WESTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA EDUCATION STRATEGY FROM SCHOOL TO JOBS: A JOURNEY FOR THE YOUNG PEOPLE OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA © 2022 The World Bank 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000; Internet: www.worldbank.org Some rights reserved This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions ex- pressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. 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WESTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA EDUCATION STRATEGY FROM SCHOOL TO JOBS: A JOURNEY FOR THE YOUNG PEOPLE OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA 4 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy PHOTO BY: © 2020 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK Acknowledgments The Regional Education Strategy was prepared by a team led by Yevgeniya Savchenko, Mar- tin Elias De Simone, Jason Allen Weaver, Harisoa Danielle Rasolonjatovo Andriamihamina, and Ekua Nuama Bentil. The core team consisted of Jee-Peng Tan, Etienne Baranshamaje, Mahesh Dahal, Wuraola Mosuro, Karishma Talitha Silva, and Elif Yonca Yukseker. The report was prepared under the overall guidance of Dena Ringold, Halil Dundar, and Meskerem Mu- latu. Special thanks to Ousmane Diagana, Mamta Murthi, Jaime Saavedra, Amit Dar, and Elis- abeth Huybens for their wisdom and advice.  The extended team included Eunice Yaa Brimfah Ackwerh, Melissa Adelman, Ali Ansari, Joao Pedro Azevedo, Himdat Bayusuf, Jorgen Billetoft, Emma Cameron, Christelle Chapoy, Harry Gerard Crimi, Stefano De Cupis, Amanda Devercelli, Assane Dieng, Ruti Ejangue, Omer El- seed, Emily Gardner, Alison Grimsland, Steve Loris Gui-Diby, Stanislas Honkuy, Wedoud Kamil, Boubakar Lompo, Thanh Mai, Pabsy Pabalan Mariano, Vincent de Paul Mboutchouang, Lau- ra McDonald, Aisha Garba Mohammad, Yoko Nagashima, Zacharie Ngueng, Kaori Oshima, Kashmira Rohinton Pavri, Vincent Perrot, Shomikho Raha, Ibrahima Samba, Alonso Sanchez, Ibrah Sanoussi, Kristyn Schrader-King, Najeeb Shafiq, Mari Shojo, Anand Kumar Srivastava, Venkatesh Sundararaman, Serge Theunynck, Alex Twinomugisha, Bernardo Vasconcellos, Waly Wane, Quentin Wodon, and Xun Yan. The team thanks peer reviewers Momar Dieng, Birger Fredriksen, Ruth Kagia, Peter Materu, Keiko Miwa, Celestin Monga, Mamadou Ndoye, Jean-Louis Sarbib, and Deborah Wetzel for their careful review and suggestions. The team is also grateful for advice, inputs and comments from Abebe Adugna, Sajitha Bashir, Roberta Malee Bassett, Nayé Anna Bathily, Tekabe Ayalew Belay, Nathan Belete, Bella Bird, Shubham Chaudhuri, Carine Clert, Jozefien Van Damme, Coralie Gevers, Habibatou Gologo, Rebekka Grun, Antonio Giuffrida, Eno Isong, Pierre Laporte, Mark LaPrairie, Scherezad Joya Monami Latif, Gayle Martin, Patrick Mullen, Francois Nankobogo, Sylvie Nenonene, Christo- phe Rockmore, Halsey Rogers, Jamil Salmi, Abdoulaye Seck, Clara Ana de Sousa, Ekaterina Svirina, Waly Wane, Albert Zeufack, and many other colleagues.  The team benefited greatly from guidance received from an External Advisory Panel that in- cluded Yaw Adutwum, Yosola Akinbi, Mossadeck Bally, Claude Borna, Dautrim da Costa, Ma- rietou Kone, Ernst Mada, Mamadou Ndoye, Mary Teuw Niane, Godwin Nogheghase Obaseki, Mavis Owusu-Gyamfi, Jean-Louis Sarbib, David Sengeh, Nebghouha Mint Mohamed Vall, and Zouera Youssoufou. The team is grateful to Joseph Eboigbe, Benjamin Osei Gyasi, Mona Idirissu, Issa Kobyg- da, Stanislas Ouaro, Sidibe Dedeou Ousmane, Hervé Ndoba, Ken Ofori-Atta, Peter Materu, George Afeti, Rose Kingston, Jean-Louis Mbaka whose views and inputs helped shape the strategy through various consultation on specific topics and themes. The team appreciates the many development partners who contributed to online consultations; and values the Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 5 Acknowledgments perspectives shared by colleagues from teacher unions and youth representatives who par- ticipated in themed consultations. Most importantly, the team thanks the dedicated colleagues from the governments and coun- try teams across the region, who are taking forward the mission of ensuring that all children and youth in the region have a brighter future. The team also extends its gratitude to the editors, designers, and translators, who have been critical to the preparation of the strategy. They are Michael Alwan, Alejandro Espinosa, Anne Grant, Debra Naylor, Solondraibe A. Rasoanindrainy, Bruce Ross-Larson, and Dina Towbin. The team apologizes to any individuals or organizations inadvertently omitted from this list and expresses its gratitude to all who contributed to the AFW regional education strategy, including those whose names may not appear here.  6 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Foreword Education is the cornerstone of development. Indeed, it is an essential driver of stability, social cohesion, and peace. Our countries need to invest in learning today to build the Western and Central Africa of tomorrow. This strategy is about the journey of six-year-old Ama and all our children in the region — from very early in her life when she is part of a stimulating environment that prepares her for lifelong learning, from the day she enters the classroom for her first day of school, and until she com- pletes her tertiary education with all the skills required for her to obtain a good job and fulfill her aspirations as an accomplished young person. Ama will need the support to complete her schooling in a safe and nurturing environment with textbooks and well-trained teachers. Despite progress in access to education over the years, 80 percent of 10-year-old children in Western and Central Africa are unable to read and understand a simple text, and more than 32 million children remain out of school, the largest share of all regions worldwide. Even before the pandemic, the world was already experiencing a learning crisis. If we are to take on this global challenge, we must focus on Western and Central Africa, a region with half a billion people and amongst the youngest population in the world. Putting our young people first is at the heart of our work. The future of any society lies in its ability to provide its children and youth with the tools and opportunities to flourish as individ- uals, and to contribute to the collective development of the society and country. This can only be achieved through an education system that is accessible to everyone. Such a system must be fair and adapted to the needs of the current and future populations, as well as the labor market. This document is a roadmap for World Bank investments in improving educational outcomes at all levels in our countries. It is not a strategy for the education sector; rather, it is a strategy to bring a whole-of-society and a whole-of-government approach to foster strong cross-sector collaboration and partnerships to improve learning and equip our youth with the right skills for good jobs. It also builds on the Sahel Education White paper, which proposes solutions to the Sahel subregion’s unique challenges. Finally, it aligns with the World Bank Africa Human Capital Plan and the African Union’s 2063 Africa Agenda. I believe we can achieve the vision of a region where no one is left behind. To accomplish this, we first need a strong political commitment to advance reforms, putting education at the cor- nerstone of our countries’ development strategies and prioritizing investments accordingly. Countries in the region can learn from their own experiences and expand and adapt existing high-impact interventions to local country contexts. Together with all our partners, we can achieve the ambitious goal of educating all young people. We owe this to Ama and all the girls and boys of today and future generations! Ousmane Diagana Vice President, Western and Central Africa Region, World Bank Group Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 7 8 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy PHOTO BY: © 2020 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK Contents Acknowledgments  5 Foreword  7 Acronyms  17 1. Introduction to the Strategy and the Region  19 1.1. The Vision for Education in a Challenging Region  19 1.2. The Profile of AFW Countries  20 1.3. Megatrends Affecting Education Outcomes in AFW  20 1.4. Organization of the Report  25 2. Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle  27 2.1. The Education Crisis in AFW  27 2.2. The Promise of Education in AFW  30 2.3. The Strategy’s Perspective, Targets, and Conceptual Framework  34 3. Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact  37 3.1. Galvanizing Shared Commitment to Priority Goals in Education  37 3.2. Fostering Sound Governance for Better Performance  41 3.3. Ensuring Adequate Financing and Effective Use of Resources for Education  44 3.4. Priorities for Strengthening Strategic Leadership  54 4. High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty  57 4.1. Teachers and the Current Status of the Profession  57 4.2. Transforming the Teaching Profession  62 4.3. Student Readiness to Learn in the Region  66 4.4. Enhancing Student Readiness to Learn  69 4.5. Learning Resources and Gaps in Provision to Support Teaching and Learning  73 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 9 Contents 4.6. Providing Learning Resources and Educational Technology Tools  74 4.7. Pedagogy for Effective Teaching and Learning  78 4.8. Teaching in a Language That Children Understand and at the Right Level  80 4.9. Nascent Systems for Student Learning Assessment and How to Improve Them  82 4.10. Priorities for Reducing Learning Poverty  87 5. High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities  91 5.1. Demographic Trends and Their Implications for Education Access  91 5.2. Demand-Side Constraints to Access Education  92 5.3. Easing the Demand-Side Constraints on Education  94 5.4. Supply-Side Constraints on Education Access  96 5.5. Improving Safety in and around Schools to Ease Supply-Side Constraints  105 5.6. Adding New and Better Schools and Facilities to Ease Supply-Side Constraints  107 5.7. Involving Nonstate Service Providers to Ease Supply-Side Constraints  110 5.8. Expanding Education Access for Vulnerable Groups  112 5.9. Priority High-Impact Interventions to Widen Learning Opportunities  113 6. High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All  115 6.1. AFW’s Emerging Digital and Greening Economy  115 6.2. AFW’s Workforce and Current Channels for Skills Acquisition  117 6.3. Fortifying Governance to Improve the Ecosystem for Skills Building  124 6.4. Dismantling Barriers to Skills Acquisition  131 6.5. Managing the Quality and Relevance of TVET and Tertiary Education Programs  136 6.6. Fostering Sustainable Service Delivery  143 6.7. Priority in High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills  147 7. Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity  149 7.1. Strengthening Public Financial Management  149 7.2. Deepening Technical and Managerial Capabilities for Implementation  152 7.3. Strengthening Education Data Systems for Informed Decision-Making  153 7.4. Priorities for Enhancing Implementation and M&E  155 7.5. Navigating Cross-Cutting Challenges to Strengthen Education for Resilience  156 10 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 8. The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW  161 8.1. Portfolio Analysis and Lessons Learned  161 8.2. Integrating Lessons Learned to Enhance the World Bank’s Effectiveness  167 8.3. Using Country Classifications to Enhance the Responsiveness of World Bank Support  169 Annex 1: Implications for Education of COVID-19, Climate Change, and Cutting-Edge Innovations  177 Annex 2: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings for AFW, 2016–21  181 Annex 3: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for Primary and Secondary Education  183 Annex 4: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for TVET and Higher Educa- tion  187 References  190 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 11 Contents List of Figures Figure 1.1. Population Growth in the Region  23 Figure 1.2. Political Violence in and around Education Facilities, 2010–21  24 Figure 2.1. Primary and Secondary Educational Attainment, Western and Central Africa and Comparators  28 Figure 2.2. Learning Poverty in Western and Central African Countries  29 Figure 2.3. Share of NEET Youth (15–24 Years Old) in Western and Central African Countries  29 Figure 2.4. Correlation of Annual GDP per Capita Growth (1970–2015) with Test Scores and Years of Schooling Completed  31 Figure 2.5. Returns to Education and Wage Increase by Level and Type of Education in 11 Western and Central African Countries, circa 2018  32 Figure 2.6. Employment Probabilities in 11 Western and Central African Countries, circa 2018a  33 Figure 2.7. The Conceptual Framework for the AFW Education Strategy  35 Figure 3.1. The Political Economy of Education Systems with Key Actors in an “Accountability Triangle”  38 Figure 3.2. Aggregate and per Capita Real Spending on Education from All Sources, by Regional and Nonregional Country Income Groups, 2009–19  45 Figure 3.3. Distribution of Aggregate Real Spending on Education by Source, Western and Central Africa and Other World Regions by Country Income Group, 2018–19 (%)  46 Figure 3.4. Government Spending on Education in Western and Central Africa, by Income Group and by Country, 2010–19  47 Figure 3.5. Relation between Numbers of Teachers and Students across Government Schools in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire  52 Figure 3.6. Relation between Expenditure per Child and Learning-Adjusted Years of Schooling in Western and Central Africa, 2020  53 Figure 3.7. Relation between Test Scores and Indicators of Resource Availability at the District and School Levels in Ghana and Mauritania  54 Figure 3.8. Strengthening Strategic Leadership  55 Figure 4.1. Primary Education Teachers, by Level of Education  58 Figure 4.2. Share of Teachers with Minimum Subject Knowledge  58 Figure 4.3. School and Classroom Absence   60 Figure 4.4. Share of Female Teachers in Primary and Secondary Education   60 Figure 4.5. Percentage of Students in Schools Managed by Women   61 Figure 4.6. Five Principles to Build an Effective Teachers’ Cadre   63 Figure 4.7. Early Childhood Development in Western and Central Africa and the World   68 12 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Figure 4.8. Minimum Competency Rates on PASEC 2014  71 Figure 4.9. Trends in Overenrollment in Primary School from 39 Countries  71 Figure 4.10. Interventions to Improve Teaching and Learning   88 Figure 5.1. Estimated and Projected Growth in Basic School-Age Population in Western and Central Africa  92 Figure 5.2. Primary and Secondary Net Attendance Rates by Household Wealth Quintiles  93 Figure 5.3. Estimated Number of Classrooms Required to Enroll all Currently Out- of-School Children and the Number of Children (6 –15 Years Old) Added with Population Growth from 2020–25 to 2025–30  99 Figure 5.4. Distribution of Student-Classroom Ratios in Selected Countries and States of Nigeria  100 Figure 5.5. Proportion of Schools with Access to Drinking Water (%)  101 Figure 5.7. Proportion of Schools with Access to Electricity (%)  101 Figure 5.6. Proportion of Schools with Access to Basic Sanitation (Toilets) (%)  101 Figure 5.8. Proportion of Schools with Access to Computers for Pedagogical Purposes (%)  102 Figure 5.9. Proportion of Schools with Access to Internet for Pedagogical Purposes (%)  102 Figure 5.10. Proportion of Schools with Access to Adapted Infrastructure and Materials for Students with Disabilities (%)  103 Figure 5.11.a. Primary Schools within and beyond Three Kilometers of Nearest JSS in Nigeria  109 Figure 5.11.c. Primary Schools within and beyond Three Kilometers of nearest JSS in Katsina State Nigeria  109 Figure 5.11.b. Network of JSS in Nigeria  109 Figure 5.11.d. Large Public Primary Schools beyond Three Kilometers of Nearest JSS in Katsina State, Nigeria  109 Figure 5.12. Locations and Travel Time by Public Transport to Nearest Primary and Secondary School in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso  111 Figure 5.13. Interventions for Widening Opportunities for Learning  113 Figure 6.1. Indicators Highlighting Quality and Access Challenges in Education for Western and Central African Youth  121 Figure 6.2. Tertiary Enrollment and Graduation by Field of Study for Senegal  122 Figure 6.3. Research Output of Western and Central African Countries and Corresponding H-Index (2020)  122 Figure 6.4. Indicators of the Education Level of the Workforce  123 Figure 6.5. Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All  147 Figure 7.1. Indicators of Constraints on Tax Collection in Western and Central Africa  150 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 13 Contents Figure 7.2. Enhancing Implementation Capacity  156 Figure 7.3. Navigating Cross-Cutting Areas to Rebuild Education for Resilience  157 Figure 8.1. Size of Portfolio by Type, US$  162 Figure 8.2. Independent Evaluation Group’s Overall Performance Ratings for Education Projects in Western and Central Africa, Fiscal Years 2009–20 (%)  162 Figure 8.3. Financing by Education Level, Active Portfolio (US$ million)  164 Figure 8.4. Number of Projects by Education Level, Active Portfolio  164 Figure 8.5. Financing by Types of Activities, 2015–21 (US$ Million)  166 Figure 8.6. Approximate Shares of Financing for Access versus Quality (%)  166 Figure 8.7. Activities Related to Girls’ Education, Active Portfolio  167 Figure 8.8. Word Cloud on Lessons Learned from Implementation Completion Reports  168 Figure 8.9. Country Grouping for Primary and Secondary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019  170 Figure 8.10. Country Groupings for Skills and Tertiary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019  171 Figure 8.11. Share of NEET Youth (Age 15–24) and Share with Postbasic Education, Western and Central Africa and Other Regions, 2018 or Latest Available Year (%) a/  173 Figure A2.1. Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings on Key Indicators in Western and Central African Countries, 2016–21  181 Figure A3.1. Country Groupings Based on the Gross Enrollment Ratio and Out-of- School Rate in Primary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019  184 Figure A4.2. “Unique” Mobile-Broadband Subscriptions per 100 Inhabitants, 2020  188 Figure A4.1. Relationship between Better Employment Rate and Gross National Income per Capita across AFW Countries, 2020  188 List of Tables Table 4.1. Structured Pedagogy Programs in Western and Central Africa  67 Table 4.2. Access to Early Childhood Education by Country   70 Table 4.3. Type of Policy Utilized in West and Central African Countries  80 Table 6.1. Digital Technologies for Teaching, Learning, Research, and Management  141 Table 6.2. Impact of Funding Approaches on Policy Objectives  146 Table 8.1. World Bank Commitments to Education in Western and Central Africa, 2015–21 (US$ Million)  162 Table 8.2. Independent Evaluation Group’s Additional Ratings for Education Projects in Western and Central Africa, Fiscal Years 2009–20 (%)  163 Table 8.3. Independent Evaluation Group’s Performance Ratings for Project M&E in Western and Central Africa, Fiscal Years 2009–20 (%)  163 14 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Table 8.4. Identifiable Financing Streams for Various Types of Activities, 2015–21  165 Table 8.5. Priorities by Domain and Pillar of Intervention, with Time Horizons and Emphasis on Country Type and Level of Education  174 Table A3.1. Country Grouping Based on Indicators of Coverage and Learning in Primary Education  184 Table A3.2. Harmonized Learning Outcome Scores for Countries in Western and Central Africa, 2009–19  186 Table A4.1. Indicators and Data for Country Classification for TVET and Higher Education in Western and Central Africa  187 Table A4.2. Country Classification for TVET and Higher Education, Western and Central Africa, 2020  189 List of Box Box 3.1. Strategic Leadership for Negotiations with Teacher Unions in Kenya  40 Box 3.2. Education and Training for Growth and Transformation in Asia’s “Tiger” Economies  42 Box 3.3. Prioritizing Funding for Education through Earmarked Revenues and Strong Governance  49 Box 4.1. What Does It Take to Get Textbooks into Classrooms and Utilized?  75 Box 4.2. Scripted Lesson Plans Implementation  78 Box 4.3. Typology of Language-of-Instruction Models  79 Box 4.4. Targeted Instruction (from the Teaching at the Right Level Model Developed by Pratham)  83 Box 4.5. Improving the Quality of Examinations in AFW Countries  85 Box 4.6. Good Practices for Classroom-Based Formative Assessments  86 Box 4.7. Strengthening Large-Scale Assessments of Student Learning in AFW  87 Box 5.1. Education as a Tool to Catalyze a Demographic Change in Western and Central Africa  97 Box 6.1. Informal/Traditional Apprenticeship  120 Box 6.2. Examples of Reformed Apprenticeship Programs  125 Box 6.3. Examples of Company-Based Training Academies for the Youth  128 Box 6.4. Examples of Sustainable Approaches to Training Programs for the Existing Workforce  130 Box 6.5. Recognition of Prior Learning in Kenya  132 Box 6.6. India – Digital Skills Training for Street Vendors  133 Box 6.7. Blended Learning Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Higher Education  135 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 15 Contents Box 6.8. The Virtual University of Senegal’s Student Laptop Loan Scheme  137 Box 6.9. Innovative Examples of Youth Skilling Initiatives and Programs Attuned with Industry Needs  139 Box 6.10. Innovative Education at Ashesi University (Ghana)  140 Box 6.11. An Example of a Regional Intervention: The Africa Centers of Excellence  142 Box 6.12. Variations in Skills Development Funds  145 Box 7.1. Piloting Results-Based Financing through School Grants in Cameroon  152 Box 7.2. Toward More Effective Capacity Building for Education Outcomes in AFW  154 16 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Acronyms Acronyms ACE African Higher Education Centers of NQF national qualifications framework Excellence ODA official development assistance AFW Western and Central Africa OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation ECE early childhood education and Development EdoBEST Edo Basic Education Sector PASEC Program for the Analysis of Education Transformation Systems EFW Education Finance Watch PFM public financial management EGRA Early Grade Reading Assessment RPL recognition of prior learning EHCVM Enquête Harmonisée sur les Conditions SDG Sustainable Development Goal de Vie des Ménages STEM science, technology, engineering, and FCV fragility, conflict, and violence mathematics GDP gross domestic product TVET technical and vocational education and HLO harmonized learning outcomes training ICT information and communication UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific, technology and Cultural Organization L1/L2 first/second language UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund M&E monitoring and evaluation UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner on NEET not in education, employment, or Refugees training** Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 17 PHOTO BY: © RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK 1. Introduction to the Strategy and the Region Countries in Western and Central Africa (AFW) have each of these areas and is especially critical in rela- made progress in education, but they remain at the tion to building the region’s human capital. bottom of global human capital rankings and have yet to realize the full promise of education. In many Informed by consultations with diverse stakeholders, of these countries, the education system suffers this strategy identifies key challenges and outlines from chronic underfunding and underperformance, strategic priorities, policy options, and high-impact a crisis that the COVID-19 pandemic has aggravat- interventions for improvement. It highlights goals in ed with school closures, falling household incomes, three specific areas: access to education, learning and strained national budgets. Harsh conditions on outcomes, and job-relevant skills. Yet the sharp focus multiple fronts further hobble the education system, does not exclude effort on other fronts. The strategy including widespread social conflict and violence, identifies interventions for short-term wins as well as climate-related vulnerabilities, economic uncertainty long-term impacts. In light of the AFW’s heterogene- and fragility, and the advent of the digital revolution. ity, it recognizes the need to customize the proposed All countries in the region share a key development solutions to suit country-specific strategies. In indi- challenge: the need to improve learning outcomes vidual countries, achieving tangible outcomes will and workforce skills through education, specifically require critical enabling conditions, including in par- in ways that align with and contribute substantively ticular cross-sector collaboration on problem-driven to national agendas for economic growth and pov- approaches rather than on purely sectoral interven- erty reduction. These national agendas, in turn, call tions. Achieving tangible outcomes will also depend for plentiful jobs, higher standards of living, healthier on effective partnerships, both within the World Bank and longer lives, and peace and security at home and across global practices organized along thematic lines abroad. The people of AFW and their leaders have and between the World Bank and its country counter- been on this quest for many years and understand parts. These counterparts include stakeholders across that the road ahead remains arduous. They realize government such as national ministers of finance and that success will require perseverance and continual education as well as members of civil society and de- recommitment, reassessment, and recalibration as velopment partners. opportunities and threats evolve. To support AFW countries in their quest, this Region- 1.1. The Vision for Education in a al Education Strategy articulates the World Bank’s Challenging Region plan (2021–25) for engagement with the education sector in AFW countries. It is an integral part of the World Bank’s broader support to help transform the The Regional Education Strategy envisions a bright fu- economy and foster inclusive growth in the region, ture for AFW where all girls and boys arrive at school as articulated in the World Bank’s (2021d) priorities ready to learn, acquire quality learning, and enter for AFW for 2021–25. This support envisions four key the job market with the skills to become productive areas of progress in AFW countries: stronger human and fulfilled citizens. Realizing this vision calls for a capital, more and better jobs, a new social contract, comprehensive approach, one that addresses chal- and more climate resilience. Education plays a role in lenges across the learning life cycle for students from Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 19 Introduction to the Strategy and the Region preschool through basic and secondary education to large coastal zones on the Atlantic Ocean, and lush tertiary education, including technical and vocational tropical forests. The region hosts the largest coun- education and training (TVET), as well as training op- try in Sub-Saharan Africa, Nigeria, with more than tions for those already in the workforce. 200 million people, along with small states like Cabo Verde (table 1.1). Half of the countries face situations The expansive scope of the strategy matches the am- of fragility, conflict, and violence (FCV), whereas many bitions of AFW countries for holistic education sys- others enjoy more stability. About 48 percent of the tems that deliver the human capital needed for sus- region’s population now reside in cities, a share that tained economic growth and social development. The is likely to continue growing with rapid urbanization. strategy supports AFW countries in minimizing learn- ing losses from the COVID-19 pandemic and rebuild- The economies of AFW countries are also diverse. ing their education systems for greater resilience to Some depend heavily on agriculture, a sector that ac- future disruptions. It aims to help reorient systems counted for 42 percent of employment in the region toward new digital and green economic opportuni- in 2019.4 Others depend on natural resources such ties and to align systems with regional and global as oil (Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo); gold (Mali, initiatives to build human capital.1 The strategy is Guinea, Burkina Faso); cocoa (Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana); an integral part of the World Bank’s (2021d) priori- and cotton (Benin, Burkina Faso). The region saw ties for AFW for 2021–25. Accordingly, the strategy high economic growth from 2005 to 2015, powered complements other World Bank institutional initia- by high commodity prices, but growth rates have tives in education and human capital such as the slowed down since. The combined gross domestic Africa Human Capital Plan, the World Bank’s stra- product (GDP) of the 22 countries in 2019 was an es- tegic education policy approach, the commitments timated US$711 billion—about one quarter the GDP of the International Development Association 20th of the United Kingdom or France. replenishment,2 and the Digital Economy for Africa Initiative. The strategy is complemented by the Sahel Education White Paper (World Bank 2021e), which 1.3. Megatrends Affecting Education highlights and proposes solutions to that subregion’s Outcomes in AFW unique challenges,3 such as exceptionally low and inequitable access to quality basic education, espe- cially in fragile settings, and pervasive adult illiteracy. Education policies and practices must consider the challenges facing the region. While the region is highly diverse, many of the countries face common chal- 1.2. The Profile of AFW Countries lenges and regional megatrends that affect educa- tion outcomes. The AFW region comprises 22 countries with a com- bined population of half a billion people, which is pro- 1.3.1. Extreme Poverty jected to reach a billion by 2050. Hundreds of local languages are spoken, and official languages include Across the continent, the share of people living in ex- English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Arabic. treme poverty declined from 54 percent in 1990 to 41 The geography includes semiarid areas in the Sahel, percent in 2015; however, during that same period, 1 Agenda 2063, a key regional initiative, envisions a region of well-educated and skilled citizens prepared to compete in science, technology, and innovation thanks to a knowledge society—one where no child misses school due to poverty or any form of discrimination. The Regional Education Strategy resonates with all the as- pirations of the agenda, especially aspiration 6: “An Africa whose development is people-driven, relying on the potential of African people, especially its women and youth, and caring for children.” A key global initiative is the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 2 The Regional Education Strategy supports all World Bank human capital policy commitments as well as those under other special themes such as climate change, gender and development, FCV, and jobs and economic transformation. The strategy is also consistent with commitments under all the cross-cutting themes: crisis preparedness, governance and institutions, debt, and technology. 3 The Sahel subregion consists of Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger. 4 Data are from World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ world-development-indicators. 20 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Introduction to the Strategy and the Region Table 1.1. Countries in Western and Central Africa Country Income classification Population, 2020 (millions) Average GDP per capita growth 2016–20 (% p.a.) Benin Lower-middle income 12.1 2.45 Burkina Faso* Low income 20.9 2.37 Central African Republic* Low income 4.8 2.10 Côte d’Ivoire Lower-middle income 26.4 2.58 Cameroon* Lower-middle income 26.5 1.90 Congo,Rep.* Low income 5.5 –3.72 Cabo Verde Lower-middle income 0.6 –4.19 Gabon Upper-middle income 2.2 –0.98 Ghana Lower-middle income 31.1 0.54 Guinea Low income 13.1 3.86 Gambia, The Low income 2.4 3.02 Guinea-Bissau* Low income 2.0 0.77 Equatorial Guinea Upper-middle income 1.4 –4.55 Liberia Low income 5.1 –6.39 Mali* Low income 20.3 –1.13 Mauritania Lower-middle income 4.6 0.60 Niger* Low income 24.2 0.96 Nigeria* Lower-middle income 206.1 –0.36 Senegal Lower-middle income 16.7 0.02 Sierra Leone Low income 8.0 1.76 Chad Low income 16.4 –1.33 Togo Low income 8.3 –0.99 Source: World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ world-development-indicators. Note: GDP = gross domestic product; * denotes the World Bank’s fragile and conflict-affected situation classification in fiscal 2021/22. the number of people living in extreme poverty rose Poverty in Africa is chronic. Around 60 percent of the from 278 million to 413 million due to high population continent’s poor have been poor for several years, growth (Beegle and Christiaensen 2019). As extreme and over half of the continent’s poor are below the poverty rates trend downward globally, Africa’s share age of 15 (Beegle and Christiaensen 2019). Ex- of the world’s poor is projected to rise to more than 80 treme poverty contributes to the lagging education percent by 2023 (Kharas, Hamel, and Hofer 2018). In outcomes in the region. The poor are least likely to 2018, Nigeria had the continent’s largest population be educated. They often live in rural areas where living in extreme poverty: approximately 87 million peo- schools may not be present and tend to have other ple (Y. Kazeem 2018). In addition to Nigeria, 13 other demographic and socioeconomic or cultural traits, countries in AFW also as of 2018 had more than 30 such as disability and malnutrition, associated with percent of their population living on less than US$1.90 fewer years of schooling and with poorer learning out- a day (Y. Kazeem 2018). Many more people are at risk comes. In addition, households with extreme poverty of falling into extreme poverty given the depressed eco- have no margin for investments in education, which nomic conditions the COVID-19 pandemic has caused. only widens existing gaps. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 21 Introduction to the Strategy and the Region A major contributing factor to extreme poverty in are widely perceived to be shared inequitably, which the region is the challenging macro-outlook, man- generates grievances that, in turn, o  ften aggravate ifested in low economic growth. In 2020, real GDP corruption and insecurity and reduce government in AFW contracted by an estimated 1.1 percent (Ze- accountability. Such resource dependence removes ufack et al. 2021). Although there is considerable incentives for governments to invest in quality educa- variation within the region, this contraction worsened tion and discourages citizens from demanding more the very slow growth the region had been experienc- and better education. The resource dependency also ing in recent years. Furthermore, the gap between limits the predictability of financing for education. per capita incomes in high-income countries and those in AFW countries, as well as other developing countries, has grown steadily. Fifty years ago, the per 1.3.3. Demographic Trends capita incomes in AFW countries were 8 percent of those of high-income countries; today, they are only Demographic trends and high population growth put 4 percent. The prevalence of extreme poverty affects significant pressure on provision of education. The investments in human capital and, more specifically, region’s population of 459 million people is growing education. The macroeconomic situation is further at an average annual rate of 3 percent, far above the tightening the already limited fiscal space, reducing Sub-Saharan Africa average of 2 percent and the the public funds available to invest in education. global average of 1 percent. The total fertility rate for an average country in the region is 4.63, almost twice the 2.4 global average. The current growth rate is not 1.3.2. Resource Dependencies sustainable given that the population has already quadrupled in the last 50 years and is projected to Many AFW countries are highly resource dependent double by 2050. and face sustainability and governance challenges. In a sense, all AFW countries are “mining” their nonre- Given the high population growth and fertility rate, newable capital, whether it is hydrocarbons, miner- children and youth make up a large share of the pop- als, or land. Consuming nonrenewable capital, rather ulation. Therefore, the region has one of the youngest than transforming it into human or produced capital, populations in the world: 12 percent of the population is not sustainable. In addition, agriculture remains is under the age of 15, and about 64 percent is under a critical part of the region’s economy and provides the age of 24 (figure 1.1). The young population holds employment to 82 million people in the region. potential for demographic dividend if countries can prevent high youth unemployment rates by ensuring Growth based on extraction generates few jobs and that their young citizens can contribute productively increases economic vulnerability to commodity price to the economy. In summary, carefully crafted poli- shocks. For example, oil-rich countries like the Re- cies could transform the threat of a large unemployed public of Congo, Gabon, and Nigeria have struggled youth population into a demographic dividend. with drops in global oil prices in recent years. Nigeria in particular is highly dependent on oil exportation. Young people, no longer satisfied by the opportu- In 2019, 80 percent of the country’s budget revenue nities in rural areas, are rapidly migrating into the was generated by the oil and gas industry (Nwuke cities. The region’s cities are likely to become in- 2021). During the collapse of global oil and gas pric- creasingly crowded as urbanization throughout AFW es between 2014 and 2016, annual real GDP growth speeds up, with cities already hosting 48 percent of plummeted to 2.7 percent in 2015 and –1.6 percent the population. Though rapid urbanization creates in 2016 from an average of 7 percent during the peri- economies of scale in cities that enable investment od 2000–14 (World Bank 2019b). Countries must di- in education, it also isolates those living in rural ar- versify their economies to guard against unexpected eas, thereby widening existing gaps. Rapid popula- shocks in commodity prices. tion growth puts even more strain on quality of ed- ucation, requiring systems to hire large numbers of In addition to the economic impact of commodity teachers, many of whom might lack the necessary price shocks, the rents generated from extraction qualifications. 22 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Introduction to the Strategy and the Region Figure 1.1. Population Growth in the Region internally displaced persons (UNHCR 2022). The re- gion has a total of 5 million forcibly displaced chil- 1,800,000 dren. During the 2020–21 school year, more than 1,600,000 half of the refugee children in AFW did not attend 1,400,000 school. This problem is particularly acute for second- ary school. While 60 percent of refugee children in 1,200,000 AFW are enrolled in primary school, only 15 percent Thousands 1,000,000 are enrolled in secondary, and just 1 percent of refu- 800,000 gees 18–24 years old have access to higher educa- tion and vocational training. These percentages are 600,000 not only much lower than the values for non-refugees 400,000 but also lower than the values for refugees in other 200,000 parts of the world. For example, globally, 3 percent of refugees are enrolled in higher education (UNHCR 0 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 2021c). For those who do access education, the qual- ity of learning environments tends to be very low. 0-14 15-64 64+ Source: World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ world-development-indicators. 1.3.5. Climate Change Climate change is adding new challenges. Africa ac- 1.3.4. Fragility, Conflict, and Violence counts for only 2 to 3 percent of the world’s emissions of carbon dioxide from energy and industrial sourc- The social contract in AFW is breaking down, and vi- es, yet it may nonetheless suffer the greatest impact olent conflict is on the upswing. Citizens tend to have (Zeufack et al. 2021). This impact is already evident less trust in states that do not provide security and in the Sahel subregion. The increased frequency and fail to deliver basic services. The increase in violent severity of climatic shocks threaten livelihoods, ex- conflict includes insurgency movements, community acerbate conflict, and force households into coping conflict, and interpersonal violence, all of which fur- strategies that reduce human capital. ther undermine trust in government. Of the region’s 22 countries, 11 are now affected by FCV, and almost The region continues to be affected by incidents of three-quarters of the region’s population live in the af- flooding, which have grown more severe year after fected countries (figure 1.2). The impact on education year. The United Nations Office for the Coordination has been devastating. Before the COVID-19 pandem- of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA 2020) reported that ic, about 2 million children were not in school because in 2020 alone, 2.7 million people in 18 countries in their schools were either closed or not operating due the region were severely affected by flooding, sig- to insecurity. Since 2010, at least 2,880 events of vi- nificantly up from the previous year when 1.1 million olence have occurred in and around schools; such people were affected in 11 countries. In addition to events rose from just 39 in 2010 to 559 in 2020 and floods, coastal degradation is worsening throughout 440 in the first half of 2021 (figure 1.2). In just the first the region. The World Meteorological Organization seven months of 2021, more than 1,037 people in (2020) estimates that nearly 56 percent of the coast- and around educational facilities, mostly students and lines in Benin, Côte d’Ivoire, and Senegal are already teachers, were kidnapped. eroding. These climate conditions damage farmland and affect livelihoods dependent on agriculture, un- Moreover, the region currently includes more than 12 dermining the many economies to which agriculture million people of concern,5 among them 7.4 million is essential. These conditions also increase food 5 A person of concern is any person whom the UNHCR (2021a) considers a refugee, internally displaced person, asylum seeker, or stateless person, with some addi- tional persons not fitting these criteria. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 23 Introduction to the Strategy and the Region Figure 1.2. Political Violence in and around Education Facilities, 2010–21 Battles Explosions/Remote violence Protest Riots Strategic developments Violence against civilians Source: Original analysis by World Bank Education team based on the Armed Conflict Location & Event Data Project. insecurity, thereby putting learners’ cognitive abili- 1.3.6. Digital Revolution ties at risk as learners do not arrive at school ready to learn. The digital technology revolution is transforming the region. AFW has been able to leapfrog some tech- Other shocks of climate change also affect education nological developments, as demonstrated by the outcomes by forcing temporary school closures or per- fact that an average country in the region boasts 88 manent relocation of schools and generally making it mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people. Mobile harder for children to attend classes. Rising tempera- subscriptions have risen rapidly in the region, with the tures create heat waves that reduce learning. The number of subscriptions 15 times greater in 2015– Programme for International Student Assessment, a 17 compared with 2010–12, and universal mobile worldwide survey conducted by the Organisation for penetration has the potential to increase GDP by 2 Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), is- percentage points per year and decrease poverty by sued credible causal estimates for 58 countries. The 1 percentage point per year across the region (Choi, estimates suggest that in the three years preceding Dutz, and Usman 2020). the exam, each day above 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26 degrees Celsius) decreased scores by 0.018 stan- Although mobile services are widely accessible, the dard deviations (Park, Behrer, and Goodman 2021). charges and fees are relatively high for income levels Similarly, air pollution (Currie et al. 2009; Roth 2017) in the region, and mobile networks have poor quality decreases school attendance and affects current in comparison with other regions (Choi, Dutz, and Us- (Ebenstein, Lavy, and Roth 2016) and future learning man 2020). Moreover, in an average country in the re- outcomes (Bharadwaj et al. 2017). Furthermore, the gion, only 23 percent of the population use the inter- conflicts spurred by climate change compound the net. One main barrier to full AFW adoption of digital threats to education systems. These impacts are high- technologies is low access to digital technologies and er for the poorest, which exacerbates inequalities. infrastructure. Notably, 18 of the 20 least wirelessly 24 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Introduction to the Strategy and the Region connected countries in the world are in Africa, and for coherent and effective service delivery; and the continent has limited access to broadband ser- adequate, efficient, and equitable funding of in- vices for internet and data services (Choi, Dutz, and vestment in education. Usman 2020). Additionally, digital technologies are ■ Chapter 4 is the first of three chapters (chapters unaffordable for many people in the region, many of 4, 5, and 6) outlining high-impact interventions to whom lack digital skills. deliver quick wins under the strategy. It highlights the need for critical action aimed at transform- Digital technologies provide great opportunities for ing the teaching profession; enhancing students’ the region’s development, including in education. readiness to learn; and providing a conducive Since the onset of the COVID-19 crisis, AFW countries learning environment, one supplied with books have, for example, sought to identify opportunities to and learning materials, that conducts routine incorporate blended learning approaches into the learning assessment. education service delivery. However, the mobile and ■ Chapter 5 advocates for high-impact interven- internet challenges profoundly complicate any efforts tions to remove both supply- and demand-side in the region to use technology to make education barriers to widen learning opportunities across more effective and equitable and weaken the labor AFW, especially for girls. It highlights barriers force’s ability to compete in the twenty-first century. such as high direct costs of schooling, long dis- tances to schools, unfavorable social norms, ris- ing insecurity and violence around schools, and 1.4. Organization of the Report vulnerability and unpreparedness against unex- pected disruption of services. ■ Chapter 6 focuses on high-impact interventions The Regional Education Strategy draws on data, to advance AFW countries’ agenda on building analyses, and experience relating to education in job-relevant skills. It identifies actions to strength- AFW and elsewhere. These resources are arranged en AFW’s nascent skills-building systems by im- into eight chapters, as follows, in the rest of this report: proving the governance of service provision, dis- mantling barriers to skills acquisition, managing ■ Chapter 2 presents the case for modernizing the service delivery for relevance, and fostering sus- learning life cycle in AFW countries. The chapter tainability in service provision. highlights the nature of the education crisis in ■ Chapter 7 highlights the need to strengthen the ca- AFW and the yet-to-materialize promise of edu- pacity of education systems in key areas, including cation. It specifies expected outcomes in terms public financial management of education bud- of time-bound quantitative targets for learning geting, planning, and budget execution; technical outcomes in basic education, girls’ access to ed- expertise in core education services (such as cur- ucation, and the coverage and labor market out- riculum development and textbook design); mana- comes of TVET and higher education. The chap- gerial and leadership skills of the heads of schools ter reimagines the prospects for progress through and other educational institutions; and data sys- a new conceptual framework with three intercon- tems for informed decision-making in the sector. nected parts: an enabling policy environment; ■ Chapter 8 reflects on the World Bank’s support high-impact interventions; and stronger capacity for education in AFW in the coming years. It takes for implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. stock of the World Bank’s operational experience, ■ Chapter 3 elaborates on the ideal policy envi- distills lessons into key principles to guide the de- ronment and the strategic actions required of sign and content of future investments, and pro- top-level policy makers to create and sustain that poses a pragmatic approach involving country environment. These actions emphasize political classifications to enhance the country-specific mobilization around shared commitment to na- responsiveness of the World Bank’s support and tional goals for education; effective governance approach. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 25 PHOTO BY: © 2021 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK 2. Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle All AFW countries must modernize the learning life who enrolled but dropped out before finishing, and cycle to reap the full benefits of investments in educa- those attending non-integrated religious establish- tion and training. This chapter documents the prog- ments. On average only 44 percent of girls in AFW ress in expanding coverage and the gaps that remain. are enrolled in secondary school (junior and senior), It highlights the alarming learning poverty across compared with 52 percent of boys.6 all countries in the region and the distressing levels of graduate unemployment and skills mismatches Intergenerational disparities in education are wide. among young people exiting the education system For example, thanks to rapid expansion of educa- with TVET or tertiary education. Such outcomes are tional coverage in recent decades, today, a child in especially troubling in light of evidence regarding the Burkina Faso can expect to complete on average sev- positive impacts of education on economic and social en years of schooling by her 18th birthday, compared outcomes. with just two years among adults age 25 or older. The wide gap in educational attainment illustrates the re- gion’s peculiar challenge: the urgency to address the 2.1. The Education Crisis in AFW educational needs of both the school-age population and a population of working adults who, for a variety of reasons, missed out on schooling in their youth. Access to basic education has expanded rapidly, but The problem among younger adults is especially AFW still trails other world regions in this area. To- concerning, given the adverse implications for their day, average net primary school enrollment in AFW labor productivity over the decades of working life still is nearly 90 percent, up from less than 50 percent ahead for them. in the 1990s. Secondary enrollment in the last de- cade has more than doubled to a current average of More worrisome than the unfinished agenda of uni- 55 percent. However, on average, only 31 percent versal basic education is the genuine, if less obvious, of children benefit from early childhood education crisis of low levels of learning throughout the region. (ECE) programs in the region, for which only five An estimated 83 percent of 10-year-olds in AFW suf- countries do not charge fees. Not all children attend fer from learning poverty—an inability to read and primary school, and enrollment in secondary educa- understand a simple text (figure 2.2). A child in AFW tion is far behind enrollment in other regions (figure today can expect to complete an average of 7.8 years 2.1). With 20 percent of school-age children not at- of schooling by 18, but that number falls to just 4.5 tending school, AFW hosts the largest share of the years when adjusted for the quality of learning. The world’s out-of-school children. Nigeria has more than quality gap explains why the AFW Human Capital In- 11 million OOS children - the highest in the world dex is the lowest in the world—only 0.38 on a scale of (World Bank 2022). These children represent three 0 to 1.7 Weak foundations in childhood continue into distinct groups: those who have never enrolled, those adulthood. The literacy rate among adults in Chad 6 Based on World Development Indicators estimates. 