Policy Research Working Paper 10686 Little Nomads Economic and Social Impacts of Migration on Children Magdalena Cortina Juan Miguel Jimenez Sandra V. Rozo Development Economics Development Research Group January 2024 Policy Research Working Paper 10686 Abstract This paper reviews the main findings from 113 studies pro- than those in their origin countries but still underperform duced between 1990 and 2023, focusing on the impact compared to native children in host countries; and (iii) the of migration on various child groups affected through the impacts of migration on native children largely depend on migration path, including left-behind, migrant (voluntary the adjustment of public service supply to meet increased and forced), and native children. The findings reveal that demand. In cases where education services expand to meet migration influences children’s outcomes in complex and rising demand, the effect on native children can be minimal context-dependent ways, and it interacts dramatically with or even positive. This paper emphasizes the need for more household demographics and public policies. Key results experimental or quasi-experimental research to examine the include the following: (i) left-behind children benefit effectiveness of programs that support migrant and minor from remittances but experience dramatic declines in their host children, and it calls for longitudinal data collection cognitive and non-cognitive development due to paren- to better understand the challenges and needs of migrant tal absence; (ii) immigrant children generally fare better children, particularly in developing countries. This paper is a product of the Development Research Group, Development Economics. It is part of a larger effort by the World Bank to provide open access to its research and make a contribution to development policy discussions around the world. Policy Research Working Papers are also posted on the Web at http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. The authors may be contacted at sandrarozo@worldbank.org. The Policy Research Working Paper Series disseminates the findings of work in progress to encourage the exchange of ideas about development issues. An objective of the series is to get the findings out quickly, even if the presentations are less than fully polished. The papers carry the names of the authors and should be cited accordingly. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors. They do not necessarily represent the views of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/World Bank and its affiliated organizations, or those of the Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent. Produced by the Research Support Team Little Nomads: Economic and Social Impacts of Migration on Children* Magdalena Cortina† Juan Miguel Jimenez‡ Sandra V. Rozo§ Originally published in the Policy Research Working Paper Series on January 2024. This version is updated on February 2024. To obtain the originally published version, please email prwp@worldbank.org. JEL Classification: F22, O15, R23 Keywords: Children, Migration. * This research project received financial support from the Research Support Budget of the Development Vicepresi- dency of the World Bank. We are grateful to Catalina Amuedo-Dorantes for suggestions. † Robert S. McNamara Fellow, World Bank. E-mail: mcortinatoro@worldbank.org ‡ Vancouver School of Economics. E-mail: jmjimen@student.ubc.ca § World Bank, Development Research Group. Corresponding author, E-mail: sandrarozo@worldbank.org “People made fun of me because I used different words; despite the fact we all spoke Spanish, they could tell something was dif- ferent as soon as I opened my mouth. Hence, I learned to speak Colombian fast, I had to. It was not a choice.” Venezuelan migrant child in Colombia (age 16), Dec 2023 I INTRODUCTION Approximately 3% of the global population are migrants (World Bank, 2023). Of this share, al- most 9% are children under 14 years of age, amounting to about 23.3 million individuals. While significant, these numbers do not account for all the children impacted by migration—including those left behind and native-born children in hosting countries—which highlights the relevance of this issue. It is crucial to understand the effects of migration on children because this significant event can profoundly shape life trajectories. Moreover, specifically for children whose origins or destinations are in developing countries, migration can alter their mobility out of or into poverty. Although migration destinations are balanced between the northern and southern hemispheres, only 15% of the world’s migrant children originate in the north, whereas 85% migrate from the south (World Bank, 2023). There is substantial research on the impacts of migration on adult mi- grants and hosts but considerably less regarding its effects on children. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of research findings on the impact of migra- tion on children’s development with an emphasis on insights from Economics and Psychology. It summarizes migration effects on various groups of children by category based on their relation- ship to the migratory journey, including: 1. Left-behind children: Children who remain in their home country while one or more parents migrate. We focus on how the absence of a parent impacts their outcomes. 2. Migrant children: Those who have migrated themselves or in some cases are second-generation migrants. We examine how the experience of relocating to a new environment affects their outcomes. 3. Native children: Non-migrant children in the host country who interact with migrant chil- dren. We assess how their exposure to peers from different backgrounds influences their outcomes. 2 4. Forcibly displaced children: These migrate due to involuntary conditions such as conflict and natural disasters. We explore their unique challenges, including trauma, disruption in edu- cation, and adaptation to new environments. The review encompasses papers published in the top five economic journals and specialized jour- nals in migration, education, and early childhood development.1 We completed the search by consulting Google Scholar to capture any significant articles missed initially. Additionally, we ex- amined references within each selected article’s literature review, focusing on the most relevant ones. This approach yielded a robust collection of 113 pertinent scholarly works. This literature review discusses various methodologies, including experimental, quasi-experimental, and qualitative approaches, among others. Three papers employed experimental methods, specif- ically randomized controlled trials. Quasi-experimental designs were used in 95 papers, indicat- ing causal studies not strictly experimental in nature. Within these, 51 papers used ordinary least squares, 19 used instrumental variables, 13 applied difference-in-difference approaches, 4 imple- mented regression discontinuity designs, and 25 incorporated fixed effects. Other methodologies included the Cox proportional hazard model, the Todd and Wolpin (2023) value-added model, the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition technique, and survival analysis. Notably, only 3 qualitative studies were cited. (Refer to the appendix for detailed descriptions of each paper). This review comprises five additional sections. Section II delves into research on the effects of migration on migrant children, focusing on education, health, early childhood development, and the influence of immigration policy. Generally, this research shows that migrant children fare better than those in their origin countries but still fall behind native children in host countries. This gap often extends to poorer long-term labor outcomes, partly due to lower educational attainment and language barriers. Age at migration significantly influences the disparity between native and migrant children, and immigration policies are pivotal in narrowing or widening this gap. Section III examines the impact of migrant parents on their left-behind children. The evidence re- veals several key points. First, remittances usually benefit the education and physical health of these children by stabilizing income. This stability tends to reduce child labor, bolster school re- 1 Included journals are the International Migration Review, Journal of Development Economics, Journal of Population Eco- nomics, Economics of Education Review, and Early Childhood Research Quarterly. 3 tention, and improve nutrition, potentially enhancing long-term economic well-being. Second, a parent’s migration often shifts intra-household dynamics—especially in bargaining—which posi- tively influences girls’ educational achievements. Third, the absence of a parent due to migration severely affects children’s mental health and socio-emotional development. Finally, young chil- dren left behind experience a notable cognitive delay, primarily due to reduced parental involve- ment. Section IV describes the effects of migration on native children. Most evidence for this population concentrates on education outcomes, native flight, and youth employment. The main findings suggest that the impact of migration on native children’s educational performance stems from the ability and willingness of educational institutions to adapt and expand resources in response to increased demand from migrant populations. Positive effects are observed in cases where re- sources adjust quickly to higher demand for education, and negative effects are observed when resources don’t change. Moreover, studies point to large flight effects among native students in schools where the share of immigrant students increases. Furthermore, concerning youth employ- ment, there is some evidence of detrimental effects of youth migration on youth employment for Black Americans in the United States. Section V examines research regarding the effects of migration on forcibly displaced children. Work on refugees represents the majority of scholarship in this area. Refugee children are among the most vulnerable children worldwide. They not only endure the migration experience but do so involuntarily, and it typically accompanies traumatic events such as conflicts and natural disasters. Moreover, refugee children, especially adolescents, face a high risk of not returning to school since they often have to work inside or outside the household due to the extremely high vulnerability of their families. Existing research generally confirms that forcibly displaced children lag behind na- tive children. It also establishes that—as in the case of voluntary migration—children’s outcomes depend considerably on how public service supply responds to higher demand. Emerging work has examined the effects of public programs that support refugee populations on children’s out- comes. These studies highlight promising outcomes from cash transfer initiatives, teacher training programs, language instruction, and programs that promote social cohesion. Finally, section VI discusses areas to advance research. A summary table with all the papers 4 reviewed in this study is presented in the appendix. II MIGRANT CHILDREN This section outlines the evidence concerning the impact of migration on migrant children. It reviews areas such as education, health, and early childhood development, and it highlights the critical role of immigration policies. II.A Education outcomes Existing work in this area documents lower educational performance and attainment of immi- grant children relative to native children. These differences have long-term consequences for im- migrants’ economic success, including career choices and wages. Documented drivers of these disparities include higher socioeconomic vulnerability, parental decisions, stereotypes held by teachers, school sorting, and immigration enforcement. Immigrants exhibit lower performance relative to hosts. Studies consistently indicate that immigrant children tend to perform worse than their native counterparts in terms of school GPA and stan- dardized test scores. The performance gap is more pronounced among boys, whereas girls tend ¨ to perform relatively better (Bohlmark, 2008). Early economic research tested whether the age of arrival plays a crucial role in immigrant chil- dren’s education outcomes. The premise was that the age of arrival correlates with a stage of chil- dren’s physical and cognitive development in which younger immigrants adapt and learn faster due to the brain’s plasticity at early ages. These studies showed a noticeable decline in perfor- mance among children who arrive after a certain age threshold (typically around 7–9 years old); ¨ this decline is particularly worse on verbal tests (Bleakley and Chin, 2010). Specifically, Bohlmark (2008) finds a strong negative impact of immigrating after age nine on immigrant children’s GPA in Sweden, and Cahan et al. (2001) show that starting at the arrival age of seven, there was a mono- tonic decrease in performance for immigrant children in Israel between 1952 and 1970, with worse results on verbal tests than on mathematical ones. Similarly, Cortes (2006) shows that the test score gap between immigrant children and second-generation children narrows according to how long the former have been residing in the United States. Moreover, research on this topic underscores the importance of the critical period for language 5 acquisition, emphasizing that the timing of arrival can significantly impact the integration of im- migrant children when they become adults. Both Aslund et al. (2015) and Bleakley and Chin (2010) find in Sweden and the United States, respectively, that English proficiency (measured indirectly by the age of childhood arrival) increases the probability of marrying a native, having a higher fraction of work colleagues who are natives, and residing outside of an ethnic