addition to other
sources of external funding, the International Financial Cor-
poration and the development finance companies may be ex-
pected to be involved.
It is expected that Bank-supported projects will, whenever
possible, provide technical assistance to build appropriate ad-
ministrative, research, and training institutions and develop
environmental policy. However, the Bank expects to rely on
the Department of Fisheries of the Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and other special-
ized institutions to provide the necessary skills.
There is no expectation that all countries that have fishery
resources will wish to develop them further. However, in those
situations where resources and markets are favorable, and
where interest in such development exists, the Bank stands
ready to provide assistance.
Chapter 1: Status and Prospects of
World Fisheries
Millions of people throughout the world depend on the
oceans, lakes, and rivers-which cover 70 percent of the
e;irth's surface-for food, transportation, and recreation. In
the developing countries, about 12 milliqn fishermen working
fulltime and, perhaps, twice that number working parttime
rely on nearby waters for their livelihood. In addition, an equal
or even larger number are employed in related activities such
as process~11g, marketing, di~tribution, !:>oat bui~ding, and net
making. The fisheries 1 are predominantly artisanal (small~
scale), though often ip.dustrial (large-scale) · fisheries and
aquaculture exist alongside.
Supply Trends
One-third of the world'~ catd~ in 1978 (apout 72 .3 million
metric tons) was harvested by fishermen in low-income and
middle-in~ome developing countries. Just as important, the
potential f9r increasing the output in developing countries is
substantial: it is estimated that an additional 31 million metric
tons of se~food a year could be harvested from their coastal
waters (see Table 1: rows "other demersal'' and !'pelagic stock"
and sixth column); this would represent an increase of 60
percent over the total consumed by humans in 1977.
Moreover, fish for human cqnsumption, which, according to
FAO data, grew worldwide by a total of 21 percent between
1970 and 1~78, is e~pectec! to inqease further and at an even
faster rate in low-income and middle-income countries as
prices of livestock soar and the demand for low-cost protein
rises.
~Fisheries include all activities related to the exploitation of fish; they fall into
two categories: (i) capture· fisheries, which are b.y far the most important and
which refer to the harvesting of natural fish stocks found in oceans, freshwater
lakes, and riv~rs, along ~ith the handling, marketing, processing, and distribu-
tion of fish and fish products, and (ii) aquaculture, which is performed in
prackish coastal arl!as, irrigation reservoirs, canals, natural and man-made
ponds, tanks, cages, pens, and lagoons. It involves propagating and raising
aquatic organisms under human control and manipulating at least one stage in
their life cycle befire harvesting.
10
Table 1
Present Fish Catch and Potential for Major Groups of Species
Potential increase from natural stocks
Potential Total world catch• ('000 tons) Aqua-
Stock ('000 tons) ('000 tons) (% of potential) culture
,, 1966 Total•
Manage-
ment•
Increased
1977 1966 1977 effort
Salmon 650 453 480 70 74 170 170 +
Flounder and·cod 6,700 4,692 3,786 70 57 2;914 2,500 400 (+)
Herring and anchovy 15,600 13,709 1,801 88 12 13,799 13,800
Shrimp and lobster 1,670 d 830 1,542 50 92 128 25 100 (+)
Tuna 2,260 1,031 1,592. 46 70 668 100 550 (+)
Other demersal 0 37,100 9,628 17,097 26 46 20,003 4,000" 16,000
Other pelagic 0 40,200 13,045 28,655 32 71 11,545 3,000 8,500 (+)
Cephalopods "(50,000 d). 833 1,165 2 2 (50,000) (48,000)
Other mollusks Not defined 2;115 3,011 Probably large ++
Krill· (50,000 d) 123 0.2 (50',000) (50,000)
Mesopelagic fish (50,000 _d) (50,000) (50,000)
• Figures of catches exclude discards at sea. Potential increase by utilization of these discards included under "Management."
• This column is equivalent to the difference between total estimated potential minus total world catch in 1977.
0
These species are located in coastal areas of developing countries.
d ·denotes preliminary estimates.
"(+)" denotes aquaculture possibilities limited to fattening with specially provided food.
"+ +" or "+" denotes opportunities to increase production from aquaculture using natural food sources.
Source: FAO/COFl/79/lnf. 4, May 1979, p. 22.
12
Some of the more traditional species have been fully
exploited,1 particularly in the North Atlantic, and, in a few
cases, their supply has been threatened. But elsewhere in the
Atlantic and the Indian Oceans, there is scope for increasing
production, perhaps with the exception of shrimp and deep-
swimming tuna. The aggregate catch in the world grew by an
average 8. 7 percent a year in th~ 1960s, and it is thought that it
could increase by 50 million metric tons a year in the future:
about half from rebuilding and better management of cur-
rently depleted or heavily fished stocks (especially anchoveta
and herring) and the remainder from intensified fishing of
those stocks now only lightly or moderately harvested. Beyond
this, there are also some prospects for expanded production of
unconventional species, like krill, which until now have been
caught only in very limited quantities. 2
The volume of production from aquaculture could also be
substantially increased over the next two decades, in both
developed and developing countries, because there are an
estimated 23 million hectares of land that have adequate
supplies of water. In particular, Asian countries, such as
Burma, India, Indonesia, and Thailand, have great potential
in this area (see Table 2).
The scope for developing the fishing industry depends, of
course, not only on the availability of the resource, but on
demand as well. And while estimates of demand are carefully
calculated, they cannot be assessed easily. There are many
~ kinds of edible fish, crustaceans, and arthropods that are con-
sumed in varying proportions in different societies. In addi-
tion, a large proportion of fish is used for purposes other than
direct human consumption, especially in fish meal, which is
used for animal feed. Thus, an increase in the world's con-
sumption of animal protein could increase the demand for fish
products.
Although output has remained fairly stable in the last few
years, the rate of growth in supply has declined substantially
from the high recorded in the 1948-1972 period (see Figure 1).
1This means the stock has been fished to its maximum limit, beyond which the
future catch is endangered.
2
For a detailed a nalysis of world fish resources, see "Review of the State of
World Fishery Resources," Marine Resources Series1 Fisheries Department,
FAO, Fisheries Circular No. 2, March 1981.
13
Table 2
Estimated Production and Potential of Aquaculture in Asia
Potential sites
Area Production for development
Country ('000 ha) ('000 tons) ('000 ha)•
Burma 2.9 1.5 6,477.0
Kampuchea, Democratic 0.4 5.5 15.0
Lao PDR 0.2 0.4 20.0
Pakistan 30.8 37.5 682.0
Vietnam 95.0 101.5 500.0
Bangladesh 76.5 65.0b 476.0
China 739.2 2,743.8b 53.8
Hong Kong 1.5 7.5b 2.1
India 611.9 849.0b 2,730.0
Japan 0.5 550.1b n.a.
Korea, Republic of 75.3 285.8b 452.0
Nepal 0.1 5.2b 2.5
Sri Lanka 10.0 17.2b 278.0
Indonesia 266.9 199.3° 10,787.0
Malaysia 9.1 73.7b 150.0
Philippines 187.6 152.8b 526.0
Singapore 0.7 0.5b 2.4
Thailand 37.8 161.0b 4,522.0
---
Total 2,146.4 5,255.8 27,675.8
n.a. = no data available.
• The areas include all existing freshwater and brackish-water swamps, many of which are important
in their present state as nurseries for commercial species. The total cannot, therefore, be counted as
potential aquaculture development.
" Data obtained from T. V. R. Pillay, "State of Aquaculture," Table 1. The paper was presented at the
World Conference on Aquaculture and International Aquaculture Trade Show, Venezia '81, held in
Venice, Italy, September 21-25, 1982. Figures in Table 1 for seaweeds production have been
excluded from total aquaculture production.
Source: International Development Research Centre, "Research Reenforcement in Aquaculture for
Countries of South Asia and Southeast Asia," Vancouver, Canada, April 27, 1978, p. 73.
The decline in growth is due to the dramatic drop in the catch
of anchoveta in the Pacific Ocean, off Peru and Chile. How-
ever, the supply of fish for human consumption in developing
countries grew by 4.8 percent a year during 1962-1975-a
much higher rate than was registered for livestock (3.5 per-
cent) and cereals (3 percent) over the same period. These
increases generally were distributed evenly, but they were par-
ticularly substantial in Argentina, Chile, Cuba, Republic of
Korea, and Thailand as a result of greater domestic demand or
expansion of foreign markets. Nevertheless, FAQ's supply
projections suggest that it is unlikely that the average annual
growth will exceed 1 percent to 2 percent during 1980-1985;
during that same period, an annual growth in demand of 3.5
percent is projected.
14
Figure 1
Annual World Fish Landings, 1948-77
(million metric tons)
(Millions)
sci
70
., . - Marine waters
60 .,,.. ....
·-·-·-·-·_,,,
50 • _,,.
,,·
•✓
I
i
40
i
30
20
10 . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Inland waters
---::::-/'=>'~. -•,.---,
0 ,___~_ _.___ __,__ _...__ _.__ __.__ _.___..,___
1948- 1952- 1958- 1963- 1968- 1973 1974 1975 1976
Aooh_,
_.__.c__ _ _ _ ,
1977
1952 1959 1962 1967 1972
Source: FAO, Fisheries Circular No. 710, Revision 1, p. 22.
Rome, May 1979.
By 1979, five developing cotiritries-Ch1 le, China, India,
Republic of Korea, and Peru~were among the ten largest
suppliers of fish and other aquatic organisms (see Annexes 5
arid 6). Moreover, low-income and middle-income countries
were able to increase their share of the world's catch from 28
percent in 1966 to 33 percent in 1975 (see Figure 2). Asia
,:iccounted for the largest share, 45.5 percent in 1977 (see
Figure 3).
15
Figure 2
World Production of Aquatic Organisms
by Type of Economy, 1966-75
(%)
..
100 '-
90 ' -
CPEs CPEs CPEs
30.0 33:0 35.0
'-
70 ....
60 '-
LDCs LDCs
28.0 30.0
50 .... LDCs
33.0
40 ' -
..
30 ,_
20 ' - DCs DCs DCs
42.0 37.0 32.0
10 ,_
0
1966 1970 1975
Not~: LDCs = Developing Countries; DCs = Developed ~ountries;
~nd CPE~ = Centrally Planned Economies:
In developed countries, Japan and Spain excepted , growth
rates of fish products used for human consumption declined,
while growth rates in the supply of fish meal were high. The
latter were the result of increased demand for livestock feed
and technological innovations in harvesting the fish (for
example, use of pow~r blocks in purse seining). Thus, severe
pressure was placed on many sardine-like fish stocks (such as
the Atlanto~ Scandian herring) that are used in fish-meal pro-
duction.
16
Consumption Patterns
Of the total fish production of 70 million metric tons, some
50 million metric tons are consumed directly by humans; the
remainder is processed into fish meal, oil, and other by-
products. While more than twice as much meat as fish was used
for direct human consumption in recent years-120 million
metric tons compared with 50 million metric tons-
projections by the FAO suggest that fish consumption could,
nevertheless, increase by 20 million metric tons during the
period 1975-1985; this increase constitutes an aggregate
growth rate of 3.5 percent based on current population and
per capita income growth and with no major shifts in relative
prices. The consumption of fish is expected to increase from
Figure 3
Distribution of World Catch by Continents, 1977
(in percent)
17
an average of about thirteen kilograms a person in 1972-1974
to an estimated fifteen kilograms in 1985. The average per
capita direct consumption in the world is expected to be 4.5
kilograms above the average in developing countries. But the
intake in the developing countries is expected to rise along with
increases in population and incomes (see Table 3). The pro-
Table 3
Past Consumption and Projected Demand of Fishery Products
in Developing Countries
Per person
Consumption Projected demand
1972-74 1985
Live weight per kilogram
World 13.1 14.9
Developing countries 8.4 10.4
Regions
Far East 8.1 10.0
Africa 8.2 9.3
Latin America 7.7 8.4
Near East 3.1 4.0
Countries
Korea, Republic of 38.9 46.1
Senegal 33.8 39.8
Philippines 31.4 37.8
Ghana 28.1 28.4
Malaysia 22.5 23.8
Thailand 21.1 23.7
Cuba 19.5 22.9
Chile 16.9 18.2
Peru 15.6 16.5
Bangladesh 11.6 13.4
Tanzania 11.4 12.4
Indonesia 9.6 12.0
Zaire 9.0 9.6
Nigeria 6.8 9.0
Brazil 7.4 8.3
Argentina 6.1 7.7
Turkey 5.0 6.9
Morocco 4.8 5.4
Mexico 4.6 4.8
Egypt 3.2 4.2
India 3.0 4.1
Iran 1.2 2.0
Source: FAO, "Fishery Products: Supply, Demand, and Trade Projections, 1985," ESC:Proj/78/5,
June 1978.
18
jected increase in the world's demand for fish is significant if
contrasted with the projected levels of production, which are
lower; and unless there is an increase in supply, prices could,
indeed, rise.
The sharpest rise ip consumptioriis expected to take place in
South Asian and Southeast Asian countries, where the net
increase is projected to be 1.9 kilograms per capita by 1985 (see
Table 3). In some Latin American countries, mq~t fish supplies
go to the urban centers. As this population is expected to
expand rapidly, growth in the demand for fish will continue in
this region as well. In some Middle Eastern countries, on the
other hand, the level of fish intake is low because other high-
protein foods, such as meat and pulses, are available; it is also
due to the lack of infrastrµcture (roads and transport) needed
to supply prospective consumers. In rural areas everywhere,
fish supplies are generally obtained only in canned or cured
form; landlocked countries have to rely more on the usually
underdeveloped freshwater fisheries and aquaculture.
As fish-processing technology changed, so did the manner
in which fish was consumed. During the 1950s, for example,
nearly half of the world's catch was consumed fresh. By 1977,
as a result of increased use of freezing techniques, expanded
markets, and harvesting of new species, consumption of fresh
fish declined to 30.5 percent (see Figure 4) . In contrast, frozen
fish, which accounted fqr less than 1 percent of the world's
consumption in the 1950s, rose to over 17 percent by 1977,
since freezing facilitated the marketing of highly perishable
species over .long distances.