7 Children born today in an average AFW country will be only 38 percent as productive as they could be if they enjoyed complete education and full health; if these children did enjoy complete education and full health, productivity in an average AFW country could be 2.63 times higher than it is today. To put things into perspec- tive, this is the equivalent of 1.95 extra percentage points of growth per year over 50 years. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 27 Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.1. Primary and Secondary Educational Attainment, Western and Central Africa and Comparators Primary Gross Enrollment (%) Secondary Gross Enrollment (%) 150 MENA Secondary Gross Enrollment (%) 75 SAR Primary Gross Enrollment (%) 100 SAR AFE MENA AFW AFE 50 AFW 50 25 0 0 Sierra Leone Gabon Togo Guinea-Bissau Benin South Asia East & Southern Africa Cameroon Ghana Central African Republic Gambia Cape Verde Mauritania Middle East & North Africa West &Central Africa Burkina Faso Congo - Brazzaville Guinea Chad Nigeria Liberia Senegal Mali Niger Equatorial Guinea Cape Verde Middle East & North Africa South Asia Ghana Togo Cameroon Benin East & Southern Africa Congo - Brazzaville Gambia West &Central Africa Senegal Nigeria Sierra Leone Burkina Faso Mali Mauritania Guinea Liberia Niger Chad Central African Republic Source: World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ world-development-indicators. Note: AFW = Western and Central Africa; ESA = Eastern and Southern Africa; MENA = Middle East and North Africa; SA = South Asia. and Niger, two countries with some of the world’s Latin America and the Caribbean and even farther worst human capital outcomes, is just 22 percent and below the average of 74 percent in the OECD. Yet 19 percent, respectively (World Population Review even with this limited education coverage, in some 2021). Thus, even before the COVID-19 pandemic, AFW countries the share of well-educated youth AFW was already grappling with a learning crisis. The (age 15–24) who are not in education, employment, pandemic-induced learning losses will only increase or training (NEET) is large (figure 2.3). In Nigeria, in learning poverty, especially among the poor, girls, and 2018, an estimated 55 percent of the NEET youth in other vulnerable groups. this age bracket possessed postbasic education.8 In Liberia, where unemployment is relatively low, the In postbasic education, the region faces chronic gaps problem is the lack of quality jobs available. Through- in attainment and workforce participation, especial- out the region, the expansion of manufacturing and ly among young women, and youth unemployment services has been slow. As a result, there are too is high even among the educated and trained. Poor few good-quality jobs to absorb all the graduates of workforce skills limit business success and rein- postbasic education and training programs. More- force the vicious cycle of few job opportunities and over, these programs are failing to supply graduates high youth unemployment, all of which, in turn, fuel in fields in which labor market demand is high, es- protests and violence in the region (Frimpong and pecially in science, technology, engineering, and Commodore 2021). Most AFW youth acquire skills mathematics (STEM). Graduates from tertiary STEM through informal apprenticeships that prepare them programs make up less than 25 percent of graduates only for informal work. Less than 4 percent of second- in the region;9 in Sierra Leone, the share of graduates ary students, on average, are enrolled in formal TVET. in information and communication technology (ICT) Gross enrollment in tertiary education averages only in 2019 was only 8 percent.10 These programs also 11 percent, far below the average of 54 percent in enroll far too few women. In Ghana, in 2019, only 1 8 Based on the 2018–19 Nigeria Living Standards Survey. 9 Based on available data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2017–20). 10 Original calculations based on data from the Ministry of TVET and Higher Education, Sierra Leone included in the Digital Economy for Africa Country Diagnostics. 28 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.2. Learning Poverty in Western and Figure 2.3. Share of NEET Youth (15–24 Years Central African Countries Old) in Western and Central African Countries Learning Poverty Youth not in education, employment, or training 100 West and 60 Central Africa Other countries 75 Learning Poverty (%) Percentage of youth 40 50 25 20 West and Central Africa Other countries 0 0 7 8 9 10 11 7 8 9 10 11 Log GDP per capita Log GDP per capita Source: World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, Source: World Development Indicators (database), World Bank, Washington, DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ DC (accessed February 25, 2022), https://databank.worldbank.org/source/ world-development-indicators. world-development-indicators. Note: GDP = gross domestic product. Note: GDP = gross domestic product. percent of the graduates of public university under- spending could release resources for high-priority graduate programs in ICT, and 4 percent of those in goals, for example, by reducing the disproportion- engineering, were women.11 ately high budget shares of tertiary education, which are not justified by current or projected enrollments. Education systems in AFW struggle with not only To attract additional funding, AFW education sys- inadequate financing but also inefficient operation. tems must also become more efficient. The weak No government in the region currently devotes 6.3 relationship between investment of resources and percent of GDP to education, the level recommend- learning outcomes—both across AFW countries ed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and across schools within each country—points to and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) to universalize significant scope for more efficient spending by, for preprimary, primary, and secondary education by example, reducing repetition rates, especially in the 2030. The most underresourced countries spent an early grades, and dropout rates, especially in the fi- average of only 2.3 percent of GDP on education in nal grades of primary education and in secondary 2017–18. Because pervasive poverty makes it diffi- education. In some countries, the problem of ineffi- cult for families to pay more, especially when many cient education systems also affects tertiary educa- families are already devoting significant shares of tion. For instance, in 2018, at Senegal’s Université their budgets to education, finding new sources of Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, the country’s largest domestic and external funding is critical, especially university, repetition among first-year students av- in the most underresourced countries. In some coun- eraged nearly 30 percent. Tighter management also tries, however, improving the allocative efficiency of means improving labor market outcomes among 11 Original calculations based on 2018–19 graduate data from the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 29 Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle school leavers and graduates to boost education free admission and tuition to all children in govern- systems’ external efficiency. ment-approved schools. The president of Niger has committed to introducing a compulsory two-year na- The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated many of tional civic service for recent graduates of higher ed- the chronic challenges to AFW education systems, ucation in an effort to staff the education ministries jeopardizing the hard-earned progress to date. At the with a cadre of highly competent graduates. In Ni- peak of the pandemic, 101 million learners could geria’s Edo State, the government launched the Edo not attend class in person, and most could not learn Basic Education Sector Transformation (EdoBEST) online because of minimal internet access and con- program in 2018 to leverage digital technologies to nectivity. Many learners, especially girls, are likely improve the quality of basic education and strength- to drop out permanently. When schools reopened en the pipeline of workers for jobs in the digital econ- after a nearly year-long closure during the Ebola out- omy. The program’s innovative design serves as a break in Sierra Leone in 2016, girls age 12–17 were model for not only other states in Nigeria but also 16 percentage points less likely than boys to be in other countries. In Mali, a comprehensive 10-year school, and out-of-wedlock pregnancies had risen by national education program (Programme décennal 7.2 percentage points since the start of the outbreak de développement de l’education et de la formation (Bandiera et al. 2019). Based on information from professionnelle deuxième génération, 2019–28) is the United Kingdom, United States, Netherlands, underway to improve service delivery. School clo- and Czech Republic (UUW 2021), COVID-19 school sures due to conflict and insecurity, a significant closures are likely to reduce leaning outcomes obstacle for the system, are among the issues the and widen inequalities. In the Netherlands, where program seeks to address. schools closed for eight weeks, national primary school examination scores fell by about 0.08 stan- dard deviations (equivalent to missing 20 percent 2.2. The Promise of Education in AFW of the school year), with losses greater by up to 60 percent among children from disadvantaged homes (Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen 2021). Some recent Investing in education yields high returns for countries evidence from AFW shows similar results. In Nigeria, and individuals through multiple channels. Universal- COVID-19 lockdown measures reduced children’s izing basic education and widening opportunities probability of attending school after the school sys- for genuine learning and skills building across the tem reopened. In the child marriage–prone north- learning life cycle are critical to realizing the prom- western part of Nigeria, these measures increased ise of education throughout AFW. The investment gender inequality in education among children age would boost earnings, accelerate economic growth, 12–18, which might exacerbate child marriage improve health, and strengthen the social fabric, thus (Dessy et al. 2021). To overcome the adverse effects enabling countries in the region to develop holistical- of the pandemic, Sierra Leone built on its Ebola-era ly and thrive for the benefit of all citizens. radio program to provide continuity of schooling with two-way interactions. In Côte d’Ivoire, the govern- ment spent US$8.2 million to enable distance learn- 2.2.1. Evidence of the Returns to ing through television for examination-year classes. Education While such efforts may help mitigate the outcomes, losses are still likely. Investing in education unleashes processes that create a virtuous cycle of economic improvement Many AFW countries are responding to their im- for individuals and countries alike. According to mense challenges in education by undertaking sig- World Bank (2020a) estimates, universalizing ba- nificant systemic reforms to achieve better results. In sic education with full learning would raise the re- 2017, Ghana introduced the free senior high school gion’s Human Capital Index from 0.38 to 0.80 and policy to ensure access, equity, and equality in ed- increase GDP per capita by 2.2 times, which would ucation. In 2018, Sierra Leone launched a phased be equivalent to growing the economy by an average free quality school education initiative that provides of 1.6 percentage points a year over 50 years. The 30 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.4. Correlation of Annual GDP per Capita Growth (1970–2015) with Test Scores and Years of Schooling Completed a. Test scores and growth b. Years of schooling and growth Years of schooling and growth (Conditional on initial perTest GDPand scores capita andgrowth years of schooling) (Conditional on initial per capita GDP and test scores) (conditional on initial GDP per capita and years of schooling) (conditional on initial GDP per capita and test scores) 3 3 Annual GDP per capita growth (%) Annual GDP per capita growth (%) 2 2 1 1 0 0 -1 y = 0.00 + 1.59x -1 y = 0.00 + 0.07x R2 = 0.55 R2 = 0.02 -2 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Test Scores Years of schooling Source: World Bank (2018). Note: GDP = gross domestic product. investment would achieve this feat by producing the not by years of schooling. The finding, which is depict- skilled workers that firms need in order to penetrate ed in figure 2.4, is not surprising.12 Because educa- and compete in sophisticated product spaces that tion systems vary widely in how well their students offer better earnings. Expansion of more firms into learn, years of schooling is a poor measure of coun- such spaces, in turn, would strengthen the demand tries’ “knowledge capital,” a key channel through for workers with more qualifications and skills (for ex- which education influences growth (Bashir et al. ample, engineers, lawyers, accountants, managers, 2018). Knowledge capital boosts economic growth in financial specialists, data analysts, and scientists). various ways, for example, by expanding the capacity Countries with a skilled workforce can also attract to absorb and adapt new technology, improving the more foreign direct investments, thus reinforcing the quality of public administration, and strengthening virtuous cycle of faster growth and stronger incen- organizational and managerial effectiveness. These tives for investors. More broadly, faster growth would avenues matter for growth even in low- and middle-in- help reduce poverty and promote shared prosperity. come countries operating far from the technological Abdullah, Doucouliagos, and Mannin (2015), for ex- frontier (World Bank 2018). Adding to the statisti- ample, estimate that a doubling of the primary gross cal evidence is the experience of East Asian Mira- enrollment ratio—from 50 to 100 percent—would cle countries, which have all achieved rapid growth increase by 8 percentage points the share of income over the course of decades through a strong public benefiting households in the poorest decile; for commitment to investing in education as well as in countries that are far from the global technological infrastructure and health (Birdsall et al. 1993; CGD frontier, as many AFW countries are, the gain would 2008). These countries adopted measures on mul- be even greater. tiple fronts to strengthen the education system as a whole, making it an indispensable engine for growth. Statistical analysis of GDP per capita growth from These measures include universalizing basic educa- 1970 to 2015 reveals a strong correlation with the tion early on, improving learning outcomes against quality of human capital measured by test scores but international benchmarks, expanding secondary 12 Analysis of the relation between GDP per capita growth and education has a long history in the literature. Because of acknowledged data flaws, Glewwe, Maiga, and Zheng (2014) cautioned in their review of this literature that “it is unlikely that precise, credible estimates of the impact of education on economic growth can be ob- tained from cross-country data.” Nevertheless, in recent years, the growing availability of internationally comparable data on learning outcomes has made it possible to refine the analysis. The results to date highlight that the quality of schooling correlates more closely with growth than with quantity of schooling (Bashir et al. 2018). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 31 Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.5. Returns to Education and Wage Increase by Level and Type of Education in 11 Western and Central African Countries, circa 2018 a. Returns to education, by gender b. Percent increase in wages relative to workers with no education, (% per additional year of schooling) by level and type of education 16.0% 180% 168% 14.3% 14.0% 160% 140% 12.0% 11.0% 121% 120% 10.0% 9.8% 100% 92% 8.0% 80% 6.0% 60% 50% 4.0% 40% 28% 2.0% 20% 0.0% 0% Returns to additional years of school Returns to education Male Female All Primary Lower Secondary Higher Secondary TVET Tertiary Sources: Analysis of the 2018 Enquête Harmonisée sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages (EHCVM) data for Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo; the 2018–19 Nigeria Living Standards Survey; and the 2016 Ghana Living Standards Survey VII. Note: Estimates are based on analysis of pooled data for the 11 countries using a standard Mincerian regression specification with country fixed effects. TVET = technical and vocational education and training. and tertiary education selectively and strategically as 2.7 times as much as workers with no education (fig- conditions evolve and allow, and fostering close links ure 2.5b). between TVET and the labor market (CGD 2008; Tan et al. 2018). Increasing the availability of wage jobs that make better use of the human capital of educated work- For individuals, education is a key determinant of ers can unleash the full benefits of education in earnings in AFW countries, as it is globally, and the AFW—for both individuals and their countries. The private benefits are highest for those with postbasic probability of working at any job in the region aver- education. Education equips workers with the knowl- ages 64 percent among the working age population edge and skills to increase their work output, en- but falls to only 15 percent for wage jobs (figure abling them to earn more than workers less well en- 2.6). The share of employment in wage jobs thus ac- dowed. On average, each additional year of schooling counts for just 23 percent of all jobs—comparable boosts individuals’ earnings by about 9 percent, with to the 20 percent in low-income countries but much larger increases for women (Psacharopoulos and lower than the 80 percent in high-income countries Patrinos 2018). The returns in AFW are slightly high- (Merotto, Weber, and Reyes 2018). In AFW, those er, averaging 11 percent in 2018 based on data for with TVET and tertiary education have a far better the 11 countries with the requisite data. Conforming chance of obtaining wage jobs, but the overall picture to international patterns, the returns for women are remains that the high returns to education accrue to nearly five percentage points higher (figure 2.5a) in only a small share of the workforce, so the benefits AFW, a wider gap than in all other geographic regions for the broader economy are thus also lost. Creating except the Middle East and North Africa (World Bank more and better jobs depends on a wide range of 2018). Among the 11 AFW countries, the wage pre- economic, political, and social forces beyond the ed- mium rises significantly by level of education: those ucation sector. The World Bank’s Jobs for Economic with tertiary education, for example, earn on average Transformation initiative, which is dedicated to this 32 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.6. Employment Probabilities in 11 Western and Central African Countries, circa 2018a a. Having any job and a wage job, by gender b. Having a wage job, by level and type of education b/ 80% 60% 73% 54% 51% 70% 50% 64% 60% 57% 40% 50% 30% 22% 40% 20% 13% 30% 10% 8% 2% 20% 20% 0% 15% Probability of wage employment 10% 10% -10% 0% -20% Probability of Probability of wage employment employment No Education Primary Lower Secondary Male Female All Higher Secondary TVET Tertiary Sources: Analysis of the 2018 EHCVM data for Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo; the 2018–19 Nigeria Living Standards Survey; and the 2016 Ghana Living Standards Survey VII. Note: TVET = technical and vocational education and training. a. Estimates are based on analysis of pooled data for the 11 countries using a logistic regression specification with country fixed effects. b. Estimates of the probability of having a wage job are conditional on having a job at all. agenda, focuses on measures to increase agricul- Woessmann 2013). Better-educated mothers also tural productivity, encourage urban migration, and raise healthier and better-educated children, as has facilitate workers’ transition into higher-productivity been demonstrated in Senegal (World Bank 2011). jobs in manufacturing or services. Its success would Educated women are more likely than those with less increase the demand for well-trained and educated education to work in paid jobs outside the home, re- workers and improve the use of AFW countries’ in- main longer in such jobs, and earn more (Osili and vestments in the human capital of their people. Long 2008). Education can help build social capital and stabi- 2.2.2. The Impact of Education on Health lize a region in which the social fabric is fraying. By and Social Capital helping to ease demographic pressures, reduce poverty, and accelerate economic growth, educa- Education also improves countries’ welfare through its tion can make a vital contribution to relieving the positive impacts on health, in particular by enhancing underlying sources of FCV in the region. Education child survival and health outcomes and reducing child can foster more peaceful societies by promoting marriage and early pregnancies. In Nigeria, an addi- tolerance and cooperation and discouraging use tional year of female schooling reduced fertility by of violence to settle conflicts (Davies 2004). Impor- at least 0.26 births per woman (Lam, Sedlacek, and tantly, parallel efforts to increase job opportunities Duryea 2016). Education increases women’s use of are essential; when job prospects are favorable, the contraception, strengthens their role in family fer- opportunity cost of violence rises, making it harder tility decisions, and makes them more aware of the for terrorist organizations to gain new recruits (Col- trade-offs in having children (Becker, Cinnirella, and lier et al. 2009). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 33 Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle 2.3. The Strategy’s Perspective, ■ Target 2: Increase girls’ secondary school gross en- Targets, and Conceptual Framework rollment from 43 percent in 2020 to 47.9 percent by 2025 and 57.2 percent by 2030. Achieving this tar- The Regional Education Strategy provides a new per- get would result in 4.6 million more girls in second- spective and approach to development in the region, ary school by 2025 and 12.5 million more by 2030. building on experience and evidence of what has  ■ Target 3: Expand access to job-relevant skills training proved viable: ( a) It contextualizes these solutions in through multiple formal and informal channels by in- the learning life cycle, highlighting the interdepen- creasing the gross enrollment ratio in tertiary educa- dence of different levels and types of education and tion from 11 percent in 2020 to 14 percent by 2025 hence the need for system-wide coherence and pri- and 20 percent by 2030 (adding 3 million more youth oritization. (b) It recognizes the critical role of strate- by 2025 and 8 million more by 2030) and training gic leadership for genuine breakthroughs based on 3.7 million more young adults in foundational skills commitment to widely shared goals. (c) It emphasizes by 2025 and 1 million more youth in digital skills by systematic capacity building to enable countries to 2025 (60 percent of whom would obtain better jobs). sustain learning by doing, thus reinforcing ownership and effective implementation. Finally, (d) it organizes subregional country groupings to help the World Bank 2.3.2. Conceptual Framework for the tailor its support to countries’ specific needs. With Strategy this new approach, and leveraging scalable, innova- tive, and high-impact interventions, the World Bank The Regional Education Strategy acknowledges that can support countries in tackling the region’s educa- tackling AFW’s education crisis requires an approach tion crisis and in achieving sustained progress in this that integrates both effective interventions and an sector. enabling policy environment. The strategy, therefore, calls for strengthening strategic leadership to drive the education reform agenda. It highlights investments 2.3.1. Goals and Targets across the in high-impact interventions across the learning life Learning Life Cycle cycle designed to (a) improve teaching and learning outcomes, (b) expand learning opportunities, and (c) The Regional Education Strategy has three goals, one build job-relevant skills for all. Finally, the strategy em- for each of the main education subsectors: r educe phasizes actions to enhance capacity for implementa- learning poverty, increase girls’ enrollment in second- tion and for monitoring and evaluation (M&E). ary school, and improve the rate at which youth tran- sition to better jobs (figure 2.7). While these goals are The strategy embraces actions that can achieve not the only ones that matter for education in AFW, both quick wins and long-term impacts. Many of giving these goals priority through this strategy can the high-impact interventions involve prompt action align effort, catalyze change, and create synergies for to deliver quick results in the short term and to sup- impact across a range of related outcomes. For each port resilient recovery and progress toward meeting goal, the strategy has set a respective target address- critical targets by 2025. For longer-term impacts, the ing both the short and long term: strategy specifies investment in processes to reshape mindsets, change practices, and build capacity. While ■ Target 1: Reduce learning poverty (inability to these processes take longer to produce tangible re- read and understand a simple text at age 10) sults, they are essential for reinforcing the system to from 80 percent in 2020 to 75 percent by 202513 ensure continued progress toward the 2030 targets. and 66 percent by 2030. Achieving this target The challenge is to use the quick fixes to create mo- would add 11.1 million more literate children by mentum without letting those quick fixes distract from 2025 and 29.7 million more by 2030. the systemic changes still needed to improve the over- all health and performance of the education system. 13 A goal of 4 percentage points is appropriately ambitious given AFW’s population growth rate of 3 percent a year. 34 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Modernizing the Learning Life Cycle Figure 2.7. The Conceptual Framework for the AFW Education Strategy Vision A region where all girls and boys arrive at school ready to learn, truly learn in and out of the classroom, and enter the job market with the right skills to become productive and fulfilled citizens. Targets Improve foundational learning Increase access to education with Expand access to job-relevant skills training and quality of education a focus on girls GER in tertiary education from 11% to 14% by Learning poverty': 80% in 2020 to Girls' GER" in secondary school: 2025 and to 20% by 2030; equip 3.7 million 76% by 2025 and 66% by 2030 42% in 2020 to 48.5% by 2025 and adults with foundational and 1mln youth with 59.7% by 2030 digital skills Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-term Impact • Galvanize wide commitment to key education goals • Structure governance of education institutions for coherence and accountability for results • Expand, or at least protect, funding for education and make better use of available resources Investing in High-impact Interventions Across the Learning Lifecycle for Quick Wins Improving Teaching Expanding Building Job-relevant & Learning opportunities Skills • Transform the teaching profession • Reduce cost of education,. esp. for • Strengthen governance of skills • Enhance students' readiness to learn the poor provision • Teach at the right level and in a • Provide information to parents and • Dismantle barriers to skills language children understand students acquisition (including low • Provide learning resources & EdTech • Shift socio cultural norms, esp. for foundational skills) • Foster regular learning assessments girls • Manage service delivery for quality • Include vulnerable groups and relevance • Ensure safe and inclusive learning • Foster sustainability of service environments delivery • Increase availability, accessibility and resilience of schools Enhancing Implementation Capacity for Long-term Impact • Deepen technical and managerial capacity in key areas among educators and policymakers • Strengthen data systems to provide results-relevant information for monitoring and course correction Source: World Bank AFW Education Strategy Team. Note: GER = gross enrollment ratio; EdTech = educational technology. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 35 PHOTO BY: © 2020 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK 3. Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Achieving the education outcomes prioritized in this 3.1. Galvanizing Shared Commitment Regional Education Strategy depends on top lead- to Priority Goals in Education ers’ political will and leadership. All the outcomes require the support, cooperation, and contribution of diverse stakeholders—within as well as outside An “accountability triangle” (figure 3.1) can cap- the education sector. The job of top leaders is to ture the complex dynamics of strategic leadership integrate the engagement of these diverse interest by highlighting the interactions among the key ac- groups around a coherent vision and action plan tors involved: policy makers, service providers, and for improving education for national development, users or clients of education services. Politics is the economic growth, and shared prosperity. Such lead- starting point of this relationship. In theory, citizens ership gives direction and energy to the effort, en- grant policy makers power over education policies sures coordinated action, and manages trade-offs and programs; in practice, in most settings, citizens in ways that initiate and sustain the momentum for grant this power implicitly in exchange for represen- progress toward the desired education outcomes. tation of their interests in education (the first link in This chapter elaborates on three aspects of the the “long route” of the accountability triangle). As the needed leadership: galvanizing shared commit- World Bank (2003) notes, however, citizens’ hold on ment to prioritized education goals; fostering sound politicians is often weakened by the influence of in- governance of the education system; and ensuring terest groups, such as unions, private service provid- adequate financing and effective use of resources. ers, and political parties, that have greater power and Each of these three tasks entails dialogue and de- more access to the politicians.15 In the second link cision-making processes that require going beyond of the “long route,” policy makers delegate authori- mere rhetoric and opinion. All too often, gaps sepa- ty and resources to service providers to achieve the rate leaders’ ambition, the means for realizing key expected education results, typically via compacts education goals, and the actual results obtained; to with the ministries of education responsible for over- narrow those gaps, leaders must inculcate a culture seeing and managing provision of services. In the and practice of evidence-based dialogue and deci- third link, schools and other educational institutions sion-making.14 Doing so is essential to facilitating financed by the government provide educational ser- coalition-building and strengthening the demand vices to their target clientele, thus completing the for education results. “long route” of the accountability triangle.16 Crafting 14 Both country-specific and cross-country data can inform dialogue and decision-making. UNESCO (https://uis.unesco.org/) offers comprehensive data on key educa- tion indicators, while the World Bank’s Global Education Policy Dashboard seeks to provide comparative information on education policies (https://www.worldbank. org/en/topic/education/brief/global-education-policy-dashboard). 15 This distortion typically undermines service delivery to poor families in terms of access and quality. Options to reduce the problem include enhancing citizen par- ticipation, such as in budget formulation and supervision, and publicizing key performance indicators, such as school-level spending on education and learning outcomes and graduate employment across institutions. 16 Figure 3.1 shows a single-headed arrow completing the third link to reflect the typically more limited and time-consuming interactions between public sector educa- tion service providers and their clientele. In contrast, the “short route” shows a double-headed arrow to reflect the fact that private sector service providers compete for users of their services and thus tend to engage more actively with their clientele. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 37 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.1. The Political Economy of Education Systems with Key Actors in an “Accountability Triangle” Policy makers 1st link of "Long route" 2nd link of "Long route" Government authorities at national and Politics: grant of power in Compact: delegation of authority and regional levels, including in return for representation resources in return for education results non-education ministries Providers: Ministry of Education as Principal Party * 3 link of "Long route" rd Clients: Service Delivery: result of interactions at Sector Policy: Students, parents & citizens earlier links and in the Ministry Finance; Sta ng and Pay; Teacher Career Paths; Service Comprises diverse groups (e.g., by Delivery Standards; M&E, etc. gender, wealth, locality, religion, "Short route" Oversight & management of service providers: learning needs, etc.) Voice & Choice: pay for service • Schools • Training institutes • Colleges • Universities • Private institutions • Technical agencies Source: Adapted from World Bank (2003). Note: The light blue arrows trace the “long route” of accountability, with the 1st link connecting clients and policy makers, the 2nd link connecting policy makers and providers, and the 3rd link connecting providers to clients. The grey arrow indicates the “short route” directly connecting clients and providers through a “Voice & Choice” relationship in terms of market transactions. The “technical agencies” noted in the providers box refer to specialized entities in areas such as quality assurance, curriculum development, teacher training and professional development, student assessment and examinations, qualifications frameworks, accreditation, and student scholarships and loans. M&E = monitoring and evaluation. more effective compacts is as desirable as it is chal- to a wide range of stakeholders and garner their coop- lenging and often requires better information on sys- eration to act in the national interest. Strong political tem performance as well as greater alignment of in- will and commitment by leaders can inspire people to centives within the government. When policy makers work together for a better future in education. To this allow private providers to operate with fees collected end, leaders should engage in what Kosack (2012) directly from users, a “short route” of accountabili- has described as “political entrepreneurship” to mo- ty emerges, providing a more direct pay-for-service tivate and organize the relevant constituencies into a link between users and providers of education ser- coherent political force for change.17 The leaders of vices. Giving users greater choice among providers East Asian countries have also gained wide recogni- can enhance competition among service providers tion for their success in mobilizing sustained support and incentivize their performance. In Nigeria’s Edo for investing in quality education as a key driver of State, the ongoing EdoBEST program championed economic growth (Commission on Growth and De- by the governor, Mr. Godwin Obaseki, exemplifies velopment 2008). With the broadening of AFW coun- how integrating the three links along the “long route” tries’ reform agenda to include not only universal cov- in the accountability triangle, informed by data and erage in basic education but also improved learning evidence, can catalyze changes in basic education, and job-relevant skills for all, the agenda has become a process that reflects the governor’s core belief that more complex and arduous. Weak commitment to eq- “once you get basic education right, everything else uity goals in education is an important barrier; in ad- falls in place.” In many AFW countries, donors add to dition, the goals for learning and skills are also more the complexity of the triangle, especially when they demanding to measure and track, and the data are contribute significant funding for education. more challenging to communicate simply and mean- ingfully to the public. Yet the basic tools for political Top leaders’ political commitment to the priority goals entrepreneurship remain familiar: (a) clear messag- is vital but insufficient; these goals must also appeal ing around an appropriate framing of the issues, (b) 17 Based on analysis of more than 50 years of education policies in three locations with very different political institutions—Brazil (1930–2000), Ghana (1951–2000), and Taiwan, China (1949–2000)—Kosack (2012) argues that successful organization of the poor by political entrepreneurs, under both democratic and autocratic rule, was the common ingredient for the success of pro-poor policies (namely, sufficiently funded mass primary education and broad-based worker training). 38 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact dialogue and networking to win broad-based support framing is also needed in two other areas of rele- and cooperation, and (c) negotiations and accommo- vance to the region: Koranic schools and language of dations to create ‘win-win’ situations to help advance instruction in the early grades. Koranic schools offer priority national goals (Hudson et al. 2018). children and youth the religious instruction valued by many Muslim parents and focus on memorization of Leaders can use reform narratives to signal the unac- the Quran as a mainstay, typically taught in Arabic or ceptability of the status quo in education and to ex- in a local language (Roy and Humeau 2018). Estimat- plain the government’s plan of action. The fact that ed to enroll some 20 percent of the out-of-school chil- more than four in five 10-year-olds in school in AFW dren and youth in the Sahel, Koranic schools operate cannot read or understand a simple text provides with limited government oversight or recognition (ex- a clear wake-up call for action. For example, Niger cept in Mauritania) and receive no government fund- found itself ranked last in the 2014 Program for the ing. Attempts at integrating Koranic schools into the Analysis of Education Systems (PASEC) assessment formal education system have had limited success of learning among primary school children in 14 thus far, weakening the cohesion of effort around na- Francophone countries. In response, the government tional education goals (World Bank 2021e). Regard- broke decisively from the past by introducing major ing language of instruction, lack of consensus on how reforms, including firing teachers who lacked the re- best to proceed in a context of enormous linguistic quired proficiency, introducing a remedial program diversity, not to mention complex domestic and inter- in mathematics, reforming the curriculum as well as national politics, has led to frequent policy changes teacher training, and strengthening the accountabil- and inconsistent implementation; the resulting sit- ity of school directors (PASEC 2020; Nestour 2021). uation is undermining student learning in the early These changes helped make Niger one of only two grades (Bashir et al. 2018). Moving past the status AFW countries to register significant gains in learning quo, as well as effectively framing the issues, will re- outcomes between 2014 and 2019. The shock value quire a deeper understanding of the underlying im- of unsatisfactory learning outcomes has proven pow- pediments to change. erful elsewhere too—for example, in Kenya; Puebla state in Mexico; and Sobral municipality in Ceará, Negotiations and accommodation of key stakehold- Brazil. In all three settings, shock helped to galvanize ers’ concerns are often necessary to secure key concerted efforts that have already yielded “sub- stakeholders’ commitment to and support of the re- stantial leaps that, if continued and extended, would form agenda. In Benin, the only other AFW country [boost performance to] . . . at least the first satisfac- whose PASEC test scores rose significantly between tory levels in the OECD ranks in a reasonable time” 2015 and 2019, better dialogue with teacher unions (Crouch 2020). and accommodation of their interests reduced the time lost to teacher strikes—an important rea- Careful framing of the issues for dialogue and network- son behind the gain in test scores (PASEC 2020; ing is especially important where social norms, reli- Nestour 2021). In Kenya, recurring teacher strikes gious preferences, or cultural concerns present major after 2009 were resolved only after the country’s barriers to change. Advocacy for gender equality in residents took steps in 2016 to bring the Teach- Egypt and Jordan, for example, was more successful ers Service Commission and the teachers’ unions when framed in terms of family values rather than together for negotiations on all disputes to restore of “women’s rights;” it also benefited from network- peace and avoid further losses of teaching time (box ing by the movement’s leaders to gain support from 3.1).18 Postbasic education, especially TVET, can players with formal and informal influence in society involve industry-leading firms in skills building (for (Hudson et al. 2018). These experiences suggest that example, in curriculum development, hosting of in- in AFW, similar strategies may help ensure continued ternships, and contribution of equipment and facul- lowering of the barriers to girls’ schooling. Careful ty). Successful efforts to involve firms often require 18 See Bashir et al. (2018) for details. Two collective bargaining agreements were struck, one covering from July 1, 2013 to June 30, 2017 to consolidate salary awards previously negotiated by ad hoc committees and a follow-up agreement covering the period from July 1, 2017 to June 20, 2021. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 39 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Box 3.1. Strategic Leadership for Negotiations with Teacher Unions in Kenya A problem in need of strategic leadership. Throughout the mid-2000s, interactions between the govern- ment and teacher unions in Kenya followed a familiar cycle: teacher dissatisfaction with jobs, pay, and benefits rose to a boil; teachers went on strike; the government formed an ad hoc review committee to negotiate with the unions; and the parties hurriedly signed a return-to-work agreement. Teachers went back to work, but peace was often short lived. From 2009 to 2015, teachers went on strike in five of the seven years, with the strike in 2015 lasting a total of 49 days. The chronic disruptions undermined the ability of schools to provide students with a conducive, stable environment for learning. Leadership from the President’s Office. In 2016, Kenya’s President urged the Teachers Service Com- mission (TSC) and the two main unions—the Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT) and the Kenya Union of Post Primary Education Teachers (KUPPET)—to commence negotiations on all disputes to at- tain peace in the teaching profession. The TSC was well positioned to act promptly: it had been re-es- tablished in 2010 with a constitutional mandate that both recognized it as the sole employer of teachers in Kenya’s public service and granted it the legal authority to negotiate directly with the teacher unions. Operationally and financially autonomous, it now received funding directly from the exchequer. Dialogue and negotiations. In preparation for the negotiations, the Salaries and Renumeration Commis- sion, in consultation with the TSC, conducted a job evaluation exercise. At the same time, the TSC, KNUT, and KUPPET withdrew all their pending court cases relating to terms and conditions of service. They appointed negotiating committees assisted by a joint technical team, began their dialogue in good faith and sincerity, and were able to conclude their work quickly. The unions presented their memoranda of demands, to which the TSC responded with a consolidated counterproposal and an offer. The TSC high- lighted key principles underlying its offer: equal pay for equal work and quality assurance of teaching standards through performance evaluation. Collective bargaining agreements reached and signed. The dialogue and negotiations produced the teaching service’s first collective bargaining agreement, which was signed in October 2016. Covering the period from July 1, 2013 to June 30, 2017, the agreement consolidated previously negotiated salary awards and provided for commencement of new negotiations to cover from July 1, 2017 to June 30, 2021. When this second agreement ended, a third four-year agreement, covering from July 2, 2021 to June 30, 2025, came into effect; this agreement is still currently implemented. Agreements now exist with KNUT and KUPPET as well as with a third union, the Kenyan Union of Special Needs Education Teachers. Key outcomes of the collective bargaining agreements. These agreements standardized basic pay and benefits for every teaching job in public schools. They also institutionalized annual teacher performance management and evaluation. They have effectively created career paths for teachers in public service, allowing for a more structured teacher performance and appraisal system. While this nascent system still needs to mature, strategic leadership at the highest level was essential in triggering and sustaining a productive process that resolved issues in teacher renumeration that had impeded past efforts to profes- sionalize Kenya’s teacher workforce. Source: Adapted from Bashir et al. (2018), with updated information accessed on March 7, 2022, at https://www.tsc.go.ke/index.php/media-centre/ downloads/category/112-collective-bargaining-agreement. Note: TSC = Teachers Service Commission; KNUT = Kenya National Union of Teachers; KUPPET = Kenya Union of Post Primary Education Teachers. 40 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact bundling participation with industry- and firm-spe- ministries by level or type of education, with up to as cific benefits such as public funding of the training many as five in Cameroon and Niger. The divisions program or first pick of graduates for recruitment. can encourage each unit to focus on its operation- Examples of firms engaging in such arrangements in al responsibilities. However, the divisions also make Africa include AccelorMittal in Liberia and Dangote strategic decision-making for the benefit of the whole in Nigeria. More broadly, top leaders can play a piv- system more cumbersome and difficult (such as deci- otal role in forming effective coalitions to overcome sions about the relocation of resources across units). reform barriers such as by constructing ‘win-win’ In a large country such as Nigeria, where basic educa- solutions through negotiations and accommoda- tion is a concurrent responsibility of the federal, state, tions that integrate and align the interests of differ- and local governments, decision-making in silos is ent constituencies toward national aspirations. an ever-present risk. Lack of clarity on roles and re- sponsibilities among the three tiers of government in Nigeria, especially for expenditure and management 3.2. Fostering Sound Governance for of service delivery, complicates the picture. With no Better Performance party clearly in charge and frequent policy chang- es, issues such as duplication of effort, confusion, and occasional rivalry undermine service delivery Within government, a whole-of-government approach results. In large and small countries alike, overcom- matters for advancing the three goals highlighted in ing the inertia of fragmented bureaucracies requires the Regional Education Strategy. These goals are not explicit leadership from the top. Such leadership is standalone priorities but rather synergistic invest- especially necessary on strategic issues that require ments essential for a country’s economic and social cross-ministerial or cross-unit coordination and co- success that require the backing of the entire gov- operation (such as the issues of Koranic schools, ernment. Equipping all children with stronger foun- girls’ schooling, language of learning, jobs and skills, dational skills, for example, is crucial for improving teacher unions, and regional opportunities for TVET agricultural productivity and enhancing the pipeline and higher education). A country’s president or prime of qualified candidates for postbasic education and minister may elevate these issues above the line min- training, especially in STEM fields. In addition, stron- istries and assign key cabinet members to make ger programs in postbasic education can help raise breakthroughs in dismantling the barriers to genuine the quality of basic education by increasing the sup- progress. Ad hoc mechanisms for coordination and ply of appropriately trained teachers. When top pol- decision-making are another approach. However, icy makers operate with a systemic perspective and Côte d’Ivoire’s experience with the Inter-Ministerial recognize the connections across subsectors, hard Coordination Committee created by prime ministerial choices come to the fore for attention and put author- decree suggests that simply having high-level mech- ities in a position to make the necessary trade-offs. anisms is insufficient to solve what are often political Countries that have successfully built high-perform- economy challenges (Bashir et al. 2018). ing education systems in recent decades—such as the Republic of Korea; Singapore; and Taiwan, China In primary and secondary education, effective gover- (box 3.2)—attest to the role of high-level leaders in nance of schools involves striking a balance between strategic, whole-of-government decision-making accountability and autonomy. At these levels of edu- cation, most countries govern service provision by A whole-of-government approach requires coherent setting standards for school inputs, specifying the cur- governance structures at the system level and in- riculum content, and assessing learning outcomes. centives that promote cooperation and coordination Effective governance means requiring schools to op- across organizational silos in the education system. erate according to quality standards while granting In many AFW countries, the education system is autonomy for local innovations and initiative. Effective fragmented across multiple ministries. Only five AFW governance also means enabling effective teaching countries—Cabo Verde, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, and learning by providing schools and teachers with Guinea Bissau, and Liberia—have a single Ministry technical support through specialized agencies such of Education for all subsectors; the rest have multiple as agencies for curriculum development, teaching Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 41 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Box 3.2. Education and Training for Growth and Transformation in Asia’s “Tiger” Economies Five to six decades ago, Singapore, the Republic of Korea, and Taiwan, China, the original “tiger econ- omies,” faced existential threats similar to those confronting Western and Central Africa (AFW) today: rampant joblessness and poverty and dim economic prospects. Yet all three countries, in the span of a single generation, have lifted living standards to the levels found in advanced countries. Proactive policies in education and training were a critical enabler. Highlighted below are three common features in these countries’ approaches that may have potential for AFW countries. In all three countries, “super-ministries” served as important institutional mechanisms to coordinate and align strategic decisions in education and training. These entities had the power, over many de- cades, to steer and coordinate and, if necessary, override the priorities of other ministries. They prioritized the needs of the economy when assessing funding priorities and trade-offs. They worked hard to win over interest groups, for example, parents, who could harbor deep reservations about technical and vocational education and training (TVET) for their children. In Singapore, the “super ministry” was the Ministry of Trade and Industry; in Korea, it was the Economic Planning Board; and in Taiwan, China, it was the Council for Economic Planning and Development. These high-level entities set overall economic strategy, oversaw the distillation of its implications for education and training, and formalized the setting and enforcing of relevant targets through additional structures (e.g., Singapore’s Economic Development Board and the Council for Professional and Technical Education; the Republic of Korea’s Presidential Commissions on Education Reform; and Taiwan, China’s Council for Economic Planning and Development’s Manpower Development Commission and National Youth Commission [Ashton et al. 2002]). All three countries invested heavily in a solid foundation in basic education for all and used their limited resources at the postbasic levels, especially in the early decades, to expand job-relevant skills. These countries, which had universalized primary education by the 1960s, continue today to rank among the top countries in international student assessments. At the postbasic levels, the countries emphasized TVET rather than academic tertiary education. In Singapore, the government created the Institute of Technical Education to serve the lowest-scoring 25 percent of 10th-grade completers (Law 2015). The country’s Economic Development Board also partnered with foreign firms to establish standalone training institutes that, after 20 years, were consolidated to create a new polytechnic, thus institutionalizing best practices in industry-relevant training (Tan and Nam 2012). In the Republic of Korea, responding to a rising demand for semi-skilled labor, the government expanded vocational secondary programs; at their peak in 1970, these programs enrolled 74 percent of senior high school students (World Bank 2015), though parental pressure proved too powerful to sustain such high shares (Yoon and Lee 2009). In Taiwan, China, the government boosted TVET students’ share in secondary schools from 40 percent in 1960 to 72 percent in 1990. It also created the National Taiwan Institute of Technology and authorized it to offer degree-level training in science and engineering; by 1984, these fields enrolled 48 percent of undergraduates (Green et al. 1999; Ashton et al. 2002). All three countries offered and funded continuous upskilling of workers, with efforts including support- ing practice with employers or workplace training, advising on curriculum design, or providing instruc- tors. During 1983–85, Singapore’s government launched a massive scheme to upgrade worker skills. Of the scheme’s 170,000 participants, 75 percent took the Basic Education for Skills Training course designed for those with an incomplete primary education to acquire English and mathematics skills (Law (Box continues on next page) 42 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Box 3.2. Education and Training for Growth and Transformation in Asia’s “Tiger” Economies (continued) 2015). In 2001, the government created the multi-billion Lifelong Learning Endowment Fund (Varaprasad 2016) to reinforce funding for workforce skills already being financed through the Skills Development Levy Act enacted in 1979. The Republic of Korea’s levy scheme was initially successful—for about a decade—and was later replaced by the Employment and Insurance Scheme. Firms used their claims to subsidize approved in-house reskilling and retraining (Yoon and Lee 2009). In recent years, a tripartite ar- rangement (called BRIDGE) involving the chaebols, universities, and small and medium-sized enterprises has emerged to ensure that skills upgrading continues to improve workforce productivity (Tan and Nam 2012). In Taiwan, China, the levy scheme relied on budget allocations as a major source of funding, in part because of the predominance of small and medium-sized enterprises. Source: Adapted from World Bank (2020). Note: AFW = Western and Central Africa; TVET = technical and vocational education and training. training, and school inspection. Provision of this sup- providers of TVET (both formal and informal) and port needs to be timely, coherent, and coordinated to higher education need greater clarity of their powers align the work of educators with system-wide stan- and responsibility; clarification on this front is cru- dards. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the re- cial to these providers becoming more responsive to cently approved World Bank–financed Emergency emerging trends in skills demand and more resilient Equity and System Strengthening in Education Project to ongoing and future shocks (Arnhold and Bassett (US$800 million) will support the government’s re- 2021).19 Because TVET and higher-education sys- form on free primary education; it will strengthen the tems in most AFW countries are still at a nascent quality of instruction by further streamlining teacher stage of development, the relevant legal and regu- salary payments via an e-registration platform, facil- latory frameworks must enhance service providers’ itating networking among teachers across schools, capacity and incentives to operate successfully. and improving local school management systems. In Measures at the institutional level include strength- the same vein, the Ghana Accountability for Learning ening managerial capacity, ensuring guidance from Outcomes Project supports policy reforms for efficient independent governing boards, allowing meaningful education sector practices in teacher management, control over critical drivers of program quality and school administration, and school leadership. costs, and creating access to tools and resources for developing and harnessing staffing talent. Measures In TVET and tertiary education, effective governance at the system-level for both public and private provid- begins with AFW governments establishing the legal ers include quality assurance for accreditation, skills and regulatory frameworks needed to define ser- qualification frameworks, and unified data systems to vice provider accountability and autonomy. Public track service provision and labor market outcomes. 19 In some countries, providers of postbasic levels of education and training may formally organize as statutory boards. Under this arrangement, the board receives a direct budget along with full responsibility for service delivery, including staffing and all aspects of operations, in return for delivering certain results. Singapore’s Institute of Technical Education operates this way to provide TVET, as it has since 1973 while operating under its predecessor entity as the Industrial Training Board (Law 2015); all of the country’s government polytechnics are also statutory boards, as were the two public universities until 2006, when they were corporatized and given even more leeway to operate independently (see https://www.gov.sg/sgdi/statutory-boards). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 43 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact 3.3. Ensuring Adequate Financing lagging somewhat behind the average growth rate of and Effective Use of Resources for 5.9 percent a year for low- and middle-income coun- Education tries. This positive trend boosted aggregate real spend- ing on education in the region by 1.7 times between 2009 and 2019. AFW leaders and policy makers must act strategically to ensure adequate funding for education and foster Per capita real spending on education in AFW countries equitable and efficient use of resources. In AFW, as has risen only marginally over the last decade despite elsewhere among low- and middle-income countries, the large increases in aggregate spending.21 Spending the government, households, and donor partners—in averaged over all students in the relevant age ranges that order by size of their contributions—are the main for the entire learning life cycle—preprimary, primary, funders of education (Education Finance Watch [EFW] secondary, TVET, and tertiary education—is a useful 2021). This section presents key features of education indicator for assessing the adequacy of funding for finance, including trends in aggregate spending on ed- the population in these age ranges, rather than just ucation and its composition by source of funding. It ex- for those enrolled in an education institution. The av- amines in greater detail public spending on education erage per capita spending in 2018–19 for AFW coun- in terms of the adequacy of spending in relation to the tries exceeded the corresponding average for low-in- goal of achieving the education-related Sustainable come countries but was less than half the average Development Goals (SDGs) and in relation to the 4–6 for lower-middle-income countries (figure 3.2b). Be- percent of GDP benchmark associated with spending tween 2010 and 2019, this indicator rose by only 13 levels in countries with successful education systems percent compared with the increase of 70 percent in (EFW 2021). The dire macroeconomic prospects aggregate real spending (EFW 2021). These divergent in AFW countries, especially in the aftermath of the patterns suggest that the increase in aggregate real COVID-19 pandemic, make it urgent for leaders and spending has largely gone toward expanding access, policy makers in the region to pursue multiple strate- including access to levels beyond primary education gies to achieve the outcomes given priority across the wherein unit costs are typically higher. A few AFW learning life cycle. In most AFW countries, enlarging countries buck this general pattern: Burkina Faso, government revenues will require a combination of Cabo Verde, Cameroon, and Gabon, for example, saw efforts, and promoting equitable and efficient use of notable increases in per capita real spending on edu- public funding for education will require discipline. cation between 2013–14 and 2017–18 (EFW 2021). Governments, households, and official development 3.3.1. Real Spending on Education from partners contribute average shares of 52, 42, and 6 All Sources percent, respectively, of the total funding for educa- tion in AFW. The distribution of spending across the Aggregate real education spending in AFW rose by 70 three main funders of education has remained rela- percent in the decade prior to the COVID-19 pandemic tively stable over time (EFW 2021). The government’s in line with global trends of steady gains. Considering share is comparable to the non-AFW global average of the contributions from all the main sources (namely 44 percent for low-income countries, but noticeably governments, households, and donor partners20), ag- lower than the corresponding average of 68 percent gregate spending on education in AFW grew in real in lower-middle-income countries, and significantly terms at 4.7 percent a year between 2009 and 2019 below the average of 78 percent in upper-middle-in- (figure 3.2a). This growth mirrored global trends, come countries (figure 3.3).22 The share of household 20 Private philanthropy for education has been growing but remains modest. In 2013–15, philanthropy for all sectors was barely 5 percent of total official development assistance, of which 9 percent was for education (OECD 2018). 21 This indicator tracks overall government spending in relation to the population in the age ranges for preprimary, primary, secondary, and tertiary education; it assess- es the adequacy of funding for all children and youth in the eligible age ranges rather than just for those able to attend an education institution. 22 The government’s share is the net of the estimated 60 percent of ODA that courses through public budgets (EFW 2021); the remaining 40 percent of ODA is channeled through non-budgetary channels and thus not netted out of public spending. The shares are based on estimates to fill missing data. Distribution of total spending on education by source has been relatively constant over time (EFW 2021). The distribution relies on estimates to make up for missing country data. 44 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.2. Aggregate and per Capita Real Spending on Education from All Sources, by Regional and Nonregional Country Income Groups, 2009–19 (a) Aggregate real spending on education (b) Per capita real spending on education (2009=100) a/ (constant 2018 US$) b/ 200 1200 AFW LIC avg. 1093 1052 US$ 0.5 bil. 995 1000 937 180 850 AFW LMIC avg. 800 160 US$ 3.1 bil. 600 140 400 241 248 262 277 120 217 200 128 130 115 118 120 37 38 43 43 48 100 0 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15 2016-17 2018-19 80 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 UMIC LMIC AFW LIC Source: Analysis of data for 21 AFW countries (except for Equatorial Guinea) in the EFW database maintained by the World Bank–UNESCO, accessed on August 31, 2021 at https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/education-finance-watch-2021. a/ Aggregate real spending refers to total spending from all sources adjusted for inflation. The data in the boxes show absolute amounts for 2018–19 (in constant 2018 US$) for 11 low-income AFW countries and 9 lower-middle-income countries. Gabon, the only upper-middle-income country in the AFW sample, is excluded; Gabon tracks the global trend for upper-middle-income countries. b/ Per capita aggregate spending is the result of aggregate spending divided by the total population in the age ranges for preprimary, primary, secondary, and tertiary education, not by the number enrolled at these levels of education. The figure shows global averages for low-income and lower-middle-income countries; the corresponding averages excluding AFW countries are US$46 and US$303, respectively. Note: AFW = Western and Central Africa; LIC = low-income countries; LMIC = lower-middle-income countries; ODA = official development assistance; UMIC = upper-middle-income countries. spending in low- and lower-middle-income countries, country average and about 80 percent of the mid- both in AFW and elsewhere, is several times the share dle-income country average (figure 3.4a). Aside from of official development assistance (ODA). However, comparisons based on country income group, two the share of ODA in low-income AFW countries is other benchmarks offer useful perspectives for as- only 13 percent, less than compared to the non-AFW sessing levels of government spending on education. global average of 20 percent for low-income coun- The first is the range of 4–6 percent of GDP that tries. The difference is covered by AFW households, characterizes spending levels in successful coun- which contribute a large share of total spending on tries (EFW 2021); the second is the 6.3 percent that education—42 percent, on average—compared UNESCO (2015) estimates is needed by low- and with 36 percent in non-AFW low-income countries. middle-income countries to universalize preprimary, Among lower-middle-income countries, the share of primary, and secondary education by 2030. Based ODA drops off sharply: 4 percent in AFW and 2 per- on data for 17 AFW countries for 2017–19, only cent elsewhere. five of the 17 countries—Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Ghana, Senegal, and Togo—spent in the range of 4–6 percent of GDP. Only Sierra Leone exceeded the 3.3.2. Government Spending on 6.3 percent benchmark. In the four lowest-spending Education countries—Chad, Guinea, Mauritania, and The Gam- bia, which are all low-income countries—government Public spending on education as a share of GDP has spending on education averaged only 2.2 percent of stagnated in AFW over the past 10 years; at an aver- GDP in 2017–18. age of 3.5 percent of GDP in 2017–18, it is too low to achieve the education SDGs. The regional average Modest levels of public spending on education rel- is comparable to the global non-AFW low-income ative to the GDP in most AFW countries stem more Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 45 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.3. Distribution of Aggregate Real lower prioritization of education in the government Spending on Education by Source, Western spending. and Central Africa and Other World Regions by Country Income Group, 2018–19 (%) In the underlying constraints on public spending on education, AFW countries differ widely and there- 100% 285 509 fore require different strategies to mobilize more 7 83 4 0 80% 2.5 10.8 public funding for the sector. Among the countries 6 that spend the least on education as a share of 60% 1.0 0.8 4 GDP, Mauritania and The Gambia have the scope 40% 1,029 2,724 to increase both the size of the national budget and 187 2.7 13.4 9 the share allocated to education; for Liberia, the 20% challenge is to increase the share of education in 0% LIC LMIC LIC LMIC UMIC HIC the national budget; for Chad and Guinea, it is to in- AFW Countries Non-AFW Countries crease the size of the national budget by collecting Household ODA Government more revenues. Sierra Leone, the highest spending Source: Analysis of the EFW database maintained by the World Bank UNESCO, country among the 17 AFW countries with data, has accessed on August 31, 2021 at https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/ successfully implemented its free schooling policy; education-finance-watch-2021. Note: Numbers in the bar segments show absolute amounts of real spending in this country and the others where spending falls on education in 2018–19 in billions of constant US dollars. The AFW sample includes 21 countries (except for Equatorial Guinea): 11 fall in the low-income in the 4–6 percent of GDP range, the challenge is group; 9 in the lower-middle-income group; and 1, Gabon, in the upper-mid- to sustain the commitment of resources by achiev- dle-income group. Data for Gabon are excluded in computing the distribution for the AFW lower-middle-income group. AFW = Western and Central Africa; ing commensurate results in education outcomes. HIC = high-income countries; LIC = low-income countries; LMIC = In the remaining AFW countries, current funding lower-middle-income countries; ODA = official development assistance; UMIC = upper-middle-income countries. for education falls short of the 4–6 percent bench- mark, yet the education sector already claims a sig- nificant share of public budgets; accordingly, more from the small size of overall government budgets funding for education relies heavily on expanding than from low shares of education in the budget. Gov- the overall size of the national budget relative to ernment budgets in AFW have been growing, rising the GDP. from 17 percent of GDP, on average, in 2004–08 to 22 percent in 2016–19 (International Monetary Fund 2021).23 The current average is slightly less than the 3.3.3. Enlarging the Fiscal Space to global average of 24 percent for low- and middle-in- Increase Public Spending on Education come countries globally but far below the 30 percent in high-income countries (EFW 2021). In only three With dimmer prospects for economic growth in the af- of the 17 AFW countries with available data—Cabo termath of the COVID-19 crisis, government funding Verde, Liberia, and Togo—was the government bud- for education faces new adverse pressures through- get at least 24 percent of GDP in 2017–19, that is, out AFW. The International Monetary Fund (2021) the global average for low- and middle-income coun- expects that most AFW countries will not regain their tries (figure 3.4b). By contrast, 12 of the 17 coun- precrisis per capita GDP until the end of 2025. Thriv- tries allocated education a share of the total public ing economies tend to generate rapid increases in budget greater than the global average of 16 percent government spending on education; economies suf- for low- and middle-income countries. Thus, AFW fering from the pandemic-induced slowdown, howev- countries’ generally lower public spending on educa- er, are likely to struggle in this area.24 The situation tion as a share of GDP is driven more by the small- is fluid, and data are patchy. Yet early data collected er size of the overall government budget than by a by the World Bank for 29 countries from around the 23 Government spending as a share of the GDP has risen over the past decade in 13 of the 21 AFW countries for which data are available. 24 The United Nations (2019) estimates that rapid economic growth in Sub-Saharan Africa during 2000–15 (averaging 2.7 percent a year compared with declines of 0.7 a year during 1980–2000) contributed two-thirds of the 4–5 percent a year growth in government spending on education in the region during the period. 46 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.4. Government Spending on Education in Western and Central Africa, by Income Group and by Country, 2010–19 (a) Government spending on education as a share of the GDP (%), (b) Education as share of the government budget and government 2010–19, by income group spending as share of GDP (%), 2017–19 a/ 5.0 35 SLE 30 4.5 LMIC, 4.3 4.3 Education share of govt expenditure (%) UMIC, 4.3 25 4.2 4.0 BFA Percentage of GDP SEN TOG 20 6% of GDPc/ Non-AFW CIV GHA 3.6 MLI LIC, 3.54 BEN CMR 3.5 TCD NIG CPV 15 GIN COG GMB 3.0 AFW LIC, 3.45 4% of GDPc/ 2.9 10 MRT LBR 2.5 5 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15 2016-17 2018-19 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Years Total govt expenditure as % of GDP Source: Analysis of data for 21 AFW countries in the World Bank–UNESCO EFW database, accessed on August 31, 2021 at https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/ education-finance-watch-2021. Note: AFW = Western and Central Africa; GDP = gross domestic product; LIC = low-income countries; LMIC = lower-middle-income countries; UMIC = upper-mid- dle-income countries. a/ The horizontal and vertical lines denote global averages of the two axes for low- and middle-income countries: 16 and 24 percent, respectively. b/ The curving dotted lines denote combinations of values in the two axes equal to public spending on education of a given percentage of the GDP: 6 percent for the yellow curve and 4 percent for the blue curve. world suggest that government budgets for education minimize disruptions in service provision from future are more likely to decline in lower-income countries emergencies or disasters. than in other countries following the onset of the pandemic (EFW 2021).25 The prospect of this trend AFW countries have limited scope to incur additional bodes ill for the future of public funding for educa- public debt to finance investments in education and tion, including in AFW. Funding needs for education face unfavorable prospects to borrow from interna- will continue to rise, driven by factors such as rapid tional capital markets. Fiscal deficits as a share of population growth, the still unfinished agenda of GDP in the region have surged from an average of 3.8 universalizing coverage, the urgent need to improve percent in 2019 to 6.1 percent in 2020 and 2021, learning, and the growing pressure to expand oppor- leading to a rapid accumulation of the debt stock. In tunities at the postbasic levels.26 Responding to the 2020, the region’s stock of debt-to-GDP ratio aver- COVID-19 crisis will also require new resources, for aged 40.4 percent, its highest level since 2004, when example, to enable safe reopening of schools, pro- the average ratio was 46.2 percent.27 More than half vide remediation for recovery of learning losses, and of the countries in the region are at high risk of debt 25 The sample of 29 countries include three from Sub-Saharan Africa: Ethiopia, Nigeria, and Uganda. 26 For example, by 2050, Nigeria’s population is expected to double, and the populations of Chad, Burkina Faso, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger are expected to more than double. In the latter five countries, the school-age population is growing by more than a million a year, even as 10 million children remain out of school today. 27 Data in this paragraph come from the Financing Background Paper developed for this Regional Education Strategy by Savchenko et al. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 47 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact distress. About 1 in 10 are already in distress. Some leads to enhanced tax morale, which in turn can en- AFW countries can borrow from international cap- courage tax compliance (Ali, Fjeldstad, and Siursen ital markets, but public external debts have already 2014). In fact, with the open budget index averaging reached high levels, with a median of 63 percent of 29.9 in AFW in 2019, citizens and taxpayers would be total public debt in 2020 and a projected increase better informed. Concerning corruption, while some to 67 percent in 2022. The scope for additional bor- AFW countries recorded some progress, corruption rowing is thus limited. Furthermore, most of these remains a major issue. During the period 2015–19, AFW countries are rated unfavorably by well-known corruption was a major obstacle for 46.6 percent of rating companies (for example, Moody’s and Fitch); firms in AFW, and 17.2 percent of firms felt pressured these companies typically put sovereign debts in the to give gifts in meetings with tax officials in the region. “speculative” and “high” risk categories. Such unfa- Corruption also contributes to lowering both tax reve- vorable ratings increase the cost of borrowing in cap- nues and public spending efficiency. ital markets, thus reducing the prospects for mobiliz- ing new funds for education from this source. Earmarking new tax revenues for education can help increase public spending on education, but taken Under the present circumstances, AFW countries alone, this action is often insufficient to increase must consider other measures, including mobiliz- public spending to the levels required to achieve the ing more government revenues through taxation, education SDGs. Ghana and Nigeria are among the strengthening tax administration, and improving com- AFW countries that have earmarked shares of spe- pliance. Even prior to the COVID-19 crisis, tax collec- cific revenue streams for education (box 3.3). When tion was inefficient. Exemptions and investment in- operating under strong governance arrangements, centives along with inadequate taxation frameworks earmarked resources can ensure both increased for international firms, have eroded the tax base and funding for education and accountability. However, led to profit shifting. In addition, some tax instru- earmarking also tends to mobilize too few resources ments, such as the property tax and excise taxes, are in relation to the needs while creating rigidities in pub- underperforming. Additional social financing could lic finance and are thus best applied as part of a co- partially come from streamlining and rationalizing tax hesive strategy for increasing total public funding for exonerations and investment incentives, enforcing education (Archer 2016; Bashir et al. 2018). For this property taxation, increasing and improving the de- reason, some countries have passed legal mandates sign of excise tax rates, and enforcing excise taxation. to ensure adequate public funding for education. In Improving the design of tax regimes for international some Latin American countries, these mandates aim firms, as well as rationalizing the tax incentives that to increase public spending on education to at least 4 benefit them, remain key priorities for the region. At percent of GDP (OECD 2020); in the Dominican Re- the same time, AFW countries can enhance the col- public, for example, a multiyear process of dialogue lection of tax revenues by modernizing administration and consensus-building led to the National Education (such as by universalizing taxpayer identification and Pact, which included a commitment by the govern- registration, auditing tax payment based on third-par- ment to spend at least 4 percent of GDP on preter- ty data, and shifting to e-services for tax filing). tiary education (World Bank 2015). In Indonesia, a constitutional mandate in 2002 required that at least Enhancing trust between taxpayers and the govern- 20 percent of the government budget be set aside for ment, which is critical for success in increasing tax education. When the target was achieved for the first revenues, will require measures to fight corruption and time in 2009, real education spending more than dou- increase fiscal transparency. The broadening of the bled from its level in 2002 (World Bank 2013). tax base is a major objective for the tax administra- tion. One option to achieve that objective could be to increase tax morale by enhancing the trust between 3.3.4. Household Spending on Education the taxpayers and the government (Kouamé 2021). and ODA for Education Improved fiscal transparency and better access to fis- cal data, as well as to the citizen government budget, The economic slowdown projected for AFW econo- at the local level could help to build this trust; trust mies in the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic is 48 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Box 3.3. Prioritizing Funding for Education through Earmarked Revenues and Strong Governance Even when increasing domestic resource mobilization more broadly is politically difficult or otherwise impossible (due to levels of extreme poverty or fragility, conflict, and violence), statutory or earmarked funds for education can increase allocations. However, weak governance, lack of transparency, and poor accountability can prevent these funds from meeting their stated policy objectives. Ghana allocates 2.5 percent of value-added tax collections to the Ghana Education Trust Fund to fi- nance capital expenditures, provide scholarships and loans at the postbasic level, and support profes- sional development. However, the Education Trust Fund is a semi-autonomous body; coordination with and input from the Ministry of Education in expenditure allocations are limited. More than 95 percent of the Ministry of Education’s budget is allocated to the wage bill; accordingly, the Ministry of Education depends heavily on the Education Trust Fund for non-salary expenditures. Large year-on-year fluctua- tions in Education Trust Fund financing available to the Ministry of Education thus make budget planning challenging. Nigeria allocates 2 percent of the Consolidated Revenue Fund to the Universal Basic Education Com- mission. While the commission has improved policy alignment and coordination between the federal and state governments, it suffers from weak accountability measures. Its allocations are uniform across states, failing to consider individual state’s financing needs or ability to match financing. As a result of the un- willingness of states to meet matching requirements and the rapidly decreasing disbursement rates, the commission has reduced its matching grant requirements from 70 percent to 50 percent. Furthermore, the commission has centralized fiscal responsibilities for basic schools, resulting in confusion around the policy to merge junior and senior secondary schools and delegate their management to decentralized authorities. Earmarked funds have proved effective as tools for funding diversification at the postbasic level (for example, Malaysia’s Human Resources Development Fund and Singapore’s Skills Development Fund). These funds have clear governance structures. The semi-autonomous bodies that oversee earmarked funds are accountable to ministries of labor or education; managed by boards composed of government, private sector, association, and union representatives with clear roles for each; and subject to regular audits and evaluations of expenditure. Source: World Bank Public Expenditure Reviews – Ghana (forthcoming) and Nigeria (2015). likely to make it more difficult, though not impossi- careful consideration. Most AFW countries do not ble, to mobilize household spending on education. charge fees for public primary or basic education, The COVID-19 crisis has devastated the health and and some countries (such as Ghana) have eliminated incomes of countless households, the second largest fees for secondary education as well. Nonetheless, source of funding for education in AFW. An estimated households still shoulder out-of-pocket spending for 23 million more people in the region have fallen into books, transport, and other school-related costs. In extreme poverty, meaning that they are living on less 2015, households in Sub-Saharan Africa spent an than US$1.90 a day (World Bank 2021d). The result average of 2.5 percent of their budgets on education is a weakening, if not complete evaporation, of their (African Development Bank 2020). The burden can ability to spend on education. Mobilizing resources be so onerous that some poorer families stop a child’s for education from households therefore requires schooling. Countries with large diaspora populations Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 49 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact may explore remittances—these amounted to 3.5 the incorporation of informal Koranic schools that percent of Africa’s GDP in 2018 as a source of addi- currently operate in isolation. Senegal is piloting a pri- tional household funding for education. Households vate-public partnership scheme for this purpose, and in Nigeria, for example, allocated to education 22 its experience is likely to generate useful lessons for percent of the remittances they received in 2018, in other countries in the region.28 An early lesson is that Burkina Faso 12 percent, and in Senegal 3 percent effective public-private partnerships require strong (African Development Bank 2020). governance arrangements that may be challenging to achieve in the low-capacity contexts of AFW countries, Targeted measures, such as public-private partner- even though it is in these contexts that such partner- ships, especially at the tertiary level, can increase ships are most needed. Another benefit of public-pri- spending by households on education. Public-private vate partnerships in basic education is improvement partnerships can relieve fiscal pressure on scarce of the quality of school management. Liberia, for ex- government financial resources by responding to ample, experimented with “outsourcing” this func- families’ willingness to pay for programs unavailable tion in primary schools. In one of the most rigorously through the public sector. By widening institutional evaluated public-private partnerships in Sub-Saharan differentiation in this market, these partnerships can Africa, researchers found that after three years, the foster healthy competition among providers. The sur- approach produced mixed results depending on the vival of private TVET and higher-education institutions profile of the private partner involved, with only a few depends on the quality and job-relevance of their of the partnerships managing to improve student out- program offerings, so these institutions are highly at- comes and the school climate (Romero and Sandefur tuned to labor market needs and quicker to respond 2019; Barrera-Osorio et al. 2013).29 than public institutions, which are often encumbered by bureaucratic decision-making procedures. Private ODA funding for education is likely to come under institutions therefore have powerful incentives to ex- pressure as donor partners rearrange their spending periment with curricular and pedagogical innovations priorities to recover and rebuild from the crisis. Do- to improve their course offerings. In an ideal situation, nor partners are likely to give priority to global health this dynamism would, in turn, induce public TVET and needs (such as vaccines) and their own domestic higher-education institutions to adopt similar steps to programs (for example, unemployment and busi- improve the quality and relevance of their offerings. ness support packages). Some estimates predict a US$2 billion drop in ODA for education from its peak Opportunities for public-private partnerships also amount in 2020 and a recovery to 2018 levels only exist in basic education, though such partnerships in some six years later (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong this context are likely to mobilize only limited addition- Learning 2020). At the same time, certain features al resources from households. Private schools have of ODA for education in Sub-Saharan Africa noted by grown rapidly in some AFW countries in recent years Bashir et al. (2018) add to concerns about this source in response to household demand for schooling. Be- of funding for education in the region. ODA has a his- cause public schools cannot absorb the large num- tory of heavy concentration in a few countries, for bers of children who still remain out of school in AFW, example, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Mozambique, Senegal, some scope may exist for continued growth of private and Ghana during the 2002–14 period. In relation to schools. However, most of these children are concen- the school-age population, the amount of ODA tends trated in poor families with limited means to pay for to be modest. In 2014, for example, ODA per child in private schooling. Thus, public-private partnerships primary school averaged just US$11 (in 2014 con- in basic education may not bring the desired fiscal stant prices) for the 18 AFW countries in the sample and physical relief in service provision. However, what of 42 Sub-Saharan African countries for which data these partnerships can do is help in creating a more are available; it ranges from no higher than US$3 in integrated system of education, for example, through the Republic of Congo, Togo, Cameroon, Nigeria, Côte 28 See the World Bank’s (2021e) Sahel education white paper for more detail on Koranic schools. 29 Other approaches can also be successful, such as funding and monitoring independent providers in rural areas as demonstrated in Pakistan—see Barrera-Osorio et al. (2013). 50 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact d’Ivoire, Mauritania, Chad, and Equatorial Guinea to tertiary education. The rich-poor disparities are wid- as high as US$31 in Senegal and US$41 in Liberia. est in Togo, where the bottom two income quintiles In light of these patterns, donor partners in the region received only 12 percent of public expenditure on ed- might revisit future ODA allocations for education to ucation, compared with the richest quintile’s share of direct more of the funds to the neediest populations. 56 percent. Other evidence of inequitable allocations of public resources includes a heavy concentration of capital investment for postsecondary university 3.3.5. Ensuring More Equitable Use of education (Benin) and sizeable shares of the national Public Funds for Education budgets for international university scholarships that typically benefit youth from the richest households Much room exists in AFW countries to improve equity (Côte d’Ivoire, Central African Republic, Mauritania). in the use of public funds for education. A priority is to fund investments to equip all children with a strong As teachers’ salaries absorb the bulk of public bud- foundation for lifelong human capital development. gets for education, especially at the primary and At present, because of biases in enrollments by lev- lower-secondary levels, teachers themselves could el of education and the structure of public spending be allocated more equitably across schools based on per student by level, the poorest households tend to size of enrollments. Disparities in teacher allocation benefit much less from public spending on education across schools is a common and long-standing prob- than richer ones.30 An international assessment of 42 lem throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, including in AFW countries (2010–17) identified the eight AFW coun- (Majgaard and Mingat 2012; Bashir et al. 2018). Be- tries included in the sample as having the least eq- cause rural schools are often located in places with- uitable distribution of spending on education (Unit- out attractive amenities and services (such as clinics, ed Nations Children’s Fund [UNICEF] 2020).31 The markets, access roads, electricity), they struggle to share of spending benefitting the poorest quintile attract and retain teachers (Mulkeen 2010; Asim was just 5 percent in Guinea, 8 percent in the Cen- 2020). At the secondary level, where the curriculum tral African Republic, and 9 percent in Cameroon and typically requires specialized teaching, this difficulty Senegal. The World Bank’s Public Expenditure Re- often creates mismatches between teachers’ training views, which have been conducted since 2015 in 13 and teaching assignments (Bashir et al. 2018). Figure AFW countries, reinforce the picture of highly ineq- 3.5 illustrates with data for Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire uitable distribution of public spending on education. the loose relation between the number of teachers In The Gambia, the poorest quintile received only 16 and number of students in AFW countries (Majgaard percent of the overall public spending on education and Mingat 2012; Bashir et al. 2018).32 In Ghana, funds while the richest quintile received a share of a school with 500 students, for example, may have 24 percent. In Ghana, public education expenditure as few as 5 teachers or as many as 20 (Bashir et al. is pro-poor in primary and junior secondary educa- 2018), implying a ratio of 100 students per teacher in tion but turns regressive at the upper-secondary and the former school, compared with a ratio of 25 in the tertiary levels. Among youth of secondary-school age, latter, and a four-fold gap in public funding between only 24 percent of youth belonging to the bottom two the two schools.33 quintiles were enrolled, compared to 50 percent of youth from the top two quintiles. In Gabon, 50 percent Many factors contribute to inequitable patterns of government spending on education benefitted the of public spending on education in AFW, includ- richest quintile, a result of the generous funding of ing the absence of norm-based staffing and related 30 For example, relative to primary education, public spending per student is 2.1 time as high in secondary education, 7.5 times as high in TVET, and 14.2 times as high in tertiary education based on data for 16 AFW countries for primary and secondary education and nine AFW countries for TVET and tertiary education (International Institute of Education Planning [IIEP] 2020; IIEP-UNESCO Dakar and UNICEF 2020, 2019a, 2019b, 2018, 2016; and IIEP-UNESCO Dakar and UNICEF 2021). 31 The eight AFW countries, ranked from most inequitable to least, were Guinea, Central Africa Republic, Senegal, Cameroon, Benin, Niger, Ghana, and Togo. 32 More recent data reveal similar patterns in such countries as Nigeria (IIEP-UNESCO Dakar and World Bank 2021) and Sierra Leone (IIEP-UNESCO Dakar and UNICEF 2020). 33 Analysis of Ghana’s 2018 education management information system data reveals persistence of great diversity in teacher allocation across schools, with the re- gression R-squared figure remaining practically unchanged at 0.41; this result implies that only some 40 percent of the variation in teacher allocation across schools correlates with the number of students enrolled. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 51 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.5. Relation between Numbers of Teachers and Students across Government Schools in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire Ghana 120 R2 = 0.4115 100 Number of teachers 80 60 40 20 0 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 Number of students Source: Bashir et al.’s (2018) study, which analyzed data for public primary schools in Ghana in 2013 and public secondary schools in Côte d’Ivoire in 2014. Note: R2 denotes the share of variation in teacher allocation across schools that is explained by variation in enrollments. The straight line is the linear regression relating the two variables: number of teachers and number of students. weaknesses in administration of staffing decisions. needs can improve equity in the allocation of public Teacher salaries are the biggest item of public spend- spending on education.34 Brazil, a country with a fed- ing on education in basic education, so lack of staff- erated system of government, pools and then redis- ing norms or weak enforcement allows interference tributes government funds for education based on in the deployment or transfer of teachers, which often student population with the express goal of equalizing puts the schools serving poor rural communities at a per student levels of public spending on education disadvantage (Asim 2016). In some AFW countries, (Ferraz et al. 2012).35 In contrast, Nigeria distributes inequitable allocations of public spending arise be- federal funds in equal amounts to all states regardless cause community needs are not explicitly taken into of the size of school-age populations, an arrangement consideration. Nigeria, for example, allocates the bulk that produces wide disparities in per student funding of federal funds for basic education evenly across the across the country. In many AFW countries, allocating country, despite large variations in current conditions; more non-salary budgets in the form of school grants because states contribute significantly to education could provide all schools with a flexible source of fund- financing and differ widely in their fiscal capacities, ing to address needs of direct relevance to the school this method of allocation exacerbates geographic (such as infrastructure, materials, or hiring teaching inequalities within the country. In Nigeria, spending assistants). In the Democratic Republic of Congo, per child in the highest spending region is about six a formula-based school grants program will direct times as high as it is in the lowest spending region; non-salary budgets to primary schools to reduce the in Mauritania, the ratio is four times (EFW 2021). In share of school fees paid by households, thereby im- Benin, funding formulas for grants to parent-teacher proving equity. This program is supported by integrat- associations are inequitable. In some countries, the ed reforms in macroeconomic policies, governance, mechanisms to raise funds for education exacerbate and education; these reforms, in turn, are essential for inequalities; in Cabo Verde, for example, school fees increasing education financing at subnational levels are raised and kept at the school level, so schools in a context of conflict and weak institutional capac- serving the poorest have the fewest resources. ity. The school grant program is expected to benefit 6.57 million primary school children by channeling Increasing the share of budgets distributed to subna- resources equivalent to a 6 percent increase in the tional and school levels on the basis of well-defined income of poor households (World Bank 2020b). 34 A robust education management information system with fit-for-purpose scope and functionality is essential for this purpose. This challenge is elaborated in chapter 7. 35 The Brazilian system also has its challenges; see Ferraz et al. (2012) for more detail. 52 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact 3.3.6. Ensuring More Efficient Use of Figure 3.6. Relation between Expenditure per Public Funds for Education Child and Learning-Adjusted Years of Schooling in Western and Central Africa, 2020 High repetition and dropout rates affect all levels of 7 education in most AFW countries and reflect ineffi- Learning Adjusted Years of Schooling BEN 6 TGO GHA ciencies in the education system. In Nigeria, dropout GMB CMR rates at the primary level are over 10 percent, while in 5 SLE SEN BFA CIV Côte d’Ivoire, repetition rates are between 10 and 20 GIN MRT 4 percent at every level of education. In Mauritania, the NER 3 TCD CAF average student takes over eight years to complete MLI LBR six years of primary school. These internal inefficien- 2 cies reflect multiple driving factors, including the low 1 quality of education provided in many schools. These 0 factors in turn relate to inefficiencies in management 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 and governance of the system. Mismatches, delays, Spending per child (constant 2017 PPP $) and misdirection in the allocation of key resources— Source: Analysis of data for 21 AFW countries in the World Bank–UNESCO EFW database, accessed on August 31, 2021, at https://en.unesco.org/ including teachers as well as teaching and learning gem-report/education-finance-watch-2021. materials—all contribute to poor service delivery, Note: The vertical line denotes the sample average for public spending per child. The horizontal line denotes the sample average for learning-adjusted which reduces the impact of financing. Regarding years of schooling. PPP = purchasing power parity. transfers of financial resources from the central government to local entities or schools, several AFW countries lack strong financial oversight and audit to “ghost” teachers). In such settings, increases mechanisms, allowing for leakages along the way.36 in public spending produce limited results. A re- cent study using cross-country data, for example, Large differences across AFW countries in trans- showed that a 10 percent increase in per child lating public spending on education into years of spending improved learning outcomes by only 0.8 schooling and learning outcomes are another sign percent (Al-Sammarrai et al. 2019). of inefficiencies in the region’s education systems. Countries like Chad, the Central African Republic, Evidence from within AFW countries, across both dis- and Liberia, for example, spend about as much per tricts and schools, also points to potential scope for child as Sierra Leone but achieve less than half the improving efficiency in the use of public spending on learning-adjusted years of schooling. Countries like education. In Ghana, for example, district-level data Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Senegal spend about show no discernible relationship between scores on two to four times as much per child as Togo and the examination administered at the end of junior Benin but achieve similar or lower levels of learn- secondary school and indicators of resource avail- ing-adjusted years of schooling (figure 3.6). These ability (such as students per classroom or per teach- differences in efficiency arise for different reasons er; figure 3.7a uses the former indicator). Again, many (EFW 2021). For example, services tend to be more factors contribute to the weak relationship, some of costly to deliver in sparsely populated countries or which may reflect differences in location-specific in countries where coverage is extensive and must conditions that drive up the cost of service delivery. reach large segments of rural populations. Howev- Nonetheless, inefficient use of resources cannot be er, inefficiencies in the use of public funds for ed- ruled out, and the patterns in the data provide an ear- ucation may also arise from suboptimal spending ly alert for further investigation. In underperforming decisions (such as inadequate provision of learn- districts, for example, the poor results may be due to ing materials); lack of accountability (such as high a high prevalence of schools where teachers have few teacher absenteeism); and possible diversion of tools and resources to implement structured peda- funds for other uses (such as payment of salaries gogies that have proven results for student learning. 36 Other background papers discuss specific issues in more detail. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 53 Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.7. Relation between Test Scores and Indicators of Resource Availability at the District and School Levels in Ghana and Mauritania (a) District-level data for ninth graders (b) School-level data for fourth graders in Ghana a/ in Mauritania b/ 400 80 y = - 0.1235x + 40.585 R2 = 0.1715 70 350 60 300 Student Test Score Student Test Score 50 250 40 30 200 y = 1.6258x + 252.37 R2 = 0.0208 20 150 10 100 0 5 15 25 35 0 50 100 150 200 250 Students per Teacher Ratio Students per Teacher Ratio (All Teachers) Source: Analysis of 2018 data from Ghana Ministry of Education’s education management information system and 2013 Service Delivery Indicator data for Mauritania. For both countries, the data include only public schools, and teachers include all teachers. a/ Each dot represents a district. The graph plots district-level test scores (vertical axis) against district-level student-teacher ratios (horizontal axis). The test scores refer to the average across subjects obtained by junior high school (ninth grade) students on the nationwide Basic Education Certificate Examination (vertical axis). b/ Each dot represents a school. The graph plots school-level average scores on the mathematics and language tests administered to fourth graders (vertical axis) against the school-level ratio of students to teachers. Using schools as the unit of analysis, Majgaard and and good stewardship of resources for education Mingat (2012) found that weak relationships between (figure 3.8). learning outcomes across schools and resource avail- ability are prevalent in school systems throughout Galvanizing widely shared commitment for the prior- Sub-Saharan Africa, including in many AFW coun- itized outcomes mobilizes the support needed from tries. Analyses of data from the World Bank’s Ser- all stakeholders to maximize the potential for success vice Delivery Indicator surveys for Mauritania (figure in achieving these outcomes. The agenda for action 3.7b), for example, exemplify the typical pattern of a is complex given the difficulty of improving outcomes weak link between the test scores and staffing ratios, across the entire education life cycle, from preschool a proxy for resource availability at the school. As be- through basic education to TVET and tertiary edu- fore, inefficient use of resources may be one among cation. Top leaders in AFW countries must therefore various factors behind the pattern revealed by the broaden the appeal of these outcomes and motivate data, but it nonetheless warrants follow up as part of all stakeholders to contribute their support, whether routine M&E of system performance. in-kind or in resources, and cooperate in the nation- al interest. To this end, the top leaders can consider various options based on the lessons of experience. 