enclave. Immigrant children also face disparities in terms of school attendance rates and attainment. Cold- ing et al. (2009) find that the dropout rates of children of immigrants in Denmark who are enrolled in vocational upper secondary school are higher than those of natives. Additionally, McKenzie and Rapoport (2011) show that living in a migrant household decreases children’s likelihood of completing school by 13%–15% in the Mexican context. Similar to performance, the age at which immigrant children arrive can impact their attendance and attainment levels. In Germany, Lemmermann and Riphahn (2018) show attainment decreases for children who arrive after age six, suggesting immigrant children face more language barriers after this threshold. In fact, Foged et al. (2022) and Foged et al. (2023) find that language training offered by the Danish government to immigrant adults has significant intergenerational spillovers on their children in terms of higher completion rates from lower secondary school. Finally, there is evidence that lower educational performance of immigrant children has long-term consequences, particularly in terms of career choices and wages. In Italy, Barban and White (2011) observe that immigrant children are more likely to enroll in vocational and polytechnic schools due to inferior outcomes on the middle school exam. Moreover, research on immigrant children’s labor outcomes consistently shows that adults who arrive at an older age during the immigration ¨ process tend to have lower earnings in their host country (Bohlmark, 2009). Language skills are a critical channel through which age at arrival influences adult earnings. Bleakley and Chin (2004) suggest that immigrants who arrive later in the United States may have lower language profi- ciency, which can significantly hinder their ability to secure higher-paying jobs and integrate into the labor market effectively. Potential driver 1: parental investment decisions. Another group of articles has explained the con- sequences of migration on the parental investment decisions of migrants concerning the human 6 capital of their children. The main finding is that the socioeconomic status of migrant families upon arrival is on average lower than that of native families, which directly translates into fewer monetary and time investments in their children. For instance, Rangvid (2007) finds that 50% of the gap between immigrant and native students in Denmark is explained by differences in the family socioeconomic status of each comparison group. Likewise, Schnepf (2007) finds in a cross- country analysis of OECD members that in European countries, socioeconomic background is the main determinant for the immigrant-versus-native performance gap in tests like PISA, TIMSS, and PIRLS. Furthermore, Dahl et al. (2020) show that in Germany, migrant parents from backgrounds with traditional cultural norms (e.g., Muslims) tend to invest less in their daughters’ schooling. Consequently, their daughters receive worse grades in school. Potential driver 2: school sorting. Another explanation for the lower performance of immigrant chil- dren compared to native peers is the potential sorting of this population into schools with unfavor- able characteristics. Rangvid (2007) finds that even though immigrant students in Denmark have access to school resources comparable to native students—including class size, student-teacher ratio, language lessons per week, and physical and educational infrastructure—other factors con- tribute to the immigrant students’ low performance on the PISA test. These determinants include teachers’ expectations, encouragement, and pressure to achieve, as well as a scarcity of specialized teachers compared to the number available for native students of the same socioeconomic status. Also, Liu et al. (2010) note that immigrant families often locate in areas with lower-quality schools than those attended by native counterparts. Potential driver 3: stereotypes held by teachers. Recent literature has shown how teachers’ perceptions and stereotypes can influence immigrant children’s education outcomes. Triventi (2020) finds that Italian teachers tend to assign lower grades to students with an immigrant background com- pared to native students, suggesting that teachers may harbor implicit biases. Alesina et al. (2018) confirmed that intuition, finding that Italian teachers who hold stronger stereotypes (higher Im- plicit Association Test scores - IAT) assign lower grades to immigrant students compared to native peers. However, teachers increase grading when they are randomly informed about the stereo- types they hold. Similarly, Carlana et al. (2022) find that Italian teachers give inaccurate recommendations about 7 educational careers to immigrant children, who consequently enroll disproportionately in voca- tional high schools, as opposed to natives who go more to technical and academically oriented ¸ high schools. The behavior is particularly observed among female immigrant students (Aktas et al., 2022). Nevertheless, the authors show that when career counseling is randomly provided to highly skilled immigrant students, their likelihood of enrolling in the high track matches that of native students. II.B Health outcomes Evidence in this area indicates that migrant children generally have better health outcomes than children in their origin countries. However, they still lag behind native children. Additionally, the evidence shows that access to health services is key to enhancing migrant children’s health. This leads to more efficient health care utilization, with greater use of preventive services and less reliance on emergency services. Health outcomes. Migrant children often exhibit better anthropometric measures, such as weight- for-age (WfA) and height-for-age (HfA) than children from their places of origin, yet they experi- ence higher mortality rates compared to native children. Cockx (2018) demonstrates that children who relocate from rural to urban areas in Tanzania exhibit higher HfA z-scores and reduced stunt- ing rates than those from sending areas. The study suggests this improvement may stem from an increase in maternal income that in turn contributes to improved long-term food security. How- ever, in addition to the income effect hypothesis, there is evidence that the improvement in HfA and stunting rates might be partly due to changes in parenting nutritional habits. Specifically, Stillman et al. (2012) find that dietary change is one of the main determinants of the improvement in anthropometric measures for immigrant children aged three to six years in New Zealand. How- ever, the authors also note that these children face a higher risk of obesity compared to peers in their places of origin. Interestingly, Thomas (2007) finds that in the lowest quintiles of the socioeconomic distribution in South Africa, migrants have a higher likelihood of child mortality than natives. However, in the highest socioeconomic quintiles, child mortality is more prevalent among the native population. Health service access. Access to health care is crucial for improving migrant children’s health out- 8 comes. Bronchetti (2014) and Currie (2000) find that changes in health insurance eligibility in the United States reduce the likelihood that a child in an immigrant family will go without a doctor’s visit for more than 12 months by 7 to 12 percentage points (pp). They also decrease the likelihood of an emergency room (ER) visit in the past year by 4 to 6 pp. These results collectively suggest that eligibility for public insurance leads to increased utilization of more efficient health care services such as preventive and ambulatory care while reducing reliance on costly ER visits for children in immigrant families. Furthermore, the findings also indicate that eligibility for public insurance may lead to modest improvements in certain child health outcomes that typically respond to am- bulatory or preventive care. These include, for example, a lower likelihood of experiencing an asthma attack in the past 12 months (Bronchetti, 2014). II.C Early childhood development Literature on the early development of immigrant children is very limited. Available evidence in Psychology suggests that immigrant children frequently exhibit disparities compared to their native counterparts, with potential delays in cognitive and language skills (De Feyter and Winsler, 2009). Regarding language proficiency among young immigrant children, Palermo and Mikulski (2014) show that factors such as preschool attendance significantly influence the acquisition of commu- nication skills. They observe that positive peer interactions and increased levels of English expo- sure during young ages positively correlate with the English vocabulary and letter-word skills of Spanish-speaking immigrant children in the United States. II.D The central role of immigration policy Research often investigates how immigration policies impact migrant children’s outcomes. The findings consistently show that strict enforcement against immigrants harms these children’s out- comes. Conversely, policies that improve service access and integration typically lead to positive outcomes for them. Deportation enforcement. The impact of deportation enforcement measures on immigrant children is a subject of broad interest, especially in the U.S. context. Regarding the effect on early child- hood development, the enforcement of immigration laws can lead to a decline in the English- 9 language skills of these children (Arenas Arroyo and Schmidpeter, 2022). Moreover, Santillano et al. (2020) also find that in the United States, enrollment of Hispanic immigrant children in the Head Start program—which provides comprehensive early childhood education, health, and nutrition—decreases by 10% after a law enforcement raid. Primarily, this decline occurs because parents are deterred from appearing in public spaces. Concerning the education outcomes of immigrant children, Amuedo-Dorantes and Lopez (2015) and Amuedo-Dorantes and Lopez (2017) find that in U.S. areas with intensified immigration law enforcement, the probability of school-year repetition and dropping out for Hispanic children be- tween ages 14 and 18 years increases by 14% and 18%, respectively. Likewise, Dee and Murphy (2020) find that new ICE partnerships lead to a 10% decrease in the Hispanic immigrant student population within a span of two years. Furthermore, the learning environment plays an important role in immigrant children’s motivation, focus, and parental involvement. Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2023) use data from the “Between the Lines” project to show that immigrant students who are enrolled in U.S. school districts implementing safe-zone policies2 demonstrate improvements in several outcomes. For instance, they are 17% less likely to report difficulties in concentrating dur- ing school hours, 65% more inclined to express diligence in their studies, and 31% more optimistic about their prospects of achieving higher education, relative to other students. Additionally, these policies enhance caregiver participation in parent-teacher meetings by 34%. Similar results are observed in the health care domain. Particularly, Watson (2014) finds that an increase in federal immigration enforcement acts leads to a decrease in Medicaid enrollment and usage among children of non-citizens, even if the children themselves are U.S. citizens. Addi- tionally, Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2022) find that more intense local U.S. immigration enforcement measures, particularly during the third trimester of pregnancy, raise the probability of infants be- ing born with low birth weight (less than 2,500 grams). They note increased maternal stress and a decrease in prenatal-care medical visits as underlying factors. In terms of economic and family impacts, Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2018) show that deportation enforcement raises the likelihood of children living in impoverished households by 4%, primar- ily due to reduced working hours among parents. Furthermore, Amuedo-Dorantes and Arenas- 2 A safe-zone policy within a school district implies that immigration authorities have limited entry or access. 