The share of canned fish consumed doubled in the period
1951-1977, rising from 6.7 percent to 13.7 percent, while
cured fish (pickled, sundried, salted, smoked, and fermented),
which represented 33 percent of the world's catch in 1951,
accounted for only 11 percent of consumption by 1977. The
drop in the consumption of cured fish ~as the result qf in-
creased urbanization and considerable investment in transport
and roads which allowed many fishermen to sell their stock
fresh, rather than cure it as in the past. But, because curiQg is
the least expensive form of processing, fish prepared in this
form is mainly consumed in developing countries. Most of the
fish consumed in fishing villages that are often isolated from
existing markets, is cured. The potential value-added of these
village-level activities is high, even in areas where primitive
processing methods are used. Moreover, it is possible that as a
. 19
result of the rising cost of energy and, thus, of cold storage, a
larger share consumed will be of cured fish in the future.
Several products are also derived from fish, in the form of
oils, meal, and fertilizer. Demand for fish oil, in particular, is
increasing, as itis used in paints, soaps, candles, and phar-
maceutical products. In 1977 alone, 19.6 million metric tons of
fish-27 percent of the world's catch-were processed irtto
oils and fish meal (see Figure 4).
Figure 4
Proportion of Fresh Fish in Overall Fish Consumption, 1951-71
Percent
50
□ FRESH
0 CURED
0 REDUCTION
40
■ CANNED
Ii] FROZEN
33
30
27
20
17,1
11.2 10.7
10
1951 1977 1951 1977 1951 1977 1951 1977 1971
Sources: FAQ Yearbook of Fisheries Statistics.
20
Nutritional Importance
For a given outlay of funds, more animal protein of high
quality can be obtained from fish than from any type of meat.
As protein from livestock becomes more costly, relatively inex-
pensive fish protein, the main source of animal protein in
poorer communities throughout the world, will become even
more important. Already, in many tropical countries, fish con-
sumption now exceeds that of all other animal protein: in
Southeast Asia, possibly a billion people rely predominantly on
fish for animal protein. Thus, changing circumstances in this
industry would affect populations far ·beyond those directly
involved in the production process.
The protein content of fish varies between 17 percent and 20
percent of dressed weight, and the quality of the protein,
which depends partly on the method used to preserve, process,
and prepare the product, is as high or higher than that of all
meats and milk, though lower than that of eggs. Moreover, fish
are efficient converters of feed to live weight, and where catch
and handling overheads are low, they provide a relatively
low-cost source of animal protein. In fact, in some Latin Amer-
ican countries, the cost per unit of protein derived from fish
was found to be always lower than that from beef, chicken, or
pork; this relationship is expected to prevail elsewhere, as well.
Because supplies are projected to fall far short of demand,
and because there is considerable potential to exploit fish
stocks, many of the developing countries are now considering
developing their fisheries.
Chapter 2: Changing Conditions for
World Fisheries
Extension of Jurisdiction: A New Dimension
Interest in the development of fisheries increased in the late
1970s following the creation of Extended Economic Zones
(EEZs). This placed jurisdiction of waters up to 200 miles from
shore in the hands of individual coastal nations. Many of these
were developing countries. Before 1974-1976, when the pro-
posal was generally accepted, there was no international
framework to determine the rights of access. Large foreign
fleets routinely fished the waters of all coastal states. Although
the seas theoretically belonged to all, in practice they were
fished by the relatively few that had invested in highly ad-
vanced technology. The developing countries, in fact, had little
information about the size and location of fish stocks.
But with the establishment of the EEZs, 1 the coastal states,
including many developing countries, obtained jurisdiction
over their adjacent ocean waters and the consequent responsi-
bility for managing the resources in these areas. At present,
only thirty-six countries account for 90 percent of the world's
catch. Of these, more than one half is taken by Canada, France,
1
The origin of the coastal jurisdiction debate, addressed during several Law of
the Sea Conferences, has long historic roots. In 1608, Hugo Grotius wrote the
famous pamphlet, "Mare Liberum" (the free sea), defending the principle of
open access of Dutch fleets to the Indian Ocean. The basic framework of mare
_
liberum was based on two major arguments: (a) that marine resources are not
exhaustible and (b) that marin e resources are not appropriable. Grotius stated
that individuals could claim land ownership because land is an exhaustible
resource and, therefore, it is subject to appropriation (tenancy). Mare liberum
was challenged by John Selden's anti-Grotius principle of "mare clausum" (the
closed sea) in 1635. Selden stated that the sea is not common to all men , and
that it,just as land, can be subjected to public appropriation (tenancy). Selden's
framework was based on the same principles countries use to appropriate
inland waters (rivers and springs, for example), which under Roman law could
become private property. In addition , Selden argued that sea resources are
exhaustible and, therefore, strict licensing of foreign fishing should be en-
forced. Depending on economic and social conditions, both principles-mare
clausum and mare liberum-have been adopted or rejected by many nations in
history. Now, most coastal states have adopted the mare clausum philosophy as
applied up to 200 miles from their coasts. For detailed discussion see F.T.
Christy, Jr. and A. Scott, The Common Wealth in Ocean Fishing (Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, I 965).
21
Table 4 "°
"°
Leading Countries in the Harvest of Selected Species, 1973-1978
(pounds of live weight)
1973• 1978b
Total Percent Total Percent
Special Country harvest of Country harvest of
category (million total (million total
lbs) lbs)
Ground llsh 0 USSR 7,834 30 USSR 1,920 18
Japan 7,071 27 Norway 890 8
Norway 1,861 7 Japan 782 7
UK 1,549 6 UK 513 5
World total 26,050 100 World total 10,744 100
Tuna Japan 1,368 36 Japan 1,445 38
USA 342 '9 USA 370 8
Korea, Republic of 309 8 Philippines 303 8
Spain 128 3 Korea, Republic of 247 7
World total 3,763 100 World total 3,778 100
Salmon Japan 371 36 USA 367 40
Canada 245 23 japan • 214 24
USA 213 20 USSR 158 18
USSR: 195. 19 Canada 144 16
World total 1,044 100 World total 8,895 100
Halibut USSR 83 31 Canada 90 34
Canada 40. 15 USSR 41 16
Norway 38 14 USA 16- 6
Japan· 33 12 Norway 11 4
World total 265 100 World total 261 100
Sardines/Herring USSR 1,849 16 Japan 3,389 16
Japan 1,058 9 USA 2,498 12
South Africa 1,047 9 USSR 2,001 10
Denmark 844 7 Denmark 721 100
World total 11,450 100 World total 20,794 100
Shrimp India 458 19 India 401 14
USA 372 15 USA 384 13
Thailand 244 10 Thailand 262 9
Mexico 160 7 Indonesia 234 8
World total 2,441 100 World total 2,936 100
Lobster Chile 56 13 Chile 82 21
USA 40 9 USA 36 9
Canada 36 8 \ Canada 35 9
France 29 7 UK 35 9
-World total 424 100 World total 381 100
Crab USA 235 29 USA 407 41
Japan 172 21 .Japan 161 16
USSR 41 5 Korea, Republic of 54 6
Korea, Republic of 32 4 France 39 4
•.World total 805 100 World total 987 100
Clams USA 617 45 Japan 540 32
Japan 491 36 USA 467 28
Malaysia 88 6 Korea , Republic of 173 10
Korea, Republic of 77 5 Malaysia 111 7
World total 1,374 100 •World total 1,665 100
Anchovy Japan 8,581 20 Peru 2,313 35
Peru 5,483 13 Namibia 720 11
USSR 5,387 13 South Africa 487 7
USA 393 9 USSR 448 7
World total 42,659 100 World total 6,631 100
• Frederick W. Bell, Food from the Sea: The Economics of Politics of Ocean Fisheries (Boulder, Colorado: Westview-Press. 1978), Table 3.3, p. 87.
• FAD Yearbook of Fishery Statistics, 1978. N)
0
Includes flatfish, flounder, sole, hake, and haddock. (.)0
24
Japan, Norway, the UK, the USA, and the USSR. However, the
ranking of the four leading producers for a sample of ten
major species shifted significantly from 1973 to 1978; several
developing countries either entered or moved up the ranks
(see Table 4). In 1978, the Philippines appeared as the major
harvester of tuna, Indonesia moved up to be among the top
four shrimp producers (along with India, which has long been
predominant), and Namibia ranked second to Peru in anchovy
catch . A clear implication is that structural changes in the
industry have already occurred which have involved some
transfer of boat titles, some investment in new boats, and a
proliferation of joint ventures between countries with fish
resources and countries with fishing fleets. In all cases, the
revenues of the developing countries concerned can only have
increased.
For many tropical countries, however, the major fish stocks
lie inshore, within ten miles to fifteen miles from the coast. The
actual location and productivity of these fisheries are deter-
mined by the nature of the continental shelf-where this ex-
tends out several miles, the fishing grounds are similarly ex-
tended. The inshore areas largely have been unaffected by the
declaration ofEEZs; in fact, th~ increased attention paid to the
potential and the management of fisheries has benefited them
also. In most cases, the management problems of inshore areas
are similar to those in extended zones.
Issues Concerning Fishery Development
Linked to the rights of access are numerous complex issues.
Fundamentally, there is the matter of whether to develop an
indigenous fishing industry at all, or to lease the waters to
foreign interests. If the decision is made to proceed with de-
velopment, the following issues must be resolved : (a) the extent
of foreign or domestic involvement; (b) the type of industry to
promote-that is, large-scale or small-scale fisheries and/or
aquaculture (see Chapter 3); (c) the kind of technology to
employ; (d) the pace at which development should occur; and
(e) the amount to invest in supporting infrastructure (ports,
storage capacity, boat building, marketing, and so forth).
The management of these newly acquired resources pre-
sents developing countries with enormous tasks. To begin
with, although an initial assessment of the resource must be
made-in order to design appropriate investment policies-
little data and expertise exist in these countries relating to the
25
nature of the fish stock. Once policy is defined, an institutional
framework is needed to implement, manage, and regulate
development. The job is almost Herculean because most
fishery departments are poorly developed (if at all); their tech-
nical and managerial expertise is in short supply and their
infrastructure and equipment (docks, storage facilities , trans-
port, and so forth) are virtually nonexistent.
Just as weighty is the task of enforcing jurisdictional rights
over the EEZs. Regulations must be stipulated about (a) the size
of the mesh in the nets (large enough to allow small fish to
escape); (b) the size of the net itself (to limit the amount of the
catch); (c) the number of days foreign and domestic fishermen
are permitted to fish the waters; (d) the size of the fishing vessel
and engine (to limit the quantity of the catch); (e) the areas
designated specifically for small-scale, artisanal fishermen;
and (f) the weight of the total catch allowed. All these contr:ols
can be (and are) violated; equipment (such as planes, radar,
and patrol boats) and manpower (inspectors, pilots, and
others) are therefore required to implement them.
At present, many developing countries have bypassed these
tasks by entering into joint ventures among themselves or with
firms from developed nations. In the long run, these arrange-
ments are likely to prove advantageous.
The issue of whether to develop fisheries and how much to
invest will be resolved to a large degree by the fertility of the
coastal waters which determines the nature of the stock (the
size and type). While the fertility of oceans generally is high, it
is not uniform across regions and varies with weather patterns,
depth of the seas, available nutrients, and water chemistry.
Thus, in West Africa's very fertile water, huge sardine stocks
can be found. Other species are abundant off the coast of Latin
America, as well as in areas off South Asia. The number and
type of species in a region also vary markedly between temper-
ate and tropical environments. In temperate waters, there are
few species, each with large populations; in tropical seas, there
are hundreds of species, each with relatively small populations.
As a result, the biological nature of the resource becomes the
starting point for the gear, equipment, and modes of harvest-
ing.
The potential for harvesting fish stocks is not uniform. Al-
ready, there are many stocks that are fully exploited as a
consequence of overfishing. Others are likely to reach this ...
stage in the next ten to fifteen years; this is true for most
26
mollusks, such as clams and oysters, and crustaceans, such as
shrimp and lobster. However, the production of both demersal
and pelagic fish 1 , though somewhat constrained in many areas,
can be increased in the aggregate. In addition, there are
species in various regions which are not currently harvested
because they are not economically viable-that is, they bring
low prices or are costly to capture. With proper management,
these species could form the basis for developing the industry
in some locales.
Finally, the scope for fisheries development is largely limited
by market coTiditions, the structure of the existing industry,
and the resources that are available. Development is often
constrained by different interests competing for resources,
especially between aquaculture and agriculture, and between
large-scale and small-scale fisheries over access to resources
and markets. Of course, such constraints affect each element
of fisheries differently. ••
1
Demersal species are those found near the bottom of the oceans; pelagic
species are those near the surface.
Chapter 3: Structure and Dynamics of
the Industry
Although the development of fisheries from small-scale to
large-scale is the logical path, in practice, artisanal, small-scale
fisheries often exist side by side with larger-scale industrial
fisheries. Aquaculture can also be carried out in either a large-
scale or a small-scale mode. The relative advantages and disad-
vantages must be examined in detail before making a choice of
investment in the large-scale or small-scale sectors.
Large-scale Fisheries
It is difficult to state precisely the point at which fishing
enterprises should be labeled large or small. Generally, large-
scale fisheries have the following characteristics. They:
• are organized in a manner similar to agroindustrial firms
in the developed countries;
• are relatively more capital intensive;
• provide higher incomes than artisanal fisheries , for both
boat owners and crew;
• provide most of the canned and frozen fish;
• produce most of the fish earmarked for reduction 1 and
export markets.
In order to benefit from economies of scale, the processing
and distribution functions are integrated vertically (for exam-
ple, the catch with processing); they require highly concen-
trated support services (ports, repair facilities, water, electric-
ity, and ice) and are generally located in urban areas.
While the crew is not usually involved in marketing or distri-
bution directly, processing occurs on board in some cases.
Because large vessels traveling long distances must preserve
the catch for considerable time periods, "factory ships" have
been designed that contain sophisticated preserving and pro-
cessing facilities.
The jobs created in large fishing enterprises are few when
compared to those in small-scale operations, but employment
1
Reduction refers to the process by which fish are processed into fish meal and
oil.
27
28
generated in the support industries is relatively high. Wages
are similar to those in other large industries. Small-scale
fishermen, in contrast, divide the catch (or the proceeds from
it) among the participants.
At present, there are a number of developing countries with
large-scale fisheries at various stages of development. Some
countries, such as Cuba, Ghana, the Republic of Korea, and
Thailand, have well-developed industrial fleets that harvest
stocks in distant waters. Others, such as Argentina, Chile,
India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, and the Philippines, have
developed large domestic fl<=;ets and processing industries,
even though they have an extensive ·small-scale sector. Still
other countries, such as Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Papua New
Guinea, and Senegal, have a few large boats or a small process-
ing industry, or both; these countries, perhaps, have the best
potential for expansion. In some of the countries, the boats
and factories are owned or managed by foreigners. But the
proportion of the fleet that is domestically owned is increasi11g,
as is its size.