3.4. Priorities for Strengthening Galvanizing shared commitment will require effort in Strategic Leadership building effective coalitions for the reform agenda, typically involving stakeholders from the government, civil society, and private sector. Sustaining the in- Strategic leadership by AFW policy makers is es- terest of these parties will depend on having a clear sential to create a policy environment favorable to communications strategy, one that lays out the case achieving the expected outcomes of this Regional for reform; explains the government’s proposed ac- Education Strategy. As indicated above, three areas tion plan, including partnership with stakeholders; of strategic leadership warrant specific attention: ef- and offers progress reports on critical milestones, fort by top leaders to make these outcomes a widely successes, and challenges. Finally, coalition-building shared commitment; effective governance to incen- will often involve negotiations and accommodations tivize and coordinate the actions of all stakeholders to create and sustain ‘win-win’ situations for effective toward these outcomes; and sufficient investment cooperation toward the expected results. 54 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Figure 3.8. Strengthening Strategic Leadership What? Why? How? Galvanize widely-shared Achieving national priorities in • Strengthen coalitions between government, civil society commitment to key education education requires strong ownership and the private sector for the reform agenda goals of key goals by diverse constituencies • Sustain purposeful communications strategy • Create "win-win" situations for e ective cooperation Structure governance of Weak governance structures blur • Elevate key education priorities above line ministries education institutions for roles and responsibility and impede • Organize the education system for coherence coherence and accountability service delivery to achieve education • Clarify institutional compacts, roles, and responsibilities results for results Expand, or at least protect, Spending on education is often low, • Plan and allocate funding to achieve education goals funding for education and ine cient, and inequitable, and • Tighten PFM for e cient use of education budgets make better use of COVID has added to the challenges • Use pro-poor/equity norms to allocate resources available resources Note: Potential candidates for a whole-of-government approach include digital skills and jobs; regional approaches to TVET and higher education; engaging with teacher unions; relationships with Koranic schools; and national policy on language of instruction. PFM = public financial management. Sound governance, the second area for strategic Regarding education finance, AFW governments must leadership, is vital to encourage cohesive and coor- take strategic action to both increase public budgets dinated decision-making in government toward the for education and make spending more efficient and outcomes prioritized in this strategy. Achieving these equitable than at present. Most governments in AFW outcomes depends not only on actions within the countries spend too little to achieve the goals of this purview of the education sector but also on factors strategy. Nongovernment sources of funding, such as beyond the sector. Accordingly, a whole-of-govern- households and official donor assistance, are unlikely ment approach is critical to ensure that top policy to make up for the gap in public funding because of makers adopt a systemic perspective in addressing widespread poverty and shaky prospects for growth, high-level trade-offs and integration of cross-sec- including in high-income countries. To boost public tor efforts (such as allocations of public spending spending on education, AFW governments can consid- and advancement of the skills-and-jobs agenda). er several options: collecting more revenue by enhanc- Key priorities in education, such as the goals of this ing the efficiency of tax instruments and tax adminis- strategy, must transcend the line ministries to de- tration; earmarking public funds for education where mand regular attention from the whole government. broader domestic resource mobilization measures are A whole-of-government approach also entails struc- unfeasible; and fostering public-private partnerships tures and incentives in the education sector that for education service delivery, especially at postbasic reward cooperation and coordination across orga- levels. At the same time, they can tighten public finan- nizational silos. Clarity on institutional compacts cial management (PFM) processes to make public with service providers in terms of their roles and spending on education more efficient. Measures in- responsibilities will be critical. Primary and second- clude protecting spending on non-salary inputs in ba- ary schools need governance arrangements that sic education (such as textbooks and other materials balance accountability for results and autonomy for essential for students to learn); reducing waste (such local decision-making, as well as access to timely as by eliminating “ghost teachers” from the payroll and technical support through specialized system-level routinely using competitive bidding for procurement); services (such as curriculum development, teach- and ensuring that teachers are paid on time to moti- er training, and professional development). In TVET vate attendance and effort. Tighter PFM processes and higher education, sound governance typical- also matter for equity in public spending on education, ly takes the form of legal and regulatory frame- for example, using pro-poor criteria and norms to al- works to define service provider accountability and locate public spending by level of education, across autonomy. beneficiaries by income and locality, or across schools. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 55 PHOTO BY: © 2015 DANIEL M ERNST/SHUTTERSTOCK 4. High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Reducing learning poverty is critical in a region where sources are (a) inadequate teacher preparation due access to basic education has widened considerably to preservice training that tends to be highly theoret- without commensurate progress in boosting student ical; (b) weak processes for teacher recruitment, re- learning. By 18 years of age, a child born today in the tention, deployment, and accountability; and (c) spo- region can expect to attain, on average, 7.8 years of radic and highly fragmented programs for in-service schooling; however, this schooling amounts to only 4.3 training for teachers’ continuous professional devel- years when adjusted for learning. Addressing what the opment. The teacher workforce also suffers from poor World Bank (2020a) has described as a serious prob- management and inadequate support. lem in widespread learning poverty is vital to building a strong human capital base capable of driving the region’s agenda for growth and shared prosperity. 4.1.1. Preservice Teacher Training This chapter focuses on high-impact interventions to this end, with specific focus on five broad interrelat- The AFW primary education teaching workforce is ed thematic areas to improve teaching and learning: composed of fairly well-credentialed teachers. Re- transforming the teacher workforce, improving chil- cent data from the PASEC 2019 shows that in AFW dren’s readiness to learn, providing essential learning countries, almost all teachers have an academic resources and tools, enhancing pedagogical effective- level higher than primary school (figure 4.1). In- ness in the classroom, and fostering a culture of learn- deed, most of these countries have raised their re- ing assessment throughout the education system. quirements for teacher credentials in the past two decades, asking for at least upper-secondary or The discussion addresses the challenges of special rel- postsecondary degrees. However, these educated evance to basic education—from preprimary through teachers are the graduates of a poor-quality educa- secondary. At these levels, the government often tion and training system with low learning outcomes. dominates service provision, and the high-impact in- terventions are within the scope for governments to Teachers in the region need support to compensate consider in policy and program design. For each the- for low content knowledge. Data on teachers’ ability matic issue, the discussion provides an assessment to master the curriculum are not available for a wide of its status and importance in the region and elab- range of AFW countries, and those countries with avail- orates on promising approaches for addressing it to able data indicate a low level of content knowledge. Ac- improve learning outcomes. cording to available Service Delivery Indicator data, the share of teachers with minimum subject knowledge in the region is 14 percent on average. Of the teachers 4.1. Teachers and the Current Status in Nigeria, Togo, and Niger, 3.9 percent, 2.5 percent, of the Profession and less than 0.1 percent, respectively, scored more than 80 percent on the combined mathematics and language test. Thus, despite their level of education, Multiple studies have emphasized the lack of teach- most of the teachers of those countries lack minimum er effectiveness in AFW and have highlighted the subject knowledge of the curriculum they teach (figure main sources of the problem. Key among those 4.2). The same conclusion holds for pedagogical skills. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 57 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.1. Primary Education Teachers, by Level of Education 0.3% Togo 70.0% 29.6% 0.3% Chad 61.7% 38.0% 0.6% Senegal 48.5% 50.9% 0.2% Niger 90.9% 8.9% 0.6% Guinea 31.5% 67.7% 0.4% Gabon 43.7% 55.9% 0.4% Cote d'Ivoire 47.8% 51.8% 0.1% Congo 50.9% 49.0% 0.6% Cameroon 68.0% 31.4% 0.2% Burundi 8.7% 91.1% 1.6% Burkina Faso 81.1% 17.3% 0.1% Benin 72.8% 27.1% 0.0% 20.0% 40.0% 60.0% 80.0% 100.0% 120.0% Primary Secondary Higher Source: PASEC 2019.  Figure 4.2. Share of Teachers with Minimum Subject Knowledge 45.0% 39.4% 40.0% 35.0% 30.0% 25.0% 21.5% 19.5% 20.0% 14.6% 15.0% 10.0% 5.0% 3.9% 2.5% 0.0% 0.1% 0.3% 0.0% Niger Nigeria Togo Madagascar Mozambique Kenya SDI Tanzania Uganda (2015) (2013) (2013) (2016) (2014) (2012) average (2014) (2013) Source: Service Delivery Indicators reports. Note: SDI = Service Deliver Indicators.  Well-educated teachers who lack subject content the needs in the classroom). Most of the time, there knowledge  and pedagogical skills  indicate that the is no mechanism for coordination between the min- preservice training system is dysfunctional. The pre- istries of education and providers of teacher educa- service training itself may also be insufficient and of tion to ensure that preservice teacher education pro- low quality (too theoretical and likely misaligned with grams align with new curricula. 58 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty 4.1.2. Teacher Recruitment, Retention, Despite the considerable growth in the teacher work- Deployment, and Accountability force, teacher deployment across schools is highly inconsistent in the region. Some AFW countries fail Despite significant expansion, teachers are not well to ensure that schools are staffed according to the deployed across schools, with schools in rural and size of their enrollments. In countries like Benin, Gha- high-conflict areas especially understaffed. Teacher na, Cameroon, Togo, Senegal, Chad, Burkina Faso, absenteeism is a chronic problem, giving rise to “or- and Côte d’Ivoire, understaffing is common in rural phan” classrooms with no instruction while the school schools and those in high-conflict areas. is in session. For example, 14.7 percent of teachers are absent at least once a week, and 14.4 percent are not On average, 14.7 percent of teachers are absent in the classroom while in school. In many AFW coun- at least once a week, which gives rise to “orphan” tries, teacher recruitment is based on nontransparent classrooms with no instructor available even while and political factors rather than professional merit, and the school is in session. Across the five AFW coun- progression up the career ladder is either nonexistent tries implementing Service Delivery Indicator sur- or based mainly on paper qualifications and seniority veys (figure 4.3), absenteeism from school (class- rather than on professional growth and performance. room) among primary school teachers ranged from 14 percent (28 percent) in Mauritania (2017) to Over the period 2005–15, the size of the teacher 23 percent (40 percent) in Togo (2013). Although workforce in AFW expanded faster than the corre- most of the teacher absences were justified with sponding global average. The number of teachers legitimate reasons (justified leave, illness, materni- increased at an average annual growth rate of 5.3 ty leave, training), there were no arrangements for percent in preschool education, 3.3 percent in pri- substitute teaching in place; teacher absenteeism mary education, and 5.9 percent in secondary ed- thus reduced instructional time for students and ucation, much faster than the world averages of 3.4 lowered student learning. Loss of instructional time percent, 1.4 percent, and 1.5 percent, respectively, combined with frequent absences among students but slightly less than the Sub-Saharan African aver- further undermined learning. These teacher absen- age for primary (4.2 percent) and secondary educa- teeism patterns reflect challenges and opportuni- tion (7.6 percent). The secondary education teacher ties for better teacher management at the school workforce in AFW in 2015 was two times its size in and system levels.23 2005; in primary and preprimary education, it was 1.6 and 1.8 times as large, respectively. The growth AFW has the world’s lowest shares of female teachers. of the primary education teacher workforce almost The share of women in the region’s teacher workforce matched the average annual growth of enrollment averages only 35 percent in primary education and (3.1 percent). Across the region, the increase in pri- 22 percent in secondary education, well below the mary education teachers simply maintained existing world average of 53 percent or the overall Sub-Saha- student-teacher ratios in AFW. In some countries, like ran African average of 31 percent (figure 4.4).  Togo, Cabo Verde, and The Gambia, primary educa- tion enrollment growth was much faster than annual Women are also underrepresented in leadership po- the increase of teachers. sitions. The position of headmaster in primary edu- cation is almost exclusively reserved for men (figure Looking ahead, the region’s challenging demograph- 4.5). Relatively few primary education students in ics and need to universalize basic education imply schools in AFW are managed by women. continued rapid expansion of the teacher workforce. Projections suggest that the number of students be- tween six and 12 years of age will almost double by 4.1.3. Teacher Professional Development 2030, which will require AFW countries to accelerate the recruitment and replacement of primary edu- In-service teacher training is fragmented without cation teachers just to maintain already high stu- structured continuous professional development. It dent-teacher ratios. The region has a track record of is sporadic, mostly donor funded, and theoretical in growth upon which to build, but more must be done.  nature, focused on broad pedagogic topics. It does Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 59 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.3. School and Classroom Absence  70% 60% 57% 60% 56% 55% 53% 48% 47% 50% 45% 42% 40% 39% 38% 40% 35% 31% 31% 30% 28% 28% 27% 30% 25% 23% 23% 23% 23% 23% 19% 17% 17% 20% 16% 16% 15% 15% 14% 11% 10% 6% 6% 4% 4% 0% Mauritania 2017 Niger 2015 Nigeria 2013 Senegal 2010 Togo 2013 Zambia 2015 Ethiopia 2012 Kenya 2012 Madagascar 2015 Morocco 2015 Mozambique 2014 Tanzania 2010 Tanzania 2014 Uganda 2003 Uganda 2013 Ecuador 2002-2003 India 2003 Indonesia 2002-2003 Peru 2002-2003 Absent from School Absent from Class Source: Service Delivery Indicators report. Figure 4.4. Share of Female Teachers in Primary and Secondary Education  100% 90% 86% 85% 80% 78% 70% 66% 67% 64% 63% 62% 60% 58% 53% 53% 50% 49% 50% 47% 43% 40% 35% 31% 30% 22% 20% 10% 0% Primary (2015) Secondary (2016) EAS ECS LCN MEA NAC SAS SSA WLD (WCA) Source: World Bank Education Statistics database. not remediate teachers’ low content knowledge and levels of knowledge: in Nigeria’s Kaduna state, only pedagogical skills. Most teacher training programs a third of the 33,000 teachers who took a statewide have disappointing results, with teachers usually competency test passed it, and in Togo, fourth- travelling to a training center for a couple of days grade teachers tested for content knowledge were only to receive an abstract lecture largely unrelated able to answer correctly only half the questions on to their weaknesses or their classroom reality. Too language and only a third on mathematics (Bashir few teachers in AFW have even minimally adequate et al. 2018). 60 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.5. Percentage of Students in Schools before streamlining it in 2015 to focus on the 3Rs: Managed by Women  Reading, wRiting, and aRithmetic. In secondary schools, the curricula of many AFW countries date 40% 37% back to the 1970s and have not undergone any 35% fundamental reform. Back then, curricula targeted a minority of young people, namely those who were 30% well prepared and supported for schooling; these 27% 26% curricula no longer reflect the needs or abilities of 25% 25% 23% students entering the system through the provision of 21% 20% free basic education (Bashir et al. 2018) or the needs 16% of these students’ teachers. Global evidence sug- 15% 14% 15% gests that the simplification of curricular goals has 12% 12% 11% helped teachers prioritize the most important topics 10% and achieve greater understanding and proficiency 5% among students (Pritchett and Beatty 2012). 0% In addition, many AFW countries lack an explicit plan Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroun Congo Cote d'Ivoire Gabon Guinée Niger Sénégal Tchad Togo for a scope, sequence, and progression of instruction- al activities that is backed by the science of teaching. Source: PASEC 2019. For example, AFW countries tend to assign insuffi- cient class time to teaching reading, language, and literacy (the research suggests at least an hour and Unfortunately, low student learning levels are a com- a half every school day to help students learn to read plex problem that requires interventions targeting with comprehension). The repetitive nature of the in- several different thematic areas, including curricular struction is also geared more toward teaching facts design and lesson plans, textbook design, assess- as opposed to skills and competencies. Teacher and ment tools, and teacher coaching and support. These student absences and tardiness contribute to addi- areas need not only strong design and implementation tional time lost. Especially with the pandemic, teach- but also alignment, a concept sometimes referred to ers can be overwhelmed by teaching a standard as “instructional coherence.” Limited bureaucratic complex curriculum while also trying to remediate or implementation capacity is one reason education COVID-19-related learning loss. systems in AFW struggle to address this complex challenge effectively. These thematic areas are often In this context, many governments are experiment- managed by different agencies or units with varying ing with various solutions and increasingly focusing levels of coordination. For example, the second-grade on structured pedagogy interventions in foundation- reading textbook that six students are sharing may not al literacy and numeracy. At its simplest, structured align with the teacher’s lesson plans. Teachers may pedagogy is a coordinated approach to align teacher also lack clear support on how to teach better (Crouch lesson plans, student materials, teacher training, and 2020). In AFW, countries must address deficiencies in ongoing support. Teachers can become real allies if these thematic areas while also working to align them. reforms support their work and if they can observe an impact on improving children’s reading levels (Piper Well before the pandemic, most national curriculums et al. 2018). Liberia, for example, combined struc- in AFW and around the world were characterized as tured lessons for teachers with observation and feed- overambitious and lacking pedagogical approach- back by literacy coaches as part of the Early Grade es that strengthen socioemotional skills. Tanzania, Reading Assessment Plus program. There are other for example, used to cover an overly ambitious nine promising examples in AFW and across Sub-Saharan subjects in its curriculum for first and second grade Africa. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 61 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty 4.2. Transforming the Teaching teachers did not. Moreover, recent developments in Profession technologies for education and the unique challeng- es imposed by COVID-19 are offering alternative ways The long-term vision for AFW is to reshape the teach- to help teachers teach students how to learn.  ing profession into a socially valued, meritocratic pro- fession with high professional standards. Since this To anchor a collective understanding of teacher ef- transformation will take time, the strategy highlights fectiveness, the World Bank put forth five principles key reforms that countries can implement in the as part of its Global Platform for Successful Teach- near-term to move the region closer to this vision and ers (Béteille and Evans 2018). These five principles, shift the focus to teacher effectiveness. which are distilled from a review of evidence relevant for low- and middle-income countries on teacher Improving teacher effectiveness is part of a broader effectiveness, are presented in figure 4.6. These agenda to enhance the impact of teachers on stu- principles can help ensure coverage of key issues dent learning. Students of skillful teachers learn more for teachers in a structured and comprehensive ap- and attain more years of schooling; such students go proach for any AFW country. on to earn higher incomes as working adults, and the girls among them are less prone to teenage pregnan- The long-term goal throughout the region must be to cy (Chetty, Friedman, and Rockoff 2014; Hanushek make teaching a more attractive career. Higher status 2011). Skillful teachers are also valuable for imparting for teachers is correlated with better student perfor- socioemotional skills to their students (Villasenor 2017). mance. However, improving the prestige of teaching is challenging. Perhaps the most complex obstacle, Deepening teachers’ professional expertise and effec- especially in low-resource AFW countries, is enhanc- tiveness warrants especially close attention because ing teacher compensation policies to resemble those of the enormous influence teachers have on their in professions with higher status. Aside from com- students. Empirical evidence from developing coun- pensation reform, AFW countries can address the tries demonstrates that the quality of a teacher also social perception of teaching as a career, raise the affects other learning-centered interventions and requirements for entry into the teaching profession, inputs, such as providing textbooks. Teacher knowl- address the large number of nonpermanent teachers edge, teaching practice, and instructional time are with lower salaries and poor employment conditions, key determinants of student learning. In addition, it and create career ladders linked with performance is very important that both the habits and mindsets and competencies. Key actions to consider include of teachers reflect a belief in students’ abilities. Going conducting campaigns to promote the social value of from a low-performing teacher to a high-performing teachers’ work, instituting incentives to attract the best teacher increases student learning dramatically. The candidates to teaching, ensuring fair pay compared to effect has been measured from more than 0.2 stan- other professions and across teachers doing the same dard deviations in Ecuador to more than 0.9 standard job, ensuring good working conditions, and developing deviations in India—the equivalent of multiple years a career ladder for teachers and principals with salary of business-as-usual schooling.  increases and promotions linked to better practices and professional development. In Nigeria, for instance, Both teaching and teachers matter. A teacher’s cre- the government is formulating a comprehensive hu- dentials (experience, certificate, or training), while man resource strategy for skills development, includ- usually considered when hiring and promoting teach- ing policies that address critical challenges such as ers, are not consistently associated with higher stu- working conditions, career progression, and incentives dent achievements. Instead, evidence indicates that for technical teachers and instructors. Sierra Leone is pedagogical practices and interactions with their establishing communities of practice for pedagogical students have a much stronger influence on student teachers to reduce the isolation of the teaching profes- outcomes. Specifically, students who are taught by sion and improve peer-to-peer support.  teachers who prepared lesson plans, asked many questions, and quizzed them on past material are For AFW in the near term, the strategy prioritizes more likely to perform better than students whose high-impact interventions to strengthen the teacher 62 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.6. Five Principles to Build an Effective years, and align the curricula of teacher training pro- Teachers’ Cadre  grams with those of primary and secondary educa- tion. Recent evidence based on test score data for THE 5 PRINCIPLES Togo and Guinea indicate that, while teachers need PRINCIPLE 1: preservice training, short four-to-six-month courses Make teaching attractive provided to teachers with good general education, to- 01 • Career progression structures gether with support in the first year on the job, could • Working conditions • Profile of career be as effective as programs of longer duration. Using such bootcamp-like approaches can allow govern- PRINCIPLE 2: Improve preservice education ments to draw upon pools of potential teachers to 02 • Trainee’s selection expand supply of schooling more quickly.  • Links to higher education institutions • Practical training The World Bank will help  governments  define  their PRINCIPLE 3: expectations of teachers and help new professionals Manage teachers better confidently enter classrooms by ensuring that preser- 03 • Meritocratic selection vice teacher training teaches pedagogical skills, class- • Teacher allocation • Monitoring & feedback systems room management, and the ability to respond to per- sonalized feedback. In many AFW countries, teacher PRINCIPLE 4: training institutions are not very selective, offer train- Provide high-quality prodessional development 04 and school leadership ing that is too theoretical, and give aspiring teach- • In-service professional development ers few opportunities for classroom practice. This • Detailed lesson plans approach contrasts with what is found in high-per- PRINCIPLE 5: forming countries, where strong candidates seek en- Use technology wisely try into the profession and are prepared with practi- 05 • Tailor instruction to students need cal experience.   • Reform professional development • Improve management Entry into preservice teacher training must be selec- Source: Saavedra 2019.  tive so that the best candidates enter the teaching profession. Successful education systems select can- didates based on candidates’ motivation to become workforce. Specifically, as the following sections dis- teachers as well as on candidates’ skills (for example, cuss, the strategy aims to (a) improve the quality of by reviewing high school graduation examinations new teachers in the pipeline; (b) attract more wom- and matriculation examinations, considering social en to teaching; (c) recruit teachers based on merit, and communication skills, and observing candidates’ deploy them based on needs, and strengthen career skills in classroom settings). Governments should management; and (d) support teachers with struc- tightly regulate preservice education.   tured pedagogy. Another crucial step is to support teacher training colleges in introducing extensive practice in schools 4.2.1. Improving the Quality of New as part of the training curriculum. Without that expe- Teachers in the Pipeline rience, teachers struggle when they confront class- room challenges for the first time after graduation, Investing in practical preservice training is crucial to often without any mentoring or guidance on how to prepare the next generation of professionals. The cur- meet those challenges. riculum for teacher preparation at teacher training colleges needs to incorporate authentic classroom Recruiting and retaining strong teachers is an essen- training. In Mali, for example, efforts are underway tial foundation for improving students’ educational to recruit only future teachers who are at the bacca- outcomes, especially in underresourced settings. In laureate level (completion of high school), extend the many AFW countries, criteria for recruiting teachers duration of initial teacher training from two to three are murky and based on political factors rather than Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 63 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty professional merit; teachers earn promotions, if at all, training opportunities. Teach For America and its sis- based on paper qualifications and seniority rather ter programs around the world also rely on relatively than evidence of effective teaching. Setting minimum short preservice programs that then feed into struc- qualification requirements ensures that incoming tured and continuous in-service training. teachers possess the key content and pedagogical skills to perform the job. Well-prepared teachers are Unfortunately, teachers in most of AFW lack the sup- also more likely to be effective and remain in the pro- port they need to improve their teaching and master fession (Podolsy et al. 2016). Given teacher shortag- new skills. While some evidence-backed professional es, some countries in AFW tend to lower or remove development programs do exist in the region, many the entry qualifications for teachers to rapidly expand teachers lack access to high-quality teacher profes- the workforce (Bashir et al. 2018). However, this sional development. Recent research, evidence, and approach could lead to a series of long-lasting det- experience have clarified what works for effective rimental effects on the education system, including teacher professional development. These findings, low teacher effectiveness, high teacher turnover, in- which emphasize a tailored, practical, focused, and creased inequality in student learning, and low pres- ongoing approach, must inform the design of any tige of the teaching profession. teacher professional development framework and its implementation on the ground. The World Bank’s To perform well, teachers need to know what is ex- new Coach  initiative, which focuses on improving pected of them in the first place. Thus, recruitment in-service teacher professional development, will be and deployment policies should establish the ex- an important resource for the region and the imple- pectations for teachers to guide teachers’ career mentation of this strategy. choices and development (World Bank 2013). Job descriptions need to clearly specify the duties and expectations of teachers. The descriptions should 4.2.2. Attracting More Women to cover teachers’ rights and responsibilities in various Teaching aspects ranging from instruction, teacher training, and community engagement to posting, transfers, Attracting more female teachers to the teaching and career advancement. All the details need to be profession seems to be an effective way to improve developed and reviewed jointly by the relevant de- girls’ performance. In Korea, using random assign- partments within the ministry. At the same time, the ment of students to Korean middle school class- expectations should align with both financial incen- rooms, researchers found that the female students tives and professional support, especially in rural and performed substantially better on standardized remote areas. For instance, previous evidence has tests when assigned to female teachers (Lim and demonstrated that hardship allowance alone could Meer 2015). In Francophone AFW countries, female only keep teachers at their posts; it did not improve teachers have been effective in boosting girls’ per- their performance (Chelwa et al. 2019; Pugatch and formance in reading and math without hurting that Schroeder 2018). of boys (J. Lee, Rhee, and Rudolf 2018). Female teachers are also good role models for young girls. One important step is to incorporate authentic class- Evidence suggests that female teachers may in- room training into the courses offered at teacher train- crease girls’ likelihood of staying in school, heighten ing colleges. Preservice teacher preparation is often their aspirations, and lower their likelihood of be- merely theoretical and detached from actual class- ing subject to violence (Evans and Nestour 2019). room conditions. In-service training for profession- In addition, the teacher labor market is important al growth tends to be fragmented and sporadic, if it for women as it promotes gender equality: in some exists at all. While top-performing countries typically countries, teaching is one of the few high-skilled have preservice programs that last for two or more professions that is accessible to women. To increase years, a more feasible solution for AFW countries, es- the number of female graduates from teacher train- pecially in light of the increasing and immediate de- ing colleges, governments must increase girls’ en- mand for more teachers, might be to combine shorter rollment and completion at secondary education. preservice programs with more intensive in-service In addition to campaigns to promote the social 64 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty value of teachers’ work, incentives can encourage recruitment of teachers; creation of career pathways; high-achieving students to pursue a career in teach- clarification of compensation and contracts; regula- ing. In Sierra Leone, for example, the government tion of teacher deployment, especially for disadvan- has provided scholarships for girls to complete their taged areas; and setting expectations for professional study at teacher training colleges. Finally, well-struc- behavior. Some AFW countries have already initiated tured teacher career frameworks and strategies, reforms to better manage the teacher workforce. including for female teachers and head teachers, Cameroon, under its comprehensive primary teacher should be developed in the long run. Incentives reform, for example, is recruiting new teachers based are also an option to attract the best candidates to on merit and deploying the recruits according to new teaching. In rural Nigeria, housing has been provid- criteria that prioritize understaffed schools serving ed for female teachers. disadvantaged populations.  AFW countries need to develop well-structured ca- 4.2.3. Merit-Based Recruitment, Needs- reer frameworks for their teachers promptly, as the Based Deployment, and Teacher Career teaching force is expanding rapidly and becoming Pathways more heterogeneous. The ideal frameworks should be comprehensive to value teachers of different types Teacher human resource management reforms are (such as civil service, contract, and para teachers) essential to elevate the quality of education. Depend- and teachers with different academic and demo- ing on a country context, these reforms may include graphic characteristics. The planning department ensuring meritocratic recruitment; creating career and human resource department should work to- progression pathways; clearly defining compensation gether to take stock of the current teaching force and contracts; regulating teacher deployment, espe- and prospective teachers. Then these departments cially for disadvantaged areas; and setting expecta- should develop realistic roadmaps to match supply tions for professional behavior. Some AFW countries with demand and to offer different career opportuni- have already started tackling these issues. For exam- ties within the system for various time intervals. They ple, Cameroon has introduced comprehensive teach- should also collaborate with teacher unions or asso- er reform, including meritocratic teacher recruitment ciations to gain their buy-in for the implementation of and clearer deployment policy for newly recruited the career frameworks with sound human resource teachers to ensure teacher availability in disadvan- management practices. A smooth and successful taged areas.  implementation requires continuous and fair profes- sional support and evaluation for teachers at different The World Bank will support governments,  with in- levels, which could be a major barrier for many edu- terventions at both the school and system levels, in cation systems. addressing teacher absenteeism and rationalizing teacher deployment. To tackle unauthorized teacher absences, heads of schools can work closely with the 4.2.4. Supporting Teachers with local community. Authorized absences—such as for Structured Pedagogy personal leave, professional training, or official du- ties outside the school—are surprisingly prevalent in Supporting AFW teachers with structured pedago- AFW. To minimize their occurrence requires interven- gy—a package of instructional materials and contin- tion at the policy level, for example, by creating and uous teacher training, coaching, and mentoring—has supporting a system of substitute teaching arrange- proved to boost student learning. Teacher subject ments, if budgets permit.   knowledge is essential for learning as even the most effective curriculum cannot be taught if teachers do Sound human resource management practices to not fully understand it. To be effective, teachers must manage the teacher workforce are essential to tack- first know and understand the lessons they are as- ling the learning crisis. The practices appropriate in signed to teach. Structured pedagogy addresses this each country will depend on the context and may weakness by providing scripted lessons and train- include a range of options, among them meritocratic ing teachers on using those lessons well. It ideally Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 65 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty mitigates skill gaps by providing detailed guidance structured pedagogy programs to increase early on teaching specific content and training on how to literacy and numeracy skills. Particularly, a clus- carry out instructional activities. Following the best ter-randomized trial was conducted in The Gambia practices promoted in lesson plans, teachers would to evaluate literacy and numeracy interventions for improve the quality of their instruction, preferably primary-age children in remote parts of the country. without compromising their agency. The intervention combined para teachers delivering after-school supplementary classes, scripted lesson Implementing a structured pedagogy program re- plans, and frequent monitoring focusing on improv- quires a strong commitment of stakeholders inside ing teacher practice (coaching)—all core elements and outside the education system. Each component of structured pedagogy. After three academic years, involves various departments and professional per- Gambian children receiving the intervention scored sonnel in the ministry of education and local offices 46 percentage points (3.2 standard deviation units) such as inspectors, pedagogical advisors, school better on a combined literacy and numeracy test principals, pedagogical leaders, teachers, parents, than control children (Eble 2020). A similar interven- the local community, and so on. In low-capacity set- tion previously demonstrated large learning gains in tings, emphasis on enhanced implementation ca- a cluster-randomized trial in rural India. Another ex- pacity is key. In addition, from the development of ample is Tusome (“Let’s Read” in Kiswahili) in Kenya. teaching and learning materials to teacher training Tusome is a flagship partnership between the United and monitoring, and from the deployment of teachers States Agency for International Development and to community engagement, every step needs to be the Ministry of Education. Tusome focuses on four well connected and coordinated. Thus, an effective key interventions: enhancing classroom instruction, delivery system is crucial for a successful structured improving access to learning materials, expanding pedagogy program.  instructional support and supervision, and collabo- rating with key system-level literacy actors. Students Previous studies have commonly pointed out that made substantial gains in English (the proportion of ensuring functional and efficient service delivery is nonreaders fell from 38 percent to 12 percent) and the biggest implementation challenge. Many gov- Kiswahili (the proportion of nonreaders fell from 43 ernments lack the capacity to implement programs percent to 19 percent). with fidelity. For almost all existing programs, donors have brought in their own administrative teams to Rigorous impact evaluations in Guinea-Bissau (Fazzio implement the programs, with governments playing et al. 2020) and in Kenya and The Gambia (World a supportive role. However, many programs have Bank 2020a) confirmed the effectiveness of the experienced high teacher turnover rates, delays in approach in boosting test scores. In Kenya, the gov- the distribution of teaching and learning materials, ernment has now started to scale the approach na- and insufficient training and coaching staff in ru- tionwide (Crouch 2020). In Edo State, Nigeria, the ral and remote areas. These issues undermine the government is leveraging technology to implement programs’ effectiveness. To some extent, identifying structured pedagogy, using tablets to track teacher and preparing a government-led functional service progress in delivering scripted lessons in real time delivery system may be key to ensuring the feasi- and customizing on-site coaching and mentoring for bility and sustainability of a structured pedagogy each teacher. program. An increasing number of developing countries have 4.3. Student Readiness to Learn in adopted structured pedagogy in early grades, which the Region is among the most cost-effective interventions (An- grist et al. 2020), and many have demonstrated en- couragingly positive effects on student performance Many children arrive at school with severe learning (Eble et al. 2021; Fazzio et al. 2021; Kim et al. 2019). handicaps. More than a third of AFW children under Similarly, multiple AFW countries, as shown in ta- age five are stunted, a condition with long-lasting ble 4.1, are implementing or have benefited from adverse consequences for their capacity to learn. 66 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Table 4.1. Structured Pedagogy Programs in Western and Central Africa Education system Outcomes Scale Source Gambia, The Improved early grades literacy Medium scale with more than 2,000 student Eble et al. (2021) and numeracy skills beneficiaries Ghana Early literacy in 11 national languages Large scale with more than 1 million student FHI 360 (2017) and early numeracy beneficiaries Guinea-Bissau Improved early grades literacy Medium scale with more than 2,000 student Fazzio et al. (2021) and numeracy skills beneficiaries Liberia Improved early grades literacy Large scale reaching more than 1,000 schools King et al. (2015) and numeracy skills Mali  Improved literacy skills in grades 1–2 Medium scale with more than 3,000 student Spratt et al. (2013) but no effect on grade 3 beneficiaries Nigeria, Bauchi, and Improved access to school Large scale with more than 1 million student Campos (2017); Sokoto states and early grades literacy skills in Hausa beneficiaries RTI (2016) Senegal Improved early grades literacy Large scale reaching more than 1,000 schools Chemonics International skills in 3 national languages (2018) Across the region, too few young children are receiv- institution demonstrated the minimum competen- ing routine immunizations (75 percent) or a min- cy in literacy, compared to only 18 percent of sec- imum acceptable diet (10 percent). Far too many ond-grade children without preprimary experience. children are receiving insufficient support and stimu- These impacts continue throughout children’s life- lation at home: 98 percent of children in AFW do not time and carry forward to the next generation. In a have three or more books at home and 84 percent landmark study in Jamaica, researchers evaluated of young children experience high levels of violence a nutrition and early stimulation program and found at home. On average the gross enrollment rate for that children who had been enrolled in the program ECE in the region is only 32 percent. Only five coun- (from nine to 24 months old) were earning 25 percent tries in the region offer free ECE (Benin, the Republic more than their peers two decades later (Gertler et of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, and Togo), of al., 2014). Despite these well-documented benefits, which only three are compulsory (Equatorial Guinea, many countries around the world continue to under- Ghana, and Togo); only three of those countries have invest in early childhood.  made ECE compulsory (Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, and Togo). The following discussion highlights the Enrollment in ECE and other critical services that key barriers that impede children’s readiness to promote early childhood development are limited in learn in the region. AFW today (figure 4.7). Expanding access to quality ECE presents a game-changing opportunity to boost learning, reduce inequality, and set children on a 4.3.1. Enrollment in Early Childhood path toward greater success throughout life. Holistic Education Services investments in early childhood are necessary to im- prove children’s longer-term outcomes. Limited access to ECE confines children’s success in acquiring essential foundational knowledge, under- The benefits of quality early learning include improved mining later learning outcomes. The PASEC 2014 school readiness, reduced repetition and dropout results show large gaps in performance between rates, and higher achievement in school. These ben- children who have and who have not attended a efits have been amply documented in the literature preprimary institution. On average, 40 percent of (Engle et al. 2011; Heckman and Masterov 2007). second-grade children who attended a preprimary Quality early learning opportunities promote cognitive Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 67 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.7. Early Childhood Development in Western and Central Africa and the World  90 84 84 80 75 74 70 Average Percent of Children (%) 59 60 50 40 30 27 24.5 22 20 20 18 16 8 10 10 4 2 0.38 0 Who experience violence at home (ages 1-14) Who are immunized Who have 3 or more books Who are left alone for one than 1 hour a week Who die before age five Who are stunted Who receive the minimum acceptable diet Who live in a stimulating home Health Nutrition Education Social Protection West and Central Africa World Source: Original calculations based on World Bank and UNICEF databases from 2014 onward.  Note: For AFW and the world, the figure represents the average across countries with data available from 2014 onward. and socioemotional skills that help children build lan- In AFW, too many young children face daunting un- guage and preliteracy skills that can support them derinvestment in their early years with lifelong and through the rest of their education. Early literacy skills far-reaching consequences for individuals as well as such as word recognition, alphabet knowledge, and for education systems and countries’ human capital. phonological awareness are predictive of later litera- Increasing investment in early childhood in AFW is a cy skills and will be important in any interventions to powerful lever with which to address learning pover- tackle learning poverty (National Early Literacy Panel ty and build human capital. Developing high-quality 2008; Scarborough 1998). A recent analysis of the ECE institutions that reach all learners is key to suc- Programme for International Student Assessment cessfully combating long-term negative impacts. 2012 test scores showed that 15-year-olds in low-in- come and middle-income countries who had attend- Countries in AFW have made substantial progress ed ECE for more than a year scored 0.67 standard in improving early childhood outcomes, but much deviations higher in reading and 0.83 standard devi- more remains to be done. In the last two decades, ations higher in mathematics than children who had the average under-five mortality rate across the re- no ECE (controlling for family socioeconomic status); gion has decreased by half, from 16 percent to 8 these results are equivalent to more than two years of percent. Stunting has decreased from 37 percent to additional schooling (Garcia, Devercelli, and Valerio, 26 percent, and enrollment in ECE institutions has in- forthcoming). A recent survey of adults in 12 lower- creased from 14 percent to 20 percent. Nonetheless, and middle-income countries found that those who across AFW, many young children face multiple risk had attended childcare and/or ECE programs stayed factors that impede their growth, development, and in school on average 0.9 years longer (controlling for future success in school and life. family background and other factors) and tended to enroll in higher-skilled professions (Shafiq, Devercelli, The majority of AFW countries have fewer than 25 and Valerio 2018). percent of young children enrolled in ECE programs. Access to ECE programs tends to begin around age Despite these well-documented benefits, many coun- three in most countries, lasting two to three years until tries in AFW continue to underinvest in early childhood. the start of primary school. Efforts to expand access in 68 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty recent years have focused on one year of preprimary 4.4. Enhancing Student Readiness to education to encourage at least one year of participa- Learn tion. As of 2019, the region’s average preprimary at- tendance rate in the final year before primary school Expansion efforts to reach all early learners with was 47 percent. Despite some progress in ECE ex- quality ECE will require substantial investments. pansion efforts, much more remains to be done. Chil- Current spending on preprimary education is in- dren from poorer households are much less likely to sufficient. Despite nearly doubling the amount of have access to preprimary school than children from funding allocated to ECE over the past several years, wealthier households (UNICEF 2019). In this region, AFW has spent less than one-tenth of a percent of almost 80 percent of children in the richest quintile GDP on preprimary education—substantially less are attending at least one year of organized early than investments in other levels of education, based learning compared to only 34 percent of children in on calculations from the UNESCO Institute for Sta- the poorest quintile. Disparities in access are also tistics database. Across the region, government ex- exasperated by factors such as household location, penditure on preprimary as a percent of education gender, language, ethnicity, and disability; these fac- spending is only 2.5 percent, and per preprimary tors tend to widen the inequalities that young learners student spending is often low. For example, in 2017, face even before they start primary school. Educa- the government of Mali spent only US$0.50 per pre- tional access in AFW suffers from additional disrup- primary student, Mauritania spent US$3, and Burki- tions because of long-term violence, displacement, na Faso spent US$6 compared to US$24 in Benin and insecurity. Trauma and toxic stress in the early per preprimary student (UNESCO Institute for Sta- years have lifelong impacts; these early risks, expo- tistics 2017). sure to violence, and deprivation dramatically affect young children’s development and future outcomes.  