10 Arroyo (2019) show a concerning 19% increase in family separations, particularly affecting chil- dren whose parents are undocumented and/or who are sent to live with relatives or friends threat- ened by deportation. Public service access. Foged et al. (2023) underscore that refugee children in Denmark benefit from higher completion rates when their parents are exposed to language training programs, suggest- ing a positive correlation between language skills acquisition within refugee families and educa- tional success. In a related context, Foged et al. (2022) indicate lower crime rates among refugee populations, possibly as a consequence of improved access to educational opportunities and inte- gration programs. Furthermore, studies in the U.S. context by Bronchetti (2014) and Currie (2000) emphasize the importance of eligibility for public health insurance, revealing that it increases child preventive care utilization and positively impacts health outcomes such as the management of conditions like asthma. Moreover, Villarreal and Gonzalez (2016) show that participation in extracurricular activities in U.S. schools predicts positive social behaviors for immigrant children. Specifically, participation in sports-related activities is associated with an increase in school membership feelings of His- panic immigrant children and higher peer prosocial orientation behavior. Nevertheless, treat- ments might not induce homogeneous effects across population groups. For instance, Dahl et al. (2020) find that girls from traditional cultures are socially isolated and less likely to self-identify as German, which suggests they might need tailored support. Finally, evidence in the economic field shows how targeted interventions can mitigate higher crim- inal propensity of migrant youth as documented in Vazsonyi and Killias (2001). Foged et al. (2022) and Foged et al. (2023) highlight that language training programs for refugees can lead to a re- duction in crime rates among the children of treated parents. Both articles suggest that equipping parents with language skills contributes to keeping children in schools and possibly increases the opportunity cost of criminal activities for immigrant children. Citizenship rights. Felfe et al. (2020) find that the introduction of birthright citizenship for immi- grants in Germany is associated with increased attendance in non-compulsory educational stages such as preschool and secondary school. Moreover, it also caused immigrant children to progress 11 faster through primary school and raised the likelihood they would pursue the academic track of secondary school. All these effects underscore the positive impact of citizenship on immigrant children’s educational trajectories and opportunities. Furthermore, Felfe et al. (2021) delve into the social dimension, revealing that complete citizenship rights in Germany can foster prosocial behavior, including out-group cooperation. This finding suggests that individuals who enjoy full citizenship rights may exhibit a higher level of engagement and cooperation with members of dif- ferent social or cultural groups, potentially facilitating assimilation into the broader community. Nevertheless, Dahl et al. (2020) highlight that the birthright citizenship policy in Germany can have a differential effect on immigrant girls from traditional cultures, leading to a decrease in their measures of life satisfaction and self-esteem by approximately 0.32 and 0.25 standard deviations, respectively. As noted above, the study also reveals that Muslim girls who acquire birthright citizenship exhibit reduced integration into German society. The authors suggest that immigrant Muslim parents invest less in educating their daughters, resulting in lower academic performance among girls born after the implementation of the birthright citizenship reform. III LEFT-BEHIND CHILDREN The term left-behind children refers to minors who remain in their places of origin or perma- nent residence while one or both parents migrate to another country, typically for employment purposes. This circumstance often arises due to financial constraints, legal impediments, or con- cerns regarding the children’s welfare that prevent the parents from bringing them along. Ad- ditionally, it encompasses situations wherein parents relocate to urban areas while their children remain in rural residences. These children are typically cared for by a lone parent, other family members, acquaintances, community members, childcare institutions, or independently. In many instances, parents provide financial support through remittances while experiencing prolonged physical separation. This scenario produces a range of positive and negative impacts encompass- ing cognitive, emotional, psychological, physical, and social aspects. This section summarizes the work about the effects of a migrant parent on left-behind children in terms of education, health outcomes, and early childhood development. 12 III.A Education outcomes Current evidence highlights two main findings. First, remittances generally have a positive im- pact on the education outcomes of left-behind children through the stabilization of household income. However, in households where remittances fail to stabilize income, child labor tends to increase, leading to lower educational attainment for left-behind children. These effects have sig- nificant consequences and have been shown to extend into long-term changes in economic well- being. Second, when a parent migrates, it often leads to changes in intra-household bargaining dynamics for the remaining household members. Typically, these changes positively influence girls’ educational achievement. Remittances. Remittances are the most prevalent determinant of improvements in educational outcomes. The most common documented channels include increased household income and higher financial stability that lead to a reduction in child labor and an increase in school retention (Amuedo Dorantes et al., 2010). Edwards and Ureta (2003), for instance, find that remittances sent to El Salvador lower the risk of school dropout in rural areas. Kandel (2003) finds that sibling internal migration in Mexico was associated positively with the educational attainment of left- behind children. Furthermore, Wassink and Viera (2021) show that Mexican left-behind children are more likely to complete lower-secondary school, enter upper-secondary school, and complete upper-secondary school. Notably, these associations are most pronounced among children whose parents did not complete primary school and those who reside in rural areas. When remittances fail to substantially increase household financial stability, in the short run, left- behind boys increase working hours and reduce educational attainment. Antman (2011) finds that in Mexico, the most affected group is boys aged 12 to 15 years. This highlights the immediate impact of parental migration on the educational and labor trajectories of these children. Moreover, the reduction in human capital accumulation that results from these adjustments can lead to lower income levels in adulthood, as observed in the Chinese context (Feng et al., 2022). This suggests that the consequences of parental migration during childhood can extend into the individual’s later years, affecting their economic well-being in the long run. Changes in intra-household bargaining. Another important channel relates to intra-household bar- 13 gaining after one parent migrates. Antman (2012) observes a reallocation of resources among siblings when the male head of household migrates. Thus, the female parent allocates more re- sources to girls and a lower fraction to boys, increasing the educational attainment of the former group by up to one year. These results underscore a significant connection between international migration and gender-based discrimination within the household, empowering spouses to exert greater control over the allocation of resources and thereby favoring investment in girls’ educa- tion. Similarly, Saleemi (2023) finds that in Pakistan, when the father is absent, women participate more in the resource allocation decision and thus expenditures on girls increase by 31%. Lee and Park (2010) document similar results for the Chinese context. III.B Health outcomes Research on the effects of a migrant parent on left-behind children generally indicates positive outcomes for physical growth, which are associated with the positive income effect caused by remittances and better nutritional practices. In contrast, the parental absence is highly detrimental to children’s mental health and socioemotional skill development. Anthropometrics. Overall, the evidence shows that parental migration has positive effects on an- thropometric measures of left-behind children. Hildebrandt et al. (2005) show that in the Mexican context, this is due to two factors. First, remittances allow households to spend additional re- sources on food and health services. Second, the authors argue that migrants learn better care and nutritional practices in the United States that later transfer to their children in Mexico. De- spite these positive effects, left-behind children are less likely to be breastfed, fully vaccinated, or taken to the doctor in the first year of life. Likewise, Mu and De Brauw (2015) find that in China, parental migration improves the WfA z-score because an increase in income translates into better access to tap water for left-behind children. Nonetheless, there is evidence that the income effect has a differential impact by gender. For instance, Vikram (2023) observes that in India, the effect of parental migration is greater for boys than for girls, as father’s migration is associated with higher HfA z-scores only for boys. In terms of measures at the time of birth, Khan et al. (2023) find that women in Bangladesh with a migrant spouse are more likely to have had prenatal care, but this is not linked to delivering at a professional health care facility or the presence of a qualified attendant for birth labor. Neverthe- 14 less, there is also evidence that remittances alone are insufficient to increase left-behind children’s utilization of qualified health care. In fact, some results are puzzling: among children who report a recent illness, Cambodian households that receive remittances are less likely to utilize qualified health care providers (Treleaven, 2019). Mental health. Most research suggests that left-behind children exhibit poorer measures related to mental health outcomes compared to other children. Lee and Park (2010) show that left-behind children in China demonstrate negative effects with regard to psychosocial well-being, while Zheng et al. (2022) find they have significantly higher levels of depression than migrant children. This difference is more prominent for boys than for girls. Many of the articles attribute these re- sults to the deterioration of the parent-child relationship that occurs when families are separated. For instance, Amuedo-Dorantes et al. (2023) find that immigrant children in the United States whose parents have been deported are more likely to experience post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as higher levels of internalizing (anxiety and depression) and external- izing (aggression) problems relative to children with legal resident parents or even children of undocumented parents who have not encountered immigration enforcement. Moreover, Wang and Liu (2021) and Wang and Zhu (2021) find adverse spillover effects on the mental health of classmates when there is a higher proportion of left-behind children in the class. This is primarily attributed to a deterioration in the learning environment within Chinese schools. In fact, the authors observe a greater occurrence of peer victimization (bullying) and even a rise in cases of self-injury. Evidence on this front also shows that parents’ absence can lead to severe psychological devel- opment issues, an increase in risk-loving behavior, and lower career aspirations. Lee and Park (2010) find that Chinese left-behind children tend more to experience drastic changes in behav- ior, becoming more anxious and depressed and more prone to impulsivity and aggression. In addition, Kandel and Kao (2001) find that left-behind children tend to have lower career aspira- tions, which are associated with a reduced desire to pursue university degrees. Moreover, Adunts (2021) observes that in Ukraine, children with a father abroad exhibit lower levels of perseverance compared to other children. This is evident in their tendency to avoid choosing challenging tasks with potentially high rewards. Liu et al. (2021) show that, in the long run, Chinese left-behind 15 children with migrant mothers tend to exhibit reduced levels of conscientiousness and grit along with higher levels of neuroticism (or lower emotional stability). In the short term, when moth- ers migrate, children typically display decreased levels of conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness. Furthermore, Luo and Wang (2023) also observe that Chinese left-behind children show less prosocial behavior, which encompasses attributes such as fairness, trust, trustworthiness, and cooperation.3 Finally, Su et al. (2013) find that infrequent parent-child communication correlates with higher feelings of loneliness in Chinese left-behind children. The limited available evidence also indicates a correlation between parental absence due to mi- gration and an increased probability of criminal behavior by left-behind children later in life. Ac- cording to Cameron et al. (2022), this association is observed among Chinese adult males. The authors suggest that childhood experiences of being left behind contribute to diminished educa- tional achievements and a tendency toward risk-taking behavior, both of which are considered contributing factors toward criminal activities. III.C Early childhood development The general consensus and evidence are that parental migration causes cognitive delay in left- behind children. For instance, Bai et al. (2022) show that maternal migration in the Chinese context leads to a 6 pp reduction in children’s cognitive skills compared to children in the same village without a migrant parent, and Yue et al. (2016) also find negative effects on cognitive development and dietary quality. Even though rural-to-urban migration in China has been key to economic growth, it might entail a significant human capital cost for the next generations.4 In both stud- ies, the primary determinants of this decline are decreases in parental time and the quality of investment in stimulating activities, along with a reduction in dietary diversity. Similarly, in Mex- ico, Powers (2011) estimates a structural model to argue that the drop in cognitive skills among left-behind children stems from a shift in their allocation of time towards activities unrelated to cognitive development. Furthermore, Zheng et al. (2023) find that left-behind children in China are not only at a disadvantage compared with other children in the same village, but also com- 3 Notwithstanding the preceding point, the paper underscores the positive impact of having access to one parent. 4 In the Chinese context, the reallocation of labor from rural to urban areas has been a key driver of China’s pros- perity in recent decades. Because of hukou reforms, migrants face limitations in accessing fundamental public services like public education for their children. As a result, migrant parents are compelled to leave their children in their hometowns, producing tens of millions of “split families” and “left-behind children.” 