In general, large-scale fisheries are subject to far greater
constraints and are a more riskier business than small-scale
fisheries. First, they require that there be a large, continuous
supply of fish, such as tuna. But as schools of fish migrate
unpredictably, there is no such thing as a fully dependable
stock. Second, rapidly rising energy costs have increased
operating expenses for large boats much more than for small
boats, thus decreasing their ability to compete. Third, capital
costs are very high; a large part ·of those costs requires foreign
exchange, not only for the vessels and equipment, but for the
sophisticated technology needed for firms to compete with
countries and corporations already advanced in large-scale
fishing for the limited migratory catch. Fourth, the sophisti-
cated equipment requires highly trained operators at all levels,
from management to crew. In short, large-scale fisheries use
up resources that are in scarce supply in developing countries
and the risk that returns will not be sufficient to sustain invest-
ment is very high . In most developing countries, therefore, the
potential for expanding large-scale operations is extremely
limited. •
However, where economies of scale are important-
particularly when harv·e sting large stocks of tuna, cod, other
deep-sea pelagic species, and shrimp for export-large-scale
fisheries have a competitive advantage. The advantage arises
29
from their low variable costs per ton of output and from their
vertical integration with the processing industry.
Small-scale Fisheries
Small-scale fisheries are virtually the sole suppliers of animal
protein to several hundred millions of people in developing
countries. In Bangladesh, Burma, Cape Verde, The Gambia,
Ghana, Guyana, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra
Leone, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Togo, Trinidad and Tobago,
Yemen Arab Republic, and the People's Republic of Yemen,
they supply at least 75 percent of domestic demand. Further,
the activities of artisanal fishermen are essential to the local
economy of coastal areas, as they provide employment and
income for millions of people (see Table 5).
• Small-scale fisheries are generally located in rural and
coastal areas, near lagoons and estuaries.
• They typically overlap with such rural activities as agricul-
ture, animal husbandry, and aquaculture.
• They are highly labor intensive and use a minimum of
mechanical power.
• While they may include some motorized boats, they gen-
erally exclude mechanized gear.
• They retain primitive technology for handling and pro-
cessing (few of them use ice or cold-storage facilities) with
the result that harvesting losses are significant.
• They harvest stocks with a small biomass, compared to
deep-sea pelagic fish stocks, which contain a large variety
of species suitable for domestic consumption.
• They supply most of the cured fish and fish intended for
direct human consumption.
Although small-scale fisheries can also be organized for ex-
ports (as has been done in Senegal), particularly when harvest-
ing shrimp, mussels, and other fish of high value, its competi-
tive advantage lies in producing for the local market, harvesting
stocks located in coastal areas. But, because the millions of
artisanal fishermen are scattered throughout rural and coastal
areas, a decentralized form of development is needed if the
role of this sector is to be enhanced.
In the warm waters of many developing countries, the conti-
nental shelves are shallow and highly productive. With some
upgrading of technology (motorizing the boats, for instance)
and by improving the quality of shore facilities and marketing
procedures, artisanal fisheries have an advantage over large-
30
Table 5
Relative Importance of Small-scale Fisheries (SSF)
Supply from SSF
Production from relative to
Country SSF relative to domestic Year
total production consumption
(%) (%)
Burundi 58 58 1975
Cape Verde 75 n.a. 1976
Ghana 73 n.a. 1976
Nigeria 99 100 1970
Senegal 79 97 1975
Sierra Leone 93 n.a. 1976
Tanzania 100 100 1975
The Gambia 79 n.a. 1976
Togo 83 n.a. 1976
Bangladesh 95 n.a. 1975
Burma 83 100 1972
India 80 n.a. 1976
Philippines 55 56 1975
Sri Lanka 100 100 1976
Thailand 30 55 1970
Brazil 50 53 1976
Chile n.a. 45 1978
Guyana 100 100 1970
Jamaica n.a. 80 1978
Mexico n.a. 46 1978
Trinidad and Tobago 100 100 1971
Uruguay 31 63 1974
Venezuela n.a. 70 1978
Turkey 50 n.a. 1977
Yemen Arab Republic 95 100 1974
Yemen, PDR 90 100 1975
Note: n.a. = not available.
Sources: FAQ, Fishery Country Profile.
FAQ, Investment Center Preparation Reports.
FAQ, Development of SSF in Southwest Asia , June 1977.
SELA, Aquarius. Economic System for Latin America, 1978.
scale fisheries in exploiting the underwater resources. They
also have a substantial competitive advantage in processing for
domestic markets (particularly in rural areas) because far less
energy is used in drying, smoking, and salting activities; the
cost per unit of protein, therefore, is considerably smaller.
Large-scale and small-scale fisheries can complement each
other in several respects: (a) as the former are developed, both
. can share in the expanded local and foreign markets ; (b) both
31
categories of fisheries create employment-one in the urban
centers and the other in rural areas; (c) although large-scale
fisheries require large arid fairly sophisticated shore facilities,
these can be used by artisanal fishern:ien, too; (d) while large-
scale fisheries harvest the deep-sea stocks further away, small-
scale fisheries are devoted solely to the exploitation of re-
sdUrces located near the shore; and (e) as boats become
mechanized and the size of the vessels increases, they can be
absorbed into the industrial fishing complex.
The development of small-scale fisheries, as noted earlier,
entails fewer constraints and presents greater potential. The
reasons are several:
• The stocks fished by smaller boats are located in coastal
areas and are less migratory then those fished by deep-sea
vessels . Since small boats, individually, do not substan-
tially deplete the stocks, there is potential, in most places,
for expanding the size of the fleet. Nevertheless, sector
planning must consider the collective effect of the fieet on
coastal stocks.
• The increasing costs of energy affect motorized vessels
and processing equipment, though to a lesser degree than
those for large-scale fishing. Studies have shown that for
each calorie of food output, coastal fishing uses only one-
fifth the fuel that deep-sea fishing requires.
• Providing and servicing the vessels and equipment are
more likely to be within the ability of local suppliers,
though some modification of production, or training of
personnel, might be necessary. As a result, the develop-
ment of small-scale fisheries is less likely to drain foreign-
exchange reserves and is more apt to create jobs in local
support industries than large-scale fisheries.
• The training required to adopt new technology to im-
prove efficiency in small-scale fishing is both less costly
and less intensive than for large-scale fishing.
As with most large-scale operations, planning for small-scale
development must consider those constraints that arise from
the existing marketing infrastructure. As mentioned previ-
ously, improving the capacity and quality of fish processing is
critical to the attainment of the full benefit from increased
catches of fish. Marketing and processing facilities are particu-
larly crucial in areas where production exceeds local demand
but where more distant markets offer good prices for fresh,
frozen, or preserved fish of good quality.
32
When development is not planned, conflicts are common; it
is, typically, the small fishermen who suffer from them. Dis-
putes arise, for example, when both small-scale and large-scale
fisheries compete in the same fishing grounds (as has occurred
in Brazil, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Thailand) or for the
same domestic market (as in Panama and the Philippines). In
Malaysia, the contest over fishing grounds was so violent that
several fishermen were killed. The first type of conflict usually
results in reduced catch and the second in depressed prices-
for the artisanal fishermen.
A reduction in catch-where fishing grounds are harvested
by small and large operators alike-results from two major
factors: the gear that is employed and the intensity of the
fishing effort. For example, several types of mini-trawlers,
used mainly for harvesting shrimp, also capture as a bycatch
the juvenile fish that breed on shrimp grounds and that often
represent the only source of income for nearby small-scale
fisheries. The amount of fish caught and discarded by these
trawlers can amount to 80 percent of their total catch. Worse
still, it is believed that these stocks cannot be replenished.
This and other types of conflict can be minimized only by
appropriate planning and regulation of fishing activities.
Where development plans provide for an orderly progression
from subsistence to commercial to industrial modes of produc-
tion, conflicts can usually be minimized. One strategy would be
for authorities to permit small-scale fisheries to expand, rather
than to introduce the other where it does not yet exist. Some-
times, however, the effects of well-intended strategems can be
limited: governments might provide, for instance, wholesale
marketing facilities to be shared by both small-scale and large-
scale operators; while this measure may appear to be equitable
in principle, in practice, the larger enterprises will be able to set
the price of fish and, consequently, disputes may surface.
Regardless of the exact measures chosen to decrease potential
struggles, authorities will need to consider the issue of compe-
tition carefully.
Aquaculture
At present, there are several million fish farmers, most of
whom live in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Each usually
manages a small pond that is less than one hectare in size.
Where adequate markets exist, the development of aquacul-
ture can contribute significantly to consumption, employment,
and income.
33
In those countries where aquaculture is not established, it is
generally because (a) there is no tradition of eating fish and,
consequently, demand for fish is low; (b) fish harvested in
coastal waters, or rivers, adequately supply the existing mar-
ket; or (c) there is a strong focus on agriculture and authorities
have decided to use public land (that might have been suitable
for fish farming) for further development of agriculture.
Credit is generally easier to obtain for agricultural produc-
tion. It is only recently that the World Bank began to increase
the number of loans made to finance aquaculture projects
(in Egypt, India, Panama, and the Philippines, for instance). In
some areas, the expansion of aquaculture has displaced the
growing of rice, particularly in areas where marketing facilities
are adequate. Some rice farmers in Indonesia have shifted to
aquaculture largely because roads existed that allowed fish to
be transported to urban centers. The government, in turn,
responded by building marketing facilities and providing
credit through local banks. As a result, fish farming became an
important element of the rural economy.
While there are literally millions of hectares of public land
that could be leased for aquaculture, governments have been
reluctant, until now, to become involved. This is largely be-
cause of (a) a lack of awareness of the potential value of the
asset; (b) an insufficient number of trained people to manage
the leasing process; (c) the cumbersome nature of providing
access to the land/water; and (d) the absence of guidelines for
setting the price of the lease (which must take into account the
amount of work involved in rehabilitating the body of water to
make it productive).
However, activities associated with aquaculture can
maximize the natural and human resources in the region. The
rural landless can be provided access to productive resources
and afforded the means to increase their incomes. Aquacul-
ture can also be integrated with other rural activities, such as,
for example, livestock production or rice cultivation. A rela-
tively new approach has been to farm fish in mangrove areas
(shallow waters); in Northeast Brazil, for instance, certain
species of crabs have been grown in mangroves. for several
years. Elsewhere, this approach is just now being developed on
a commercial scale.
Various natural resources exist such as wastelands and
flood-control areas, now idle, that could be utilized for
aquaculture and, at the same time, could be used to enhance
other development activities. For example, fish ponds can be
34
used simultaneously to produce aquatic vegetables and flowers
and as a means of purifying sewage water. In fact , mixed
cropping can substantially increase rice yields, since fish
excreta fertilize the paddies and fish eat weeds. Embankments
of fish ponds can be utilized for arboriculture. Ponds can be
used for watering livestock and raising ducks, and once the fish
are mature, the water can be released for irrigation purposes.
Where the water that is suitable for aquaculture is privately
owned , it is ieased by landlords to tenants. Where publicly
owned, governments may, through their state farms, choose to
lease to private individuals or collectives, or retain it as com-
mon property ..
Where the land and water are publicly owned, conflicts tend
to arise when various interests compete for the use of the
resources. For example, there may be competition between
farmers and fishermen for access rights and conflicts between
them if pesticides or fertilizers contaminate ponds and lakes.
Clashes with tourism interests surface over rights to beach
areas that are also used by artisanal fishermen for clam, mus-
sel, and oyster beds; in most cases, the fishermen are displaced.
In Panama, the issue of access was successfully resolved
when the government turned the management of bodies of
water over to local sch_ools. The government goal has been to
provide fish to families in the area. The fish are not sold, and
access by villagers to the ponds is based on the amount oflabor
they contribute. The ponds have also been used to train stu-
dents in fish-farming techniques. The scheme has worked so
well that a surplus of fish has been produced which has been
distributed freely to feed school children. Teachers have noted
that students are more alert and active and many believe that
the change is due to an increased intake of protein.
If the land or water is leased to private individuals or firms ,
the price and length of the contract frequently are at issue.
Conflicts occasionally surface because local authorities tend to
favor shorter leases, while fishermen, who require longer
periods to build and harvest stocks, favor longer ones. The
quality of the water also affects the number of harvests per
year, and it is often difficult for local authorities to price the
resource fairly.
Before any major investment in fish farming is undertaken,
issues ofland tenure and water rights·must be resolved. Where
the land or water is publicly owned, or where water must be
diverted from rivers and streams, potential conflicts must be
35
resolved; or else they will create an unstable and risky envi-
ronment that could undermine the viability of the investment.
The constraints stemming from underdevelopment of market-
ing or from a shortage of skills-constraints _ t hat are similar to
those confronting the small-scale fisheries-must also be dealt
with. These problems are discussed in Chapter 4. -
On balance, however, the advantages of aquacuiture-the
relatively low consumption of fuel, the lack of dependence on a
fixed resource base, and the. potential for integration with
agriculture-'-are substantial. The prospects for expanding
aquaculture activities to the point that commerciai and export
markets can be supplied have been enhanced by recent im-
provemeri.ts in management and feeding technology and by
the domestication of fast-growing species of fish and shrimp.
Most of these technologies are at a stage where they can be
transferred easily to other c6imtries after adaptive research is
undertaken that takes into ·account factors such as climatic
conditions, water quality, and management. For these reasons,
the development of aquaculture warrants serious considera-
tion in both low-income and middle-income countries.
Economic Contribution of Fisheries
While it is generally difficult to determine the precise value-
added of fishing activities (little data exist on the subject),
experience in several developed as well as developing coun-
tries indicates that growth in the fishery sector stimulates de-
velopment and, thus, employment in related industries which
contribute significantly to the total value-added. These indus-
tries include transport, shipbuilding, repair and maintenance,
processing, ice making, cold storage and freezing activities,
and animal-feed production and packaging. Thus, while the
fishery industry, generally, constitutes only a small portion of
total economic activity, in several countries where it is more
developed (such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the. Philippines,
Senegal, and Thailand) it accounts for at least 5 percent of
GNP (see Annex 5).
Processing and Marketing: Critical Functions
Handling and Processing. Because fish is a highly perishable
commodity, it is estimated that up to 10 million metric tons are
lost a year due to improper handling, processing, and mar-
keting. Of this, 5 million tons are estimated to be lost as
36
bycatch, 1 3 million tons due to insect infestation, and the re-
a
mainder as result of other spoilage. These losses equal nearly
20 percent of the world's catch allocated for direct human
consumption.