While increased spending is undoubtedly necessary to expand access to preprimary education, coun- tries with high overenrollment rates in early primary 4.3.2. Provision of Early Childhood grades that shift resources to preprimary education Services could enjoy some efficiency gains. One-third of all AFW countries have first-grade overenrollment rates Many children are attending private ECE institutions nearing 30 percent, meaning that 30 percent of all led by community-based, faith-based, low-cost pri- children in first grade are of the wrong age (either vate or for-profit providers. The role of private provid- older or younger than they should be). Emerging re- ers varies throughout the region, with private provid- search suggests that this problem is due to a phe- ers covering 10 percent of enrollment in Niger and nomenon of underage enrollment in primary school; 81 percent in Mauritania, with a regional average of once enrolled, children tend to repeat first grade once around 50 percent (table 4.2). This high proportion of or twice and sometimes second grade as well. This privately provided ECE reflects the limited availability problem is global, and figure 4.9 shows the data for of public options in some places, as well as paren- the 39 countries in the world with the highest overen- tal preferences, and it points to the need for strong rollment rates in first grade. Eight of these countries efforts from the public sector to ensure quality and are in AFW: Benin, Cameroon, Chad, Guinea-Bissau, equitable access. Liberia, Mauritania, Sierra Leone, and Togo. Countries with high overenrollment rates in first grade largely However, access is not the only issue: in many coun- overlap with countries with very low preprimary en- tries with wide performance gaps, student-teacher ra- rollment rates.  tios are high (in Togo, 72:1) or the percent of qualified teachers is low (in Chad, 24 percent). Many teachers In some countries, household surveys seem to sug- at the preprimary levels lack the minimum levels of gest that parents are enrolling their children in prima- qualifications (approximately 50 percent on aver- ry school early because it is free and no free preprima- age), and teaching quality deteriorates as the num- ry option is available. This underage enrollment and ber of students within a classroom grows (40:1 on early repetition results in governments wasting as average across AFW) (figure 4.8). much as 5 to 10 percent of education budgets each Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 69 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Table 4.2. Access to Early Childhood Education by Country  Country  Preprimary Gross Net Attendance ECE Official ECE Duration  ECE Private School Enrollment Rate (%)  Rate One Year Entrance Age  Provision (%)  Before Primary (%)  Benin  24%  83%  4  2*  34%  Burkina Faso  6%  19%  3  3  79%  Cabo Verde  73%  81%  3  3  59%  Cameroon  36%  44%  4  2  67%  Central African Republic  3%    3  3    Chad  1%  14%  3  3  74%  Congo, Rep.  13%  30%  3  3*    Côte d’Ivoire 8%  22%  3  3  28%  Equatorial Guinea  43%  44%  4  2**    Gabon  35%    3  3    Gambia, The 43%  61%  3  4    Ghana  117%  87%  4  2**  44%  Guinea  15%  42%  4  3    Guinea-Bissau  7%  40%  3  3    Liberia  125%  79%  3  3  48%  Mali  7%  45%  4  3    Mauritania  10%  20%  3  3  81%  Niger  7%  23%  4  3  10%  Nigeria  42%  61%  5  1    Senegal  17%  16%  3  3  44%  Sierra Leone  19%  42%  3  3  29%  Togo  25%  95%  3  4**  31%  Source: Original calculations based on World Bank database from 2014 onward. Note: ECE = early childhood education. * = free, ** = free and compulsory.  year as they provide 1.2 additional years of schooling 4.4.1. Seeking Cross-Sector Synergies and per student (due to repetition) (Crouch et al. 2019).  Investing in Nutrition, Health, and Early Stimulation There is a growing—and positive—body of rigorous evidence from around the world that offers insight Seeking synergies with other sectors can promote into how countries can provide high-quality ECE at cross-sectoral investments in nutrition, health, early scale. Emerging good practices and high-impact inter- stimulation, and protection of newborns from stress in ventions, many of which are already happening some- the first 1,000 days of life. Young children need support where in AFW, include (a) seeking synergies with other to develop holistically across physical, socioemotional, sectors, (b) leveraging parents and communities, and and cognitive domains. To foster holistic development, (c) involving nonstate actors.  countries need to consider a myriad of ways to support young children and their families. Several opportu- nities are available to leverage existing sectoral entry points. The poor nutrition, health, and early stimulation 70 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.8. Minimum Competency Rates on PASEC 2014 Math Rates Literacy Rates 65% 63% Congo, Rep. 84% 28% 58% 60% Burkina Faso 68% 33% 40% Cameroon 44% 69% 18% 58% Senegal 41% 72% 23% 36% 37% Togo 54% 14% 31% Cote d'Ivoire 34% 44% 13% 46% Chad 32% 66% 17% 20% 29% Niger 53% 4% 33% 15% Benin 35% 6% Attended Pre-Primary Did not attend Pre-Primary Source: Original calculations based on World Bank database. Figure 4.9. Trends in Overenrollment in Primary partnership between early childhood development School from 39 Countries and the gender sector is important for families, partic- ularly women who are entering the labor force and try- 2.5 ing to find affordable and quality childcare. Links and 2.3 continuity across other human development sectors 2.1 for early childhood development will help promote pos- 1.9 itive behavior change through parenting programs and 1.7 connections to cash transfers. Additionally, nutrition 1.5 and health programs within communities are powerful 1.3 entry points to improve young children’s outcomes, in 1.1 many cases offering affordable options by piggyback- 0.9 ing on existing programs. Synergies across sectors can 0.7 be explored at the national and subnational levels of 0.5 E1/P6 E2/P7 E3/P8 E4/P9 E5/P10 E6/P11 government as well as within the World Bank’s portfolio. Ideal Median For example, the Mauritania Social Safety Net project Source provides conditional cash transfers to vulnerable fami- lies to help pay for their children’s health, nutrition, and education. The program will reach over 45,000 fami- outcomes in early childhood are often a result of the lies to develop an economic inclusion scheme and en- disconnect between health, nutrition, social protec- courage community participation in good early child- tion, and education interventions at the community hood development practices. Senegal’s Investing in level and at the policy and planning level. Collabora- Early Years for Human Development is a multisectoral tion between the relevant sectors will help strength- project that will reach 2.5 million children and parents en alignment for programs dedicated to supporting through integrated community-based nutrition and young children. For example, promoting cross-sectoral early stimulation programs. It is expanding access to Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 71 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty preprimary education while scaling quality, reaching programs are limited or nonexistent in most AFW coun- over 210,000 children from formal preschools, Koran- tries. It is important to promote different types of pro- ic preschools, and community-based programs. vision and to engage with a variety of stakeholders. Different types of provision include community-based early childhood development centers; faith-based pro- 4.4.2. Leveraging Parents and grams; private preprimary schools; public preprimary Communities: Encouraging Reading at school; childcare facilities; safe learning spaces in con- Home flict zones; and home-based and remote learning strat- egies, including Read@Home and television, radio, and Limited learning opportunities for children at home internet-based edutainment. Combining remote learn- and at school drive low levels of literacy and numer- ing options with scaling of ECE centers attached to acy. Increasing opportunities for children to read and primary schools could enhance access to preprimary experience other early stimulation at home could education and reduce the cost of schooling in the re- dramatically improve a series of outcomes critical to gion. The Côte d’Ivoire Education Service Delivery En- later learning outcomes, including vocabulary and hancement Project (P163218) focuses on preprimary early literacy and numeracy skills. In fragile and con- teacher training and expanding access to communi- flict situations in particular, support from engaged ty-based ECE in partnership with UNICEF. The Burki- parents and caregivers can mitigate the disruptions, na Faso Education Access and Quality Improvement stresses, or trauma that children experience. There Project found a cost-effective way to expand access to are a number of ways to foster children’s develop- ECE in remote areas and in times of conflict: interactive ment through parents, including leveraging parents’ audio instruction. The program aligns with the nation- participation in existing community-based programs al curriculum standards, and the government will also (such as women’s groups, religious organizations, mi- use interactive audio instruction to provide untrained crofinance organizations, agricultural cooperatives, teachers with continuous guidance and reinforcement, or cash transfer programs). The Reading for All Chil- linked with a project-designed system of teacher cer- dren and Read@Home programs encourage parental tification, opening a cost-effective, practical option for and community engagement to enhance early grade teacher training in rural areas. The Gambia’s Educa- reading and learning through reading materials avail- tion Support program developed a play-based curric- able both at home and in school. Both programs also ulum annexed to primary schools and through com- promote accountability and ownership for parents munity-based centers. The program will aim to reach and the community. A recent study looking at 35 over 32,000 children in early childhood development countries of varying income levels showed that having programs and develop a quality standards metric to at least one children’s book at home almost doubled support teacher training and curriculum development. the likelihood of the child being on track in literacy An impact evaluation comparing the two models found and numeracy (Manu et al. 2019). Under the World better learning outcomes in the annexed approach. Bank umbrella, the Read@Home program delivers Zanzibar’s Radio Instruction to Strengthen Education reading and learning materials to families in hard-to- program trains community teachers to teach govern- reach homes and helps parents to engage with their ment curriculum competencies in nonformal settings children to increase reading at home; it is active in for young children unable to access school using inter- Senegal, Cameroon, and São Tomé and Príncipe.  active audio instruction. This program has been running for more than a decade and has reached over 35,000 children, leading to the successful establishment of a 4.4.3. Involving Nonstate Actors, Including tech-based distance learning division within the Minis- Community-Based Early Childhood try of Education. A follow-up evaluation found that stu- Development dents of the program demonstrated better mastery of grade-level concepts, with girls showing greater overall The main challenge for widespread and equitable ac- growth, than students who did not participate. Outside cess to quality ECE is limited preprimary facilities, par- the region, the Aga Khan Early Childhood Development ticularly in rural and remote areas. Online learning, in- program in East Africa established community-based teractive audio instruction, and other remote learning preschools. These preschools are often affiliated with 72 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty mosques and led by school management committees trained teachers from over 200 schools in both the pub- made up of parents and community members. This lic and nonstate sectors to provide high-quality training program has reached more than 60,000 children, suc- and promote school readiness. After two years, the cessfully providing a better learning environment and program demonstrated improved teacher professional developing a detailed costing model.  development, classroom quality, and school readiness for young children.  4.4.4. Considering Other High-Impact An increasing number of developing countries have ad- Interventions to Improve Children’s opted structured pedagogy in early grades, with many Readiness to Learn having found encouragingly positive effects on student performance (Eble et al. 2021; Fazzio et al. 2021; Kim, AFW countries must ensure continuity between ECE Lee, and Zuilkowski 2019). Similarly, multiple countries and education sectors. Service delivery for ECE is often in AFW (table 4.1) are implementing or have benefited fragmented, which exacerbates quality and planning from structured pedagogy programs to increase early challenges. The development of robust and effective literacy and numeracy skills. Particularly, a cluster-ran- quality assurance systems will help countries to pro- domized trial in The Gambia evaluated literacy and vide stimulating environments. To develop such sys- numeracy interventions for primary-aged children in tems, most countries need a more formal integration remote parts of the country. The intervention combined of ECE into the education sector along with efforts to para teachers delivering after-school supplementary ensure continuity in curriculum; teacher training; and classes, scripted lesson plans, and frequent monitoring other aspects of quality, planning, and finance be- focusing on improving teacher practice (coaching)—all tween preprimary education and basic education. An core elements of structured pedagogy. After three aca- impact evaluation comparing the two models found demic years, Gambian children receiving the interven- better learning outcomes in the annexed approach.  tion scored 46 percentage points (standard deviation of 3.2) better on a combined literacy and numeracy test AFW countries should invest in quality while scaling than children in the control group (Ebel et al. 2020). access. For learning to be effective at school, teachers A similar intervention previously demonstrated large need to receive specific training directly related to ear- learning gains in a cluster-randomized trial in rural India. ly learning and the development and specific needs of Another example is Tusome (“Let’s Read” in Kiswahili) young children. ECE teachers should be trained to teach in Kenya. Tusome is a flagship partnership between the children in reading and learning in their local language. United States Agency for International Development and Developing flexible training pathways can provide those the Ministry of Education. Tusome focuses on four key entering the workforce with limited formal education al- interventions: enhancing classroom instruction, improv- ternative training to gain the requisite skills. A flexible ing access to learning materials, expanding instruction- and realistic approach will be necessary in most coun- al support and supervision, and collaborating with key tries to help upscale existing workforces, which, though system-level literacy actors. Students made substantial not formally accredited, are reservoirs of talent, experi- gains in English (the proportion of nonreaders fell from ence, and earned knowledge. For most countries, the 38 percent to 12 percent) and Kiswahili (the proportion temptation will be to focus on investments in physical in- of nonreaders fell from 43 percent to 19 percent). frastructure; the literature and evidence from countless countries, however, make clear that a responsive class- room environment (regardless of the physical structure 4.5. Learning Resources and Gaps in in which learning takes place) is the most important Provision to Support Teaching and area for investment. Where countries choose to invest Learning in construction, it is important to incorporate affordable, sustainable, environmentally responsive features that respond to local needs. Ghana’s Quality Preschool pro- Books and learning materials as well as pedagogical gram focuses on improving school readiness for young tools enable effective teaching and learning. Their children by providing high-quality ECE teacher training availability varies in AFW, both across and within and increasing parental awareness. The program has countries, as the following discussion shows. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 73 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty 4.5.1. Gaps in the Provision of Textbooks relevant and curriculum-aligned digital content; and and Learning Materials acquisition of the necessary digital skills in all stu- dents and teachers. The AFW region, as well as Africa Availability of textbooks is low in most AFW countries in general, has made tremendous strides in the adop- and particularly problematic in rural areas. High costs tion of technology. The mobile phone has achieved have made it difficult to provide high-quality, age-ap- a median penetration of 99 percent. However, digital propriate books for teachers and students. In Nigeria, technology adoption remains quite low if measured for example, each textbook is shared by 17 students. by internet penetration and computers per house- In Togo, 23 students share a single textbook. hold. Median internet penetration is 28 percent, al- most half of global median penetration, and on com- The long process of financing, developing, selecting, puters, the situation is worse, with a Sub-Saharan procuring, printing, distributing, and implementing African median of 7 percent household penetration textbooks poses a series of key challenges in AFW. versus 45 percent globally. All decisions are interrelated and need to be carefully balanced to create an enabling context for textbooks. Countries must develop and validate a context-spe- 4.6. Providing Learning Resources cific textbook policy to clarify options and decisions and Educational Technology Tools at each step. Box 4.1 outlines the key challenges involved in getting textbooks into classrooms and utilized. Given the foregoing gaps in learning resources and the Regional Education Strategy advocates for tools,  increased provision through multiple high-impact 4.5.2. Gaps in the Provision of interventions. Educational Technology Tools Given the magnitude and endemic nature of the re- 4.6.1. Ensuring That All Children Receive gion’s education challenges, business as usual is un- High-Quality, Age-Appropriate Books likely to move the needle. Innovation and leveraging the potential of technology will be key. Educational Ensuring a minimum package of quality teaching and technology offers exciting possibilities for increasing learning resources and encouraging pedagogical in- access to learning inside and outside the classroom novation are essential in all schools. Children cannot at all levels of the education sector. It can effectively learn to read if they and their teachers lack textbooks manage and support teachers, ensuring they show and other learning materials. But shortages of basic up, teach the right material, assess children regu- learning materials, including textbooks, are pervasive larly, and offer targeted support at the right level of in AFW. Low-cost approaches can ensure that all each child. Moreover, educational technology can children have access to high-quality, age-appropri- do all of this at scale. It can enable school-, district-, ate books. In Cameroon, the textbook reform, which and national-level decision-makers to make informed clarified the rules of the textbook selection process decisions based on data. Integrating new digital tech- and created a transparent and regulated textbook nologies also helps equip students with digital skills, supply chain, has lowered the cost of a textbook which better prepares them for work in the digital from US$6–7 to US$3–4; the first new textbooks economy. were delivered to schools in October 2020. In some cases, the private sector can assist with ensuring While the possibilities are exciting and could be rev- certain services without necessarily managing the olutionary, there are still many barriers to overcome schools. In Edo State, Nigeria, the government has before educational technology can have a real im- improved the quality of primary education by intro- pact. Critical barriers include access to affordable ducing technologies in the classroom and increas- and reliable internet connectivity and devices for ing the accountability of schools through a private schools, teachers, and students; availability of locally service provider. 74 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.1. What Does It Take to Get Textbooks into Classrooms and Utilized? a. Financing textbooks. AFW countries struggle to ensure regular availability of updated textbooks to support teaching and learning processes. Overall investment is limited, and the textbook unit cost is higher than in other regions. Three main sources of financing coexist in AFW: government, devel- opment partners, and parents. Sources of financing can vary inside countries from one level to an- other (primary, secondary) and from one subject to another. In many countries, parental financing poses a great equity challenge, and donor financing generally leads to irregular textbook provision followed by long periods of scarcity. b. Developing textbooks. Textbook development is a complex, long, and labor-intensive exercise based on preliminary decisions at the highest level. Those decisions include the following: ■ Language of instruction. Textbooks need to be available in the language of instruction. While this decision may seem trivial in many contexts, it can represent a major constraint in AFW if a country uses different languages. ■ Structure of programs and curricula. Textbooks need to reflect current curricula, teaching, and learning methodology and be contextualized and illustrated. How curricula are designed affects the whole process (design, number of subjects, number of textbooks to be created and distribut- ed, number of pages, duration of the program,37 cost, and so on.) ■ Responsibility for designing textbooks. While some countries make Ministry of Education staff re- sponsible for designing textbooks, the current tendency is to give this mandate to private editors (national or international). ■ Copyrights. Even if textbooks are produced by private editors, states can purchase copyrights for reimpression. c. Selecting and procuring textbooks. Textbook policy needs to clarify who is responsible for textbook accreditation and selection. Transparency is critical as potential for corruption is important in the sector. The following questions must be raised: ■ Accreditation of textbooks to be used in a country. How many textbooks are accredited? On what basis? What criteria are used? Which governance model? ■ Selection of textbooks. In case multiple titles are selected, who is responsible for selection of the textbook? Is it the local administration, each school, or each teacher? ■ Durability of textbooks. Beyond physical solidity, textbooks need to be approved for a sufficient time to ensure a sustainable investment. ■ Procurement. Procurement of textbooks is highly dependent on each of the decisions above. In addition, the decision should be made whether the procurement relates to the textbooks only or whether it includes their distribution. d. Distributing textbooks. In AFW, limited infrastructures and library networks complicate distribu- tion and increase the cost. Distribution for rural areas poses additional challenges. Unavailability of track-and-trace mechanisms makes close monitoring of textbook distribution impossible. (Box continues on next page) 37 To minimize program cost, curricula need to be streamlined to limit both the length of books and the number of books required. Countries also need to consider how curriculum revisions will affect textbook costs. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 75 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.1. What Does It Take to Get Textbooks into Classrooms and Utilized? (continued) e. Implementing textbooks. Textbooks need to be maintained and used in the classroom. ■ Utilization requires a textbook policy, or a policy that mandates textbook renewal in a reasonable number of years. Lack of such a policy hinders utilization, as teachers may not let students take books home or even not distribute textbooks at all for fear of damage. ■ Poor rationalization also leads to lack of usage. The country may assume that a textbook is given to each student, but improper distribution due to a lack of accurate data leads to textbooks kept in storage in schools where they are not required. Numbers are not updated when enrollment changes, leading to inaccurate distribution and low utilization despite availability. ■ Utilization is low because teachers know that textbooks could be costly and difficult to replace, so teachers resort to copying the text from the textbooks on a blackboard, denying textbook access to students. ■ Teachers are often absent, which means students may not have access to the textbooks on those days. The World Bank will redouble efforts to put more public goods such as levelled readers in multiple lan- high-quality texts into the hands of students. These guages and for different cultural contexts. efforts fall into five categories: promote development of local educational publishing industries to broaden availability of locally relevant reading materials; shape 4.6.2. Harnessing Technology to Achieve the supply of literacy and numeracy materials for use Learning Objectives  in low-income educational settings by collaborating with private and nonprofit educational publishers and The pandemic has forced many countries to make providers of literacy materials; protect the delivery of varying levels of investments in educational technolo- books through greater accountability and harnessing gies. Almost every country in the region has deployed of new technologies, including encouraging the use of a national e-learning portal and invested in content results-based financing and new technologies such acquisition or development. Active measures are as “track and trace” to drive improvements along the addressing connectivity through partnerships with book supply chain; disseminate key principles and private providers, through global initiatives such as techniques for development of suitable early reading GIga,38 and through the World Bank–funded Digital materials for students and teachers; develop supple- Economy for Africa Initiative.39 The time is right to mentary learning materials as a complement to text- build on and accelerate all these initiatives to drive books; and blend printed material with digital mate- large-scale use of educational technology to address rial using new technologies when appropriate. These the long-standing education challenges in the region. efforts will include putting reading materials into the homes of the most vulnerable children and innova- Countries will need to scale up and focus investments tions such as energized textbooks, which include QR in digital and human infrastructure. As countries codes in printed textbooks to enable access to online invest in technology and human capital, they will digital resources or high-quality open-source global face the challenges of striking a balance between 38 GIga is an international telecommunications union and UNICEF initiative in which the World Bank is a participant with a mission to connect every school in the world to the internet. 39 The Digital Economy for Africa initiative aims to ensure that every individual, business, and government in Africa will be digitally enabled by 2030 in support of the African Union’s Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa. 76 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty technology and the human factor and ensuring that policies and projects need to be developed with a technology is deployed strategically, always in sup- clear purpose, strategy, and vision of the desired ed- port of student learning processes and outcomes. ucational change (for example, establishing remote Countries will need to invest in human infrastruc- learning, reaching out-of-school children, training ture—teacher training, teacher and student digital teachers, or improving education management infor- skills, parental support—so that all students benefit mation systems). (b) Design and act at scale, for all. from digital learning. Countries should strive for flex- Educational technology initiatives should have a flex- ible, expandable, compatible, interoperable systems ible and user-centered design with an emphasis on and avoid vendor lock-in. Innovative public-private equity and inclusion; these characteristics will help partnerships can help increase the use of educa- realize scale and sustainability for all.40 (c) Empower tional technology. For example, during the pandem- teachers. Technology should enhance teacher en- ic, several governments have been working with gagement with students through improved access to telecommunication companies to provide free con- content, data, and networks, helping teachers better nectivity to online learning resources through “zero support student learning. (d) Engage the ecosystem. rating” mechanisms (providing internet access with- Education systems should take a whole-of-govern- out financial cost under certain conditions) (World ment and multistakeholder approach to engage a Bank 2021f). The education sector will also have to broad set of actors to support student learning. (e) Be address market information asymmetry and devise data-driven. Evidence-based decision-making within innovative financing and procurement strategies for cultures of learning and experimentation, enabled by digital infrastructure. Accordingly, ministries of edu- educational technology, leads to more effective, re- cation should promote transparent standards that fa- sponsible, and equitable uses of data. cilitate interoperability of systems, data, and content to promote a data-driven decision-making culture.    In primary education, educational technology can promote the use of scripted lessons through digital Expanded access to and use of data present challeng- devices (box 4.2). Scripted lessons are directed in- es in terms of privacy, data ownership, transparency, struction plans that can be loaded to tablets/devices and inclusion. Countries will need significant invest- to help teachers with classroom delivery. These les- ments in essential digital infrastructure (connectivity sons provide teachers with content matched to cur- and devices) and good-quality digital content. Coun- ricula that teachers can quickly deploy in situations tries will also need to ensure that this digital infrastruc- where (a) schools are in remote and difficult-to-reach ture has built-in safeguards to protect the privacy and areas with limited resources and (b) teachers are un- security of users and avoid biases against disadvan- der- or unqualified. According to the Global Education taged groups. Educational technology offers opportuni- Evidence Advisory Panel, which analyzed and iden- ties for evidence-based, transparent decision-making tified “smart buys” in education, structured lesson on delivery and management of education  services. plans produce large gains in learning with low vari- The use of technology in support of teaching and learn- ance across settings. An analysis of structured teach- ing leaves a digital footprint that can be collected, an- er guides across 13 countries in the Global South alyzed, and shared in ways that can compromise pri- finds that “programs that use teachers’ guides show vacy, data ownership, and digital security. Clear policy significant impacts on learning outcomes, associated guidance and rules need to be established, recognizing with approximately an additional half year of learning, that trade-offs must be  considered  and that related showing that structured teachers’ guides contribute guidance and rules need to evolve over time.  to improved learning outcomes” (Piper et al. 2018, ii). Lesson plans or guides for teachers make teaching The World Bank advocates attention to five key prin- easier and provide information on what to teach and ciples when education systems invest in education- how to do it. Lesson plans can be printed and distrib- al technology. (a) Ask why. Educational technology uted to teachers or provided digitally through tablets 40 For example, under the Chad Education Sector Reform Project Phase 2, the Chadian government reformed the payment of community teacher subsidies from cash to mobile payment. This reform improved not only the rapidity of the payment but also the governance of the payment system and security of Ministry of Education staff and teachers. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 77 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.2. Scripted Lesson Plans Implementation To be effective, implementation of scripted lesson plans requires the following enabling conditions: ■ Scripted lesson plans need to go hand in hand with teacher training/professional development pro- grams. Research suggests that ongoing monitoring and training of teachers in the overall use of guides or lesson plans is key and can help even teachers with weak pedagogical skills (Piper et al. 2018). ■ Scripted lesson plans need to be high quality, adaptable, and aligned to the curriculum. Success comes down to the quality of materials, whether printed or digital. The lesson plans should link to the compe- tencies established in the curriculum and allow ease of use by teachers. As part of the Continuous and Accelerated Learning Program in response to COVID-19, the World Bank is developing a compendium of lesson plans that will offer examples of high-quality lesson plans in a variety of languages. ■ Teacher buy-in is important as scripted lessons plans will not be effective if teachers do not use them. Providing clear information to teachers on what is expected of them, appropriate support and training, and coaching interventions can help teachers see how scripted lesson plans can facilitate their work, which will in turn transform teachers into allies (Piper et al. 2018). ■ Scripted lesson plans should not reinforce gender stereotypes among students and teachers. Interven- tions during the pandemic have incorporated media content such as Ubongo Kids, aimed at empow- ering girls and adolescents. or other devices. Providing them digitally is no less ef- 4.7.1. Difficulties with the Language of fective and can save costs in terms of distribution and Instruction when lesson plans need to be updated or revised. The EdoBEST program in Nigeria seeks to transform learn- Low test scores may reflect a “near total lack of un- ing for around 300,000 children in 1,500 schools over derstanding of the language used for teaching and/or the next four years. EdoBEST is partnering with Bridge testing; they do not indicate any inability to learn un- to support teacher training and development on the der the right learning conditions” (p. 8). A significant Supporting Teachers to Achieve Results (STAR) com- and growing body of research shows that children ponent. Specifically, the programs seek to enhance learn better in their first language (L1) than in a sec- teacher effectiveness through a training program that ond language (L2). Substantial evidence also shows leverages technology and empowers teachers to im- that children who first learn in their L1 are more like- prove children’s learning. During the pandemic, the ly to become proficient in an L2 over time and more EdoBest program was adapted to EdoBest@Home. likely to remain in school. Further, instruction in an L2 The delivery methods that were implemented com- without support in an L1 is more likely to affect chil- bine WhatsApp, interactive text messages, and the dren in the bottom 40 percent of the socioeconom- EdoBEST@Home web platform. ic distribution. Poor language-of-instruction policies contribute to early dropout rates, repetition rates, and low learning overall. According to the World Bank’s 4.7. Pedagogy for Effective Teaching (2021c) first policy approach paper on language and Learning of instruction, an estimated 37 percent of children around the world learn in a language other than their L1. Sub-Saharan Africa is disproportionately affected, Language of instruction and alignment of teaching with percentages reaching as high as 90 percent of with students’ ability to absorb the content of lessons children in some countries. The percentage of the are two critical challenges in achieving learning out- population speaking the official language of instruc- comes in AFW countries. The following discussion tion (French) is as low as 12 percent in Niger, 15 per- elaborates on these challenges. cent in Mali, 21 percent in Burkina Faso, 28 percent 78 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.3. Typology of Language-of-Instruction Models ■ L1-based instruction. Instruction is fully in the L1. This model is common in much of the world (Europe, United States, Latin America, parts of Asia). Foreign languages are sometimes taught as subjects. ■ Immersion. Instruction is in the L2 from school entry onward. This model is the most common model in AFW countries: “The model is often misapplied to the African context from very different environments in which it has been used in North America or Europe, based on the mistaken idea that children will learn a language if they learn in the language. Because instruction is provided primarily in a language that is not familiar to learners, with limited exposure to the language out of school, this model is often referred to as ‘submersion’ in the African context” (USAID 2012). ■ Early exit transitional. Instruction is in the L1 for a few years before transition to instruction in English, French, Portuguese, or Arabic prior to the end of primary school. ■ Late exit transitional. Instruction is in the L1 through the end of primary school (and sometimes be- yond). The L1 is sometimes taught as a subject in secondary school. ■ Additive bilingual. Instruction is in the L1 while children learn an L2 that is introduced gradually (as a subject and then later as a language of instruction). Source: Based on World Bank (2021c) derived from the United States Agency for International Development EdData. in both Senegal and the Central African Republic, and indigenous languages, as noted above), approxi- 38 percent in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Eth- mately 90 percent of the population speaks one of nologue 2020, as cited in RTI 2020). This lack of L1 the six national languages recognized by the govern- instruction leaves millions of children in the subregion ment in 2001 (Conférence des Ministres de l’Educa- unable to learn in a language they understand.  tion des Etats et Gouvernements de la Francophonie 2010; Leclerc 2013, as cited in RTI 2015). Despite the broad linguistic diversity of AFW, many children speak a relatively small number of untaught A range of models relate to language of instruction, L1s. Globally, 37 percent of children are not learning though some are significantly less effective than oth-  in their L1. Of that figure, 27 percent speak a minority ers (box 4.3). written language, which is a language that currently has more than 1.5 million speakers, is written, and Although not captured in the typology above, lan- is not the official language of the country. The re- guage models also vary by the subjects taught in the maining 10 percent represent what is described as L1. In some cases, the L1 is utilized only as part of a “long tail” of many languages, each with relatively reading instruction, with all other subjects taught in few speakers. Based on estimations from 2020 Eth- the L2 (for example, in the case of The Gambia and nologue data, over 241 million minority written lan- in pilot programs in Senegal). In other cases, the L1 guage speakers reside in AFW, representing nearly is used for all subjects (as in the case of Burkina Faso 60 percent of the population in Central Africa and 34 models, which have a late exit program in 2 percent percent of the population in West Africa (table 4.2; of schools). Table 4.3 shows a snapshot of the types World Bank 2021c). By the time children who speak of policies utilized in AFW countries. The actual sit- long-tail languages enter school, in many cases, they uation in each country situation is, of course, more are already bilingual in a less widely used language complex. For example, although Burkina Faso and and in another language used across a larger pop- Senegal officially have immersion programs based ulation (sometimes referred to as a “market lan- on the language-of-instruction policy, both countries guage”). In these cases, the children may be able to also have extensive pilots in L1 instruction. Further, use the market language as their L1. For example, al- although The Gambia has L1 instruction in primary, though Senegal is linguistically diverse (with 31 living this model teaches only reading in the L1. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 79 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Table 4.3. Type of Policy Utilized in West and Central African Countries Type of Policy Language of Instruction Countries Immersion (L2) French Benin, Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, Republic of Congo, Senegal (early exit pilot programs exist), Togo, Niger (a selection of langue maternelle schools exist, and all others are immersion) French and Arabic Chad, Mauritania French and English Cameroon Portuguese Guinea-Bissau, Cabo Verde English Liberia, Sierra Leone Transitional Portuguese Cabo Verde (all preschool is in Creole) (Early exit) English and local languages Ghana (early exit, all subjects), The Gambia (reading only) Transitional English and local languages Nigeria (transitions in fourth grade) (Late exit) French and local languages Burkina Faso (a selection of late exit L1 schools in all subjects exist, representing 2 percent of schools, while all others are immersion) Mali (a selection of late exit L1 schools in all subjects exist, and all others are immersion) Source: Original compilation based on AFW task team leaders’ interview. Note: L1/L2 = first/second language. 4.7.2. Gaps between Teaching and 4.8. Teaching in a Language That Students’ Capacity to Absorb Lessons Children Understand and at the Right Level Many primary school children in AFW do not meet the academic standards for their grade. The PASEC 2019 found that 52.1 percent of sixth-grade children in the Given the problems highlighted above, t  he Regional 14 participating countries—13 of which were AFW Education Strategy advocates for renewed efforts countries—were below the competency threshold in by AFW countries to rationalize their policies on lan- reading. Of these children, 21 percent were at level 1, guage of instruction and teaching at the right level. meaning that the students had developed decoding skills and could use those skills to understand isolated words from their daily lives or very short isolated sen- 4.8.1. Using Mother Tongue as Language tences, but they could not understand a simple text. of Instruction About 6 percent did not even reach level 1. In Chad, more than 14 percent of students belong to this level, Ensuring that children begin their schooling in a and that figure is 13 percent for Niger. PASEC 2019 language that they understand is important for also revealed that almost 60 percent of students do not their success throughout the learning cycle. One have foundational reading skills, and more than 41 per- central intervention is to teach students in the cent have not mastered basic mathematics skills. The languages they use and understand. AFW has five annual secondary-grades learning assessments car- official languages (English, French, Spanish, Por- ried out in Sierra Leone showed that students’ learning tuguese, and Arabic) and 940 minority languages. performance is poor and significantly below curriculum When children are first taught in a language that expectations. In Ghana, fewer than half of second-grade they speak and understand from their home expe- students could read a single word in English or an offi- rience, they learn more and are better positioned to cial Ghanaian language of instruction. Of fourth- and learn other languages. This approach also lays the sixth-grade students, only 25 percent were proficient in strongest foundation for learning in a second lan- mathematics and only 37 percent in English. guage later in school. Students taught in a language 80 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty they do not speak at home, in contrast, have great has been intentional about reinforcing Portuguese as difficulty learning and tend to leave school earlier the medium of instruction in schools, driven in part by and with less knowledge (August and Hakuta 1997; nation building. In some cases, however, the reverse Duc and Tam 2013; Kim et al. 2016; Programme has been true, and government transitions have led in International Student Assessment 2015; Smits, to uptake of local language policies. For example, Huisman, and Kruijff 2008; Trudell 2016; Vygotsky after Guinea gained independence from France in 1986). Effects persist over a lifetime, with higher 1960, the country actively pursued local language in- average earnings accruing to students who begin struction as per the order of the communist president their schooling in their home language (Patrinos at the time.  and Velez 2009). Some countries are already mov- ing in this direction. For example, the Democratic To support the teaching of children in their  moth- Republic of Congo’s Global Partnership for Educa- er tongue, the  World Bank will work with  countries tion project supports the introduction of four local on understanding  the language landscape, creat- languages, and the first textbooks in local languag- ing materials, and deploying new technology. In par- es have already reached the schools. The Central ticular, the World Bank will help countries create or African Republic Global Partnership for Education update maps of students’ first languages and  in- project will support use of Sango, a language spo- structional languages. Specifically, the World Bank ken by almost all Central Africans. Under the Chad will help countries to Education Sector Reform Project Phase 1, use of the mother tongue as the language of instruction took ■ Develop community-based approaches to lan- place in 135 schools in the province of Moyen Chari. guage-of-instruction mapping; The evaluation showed that mother tongue schools ■ Formulate language-of-instruction policies, obtain better results than traditional schools, inte- which can take many forms (for example, reading grate into the community more effectively, and elic- instruction only, early exit, late exit); it greater enthusiasm from parents and students ■ Produce a well-developed scope and sequence about participating in activities. Benchmarking re- in local languages that takes into account the nu- sults in 2017 show that at the end of fourth grade, ances of each language; student performance in reading comprehension ■ Develop structured teaching materials and ac- and writing in Sar and French was significantly high- companying reading materials in students’ moth- er for students in pilot classrooms than for those in er tongues; control schools (Enfants du Monde Tchad 2017). ■ Promote authorship and build publishing capaci- ty in different languages;  Barriers to implementing better language-of-in- ■ Engage in South-South cooperation on good prac- struction policies are varied and depend heavily tices for instruction in students’ mother tongues on the context. Linguistic, demographic, and po- and transition to the national language of instruc- litical economy aspects all play into the question of tion where pertinent; and language of instruction and are highly contextual. ■ Use technology to develop mother-tongue titles However, AFW does have some shared challenges. and provide support for diverse learners. Political buy-in is critical to moving forward with lan- guage-of-instruction policy reforms. In Benin, a pilot In cases where shifts to local language instruction are for first to fifth grade in local languages from 2012 to he World Bank would em- not politically feasible, t 2016 showed positive results, but the government phasize teaching approaches that focus on oral lan- decided not to pursue the reform. Cameroon and guage development for English, French, Portuguese, Guinea-Bissau also piloted approaches with posi- or Spanish language learners since acquisition of the tive results that the governments ultimately did not L2 is essential. Education technology can reduce the implement. In the Central African Republic, a lan- cost of producing content in local languages and aug- guage-of-instruction reform for primary has been in ment the printed word with multisensory utilities such discussion since 2000, but lack of political buy-in and as audio playback and word tracking. Regardless of instability due to changing governments has prevent- the country’s choice, strengthening teachers’ com- ed any progress. In Guinea-Bissau, the government petency in the language of instruction is also key. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 81 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Further, the many shared languages within certain tasks they need to master in their learning progres- subregions may offer significant opportunities for sion (box 4.4). For example, students who are strug- economies of scale across countries. For example, gling with letter sounds will continue to work on letter although the two countries vary slightly, both Nige- sounds, mastering them before moving on to word ria and Niger have a large number of speakers of reading. These interventions have to be adapted to Hausa; creation of new teaching and learning ma- the country contexts and must include grouping chil- terials in Hausa could therefore take into account dren. Grouping can take place according to level of existing resources within both countries. In cases of knowledge instead of age (Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer cross-border languages, countries should explore 2011). Grouping could also alternatively be based on translation/versioning/adaptation of teaching and parts of the school day (Banerjee et al. 2016). Groups learning materials. This process requires close coor- could even be formed and gathered after school or dination with language experts and intensive support during holidays using teachers and volunteers (Ba- to governments. nerjee et al. 2008) or teaching assistants (Banerjee et al. 2007). Targeted instruction can benefit from Building capacity within the country is critical to educational technology as well. For example, an af- language-of-instruction reforms. Capacity building ter-school program in India uses adaptive learning should take place at various levels so that rationale software that customizes content based on the level for language-of-instruction policy changes, strategy and rate of progress of each student (Muralidharan, for operationalization of the rollout, and plans for Singh, and  Ganimian  2019). In Botswana, targeted accompanying materials development are well un- text messages were sent based on children’s levels, derstood. Scope and sequence, pace, and amount focusing on remediation for the students furthest be- of emphasis on various reading subskills are highly hind (Angrist et al. 2020). India conducted learning language specific. Accomplishing this kind of cur- camps to improve the basic learning outcomes of pri- riculum development across multiple languages mary school children (Banerjee et al. 2017). In Côte will require careful partnerships with technical ex- d’Ivoire, a program was embedded during the school perts, linguists, and government counterparts to be day (90 minutes per day and five days a week); the successful. Other institutions such as universities proportion of students who could at least read a para- (internal and external), publishers, and materials graph increased by 18 percent, and the proportion developers are also critical. of students who could do subtraction increased by 26 percent. The Chad Improving Learning Outcomes Project (P175803), currently under preparation, will 4.8.2. Teaching at the Right Level: support the design and introduction of a “right-level” Targeted Instruction instructional model as remedial education outside school hours for primary-school students at risk of Instruction needs to target children’s level with a fo- dropping out as well as for primary school–age out- cus on foundational reading and mathematics skills. of-school children in the school catchment. Teaching at the level of the children enables them to acquire foundational reading and mathematics skills quickly. Indeed, children learn best when present- 4.9. Nascent Systems for Student ed with instruction that is suitably demanding: not Learning Assessment and How to too difficult and not too easy, so it can expand their Improve Them capabilities. Evidence shows there are detrimental effects to asking students to complete a learning task for which they lack sufficient prior learning. Val- Student learning assessment keeps the focus on a per- iandes (2015) demonstrated the benefits of aligning formance indicator that matters to students, schools, instruction with current learning levels. The World and the education system as a whole. High-stakes Bank will support countries in implementing inter- examinations feature prominently in the assessment ventions to target teaching instruction according to systems of most AFW countries. While they serve a learning level, not grade. Targeting instruction ac- useful purpose, such examinations are insufficient cording to level ensures that students are given the to provide the more dynamic tracking of student 82 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.4. Targeted Instruction (from the Teaching at the Right Level Model Developed by Pratham) ■ Definition: Targeted instruction is an evidence-based approach to improving students’ foundational skills by providing instruction that is appropriate to the learning levels of each child. ■ Approach: Targeted instruction entails assessing students’ learning levels and grouping students ac- cordingly—that is, by their level of proficiency rather than by age or grade. Grouping often brings to- gether students from across classrooms or even grades. Groups tend to be implemented for specif- ic periods during the school day. For example, Côte d’Ivoire conducted 90-minute sessions in which national trainers (trained by Pratham) trained school heads/pedagogical advisors, who then trained teachers on targeted instruction. Groups may also be implemented in after-school sessions or during vacation breaks, as Niger and Madagascar did under the School for All program supported by the Ja- pan International Cooperation Agency. Another approach is to group students by learning level within a classroom, such as by having similar students sit in small tables to receive instruction. Teachers then align instruction to the current learning level of students rather than start at an assumed level or cur- ricular expectation.  ■ Basic model: First, a brief assessment of language or mathematics proficiency is conducted with each child to understand the child’s current learning level. Second, students are grouped based on the level scored in the assessment. Teachers/facilitators are trained to deliver instruction that is targeted or tai- lored and designed to help students move quickly through these level-based groups. The instruction fo- cuses on foundational skills in both reading and mathematics and uses basic and simple tools adjusted to the school context. Both indoor and outdoor (play-based) activities are included. Finally, children are reassessed and moved up through the levels as they progress.  ■ Fundamental principles: The following five principles are necessary for an effective model: (a) Set clear learning goals. Clearly articulate those learning goals and identify which goals to achieve in a specified time duration. (b) Use assessments to understand learning levels. Targeted instruction programs and interventions depend on the use of assessments to understand baseline levels and to inform instruc- tion and organization of groups for learning. (c) Align instruction. Instruction must be coherent with current learning levels and the targeted learning progress. (d) Provide effective support to teachers and instructors. Ongoing teacher training and mentoring should ensure delivery of instruction with pro- gram fidelity, provide continuous feedback for improvement, and highlight further training or possible modifications to a program. (e) Track progress periodically. Conduct regular assessments throughout the duration of an intervention. ■ Typology of models: The program can be embedded during the school day, either for the whole day, as in the case of Côte d’Ivoire, or during a dedicated period of the day. The program could adopt a learn- ing camp model during the school year, as was the case in Botswana, or a summer camp model, as Zambia did. ■ Source: Based on the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Hub resources on the Teaching at the Right Level method (https://the-fln-hub.webflow.io/focus-area/teaching-at-the-right-level). learning required to improve teaching practices in 4.9.1. Current Practices in Student the classroom. Such assessments also make it dif- Assessment in AFW ficult to benchmark a country’s learning outcomes to those in other countries. The following discussion Learning assessments in AFW countries heavily rely provides an overview of current practices in student on high-stakes examinations.  In many AFW coun- assessment in the region and elaborates on ways to tries, students take three public examinations be- strengthen these practices. fore completing general education. The examination Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 83 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty systems  in many AFW countries face both tech- Mathematics Assessments would help countries to nical and administrative challenges. First, there identify bottlenecks and use regional synergies to ad- is a weak alignment between curriculum objectives dress them. and examinations. Second, because of their high stakes, public examinations tend to exert consider- Fostering a culture of regular assessment is essen- able pressure on students, parents, teachers, and tial to keep the focus on learning. Most AFW coun- schools, limiting educational success  benchmarks tries lack robust systems for classroom, national, and to examination results. This pressure not only leads international assessment. Instead, these countries to neglect of critical thinking, problem solving, and tend to rely exclusively on high-stakes examinations practical skills, all of which are less favored in exam- like the West African Senior School Certificate Ex- inations, but also increases repetition rates in these amination. In contrast to high-stakes examinations, countries. In addition, national examinations heav- assessments can track student progress against ily inform the flow of students between cycles and benchmarks specified in the national curriculum often  restrict students’ progress from primary to using a variety of formats and tools such as period- lower-secondary or from lower- to upper-secondary ic rigorous large-scale assessments and frequent education. in-class formative assessments. Regular classroom observation and assessment of students by teachers Classroom and large-scale assessments  need helps with identifying and narrowing student knowl- strengthening to improve learning and enhance the edge gaps. Large-scale assessment helps monitor quality of education. Classroom assessment can com- the performance of education throughout a country plement public examination and even enhance the and allows the Ministry of Education to make evi- validity of external examinations; namely, it can close- dence-based decisions about managing the system. ly align with the national curriculum while also assess- Details on how to develop and implement these criti- ing student outcomes that external examinations, due cal points are below. to their format, fail to measure. Many AFW countries have the basic elements of classroom assessment in place to diagnose student learning issues. However, 4.9.2. Improving the Quality of classroom assessment in practice tends to be weak Examinations and in need of further system-level support.  Large- scale assessments (national, regional, and interna- Well-designed and well-implemented high-stakes ex- tional) aiming to provide evidence of the performance aminations can level the playing field by giving all stu- of a country’s education system are becoming more dents the same opportunity to show what they know common, but they are still mainly for primary edu- and can do. High-stakes examinations are typically cation. Of the AFW countries, 17 countries have de- used to  students as the students select or certify  veloped national assessment systems,  9 countries move from one level of the education system to the have carried out at least one Early Grade Reading next (or into the workforce). In many countries, these Assessment and/or Early Grade Mathematics Assess- examinations provide decision-makers with a stan- ment,  and 8  countries have caried out at least one dardized measure of student knowledge that can Service Delivery Indicator. All 13 Francophone coun- inform important decisions. Examinations may also tries have participated in at least in one PASEC, but play an important equity role by limiting patronage only Ghana and Senegal have participated in interna- and opening access to educational opportunities for tional assessments such as the Programme in Inter- students from disadvantaged backgrounds. Given national Literacy Survey, the Programme for Interna- their high-stakes nature, these examinations must tional Student Assessment for Development,  the or  test competencies, higher-order thinking, and rea- Trends in International Mathematics and Science soning skills without creating perverse incentives for Study. Assessing student performance against inter- teachers and students (such as encouraging shal- national standards and comparing it with student per- low forms of learning like cramming and rote mem- formance in other countries is therefore difficult. Sys- orization) (El-Kogali and  Krafft 2020). Measures to tematic use of regional assessments, such as PASEC, prevent and address misuse of examinations are es- Early Grade Reading Assessments, and Early Grade sential. Depending on the objective and scope of the 84 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.5. Improving the Quality of Examinations in AFW Countries To increase the power of high-stakes examinations as a tool for improving student learning, AFW coun- tries might consider the following practical measures: ■ Improving the technical aspects of examinations. Decision-makers could ensure each examination’s alignment with the national curriculum; introduce multiple-choice tests; incorporate students’ real-life situations, practical skills, and noncognitive skills; and design assessment practices that contribute to meeting the challenges facing education in each country. ■ Using student performance information to generate feedback. Ministries of education, as well as exam- ination authorities, should use examination results to help improve the quality of classroom teaching. Examinations can generate valuable feedback that helps teachers to pay particular attention to the most common errors made by students. ■ Enhancing validity. Validity, as a principle of educational measurement, relates to the appropriateness of the inferences, uses, and consequences of an assessment. Ministries of education, as well as exam- ination authorities, should identify threats to validity in their systems and take actions to mitigate them. Threats may include lack of alignment with the national curriculum, method of measurement, choice, overpredictability, administrative conditions, and aspects of administration. ■ Using technology to improve administrative practices. Many examination authorities heavily invest in technology. The use of information technology in examinations offers several advantages: increased processing speed; increased security; increased accuracy; increased opportunities for analysis of per- formance; and reduced costs due to savings in storage, printing, and payment of examiners.  ■ Eliminating examination malpractice and improving examination-related security. Appropriate legally backed sanctions should be in place, and the resulting laws and regulations should be both enforce- able and enforced. Technology could help mitigate examination malpractice, enhance security, and increase efficiency.  ■ Abolishing unnecessary exit or selection examinations. Many countries have already abolished exam- inations at the primary education level because all or most students transfer to the next phase of edu- cation. Bashir et al. (2018) reported that data from some AFW countries indicated an increase in the repetition rate in the grade immediately prior to the national examination, while data from other coun- tries indicated high repetition rates in the grade where the examination was administered.  ■ Creating a balanced assessment system. Much effort at assessment reform in many countries has fo- cused on reducing the burden of examinations on students while improving the quality and the validity of the assessments. These efforts have emphasized classroom/school-based assessment and large- scale assessment and should be expanded. examination, the high-stakes decision-making pro- 4.9.3. Improving Classroom Assessment cess should also take into consideration criteria other Practices than examination scores (such as school grades, cap- stone projects, or interviews). If stakeholders are con- Classroom-based formative assessments can help cerned about existing inequities affecting the fairness monitor student progress in real time, inform class- of examination results, additional measures could be room teaching practices, and guide teacher profes- introduced to increase access to learning opportuni- sional development. Such assessments thus com- ties for disadvantaged subgroups, particularly where plement large-scale, system-level assessments that there is scope to expand provision of schooling. Box serve a separate and vital role in setting national 4.5 highlights how AFW countries might improve the goals, monitoring progress toward these goals, quality of their national examinations. and giving a bird’s-eye view of trends in student Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 85 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.6. Good Practices for Classroom-Based Formative Assessments All such assessments should measure student results against the explicit goals developed in the curric- ulum or national reading goals. Good practices to this end include the following: ■ Clarifying expectations. Ensure that the curricula or syllabi for all subjects identify the key skills, under- standing, and knowledge that students should acquire by the end of their courses. Without this clear guidance, it is difficult to implement classroom assessments successfully. ■ Establishing required system-wide mechanisms for classroom-based assessments. System-wide mechanisms, such as pre- and in-service training that incorporates the classroom assessment ele- ment, help teachers conduct more effective classroom assessments and use assessment information more appropriately. ■ Providing schools with guidance, resources, and materials for classroom assessment. Teachers need the assessment skills required for the task. Instructional guidance, resources, and materials are also helpful in promoting classroom assessment at the school level. ■ Institutionalizing mechanisms for systematic monitoring of the quality of classroom assessment. Class- room assessment practices can be monitored, for instance, as part of school inspection and teacher supervision and evaluation. ■ Including an element of classroom assessment in an examination framework to increase equity, effec- tiveness, and efficiency. Some countries (mainly middle- and high-income countries) have allocated a certain percentage of examination marks to school-based assessments. AFW countries cannot intro- duce this allocation in the short term, but it is worth considering as a long-term reform. learning and skill development. Continuous class- schedule for a large-scale assessment and to invest room and formative assessments, in comparison, in strong national assessment programs that can provide immediate feedback to inform classroom produce comparable data over time. Assessment instruction and ongoing teacher professional de- data are necessary to monitor progress in the goals velopment to improve teachers’ pedagogical effec- set under global initiatives, such as the SDGs for ed- tiveness. Classroom assessments are also critical to ucation and the Human Capital Index. Ministries of provide instruction to the level (and needs) of stu- education should establish regulations and guide- dents. They can range from rigorous assessments lines for large-scale assessments and provide policy to less formal methods such as “turn and talk,” error guidance to those who are developing and adminis- analysis of homework, and standard observations tering them. of student responses during class. Box 4.6 high- lights good practices in classroom-based formative AFW countries might also consider joining at least assessments. one regional or international assessment. The data would permit regional or international bench- marking for student learning and measurement 4.9.4. Improving Large-Scale Assessments of progress over time relative to regional peers or at the National and Cross-Country middle- and high-income countries with which Levels AFW countries aspire to compete. Participating in such assessments also creates opportunities for AFW countries can consider introducing at least one peer learning and capacity building in data collec- large-scale national assessment to monitor student tion, analysis, and policy development to improve learning in their effort to enhance the quality of ed- student learning. For this purpose, Francophone ucation systems. It is important to have a regular countries in AFW already benefit from being part of 86 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Box 4.7. Strengthening Large-Scale Assessments of Student Learning in AFW Large-scale student assessments generate high-quality data for benchmarking and tracking student learning progress. They require a large investment of resources and careful planning, execution, and management of the data to yield maximum benefit as a system-level tool for improving student learning. Some of the main measures to this end are identified as follows: ■ Provide adequate fiscal and human resources. The team in charge of the development and implemen- tation of activities should consist of technically proficient and well-trained staff. Such staff can help de- sign and administer large-scale assessments in accordance with best practices and, in turn, increase stakeholder confidence in the results. Assessments are costly in general, but ensuring sufficient fund- ing is critical to the success of a large-scale assessment. The money that countries save as a result of implementing changes to their education systems based on large-scale assessment findings exceeds the cost of investing in these assessments. ■ Clearly define the knowledge domain to be assessed and align it with the national curriculum or learn- ing standards. Large-scale assessments can provide useful information when the assessment content is well defined and aligned with relevant and representative elements of the curriculum. This alignment should be codified in the assessment framework.  ■ Use the results to shape classroom practices and build the capacity of teachers. National assessments can identify areas and groups that are lagging in terms of achievement and then design strategies to address these disparities. Teachers should receive guidance and training on how to make good use of assessment results and take corrective measures in teaching. ■ Ensure that assessment findings are widely disseminated and used. The audience includes educa- tors at both the system and school levels, and the findings should be systematically assessed for their implications for policy and follow-up action. Assessment findings should be publicly available to en- sure stakeholders can learn from and leverage the results of assessment activities. Assessment results should also guide system improvement as well as program and policy design. Annex 3 presents how some countries have used assessment results effectively. PASEC. The region’s Anglophone countries do not 4.10. Priorities for Reducing Learning yet have a similar hub and might consider estab- Poverty lishing one, perhaps drawing on the experiences of PASEC and of the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality, Improving teaching and learning in basic education is which both operate for the benefit of countries in a very important issue to address in order to reduce southern and eastern Africa. Box 4.7 highlights key learning poverty. As discussed above, there are five measures to enhance the usefulness of large-scale high-impact interventions that can be grouped into student assessments. two categories. The first category relates to teachers, and the second relates to children’s readiness and the effectiveness of pedagogy including learning re- sources, language of instruction, and learning assess- ment (figure 4.10). These interventions are based on the general context of the region, but each country must prioritize and develop its action plan consider- ing its specific context. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 87 High-Impact Interventions to Reduce Learning Poverty Figure 4.10. Interventions to Improve Teaching and Learning  What? Why? How? Transform the teaching Students of skillful teachers learn • Improve the quality of new teachers in the pipeline profession more and attain more years of • Attract more women to teaching schooling • Recruit teachers based on merit, deploy based on needs, strengthen career management • Support teachers with structured pedagogy Enhance students' Students without proper early • Invest in nutrition, health, early stimulation and other readiness to learn nutrition and stimulation are not well cross-sectoral areas prepared to learn • Encourage reading at home • Involve non-state actors, incl community-based ECD Provide learning Shortage of learning materials is • Provide a set of core learning resources/minimum resources and EdTech pervasive, and students cannot learn package of learning materials (textbooks, readers, and tools without them scripted lesson plans) Teach at the right level Learning in a first language promotes • Instruct in local languages in first few year of schooling and in a language better learning outcomes and and transition to second language in later years children understand development of other cognitive abilities, • Target instruction to children's level focusing on and targeting instruction to a child's foundational reading and mathematic skills learning level provides quick results Foster a culture of Regular assessments keep the focus on • Institutionalize periodic, rigorous, large-scale regular learning learning, provide timely information on assessments (national or international) assessments student performance, and allow for • Support frequent in-class formative assessments using adjustments to improve student learning technology Note: EdTech = educational technology; ECD = early childhood development. 88 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 89 PHOTO BY: © 2020 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK 5. High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Over the past few decades, access to education has in the number of schools are insufficient to catch expanded rapidly in AFW, but many children and up. The discussion of this chapter is therefore rele- youth are still not in school. A number of countries vant in particular because expanding access to ed- have yet to universalize basic education in part be- ucation relates to decreases in fertility. In Nigeria, for cause the supply of schooling has expanded much instance, each additional year of female schooling more slowly than the school-age population. Sec- reduces fertility by at least 0.26 births per woman ondary education suffers from the same imbalance (Lam, Sedlacek, and Duryea 2016). Education in- between supply and population growth, and its ad- creases women’s use of contraception, strengthens verse impact on access has been greater for girls, their role in family fertility decisions, and makes them refugees, internationally displaced persons, per- more aware of the trade-offs in having children (Gor- sons living with disabilities, and other disadvantage don et al. 2011). groups. To meet the demand for formal education from the This chapter presents data on population trends in increasing number of school-age children, AFW coun- AFW to contextualize the challenges of expanding tries will have to invest significantly in school infra- education access. It examines the key bottlenecks structure. Few countries in the region have adequate on both the demand and supply sides that prevent school infrastructure to accommodate all current many children and youth from attending school. school-age children. The school-age population in These constraints contribute to inequities in access AFW will reach an estimated 150 million by 2030 to education across the region. Some bottlenecks and 204 million by 2050. Currently, the school-age operate at all levels, while others exert a greater im- (basic education) population is 123 million. Nigeria pact on certain groups at certain levels. The chapter constitutes about 45 percent of this population; Fran- also identifies promising interventions to overcome cophone countries collectively constitute 44 percent. the key barriers to expanding learning opportunities Other Anglophone and Lusophone countries repre- across the region. It concludes by highlighting prior- sent the remaining 10 percent of the school-age pop- ities for consideration by policy makers in designing ulation in the region. policies and programs to expand learning opportuni- ties in the region. For the medium-term, the number of school-age chil- dren will continue to increase at a high rate in most AFW countries as the region is still at a very early 5.1. Demographic Trends and Their stage of the demographic transition. The region has Implications for Education Access the youngest population in the world, with 12 per- cent of its population under the age of 15 (World Bank 2021b). Currently, most AFW countries are in The difficulties of increasing access to education are the pre-demographic transition phase. Out of the 22 exacerbated by the region’s rapid population growth countries in the region, six have a fertility rate of 5 (figure 5.1). In many cases, even significant increases or higher births per woman, with Niger having the Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 91 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.1. Estimated and Projected Growth in Basic School-Age Population in Western and Central Africa 225 204 200 191 178 18 17 175 164 17 150 16 150 137 15 92 123 14 86 125 109 80 Millions 13 74 94 12 68 100 82 11 62 72 56 75 64 10 49 56 9 8 42 50 7 36 32 88 94 26 29 74 81 61 67 25 48 55 31 36 41 23 27 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045 2050 Francophone Nigeria Other Source: Based on World Population Prospects (2019) and United Nations (2019). highest fertility rate at 6.8. Thirteen countries have 5.2. Demand-Side Constraints to a fertility rate between 4 and 5 births per woman. Access Education Only three countries in the region—Cabo Verde (2.2), Ghana (3.8), and Gabon (3.9)—have a total fertility rate of less than 4 births per women. More- This section summarizes the main demand-side con- over, a stagnant or slow pace of decline in fertility straints that affect access to education. These con- rates in many AFW countries means that the region straints include the widespread financial constraints may take more than 60 years to fully complete the at the household level, the informational constraints, fertility transition (May and Guengant 2020). With the sociocultural norms that prevent access to ed- the continuation of the fertility transition period for ucation, and the widespread lack of safety in and the next few decades, the high growth of the school- around schools. age population will continue to present a challenge. Countries will have to strive to build new school classrooms and facilities to absorb an ever-grow- 5.2.1. Financial Constraints ing number of school-age children into the formal school system. Lack of resources is among the most common de- mand-side constraints; though basic education is for- Children who are not in school can be classified into mally free and compulsory, families still have to make three groups: those who have never enrolled, those out-of-pocket expenditures. In Liberia, for instance, who have registered but dropped out before finishing, 11.3 percent of primary-school-age children and and those attending non-integrated religious educa- 19.1 percent of junior secondary-school-age chil- tion institutions. The constraints that affect out-of- dren report monetary constraints as the main reason school children’s situation—and consequently, the for never attending school (De Simone and Teixeira potential solutions—are different for each group. The 2021). Direct costs are mostly related to registration following sections identify the main constraints and fees, school fees, and parent association contribu- propose a series of corresponding priority areas and tions. Indirect costs include uniforms and clothing, interventions. school supplies, transport, and food. Additionally, op- portunity costs such as the value of child labor, which the household waives by sending children to school, 92 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.2. Primary and Secondary Net Attendance Rates by Household Wealth Quintiles (a) Primary education (b) Secondary education Primary Secondary 92 67 89 56 Sierra Leone 88 Sierra Leone 39 86 30 80 22 76 49 59 28 Senegal 54 Senegal 20 46 18 37 11 71 70 77 70 Nigeria 71 Nigeria 56 58 37 32 15 70 57 64 35 Mali 51 Mali 21 41 14 31 14 69 54 68 44 Liberia 53 Liberia 24 44 14 33 9 83 54 73 35 Guinea 58 Guinea 18 52 14 42 7 81 54 78 50 Ghana 71 Ghana 39 61 30 64 25 78 61 80 55 Gambia 77 Gambia 46 70 39 68 29 75 45 46 16 Chad 44 Chad 12 48 11 45 9 76 60 79 45 Benin 68 Benin 32 59 22 40 13 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 Highest Fourth Middle Second Lowest Source: Latest available Demographic and Health Surveys (2014–19). are important, especially for secondary education An analysis conducted by UNICEF (n.d.) shows that (UNICEF n.d.). in AFW, of all expenditure on education, more than half is on direct costs, 40 percent is on equipment The gap in access to primary education between chil- and school supplies, and 10 percent is on transport dren from the poorest wealth quintile households and and food, albeit with large heterogeneities across the richest wealth quintile households in terms of net countries. In many cases, expenditures on education attendance rate is as high as 41 percentage points in represent a large portion of total household expen- Guinea; 39 percentage points in Senegal, Nigeria, and diture. Household contributions represent between Mali; 36 percentage points in Benin and Liberia; and 6 percent (Niger) and 78 percent (Sierra Leone) of 30 percentage points in Chad (figure 5.2). The gap in what the government spends per student in primary access to secondary education as measured by net school. For lower-secondary education, these values attendance rate is even more acute. The gap in net go up to the point that, for some countries, house- attendance rate between children from the poorest holds spend more than the government. wealth quintile households and the richest wealth quintile households is as high as 55 percentage points in Nigeria, 47 percentage points in Benin and 5.2.2. Information Constraints and Guinea, 45 percentage points in Sierra Leone and Sociocultural Norms Liberia, 43 percentage points in Mali, 38 percentage points in Senegal, 36 percentage points in Chad, 32 Even when financial constraints are not an issue, in- percentage points in The Gambia, and 29 percentage formational constraints prevent many children and points in Ghana. adolescents from attending schools. Information Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 93 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities about the income-earning benefits of education and Values and religious reasons are key motives why the quality of schools is limited; the perception of the parents choose Islamic schools. In a 2010 fieldwork value of education thus tends to be poor. Other fac- study in Burkina Faso, 83.9 percent of participants tors such as the lack of information on school quality with children in Islamic schools cited the opportunity may also hinder school attendance. to receive a religious education as a critical reason for their school choice, with smaller proportions listing Sociocultural norms are another critical constraint academic (25.8 percent) or teacher (12.9 percent) that prevents access to schooling, especially for quality (World Bank 2021). girls at the secondary education level. Sociocultural norms are informal rules that a group uses to deter- mine which behaviors and values are appropriate 5.3. Easing the Demand-Side and which are not. On many occasions, sociocultural Constraints on Education norms influence the role that women are expected to play, preventing girls from attending schools. In Gha- na, if forced to choose, 50 percent of parents would Addressing the challenges that children and youth keep their sons in school, and only 10 percent would face to access education requires a combination of give their daughters priority. demand- and supply-side interventions. In most cas- es, an effective solution will require a combination of The understanding that schools are not the right multiple interventions. This section highlights prom- place for girls is associated with many other roles ising interventions to ease the demand-side con- that women are supposed to play at very early ages. straints on education access: reducing the cost of For instance, AFW is home to the countries with the schooling, providing information to families and chil- highest rates of early marriage in the world. In Ni- dren, and shifting sociocultural norms that prevent ger, for example, the latest data indicate that about access to education. three-quarters of girls 20–24 years old were married before the age of 18, the highest percentage in the world. Sahelian countries tend to be at the top of the 5.3.1. Reducing the Cost of Education list concerning child marriage. With more than 22 million child brides, Nigeria has the highest absolute Reducing the cost of schooling is critical to ease de- value globally. The prevalence of child marriage be- mand-side constraints. With the exception of a few, fore the age of 15 is also the highest globally, with AFW countries have legally abolished school fees. Niger, Chad, Mauritania, Guinea, Mali, and Nigeria This decision has generated important improvements above 15 percent. These values tend to be higher in in education outcomes. However, many families still rural areas and for girls living in the poorest quintile have to pay direct and indirect costs for education. of the income distribution (United Nations Popula- Randomized evaluations consistently find that re- tion Fund 2018). ducing the out-of-pocket cost of schooling or insti- tuting subsidies increases school participation, often Another issue related to sociocultural norms regards dramatically (Glewwe and Olinto 2004; Maluccio and those children who do not attend official schools but Flores 2005; Schady and Araujo 2006; Fiszbein et al. do attend non-integrated religious schools. Many 2009). Eliminating primary school fees has increased non-integrated religious schools are Koranic schools school enrollment and completion rates. It has gen- aiming to prepare children to be good Muslims erated other benefits as well, such as reduced ado- with strong moral values (World Bank 2021). These lescent marriage and pregnancy and increased em- schools are rarely recognized by governments, ex- ployment and financial inclusion in countries such as cept in Mauritania, where they are recognized but Ethiopia, Malawi, and Uganda (Moussa and Omoeva not supported financially. In many countries, the 2020; Ajayi and Ross 2020; Adu Boahen and Yam- share of out-of-school children attending these insti- auchi 2017); higher employment and financial inclu- tutions is significant, including 42 percent in Chad, sion in Kenya (Ajayi and Ross 2020); and reduced 26 percent in Niger, and 23 percent in Nigeria (World adolescent marriage in Ghana (Adu Boahen and Ya- Bank 2021). mauchi 2017). Some studies have also shown effects 94 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities for secondary education in The Gambia (Blimpo, Ga- Buys for education identifies this intervention as the jigo, and Pugatch 2016); Ghana (Duflo, Dupas, and only “great buy,” that is, an intervention that is likely Kremer 2021); Kenya (Brudevold-Newman 2017); to be highly cost effective, either because of its large and Uganda (Masuda et al. 2016). benefits or low costs (World Bank 2020). The design of these interventions is as important as The means for information-sharing differ depending their existence. For instance, deferring payment of on the local context but may include text messages, conditional cash transfers to coincide with the fee videos, parents’ meetings, or school report cards. deadlines for the next level of education has a larg- The impact of providing information is accompanied er impact on subsequent enrollment than evenly by a meager cost per child. For example, in Mada- spaced transfers throughout the year (Barrera-Oso- gascar, school attendance increased by 3.5 per- rio et al. 2007). Thus, transfers in the form of schol- centage points for those exposed to statistics show- arships or cash transfers (including conditional) ing returns to education (Nguyen 2008). In Pakistan, can reduce the cost of secondary education. Suc- school report cards increased primary enrollment cessful examples include cash transfers provided by 4.5 percent, highlighting the importance of pro- under the Nigeria Partnership for Education Project viding information to facilitate comparisons across and the Girls’ Education and Women’s Empower- providers and improve enrollment efficiency (An- ment and Livelihood in Zambia. drabi, Das, and Khwaja 2017). Informing students about the extent to which earnings vary with school- Other important ways to reduce the cost of school- ing can increase school participation with minimal ing have also proven effective. For instance, recent expenditure (Jensen 2010; Nguyen 2008). Partner- studies have found that the provision of free school ing with initiatives from other organizations—such uniforms can lead to 10–15 percent reductions as UNICEF’s “Data Must Speak”—to create easy- in teen pregnancy and dropout rates (Evans et al. to-use profile cards accessible to low-literacy audi- 2018). School feeding programs can also be trans- ences can help parents, teachers, and students stay formative. These programs led to boosts in atten- informed, hold school managers to account, and in- dance and learning outcomes in recent studies crease attendance. for Ghana (Aurino et al. 2019) and Senegal (Diagne et al. 2014). In  Burkina Faso, providing take-home Importantly, to be effective, these interventions need rations boosted attendance for boys and girls and to provide specific and context-relevant information. enrollment for girls (Nikiema 2017). Other nutrition Such information is key to shifting people’s beliefs programs, even though not necessarily focused on about the benefits of education or the quality of reducing the cost of schooling, have also shown pos- schooling; general encouragement to consider edu- itive effects on attendance rates. In Mali, for exam- cation positively is not sufficient (World Bank 2020a). ple, providing iron pills and multiple micronutrients In short, these interventions are not public commu- to students increased attendance rates significantly nication campaigns. However, for these interventions (Ayoya et al. 2012). to succeed, locally relevant quality information from a trusted source needs to be available in the first place, and the delivery method needs to adapt to the local 5.3.2. Providing Information to Parents context (World Bank 2020a). Additionally, the recipi- and Students ents must have the means to act on the information; for example, there must be schools nearby so that When the main bottlenecks in accessing education families who are encouraged to keep their children are informational, providing information to parents in school can do so safely, and communities that re- and children on the income-earning benefits of edu- ceive the information need enough access to orga- cation, sources of funding, and local schools’ quality nizational decision-making structures to spur action also has a high impact. The recent report on Smart (World Bank 2020a). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 95 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities 5.3.3. Shifting Sociocultural Norms Communication campaigns can also take place and Behaviors in Favor of Schooling, through entertainment audiovisual products that Especially for Girls shape norms and behaviors. For example, in Brazil, soap operas have had significant effects on reduc- Shifting sociocultural norms that affect school enroll- ing fertility (La Ferrara et al. 2012). Many programs ment, especially for girls, is essential in the medium are being produced in AFW with similar objectives, term. A first step is involving communities in advoca- including cartoons, radio, and television shows that cy work and comprehensive stakeholder engagement aim to reduce early pregnancies and increase girls’ to sensitize key stakeholders about the importance of enrollment in school. education, especially for girls at the secondary level. These interventions will be particularly relevant for Finally, it is also important to explore the potential of Sahel countries and certain regions of some coun- innovative programs that use cutting-edge technolo- tries, such as Northern Cameroon and Northern Ni- gy. For instance, some programs in the region are now geria (box 5.1). using bots that combine artificial intelligence and behavioral insights to chat with students and shift A second step is conducting comprehensive commu- norms and behaviors to increase girls’ attendance nication campaigns focused on school enrollments and reduce early pregnancies (Rascon n.d.). and changing behaviors and social norms that pre- vent school attendance. This step includes typical traditional multimedia campaigns that approach the 5.4. Supply-Side Constraints on recipient from multiple angles, such as the commu- Education Access nications campaigns implemented in projects like Adolescent Girls Initiative for Learning and Empow- erment in Nigeria. To be effective, these campaigns This section summarizes the main supply-side con- need to follow the lessons of behavioral sciences straints that affect access to education. These con- (Prentice and Paluck 2020). One lesson highlights straints include the lack of schools, the poor infra- the importance of institutional changes and the voice structure, the low accessibility of some available of authority in changing perceptions of social norms; schools, and the limited supply of services for vulner- changing perceptions can guide behavior, even when able groups. individual opinions do not necessarily change (Tan- kard and Paluck 2017). Thus, involving traditional and religious leaders is critical in shifting behaviors 5.4.1. Scarcity of Schools that prevent girls from attending schools. The lack of schools and educational facilities contin- Another lesson highlights the importance of peer ef- ues to be a main challenge to accessing education in fects in changing social norms rapidly. Even at the AFW. This challenge is fueled by the rapid population school level, identifying and training leaders to con- growth in the region, which tends to be especially front criteria that prevent girls from attending schools acute at the secondary level. Nigeria, for example, can have a cascading effect, producing social net- has a critical shortage of secondary schools, with a work changes like the ones evidenced in Paluck’s ratio of 4.3 primary schools for every junior second- (2010) study on reducing prejudice. ary school and 6.1 for every senior secondary school. In the country’s north, 23 percent of primary schools For girls in particular, interventions that address do not have a junior secondary school within four ki- health needs can also affect the demand side and in- lometers, compared to only 5 percent in the south.41 crease attendance. For instance, providing sanitary Thus, many children in the region, especially in rural pads to female students in Kenya reduced absentee- areas, cannot attend school even if their families have ism significantly (Benshaul-Tolonen et al. 2019). the resources and feel that education is worth it. 41 Team’s analysis of National Personnel Audit, 2017/2018. 96 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Box 5.1. Education as a Tool to Catalyze a Demographic Change in Western and Central Africa A demographic dividend is the economic growth potential resulting from shifts in a population’s age structure. When the share of the working-age population is larger than that of the non-working-age pop- ulation, which is typically defined as those younger than 15 and older than 65, there is an opportunity to grow due to the demographic dynamic (United Nations Population Fund 2016). The greater the number of people who produce in relation to those who only consume, the greater the savings, which generates the potential for an increase in investment in human capital accumulation. In such scenarios, there is also reduced pressure regarding spending on education and other programs targeted at families with children, such as conditional cash transfers and family allowances. Such spending and programs could stimulate productivity and lead to sustained economic growth. Western and Central Africa currently has a very young population, with close to 60 percent of the popu- lation below 24. Niger has the highest age-dependency ratio globally, with more than one dependent per working-age person. In the largest country in the region, Nigeria, the age-dependency ratio reaches 86 percent. This young population is partly due to the region’s very high fertility rates of close to 5 births per woman, more than twice the global average. This high-speed population growth creates many challenges for delivering public services, including education. As was highlighted in this chapter, increasing access to education is not enough to achieve universal access if the rate of progress is not higher than the growth of the school-age population. These large groups of youth will soon move to the productive bracket of the working-age population. As such, there will be an opportunity for a demographic dividend. But a few conditions apply: the fertility rate needs to decrease at a faster pace, the under-five mortality needs to decrease, and productive jobs need to be available to the youth entering the labor market. The demographic dividend is not an automatic process; members of the population who are economically active must be able to find productive employ- ment (De Simone and Teixeira 2021). The interventions proposed in the Regional Education Strategy aim to support a demographic dividend from multiple angles. First, this chapter in particular focuses on access to education, especially at the secondary level. The evidence shows that each additional year of schooling reduces fertility rates by 0.26 births, decreases the chances of maternal death by 20 percent, increases survival to age five of students’ children by 50 percent (Osili and Long 2008), and reduces the probability of child marriage for girls by an average of 6 percentage points. Additionally, it increases future income by at least 10 percent (International Center for Research on Women 2018). Fertility decline, in turn, has a strong effect on education by allowing for fewer, healthier, better-nourished, and better-educated children (Canning et al. 2015). Second, this chapter—and the entire strategy—focuses on girls. The strategy follows the 4 E’s approach to catalyzing a demographic dividend established in the Africa Human Capital Plan (World Bank 2019): empower, educate, and employ women and enhance health services. Better-educated and healthier women are likely to have fewer children. And women who have fewer children are much more likely to enter the paid labor market, have higher earnings, and be more empowered (Canning et al. 2015). (Box continues on next page) Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 97 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Box 5.1. Education as a Tool to Catalyze a Demographic Change in Western and Central Africa (continued) Finally, the strategy also puts special attention on providing the right skills for youth to find productive jobs. These skills can be acquired at the secondary education level, as highlighted here, and at the post- secondary level, as will be stressed in the next chapter. The right policies can stimulate a demographic dividend. Increasing access to education at the second- ary level and ensuring youth have the right skills to find productive jobs are vital elements to take advan- tage of the demographic trends. The risk is that, if the right policies are not promoted, the demographic trends can create a disaster instead. of a dividend (Canning et al. 2015), making more room for instability, conflict, and violence, given the large number of youths that might not have opportunities to meet their expectations. Countries in the region will have to build an estimat- the region are dilapidated due to lack of maintenance ed 1.5 million new classrooms by 2030 to accommo- or the effect of conflict and violence on educational date current out-of-school children and cope with facilities. School infrastructure has been linked to in- the school-age population increase. The average creased enrollment rates, retention rates, and equity student-classroom ratio for most countries in the (Barrett et al. 2019). In addition to the many school- region is already 40 or above. AFW will have to build age children who are out of school in AFW countries, an estimated 1.2 million new classrooms to main- those who attend school often study in extremely tain this ratio while accommodating all out-of-school overcrowded classrooms that are not conducive for children as well as the additional children expected learning. The student-classroom ratio is over 40 in between 2020 and 2025 due to population growth. most AFW countries (figure 5.4a). Some countries AFW will need a further 325,000 classrooms by 2030 such as the Republic of Congo, Chad, and the Central to accommodate all anticipated school-age children African Republic have an average classroom size of added between 2020 and 2030. These estimates are over 60. Even in countries with a relatively low overall lower bound. They do not take into consideration the student-classroom ratio, within-country variation is overcrowding of existing classrooms or the non-uni- high. In Nigeria, although the average student-class- form distribution of students across geographic loca- room ratio is 40 for the country, the ratio is above 60 tions. Nigeria alone will need to build at least 458,000 in eight out of the country’s 37 states (figure 5.4.b). new classrooms by 2025 to accommodate all school- For example, the highly populous states Kano and age children and maintain a student-classroom ratio Katsina have a student-classroom ratio of 79 and 94, of 40 (figure 5.3). Estimates suggest that by 2025, respectively. The variation is even higher at the school seven countries in the region will each have to add level. Nigeria’s average student-classroom ratio in over 50,000 classrooms in order to accommodate rural schools is 43 as compared with 37.5 in urban all children in classrooms with 40 students or fewer. schools. This wide variation of the student-classroom These countries are Niger (137,000 classrooms); Mali ratio across schools occurs within many AFW coun- (91,000); Chad (85,000); Burkina Faso (82,000); tries (figure 5.4). For bigger countries like Nigeria, the Côte d›Ivoire (66,000); and Senegal (59,000). wide variation is present even for schools within spe- cific geographic or geopolitical regions. 