16 pared with migrant children. They argue that parental supervision and closeness are a vital part of children’s cognitive development. Contrary to the psychological evidence presented earlier, the limited economic evidence offers a different perspective. Specifically, in Nicaragua, Macours and Vakis (2010) find that having a migrant father in the household has no significant impact on cognitive skills, whereas there is a positive effect when the mother migrates. The authors suggest that female empowerment enables a higher proportion of remittances to be allocated to children’s development. IV NATIVE CHILDREN IV.A Education outcomes Previous work indicates migration has varied impacts on the educational performance of native children. Effects are generally negative in situations where increased demand for educational services (driven by immigrant flows) does not meet a corresponding increase in supply. This discrepancy often results in overcrowding and strains educational resources, adversely affecting native students. On the other hand, in regions where resources are augmented in tandem with the arrival of immigrants, effects on native children’s education outcomes are either negligible or positive. This suggests that the key underlying factor is the ability and willingness of educational institutions to adapt and expand resources to meet greater demand from immigrant populations. Negative effects. Studies exploring the adverse effects of migration on native children’s education outcomes identify two primary factors: increased classroom overcrowding and a decline in the quality of the learning environment. The degradation of the learning environment is evident in several cases. For example, Imberman et al. (2012)’s study on Hurricane Katrina evacuees reveals that their arrival in Houston led to higher absenteeism and more disciplinary issues in secondary schools. Ohinata and Van Ours (2013)’s research suggests that Dutch schools experience more bullying incidents when the share of immigrants per classroom is higher. Similarly, Figlio and ¨ Ozek (2019) find that after the influx of Haitian migrants to Florida, disciplinary incidents and school suspensions rose. Nevertheless, the last two articles do not find strong evidence of negative spillover effects on the academic performance of native children. Concerning the overcrowding channel, studies suggest that an excessive number of students per 17 classroom is associated with a decline in the performance of native students, particularly when there is no compensatory investment to address new educational demand in schools that receive a substantial influx of immigrants. Brunello and Rocco (2013), for example, study the case of 19 countries where immigration waves doubled the number of students in public secondary schools between 2000 and 2009. This shock led to a decrease in PISA scores for natives. Furthermore, these negative effects are shown to be concentrated among male students, children with disadvantaged backgrounds, and underperforming students. Similarly, Green and Iversen (2020) observe that negative effects are concentrated in students at the most risk of underperformance in Norwegian schools. Finally, Contreras and Gallardo (2022) provide evidence that Venezuelan migration led to a decrease in math and reading standardized test scores for male native students in Chile. As a consequence, there has been an increase in native flight by high-skilled students to private schools. Positive effects. Two key mechanisms are documented in the set of studies identifying the pos- itive impacts of migration on native children’s education outcomes. The first is the beneficial spillover from having high-achieving immigrant peers, contingent on the availability of compen- satory school funding (Imberman et al., 2012). For instance, Morales (2022)’s research in Georgia illustrates this, showing that a 1% increase in refugee students boosts native math scores by 0.01 standard deviation, an effect amplified by increased funding for schools. In the U.S. context, these positive spillovers predominantly benefit students from disadvantaged backgrounds. This im- provement is attributed to exposure to immigrant children who are less disruptive and exhibit better behavior, as noted by Figlio et al. (2021). Similarly, in Turkiye, ¨ Tumen (2021) finds that positive impacts on native students stem from competitive incentives. This competition seems to particularly motivate underperforming native students to improve their performance. The second significant migration-related factor that contributes to positive educational outcomes for native students involves increased perceived returns to education following a rise in immigrant student populations. Hunt (2017) highlights this in the U.S. context, where white students showed a higher likelihood of staying in high school and completing 12 years of education in response ¨ to increased immigrant presence. This trend was also observed in Turkiye, where native youth noticeably shifted from balancing work and school to focusing solely on education. However, it is still unclear which specific sociodemographic group benefits most from this shift in 18 ¸ akır et al. (2023) present evidence that the most advantaged group comprises educational values. C native students with more educated parents, while Tumen (2018) argues that it is male students with less-educated parents. Neutral effects. A set of articles documents the negligible effects of migration on the educational outcomes of native children, particularly when adequate compensatory funding and appropriate ¨ selection mechanisms are in place. For example, Figlio and Ozek (2019)’s research on the arrival of Haitian refugees in the United States exemplifies this. The study suggests that schools effectively accommodated the influx of students without detriment to natives, partly due to preemptive mea- sures like employing Haitian-Creole-speaking counselors. Similarly, findings by Van der Werf (2021) further support this argument for the resettlement of Vietnamese students in the United States. The study finds that schools, when provided with additional resources for each Vietnamese student, could prevent the diversion of funds from native students and avoid the negative effects of overcrowding. Lastly, Assaad et al. (2023)’s research on Jordanian schools during the Syrian refugee crisis reveals effective governmental strategies. The opening of new school shifts and the establishment of schools in refugee camps were key measures that successfully mitigated the potential adverse effects of overcrowding. These studies collectively suggest that with thought- ful planning and sufficient resources, schools can manage increased student populations due to immigration, ensuring that the education outcomes of native students are not affected. Moreover, the negative correlation observed in raw data between an increase in immigrant stu- dents and the academic performance of native students can often be attributed to selection issues. Immigrants tend to be placed in areas with schools possessing less desirable characteristics, as documented in Van der Werf (2021). Geay et al. (2013)’s work in England corroborates this argu- ment, finding that immigrant students are typically located in schools with a higher proportion of underperforming native students and a higher teacher-student ratio. By accounting for these factors, the apparent negative impact of immigration on the education outcomes of native stu- dents becomes negligible. These results suggest the initial perceived detrimental effects are more due to the characteristics of schools where immigrants are enrolled, rather than the presence of immigrant students per se. 19 IV.B Native flight from schools In the context of education, native flight occurs when native parents respond to immigrant inflows by switching their children from public to private schools, or even to public schools with a lower share of immigrant children. This phenomenon often leads to residential and educational isolation of immigrants by reducing native demand for public schools (Cascio and Lewis, 2012). In the United States, results from various studies suggest native flight is significant. For instance, Betts and Fairlie (2003) estimate that for every four new immigrants in a public school, one U.S.- born student switches to a private school. Similarly, Cascio and Lewis (2012) calculate that a 10% increase in immigrant children leads to a 7.8% decrease in native students’ enrollment in Californian public schools. These effects seem to be driven by white children and worsen when immigrants are not English speakers at home. These findings align with the strong selection of U.S.-born students out of schools with higher proportions of immigrants. This highlights why these compositional effects can obscure the interpretation of regression analyses that do not con- sider this sorting mechanism (Figlio et al., 2021). This phenomenon is not unique to the U.S. context. In Denmark, Gerdes (2010) shows how in small municipalities a rise in the share of immigrants increases the propensity of Danish parents to enroll children in private schools.5 The author suggests that segregation is easier in small mu- nicipalities than in large ones where enrolling a child in a private school can be more difficult. Sim- ´ Mart´ ilarly, in Peru, ınez (2022) finds that native flight is used as a mitigation strategy by parents to counteract the negative effects of immigration on incumbent students. Specifically, they discover that students who switch to private schools tend to be male students with low academic achieve- ment in primary school or female students with high academic achievement in secondary school. Furthermore, cream-skimming effects are also observed in Spain, where more educated native households with higher-achieving children are more likely to switch them to private schools in response to immigration (Farre et al., 2018). 5 The article refers to private schools as free schools. 20 IV.C Youth employment In addition to studies focusing on the impact of immigration on youth employment rates through ¸ akır et al. (2023), Hunt (2017), and Tumen changes in returns to education, as documented by C (2021), some articles investigate the effects of immigration on labor markets independent of ed- ucation outcomes. In the U.S. context, for example, Smith (2012) documents that one primary factor contributing to the youth employment rate decline among Black teenagers was the increase in immigration between 1990 and 2005. Specifically, the author estimates that a 10% increase in the share of low-skill immigrant workers led to a 5 pp decrease in the employment rate of Black teenagers. Nevertheless, Winegarden and Khor (1991) argue that this declines in youth employ- ment rates does not emerge from an increase in undocumented immigrants. They posit that these immigrants are not a labor substitute for native youths since the former usually rely on labor markets most favorable to the undocumented population to find a job. V FORCIBLY DISPLACED CHILDREN At the end of 2022, there were more than 108 million forcibly displaced individuals in the world; 20% were children below 17 years of age (UNHCR, 2023). This section reviews the research con- cerning the impacts of forced migration on children. The distinction between forced and volun- tary migrants hinges on the reasons for relocation. While voluntary migrants relocate by choice, forced migrants move due to involuntary factors such as conflicts, natural disasters, or other com- pelling circumstances. Children who are forcibly displaced merit specific attention due to their heightened vulnerability. They frequently endure violence and disasters, experience traumatic and abrupt migration, leave everything behind, and arrive in environments characterized by un- certainty about their rights and potential discrimination. Recent evidence on the effects of forced migration largely focuses on child refugees and interna- tional forced migrants.6 Therefore, we limit our review to this group. This section includes three parts. The first part examines the impacts of international forced migration on children. The ev- idence suggests that refugee children are extremely vulnerable and lag behind native children in terms of education and health outcomes (at least in the short term). Moreover, refugee children— 6 A notable exception is Chiovelli et al. (2021), who examine the effects of conflict-driven displacement on human capital for Internally Displaced Individuals in Mozambique. The authors find that displaced children register higher investments in education. 