In fact, the potential for salvaging the 5 million metric tons
of fish lost as bycatch (particularly that associated with shrimp
trawling) is great-if fishermen choose to diversify their prod-
ucts. In saving this part of the harvest, the energy expended in,
say, trawling, would be utilized more efficiently.
Other losses caused by improper handling, processing, and
marketing are difficult to define and quantify. When the qual-
ity (texture and freshness) is reduced, the product can usually
be sold to those who could not afford the fish otherwise. Actual
irrevocable losses, therefore, may be less than the 10 million
tons.
Marketing. In general, fishermen are rarely ever, and their
families -only occasionally, involved in marketing activities. If
the family gets involved in marketing, it is usually because it
lives fairly close to an urban center and because the marketing
infrastructure (roads, waterways, vehicles, and so forth)
needed to transport the fish to adjacent markets exists. These
elements are available, for example, within a 50-mile to 100-
mile radius of Manila; here fishermen's wives frequently do the
marketing; as a result, such families have higher incomes than
those that only harvest the catch.
Most often, however, fishing villages are isolated, and the
marketing is performed by a moneylender who travels from
village to village, or to nearby cities, with the catch he collects
from the individual fishermen.
Because the total catch of most fishermen is small and the
cost of marketing is high, there have been, until now, few
options for the individual fisherman other than the one de-
scribed in the preceding paragraph. This form of marketing is,
however, open to abuse since there are no controls. For exam-
ple, if a moneylender has provided credit to a family for food
or medical care during a slack season, he can secure the
fisherman's catch at whatever price he sets. When there are
several middlemen competing in the same locale, however,
abuse is less likely.
'Bycatch refers to the fish caught in the nets used to harvest other species and
which are subsequently thrown back into the sea, either damaged or dead .
37
If significant investment is made to capture fish, and pro-
duction increases, current marketing practices will have to be
altered. Several alternatives are possible; these include allow-
ing private entrepreneurs (the middlemen or fishermen's
wives) to do the marketing, or forming marketing coopera-
tives.
Because of the nature of-the industry, parastatals have
proved to be relatively inefficient: fish tend to be caught in the
middle of the night while parastatal staff are at sleep, so the
produce often spoils before it can be collected. However, gov-
ernment agencies (like the Philippines Marketing Board) are
needed to perform regulatory functions such as controlling
quality, preventing value-added from concentrating in the
hands of those outside fishing activities, and providing sanitary
services (for example, water supply and shelter) that are indis-
pensable for selling fish.
When cooperatives are organized properly, they can beef-
fective in increasing the incomes of fishing families. Successful
cooperatives are usually located close to cities, have fairly siza-
ble membership (for economies of scale), and their managers
are well trained to handle a diverse set of tasks.
Before any development in the fishery sector can be ex-
pected, marketing arrangements must be improved substan-
tially. Without improvement, serious problems are almost cer-
tain to arise and the return to investments in the capture of
fish will be minimal. Similarly, investment in research, exten-
sion, training, and organization-all related to processing and
marketing-is essential if large postharvest losses that could
result from a rapid increase in the production of a highly
perishable product are to be reduced.
Chapter 4: Development Objectives,
C0nstrairtts, and Options
Development Objectives
For those countries with access to fishery resources, the
beµefits to be gained from developing fisheries are numerous.
An expanded fishing industry can often increase incomes and
employment, improve the diet of many people by increasing
domestic protein supplies, generate forrign-exchange earn-
ings, conserve natural resources, and promote a more equita-
ble distribution of benefits by providing low-income groups
with the JTieans to become productive.
Income levels ef fishing households. A key objective in the de-
velopment of fisheries is to raise incomes in the small-scale,
artisanal sector. Although fishing families tend to work ardu-
ously qnd under cqnditions of great risk, their incomes are
typically below those of other groups in rural areas. While this
is not true for all, it is certainly the case for the large majority of
families involved in small-scale fishing . In Malaysia, for exam-
ple, where per capita income ($1,620 in 1980) is the highest of
all developing rountries in Southeast Asia, about 73 percent
of fishermen households live beneath the official poverty line.
Several factors account for such low incomes. First, as fishing
activities expand, free entry into the sector tends to exhaust the
resource with inevitable consequences. Second, the unique
skills the fisherman develops are not readily transferred to
other sectors during slack seasons, or when production drops
sharply. And the fisherman's attitude toward his work in which
he views it as a way of life poses an obstacle to his shifting to
sectors unrelated to the sea. Third, the limited extent of capital
expansion ensures a low rate of growth in productivity: small-
scale fishermen are locked into low-level subsistence in a way
that is similar to the fate of small-scale farmers deprived of
technological change. Finally, because the major capital
equjpment-----;the boat-cannot be divided or expanded, it
cannot, therefore, provide employment for additional family
members; this limiting factor becomes a problem because the
average size of a fishing family tends to be larger than other
rural families (and these, in turn, are usually larger than urban
families). In Indonesia, for example, surveys have found that
fishing families have one more member than other families.
38
39
Of critical importance, also, is the fact that incomes are
directly related to ownership of the means of production (boats
and gear) and to the degree to which the family participates in,
and controls the proceeds from, marketing and processing.
IricolT!eS earned by boat owners are generally almost twice that
of boatless fishermen; and in the majority of instances, fisher-
men neither own boats nor become involved in ancillary ac-
tivities.
Distribution of the catch varies from place to place, but
regardless of the unique local arrangements, long-standing
patterns are accepted as the norm and are difficult to change.
Usually, however, distribution is related to boat and gear own-
ership and to the organization of marketing and processing.
The total catch is divided in parts, with the boat owner receiv-
ing a large percentage, perhaps one-half of the catch, 1 and
crew members receiving equal shares of the remaining supply.
In some cases, part of the catch is given for religious or cultural
reasons to villagers who are not directly involved in fishing.
Contribution to nutrition. Expansion of domestic supplies of
fish-freshwater as well as saltwater fish-will make an im- .
portant contribution to nutrition, in both urban and rural
areas. Fish, an important source of animal protein, may reach
low-income consumers who normally find it difficult to satisfy
their animal protein needs. With effective marketing and, in
some areas, by making use of existing modes of transport, the
nutritional effects could be considerable. In several countries,
the cost of one gram of protein of several species of fish is much
lower than that of meat, which makes fish relatively more
affordable to low-income groups.
Generation of foreign exchange. Although many small-scale
fishermen operate at a subsistence level, a significant number
also produce for the local market and a few, in recent years,
have become export oriented (for example, those living in
Burma, Chile, India, Indonesia, and Thailand). In fact, where
methods art largely labor intensive and, therefore, unintere,stc
ing to large-scale fisheries, part of the catch of species of fish
and mollusks of high value is earmarked for the highly profit-
able foreign market.
Conseryation of the resource. If managed properly, fish stocks
are renewable; unfortunately, proper management is no easy
1
Calculated as roughly one-third for boat depreciation, one-third for the
engine, and one-third for the owner himself.
40
task. To begin with, the various species have "critical zones" -
that is, they have limits up to which they may be safely -
harvested-which, if disregarded, can result in their exhaus-
tion. Thus, it is essential to establish precisely what that limit is.
While this is never simple, it is particularly complicated when
there are multiple species in the same stock. 1 The critical zone
varies from species to species: For example, shrimp may be
caught in large quantities and still reproduce quickly; whales
will not. The critical zone may also change when the amount of
one species in a stock is reduced by overfishing since species
often exist interdependently.
As a result of overfishing, the total catch in the period from
1972 to 1978 declined in the North Sea (by 4.6 percent a year)
and in the South Pacific (by 4.9 percent). Specifically, in the
North Sea, production of groundfish (flounder, sole, and
halibut) dropped by 4.1 percent a year, and cod (hake and
haddock) declined by 6.2 percent. On the other hand, the catch
of species like lobster and tuna increased (by 2.8 percent and
5.6 percent, respectively) because they have relatively large
populations and were not overfished.
With reduced harvests, income drops and unemployment
rises. For example, in Central Java, Indonesia, where 1.8 mil-
lion households earn their livelihood from fisheries, stocks
have been depleted and, in some cases, families have been
forced to migrate to the cities. In many instances, however,
fishermen respond to the reduction of catch and size (since
only the juveniles remain) by harvesting other species. Such a
step can raise problems, too, because the vessels and equip-
ment used for fishing one variety may be inappropriate for
another.
Development Constraints
Mobility of stocks. Unlike other industries, where the factors
of production (land, equipment, and other inputs) are fixed,
fish· are mobile, with many species migrating thousands of
miles across national boundaries. If fishermen or fleets in the-
waters of one country overfish a stock before they migrate into
the waters of another nation, the catch is reduced for the
'Stock refers to a species, subspecies, geographical group, or other category of
fish that can be managed as a unit.
41
fishermen in the next coastal state. Aggressive fishing practices
can also alter the reproductive cycles of species. Agreements,
therefore, must be reached between nations about the quantity
of the catch to be allowed, either to domestic or foreign inter-
ests, or common fishing zones must be established, as was
agreed upon by Uruguay and Argentina.
Availability of credit. Because artisanal fishermen have gen-
erally had little access to the formal credit system, they have
been unable to obtain the capital needed to improve their boats
and gear, not only to expand production but merely to con-
tinue current operations. Because most fishermen have no
collateral (land, boat, or equipment), banks are unwilling to
provide credit. Moreover, even those that have boats are often
unsuccessful in obtainingloans because the banks consider the
boat-which is usually the fisherman's only collateral-a risky
investment. Unlike land, boats can be lost easily. In most cases,
fishing families have scant savings to make initial payments
that are required by credit institutions. They find debt-
repayment schedules difficult to meet: the schedules usually
do not correspond to the time when they can expect to earn
income from the catch. Finally, credit has rarely been provided
to those involved in any of the support activities, such as mar-
keting, processing, and warehousing.
Fishermen have turned to local moneylenders who, besides
providing them with small loans for their fishing activities, give
credit for household needs. Because of their familiarity with
the region, moneylenders often also take up marketing, which
the small-scale individual fisherman is unable to do profitably.
If a decision is made to invest in fisheries, measures must be
taken to ensure that fishermen have access to credit. Providing
access to credit does not necessarily eliminate the local
moneylender from the process, because credit institutions still
will be unable to lend to fishermen in remote villages. If the
moneylender feels he may be eliminated, resistance could be
generated which could, in turn, threaten the existence of the
program. It is essential, therefore, that means be found to
expand institutional lines of credit without making the
moneylender redundant.
Institutional constraints. In addition to the problems associ-
ated with marketing, credit, and so forth, there are elements in
the economy, or in governmental institutions, that could limit
the development of fisheries. For example, there may be
vested interests, such as firms that have enjoyed long-standing
42
control over the sector, that may be threatened by the de-
velopment of new fishery projects. In such a case, severe con-
flicts could materialize that might restrict access to the fish
resource, or to critical inputs. Middlemen who currently con~
trol the flow of credit might attempt to impede measures to
rationalize the system if they sense competition. Regulations
must be drawn up and institutions formed that can mediate
disputes; they must be armed with sufficient authority to en-
force their rulings.
Problems also could surface due to inadequacies in the in-
stitutional framework. For example, serious obstacles could
evolve surrounding the flow of information and services to
fishermen in isolated areas. Until now, extension services have
focused almost entirely on agriculture. As a result, no channel
exists for transmitting to fishermen information about the
availability of financing, water quality, government regu-
lations, new technology, and the like. Such bottlenecks must be
eliminated if the various parts of the system are to operate
smoothly.
Development Options and Strategy
Faced with such constraints, the options availabie for the
development of fisheries include:
• Expanding inshore fisheries by increasing the number
and size of boats as allowed by the natural endowment of a
country's resources;
• Developing aquaculture as a key activity in the rur;il econ-
omy by integrating it with agricultural or other activities;
• Providing infrastructure facilities, including ports and
• landing piers, fish hatcheries, ice plants, cold-storage
plants, transport systems, marketing centers, and distri-
bution networks;
• Improving marketing chains;
• Upgrading extension and research services and training
programs;
• Strengthening the administration of fisheries;
• Strengthening the institutions that provide credit, estab-
lish land and water rights, and regulate fishing rights;
• Establishing fishing community organizations such as co-
operatives.
Past experience with development efforts in fisheries has
underscored the complementarity of many of these actions.
Investments in research, extension, training, and organization
43
related to processing and marketing are essential to the reduc-
tion of large postharvest losses that would almost certainly
result from r.apid increases in the production of an extremely
perishable product.
While the benefits from fishery development can be signific
cant, the difficulties in implementing an appropriate strategy
are substantial. Because the structure of the fishing industry in
most developing countries is predominantly small in scale 1
because !flOre equitable distribution of benefits is often a high
priority, ·and because financial resources are scarce, most low-
income and middle-income countries will probably focus their
attention on artisanal fisheries and aquaculture. The choice
between, or degree of emphasis on, these two will depend
largely on the natural resources at a country's disposal. Where
stocks in rivers , lakes, or coastal waters are abundant, capture
fisheries will obviously appear as the more attractive alterna-
tive, though there may be potential for some aquaculture de-
velopment, as well. Where overfishing has threatened to de-
plete the resource base, the second option will seem more
reasonable.
There are, of course, problems inherent in the nature of the
industry that relate to conservation of the species and the
migra~ion of stocks. Beyond these there are other difficulties
attached to (a) organizing an industry that involves people in
remote, scattered villages; (b) rationalizing the credit system
which, until now, has been unavailable to small-scale fisher-
me}?; (c) r-esolving the conflicts attached to land tenure (in
aquaculture) ; (d) enforcing regulations; and (e) developing
processi~g and marketing systems and other ancillary services
without which cj.ny increased production will be sacrificed.
Finally, the design of fii,hery development should include a
framework for formulating laws and regulations that will re-
solv~ disputes over rights of access to waters and on land
tenure and, thus, avoid the displacement of artisanal fisher-
men. Enforcing and administering such policies, no doubt, will
require sustained expenditures; without them, the overall in-
vestment could be jeopardized.
Designing the Investment Program
A number of factors must be considered when designing
programs and projects for fisheries. The quality of fish stocks
and of water, the location and extent of demand, the pattern of
production, the level of technology, and the distribution of
44
population must be examined as they will affect the nature of
the programs.