21 especially adolescents—face high risk of school dropout, as their time could be used to generate income, support household chores, or enter into marriage. The second part investigates how refugee children affect native populations. Results suggest that, as in the case of voluntary migration, the impact of refugee migration on natives largely depends on policy responses to address the consequent challenges. Yet, underperforming native students are at greater risk of being negatively affected by the potential overcrowding effect caused by the arrival of new refugee students in hosting communities. The last part examines findings on interventions to enhance outcomes for both refugee and native children. V.A Impacts of forced migration on refugee children This section describes work concerning the disparities between refugee and native children in outcomes such as education, health, and child labor. Native children are the most common com- parison group for refugee children as it is difficult to obtain data on peers in their places of origin. The majority of scholarship suggests that refugee children lag behind native children. Education. Krafft et al. (2022) present evidence on the educational outcomes of Syrian refugee children in Jordan. The study reveals that these children are less likely to enroll in Jordanian schools compared to native children of similar socioeconomic status. Additionally, Syrian refugee children, once enrolled, have a higher propensity to drop out. This trend is more pronounced among boys, primarily because they often seek employment to alleviate their families’ financial burdens. However, older girls also face significant disadvantages. They are incentivized to leave school due to increased household responsibilities or the prospect of marriage. When it comes to comparing educational disparities among refugee children, Ginn (2018) evalu- ates the educational gaps between Syrian refugees located in camps and those outside. The author documents that enrollment and attendance rates for children in camps are higher. These results are partly attributed to the direct establishment of new schools in camps, coupled with higher transportation costs and enrollment fees at schools outside camps. Interestingly, increased school attendance in camps does not necessarily equate to better academic achievement. This could be explained by the higher repetition rates in schools in camps, indicating a possible concentration of underperforming students in these schools compared to those outside, and the challenges of 22 hiring and training teachers for new schools in camps, as highlighted by Salemi et al. (2018). Health. Demirci et al. (2022) study the disparities in health and nutrition among native and Syrian ¨ refugee children in Turkiye. Although the authors do not observe differences in infant or child ¨ mortality between refugee children born in Turkiye and native children, they do find that refugee ¨ infants born in Turkiye have lower birth weight, age-adjusted weight, and age-adjusted height than native infants. When decomposing the effects of weight at birth before and after migration, they find the difference before relocation is greater, suggesting that the persistent adverse effect of being born in a crisis outweighs the possible lack of health supply in the destination country. Other research has studied the impacts of refugee camps on health outcomes. Rashad et al. (2018) find that in Jordan, Palestinian children in refugee camps have lower age-adjusted height scores relative to refugee children living outside camps. The study attributes this difference primarily to the lower asset levels of families in the camps. This economic disadvantage, in turn, leads to reduced investment in the developmental needs of their children. anchez-Ariza et al. (2023), children in households internally displaced by Lastly, according to S´ the Colombian conflict exhibit lower mental health levels than other children. This assessment is based on measurements using the Symptom Checklist-90 and the Child Trauma Symptom Check- list for Young Children scales. Interestingly, the authors suggest this phenomenon also extends to children who were not directly affected by the conflict but whose caregivers experienced its con- sequences. This implies the possibility of an intergenerational transmission of the adverse effects of displacement on children, highlighting the need for intervention. Child labor. The issue of child labor among refugee children, particularly its extent and impact, remains underresearched due to challenges in gathering reliable data. However, it is evident that refugee children are more susceptible to entering the child labor market, although the magni- tude of this phenomenon varies according to the methodologies employed to measure child labor. Sieverding et al. (2018) note that in Turkiye, ¨ Syrian refugee boys aged 10 to 14 years are 2% more ˘ et al. (0) find signif- likely to engage in paid work than their peers. On the other hand, Dayıoglu icantly higher incidence of child labor among Syrian refugee boys in Jordan. The study reports that refugee boys aged 12 to 14 years are 17% more likely to be involved in child labor than native 23 boys. This discrepancy becomes even more pronounced in the 15 to 17 year-old group, where the likelihood increases to 45% compared to native counterparts, highlighting a grave concern regarding the involvement of older refugee boys in the labor market. Child marriage. Forced displacement and conflict often prompt gains in child marriage. Parents may decide to marry off their daughters for reasons such as family insurance, protection, increased freedom, and adherence to cultural norms. However, research on this issue is quite limited, mostly emerging from development contexts and relying heavily on anecdotal or one-time assessments (Mazurana and Marshak, 2019). Hunersen et al. (2020) suggest a potential uptick in early marriage rates among refugees after displacement but highlight that education acts as a protective factor. V.B Effects on native children The majority of research focuses on evaluating the impact of refugee children on host communi- ties, with mixed outcomes. However, it is clear that negative consequences are more likely to occur in the absence of adequate measures to mitigate the challenges associated with increased demand for public services, especially in the education sector. This is primarily due to the “overcrowding effect” resulting from the influx of refugee children, which strains existing educational resources and infrastructure. Studies documenting null effects. Van der Werf (2021) reports that the presence of refugee students in educational settings does not prompt adverse effects on the educational outcomes of native children. The result is particularly noticeable when compensatory measures—such as increased funding, additional counselors, and the provision of night shifts—are implemented. This observa- ¨ tion is supported by Figlio and Ozek (2019) and Assaad et al. (2023), who note that these measures act as safeguards to mitigate potential negative consequences for native children. Studies documenting positive effects. Some studies find positive outcomes associated with the pres- ence of refugee students. Morales (2022) emphasizes the beneficial impact on educational perfor- mance, largely due to the spillover effects of compensatory funding. This suggests that resources allocated to support students from forced migrant backgrounds can also positively influence na- tive students. Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, Tumen (2021) suggests that the increased pres- ence of Syrian refugee students can lead to higher motivation among native children, likely driven 24 ¸ akır et al. (2023) by heightened competition in the academic context. Furthermore, studies by C and Tumen (2021) highlight changes in parental decision-making about their children’s education. These changes include higher enrollment rates, influenced by shifts in labor market dynamics and the perceived value of education. Studies documenting negative effects. The research also uncovers several negative aspects associated with forced migration, similar to those observed in voluntary migration scenarios. Gerdes (2010) ınez (2022), for example, document the phenomenon of “Native Flight,” which is also and Mart´ common in the context of forced migration. Furthermore, Green and Iversen (2020) point out negative spillover effects on educational performance, with a particular impact on low-achieving students. These findings underscore the necessity for well-thought-out policies and strategies that cater to the diverse needs of different student groups within the educational system, ensuring that all students are adequately supported and none are disproportionately disadvantaged. V.C Evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to support refugee children This section outlines the effects of interventions to support refugee children. Most of this re- search has examined the effects of programs on the refugee population in general without focus- ing specifically on children. In doing so, however, authors often also examine the effects of those programs on a number of children’s outcomes as secondary or exploratory analyses. Results from this work suggest positive effects of cash transfers, programs to facilitate integration (e.g., lan- guage courses), and programs that promote social cohesion and diversity awareness. Evidence on the impacts of cash transfers. De Hoop et al. (2019) examine the impacts of the “No Lost Generation” cash transfer program on the education outcomes of Syrian refugees in Lebanon. This program provided cash assistance to families to cover school commuting costs and compensate households for the potential income their children could have earned. The authors took advan- tage of the program’s random allocation to treated and control schools and found that the cash transfer resulted in a 20% increase in school attendance in treated schools compared to the control group. These findings are significant, particularly because the cash transfer was not contingent on children’s attendance and was therefore not monitored by the Lebanese government. ¨ Moreover, Ozler et al. (2021) use a regression discontinuity design to examine the effects of the 25 ¨ “Emergency Social Safety Net” in Turkiye, a cash transfer program for Syrian refugees. The au- thors show that the program caused changes in household composition, with a movement of pri- marily school-aged children from ineligible to eligible households. This was ultimately reflected in a reduction in poverty and inequality for the overall refugee population. Similar effects on housing recomposition are documented by Miguel et al. (2023), who examine the effects of the Norwegian Refugee Council’s Urban Shelter Program in Jordan through a randomized controlled trial. The program supports Syrian refugees by granting them housing subsidies. In this case, treated households experienced an increment in the number of boys ages 13 to 17 years in the short run. These effects dissipate in the medium to long run. Programs facilitating integration. Evidence suggests that policies to facilitate migrant integration, even if focused on the adult member of the household, can have positive effects on children’s out- comes. Rude (2023), for example, finds that the introduction of birthright citizenship for Venezue- lan children in Colombia has positively affected their educational prospects. The study reveals that enrollment rates in public institutions for Venezuelan children under six years improved by 50%. Similarly, Foged et al. (2022) and Foged et al. (2023) provide compelling evidence of positive intergenerational benefits resulting from language training programs offered by the Danish gov- ernment to immigrant adults after they were granted refugee status in 1999. These programs led to higher completion rates among their children in lower secondary school. Programs promoting social cohesion between students. Alan et al. (2021) evaluate an educational pro- ¨ gram in Turkiye that was designed to foster perspective-taking skills among students with the aim of enhancing social cohesion among peers. Perspective taking, in this context, refers to a cog- nitive skill that enables individuals to comprehend the goals and intentions of others. In practice, this skill empowers students to consider the perspectives and opinions of their peers, ultimately promoting greater tolerance and acceptance of differences, particularly with respect to refugee stu- dents. The findings revealed a dual impact: it reduced incidents of violence, peer victimization, and exclusion in schools with a higher proportion of Syrian refugee children while also producing significant improvements in prosocial behavior and altruism. Moreover, Tumen et al. (2023) evaluate a teacher training program implemented in Turkish schools. This program aimed to enhance teachers’ diversity awareness by improving their knowledge of 26 the immediate needs of Syrian refugee students, enabling the teachers to provide mentoring and create a more conducive classroom learning environment. The authors employ a regression dis- continuity design, as assignment into the treatment group depended on the proportion of refugee students in a school. They show that the program effectively halved absenteeism among refugee children during the year of implementation and continued to have a positive impact in the subse- quent year. This work exemplifies the importance of social inclusion in diverse populations. Programs improving mental health and early childhood development. Moya et al. (2022) implemented a randomized trial intervention in Colombia that offers Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) to chil- dren and caregivers affected by conflict and forced displacement. The goal of CPP is to restore the mental health of patients and strengthen the child-parent relationship to enhance care and child development. The authors observe positive effects of CPP on maternal mental health, as moth- ers appeared to be less anxious and depressed, among other conditions. More importantly, CPP was found to enhance child-mother interactions, resulting in a 0.17 standard deviation improve- ment in child mental health and a 0.21 standard deviation improvement on the early childhood development index. Similarly, Annan et al. (2017) implemented a related intervention for the Burmese displaced popu- lation in Thailand. The intervention was designed after the Strengthening Families Program (SFP) to train Burmese parents in caregiving skills while teaching refugee children social skills. The primary objective was to enhance children’s psychological outcomes by improving the quality of parental care and communication. The authors found the program cut the likelihood of external- izing problems (e.g., aggressive behavior) and child attention problems. Compared to the control group, the reductions were 0.22 standard deviation and 0.11 standard deviation, respectively. VI DISCUSSION This paper examines the impact of migration on children, offering a comprehensive analysis of its effects throughout the process. This includes children left behind, migrant children (including those forcibly displaced), and native children. The findings reveal that migration’s impact on children’s outcomes is complex and context dependent, influenced by household demographics and particularly by policies to support migrant populations and their host communities. Policies that facilitate service adjustments in response to migrant arrivals and that promote integration 27 are highly beneficial for all children involved. Conversely, enforcement-oriented policies tend to hinder children’s development, particularly among immigrant children, by reducing service uptake and damaging the mental health of children and their parents. The review also draws attention to the vulnerability of left-behind children, who despite observ- ing positive income shocks might still be negatively affected by parental absence. Notably, the evidence highlighted the large negative effects of parental absence on cognitive outcomes, mental health, and socioemotional behaviors. Future research and programming should cover effective ways to support these children. Specifically, the Chinese case raises a crucial question about the trade-off between relocation policies to spur growth and the human capital costs of such policies. Forcibly displaced children are one of the most vulnerable groups since they not only experience migration but do so unexpectedly, often after traumatic events. Yet, without representative and longitudinal data to comprehensively measure children’s outcomes, it is difficult to diagnose the precise challenges they face. This includes an effective evaluation of their cognitive and non- cognitive development relative to native children and its impact on future outcomes, such as adult income. These issues are particularly important in developing countries and present a significant opportunity to expand our knowledge in the future. Finally, more evaluation of programs that effectively target migrant and forced migrant children’s outcomes will be extremely valuable in guiding policymakers about the most effective programs to support these populations and their hosts. This is particularly crucial for long-term outcomes because the majority of existing work concerns the immediate impact of such programs due to var- ious constraints. 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(2023) Migrating with parents or left-behind: Associations of internal migration with cognitive and noncognitive outcomes among chinese children, Current Psychology, 42, 19208–19229. 39 A SUMMARY OF PAPERS INCLUDED IN THIS REVIEW Table A1. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Migrant Children. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Immigrant students are less likely to choose challenging aca- Investigates the educational choices of first- and demic track high schools compared with their Italian counter- B.E. Journal of Economic second-generation immigrant students at the Aktas et al. (2022) MPL parts. They are more likely to be formally advised by their teach- Analysis and Policy transition between lower-secondary school and ers to choose vocational or technical high schools rather than aca- high school. demic tracks, especially in the case of female students. Math teachers with stronger stereotypes give lower grades to im- Is there teacher bias in grading immigrants and migrants compared to natives with the same performance. Liter- Alesina et al. (2022) NBER Working Paper RCT native children in middle schools? ature teachers do not differentially grade immigrants based on their own stereotypes. The average increase in immigration enforcement during the pe- Amuedo-Dorantes Studies the immigration enforcement impact on Journal of Policy Analysis riod raised by 19% the likelihood that Hispanic U.S.-born chil- and Arenas-Arroyo the structure of families to which many of the de- Pooled OLS and Management dren might live without their parents in households headed by (2019) ported fathers of U.S.-born children belonged. naturalized relatives or friends unthreatened by deportation. Pooled OLS Relative to children born in Mexico, immigrant U.S.-born chil- Amuedo-Dorantes Effects of family deportation on children’s edu- Demography with municipal- dren are at a considerable disadvantage in terms of health care and Juarez (2022) cation and health outcomes. ity FE access, but less so in terms of education How intensified interior immigration enforce- American Economic Re- Intensification of interior immigration enforcement raises young Amuedo-Dorantes ment impacts the likelihood that children of OLS with inter- view: Papers & Proceed- children’s probability of repeating a grade and their likelihood of and Lopez (2015) unauthorized immigrants will repeat a grade or action ings dropping out of school. drop out of school Studies the effect of immigration enforcement Pooled OLS The average yearly increase in interior mmigration enforcement Amuedo-Dorantes et Journal of Public Eco- policies on the household income of unautho- with county over that period raised the likelihood of living in poverty of al. (2018) nomics rized parents and time FE households with U.S. born children by 4%. Restricting immigration authorities’ access to schools and pro- Documents the detrimental effect of stricter im- Amuedo-Dorantes et viding counseling on immigration-related issues are crucial pol- Migration Studies migration enforcement on children’s educational OLS al. (2023) icy components in strengthening children’s focus, effort, expec- outcomes and the benefits of safe-zone policies tations, parental involvement, and relationships Comparison of health outcomes of infants with Amuedo-Dorantes, American Journal of likely undocumented mothers before and after Intensified enforcement, especially during the third trimester, in- DiD et al. (2022) Health Economics the intensification of immigration enforcement creases the likelihood of low birth weight (¡2,500 grams) within US counties English language skills of US-born children with at least one un- Arenas Arroyo and IZA Discussion paper se- Studies the spillover effects of immigration en- DiD and event documented parent are negatively affected by the introduction of Schmidpeter (2022) ries forcement policies on children’s human capital study immigration enforcement policies Evaluates a reform focused on improving local Evidence of higher completion rates of lower secondary school Arendt et al. (2021) Working Paper language training for those granted refugee sta- RDD and lower probability of crime for male children with both par- tus on or after January 1, 1999. ents exposed to the reform. How does age at migration affect social integra- Migrants who were older when they arrived are less likely to live Aslund et al. (2015) Labour Economics FE tion in adulthood? close to, work with, and marry natives Effect of generational status and length of res- Children of immigrants are more likely to have inferior outcomes Barban and White International Migration idence on the transition to secondary school MPL on the middle school exam and to enroll in vocational and poly- (2018) Review. among immigrants technic schools English proficiency raises the probabilities of being divorced, Does English proficiency (given by time of ar- Bleakley and Chin Journal of Applied Eco- marrying a US native, having a more educated and higher earn- rival) affect social assimilation outcomes of im- IV (2010) nomics ing spouse, having fewer children, and, for some groups, living migrants? outside of ethnic enclaves. OLS, comparis- What is the role of age at immigtation for school son of sibling- The critical age of arrival is nine, above which there is a strong Bohlmark (2008) Labour Economics performance gap between native and immigrant difference and negative impact on performance. Girls outperform boys. pupils in Sweden? cross-sectional estimates Track childhood immigrants born between 1972 Age has a strong negative impact on school performance at the and 1976 over time from adolescence (at 16) to International Migration age of 16, but disadvantaged childhood immigrants (lack of na- Bohlmark (2009) adulthood (at 30), and study the role of age at im- Pooled OLS Review tive language skills) recover strongly in terms of educational migration for educational and labor market out- achievement. comes. Elegibility expansions increase immigrant children’s use of pre- Studies the changes in public health insurance Journal of Public Eco- ventive and ambulatory care and decreased emergency care in Bronchetti (2014) eligibility for immigrant and native children LPM nomics hospitals, while estimated effects for children of natives are neg- from 1998 and 2009. ligible. What is the relationship between age at immi- Monotonic decrease in achievement as a function of immigration International Migration Cahan et al., 2001. gration and educational achievement at age 14 OLS age starting at the age of 7, which is considerably stronger for the Review in Israel between 1952 and 1970? Verbal subtest than for the Mathematical subtest. ”Teachers with negative stereotypes toward immigrants are more ”Role of teachers’ implicit stereotypes toward likely to recommend low-quality high schools to immigrant stu- AEA Papers and Proceed- Carlana et al. (2022) immigrants in explaining their high- school track OLS dents and less likely to encourage them to attend top-tier tracks, ings recommendation to students.” compared to natives with similar ability and background charac- teristics. ” Heterogeneous Immigrants in Italy enroll disproportionately into vocational Study of the educational choices of children of treatment ef- Carlana et al. (2022) Econometrica high schools, as opposed to technical and academically-oriented immigrants in a tracked school system. fects using a ones, compared to natives of similar ability. causal forest. Pooled OLS Maternal migration is associated with improved weight-for-age Cockx (2018) Agricultural Economics How maternal migration affects child nutrition with individual and lower rates of underweight. FE Explains the gap in educational attainment be- Dropout rates from vocational upper secondary education are Economics of Education Dynamic dis- Colding et al. (2009) tween immigrant children and natives, by deter- much higher among children of immigrants and strengthening Review crete model mining barriers in each educational stage. family characteristics reduces the dropout rates. What is the relationship between age at ar- Test score gap between first- and second-generation immigrant Economics of Education rival and immigrant-receiving high schools on es (2006) Cort´ Pooled OLS children decreases the longer first-generation immigrant children Review the academic performance of first- and second- reside in the United States. generation immigrant children? 40 Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results The effects on Medicaid eligibility on coverage University of Chicago and utilization is that those children that are Children of immigrants are more likely than other children to be Currie (2000) OLS Press most likely to be eligible are less likely to take eligible for medicaid. up coverage. What happens when immigrant girls are given The introduction of birthright citizenship lowers measures of life increased opportunities to integrate into the satisfaction and self-esteem for immigrant girls, especially for Dahl et al. (2021) Working Paper DiD and RDD workplace and society, but their parents value Muslims, where parents are likely to prefer more traditional cul- more traditional cultural outcomes? tural outcomes than their daughters. There is variation in school readiness according to nativity-based Examines multiple indicators of young immi- factors. First- and second-generation immigrants lagged behind De Feyter and Early Childhood Research grant children’s school readiness during their OLS children in non-immigrant families in cognitive and language Winsler, 2009 Quarterly prekindergarten year. skills but excelled by comparison in socio-emotional skills and behavior. Local ICE partnerships reduce the number of Hispanic students Dee and Murphy American Educational Re- Effects of local immigration enforcement on DiD by 10% within 2 years. Partnerships enacted before 2012 dis- (2020) search Journal school enrollment. placed more than 300,000 Hispanic students. Increase in immigrant children’s participation in noncompulsory Examines whether the introduction of birthright Journal of Labor Eco- preschool education, positive effects on key developmental out- Felfe et al. (2020) citizenship in Germany affected immigrant chil- DiD nomics comes and increase in the likelihood of them attending the aca- dren’s education outcomes. demic track of secondary school. Being ten years old instead of two years old at the time of migra- What is the role played by age at migration tion increases the fraction of immigrants among colleagues and Felfe et al. (2021) Labour Economics among migrants and on parental time in the host OLS neighbors. The probability to marry another immigrant increases country for 2nd generation migrants. by almost two thirds of the average homogamy rate in the sam- ple if arriving at age ten instead of age two. Evaluates if a reform focused on improving local Improvement in earnings and job market outcomes permanently, Journal of Public Eco- language training for those granted refugee sta- Foged et al. (2023) RDD lower secondary school completion rates and a decrease in juve- nomics tus has an