Equally critical is the matter of timing. Projects that have
sought to alter existing conditions far too rapidly, or not
quickly enough, or have sought to ignore them entirely, have
been delayed or have failed completely. Moreover, because a
whole system of complex elements must be introduced-
training fishermen in the use of new equipment, establishing a
marketing network, building processing facilities, organizing
cooperatives, rationalizing credit, and the like-more time
than is usually allotted by development agencies must be
provided for the projects to be implemented and for results to
begin to appear.
The location of markets and the level of demand, obviously,
will determine the type and location of investments in support
industries. Where fishing villages are near, or have easy access
to, urban areas, marketing infrastructure will enable fisher-
men to sell fresh catch at higher prices. Where villages are far
from consumption centers, or when domestic demand for
fresh fish is insufficient to absorb supply, investment in
processing facilities can ensure that the catch will reach the
markets in good condition. -
It is also important to determine the level of prevailing
technology in fisheries and support industries that supply the
inputs. After all, the degree of education and experience of
fishermen will affect their willingness to adopt innovative
technologies and their ability to assimilate changes. It also will
influence the cost of establishing or improving extension ser-
vices and training' programs, for the wider the gap between
current practice and the change envisioned in the project, the
greater the cost of implementing and maintaining the innova-
tion. If engines are introduced, for example, mechanics are
needed to repair them. On the other hand, changes that are
less profound and that are perceived by fishermen to be advan-
tageous will be more readily adopted. The local economy is also
more likely to benefit if indigenous boat builders and other
suppliers of inputs are able to provide service and repairs when
needed.
Thus, it may be more practical to improve the productivity
of existing technology (perhaps, by supplying new tools to local
shipbuilders) than to impose more mechanized, technologi-
cally advanced equipment. Experience also indicates that proj-
ects attuned to prevailing local conditions cost less and are
45
easier to replicate than those designed around packages of
alien technological innovations. Along these lines, it is impor-
tant to recognize that while new technology may appear, on the
surface, to be positive, it may, in fact, not benefit the fishermen
at all. Unless fisherfolk are trained to make repairs, the intro-
duction of motorized boats will only result in the hiring of
outsiders to perform a function that formerly had been taken
care of by themselves.
There are other factors that must be considered at the de-
sign stage. Improving the usefulness of water and swamp lands
by stocking them with fish not only builds up a resource, it also
employs rural people and improves the nutrition of low-
income groups at low cost.
Planning cannot be done in isolation; environmental con-
cerns require a cross-sectoral approach. For example, the qual-
ity of water may be affected by irrigation infrastructure or
pollution from industries. As a result, the spawning of fish and
biological growth may be affected, which , in turn, may de-
crease productivity and incomes of fishermen. Flood-control
projects, therefore, should include measures (like fish ladders,
for example) that are needed to minimize_ the negative effects
on fish production. Similarly, where industries or agricultural
activities are located near water, attention should be paid to the
danger of pollution and to measures that can be taken to
minimize its effect.
Every fishery project should_contain components that will
create or strengthen those institutions that provide services
that result in private costs and risks being reduced to a level
that will attract and sustain private investment. Such institu-
tions include those that provide credit, regulate interactions
among individuals, coordinate private and public activities,
and assist in organizing cooperatives.
To manage fisheries, authorities will need to become in-
volved in regulatory and control functions to encourage eco-
nomic activity, protect the country's natural resources, and
develop the sector in a manner and at a rate that is optimal. To
control the exploitation of their resources, governments can
make use of quotas, licensing, and seasonal closures; establish
restricted fishing zones; and regulate fishing gear. Because
most of these measures involve restricting individual action
and, therefore, profit, resistance from particular interest
groups will need to be overcome and conflicts among compet-
ing individuals and groups resolved.
46
By far the most difficult conflict to resolve is that which arises
between the domestic fishery sector and foreign fleets. To
restrict effectively access to coastal waters, governments must
invest in expensive surveillance equipment; even then, en-
forcement is difficult. One approach used by developing coun-
tries is to seek out joint ventures; these may include intergov-
ernmental agreements, reciprocal fishing rights, and licensing
arrangements with foreign fishing interests. In such cases, the
developing countries hope to benefit from the transfer of
technology and management expertise, from additions to capi-
tal stock, and from training programs. At the sa_ m e time, they
anticipate that the ventures will create jobs, increase produc-
tion and incomes, and generate foreign exchange.
In fact, such arrangements are not always advantageous.
Benefits have often failed to materialize, while fish resources,
in soine cases, have been seriously depleted. Plans for interna-
tional cooperation, therefore, should be critically examined to
assess not only the probability that agreements will be horiored,
but also that the technology, training, and capital promised are
in line with the development strategy. Just as important, such
transfers may have high hidden costs because resources may
have to be diverted from domestic fisheries to mainta.in a
higher level of technology than was originally sought in the
development plan ,
Chapter 5: The Role of the World Bank
Between fiscal year 1964 and fiscal year 1981 , the World
Bank provided $259 million for twenty-seven fishery projects;
the total cost of these projects amounted to nearly $4 70 million
(see Table 6) . Although Bank-supported fishery projects have
been quite diverse, they can be classified into four broad
categories: boat building, construction and improvement of
ports, the development of small-scale fisheries, and the de-
velopment of aquaculture. Within these areas, funds have
been allotted in these proportions: boat building (32 percent),
ports (27 percent), technical assistance (13 percent), fish ponds
(15 percent), onshore infrastructure (5 percent), processing
and marketing (4 percent), and the remainder for working
capital, project preparation, repairs, and ma1ntenance (see
Table 7) . Among the various regions , Europe, Middle East,
and North Africa received the largest share (33 percent), fol-
lowed by South Asia (25 percent), East Asia and the Pacific (23
percent), Eastern Africa (10 percent), Latin America and the
Caribbean (7 percent), and Western Africa (0.5 percent).
Until quite recently, the major objective of the Bank's lend-
ing for fisheries had been to increase production for export
and to generate foreign exchange; nearly 60 percent of the
loans made were for the development of large-scale fisheries,
including large vessels and the facilities to service them. Pro-
cessing and marketing, on the other hand, represented only a
small share of total lending. The Bank's first fishery project, in
1964, provided $7.8 million to Taiwan, China 1 for boat build-
ing; it was followed three years later by a $14.4 million loan for
a second phase of the project. The Bank's loans for the con-
struction and renovation of port facilities in Iceland, India,
and Tunisia were designed to improve the handling and
transporting of the catch produced by commercial and, to
some extent, small-scale operations. Funds for facilities such as
cold-storage plants, freezing centers, and ice plants were also
included.
Where assistance was provided for small-scale coastal
fisheries, it was used to rehabilitate landing sites, acquire
1
At the time, the authorities on T aiwan represented China in the Bank.
47
48
Table 6
World Bank Lending for Fishery Projects, Fiscal 1964-81
(in million dollars)
Fiscal
year Total Total
of Board Bank IDA Bank project
approval Country Project name loan credit lending cost
1964 China• Fishing vessel I 7.8 0 7.8 9.4
1967 China• Fishing vessel 11 14.4 0 14.4 17.7
1969 Ecuador Fisheries 5.3 0 5.3 6.6
1970 Ghana Fisheries I 0 1.3 1.3 2.3
1971 Indonesia Fisheries 0 3.5 3.5 4.3
1972 Tunisia Fisheries 0 2.0 2.0 3.1
Panama Fisheries I 3.4 0 3.4 5.4
1973 Yemen, PDR Fisheries
development I 0 3.5 3.5 4.2
Philippines Fisheries 11.6 0 11.6 18.5
1974 Iceland Fishing harbor
rehabilitation 7.0 0 7.0 11.3
Indonesia Ag ri cultural
fisheries II 0 6.5 6.5 12.9
1975 Iran Fisheries I 12.5 0 12.5 18.0
Yemen, PDR Fisheries supplement 0 1.6 1.6 2.0
1976 Burundi Fisheries 0 6.0 6.0 8.6
Philippines Fisheries II 12.0 0 12.0 23.5
1977 Tanzania Fisheries I 0 9.0 9.0 12.4
Panama Fisheries II 7.5 0 7.5 12.6
India Fisheries 14.0 4.0 18.0 38.0
1978 India Marine fisheries II 0 17.5 17.5 36.5
1979 Tunisia Fisheries II 28.5 0 28.5 67.5
Yemen, PDR Fisheries 11 0 10.0 10.0 32.0
Bangladesh Oxbow Lake fisheries 0 6.0 6.0 7.5
Maldives Fisheries 0 - 3.2 3.2 3.9
1980 Kenya Fisheries I 0 10.0 10.0 14.9
Yemen, Arab Rep. Artisanal fisheries 0 17.0 17.0 30.3
India Fisheries IV, inland 0 20.0 20.0 40.8
1981 Egypt Fish farming
development 0 14.0 14.0 26.3
Total 124.0 135.1 259.1 470.5
Note: This table lists only those projects devoted exclusively to fisheries. It does not include 26
agricultural projects with fisheries components that were approved during the same period.
• At the time, the authorities on Taiwan represented China in the Bank.
motorized boats, provide extension services and technical as-
sistance, and carry out feasibility studies (such as in Tunisia);
49
and to renovate canoes, upgrade gear, and improve marketing
and processing (as in Tanzania and Burundi). •
Some small amounts of money were loaned for aquaculture
activities, but these were included mainly as components of
credit projects and were aimed at improving productivity to
meet the increased local demand for fish. Components
included the rehabilitation of existing fish ponds and the
construction of new ones, the provision of hatcheries, the
construction of access roads, and the development of local
organizations to manage these activities. In the Philippines, for
example, Bank-assisted rural credit projects contained fishery
components ($4· million in 1974) to finance boats, fish ponds,
and fish pens and $14.6 million to train fish-pond managers
and upgrade technical institutes for training in fisheries.
To date, however, the lending program has largely reflected
an ad hoc approach : No real assessment has been made of the
potential contribution of fisheries to economic development.
Past Problems with Bank-supported Projects
A review of the Bank's experience 1n this sector suggests that
fishery projects have encountered significant problems that
have resulted from an inadequate assessment of the social,
institutional, and economic constraints on fisheries in the de-
veloping countries. Factors that were initially overlooked (such
as a lack of support industries, for example) eventually caused
delays in the construction of large vessels. These delays, along
with a general lack of assimilated technical knowledge, a short-
age of trained personnel, limited capacity and efficiency of
landing facilities, and poor information on the location of fish
stocks were subsequently responsible for disappointing pro-
duction levels achieved using the large, expensive vessels con-
structed under these projects.
Because of an inadequate assessment of such constraints in
both the large-scale and small-scale sectors, the profitability of
the investment for the countries and individual fishermen was
overestimated. Delays led to cost overruns. Operational and
maintenance costs (especially for fuel) were also underesti-
mated, while projections on the quantity and value of produc-
tion overlooked the problems associated with inefficient oper-
ations.
Although most small-scale fishery projects assisted by the
Bank are not yet completed , a similar pattern of problems is
emerging. While it is true that somewhat less technical exper-
(.J1
Table 7 0
World Bank Lending for Fisheries, by Project Components, Fiscal 1948-81
(in thousand dollars)
Processing,
marketing,
other Other Incremental . Total
equipment; infra- working Technical project
Country Project Vessels• Ports• Facilities• ana vehicles• structure• Ponds' capital assistance" cost'
China1 Fishing vessels I 7,708 725 9,400
Fishing vessels II 14,586 1,416 17,702
Ecuador Fisheries 5,274 192 1,160 6,626
Ghana Fisheries I 1,633 88 484 2,297
Indonesia Fisheries I 2,460 540 130 322 180 300 4,308.
Tunisia Fisheries I .2,564 279 3,126
Panama Fisheries I • 3,440 ·- 440 670 5,350
Yemen, PDR Fisheries development I 571 ,1,323 165 1,336 • 4,185
Philippines Fisheries I 6,630 100 620 6,960 820 800 18,500
Iceland Fishing harbor rehabilitation 8,450 630 11,290
Indonesia Agricultural fisheries II 2,713 160 100 2,066 3,202 891 680 12,895
Iran Fisheries I 10,750 480 600 2,394 18,000
Yemen, PDR Fisheries supplement 1,500 1,500
Burundi Fisheries development 1,721 757 3,081 8,619
Philippines Fisheries II 5,500 300 1,100 _ 10,800 23,500
Tanzania Fisheries I • 3,877 294 385 402 2,857 12,375
Panama Fisheries II 5,380 2,661 349 1,162 12,559
India Fisheries 8,000 11,200 \ - 600 2,600 2,900 38,000
India Marine fisheries II 6,900 13,500 1,200 3,600 1,400 36,500
Tunisia Fisheries II • 14,155 35,868 5,398 67,531
Yemen , PDR Fisheries II 13,340 1,340 4,400 200 3,610 32,000
Bangladesh Oxbow Lake fisheries 600 1,862 1,637 397 788 7,458
Maldives Fisheries 2,960 60 150 10 3,890
Kenya Fisheries I 1,100 3,100 1,600 5,300 14,900
Yemen, Arab Rep . Artisanal fisheries 4,640 9;600 820 1,000 2,640 30,300
• India Fisheries IV, inland 3,600 18,700 6,500 40,800
Egypt Fish farming development 1,300 11,500 3,600 .2,700 26,300
Total 112,562 96,512 380 14,274 18,362 54,748 11,643 47,069 469,909
Percentage of base costk 31 .6 27.1 , 0.1 4.0 5.2 15.4 3.3 13.2
• Includes investments for hulls, engines, small equipment, spare parts, and generators
for a wide variety of fishing vessels and some fish carriers, lift nets, sets of gear, and
construction , supervision, and interest costs.
• Items include costs for construction of new and rehabilitation of existing port facilities,
jetties, landing piers, including buildings, port equipment and slipways, tugs and
barges where financed, and aids to navigation such as lights, markers, and buoys.
' Workshop equipment and repair facilities.
• Principally includes ice making , freezer and cold-storage facilities, processing equip-
ment, and infrastructure including buildings, refrigerated vehicles, and equipment.
• Other shore facilities as well as roads and water-supply infrastructure.
' Construction of new and rehabilitation of old ponds, including land acquisition,
hatchery facilities, engineering, and construction costs.
• Incremental capital, where specified.
• Naval architects, master fishermen and other fishery specialists to provide technical
assistance. Also includes extension, training, project monitoring and evaluation where
specified, and some studies.
' Includes contingencies.
1 At the time, the authorities on Taiwan represented China in the Bank.
• Baseline costs exclude contingency allowance.