impact on schooling and crime out- nile crime rates for their children. comes of their children. Significant effects of age at migration on educational attainment Lemmermann and Economics of Education Effect of age at migration on subsequent educa- OLS with fam- and a critical age of migration not above age 6. The educational Riphahn (2018) Review tional attainment in the destination country. ily FE attainment of female immigrants responds more strongly to a high age at immigration than that of males. Structural mod- The impact of school quality measures diminishes by factors of 2 What is the effect of interrelationships among elling following to 4 after accounting for the fact that families may choose where Liu et al. (2010) Journal of Econometrics school inputs and parental inputs on child de- the Todd and to live based on school characteristics and labor market opportu- velopment? Wolpin (2003) nities. article Focuses on identifying the overall impact of mi- Living in a migrant household is estimated to lower the proba- McKenzie and Journal of Population Eco- gration on educational attainment, estimating Probit IV bility of completing high school by 13% for males and 14% for Rapoport (2011) nomics the net impact of these various effects. females. How peer effects and the amount of English ex- Positive peer interactions and English exposure levels were pos- Palermo and Mikul- Early Childhood Research posure received from them contributes to low- OLS itively correlated with children’s English vocabulary, letter-word ski (2014) Quarterly income, Spanish-speaking children’s English vo- skills, learning behaviors and English oral proficiency. cabulary and letter-word skills in the spring. Examines potential sources of the immigrant- Differences in socioeconomic status account for only 50% of the OLS with Rangvid (2007) Education Economics native test score gap, focusing on school charac- ethnic test score gap and immigrant students attend schools with school FE teristics that lead to it. at least as favourable conditions as natives. Santillano et al. AEA papers and proceed- Do immigration raids lead to a decrease in His- Post-raid Head Start enrollment for Hispanic children decreased DiD (2020) ings panic Head Start enrollment? by over 10%. Examines differences in educational achieve- In English-speaking countries, immigrants fare best, while in Journal of Population Eco- Schnepf, (2007) ment between immigrants and natives across 10 OLS Continental European countries they fare worse compared to na- nomics OECD countries. tives. Comparison of anthropometric measures of mi- Migration increases height and reduces stunting of infants and grant children who enter New Zealand through toddlers, and BMI and obesity among 3 to 5-yr-olds. These im- Stillman et al. (2012) Economic Inquiry OLS a random ballot with children in the home coun- pacts occur because of dietary change rather than direct income try of Tonga who didn’t participate. effects. Negative bino- International Migration Child mortality and socioeconomic status Among migrants, child mortality decreased faster as socioeco- Thomas (2007) mial regression Review among migrants and nonmigrants. nomic status increased than among nonmigrants. model SMBs were graded less generously by teachers than were natives Do teachers grade students with a migration with comparable ability. Most relevant factors are language spo- International Migration Blinder-Oaxaca Triventi (2020) background (SMBs) less generously than native ken at home and family socioeconomic resources, but some stu- Review method students with comparable academic skills? dents’ attitudes towards school also matter, especially in lower secondary school. Vazsonyi and Killias Criminal Justice and Be- Participation of first and second generation mi- First-generation adolescent migrants are more likely than natives OLS (2001) havior grant youth in crime. to participate in crime activities. Whether participation in school-based extracur- International Journal of Participation in sports-related activities was associated with in- Villarreal and Gonza- ricular activities would predict social and behav- Hierarchical lin- School and Educational creased feelings of school membership and peer prosocial orien- lez (2016) ioral outcomes asociated with school social capi- ear regressions Psychology tation. tal. Heightened federal immigration enforcement reduces Medicaid American Economic Jour- Effects of local immigration enforcement on Watson (2014) DiD participation among children of noncitizens, even when children nal: Economic Policy health system take-up. are themselves citizens. Table A2. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Children Left Behind. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Children whose fathers are still working abroad are approxi- Explores the short-run effect of current paternal OLS with class- mately seven percentage points less likely to choose challeng- Adunts (2021) Working paper absence due to circular migration on the perse- room FE ing high-reward tasks after receiving negative performance feed- verance skills of their children left behind. back. ANNALS of the American Amuedo-Dorantes et Remittances raise school attendance for all children regardless of Academy of Political and Impact of remittances on schooling. IV al. (2010) whether they have household members abroad. Social Science 41 Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Surge facilities created capacity in traditional shelters, enabling Amuedo-Dorantes et AEA Papers & Proceed- The effect of the Biden Administration surge fa- Multinomial them to accommodate tender-age children and reducing the al. (2023) ings cilities on unaccompanied migrant children. logit number of children in foster care. American Economic Re- Impact of international migration on children’s Households which still have a head in the United States devote a Antman (2011) view: Papers & Proceed- outcomes through the increase in female spousal DiD lower fraction of resources to boys. ings control. Explores the short-run effects of a father’s U.S. In the short run, children reduce study hours and increase work Journal of Development IV with individ- Antman (2011) migration on his children’s schooling and work hours in response to a father’s U.S. migration. The effect is driven Economics ual FE outcomes in Mexico. by boys of 12-15 years old. Estimation of the causal effect of parental migra- Antman (2012) IZA Discussion Papers FE Positive effect of paternal U.S. migration on education for girls. tion on children’s education. Effect of maternal migration on cognitive devel- Pooled OLS Maternal migration increases the probability of cognitive delay Bai et al. (2022) World Development opment of preschool aged children. with child FE by six pp. Examines whether parental absence in child- OLS with con- Journal of Economic Be- Parental absence due to migration is found to increase the Cameron et al. (2022) hood as a result of migration is associated with trol functions havior & Organization propensity of adult males to commit crimes. increased criminality in adulthood. and region FE The effect of remittances from abroad on house- Cox propor- Edwards and Ureta Journal of Development holds’ schooling decisions using data for El Sal- tional hazard Remittances have a large, significant effect on school retention. (2003) Economics vador. model Explores the long-term effect of childhood left- Left-behind children have a significantly lower income in adult- Feng et al. (2022) Applied Economics behind experience due to parental rural-to- IV hood. urban migration. Hildebrandt et al. Impact of migration on human capital accumu- Economia IV Migration has positive effects on children’s health outcomes. (2005) lation, focusing on child health outcomes. Examines how children’s grades and educa- U.S. migration from Mexico by family members is negatively as- Kandel and Kao International Migration tional aspirations correspond to the international OLS sociated with university aspirations for children growing up in (2001) Review migration experience oftheir families. Mexico. Does international migration improve the wel- Education, Family and Remittances had no apparent impact on children’s likelihood of Kandel (2003) fare of migrants’ children who grow up in OLS and Logit Population Dynamics leaving school. migrant-sending countries? BMC Pregnancy and Effect of partner migration on use of antenatal Odds of receiving antenatal care were significantly higher for Khan et al. (2023) OLS Childbirth care and delivery at a health care facility. births occurring to women with a migrant spouse. Fathers’ migration reduces enrollment by sons, has significant Gansu Survey of Children Impact of migration by fathers on the develop- positive effects on the academic outcomes of daughters, but has Lee and Park (2010) IV and Families Papers ment of children left behind in rural villages. negative effects on the psychosocial well-being of both boys and girls. Journal of Asian Eco- Effects of parental migration on children’s non- Mother’s migration is particularly harmful to the development Liu et al. (2021) OLS with PSM nomics cognitive abilities. of non-cognitive abilities. Effect of parental migration on pro-social be- Both being left behind and migrating had a negative effect on the Luo and Wang (2023) China Economic Review OLS haviour. children’s prosocial behaviour. Seasonal migration of fathers is uncorrelated with ECD, but sea- Macours and Vakis, Effects of seasonal migration for investments in World Development IV sonal migrant mothers in the data tend to bring a large share of 2010. early childhood development. income. Impact of parental migration on the nutritional Mu and De Brauw Journal of Population Eco- Parental migration has no significant effect on the height of chil- status of young children left behind in rural ar- Individual FE (2015) nomics dren, but it improves their weight. eas. Structural esti- Impact of the migration of a household member mation: Todd Powers (2011) IDB paper to the U.S. on the cognitive development of chil- and Wolpin Negative effect on cognitive skills when a parent migrates. dren left behind in Mexico. (2003) value- added model Investigates the impact of men’s migration on In households from which men migrate for periods longer than Pooled OLS Saleemi (2023) Feminist Economics expenditure by left-behind households on chil- six months, the share of education expenditures spent on girls is with FE dren’s education. up to 31% higher than average. Compared with children with one parent migrating, children Differences in psychological adjustment by pat- Child: Care, Health and with two parents migrating were separated from their parents Su et al. (2013) terns of parental migration and the level of par- OLS Development at younger ages, for longer periods, and saw their migrant par- ent–child communication. ents less frequently. Are children under age five whose household re- Pooled OLS Treatment expenditures are lower among households with re- Health Policy and Plan- Treleaven (2019) ceives remittances more likely to utilize higher with individual mittances, while transportation expenditures do not vary signif- ning quality health care providers? FE icantly by remittance status. Pooled OLS Population Research and Association between fathers’ migration and chil- Fathers’ migration is associated with higher height-for-age z- Vikram (2023) with commu- Policy Review dren’s nutritional outcomes. scores for boys but is disadvantageous for girls. nity FE Examines the effect of subjective socioeconomic Journal of Interpersonal status (SES) on the relationship between peer Peer victimization was positively related to NSSI among left- Wang and Liu (2021) OLS Violence victimization and nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) behind children, but not among non-left-behind children. among left-behind children. Examines the causal spillover effects of left- OLS with The proportion of left-behind children in class has a significant Wang and Zhu (2021) Labour Economics behind children on their classmates living with grade-by- negative impact on the mental health of their classmates. parents in rural China. school FE Wassink and Viera Effect of parental migration during childhood on Parental migration during childhood is associated with increased Demography OLS with PSM (2021) children’s lifetime educational attainment. years of schooling and higher probabilities of school. Pooled OLS with individual Effects of maternal migration on development, FE and lagged Significant negative effects on cognitive development and indi- Yue et al. (2016) Working Paper health, and nutritional outcomes in early child- dependent cators of dietary quality. hood. variables as controls Examines the association of internal migration Migrant children had a significantly lower level of depression Zheng et al. (2022) Frontiers in Psychology with depression among migrant and left-behind OLS than left-behind children. children. 42 Table A3. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Native Children. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Journal of Development Impact of Syrian refugees on the educational No evidence that Syrians significantly affected the educational Assaad et al. (2023) DiD Economics outcomes of Jordanians. outcomes of Jordanians. Do native-born American families respond to in- Instrumental Betts and Fairlie Journal of Public Eco- For every four immigrants who arrive in public high schools, it flows of immigrants by sending their children to variable probit (2003) nomics is estimated that one native student switches to a private school. private school? regression. Does the increased share of immigrants in The size of the estimated effect is small: doubling the share of im- Brunello and Rocco Economics of Education schools and classes affect the performance of na- Weighted OLS migrant pupils in secondary schools would reduce the test score (2013) Review tives? of natives by 1–3.4%. Examines how the arrival of Syrian refugees Finds a significant drop in employment, largely due to children Cakir et al. (2023) Journal of Human Capital affects school enrollment and employment of DiD and IV shifting from work-school balance to education only. School en- working-age native children rollment rises for boys, especially those with educated parents. The teenage summer labor force participation rate declined from Camerota and Jense- Center for Immigration Impact of migration on the decline in teen labor 64% in 1994 to 48 percent by 2007. The number of U.S.