52
tise is required for improving, maintaining, and operating the
equipment associated with small-scale fisheries, other prob-
lems have surfaced: For example, because there are far more
participants, coordinating the various elements becomes a sig-
nificant obstacle. At almost every juncture-from providing
credit, organizing training for fishermen, facilitating licensing,
and arranging for the efficient handling of the catch-
numerous individuals and groups, both public and private,
must interact. In a developed economy, this interaction tends
to occur spontaneously to the mutual benefit of all concerned.
But in less-developed settings, additional incentives often are
needed to encourage interaction in th_e direction desired.
Efforts to develop small-scale fisheries are still relatively
recent, and experience needs to be gained by policymakers
about the elements that affect performance. Therefore, proj-
ects must be monitored and evaluated, both before and after
they are completed, to enable sector planners and project
managers to utilize the country's resources most efficiently.
Experience has shown that projects can serve as instruments to
improve weak local institutions by providing funds for the
hiring and training oflocal staff; this is especially important as
governments place increased emphasis on fishery activities in
rural areas where institutions are usually the least developed.
Recent Trends and Future Strategy
In recent years, in response to the rearrangement of
priorities in developing countries, emphasis by the Bank in
lending to the sector has shifted to financing inshore coastal
fisheries. The aim of such financing is to increase the flow of
benefits to the rural population and to raise the standards of
living of fishermen's families.
By supporting projects for small-scale fisheries, the Bank
will be meeting its overall objectives that include: (a) improving
the incomes and well-being of large numbers of rural poor by
enhancing the productive resources available to them and by
increasing their productivity; (b) providing a reliable and
adequate supply of nutritious food at prices that people can
afford; and (c) increasing the export earnings of developing
countries, whenever possible, by expanding the production
and processing of commodities for which there are global
markets. Loans to this sector will generate both employment
and income for some segments of the population that live on
the margin of existence. To the extent that greater quantities
of fish can be harvested, food supplies can increase and nutri-
53
tion can be improved, and foreign exchange can be earned
when small-scale operators harvest fish products of high qual-
ity.
At present, twenty fishery projects with an estimated Bank
funding totaling approximately $540 million are included in
the lending program for the period fiscal 1982 to fiscal 1986.
While there will be differences among the projects, it is
expected that most will focus on increasing the marketable
surplus of small-scale operations and aquaculture. The proj-
ects are to accomplish this goal by providing assistance and
technology to improve the harvesting, handling, processing,
storage, transport, and distribution activities and allow for a
more efficient organization of the sector. To improve harvest-
ing, the projects are likely to supply more efficient boats and
engines to enable artisanal fishermen to exploit fish stocks
further offshore and to operate more frequently, quickly, and
safely.
Investments will also flow into marketing and distribution
systems (cold storage, refrigeration, transport, and so forth)
since these are considered essential to the expansion of small-
scale production. Not only will these investments contribute to
improving the quality of the product and reducing postharvest
losses due to spoilage, they will also provide fishermen with
access to more distant markets.
Technical assistance will also be provided. In addition to the
conventional support for financial assessment and planning,
assistance will focus on fishing technology and its transfer;
construction of port infrastructure and landing facilities; pro-
cessing and marketing arrangements; fishing-sector manage-
ment, policies, and regulations; and promotion of conserva-
tion and environmental policies. However, in view of the mod-
est pool of expertise available in the Bank, collaboration with
other agencies, notably with the FAO, will be extremely impor-
tant in ensuring that developing countries receive the help
they need. 1 At the same time, a number of fishery experts
'With its staff of 400 professionals, FAO's Department of Fisheries has the
quantity and quality of expertise to provide developing countries with a wide
range of services: for example, in designing programs, conducting preinvest-
ment studies and project fe asibility assessments, providing advice on joint
ventures, and the like. Through the Cooperative Program established by FAO
and the World Bank, FAO has been involved in the preparation of a large
proportion of the Bank's fishery projects and is likely to continue in this
fashion.
54
currently are being recruited to join the Bank. Further, several
consulting firms have expanded their capacity in this area in
response to perceived opportunities attached to the adoption
ofEEZs. Adequate professional resources are likely, therefore,
to be available.
The preparation and appraisal of fishery projects may need
much longer time because fisheries contain so many complex
elements and require so many specialized skills-such as in
fishing technology, port facilities, and marketing-in addition
to those normally required for financial and economic analysis.
The implementation periods also are likely to be longer than
with other projects because the changes expected in institu-
tions have been found to require longer periods before they
materialize. Development, at both the sector and project levels,
therefore, should be planned sequentially, so that the social
and technical changes that are necessary can be brought about
gradually, without causing undue resistance from fishermen.
The new strategy will be followed only in those situations
where developing nations themselves desire to develop
fisheries as part of their development strategy and seek the
Bank's assistance in the fisheries sector. It assumes that suffi-
cient flexibility exists to include fishery projects and fishery
components in the Bank's lending programs for individual
countries.
The World Bank's lending program for fishery projects will
mainly focus on small-scale fisheries. However, developing
countries may also be prepared to invest in industrial fisheries.
In such a case, in addition to other sources of external funding,
the International Finance Corporation (IFC), or the develop-
ment finance companies (DFCs) may be expected to be in-
volved. While IFC will enter into direct partnership with pri-
vate interests, DFCs will provide lines of credit to banks in the
various countries. In addition, bilateral aid agencies might
become interested in financing and providing technical assis-
tance for large-scale fisheries, as well.
Sector Management
Given the complex social, economic, and institutional nature
of fishery development, it is expected that Bank-supported
projects will, whenever possible, provide technical assistance to
build appropriate administrative, research, and training in-
stitutions and develop environmental policy. Again, the Bank
does not expect to expand its own expertise in these areas;
55
rather, it will rely on the FAO's Department of Fisheries and
other specialized institutions to provide the necessary skills.
Expertise is needed by developing countries to plan and
coordinate strategies so as to allocate limited resources effi-
ciently; this requires technical and management skills that are
in scarce supply in most low-income and middle-income coun-
tries. The Bank can make an important contribution to build-
ing up these capabilities at the government level by providing
financial assistance for training and institution building.
When developing a natural resource that can be over-
exploited, it is essential that countries be able to assess the
supply and regulate the exploitation of the resource. The
countries, therefore, must have the skills, technology, and
funds to (a) determine the location and size of the fish stocks,
(b) assess, monitor, and manage the fish stocks, and (c) stock
Jakes and various rivers where feasible. They also must have
patrol boats and radio equipment to enforce regulations.
In addition, the sociocultural characteristics of the rural
populations must be carefully considered, particularly of those
who live outside the social and economic mainstream, or of
those who reside in remote or isolated communities. There is a
strong likelihood that there will be resistance from these
groups to new technologies, training, and to the organization
and regulations planned by sector-management authorities.
With an understanding of such .factors, planners can modify
innovations to promote greater acceptance: Bank-supported
projects will provide for the specialized expertise needed for
information gathering and analysis in all these areas, as well as
the sophisticated equipment require1 for the management of
resources.
In the past, the Bank has supported fishery-research pro-
grams in a number of countries. In the future , efforts will be
expanded to include research on: (a) the resources (land, fish,
and water) available to rural people; (b) fish species to assess
the possibility of introducing new varieties into lakes, rivers,
and reservoirs and to determine the extent to which lagoons;
estuaries, brackish water systems, and low-quality land might
be utilized; (c) the impact of projects on production and em-
ployment at the regional and local levels; (d) ways to adapt new
technology to national and local conditions; (e) patterns of
consumption of, and demand for, fish; (f) those features of
successful projects that can be replicated; and (g) the activities
and motivation of people in rural areas.
56
In addition, the Bank will support research that is specifi-
cally related to the development of aquaculture; this might
include: (a) investigating the species naturally occurring in
proposed project locations and their preferred food, with the
aim of maximizing the use of existing resources; (b) determin-
ing the technical and economic feasibility of combining com-
plementary activities (such as aquaculture with livestock or
crop production), and (c) studying the physiology of matura~
tion and spawning, the effects of pollution on these activities,
and the nutritional characteristics of various types of fish in
various processed forms.
The Bank also is assisting research by supporting national
research institutions in developing countries that are able to
respond to the identified concerns, as well as international
research centers (such as the International Center for Living
Aquatic Resource Management located in the Philippines) and
by promoting the creation of an international network that
would disseminate experience in fishery management, new
technology, and research findings.
The Bank also will consider lending for training programs
for supervisory and managerial staff and for fishermen. In
addition, projects will include funding for training individuals
involved in processing and marketing activities. While some
formal instruction may be necessary, it is expected that, in a
majority of cases, training will occur on the job, or in service.
The creation of permanent training institutions ·devoted to
upgrading and promoting university-level graduates will gen-
erally be avoided.
Environmental Considerations
Though most developing countries had not previously given
' much thought to environmental considerations, awareness of
the ecological consequences of development is growing
rapidly. Thus, Bank-assisted activities can help disseminate
information to developing member countries on the potential
. effects of projects on the environment. Where no adequate
natural-_r esource conservation programs or institutions exist,
the Bank's activities may be instrumental in promoting them.
In conclusion, it should be noted that there is no expectation
that all countries with access to fishery resources will wish to
promote their development further. However, where re-
sources and markets are favorable to such development, and
where there is interest in such development, the Bank stands
ready to provide assistance.
FISHERY-in pictures
..
,) i-.:;!;\,
• 1• ,
'.
. .l
i ·I
.(:.... I!>.
Fish being sold in the central market in Burundi. Before any development in O
the fisheries sector can be expected, marketing arrangements must be
improved substantially to reduce postharvest losses.
} • -~.~~.-:;_
_~
• .~ ---:~~
- . --=·-........ ,
. . .- -· ~-~ J
Fresh fish are placed on trays at a fish-smoking center on the outskirts of @
Abidjan, Ivory Coast. The center has developed processes for conserving fish
up to forty-five days with the help of the Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations.
Prawns are graded, frozen, and packaged for export in a fish-processing plant
in India. The integrated fisheries project was supported by a loan from the
World Bank Group . In all, the Bank has provided developing countries $259
million for twenty-seven fishery projects between 1964 and 198 I.
r
-·
,,. ·-- . ....- ......
-
.,..
·- -;:;• ~ ... .
' - -~ -
~~-•x~~ fa
t ~:.::~ ~
I ~ .~ - ~
- ~
\ 1 ~ •-
~..,_. .. .
j',......... .
J. - .., -
Breeding and raising freshwater trout in Iran. Various natural resources
that lie idle- wastelands and flood-control areas, for example- can be
utilized for aquaculture as well as for other development activities.
. Fishermen unloading their catch from a fishing vessel at the port of Terna, ©
Ghana. Improving infrastructure facilities, such as ports and landing piers,
are essential for expansion of fisheries .
Trainees stretching filets of dogfish onto wooden frame for sundrying at a
marine fisheries technical school in Senegal. There is a need for upgrading of
extension and research services as well as the training of staff to provide better
services to small-scale fishermen. ©
A fisherman repairs his boat in the Yemen Arab Republic. While some
small-scale fishermen may use motorized boats, they generally do not own
mechanized gear.
A crab trap used by artisanal fishermen in Haiti. With some upgrading of Q
technology and by improving shore facilities, small-scale fisheries can have an
advantage over large-scale ones in exploiting underwater resources.
Harvested fish in a trough at an Ismailia fish farm in Egypt. The International
Finance Corportion, an affiliate of the World Bank, provided $9.7 million to
support the introduction of Chinese fresh water, fish-farming technology at
this farm. There is considerable scope for private-sector investment in
industrial fisheries in developing countries. €)
r:·:
'{
;l'
' ' ~ ··.:....,.. ~~
~' ~
,.:/.:- t\
Small-scale fisheries often exist side-by-side with larger-scale, industrial ~
fish eries as the Panamanian boats in this picture indicate. In fact, the two types
of fisheries can complement - rather than compete with - each other.
A group of fisherm en tending their nets in the Philippines. The organization
of cooperatives can be effective, if done properly, in increasing incomes of
fishing families.
A Sri Lankan woman collects sun-dried fish in Degombo; this form of
processing fish is the least expensive. The potential value-added of this
village-level activity is high .
Annex 1
Glossary 1
Arthropods: Animals having an external skeleton segmented
to allow for movement (crustaceans).
Biological balance: Stable and constant state in the structure
and operation of an ecosystem.
Biomass: Amount of animal or vegetable matter of tissue
contained in a population of a species in a given unit of area
or volume of habitat.
Canned fishery products: Fish, shellfish, or other aquatic
animals packed in cans, jars, or other containers.
Cephalopod: Any of a class of mollusks including squid,
cuttlefish, and octopus.
Coastal zone: Strip of land of variable width along the
shoreline under the direct environmental and economic in-
fluences of the adjoining body of water.
Conservation and management: Refers to alrthe rules, regu-
lations, conditions, methods, and other measures that are
useful in rebuilding, restoring, or maintaining a fishery re-
source and that are designed to assure that irreversible or
long-term adverse effects on fishery resources are avoided.
Continental shelf: The seabed and subsoil of the submarine
areas adjacent to the coast, to a depth of 200 meters or,
beyond that limit, to where the depth of the superjacent
waters admits to the exploitation of the national resources of
such waters.
Cured fishery products: Products preserved by drying, pick-
ling, salting, and smoking.
Demersal: Refers to fish that live on, or adjacent to, the sea
bottom.
Ecology: Field of sciences that deals with the relationships
between living organisms and their environment.
Environment: Sum of the physical, biotic, arid social factors
and conditions directly or indirectly affecting the develop-
1 Conseil International de la Langue Franc;ais (adapted by Paul Brace) , Glossary
of the Environment (Praeger Special Studies, 1977); American Heritage Dictionary
ofthe English Language (Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1969); Alan Gilpin Dictionary on
Environmental T erms (Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, 1976); Fishery Conser-
vation and Management Act of 1976, Public Law 94-265, 94th Cong., H.R. 200,
April 13, 1976, Washington, D.C.; and NOAA, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, Report of the National Marine Fisheries Service for the Calendar Year 1978,
July 1979.
65
66
ment, life, and activities of organisms and populations, in the
short and long terms.
Estuary: Place where a river empties into the open sea (river
mouth), forming a bay subject to tidal effects, where fresh-
water and seawater mix, creating unique ec0logical condi-
tions, and where development usually causes substantial pol-
lution.
Fingerling: Young or small fish.
Fish: Includes finfish, mollusks, crustaceans, and all other
forms of marine animal and plant life other than marine
mammals, birds, and highly migratory species.
Fish meal: A high-protein, animal-feed supplement made by
cooking, pressing, dryi~g, and grinding fish or shellfish.
Fish oil: An oil extracted from body (body oil) or liver (liver
oil) of fish and marine mammals; mostly a byproduct of
fish-meal production. •
Fishery: One or more stocks of fish that can be treated as a
unit for purposes of conservation and .management.
Fishery resource: Any fishery, any stock cif fish, any species of
fish, and any habitat of fish.
Fry: Small fish, especially young, recently hatched fish.
Gross registered tonnage (GRT): This is the internal cubic
capacity of all space in ahd on the vessel. GRT is expressed in
tons of 100 cubic feet. . •
Hatchery: Place where eggs, especially those of fish or domes-
tic fowl, are hatched (i.e., to produce from eggs).
High seas: All waters beyond the territorial seas.
Highly migratory species: Species that, in the course of their
life cycle, spawn and migrate over great distances in the
oceans.
Industrial fishery products: Items processed from fish,
shellfish, or other aquatic plants and animals that are not
consumed directly by humans.
Krill: Planktortic crustaceans that constitute the principal
food of whalebone whales.
Maximum sustainable yield (MSY): This is the largest animal
catch or yield in terms of weight of fish caught that cart be
taken continuously from a stock under existing environmen-
tal conditions.
Nutrient: Organic or inorganic substance, including protein,
fat, carbohydrates, vitamins , and minerals, constituting the
nutritive element of food used for a living organism.
67
Pelagic: Relating to communities of marine organisms that
belong to the open sea, living free from direct dependence
on bottom or shore.
Pollution: Emission of pollutants-physical, chemical, or
biological substances resulting from human activities that
reduce certain qualities of the environment-into the envi-
ronment, or results of this emission.
Stock of fish: Species, subspecies, geographical groupings, or
other category of fish that can be managed as a unit.
Annex 2
Classification ol Principal Fishing Gear
1. Hand diggers and collectors
Manually operated rakes or digging equipment for mollusks ,
crustaceans, or other burrowing animals
Trained mammals or birds
2. Dredges
Power-operated rakes or excavators for mollusks
3. Spears
Hand-held spears on a shaft
Harpoons (shaft with detachable head on a line) for large fish
Explosive harpoons for whales
4. Stupefying aids
Poisons, explosives, or electricity
5. Hooks on lines
Hand-held casting lines
Trolling lines towed from boat
Set lines (long lines) with many hooks on surface or bottom
6. Stationary entangling nets
Gill nets With single wail of mesh
Trammel nets with multiwalled mesh
7. Stationary enclosures
Large net enclosures, corrals, true traps for coastal fish
Small net enclosures, tykes, bag nets for river fish
Rigid pots for eels, crustaceans
B. Mobile enclosing nets
Trawls towed along bottom or at mid-depths
Seines pulled on bottom toward a fixed point
Purse seines' floating with purse line to dose bottom of seine
Falling nets, cast nets
Lift nets
Source: W. F. Royce, Introduction to Fisheries Science (New York: Academic Press,
1972).
68
Annex 3
Production of Protein Foods for Direct Human Consumption, 1948-75
(million metric tons)
50
-
- - -
40 < o
,,, - -
>-
-
_,-
t-
30 - >- -
!
.-
·..
----
- >-
20 -1
--
2
'""
3
,-.. ,___
,__
-
I<
-
10 - -
4
,•~ '
-
0
1948/1952
. 7 7
1952/1956 1965
n
,<
1970
" ~
..
1975
n
Legend: 1. Fish
2. Beef
3. Pork
4. Eggs
5< Mutton
Not shown - production wet weight of milk
Sources: FAO Production Year Book; FAO Year Book of Fishery Statistics
69
Annex 4
Production of Food for Indirect Human Consumption, 1948-75
(million metric tons)
70
-
60
50
- :
40
-
30
I-
_
20
.....
--.-...
.. .! - --
~ .....
- ..... -
1
10 ... ~
2- - ~
~ ~
i::--
._g
1948/1952
m ....
Fh
1952/1956 1965
~ 1970
n
,.
1975
[
Legend: 1. Soybean
2. Fish for Meal
3. Cottonseed
4. Sesame Seed
5. Peanut
6. Sunflower
7. Linseed
Note: a) Whole weight market production before processing
b) Does not include reduction of parts of fish used for other purposes.
Sources: FAQ Production Year Book; FAO Year Book of Fishery Statistics
Annex 5 -..J
0
Potential Effects of Extended Jurisdiction of the Extended Economic Zones
Past catches Potential losers Potential gainers Continuing opportunities•
Area ('000 tons) (%) Major• Minor Major• Minor Large• Moderate
.Northwest Coastal 2,037 47 German DR, Bulgaria, Cuba, Canada , France Canada
Atlantic Non coastal 2,292 53 Germany FR, Denmark, France, Greenland,
Total 4,329 Poland, Iceland , Italy, USA
Portugal, Japan, Norway,
Spain, USSR Romania, UK
Northeast Coastal 7,023 66 Denmark, Bulgaria, Japan, Iceland, Ireland , UK and others Ireland,
Atlantic Noncoastal 3,667 34 France, Norway, Norway, USSR (blue whiting) UK
Total 10,690 German DR , Netherlands , UK
Germany FR, Sweden
Poland , Spain
Western Coastal 1,338 90 Cuba , Japan ,d Bahamas , USA (small Guyana, Mexico,
Central Noncoastal 143 10 Rep. of Korea, d France, Guyana, pelagic fish) Venezuela
Atlantic Total 1,481 USA, USSR Mexico, USA,
Nicaragua,
Suriname
Eastern Coastal 1,426 42 France, Japan, Bulgaria, Cuba , Mauritania, The Gambia, Mauritania,
Central Noncoastal 1,930 58 Rep. of Korea, German DR , Morocco, Guinea , Morocco,
Atlantic Total 3,356 Norway, Ghana, Greece, Senegal Guinea-Bissau , Senegal
Spain, USSR Italy, Nigeria
Poland ,
Portugal,
Romania, USA
Mediter- Coastal 1,097 · 96 Greece, Italy, Algeria,
raneanand Noncoastal 40 4 Japan ,d Spain Morocco,
Black Sea Total 1,137 Tunisia
Southwest Coastal 781 97 B__razil, Japan, d Argentina, Argentina Uruguay
Atlantic Noncoastal 24 3 Rep . of Korea, d Brazil , (resources of
Total ~ USSR, Othersd Uruguay Patagonia Shelf)
Southeast Coastal 1,231 41 Cuba, Japan, Bulgaria, Ghana, Angola, Angola,
Atlantic Non.coastal 1,771 59 Poland, Spain, Italy, Israel, Namibia, Namibia
Total 3,002 USSR Portugal, South Africa
Othersd
Western Coastal 1,538 88 USSR• Japan/ Rep. France• India, Maldives, N. Arabian Sea India,
Indian Noncoastal 201 12 of Korea,d Island Territories , {myctophids) Saudi Arabia,
Ocean Total 1,739 Spain, Sri Lanka, Somalia Yemen PDR,
Othersd Yemen AR,
Somalia,
Seychelles,
Oman, Pakistan
Easterri Coastal 726 89 Thailand, Japan,d Australia, India Bangladesh ,
Indian Noncoastal 88 11 Others Rep. of Koread Bangladesh, Burma,
Ocean Total ~ Burma India, Indonesia
Northwest Coastal 11,595 80 Hong Kong, China,
Pacific Noncoastal 2,936 20 Japan, Rep. Japan,
Total 14,531 of Korea, USSR
USSR, Others
Northeast Coastal 521 19 Japan, Bulgaria, Canada, Canada,
Pacific Non coastal 2,254 81 USSR German DR, USA USA
Total 2,775 Rep. of Korea,
·Poland, Others ..;y
Annex 5 -1
N)
Potential Effects of Extended Jurisdiction of the Extended Economic Zones (continued)
Past catches Potential losers Potential gainers Continuing opportunities•
Area ('000 tons) (%) Major• Minor Major• Minor Large• Moderate
Western Coastal 4,293 90 Japan,d Rep. of Koread Kampuchea , Indonesia, Indonesia Kampuchea,
Central Non coastal 479 10 Thailand Vietnam Malaysia, Island (small pelagic Malaysia,
Pacific Total 4,772 Territories , fish) Papua
Papua New Guinea,
New Guinea , Philippines ,
Philippines Vietnam
Eastern Coastal 692 71 Japan,d Canada, Rep . of Mexico Colombia, Costa Mexico,
Central Non coastal 287 29 USAd Korea, d Poland, Rica, Ecuador, USA
Pacific Total ~ USSR, Othersd El Salvador,
Guatemala,
Panama,
Nicaragua,
Peru, USA
Southwest Coastal 76 28 Japan,d Rep. of Korea,d New Zealand Australia Australia,
Pacific Non coastal 199 72 USSR Othersd New Zealand
Total ~
Southeast Coastal 5,514 99 Cuba, Japan, Chile, Chile , Chile,
Pacific Non coastal 48 1 USA Peru Peru Peru
Total 5,562
0
• Only countries with moderate-sized underexploited resources (some tens of Identified resources of half a million ton or more.
thousands of tons) are listed. Virtually all coastal waters have some minor under- • Mostly tuna; includes catches outside 200 miles.
exploited resources off their coasts , though their exploitation may not be economically ' Catches around Kergualen.
feasible. Source: E . A. Perez, " Benchmark Facts on RP Fisheries in World Perspective,"
• Major gainers or losers relate to fisheries over 50,000 tons. Fisheries Today, Vol. 11, No. 4 (November 1979), p. 8.
73
Annex 6
The Main Fishing Countries
Fish catch as a
percentage of
Value per Total Value per gross national
ton• value person product
Country ($) ($ million) ($) (GNP)
Japan 315.0b 3,371.9 31 .1 1.4
USSR 350.oc 3,016.5 12.1 0.9
China 450.oc 3,408.3 4.2 2.6
Norway 119.5 355.5 89.7 2.7
USA 339.9 907.4 4.3 0.1
Peru 37 .4 85.9 5.8 1.2
India 226.4 443.3 0.8 0.8
Thailand 211.0 357.1 9.0 5.0
Korea, Republic of 235.0b 388.8 11.8 4.5
Spain 425.0b 667.4 19.1 1.8
Denmark 163.1 238.9 47.5 1.4
South Africa 57.3 76.3 3.2 0.4
Indonesia 411.0c 534.3 4.3 6.2
Philippines 411.1 513.3 12.8
. 6.6
Canada 260.6 300.1 13.6 0.3
UK 335.4 383.8 6.9 0.3
Iceland 140.0b 126.9 598.4 20.5
Korea, People's Demo-
cratic Republic of 235.0c 188.0 12.5 4.0
France 634.4 505.5 9.7 0.3
Nigeria 200.oc 133.0 2.2 1.9
Chile 13.8 9.2 0.9 0.1
Brazil 370.0b 218.3 2.1 0.5
Poland 350.oc • 202.9 6.1 0.5
Mexico 300.7 145.0 2.7 0.4
Malaysia 617.6 274.7 23.6 6.2
Senegal 281.6 91.2 21.6 10.5
Note: Data on value per ton obtained by:
• Dividing total value by total tonnage where both are available for 1973 (from FAO Yearbook of Fishery
Statistics).
• By calculating value per ton for a series of previous years and then extending the trend.
' By comparing with a country or countries with a similar economic structure, a similar fishing
industry, and location in the same region.
"Total value" data are either those given by FAO or calculated from the FAO volume data. "Value per
person" data are obtained by dividing total value by population (UN Demographic Yearbook) . "Fish
catch as a percentage of GNP" data are value per person data divided by per capita income
(Handbook of International Trade and Development Statistics, Supplement 1973).
Source: Fishing News, Vol. 16, No. 9 (September 1977.)
Annex 7 --J
""-
Fishery Products: World Catch of Aquatic Organismsa
Average 1980° Change
1970-73 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Preliminary 1979-80
(%)
(in thousand tons)
WORLD TOTAL 64 ,200 66,592 66,479 69,863 69,164 70,544 71,347 70,842 - 1.3
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES 34 ,386 36,736 37,178 38,575 37,982 37,432 37,383 37,608 - 0.6
North America: 4,022 3,821 3,835 4,152 4,216 4,783 4,922 4,895
Canada 1,212 974 993 1,102 1,235 1,366 1,411 1,305 - 5
United States 2,810 2,847 2,842 3,050 2,980 3,418 3,511 3,590 + 2
Western Europe 11 ,073 11 ,295 10,989 12,030 12,078 11,440 11 ,134 11 ,029
European Economic Community: 4,635 5,121 4,856 5,023 4,810 4,844 4,623 4,800 + 4
Denmark 1,384 1,835 1,767 1,912 1,806 1,740 1,738 2,000 +15
France 772 793 784 787 744 777 732 700 - 4
Germany, Federal Republic of 505 526 442 454 432 412 356 315 -12
Italy 406 426 406 420 380 402 427 457 + 7
Netherlands 329 326 351 285 313 324 324 328 + 1
United Kingdom 1,099 1,079 969 1,026 997 1,030 905 817 -10
Others 140 136 137 139 139 158 140 183 +31
Portugal 456 430 375 346 310 255 242 260 + 7
Spain 1,530 1,498 1,512 1,469 1,389 1,373 1,205 1,250 + 4
, Iceland 762 945 995 986 1,374 1,567 1,645 1,510 - 8
Norway 2,985 2,579 2,481 3,361 3,402 2,587 2,650 2,417 - 9
Others 0 705 722 770 845 793 814 769 792 + 3
Eastern Europe and USSR: 8,829 10,596 11 ,493 11 ,509 10,562 9,977 10,259 10,118 - 1
Poland 528 679 801 750 655 571 601 640 + 6
USSR 7,735 9,256 9,970 10,132 9,351 8,915 9,114 8,910 - 2
Others 566 661 722 627 556 491 547 568 + 4
Oceania: 176 203 172 187 210 223 237 237
Australiad 114 134 109 110 128 123 127 120 - 6
New Zealand 62 69 64 76 83 100 110 117 + 6
Other Developed Countries: 10,286 10,821 10,687 10,697 10,915 11,010 10,852 11 ,329
Japan 9,497 10,101 9,895 9,994 10,123 10,184 9,945 10,398
South Africa 597 592 600 595 550 600 659 635 - 4
Israel 27 24 24 26 24 26 27 26
Others 165 104 168 82 218 200 270
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 29,814 29 ,856 29 ,302 31,288 31 ,1 81 33,112 33,964 33,234 - 2.2
Africa: 3,618 4,025 3,700 3,533 3,533 3,634 3,526 3,219 - 9
Morocco 278 285 224 281 255 287 280
Ghana 228 220 255 238 268 264 230
Nigeria 385 473 466 497 504 519 535 451 -16
Senegal 259 357 363 362 348 359 308
Tanzania 173 171 196 239 288 295 344 240 -30
Namibia 634 840 761 574 404 418 327 211 -35
Others 1,661 1,679 1,435 1,342 1,466 1,492 1,502 1,499
Latin America: 10,462 7,447 6,604 8,201 6,818 8,736 10,028 9,579 - 4
Mexico 407 402 468 526 611 703 875 1,252 +43
Chile 1,036 1,128 899 1,379 1,319 1,929 2,633 2,817 + 7
Ecuador 115 174 222 298 434 617 644
Peru 7,530 4,145 3,448 4,344 2,537 3,369 3,682 2,709 -26
Argentina 224 277 211 266 370 519 566 390 -31
Brazil 602 726 753 653 748 803 843 850 + 1
Uruguay 17 16 26 34 48 74 108 130 +20
Others 531 579 577 701 751 722 677 787 +16
Near East: 737 873 843 813 820 789 771
Asia: 14,225 16,688 17,260 17,790 19,025 18,891 18 ,526 18,532
South Asia: 2,908 3,418 3,440 3,377 3,585 3,425 3,487 3,361 - 4
India ' 1,801 2,255 2,266 2,174 2,312 2,306 2,343 2,200 - 6 ....:r
Others 1,107 1,163 1,174 1,203 1,273 1,119 1,144 1,161 + 1 Ol
Annex 7 -:c
Ol
Fishery Products: World Catch of Aquatic Organismsa (continued)
Average 1980b Change
1970-73 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 Preliminary 1979-80
(%)
('000 tons)
East Asia: 6,106 7,057 7,424 7,874 8,688 8,757 8,620 8,671 + 1
Indonesia 1,249 1,333 1,382 1,479 1,568 1,642 1,766 1,853 + 5
Korea, Republic of 1,089 1,688 1,887 2,118 2,085 2,091 2,162 2,090 - 3
Malaysia 378 525 474 517 619 685 698 765 +10
Philippines 1,167 1,371 1,443 1,393 1,508 1,495 1,476 1,507 + 2
Thailand 1,597 1,516 1,553 1,659 2,188 2,095 1,716 1,650 - 4
Others 626 624 685 708 720 749 802 806
Centrally Planned Economies: 5,211 6,213 6,396 6,539 6,752 6,709 6,419 6,500 + 1
China 3,482 4,134 4,247 4,320 4,463 4,394 4,054 4,135 + 2
Others 1,729 2,079 2,149 2,219 2,289 2,315 2,365
OTHER DEVELOPING COUNTRIES 772 823 895 951 985 1,063 1,133 1,133 + 2
• Excluding all aquatic mammals and aquatic plants .