-born Pooled OLS nius (2010) Studies force participation. teenagers not in the labor force during the summer increased by 3.4 million from 1994 to 2007. Between 1970 and 2000, the average California school district lost Has low-skilled immigration to the U.S. con- Cascio and Lewis American Economic Jour- more than 14 non-Hispanic households with children to other tributed to immigrants’ residential isolation by IV (2012) nal districts in its metropolitan area for every 10 additional house- reducing native demand for public schools? holds enrolling low-English Hispanics in its public schools. Examines how the mass inflow of Venezuelan It shows a decrease in standardized test scores, especially for Contreras and Gal- Economics of Education and non-Spanish-speaking migrants to Chile has DiD male students. Said effects are considerably greater in Reading lardo (2022) Review influenced the learning outcomes of native stu- when examining the migration of non-Spanish speakers. dents. The effects of immigration on the education sys- Increases in immigrant density at the school level triggered an tem of the receiving country, with an empha- Farre et al. (2018) Labour Economics IV important native flight from tuition-free public schools toward sis on the consequences for the public–private private ones. school choice of natives. Figlio and ¨ Ozek Journal of Labor Eco- Effects of a large influx of Hatian refugees on the Zero estimated effects of refugees on the educational outcomes OLS and IV (2019) nomics educational outcomes of incumbent students. of incumbent students. Finds that the presence of immigrant students has a positive ef- Effect of the exposure to immigrants on the edu- Pooled OLS Figlio et al. (2021) NBER Working Paper fect on the academic achievement of US-born students, especially cational outcomes of US-born students. with FE and IV for students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Non-native speakers are more likely to attend school with disad- Impact on the educational outcomes of native Pooled OLS Geay et al. (2013) The Economic Journal vantaged native speakers and sorting of non-native speakers into English speakers at the end of primary school with school FE schools with less desirable characteristics. Pooled OLS Increase in native Danes propensity to enroll their children in free Explores changes in the immigrant population in Gerdes (2010) SSRN Electronic Journal with municipal- schools (private schools) as the share of children with immigrant Danish municipalities between 1992-2004. ity FE background becomes larger in their municipality of residence. Examine the impact of immigrant concentra- Presence of immigrants in a grade had an adverse effect on the tion during elementary school on the long-term Gould et al. (2009) The Economic Journal IV chances of passing the high school matriculation exam, which is academic outcomes of native students in high necessary to attend college. school. Green and Iversen Investigates the impact of immigrants on native Pooled OLS Finds marked negative effects of refugee children on the test SSRN Electronic Journal (2020) test score performance. with FE score performance of their native school children classmates. Natives’ probability of completing 12 years of education or of The Journal of Human Re- Impact of immigration on the high school com- IV probit re- Hunt (2017) being enrolled is increased by a greater presence of adult immi- sources pletion of natives in the United States. gression grants with fewer than 12 years of education. Student achievement improves with high achieving peers and Imberman et al. American Economic Re- Impact of enrolled evacuees on incumbent stu- Pooled OLS worsens with low achieving peers. An increase in the inflow of (2012) view dents’ educational performance and attendance. with FE evacuees raised incumbent absenteeism and disciplinary prob- lems in Houston’s secondary schools. Incumbents’ parents respond by transferring their children to Effect of the sudden influx of Venezuelan mi- Pooled OLS higher-quality schools with fewer migrants. A 10% point in- ınez (2022) Mart´ Job Market Paper grant children on natives’ performance and na- with fixed ef- crease in exposure to migrants increases the probability of tive flight. fects switching by 1.5 pp in primary and 1.1 pp in secondary. Economics of Education Whether attending school with refugees affects Pooled OLS A one pp increase in the share of refugees raises math test scores Morales (2022) Review the academic outcomes of nonrefugee students with FE of non-refugee students by 0.01 sd. ”Dutch students face a worse learning environment when they Analysis of the share of immigrant children in Ohinata and Van Pooled OLS are studying with more immigrant students in the classroom (in- The Economic Journal the classroom affects the educational attainment Ours (2023) with FE creased incidents of bullying with more immigrant students in of native Dutch children. the classroom). ” The increase in the population of less educated immigrants has Journal of Labor Eco- Explores the explanations of the falling employ- Smith (2012) IV had a considerably more negative effect on employment out- nomics ment to population ratio of high-school youth. comes for native youth than for native adults. Finds that high-school enrollment rates increased 2.7-3.6 pp among native youth in refugee-receiving regions. Most of the in- IZA Discussion Paper Se- Impact of Syrian refugees on high school enroll- crease in high school enrollment comes from young males with Tumen (2019) DiD and IV ries ment rates of native youth in Turkiye lower parental backgrounds, which is consistent with the hy- pothesis that the main mechanism operates through the low-skill labor market. Refugee influx increase the intensity of human Journal of Development The Math, Science, and Reading scores of Turkish adolescents Tumen (2021) capital accumulation among native adolescents DiD and IV Economics increased following the Syrian refugee influx. who are enrolled in school? Studies how the inflow of refugees at the end of the Vietnam War affected native children’s aca- Difference Precise zero or small positive effects on native children’s test Van der Werf (2021) Working Paper demic achievement and post-secondary educa- model scores and educational attainment. tional attainment. Analysis of the relationship between Winegarden and The Review of Economics Simultaneous Undocumented immigrants tend to concentrate in states where undocumented-alien population and unem- Khor (1991) and Statistics equation model labor markets for these marginal groups are most favorable. ployment among youth and minority workers. 43 Table A4. Evidence on the Effects of Migration on Forcibly Displaced Children. Authors Journal or Outlet Research Question Methods Results Evaluation of the effect of an educational pro- Finds that the program significantly lowers peer violence and Quarterly Journal of Eco- gram that aims to build social cohesion in ethni- victimization on school grounds. The program also reduces the Alan et al. (2021) RCT nomics cally mixed schools by developing perspective- likelihood of social exclusion and increases interethnic social ties taking ability in children. in the classroom. The incidence of paid work is remarkably high among boys. IZA Discussion Paper Se- While 17.4% of 12-14 year olds are in paid employment, a stag- Daioglu et al. (2021) Effect of refugee status on child labor. OLS ries gering 45.1% of 15-17 year olds receive payment. Girls’ employ- ment rates are 4.7% and 8.1%, respectively, for the same groups. Documents the impact of a cash transfer pro- gramme – the No Lost Generation Programme ”Substantive impacts on school attendance among enrolled chil- The Journal of Develop- De Hoop, et al. (2019) (NLG) and locally as Min Ila (‘from to’) – on the RCT- RDD dren, which increased by 0.5 days to 0.7 days per week, an im- ment Studies school participation of displaced Syrian children provement of about 20 per cent relative to the control group.” in Lebanon. Refugee infants born in Turkiye have lower birth weight and Examines disparities in health and nutrition IZA Discussion Paper Se- ageadjusted weight and height than native infants. Results Demirci et al. (2022) among native and Syrian-refugee children in OLS ries mainly driven for less prenatal care and worst for children born Turkiye. in the sending country. The role of immigrant parents’ educational selec- Linear and lo- There is a health advantage for children of immigrants compared Florian et al. (2021) Social science & Medicine tivity in shaping birth outcomes. gistic regression to native despite lower socioeconomic status. OLS with Propensity For primary school-age children, camps have a positive effect on Center for Global Develop- Ginn (2020) Effects of refugee camps residence. Score built with school attendance. However, show that additional attendance ment a Generalized has not yet led to additional attainment. Random Forest This paper examines how educational outcomes While during the 2011–2013 conflict and initial displacement pe- Journal of Development Discrete time Krafft et al. (2022) of Syrian refugees in Jordan have evolved from riod school dropout increased, enrollment rates and school pro- Studies hazard models pre-conflict to during conflict and displacement. gression in Jordan subsequently recovered to pre-conflict levels. Explores the drivers of the height gap, measured Blinder-Oaxaca University of Alberta Low asset-based economic status among refugees is the main Rashad et al. (2018) by the height for age z-score, among children re- decomposition Working Paper driver of the height disadvantage among refugee children. siding in refugee camps and non-camp residents. technique Analyzes how the introduction of birthright citi- The World Bank Economic zenship for Venezuelan children in Colombia af- Differences in The reform has positive effects on the participation rates of chil- Rude (2023) Review fects statelesness and educational participation discontinuity dren below six years old. during early childhood. There are persistent barriers to services for Syrian young people Economic Research Forum Overview of the current services available to Syr- Multi-method Salemi et al. (2018) in education, cash assistance, nutrition, health, livelihoods and Working Paper ian refugee youth and children in Jordan. strategy water, among others. Assesses how educational enrollment, attain- ment, and dropout of Syrian refugees in Jordan Logit regression Enrollment rates, at least through 2016, have recovered to pre- Sieverding et al Economic Research Forum have been affected by conflict, displacement, and and survival conflict levels for basic education among the group of Syrians in (2018) Working Paper educational opportunities and experiences after analysis Jordan in 2016. arrival to Jordan. Evaluates whether a teacher training program designed to raise awareness among primary and The program almost halves the absenteeism gap between native Journal of Human Re- Tumen et al. (2023) secondary school teachers in Turkiye based on RDD and refugee students, and its effect persists into the next aca- sources a cascade-training approach - is effective in im- demic year, albeit fading in size. proving school outcomes of refugee students. Studies how the inflow of refugees at the end of the Vietnam War affected native children’s aca- Difference Precise zero or small positive effects on native children’s test Van der Werf (2021) Working Paper demic achievement and post-secondary educa- model scores and educational attainment. tional attainment. Survey data The program quickly caused substantial changes in household ¨ Journal of Development Evaluates the impact of the Emergency Social collection and size and composition, with a net movement of primarily school- Ozler et al., 2021 Economics Safety Net (ESSN) in Turkiye. ‘value of treat- aged children from ineligible to eligible households, and a sharp ment´ decline in poverty and inequality in the entire study population. One month after the program, children in the treatment condition Examines the effectiveness of a parenting skills Annan et al. (2017) Prevention Science RCT showed significant reductions in externalizing problems but no intervention on mental health outcomes significant treatment effect in internalizing problems. Randomized trial of a community-based psy- chosocial program that promotes maternal men- Finds positive effects of 0.15 sd on a maternal mental health in- tal health as an outcome and as a pathway to dex; 0.23 sd on an index of child-mother interactions; 0.17 sd Moya et al. (2022) Working Paper RCT foster the nurturing child-mother relationships on early childhood mental health; and of 0.21 sd on a early- that can protect young children from the effects childhood development index. of conflict and forced displacement. Note: OLS: Ordinary least squares IV: Instrumental variables RCT: Randomized control trials LPM : Linear probability model FE: Fixed effects DiD: Difference-in-difference RDD: Regression discontinuity design PSM: Propensity score matching; 44