b Including estimates (1979 data repeated) for countries for which 1980 data are not yet available.
c Including Greece.
• Data available on fiscal year (July-June) basis only.
so·urce: 'FAD, Fish Utilization and Marketing Service, Fishery Industries Division, "Fishery Commodity Situation and Outlook 1980/81 ," FAD Fish. Gire., (737):31pp, May 1981.
77
Annex 8
World Catch by Selected Countries, 1960-78
(million metric tons)
11--------------------------
.....
-- I . . .'
/ ./•
--
10~----l-------l-----l-- -j,.' ..
,,
PERU
I
I
' ' "' . I
./ II .. ....•••
·
··•...
9 / I
..,,,
I \ I ./~:1R
I \
\
8 ~----I----J.----l-----i---~-+----1---.L..-l-"------+----l--~
I ....
V •
/
7 __ , -,
·, / .
/ .....
/ I
6 t=~':+====t='-~,--=z:p-,c.._1_--rt__1_T_1
I
I
5 /
I
I
. •·
..
--- REPUBLIC OF KOR
DENMA
1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978
78
Annex 9
Largest Producers of a Sample of Aquaculture Products, 1975
(Tons) (Tons)
Finlish Mussels
China 2,200,000 Spain 160,000
India 490,000 Netherlands 100,000
USSR 210,000 Italy 30,000
Japan 147,291 France 17,000
Indonesia 139,840 World 325,517
Philippines 124,000
Thailand 80,000
Bangladesh 76,485 Clams
Nigeria 75,000 Korea, Republic of 24,920
Poland 38,400 Philippines 33
World 3,980,492 World 24,953•
Shrimps and Prawns
India 4,000 Others
Indonesia 4,000 Scallops 62,600
Thailand 3,300 Cockles 29,987
Japan 2,779 Seaweeds 1,054,793
World 15,663
Grand Total 6;099,289
Oysters
Japan 229,899
USA 129,060
France 71,448
World 591,386
• Since for clam production the countries listed are the only ones indicated in the source, they add up
to the world total shown.
Source: T. V. R. Pillay, "The Status of Aquaculture, 1975." The Paper was presented at the FAD
Technical Conference in Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan, 1976.
79
References
L. G. Anderson, The Economics of Fisheries Management (Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press, 1977).
F. W. Bell, Food from the Sea: The Economics and Politics of Ocean Fisheries
(Colorado: Westview Press, 1978).
F. T. Christy, Jr. and A. Scott, The Common Wealth in Ocean Fishing (Baltimore:
The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965).
Committee on Fisheries (COFI), "Review of the State of World Fishery Re-
sources" (FAO, Rome, October 1979).
D. K. Emmerson, "Rethinking Artisanal Fisheries Development: Western
Concepts, Asian Experiences," Staff Working Paper, No. 423 (Washington:
World Bank, 1980).
FAO; Report of the Consultative Group Meeting on Small-Scale Fisheries Development
in the South ChinaSeaRegion, No. SCS/GEN/76/9, Manila, Philippines, February
1977.
G. M. Gerhardsen, "Strategies for Development Projects in Small-Scale
Fisheries : A Contribution to Policy Formulation" (FAO, Rome, 1979).
A. S. Msangi and J. J. Griffin, eds .,International Conference on Marine Resource
Development in Eastern Africa (The University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, April
1974).
D. Pauly, "Theory and Management of Tropical Multispecies Stocks: A Re-
view, with Emphasis on the Southeast Asian Demersal Fisheries," ICLARM
Studies and Reviews No. l (Manila, Philippines, 1979).
I. R. Smith, "A Research Framework for Traditional Fisheries," ICLARM
Studies and Reviews No. 2 (Manila, Philippines, 1979).
Credits
Cover: Bill Fraser
Picture Section:
I. F. Botts, FAO
2. Priya Ramrakh a , UNICEF
3. Ra y Witlin, World Bank
4. Ray Witlin , World Ba nk
5. F. Botts, FAO
6. Maya Bracher, FAO
7. Tomas Sennett, World Bank
8. Alfredo Sfeir-Younis
9. Kay Chernush, World Bank
10. Alfredo Sfeir-Younis
I I. Ed Hoffman, World Bank
12. Yosef Hadar, World Bank
Foldout Map: Jody Dugan
RTHEAST
-
-- ·wEs
TLANTIC
~ ESTERN CENTRAL
-------- .
,
'-o:. ATLANTIC
,._._
-::~..:...
~:f~:-· :~·..
::.
-~-- ~~ - ::/!
•
~ ~~~ .
~
=
.•,-:::~
(.) EASTERN CENTRAL PACIFIC
it
u
-
-
l ..... ---~-·
,~~~~~-
ti, :"-::· .'.-::: ·.-<';;-=::,~cc-: :
.lll. :.;.=.;.;.;:-:-;-,...:~~==-- . "':'~.::::;...-:.....,....,-.:..
~ :-.•::3:·;::;-,:: - _:: :::..
5:- '.::.:::,:~;';:.
SOUTHEAS
PACIFIC
• -~ -,~--· - . ~c.:·,~~ ,~
= ~~~@
".:~
~
SOUTHV'IESTPACIFIC
-
: : : .;;:...=
::: i=::--=
:.:::,
"~~
ANTARCTIC PACIFIC
The denominations, the cfassiflcatlons, the boundaries, and the colors used In this
map do not Imply on me part of The World Bank and its affiliates any judgement
on the legal or olher status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance
of any boundary.
December 19821
The Extended Economic Zones
and Scope for Fisheries
- Regional catch of 0.25 million metric tons of fish
- Regional catch of 1 million metric tons of fish
'-----4 Boundaries of major marine fishing areas
200 nautical mile limit under the Extended
Economic Zone (EEZ)
Countries that may gain in fisheries in excess of
50,000 tons per year by extending their national
jurisdictions over fisheries to 200 nautical miles
Countries with over 100,000 artlsanal fishermen
Countries with aquaculture production exceeding
1,000 tons per year
----:::;,.- Major River Systems
International Boundaries
Sources:
1. Food and Agriculture Organization.
2. R. Pillai, "The State of Aquaculture" Paper
presented at FAQ Technical Conference on
Aquaculture, Kyoto, Japan, May 26, 1976.
3. World Conservation strategy: Living Resource
Conservation for Sustainable Development
Prepared by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources,
Gland. 5wi1zerland, 1980.
4. FAO. Atlas of the Living Resources of the Seas,
Rome, 1971.
. - ..
..:.,_
ices of The World Bank Senegal: The World Bank, Immeuble S.D.I.H ., 3, Place de l'Independance, Dai<1r,
Senegal; mailing address-B.P. 3296
adquarters: 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A. Somalia: .The World Bank, c/o Somali Commercial & Savings Bank Building (4th
Jew York Office: floor) , Mogadishu, Somalia; mailing address -P.O.- Box 1825
The World Bank Mission to the United Sri Lanka: The World Bank , People's Bank, Head Office (10th floor), Colombo 2,
Nations/New York Office Sri Lanka; mailingaddress-P.O. Box 1761
747 Third Avenu e (26th floor) Sudan: The World Bank, 28 Block 2H , Baladia Street, Khartoum, Sudan; mailing
I New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A. address-P.O. Box 2211
lropean Office: The World Bank, 66, avenue d'lena, 75116 Paris, France Tanzania: The World Bank , N.I.C. Building (7th floor, B), Dar es Salaam,
London Office: The World Bank, New Zealand House (15th floor), London Tanzania; mailing address-P.O. Box 2054
i SW! Y4TE, United Kingdom Uganda: The World Bank, Kampala, Uganda; mailing address -P.O. Box 4463
,neva Office: World Bank Representative to UN Organizations-Geneva, ITC Upper Volta: The World Bank, Immeuble BECEA (3 eme etage), Ouagadougou,
Building, 54 Rue de Montbrillant, Geneva, Switzerland ; mailing address- The Upper Volta; mailing address-B.P. 622
World Bank, P.O. Box 104, 1211 Geneva 20 CIC, Switzerland Zaire: The World Bank, Building UZB, Avenue des Aviateurs, Kinshasa 1,
,kyo Office: The World Bank, Kokusai Building (Room 916), 1-1, Marunouchi Republic of Zaire; mailing address-P.O. Box 14816
3-chome, Chiyoda-ku , Tokyo 100, Japan Zambia: The World Bank, Kulima Tower (13th floor), Katunjila Road, Lusaka,
1stern Africa: Regional Mission in Eastern Africa, The World Bank; Reinsurance Zambia; mailing address-P.O. Box 35410
·Plaza (5th and 6th floors), Taifa Road , Nairobi, Kenya; mailing address-P.O.
Box 30577
·estem Africa: Regional Mission in Western Africa, The World Bank, Immeuble
Shell, 64, Avenue Lamblin, Abidjan , Ivory Coast; mailing address-B.P. 1850
hailand: Regional Mission, The World Bank, Udom Vidhya Building, 956 Rama
IV Road, Sala Daeng, Bangkok 5, Thailand
angladesh: Resident Mission, The World Bank, 222 New Eskaton Road, Dacca,
Bangladesh; mailing address-G.P.O. Box 97
olivia: Banco Mundial, Edificio BISA (4° Piso) , Avenida 16 de Julio 1628, La Paz,
Bolivia; mailing address -Casilla 8692
iurundi: The World Bank, 45, Avenue de la Paste, Bujumbura, Burundi; mailing
address -B.P. 2637
:ameroon: The World Bank, Immeuble Kennedy, Avenue Kennedy, Yaounde,
Cameroon; mailingaddress- B.P. 1128
solombia: Banco Mundial, Edificio "Aseguradora de! Valle," Carrera IO, No.
i 24-55 (Pisa 17), Bogota D.E., Colombia; mailing address-Banco Mundial ,
; Apartado Aereo 10229
.~thiopia: The World Bank, I.B.T.E. New Telecommunicatio ns Building (first
, floor) , Churchill Road, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; mailingaddress-P.O. Box 5515
;;.hana: The World Bank, do Royal Guardian Exchange Assurance Building, Head
Office, High Street, Accra, Ghana; mailing address-P.O. Box M27
[ndia: Resident Mission, The World Bank, New Delhi, India; mailing
address-P.O. Box 416
Indonesia: Resident Staff in Indone.sia, The World Bank, Arthaloka Building (8th
floor) , 2 Jalan Jendral Sudirman, Jakarta, Indonesia; mailing address-P.O . Box
324/JKT
Mali: The World Bank, Quartier du Pont, rue Square Lumumba, Bamako, Mali;
mailing address-B.P. 1864
Nepal: The World Bank , R.N .A.C. Building (first floor) , Kathmandu , Nepal;
mailing address-P.O. Box 798
Niger: The World Bank, Immeuble El Nasr 12• etage-escalier A), Niamey,
Niger; mailing address -Banque mondiale, B.P. 12402
Nigeria: The World Bank, 30 Macarthy Street, Lagos, Nigeria; mailing
address-P.O. Box 127 •
Pakistan: The World Bank, Islamabad, Pakistan; mailing address-P.O. Box 1025
Peru: Banco Mundial, Avenida Central 643 (1° Piso), Lima , Peru; mailing
address-Apartado 4480
Rwanda: The World Bank, Kigali, Rwanda; mailing address-P.O. Box 609
Saudi Arabia: Resident Mission, The World Bank, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; mailing
address -P.O. Box 5900
*** HD 9450.6 .S43 1982
Sfeir-Younis, _
_Alfredo,~, 194 7"-i
Fishery sector policy paper. ·
DATE NAME AND EXTENSION ROOM
NUMBER :
,
·'
.,
·- .-;-•
ROOM
DATE NAME AND EXTENSION
NUMBER
. __ ..,.,:
-·
,
/
- ,:-•
--,)-J • · &"f' ·- -----~ ·
-
f