5.4.2. Deficient Infrastructure One critical deficit in infrastructure is the lack of wa- ter and sanitation facilities. Only about 46 percent Even when schools are available, their infrastructure of primary schools, 63 percent of lower-secondary is typically deficient. For instance, many schools in schools, and 72 percent of upper-secondary schools 98 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.3. Estimated Number of Classrooms Required to Enroll all Currently Out-of-School Children and the Number of Children (6 –15 Years Old) Added with Population Growth from 2020–25 to 2025–30 300 160 158 250% 225% 143 140 200% 120 102 100 150% 133% 130% Thousands 80 74 109% 67 60 66 100% 80% 78% 73% 46 64% 40 3537 47 36 43% 31 28 50% 27% 21 20 1718 1515 16 16 12 17 19% 21% 9 20 9 10 15 131511 9 13% 7% 99 8 12 3 3 6 3 3 6 2 3 5 4 4 1 1 3 2 2 2 3 12 1 - 0 - - 1 1 - 4 3 0% Nigeria Niger Mali Chad Burkina Faso Senegal Côte d'Ivoire Guinea Cameroon Benin Ghana CAR Mauritania Sierra Leone Liberia Togo Guinea-Bissau Gambia Congo Gabon Cabo Verde Equatorial Guinea Accommodate current OOSC 2020-2025 population growth 2025-2030 population growth Estimated need for additional classrooms as % of current stock Source: Original estimates based on population estimates for 2020 from the United Nations (2019) and rate of out-of-school children from analysis of microdata by the Demographic and Health Surveys (for Benin 2018, Cameroon 2018, The Gambia 2020, Guinea 2018, Liberia 2019, Mali 2018, Senegal 2019, and Sierra Leone 2019); Living Standards Measurement Surveys (for Burkina Faso 2014, Gabon 2017, Niger 2014, and Nigeria 2018); and Multiple Indicators Cluster Surveys (for Central African Republic 2019, Chad 2019, Republic of Congo 2015, Côte d›Ivoire 2016, Ghana 2017, Guinea Bissau2019, Mauritania 2015, and Togo 2017). Note: OOSC = out-of-school children. in the region report having access to safe drinking Similarly, lack of access to electricity in schools is a facilities (figure 5.5). Similarly, only 56 percent of widespread problem in the region. Lack of electric- primary schools and 68 percent of lower- and up- ity leaves many schools unable to make use of the per-secondary schools report having access to prop- technology that is increasingly implemented even in er toilet or sanitation facilities (figure 5.6). Access low-resource settings to improve teaching and learn- to safe drinking water and handwashing facilities is ing practices. Only 27 percent of primary schools, 45 critical for ensuring a safe learning environment, es- percent of lower-secondary schools, and 64 percent pecially in the context of COVID-19 and other com- of upper-secondary schools have access to elec- municable diseases affecting the region. Access to tricity (figure 5.7). Access to electricity is especially gender-friendly sanitation facilities is also important important for incorporating digital technology and to ensure a safe and inclusive learning environment computers into secondary-school curricula. It is not for all, including girls. Of course, schools are not iso- surprising that only a small fraction of schools in the lated islands in their own countries or communities. region have access to an internet connection and Access to these services among the general popu- computers for pedagogical purposes (figure 5.8 and lation largely determines the capacity and willing- figure 5.9). ness of relevant authorities to make these services available in schools. Data show that, in comparison An even more significant number of schools lack ac- with the proportion of households in the country, a cess to the internet and basic connectivity. Data on lower proportion of schools have access to drinking internet access in schools for pedagogical purpos- water, but a higher proportion of schools have access es are more limited, but the few countries with data to basic sanitation facilities. According to recent De- show immense needs. In a ranking of AFW countries mographic and Health Surveys for AFW countries, by access to the internet in primary schools, Sen- about two in three households report having access egal and Cabo Verde rank at the top, with only 13 to an improved drinking water source, and one in and 15 percent of schools, respectively. Most coun- two households report having access to an improved tries are below 5 percent. For lower-secondary ed- sanitation facility. ucation, the values are slightly higher (for example, Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 99 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.4. Distribution of Student-Classroom Ratios in Selected Countries and States of Nigeria 400 Pupil-classroom ratio 300 200 100 0 Benin Burkina Faso Cameroon Chad Congo, Rep. Cote d’Ivoire Niger Senegal Togo Abia Adamawa Akwa-Ibom Anambra Bauchi Bayelsa Benue Borno Cross-River Delta Ebonyi Edo Ekiti Enugu FCT-Abuja Gombe Imo Jigawa Kaduna Kano Katsina Kebbi Kogi Kwara Lagos Nasarawa Niger Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo Plateau Rivers Sokoto Taraba Yobe Zamfara 0 100 200 300 400 Pupil-classroom ratio Sources: PASEC 2014 and National Learning Assessment 2018. 42 percent in Senegal and almost universal access have access to the internet, whereas the value is 49 in Cabo Verde), but still below 10 percent for most percent for lower-secondary schools and 40 percent countries. Similarly, only a few countries such as for primary schools (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Ghana, Cameroon, Senegal, Cabo Verde, and Côte Learning 2020). These values hide two realities. The d’Ivoire have more than one-fourth of their up- first is significant heterogeneities, as more schools per-secondary schools with internet access for ped- with internet access are in urban areas. The second agogical purposes. To put things into perspective, is that, even when schools have internet access, the globally, 63 percent of upper-secondary schools access tends to be bad quality and unstable. 100 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.5. Proportion of Schools with Access to Figure 5.6. Proportion of Schools with Access to Drinking Water (%) Basic Sanitation (Toilets) (%) 46 56 AFW Average 62 AFW Average 68 72 68 40 Togo 47 64 58 Togo 63 15 69 Chad 64 32 Sierra Leone 81 Sierra Leone 40 86 49 78 45 Senegal Nigeria 55 94 29 Nigeria 53 20 Niger 58 14 83 Niger 39 63 28 51 Mauritania 32 Mauritania 63 46 95 59 28 Liberia 75 Liberia 41 85 49 84 Gambia, The 87 84 63 Gambia, The 86 25 66 Guinea 56 91 33 Ghana Ghana 49 76 68 99 92 Cabo Verde Cabo Verde 98 100 34 39 Cameroon Cameroon 42 Cote d'Ivoire 87 83 Cote d'Ivoire 100 59 87 Burkina Faso 47 34 60 40 Burkina Faso 63 Benin 46 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Source: Analysis based on World Development Indicators and National Personnel Audit 2018 for Nigeria. Note: WCA = Western and Central Africa. Figure 5.7. Proportion of Schools with Access to Electricity (%) 100 100 91 90 88 86 79 79 79 80 76 68 66 64 60 60 60 55 54 53 53 50 49 46 45 45 44 44 43 40 37 37 35 34 34 33 32 31 30 28 27 26 25 25 22 21 19 20 16 14 13 12 11 10 7 4 3 0 Benin Burkina Faso CAR Cote d'Ivoire Cameroon Cabo Verde Ghana Guinea Gambia, The Liberia Mali Mauritania Niger Nigeria Senegal Sierra Leone Chad Togo AFW Average Upper secondary Lower secondary Primary Source: Analysis based on World Development Indicators and National Personnel Audit 2018 for Nigeria. Note: WCA = Western and Central Africa. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 101 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.8. Proportion of Schools with Access to Figure 5.9. Proportion of Schools with Access to Computers for Pedagogical Purposes (%) Internet for Pedagogical Purposes (%) 15.2 7.1 Togo 36.7 13.1 Sierra Leone 3.1 19.8 Chad 6.1 0.7 15.6 53.0 Sierra Leone 8.7 1.8 Senegal 42.4 84.9 12.9 Senegal 81.2 27.3 13.0 Nigeria 19.0 Niger 4.7 1.9 1.2 53.0 Niger 22.7 2.0 39.4 100.0 Ghana 18.7 Mauritania 14.0 8.4 60.2 Gambia, The 39.2 21.2 100.0 Cabo Verde 34.9 Ghana 12.9 15.9 3.5 Cabo Verde 100.0 29.0 42.0 Cameroon 19.3 84.2 Cameroon 72.2 86.1 1.1 Cote d'Ivoire Burkina Faso 1.5 0.2 Burkina Faso 6.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0 Upper secondary Lower secondary Primary Upper secondary Lower secondary Primary Source: Analysis based on World Development Indicators and National Personnel Audit 2018 for Nigeria. 5.4.3. Lack of Accessibility, Especially for the lowest access to educational opportunities. The Vulnerable Groups region has a total of 5 million forcibly displaced chil- dren. During the 2020–21 school year, more than half In many cases, even when schools are available, the of the refugee children in AFW did not attend school. schools are difficult to reach or inaccessible, which This problem is acute for secondary school. While 60 drives enrollment and attendance rates down. For percent of refugee children are enrolled in primary instance, in Nigeria, living 20 or more minutes away school, only 15 percent are enrolled in secondary, from a school reduces the odds of attendance by 52 and only 1 percent of those 18–24 years old have percent (Kazeem et al. 2010). Even when transport access to higher education and vocational training. is available, the cost can be prohibitive. In countries These numbers are lower than the numbers not only such as Sierra Leone, for instance, people spend for non-refugees but also for refugees in other parts of around the same amount of money on transport to the world. For example, globally, 3 percent of refugees school as on school fees. are enrolled in higher education (UNHCR 2021c). In addition, for those who do access education, the qual- Constraints to accessing education affect many groups ity of learning environments tends to be very low. in the region, but some marginalized groups face addi- tional challenges or difficulties that particularly limit Similarly, persons with disabilities face many bottle- their access. Refugees are among the groups with necks to enroll and progress in the education system. 102 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Wodon et al. (2018) observed large gaps in educa- Figure 5.10. Proportion of Schools with Access tion outcomes for persons with disabilities based on to Adapted Infrastructure and Materials for census data for 11 Sub-Saharan African countries, Students with Disabilities (%) including four from AFW (Burkina Faso, Ghana, Libe- 45.0 ria, and Mali). Statistical differences in educational outcomes were attributable to exclusion related to 40.0 38.4 disabilities instead of other (observable) characteris- 35.0 tics of children with disabilities. Girls with disabilities are particularly disadvantaged. Tan (2020) found that 30.0 girls with disabilities in Burkina Faso, Mali, and Niger 25.0 are less likely to receive an education, less likely to be 20.0 employed, and at greater risk of abuse, including sex- 15.1 15.2 ual violence, compared to all other groups (boys with 15.0 11.0 11.9 disabilities, boys without disabilities, and girls without 9.7 10.0 disabilities). 5.0 Limited available data suggest that only a small num- 0.0 Burkina Faso Sierra Leone ber of schools in the region have school infrastructure Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary that accommodates the needs of students with dis- Source: World Development Indicators database. abilities (figure 5.10). In addition, notably, the provi- sion of ramps to access classrooms or school build- ings and any accessibility services inside the school is futile if the schools themselves are not accessible to children with disabilities. It is important to situate Schools are targets for multiple reasons (Bradford and schools in locations that are connected by roads or Wilson 2013). First, in many cases, schools are a sym- by wheelchair-friendly paths with major population bol of Western-style education, which many groups centers. oppose. Second, attacks on schools produce sub- stantial media attention, which helps militant groups increase their impact. Third, schools are a relatively 5.4.4. Insecurity around Schools safe and unguarded place where people congregate, which offers the potential for mass attacks. AFW is The lack of safety in and around schools is an appar- one of the most affected regions in the world. Most ent factor affecting enrollment and attendance rates attacks occur in the Lake Chad basin and the Cen- and one of the most distinctive characteristics of AFW. tral Sahel. More than one-quarter of the 742 verified In this region, FCV is highly prevalent. Exposure to vi- attacks on schools globally in 2019 occurred in five olence can lead to significant declines in educational countries across AFW. attainment, both in the short term and the long run (Chamarbagwala and Moran 2011). The effects of these attacks on education are perva- sive. The first effect is the most straightforward: the The Armed Conflict Location and Event Data project direct disruption of educational activities due to at- offers the most comprehensive and wide-reaching tacks and violence. According to UNICEF (n.d.), as database  presently used in disaggregated conflict of June 2019, AFW saw 9,272 schools close or be- events (https://acleddata.com/data-export-tool/). An come non-operational, triple the number recorded at analysis of the data shows that the majority of the the end of 2017. More than 1.9 million children and conflicts that targeted schools in the region occurred 44,000 teachers were forced out of school due to the in the form of protests, riots, and violence against ci- upsurge in attacks and threats of violence against vilians (including beatings, shootings, rape, kidnap- public schools, students, and teachers across the ping, and disappearances), which account for 43 region (Nakell 2019). At the beginning of 2021, al- percent, 30 percent, and 12 percent of incidents in most 5,000 schools were closed in affected areas in the region, respectively. Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger, the Far North of Cameroon, Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 103 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Chad’s Lac Province, and Nigeria’s north-eastern re- Another manifestation of these attacks is school kid- gions, depriving hundreds of thousands of children nappings, ranging from individual to mass kidnappings, of their right to education and putting them at risk of which have skyrocketed recently. In the region, more exploitation and abuse (Regional Education in Emer- than 1,037 people, mostly students and teachers, gencies Working Group 2021). were kidnapped in and around educational facilities during the first seven months of 2021. This number is Other effects are more indirect but very significant. more than double the count for 2020 and includes in- For example, a  recent study  has shown that, in the cidents with as many as 300 students kidnapped (De case of Nigeria, one additional conflict event in a Simone et al. 2021). Such attacks were initially a mo- five-kilometer radius from a child’s village during the dality used by extremist groups, with the kidnapping previous academic year reduces the child’s probabil- of the Chibok girls in 2014 drawing global attention. ity of school enrollment by 2 percentage points (Ber- However, kidnapping has recently evolved as a crim- toni et al. 2019). This reduction implies a 4 percent inal activity performed by gangs and bandits whose decrease (from 68 percent to 64 percent) in average primary motivation is to obtain ransom money. Other school enrollment. In other words, even those attacks issues such as climate change also affect these vio- that do not directly target schools negatively affect lent trends. Some sources indicate that these groups educational outcomes. The number of attacks in the consist of former cattle herders; as climate change has region has risen in recent years. Analysis of data from affected their livelihoods, these cattle herders have, in the aforementioned Armed Conflict Location and turn, developed well-organized armed groups special- Event Data project indicates that, within the region, izing in abductions for ransom (Olukoya 2021). the total number of incidents has increased by an average of 40 percent annually from 2016 to 2020. Besides conflict and organized violence, high levels of Most recently, attacks increased by 50 percent from interpersonal violence are also present in some coun- 338 in 2019 to 507 in 2020, and as of July 2021, the tries. Interpersonal violence includes gender-based number of attacks had nearly surpassed the five-year violence and violence against children. Data from the average during 2016–20. Igarape Institute indicate that the average homicide rate in the region is approximately 8 per 100,000 There is also strong evidence that attacks affect chil- inhabitants (https://homicide.igarape.org.br/). Five dren emotionally and have long-term effects on learn- countries—Nigeria, Central African Republic, Côte ing outcomes. A recent assessment in conflict-affect- d’Ivoire, Mauritania, and the Republic of Congo— ed areas of Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali showed that have homicide rates greater than 10, which is the more than half of the students did not feel safe inside threshold that the World Health Organization uses to the school, and 62 percent felt unable to concentrate classify epidemics. Nigeria and the Central African when doing schoolwork (Regional Education in Emer- Republic have a rate of 34.5 and 20.1, respective- gencies Working Group 2021). Moreover, the effects ly, significantly higher than the threshold, indicating of these attacks on education tend to be unequal. For that these countries are facing epidemics of violence instance, violence tends to affect girls disproportion- (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime 2021). ately. Attackers, or even government forces, often engage in sexual abuse of girls, affecting girls’ proba- The detrimental effects of interpersonal violence on bility of continuing their education. The Global Coali- education outcomes are well documented. One recent tion to Protect Education from Attack found that girls empirical study showed that exposure to crime, mea- were less likely than boys to return to school following sured by homicide rates, has a negative and significant conflicts because girls could not pay school fees, with impact on academic achievement (Gimenez and Bar- families prioritizing education for boys. Girls feared rado 2020). Koppensteiner and Menezes (2021) found sexual violence and general insecurity at school or that, in Brazil, violence has a detrimental effect on both on the way to or from school. Nigeria, following the school attendance and standardized test scores and closure of schools across the northern states, saw that it increases the dropout rates of students substan- an increase in reported cases of child marriages and tially; additionally, violence tends to lower educational early pregnancies of school-age girls (Amnesty Inter- aspirations and positive attitudes about education for national 2021). both students and parents. In developed countries, 104 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities even police violence led to persistent decreased high 5.5.1. Reducing Attacks on Schools school completion rates (Ang 2020). Ensuring that schools are safe is crucial. Governments Another form of interpersonal violence with a more di- might invest in schools, teachers, curricula, and educa- rect link to educational outcomes, but of a completely tional materials, but if schools are perceived as unsafe, different nature, is violence in schools exercised by education outcomes are unlikely to improve. Safety in teachers or administrative staff. Most countries in the and around schools is critical, especially in places af- region allow corporal punishment in schools—only fected by conflict and violence. First, it is important to nine countries prohibit corporal punishment in all know and register what happens. Maintaining a data- schools. Though six countries in the region have pol- base of attacks on educational facilities is an excellent icies that prohibit corporal punishment in schools, it practice to help identify schools at risk (Global Coalition remains lawful or permissible despite these policies to Protect Education from Attack 2016). Similarly, de- (End Violence Against Children n.d.) Corporal pun- velopment of comprehensive school-based safety and ishment, bullying, and gender-based violence pro- security plans should include early warning systems and foundly affect students’ learning ability and teachers’ identify the measures to take before, during, and after ability to teach. The available evidence suggests that an incident (Global Coalition to Protect Education from students exposed to corporal punishment are more Attack 2017). Once identified, schools at risk should be likely to adopt negative behaviors and to regress ac- equipped with unarmed physical protection measures ademically in terms of learning compared to peers such as infrastructure and guards. When using armed who were not exposed to those practices (Fevre et al. physical protection, schools must take all the necessary 2021). PASEC data for Francophone countries shows precautions to minimize potential risks for students. that almost two-thirds of students reported being These plans require strong leadership from principals beaten by teachers, and one-third reported that other and school management or protection committees, children do not play with them or are scared in school with active community members and parents’ asso- (Wodon et al. 2021). The adverse effects of the prox- ciations (Kapit-Spitalny and Burde 2010). In terms of ies for violence are large, outweighing even the po- school construction, less heavy infrastructure and alter- tential impact of variables concerning the socioeco- native service delivery could prove useful since schools nomic background of the student; the student having without walls are less likely to experience attacks. either a hearing or visual disability; and many other factors affecting learning such as teacher absentee- Additionally, advocacy is important. All governments ism, the level of education of teachers, or some of the should sign the Safe Schools Declaration and promote characteristics of the schools (Wodon et al. 2021). the Guidelines for Protecting Schools and Universities from Military Use During Armed Conflicts. Regarding those governments that have already signed, advoca- 5.5. Improving Safety in and cy efforts should push the governments to internalize around Schools to Ease Supply-Side the principles therein and support those principles Constraints with actions. Encouraging the countries that have not signed—Cabo Verde, the Republic of Congo, Gabon, Guinea, and Guinea-Bissau—to endorse and enforce The main supply-side interventions involve ensuring the declaration and its principles is imperative. safety in and around learning environments; e  nsur- ing safety is the first of several actions toward easing the supply-side constraints on access to schooling. 5.5.2. Delivering Education Services via Specific measures include reducing physical attacks Alternative Arrangements When Schools on schools; offering schooling through alternative ar- Are Unsafe rangements in situations where violence makes nor- mal service delivery unfeasible; eradicating violence In certain situations, continuing formal education in on students committed by teachers and school ad- some schools might no longer be safe. In these situa- ministrators; and using schools to model and practice tions, taking certain measures can minimize the effects non-violence. on children and avoid a total disruption of education. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 105 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities For example, education can be provided through alter- effectively reduce violence (Wodon et al. 2021). native means. To the extent possible, these measures Whole-school approaches work at multiple levels, should be executed in collaboration with community involving teachers, school management, children, members. The simplest option is to relocate education the physical school environment, the school commu- activities to safer places, such as community buildings, nity, and parents. For instance, in Uganda, the Good homes, or other government facilities. Using religious School Toolkit, implemented by a nongovernmental spaces for education could be helpful because places organization, was an 18-month whole-school ap- considered sacred are less likely to experience attacks. proach to violence prevention. A rigorous evaluation found it to be effective in preventing physical violence For more extreme cases, a second option is to set up by school staff in primary schools, leading to a 42 per- temporary learning spaces. Some countries have suc- cent reduction (Devries et al. 2015). A much shorter cessfully implemented “learning circles” that operate program in Tanzania (only six days) also had positive off-site from the formal “mother schools” but are offi- effects on reducing emotional and physical violence cially linked to them through a shared regular curric- by teachers and students through the use of psycho- ulum, academic calendars, grading systems, and ex- logical interventions (Nkuba et al. 2018). tracurricular programs. In these circles, children learn in small groups of around 15 students with the aid of School curricula should challenge social and cultural a tutor who facilitates learning, providing personal- norms that promote violence, including stereotypes ized attention to children using community centers, around gender, sexual orientation, religion, ethnicity, local churches, and family homes until the students and disability (World Health Organization 2019). Sim- are ready to transfer to the “mother school.” A recent ilarly, promoting political, religious, and ethnic toler- evaluation of these circles demonstrated improve- ance can be a powerful tool to prevent violent extrem- ments in coverage, self-esteem of students, and ac- ism and radicalization (Bellis et al. 2017). ademic achievements on national standardized tests; strengthened democratic behaviors; and peaceful co- Schools can act as ‘great equalizers,’ with the distri- existence (Cerdan, Bustillo, and Colbert 2020). bution of services reducing societal inequalities and promoting social cohesion/reconciliation, resulting Finally, expanding remote learning can create resil- in a peacebuilding impact. Curricula should aim to ience to disruptions in education service delivery. “deconstruct structures of violence” and “construct During the COVID-19 pandemic, many countries have structures of peace,” with teachers equipped to carry scaled up their remote learning programs. These pro- them out, along with other enabling support struc- grams need to go beyond disruptions caused by pan- tures (World Bank, forthcoming). To ensure that ser- demics to cover disruptions associated with conflict vice delivery addresses historical cleavages and that and violence. When schools close, radio, television, curricula address grievances and promote social and online platforms can provide a substitute to miti- cohesion and reconciliation, the design of education gate the damage. Recently, some organizations in the policies and curricula must involve diverse actors. region have been using Interactive Voice Recording to make remote learning more dynamic and obtain Similarly, in higher education, developing programs real-time feedback from students and parents. Any on conflict studies can be valuable. Attendees of such deployment of technological solutions, nevertheless, programs may gain a better understanding of the dy- must strive to avoid unwanted collateral effects. namics of violence and conflict, and the programs can create job opportunities and access to education for youth. 5.5.3. Modeling Behaviors and Teaching Nonviolence as Part of the School School systems can also prevent and reduce inter- Curriculum personal violence. After-school programs can have significant effects on violence reduction and conflict Eradicating violence against students by teachers and prevention. In some cases, such programs achieve school administrators is a useful first step. The avail- this impact by reducing the time youth spend outside able evidence shows that whole-school approaches of schools. In other cases, the effects are mediated by 106 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities youth acquiring multiple types of skills. For example, for Kids program primarily centered on the “My Sto- after-school programs that build soft skills can re- ry” workbook and other related classroom activities, duce various forms of violence. Recent empirical evi- providing children with the opportunity to share their dence has shown that youth empowerment programs emotions about their experiences through artistic ex- reduce the prevalence of violence against girls, even pressions such as drawing and writing and discussion during high-risk periods, such as the high-risk period groups (Saavedra and Bousquet 2020). These pro- triggered by COVID-19 (Gulesci et al. 2021). grams increased school enrollment to levels higher than before the Ebola epidemic (Darvas and Namit 2016). One intervention that has proven effective in reducing violence among men in the region has been imple- menting cognitive-behavioral therapy programs. In 5.6. Adding New and Better Schools one of the most cited studies, researchers recruited and Facilities to Ease Supply-Side criminally engaged men from Liberia. The research- Constraints ers randomized half of the participants to eight weeks of cognitive-behavioral therapy to foster self-regula- tion, patience, and a noncriminal identity and lifestyle. Many AFW countries have an inadequate or dilapidat- They also randomized US$200 grants. Cash and ther- ed stock of schools and school facilities. New invest- apy alone initially reduced crime and violence, but ments in the capital stock could increase the avail- effects diminished over time. When money followed ability, accessibility, and resilience of schools. therapy, crime and violence declined dramatically for at least a year. The intervention seemed to shape behavior and self-perception, including patience and 5.6.1. Constructing and Renovating identity (Blattman, Jamison, and Sheridan 2017). Schools Another lesson of this research is the importance of combining education, skills, and social protection in- On the supply side, increasing the availability of terventions to reduce engagement in violence. schools is fundamental. Building schools produces gains in access and learning outcomes, as shown in For countries in transition out of fragility, the main ob- studies from Burkina Faso (Ingwersen et al. 2019), jective is to support that transition while building re- Benin (Deschênes and Hotte 2019), and Niger (Bag- silience toward new shocks and preventing long-term by et al. 2016). Availability is particularly important effects from the recent events. Cognitive-behavioral for secondary schools since the data for many coun- therapy is also helpful at this stage. For example, in tries show that transition rates to secondary school Sierra Leone, a 10-session cognitive-behavioral ther- are low in part due to the lack of secondary schools apy intervention for multisymptomatic war-affected near primary schools. Building schools improves not youth showed significant postintervention effects, only school enrollment and educational outcomes in namely improved emotion regulation, prosocial at- the short to medium term, but also employment pros- titudes/behaviors, stronger social support, and re- pects and wages in the long run (Duflo 2001; Akresh, duced functional impairment; the intervention also Halim, and Kleemans 2021). had considerable follow-up effects on school enroll- ment, school attendance, and classroom behavior The construction of schools can include amenities (Betancourt et al. 2014). Other comprehensive pro- specifically designed to attract girls. For example, in grams that incorporate sports and education to pro- Burkina Faso, a ‘girls-friendly’ school construction mote reconciliation are also promising. program showed very positive results, even long term. Ten years after the construction, primary school-age For example, in Liberia, after the Ebola crisis ended, children in villages selected for the program attend- the Ebola Recovery and Restoration Project funded ed school more often and scored significantly high- the implementation of a Comfort for Kids program that er on standardized tests. In a similar vein, youth and encouraged psychological healing and promoted resil- young adults old enough to have finished secondary ience in children who had experienced a crisis or disaster school completed primary and secondary school at (Mohammed-Roberts and McCune 2017). The Comfort higher rates and performed significantly better on Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 107 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities standardized tests. The benefits even exceeded the respectively) (Geo-Referenced Infrastructure and education sector, with women old enough to have Demographic Data for Development 2021). completed secondary school delaying marriage and childbearing (Ingwersen et al. 2019). Similarly, a pro- Figure 5.11 presents examples of how analysis of geo- gram that constructed schools with separate latrines spatial data can generate useful information for plan- for boys and girls, a water source, and housing for fe- ning of school construction and school infrastructure male teachers in rural Niger increased school enroll- improvement. Geo-referenced school and school in- ment by 8.3 percentage points, decreased absences frastructure data enable critical insights that would of more than two consecutive weeks by 7.9 percent- otherwise go unnoticed. For instance, applying geo- age points, and had a larger impact for girls than for spatial data analytics can generate answers to the boys (Bagby et al. 2016). In Benin, a school construc- following questions: What percentage of the school- tion program increased the probability of girls attend- age population do not have access to schools locat- ing school in rural areas and had other unintended ed within two or three kilometers? How many schools effects on women’s well-being, such as a reduction need to be built? Where should the new schools be in early marriages and in the probability of finding located to provide easy access for all children? wife-beating tolerable (Deschênes and Hotte 2019). Other technological tools can help with monitoring To be effective, school construction must target the progress in school construction remotely. The Geo-En- neediest areas. Such targeting requires sound infor- abling Initiative for Monitoring and Supervision, for in- mation systems with demographic information and stance, can help track progress in construction even geo-referenced data on existing schools. Many World when the sites are dispersed and even in FCV settings. Bank projects follow these criteria. For example, the Adolescent Girls Initiative Learning and Empowerment Improving infrastructure can also increase atten- project is based on geo-referenced data to identify dance, especially when schools are dilapidated or in a lack of schools, and the Secondary Education Im- poor condition. Key improvements include increas- provement Project in Ghana incorporates in its design ing access to drinking water, providing separate and both school standards and school selection criteria. functioning toilets for boys and girls, and providing adequate gender-sensitive sanitation facilities. A Technology and innovations can guide cost-effective UNICEF study found that programs that provided toi- investment in new schools. For instance, the Geo-Ref- let facilities for girls in Bangladesh produced an 11 erenced Infrastructure and Demographic Data for percent increase in girls’ attendance rates every year Development tool works with countries to generate, (Patchett, 2010). The Burkina Faso Emergency Local validate, and use geospatial data on population, set- Development and Resilience project is focusing on tlements, infrastructure, and boundaries. The tool rehabilitating existing schools (figure 5.12).  When has helped decision-makers to optimize the location renovating schools, the focus should be on increas- of schools and maximize school attendance. For in- ing safety, making girl-friendly infrastructure, and in- stance, in Sierra Leone, the tool enabled a school cov- creasing access to electricity and connectivity. erage assessment based on population estimates, disaggregated by age. The assessment compared Infrastructure improvement should prioritize access the location of the population to the location of ex- to electricity and internet connectivity in schools. To isting schools, thereby determining the straight-line ensure that schools and educational facilities enjoy home-to-school distance and offering a better un- that access, working across sectors is necessary. In derstanding of current school coverage. The findings some cases, innovative delivery models involving the revealed that primary schools have the highest cover- private sector for sustainability investments may be age rate, with 99 percent of children age 6–11 within appropriate. For example, off-grid solar systems and three miles of a school. Coverage rates for preprimary mini-grids have become a reliable way to provide (age 3–5), junior-secondary (age 12–14), and se- affordable modern electricity services, especially nior-secondary (age 15–17) schools, however, are to schools in rural communities. Private sector pro- much lower (54 percent, 71 percent, and 53 percent, viders can commit to providing energy in schools via solar panels and the necessary maintenance of 108 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.11.a. Primary Schools within and beyond Figure 5.11.b. Network of JSS in Nigeria Three Kilometers of Nearest JSS in Nigeria Primary schools with a JSS within 3 km Junior Secondary Schools Primary schools without a JSS within 3 km Figure 5.11.c. Primary Schools within and beyond Figure 5.11.d. Large Public Primary Schools Three Kilometers of nearest JSS in Katsina State beyond Three Kilometers of Nearest JSS in Nigeria Katsina State, Nigeria Needs based classification of large primary schools Primary schools with PCR 70 or above Primary schools with PCR below 40 Primary schools with Primary schools with 40 < = PCR < 70 a JSS within 3 km Junior Secondary Schools Primary schools without JSS 3km bu er a JSS within 3 km Katsina State LGA Boundary Source: Analysis based on National Personnel Audit 2018. Note: JSS = junior secondary school; KM = kilometer; LGA = local government authority; PCR = pupil per classroom ratio. equipment. Schools can pay a low-cost monthly fee given the high costs and the lack of targeting mech- instead of facing the significant upfront costs of buy- anisms. In certain environments, reducing travel time ing equipment and ensuring its resilience, which is to schools in underserved areas can have significant challenging in most places. effects. Dickerson and McIntosh (2013) found that a shorter distance between students’ home and the closest school is positively related to the probability 5.6.2. Increasing the Accessibility of Schools that low-performing students continue into postcom- pulsory education. Falch et al. (2013) concluded Increasing the accessibility of existing schools can that reduced commuting time has a positive effect be a more efficient way to improve access, depend- on graduation from upper-secondary schools, and ing on the context. School construction can be very this effect is larger for students with low academic effective, but in some cases, it might be inefficient achievement. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 109 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities In Zambia, improved roads also decreased teach- enrollments are growing faster than public enroll- er absences as teachers were not spending multiple ments at all levels across the region, and parents and days each month cycling to the nearby town to collect communities tend to perceive the quality of private their salaries (Starkey 2007). In Moroccan villages, schools as higher than that of public schools (Sim- improved road access resulted in girls’ enrollment mons Zuilkowski 2018). However, the limited evi- increasing from 17 to 54 percent while the national dence suggests that learning gains are comparable average for girls’ enrollment stagnated during the (for instance, in Kenya [Simmons Zuilkowski, Piper, same period (Levy 2004). In AFW, the current Dakar and On’’ele 2020]). In the average AFW country, 25 Bus Rapid Transit Pilot Project / Abidjan Urban Mobil- percent of primary students are enrolled in private ity Project is working along the same lines. With the schools; outliers include Liberia, where the num- new Bus Rapid Transit lines in place, 59 percent of ber is over 50 percent, and Gabon and Mali, where residents in Dakar and 70 percent of residents of Abi- it is near 40 percent. To increase the supply of ed- djan will be able to reach at least one other secondary ucation, governments can facilitate the creation of school within 30 minutes. private institutions by creating clear regulations that ensure minimum quality standards. Some ex- Increasing accessibility does not always entail im- amples show that this approach can be effective. proving roads or public transportation. In Zambia, the For instance, in Uganda, a public-private partner- provision of bicycles to rural girls reduced commute ship program for low-cost private secondary school time, increased punctuality to school, and reduced led to large enrollment increases and significantly the number of days girls were absent from school by higher student performance (Barrera-Osorio et al. 28 percent in the previous week. The program also 2020). The evidence from countries elsewhere, such improved empowerment measures, including girls’ as Pakistan, shows that appropriately implemented, sense of control over the decisions affecting their low-cost private schools can increase enrollment lives (Fiala et al. 2020). (Qureshi and Razzaq 2021). The private sector also includes very small enterprises and can be helpful at all levels of education. For early childhood programs, 5.7. Involving Nonstate Service one promising way to increase the supply is to help Providers to Ease Supply-Side women training in childcare skills to start their own Constraints private services, as demonstrated in Burkina Faso, Cameroon, and Liberia. In most AFW countries, the government lacks suf- Involving nongovernmental organizations can also be ficient resources to universalize access to quality important. Setting up community schools in commu- basic education as quickly as desired. Private and nity buildings or residences increases school par- nonstate providers have been growing and can play ticipation and learning costs less than building new an important role in expanding access, particular- schools. For example, Afghanistan increased enroll- ly if they meet minimum standards for curriculum ment and test scores among all children, especially content and quality. The religious Koranic schools girls. In AFW, the inclusion of community schools in that operate in many Islamic countries in the re- Cameroon and the Central African Republic has led gion can likewise contribute to the effort, and op- to increased enrollment rates. However, the sustain- tions for their integration into the school system ability of community schools can be questionable, also warrant attention. so mechanisms must be in place to support these schools effectively over the long term. 5.7.1. Expanding the Supply of Education Through Nonstate Providers 5.7.2. Integrating Religious Schools into the Education System Expanding regulated private and nonstate provid- ers can also increase the availability of schools and Koranic and Islamic schools can be critical part- provide more learning opportunities. Private sector ners to reach out-of-school children. Introducing 110 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.12. Locations and Travel Time by Public Transport to Nearest Primary and Secondary School in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Locations of primary schools Locations of secondary schools Bus routes Bus routes Private Private Public Public Pop./pixel Pop./pixel 4 - 100 4 - 100 101 - 300 101 - 300 301 - 500 301 - 500 501 - 700 501 - 700 701 - 800 701 - 800 801 - 949 801 - 949 Travel time to nearest primary school Travel time to nearest secondary school Bus routes Bus routes 5.0 - 15 5.0 - 15 15.1 - 30 15.1 - 30 30.1 - 45 30.1 - 45 45.1 - 60 45.1 - 60 60.1 - 145 60.1 - 145 Source: World Bank (2021e).  content from the official curriculum into Koranic then formally regulate Koranic schools; after, they schools is a promising pathway for many children can consider supporting the schools using perfor- out of the formal system to receive a formal edu- mance-based contracting. cation, especially focusing on mathematics and literacy. Partnerships can take different forms, in- Notably, religious schools tend to remain open even cluding “integration,” in which Koranic and secular in situations of conflict. Thus, when integrating them education takes place within the same schools, and into formal education is not possible, working to pro- “articulation,” in which children spend some time in vide minimum foundational skills on mathematics Koranic schools and some time in informal learning and language without changing the schools’ overall centers to cover the official curriculum in an accel- objectives can be promising. The aforementioned erated fashion (World Bank 2021). In Nigeria, for education program in Nigeria has adopted this ap- instance, the Better Education Service Delivery for proach. Under this approach, children who attend Ko- All program has been supporting the government in ranic schools can receive programs of one academic its efforts to integrate children who attend religious year in which an instructor teaches basic numeracy schools into traditional public schools. Other exam- and literacy skills two to three times a week. Such pro- ples include Senegal and Niger, especially under grams cannot replace formal schooling. But they can the Learning Improvement for Results in Education at least provide some foundational skills while open- project. Governments should first recognize and ing a path for joining the formal school system. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 111 High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities 5.8. Expanding Education Access for countries in the region have thousands of internation- Vulnerable Groups ally displaced persons who need to be included in education systems. A few interventions are crucial to Increasing access to education for those with disabil- ensuring inclusion actually happens. ities is critical. First, community mobilization cam- paigns must sensitize communities to the impor- First, accelerated education programs can provide tance of educating children with disabilities. Second, learners with equivalent, certified competencies for pri- the learning environment needs to become inclusive. mary education using effective teaching and learning Inclusive environments offer appropriate infrastruc- approaches that match learners’ level of cognitive ma- ture for children with disabilities in school and on the turity (UNHCR 2017). These programs are widespread way to school as well as teachers trained in inclusive in East Africa and have proved effective. An impact education. Third, information on children with dis- evaluation of the Speed School program in Mali, which abilities must be collected to monitor their progress is also being implemented in Burkina Faso and Niger, and target appropriate responses while guaranteeing showed that in French language learning, children in their inclusion in the education system. the Speed School program improved by 42 percent rel- ative to the comparison group, allowing them to almost In Ghana, the Disability Inclusive Education in Afri- catch up with their peers. In math, students improved ca program supports system strengthening as well as by 25 percent, which enabled them to completely educational and social inclusion activities in primary catch up with their peers. The average cost per stu- schools. These activities aim to transform current spe- dent for the nine-month program in Mali was US$172 cial schools and regional assessment centers into in- (Innovations for Poverty Action 2016). According to the clusive education resource centers while piloting the Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies training of teachers and staff in their new capacities. In (2020), accelerated education programs differ from Burkina Faso, the Improving Education of Children with other forms of nonformal education such as remedial Disabilities project focuses on strengthening commu- and catch-up programs because they focus on learners nity participation, in part by removing affordability con- 10–18 years old who cannot directly enter the formal straints; enhancing the quality of teaching; providing education system and who have missed more than one remedial education; and improving access to prepri- year of schooling. These programs also provide access mary and primary schools for children with disabilities. to disadvantaged children and youth who might other- wise lack any opportunity to acquire certified learning; Similarly, it is important to focus on education for refu- scaling up these programs, as most are still small, would gees and internationally displaced persons. Expanding therefore provide opportunities to many more children. access to quality education for refugees is at the heart In addition, some evidence exists that accelerated edu- of both the Global Compact on Refugees and the 2030 cation programs not only improve access to education Agenda for Sustainable Development (World Bank but also contribute to the well-being of children and im- and UNHCR 2021). These efforts both aim to include prove numeracy and literacy. For instance, a program in refugees and displaced populations in national edu- Mali reported that in terms of literacy assessments, the cation systems (Abu-Ghaida and Silva 2021; World students who transferred to fourth grade demonstrat- Bank–UNHCR 2021). In AFW, all refugees in school ed skills significantly higher than those of the students’ join the national education systems of their host coun- formal school counterparts only 4.5 months after the tries with the exception of Nigerian refugees enrolled transfer; this achievement occurred even though the in secondary education in the Diffa region of Niger; students’ oral reading fluency rate started slightly lower these refugees, due to the language barrier, continue than that of students completing third grade in govern- to follow the curriculum of their country of origin in ment schools (Inter-Agency Network for Education in distance learning centers (UNHCR 2021b). In 2018, Emergencies 2020). the Chad government declared 108 schools in refu- gee camps to be public schools, which refugees and Second, it is critical to provide psychosocial support local students alike can now access (UNHCR 2018). programs, understood as “a process of facilitating re- Maintaining and increasing the inclusion of refugees silience within individuals, families, and communities” in national education systems is vital. Similarly, many (International Federation of the Red Cross Reference 112 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Expand Learning Opportunities Figure 5.13. Interventions for Widening Opportunities for Learning What? Why? How? Reduce the cost education, Financial constraints are one of the • Eliminate school fees especially for the poor main obstacles to access education • Provide transfers (cash transfers, scholarships, free uniforms, school feeding) Inform parents and students Lack of information a ects demand • Conduct informational campaigns for parents and Demand on funding, quality of schools, for education, and these interventions students using SMS, videos, and other tools and benefits of education are very cost-e cient Shift socio-cultural norms Socio-cultural norms a ect demand • Conduct communication and media campaigns to reduce prejudice, for education, especially for girls using behavioral sciences especially against girls • Implement advocacy campaigns and involve traditional leaders Include vulnerable Refugees and people with disabilities • Include refugees in education (accelerated groups are disproportionally excluded from learning programs, psychosocial support, education systems teacher training) • Include people with disabilities Ensure safe and Lack of safe and inclusive educational • Ensure safety in and around schools (Safe Schools inclusive learning facilities in and around schools is Declaration, environments common in the region, and prevents • physical security measures, whole-of-school many from attending education approaches). Supply • Use education systems to prevent violence (safe spaces to change behaviors, school curriculum). • Continue service delivery when education is disrupted (pop-up schools, learning circles, remote learning) Increase availability, Lack of facilities, especially for • School construction & renovation; Improve WASH accessibility, and post-primary levels, is one of the main infrastructure resilience of schools supply-side causes of low • Improve commuting routes and options enrollment • Involve non-state actors (private sector, community schools, and religious schools) Centre for Psychosocial Support 2009). After a crisis 5.9. Priority High-Impact Interventions has disrupted their lives, individuals need help with re- to Widen Learning Opportunities covering and returning to school with normalcy. Psy- chological support programs can reduce distressing emotions and physical illness and increase interest Expanding opportunities to accessing education must a in attending school, sense of safety, and homework priority for a region with a large number of out-of-school completion (Inter-Agency Network for Education in children. Though the interventions to increase access Emergencies 2016). Socioemotional learning must and enrollment proposed in this Regional Education be an essential component of psychosocial programs. Strategy focus on girls and on secondary education, they can apply to other groups and all levels of educa- Finally, providing teacher training for inclusiveness tion. On the demand side of the equation, reducing the of refugees and displaced populations is key. In Ken- cost of schooling, providing information to parents and ya, for instance, the Teachers for Teachers program students, and shifting sociocultural norms are critical. provides camps with teacher training, peer coaching, On the supply side, fundamental steps to ensuring that and mobile mentoring. In Chad, Sudanese teachers the region can provide education to its growing num- participate in a certified two-year teacher training ber of children and youth include supporting vulnera- program to learn how to teach the Chadian curricu- ble groups (such as refugees, internationally displaced lum and familiarize themselves with the standards persons, and persons with disabilities); ensuring safe of the Chadian education system (Save the Children, learning environments; and increasing the availability, UNHCR, and Pearson 2019). accessibility, and resilience of schools (figure 5.13). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 113 PHOTO BY: © 2019 RICCARDO MAYER/SHUTTERSTOCK 6. High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All AFW’s economic transformation hinges on the skills This chapter examines the challenge of job-rele- of its workforce and its ability to accelerate the pace vant skills development and research in AFW and toward building an effective national innovation sys- identifies high-impact interventions to improve the tem. AFW needs a workforce that can grow and trans- performance of current systems for skills acquisi- form its economies while helping countries recover tion. It contextualizes the discussion by highlighting from the COVID-19 pandemic, navigate climate the region’s emerging economic landscape, which change, and benefit fully from digital technologies. consists of a growing digital economy and a green Developing this workforce requires strategic reforms agenda of increasing relevance and urgency. The and investments in postbasic education to comple- chapter documents the current state of the region’s ment efforts in basic education aimed at reducing workforce and options for skills acquisition available learning poverty and widening access. Strengthening to youth and adults, including those already in the the relevance and quality of the region’s skills devel- workforce. To address weaknesses common across opment system through multiple channels, including AFW countries, the Regional Education Strategy formal TVET and higher education, as well as infor- identifies high-impact interventions in four key ar- mal and nonformal training options, would not only eas: governance, access, quality and relevance, benefit individuals but also provide AFW countries and sustainability. Adapting these interventions with a wide range of competent workers to fill jobs at to fit each country’s setting is essential to achieve all levels across the economy. These jobs include, for impact. Skills development should align with job example, craftworkers, technicians, and engineers; creation to spur economic growth, an effort that scientists, researchers, and inventors; health work- goes beyond the education sector and will require a ers, nurses, and doctors; instructors, teachers, and whole-of-government approach in partnership with professors; legal assistants and lawyers; bookkeep- the private sector. ers and accountants; and entrepreneurs, business leaders, and managers. The challenge is to produce these workers in response to demand in the labor 6.1. AFW’s Emerging Digital and market (both current and emerging), connect the Greening Economy graduates of training programs to employers, and support continuous worker reskilling and upskilling (via lifelong learning) for movement from old jobs to The seven megatrends described earlier—espe- new ones or for professional growth as the economy cially rapid population growth, climate change, evolves and expands. Well-functioning skills develop- and the the digital (fourth) industrial revolution,  ment and higher-education systems could not only COVID-19 pandemic—present both challenges lift individuals out of poverty but also bring economic and opportunities for human capital development, development to whole nations and regions. Beyond job creation, and innovation in research. Business developing a skilled workforce, countries can also re- as usual would exacerbate the shocks from these imagine national ecosystems that promote and nur- megatrends and is therefore not an option for AFW ture innovation in the medium to long term. countries. Instead, countries must make smart Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 115 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All investments to combat climate change, close the engineering, ICT specialist, and technician skills) to digital divide, create jobs, and economically re- serve as a collective asset for attracting investments; cover from the pandemic. Because much of the to fill high-productivity jobs in high-growth sectors region’s infrastructure is yet to be built, there is an of the economy, including in research; and to form opportunity to invest in green technologies such as a pool of entrepreneurs who can create firms in the smart cities and transportation, clean energy, and new areas of growth in the digital and green econo- low-carbon manufacturing and services. The region mies. This workforce must be skilled enough not only can also leverage a range of emerging technolog- to deploy and maintain the digital infrastructure and ical fields to accelerate sustainable and inclusive platforms but also to innovate and create technolo- development, including smart agriculture, digital fi- gies, tools, and solutions to address development nance, e-health, and digital education. Investments challenges in an inclusive and sustainable manner in postbasic education are essential to equip the (for example, through the field of greening by ICTs). region’s workforce with the requisite skills to make effective use of new technologies. These skills will also enable AFW countries to advance toward sev- 6.1.1. The Demand for Skills in the eral SDGs, including zero hunger, clean water and Region’s Digital Economy sanitation, affordable and clean energy, and sus- tainable cities and communities. Digital skills are a key enabler for the inclusive and ef- ficient use, adoption, and creation of digital technolo- AFW’s emerging economic landscape has important gies. If tackled strategically, digital technologies could implications for the future of its job growth, skills de- transform the nature of work, as well as the delivery of mand, and skills acquisition. There is growing global and access to social and financial services, for many interest in Africa’s digital economy due to its vast po- people in AFW, especially the poor, as witnessed tential. The World Bank has committed US$25 billion globally as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. Firms to Africa’s digital transformation through the Digital around the world have accelerated the digitalization Economy for Africa initiative. In 2020, Facebook and of their customer and supply-chain interactions and other telecom partners announced the 2Africa part- operations by 3–4 years, transforming convention- nership, which will deploy the most comprehensive al ways of doing business (McKinsey & Company subsea cable for Africa and the Middle East. This fully 2020).42 Digital technologies can help to reach and funded project promises to ensure better and more accelerate skills development for all workers, going affordable internet connectivity in Africa. In parallel, beyond just a privileged few; beneficiaries include there is also the global recognition of the negative those with low education and limited opportunities. impact of climate change and, critically, how climate Digital technologies can also boost productivity and change is disproportionately affecting the region. create better jobs in all enterprises, including informal New jobs are emerging and will continue to emerge ones. Mobile-friendly digital platforms are beginning to as countries commit to a green transition, generating disrupt aspects of the informal economy in several Af- new skills needs and also opening up new frontiers rican countries, increasing access to existing and new for scientific research in the region. The emerging digital markets (e-commerce), promoting financial economic landscape has two important implications. inclusion, and accelerating cross-border trading (Ong First, the general population in AFW countries will 2021).43 The ICT sector itself will require a workforce need a basic level of skills to participate in and benefit with a range of digital competences from intermediate fully from the digital and green economies. For exam- to advanced and highly specialized levels. Moreover, ple, to maximize the benefits of the increasing ICT in- demand will also emerge from the traditional sectors, frastructure development, all AFW citizens must have which are increasingly adopting digital technologies. the necessary digital literacy. Second, a critical mass In agriculture, construction, transportation and logis- of the workforce will need the requisite skills (such as tics, manufacturing, banking and finance, and health 42 Digital technologies such as cloud computing have enabled the development of new business models and processes (McKinsey & Company 2020). 43 The United Nations Development Programme’s Global Accelerator Lab Network is seeing important cases of digital platform usages in various African companies including Jumia (Uganda), Tambula (Namibia), and Sanduk (Sudan and South Sudan) (Ong 2021). 116 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All and public services, the different categories of occu- weather shocks have lowered agricultural incomes pations such as scientific and professional as well as and productivity, affecting especially vulnerable middle-level and vocational occupations will require households and individuals, especially women. Al- new digital skills. For example, with the growing list of though addressing climate change is costly, the cost countries implementing digital identifications, AFW of inaction in the region will be significantly greater countries will need professionals who can counter cy- (International Monetary Fund 2021). These coun- ber security, develop regulatory frameworks on data tries need both mitigation and adaptation strategies protection, and ensure interoperability of information as well as the capacity to implement these strategies systems across government agencies. while balancing economic development and environ- mental sustainability. AFW countries need profes- More and more jobs in the region are also shifting from sionals who can help identify, analyze, and explain cli- agriculture to services, where the digital adoption rate mate risks and design cost-effective solutions related is the highest across economic sectors. In Nigeria and to disaster preparedness, response, and recovery. Côte d’Ivoire, for example, the International Finance The workforce must, for example, be able to develop Corporation and World Bank (2021) estimate that the climate-resilient infrastructures and leverage digi- adoption rate for service sector jobs will reach 50–60 tal technologies for real-time early warning systems percent by 2030, compared with 25–30 percent in that track and model climate hazards. AFW countries agriculture. For these two countries, the demand with an adequately skilled workforce can gradually in- will translate into 67 million44 training opportunities crease local climate-friendly and cost-effective prod- through 2030. About 70 percent of the training needs ucts and solutions that will not only lead to a greener will be in basic digital skills, with the remainder in in- and smarter region but also create green jobs. Inno- termediate and advanced digital skills; the skilling vation and research that incorporate digital technolo- needs will split evenly between training new work- gies (such as greening by ICTs) in fields like precision force entrants and reskilling of existing workers. Oth- agriculture, clean and smart energy, climate science, er key drivers of digital adoption include affordable sustainable water usage, valorization of waste, and and reliable access to both internet and electricity. smart transportation will play key roles in how the re- A critical reason for the active participation (rather gion accelerates climate action. In Sub-Saharan Afri- than passive consumer approach) of AFW countries ca, energy, construction, and agriculture will create in the digital economy is that some digital tools such the largest number of green jobs in the coming years as artificial intelligence and machine learning, which (United Nations Women and African Development are heavily data-dependent and increasingly used Bank 2021). Compared to non-green jobs, jobs in the across various sectors globally, can have inherent green economy typically require higher levels of cog- biases that can profoundly affect citizens in the re- nitive and interpersonal skills as well as prior prepara- gion. Therefore, it is of great importance to have pro- tion through formal education, work experience, and fessionals who are not only experts in these fields but on-the-job training. also prepared to engage at the global level and lead national-level efforts on data collection and usage. 6.2. AFW’s Workforce and Current Channels for Skills Acquisition 6.1.2. The Demand for Skills in Greening Economies The informal sector, including subsistence agricul- Sub-Saharan Africa, the lowest contributor to global ture, employs the bulk of the AFW’s workforce, typi- carbon emissions, is disproportionately affected by cli- cally in unpaid or low-wage, low-productivity jobs with mate change. All AFW countries are experiencing the limited opportunities. Transitioning from this present effects of more extreme weather patterns. Adverse reality will be challenging but is possible as shown by 44 Specifically, the projection is 57 million digital skills training opportunities for Nigeria and 10 million for Côte d’Ivoire (International Finance Corporation and World Bank 2021). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 117 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All examples in Asia (the Asian “tiger economies”). On adoption of technologies), strengthen applied agricul- average, the share of workers in the informal sector, tural research in universities, and enhance the diffu- among those 25–64 years old, is 85 percent, ranging sion of such research through extension services.49 from 60 percent in Cabo Verde to 97 percent in Benin. This figure is higher among the youth (15–24 years Formal sector jobs offer much better pay and pros- old), where the average is 94 percent.45 The Africa pects, but they are not being created fast enough. Center for Economic Transformation (2018) affirms Few foreign firms in the region create formal sector that “for many African countries, agriculture presents jobs. Of the few that do, most prefer to fill these jobs the easiest path to industrialization and economic with talent from elsewhere, usually outside of the transformation.”46 The Food and Agriculture Organi- region. In Ghana, only 10 percent secure such jobs zation (2018) notes that modernizing agriculture, a among the 200,000 people who enter the labor mar- long-neglected challenge in Africa, can leverage the ket each year (African Center for Economic Transfor- agri-food chain to expand attractive job opportunities mation 2018). The success rate is even lower in other for the region’s burgeoning youth population. AFW countries. For young people entering the work- force, becoming a productive entrepreneur is another In low-income economies, growth originating in ag- option, but it is a high-risk path, especially for those riculture has high potential to expand informal and with no capital or skills. Across 11 AFW countries,50 formal sector jobs, raise incomes, and reduce poverty. the data show that higher pay typically accrues to the Research on 55 countries, including those from Afri- better educated, with each additional year of school- ca, for varying periods during 1980–2000 shows that ing yielding an estimated private return of 11 percent, GDP growth originating in agriculture reduced pover- on average—slightly better than the global average of ty by 2.9 times that originating in manufacturing and 9 percent (Psacharapoulos and Patrinos 2018). 1.8 times that originating in construction (Loayza and Raddatz 2010). China’s dramatic success in reducing Education also affects access to wage jobs. Across all poverty is especially noteworthy, with some estimates workers, the probability of wage employment aver- putting agriculture’s contribution to the fall in poverty ages about 15 percent; it rises to 50 percent among between 1978 and 2001 at four times that of industry those with TVET and tertiary education, compared or services (Ravallion 2009).47 In China, agriculture’s with just 2 percent for those with no schooling. Higher large contribution stemmed from rising agricultural pay juxtaposed with few jobs in the formal sector is a productivity, which boosted incomes, and from the pervasive problem in the region that implies a waste release of surplus labor to other sectors and to urban of benefit for the broader economy. To reduce this areas; many factors aided the former trend, including waste, some AFW countries, such as Ghana, Senegal, “considerable effort to spur the development of agri- and Nigeria (Edo State), are reimagining the role of cultural research and extension and connect it better to new technologies, especially digital technology, in farming practices” (World Bank 2022).48 To unlock the their economic strategy; namely, these countries are potential of agriculture to improve lives, AFW countries aiming to create large numbers of moderately skilled must likewise consider enhancing, among various fac- jobs, complemented by a smaller but critical number tors, the provision of appropriate training through both of highly skilled jobs, while also training young peo- formal and informal channels. This training should im- ple for absorption into these jobs. For people in the prove farm-level knowledge and practices (including workforce who are functionally illiterate, a stepladder 45 According to the latest International Labour Organization data available (https://ilostat.ilo.org/). 46 ACET (2018) elaborates on the two main processes involved: “modernizing farming as businesses, and strengthening the links between farms and other economic sectors in a mutually beneficial way.” 47 In 1978, the start of China’s economic modernization reforms under Deng Xiaoping, 69 percent of its population worked in agriculture, compared with the AFW regional average of 44 percent in 2019 (WDI indicators accessed on April 16, 2022, at https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS). 48 In addition to research, extension, and farming practices, the World Bank (2022) identifies the following key factors in the rise in agricultural productivity during Chi- na’s economic modernization: “the deepening of rural land reform, the liberalization of the output market and price systems, the gradual reduction of the tax burden and the shift to net agriculture subsidies, the massive investment in mechanization, irrigation and use of modern inputs, and the marketization and integration of agricultural production into value chains.” 49 The World Bank (1996) has documented relevant experience in World Bank operations during this period of China’s reform. 50 Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo. The data pertain to 2018 for all countries except Ghana, whose data are for 2016. Analytical details are in the full report for this Regional Education Strategy. 118 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All approach can support acquisition of basic skills and (master craftsmen) offering training of variable quality job placement and then progressive accruement of (often using outdated techniques) in a highly unregu- additional skills through short- and long-term training lated market with limited provision for skills certifica- opportunities. Better yet, beyond the private returns, tion. Although the modalities of traditional apprentice- tertiary education has the potential to lift nations to- ship vary between AFW community groups, they are ward economic development. No developed nation by far the most important source of skills training in has transformed its economy without upgrading its most AFW countries. For instance, Darvas and Palm- tertiary education and overall skilling sectors. er (2014) found that in Ghana, fewer than 10 per- cent of vocational skills are acquired at public TVET Taking strategic steps to address weaknesses in AFW’s institutions, with roughly 1.5 times as many trainees systems for skills development can help improve the poor attending private TVET institutions and 10 times as quality of human capital in the region’s workforce. These many completing informal apprenticeships. The youth steps must aim to achieve two goals in parallel. The first trained through traditional apprenticeship often lack is ensuring that new workforce entrants are better pre- digital literacy as well as financial and entrepreneurial pared with job-relevant skills. The second is filling skills skills, which are important for their future self-employ- gaps among those already working, especially young ment. Monitoring the quality and outcome of training adults. United Nations population data indicate that, in such traditional systems is extremely challenging. of the region’s 460 million people, some 90.5 million (about 20 percent) are youth 15–24 years old; of these Despite efforts to adopt the German dual apprentice- youth, 30 percent are illiterate, and at least 25 percent ship model, without further changes, traditional ap- classify as NEET. In a 2020 survey of chief executive offi- prenticeships will continue to remain the main source cers of 150 Africa-based companies (40 percent based of skills acquisition in AFW, especially for youth from in AFW), 44 percent of the officers highlighted lack and/ disadvantaged backgrounds. There are four reasons or inadequacy of skills as their main human resource for the persistence of this situation: challenge (Deloitte 2020). In the following subsections, the Regional Education Strategy addresses the skilling ■ The number of medium and large enterprises ca- needs and available skilling options for three groups: the pable of taking on apprentices is not adequate to ‘stock’ of youth and young adults who have left school make the dual model feasible. and are already in the workforce; the ‘flow’ of youth and ■ With few exceptions, the private sector is insuffi- young adults still within and passing through the formal ciently organized to play its expected role in the education system (including TVET, general education, dual system. and those who conduct research); and working adults ■ Most TVET and tertiary education institutions in both the informal and formal sector). lack the capacity to play their expected role in the dual model. ■ Youth from disadvantaged backgrounds (a large 6.2.1. Skills Acquisition by Youth through swath of the population) seldom meet the entry Informal Channels requirements of the formal TVET and tertiary ed- ucation systems. For the ‘stock’ of youth and young adults who have left school and are already in the workforce, informal Besides traditional apprenticeships, training offered by and nonformal TVET is the main way to acquire skills. firms is another option (box 6.1). However, only a few The most important avenues are traditional appren- firms host such training, typically as part of corporate ticeships, firm-provided trainings, bootcamps, sec- social responsibility or to supply skills for jobs in their ond-chance education, and catch-up programs. Tra- line of business that are unavailable in the local work- ditional apprenticeships, which typically last three force. Bootcamps (or skills accelerators) are yet anoth- to five years, are the most common route to learn er option; they are short-term intensive programs de- job-related skills for employment in the informal sec- signed to make a trainee immediately employable after tor. These systems can be sizable, accounting for as the training. Coding bootcamps, for example, which much as 80–90 percent of the skills training sector in are usually organized by the private sector, have be- some countries, with many individual private providers come common in recent years in response to the rising Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 119 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.1. Informal/Traditional Apprenticeship The central focus of traditional apprenticeships is to develop skills for self-employment through on- the-job learning. Traditional apprenticeships introduce apprentices to a business culture and networks, building apprentices’ social capital and making it easier for them to find jobs or start businesses when they graduate (Brewer and Hofmann 2011). These apprenticeships rarely have a fixed training time or set curricula and therefore are not comparable to formal TVET provision. The method of training is observing and helping a master artisan/craftsperson. Most businesses conduct ‘cognitive apprenticeships’ in which the master craftsperson or skilled workers demonstrate and explain a task; the apprentice observes, imi- tates, and practices; and the trainers provide feedback and make corrections. In some cases, in addition to doing unpaid work while learning, the apprentice must also pay the master artisan a fee. In some rare cases, the master craftsperson offers basic trade-related theory as a supplement to the practical training. Informal apprenticeships are most widespread in trades related to the construction sector  (such as carpentry and joinery, plumbing, and bricklaying); tailoring and hairdressing; metal fabrication; various disciplines of auto-repair; and handicrafts (such as woodcarving). Women who pursue informal technical training or apprenticeships tend to end up in heavily concentrated sectors with limited demand, especial- ly tailoring or hairdressing. demand for digital skills. Second-chance and catch-up programs (except for a few private institutions) are programs add to the mix of options, typically offering supply driven with limited engagement with indus- courses to the poor and other vulnerable groups (such try, are poorly funded, and are inadequately staffed; as young women in the informal sector and refugees); moreover, they operate with poor infrastructure for these programs serve as a bridge either back into the teaching, learning, and research (stifling innovation), formal education system or into the labor market.  often lacking affordable and reliable broadband in- ternet connectivity. In some countries, student-facul- ty ratios are exceptionally high. The rate of hiring of 6.2.2. Skills Acquisition by Youth through faculty has not kept pace with the expansion of the Formal Education tertiary education sector, leading to overcrowding. In Burkina Faso, for example, the student-faculty ratio in Options for acquiring job-relevant skills for the ‘flow’ public higher education institutions is 112 to 1 (World of youth passing through the formal education system Bank 2018b). In public TVET institutions, quality of have expanded in recent years, but access remains low, teachers is an even greater challenge, though Côte and program quality remains poor (figure 6.1). Enroll- d’Ivoire51 is an exception (ACET 2022). For example, ments in formal secondary TVET and tertiary educa- in Niger, only 12 percent of TVET teachers have the tion have grown in recent decades, especially private requisite qualification. tertiary education (for example, in Ghana, Côte d’Ivo- ire, and Nigeria). Nonetheless, coverage is still less Formal TVET and higher-education institutions (espe- than in other regions. Enrollment rates remain too low cially those that are publicly funded) are not agile in to have a significant impact. In tertiary education, the responding to the changing nature of work. The curric- range of providers includes universities, polytechnics, ula remain outdated and typically require extended community colleges, and other specialized institutes. bureaucratic processes to update. Therefore, grad- Unfortunately, across AFW countries, most of these uates do not acquire the twenty-first-century skills 51 According to a recent ACET report (ACET 2022), Côte d’Ivoire has a strong institutional framework due to strategic investments in its National Pedagogical Institute for Technical and Vocational Education, which has standardized training and regulates the curriculum. The institute also tracks and provides continuous upskilling of trainers. 120 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Figure 6.1. Indicators Highlighting Quality and Access Challenges in Education for Western and Central African Youth (a) Youth illiteracy rate (b) Gross Enrollment Rate for Tertiary Education Youth Illiteracy Rate (%, 15 - 24) Tertiary Gross Enrollment Rate (%) Chad Middle East and Northern… MENA Central African Republic South Asia SA Niger Cabo Verde Mali Gabon Guinea Ghana Liberia Togo Burkina Faso Cameroon Guinea-Bissau Senegal Benin Mauritania Gambia, The Sierra Leone Congo West and Central Africa AFW Benin Gambia East and Southern Africa ESA 12 Senegal Liberia Nigeria West and Central Africa AFW Sub Saharan Africa SSA Nigeria East and Southern Africa ESA Côte d'Ivoire Congo Sub Saharan Africa SSA Côte d'Ivoire Burkina Faso Cameroon Guinea Togo Gabon Mauritania Middle East and Northern… MENA Mali South Asia SA Niger Ghana Chad Cabo Verde Central African Republic 0 20 40 60 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 Source: (a) Based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics database using latest available data for each country (2014–20); (b) Based on data from UNESCO Institute for Statistics database and original calculations using national enrollment data and population data from the United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and Population Division (2019). Latest data used (2014–20). (including entrepreneurship)52 needed to thrive in in engineering and ICT) fields among women and the changing world of work. Due to their poor qual- other disadvantaged groups are often very much ity, TVET programs in most countries offer very few below average, reflecting the impact of factors such pathways to further education or to better jobs and as societal norms and expectations, absence of role are often regarded as the last resort for youth who are models and mentors, information gaps, and lack of struggling in general education.  Enrollment rates in gender-focused funding. In addition, adoption of dual formal TVET and higher education are insufficiently apprenticeships/internships, which are necessary in oriented toward STEM fields (figure 6.2), which are offering youth hands-on experience and exposure to critical for the digital and green economies. The low jobs in their fields of interest, remains low within the uptake arises from various factors, including a weak formal system. pipeline of students (low competences in numera- cy and literacy) graduating from upper-secondary Finally, although the research output of the region has schools, low exposure of students to hands-on STEM increased over the past decade, AFW countries need to courses, and a lack of affordable and attractive local foster a more enabling environment to expand research programs.53 Participation rates in STEM (especially production and its impact further. Research output 52 The varying frameworks for what twenty-first-century skills encompass cut across cognitive, socioemotional, and technical skills. Some of the most common twen- ty-first-century skills include communication, creativity, critical thinking, problem solving, and digital literacy (Shmis et al. 2021). 53 Noteworthy is that in 2019, over 245,000 students from AFW countries were enrolled in tertiary programs abroad. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 121 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Figure 6.2. Tertiary Enrollment and Graduation by Field of Study for Senegal (a) Enrollment and graduation rates (b) Share of master’s and PhD female enrollment by field MASTER'S DEGREES Health 56% 44% 7,392 Natural Sciences 59% 41% Agriculture 60% 40% Business, 67% 33% Administration and Law 2,157 Engineering 67% 33% 1,182 848 830 Arts, Humanities 68% 32% 293 190 215 & Social Sciences 67 0 Enrollment Graduates ICT 74% 26% Arts, Humanities & Social Sciences Natural Sciences 0% 50% 100% Business, Administration and Law ICT Male Female Source: Original calculation using national higher-education data from four key public universities in Senegal. Figure 6.3. Research Output of Western and Central African Countries and Corresponding H-Index (2020) 250 Nigeria 200 Gahana 150 Senegal Cameroon Côte d’Ivoire Gambia H-Index Republic of Congo Mali Burkina Faso Benin Gabon 100 Central Niger African Guinea Republic Sierra Leone Liberia Guinea Bissau 50 Togo Cabo Verde Chad Mauritania Ecuatorial Guinea 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 Citable Documents per 1 million inhabitants Source: SCImago. SJR — SCImago Journal & Country Rank (2020). https://www.scimagojr.com. H-index is better than many other bibliometric measures in that it considers both productivity and impact, is not biased by a small number of very successful articles, discounts the value of papers that are not influential, and uses only publicly available data (Usher 2012). and impact remain low (figure 6.3). AFW faces infec- several factors, including low levels of science and tious diseases (most recently, Ebola and COVID-19); technology activities (lower use of ICT), weak finan- climate change impacts, which necessitate mitigation cial markets (low access to venture capital deals and and adaptation; and a growing digital economy. Ac- high dependency on government and donors), limited cordingly, investments in local research and develop- science industry links, and limited use of intellectual ment in these fields are critical. Ghana, which has the property. Also contributing to this low performance in highest scientific output in AFW, is producing three AFW are the absence of national science and technol- times less than South Africa. The 2020 Global Inno- ogy policies and related sustainable financial resourc- vation Index Ranking of 130 countries ranked the 12 es for implementation; the lack of a critical mass of ac- AFW countries with data between 100 (Cabo Verde) ademics, especially ones who can commit substantial and 130 (Guinea) (Dutta, Lanvin, and Wunsch-Vincent efforts and time to research instead of only teaching; 2020). The same report highlights that the innova- and an insufficient scientific infrastructure in terms of tion ecosystem in Africa is broadly characterized by advanced laboratories and internet connectivity. 122 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Figure 6.4. Indicators of the Education Level of the Workforce (a) Adult illiteracy rate (b) Share of workers employed with tertiary education Adult Illiteracy Rate (%, 25-64) Percentage of Workers Employed with Tertiary Education (%) Chad Cabo Verde Mali Niger Nigeria Burkina Faso Gambia Sierra Leone Guinea Liberia Benin Central African Republic Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ghana Gambia Senegal West and Central Africa AFW Liberia Mauritania Cameroon West and Central Africa AFW Togo Nigeria Togo Mauritania Sub Saharan Africa SSA Senegal South Asia SA East and Southern Africa ESA Niger Ghana Cameroon Chad Congo Burkina Faso Middle East and Northern Africa MENA Gabon Sierra Leone Cabo Verde Côte d'Ivoire Mali 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 5 10 15 20 Source: (a) Based on data from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics database using latest available data for each country (2014–20); (b) Original calculations using latest available employment data for each country (2014–20) from the International Labor Organization Statistics database. 6.2.3. Skills Acquisition by Working Adults disabilities to help them access adult learning and education training opportunities. Yet the paucity of The poor quality of the human capital among work- data limits assessment and monitoring of the needs ing adults is evident in the educational attainment of these vulnerable groups, undermining support for pyramids of AFW countries. These pyramids typical- relevant evidence-based policies. Some of the gov- ly feature a large, poorly educated base and a small ernance needed for the successful implementation number of tertiary-educated workers at the top. Of of relevant policies and strategies has emerged, but the AFW workforce, 42 percent has no education, substantial work remains with respect to access to, as and only 11 percent has a tertiary education; in the well as recognition, validation, and accreditation of, East Asia and Pacific region, in comparison, the cor- informal and nonformal adult learning and education responding figures are about 0 percent and 55 per- (UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning 2020). Finan- cent, respectively, even though this region had similar cial investments in adult learning and education in the development challenges to AFW in the 1950s. The region are also insufficient. For formal-sector workers, adult literacy rate in AFW averages 52 percent, falling ensuring that skills acquisition prior to entry to the to only 19 percent in Chad (figure 6.4). This share of workforce is effective remains a key challenge. For a the population has low literacy, numeracy, digital, and growing number of these workers, lifelong learning is financial skills. A large swath of the workforce is thus gaining relevance as the nature of work and job oppor- functioning below their potential. According to a UN- tunities change with digital and green technologies. ESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (2020) report on To remain productive, formal-sector workers must be adult learning and education in Africa, more needs to able to deepen their expertise or acquire new skills be done for the poor, for women, and for adults with through periodic upskilling and/or reskilling. With the Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 123 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All majority of enterprises being small and medium-sized 6.3. Fortifying Governance to enterprises, AFW countries need policies that can in- Improve the Ecosystem for Skills centivize and help these enterprises to invest in and/ Building or promote the upskilling or reskilling of their employ- ees. Finding sustainable approaches to enable life- long learning could thus initiate a virtuous cycle for Fortifying the governance of training providers is the skills development in the region.  first of four complementary sets of high-impact inter- ventions to address weaknesses in AFW’s skills de- velopment systems. As indicated above, the current 6.2.4. Strategic Trade-offs for Skills system of formal, publicly funded TVET and high- Development in AFW’s Emerging er-education programs is insufficient on its own to Economic Landscape meet the demand for skills acquisition in the region. The gaps are filled by the informal service provid- AFW countries face difficult trade-offs in crafting ers, typically master craftspeople, and to a smaller strategies for building job-relevant skills given the extent by private training firms among others. The early stage of industrialization, weaknesses in the skilling ecosystem is highly fragmented, and training human capital base, nascent systems for formal skill- providers operate with limited alignment to national ing, and tight budgets. These countries must strive economic strategies. Better governance can create a to find a balance between two main common trade- more integrated system that benefits users and pro- offs (Arias, Evans, and Santos 2019). The first trade- viders of training services alike in the public and pri- off is between investing in skills for high economic vate, formal and informal sectors. To this end, three productivity versus skills for economic inclusion of areas of governance warrant attention: reforming tra- the unemployed as well as the mostly agrarian and ditional apprenticeship models; formalizing the role self-employed population in the informal sector. The of employers in skills development; and developing second trade-off is between skills for today’s jobs ver- simple, yet inclusive, skills qualifications frameworks. sus skills for tomorrow’s jobs. Experiences in Chile, Ireland, Korea, Malaysia, and Singapore over sever- al decades since the 1970s suggest that following 6.3.1. Reforming Current Apprenticeship divergent pathways can successfully soften these Models for Skills Acquisition trade-offs to help nascent formal skilling systems mature, depending on each country’s unique devel- Reforming traditional apprenticeship models can help opment aspirations, economic strategy, organization- improve the productivity of apprentices when they be- al structure, and roles granted to the private sector come workers in the informal sector and enable some (Tan et al. 2016). Key lessons include the need for of them to gain a foothold in the formal sector (box 6.2). strategic, whole-of-government steering of the jobs As traditional apprenticeships seem likely to remain and skills agenda; prioritization of innovations and the main source of skills acquisition in AFW for years reforms to model agile responses to emerging labor to come, these reforms are a necessity. The success market needs; use of graduate employment results of these reforms will depend on strategic national-lev- as a key indicator of institutional performance and el coordination among all stakeholders, including the response to labor market needs; and consolidation government, trade groups (informal sector), industry and integration of proven innovations to embed and partners (formal sector), and formal TVET institu- disseminate good practices.54 AFW countries can use tions. These reforms should upgrade traditional ap- these lessons to shape their own plan for strength- prenticeships to match the skills requirements of the ening their systems for skills building, taking into ac- post–COVID-19 economic reality. First, traditional ap- count the region’s jobs-and-skills landscape. prenticeships should start including classroom-based 54 An example of this process is the evolution of the training centers first established in 1972–75 by Singapore’s Economic Development Board in partnership with various foreign companies and governments (Tan and Nam 2012). These centers were upgraded to technology institutes during 1979–92 and consolidated in 1993 to form Nanyang Polytechnic under the Ministry of Education. One benefit was the institutionalization of many of Nanyang Polytechnic’s innovations in industry-re- sponsive skills development, including its signature “teaching factory” model. 124 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.2. Examples of Reformed Apprenticeship Programs Côte d’Ivoire dual apprenticeship pilot project. In 2010, the government of Côte d’Ivoire and the World Bank jointly launched an emergency youth employment and skills development project. The project aimed to improve access to temporary employment and skills development opportunities for youth. It included a formal apprenticeship program, which targeted low-skilled youth 18–24 years old in the main urban areas of the country. The project sought to place these youth in firms, where they would receive on- the-job training as well as theoretical training under a supervisor. The most popular positions included car or motor mechanic, metal worker, boilermaker, welder, and bricklayer. Of the 361 firms offering appren- ticeship positions, 84 percent had no formal legal status, and 68 percent did not keep financial records. The project lasted one to two years, based on the occupation. Youth received insurance coverage, work equipment, and a monthly allowance for meals and transportation costs. In addition to practical on-the- job training within the firms, youth were also eligible to receive 180 hours of complementary theoretical training per year and could request one-on-one advice from apprenticeship counsellors. At the end of the apprenticeship, each participant was tested on their practical skills and theoretical knowledge of the job. Short-term impacts included the following:  (a) firms in the program hired more formal apprentices but fewer traditional apprentices than firms not in the program; (b) apprentices in the program worked on average 23 percent more days relative to individuals in the comparison group; and (c) quality of work by program apprentices was 62 percent higher per month relative to those who were not in the program. No direct impacts on firm profits and revenues emerged, but the aforementioned short-term impacts that did emerge may be sufficient to make the program cost effective in the short term. Ghana Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Voucher Project for informal sector training. In the Ghanaian informal sector, master craftspeople and workers of small enterprises and microenterprises usually gain their vocational skills through traditional apprenticeship. However, such enterprises are increasingly struggling to keep pace with technological progress. Furthermore, skills ac- quired through traditional apprenticeships do not lead to a qualification recognized by the Ghanaian na- tional qualifications framework. T ​ he government has decided to implement the modular competency-based training approach as an adequate response to the specific needs of the informal sector. Taking advantage of the existing tra- ditional apprenticeship system, competency-based training units contain both workplace training and complementary skills training offered by accredited training institutions. A full set of competency-based training units leads to formal qualifications. The Ghana TVET Voucher Project aims to meet the demand of the informal sector for skills upgrading through an innovative voucher financing scheme.  ​ his project provides vouchers for training to master craftspeople, their apprentices, and workers. The T vouchers finance (a) competency-based training courses provided by accredited training institutions; (b) the assessment and certification of acquired skills through accredited awarding bodies; and (c) related coordination and monitoring services provided by respective trade associations of the informal sector.  (Box continues on next page) Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 125 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.2. Examples of Reformed Apprenticeship Programs (continued) ​ he vouchers are issued to beneficiaries in the form of electronic codes via mobile text messages T (e-vouchers). A web-based Voucher Management System facilitates the operational management of the project. This system includes the registration of training offers; the decentralized application for vouchers through mobile devices; continuous monitoring of training attendance; generation of invoices; disburse- ment control; daily updated reporting on project performance; and various business intelligence features for the Council of TVET, the national TVET authority, and KfW Bank (Germany). The project finances training in cosmetology/hairdressing; c onsumer electronics; automotive repair; construction/welding; garments; and six new trade areas, namely block-laying, tiling, plumbing, catering, electrical installation, and woodwork. ​ he training is provided by a network of 98 accredited public and private TVET institutions. During a T preparative phase, GIZ (the main German developmental agency) implemented a comprehensive pre- paratory exercise creating the precondition for successful implementation of the e-voucher project. The preparatory activities included development of curricula and assessment procedures, training of instruc- tors, upgrading of training centers to meet the accreditation criteria, and development of the necessary management tools. As of February 2021, the exercise had trained 15,000 persons. Sources: Crépon and Premand (n.d.); Hirji (2020); the Ghana TVET Voucher Project website (https://cotvet.gov.gh/gtvp/about-gtvp/). Note: TVET = technical and vocational education and training. training, as these apprenticeships currently tend to provision of further training to those who instruct ap- focus exclusively on practical training provided at a prentices in informal businesses would improve the workshop or on the premises of an enterprise. Benin, skill levels of youth who receive training this way and for example, is testing a partnership arrangement with the opportunities for the trainers, who are informal local TVET institutions to incorporate classroom-based workers themselves, to formalize informally acquired instruction on entrepreneurship and digital and soft occupational skills. Benin, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire, and skills. For those in communities with no TVET institu- Senegal, for example, have tried to reform their tra- tions in proximity, zero-rating courses that are mobile ditional apprenticeship system with varied success. friendly could be appropriate. Second, traditional ap- In countries such as Ghana, new regulations endeav- prenticeship programs can provide career counselling or to formalize traditional apprenticeships and bring (including links to jobs and microfinance) that targets them in line with a standardized program. The Ghana disadvantaged youth for additional support. Bringing e-voucher project is an example of such a program. apprenticeship programs under the TVET coordinat- ing agency could ensure solid capacity in financial Wherever possible, efforts to improve traditional ap- management and complex coordination. Third, tradi- prenticeships should be inclusive and sustainable tional apprenticeship programs can provide trainees and carried out in cooperation with local groups and with suitable training tools and stipends that match associations that exist in the informal economy. Equal or exceed what the trainees would have earned in an access to these improved systems is key; regardless informal job. Fourth, assessment-based certification of socioeconomic background and gender, women of both trainers (masters) and trainees would validate and vulnerable youth must be able to benefit from the skills gained through traditional apprenticeships improvements in traditional apprenticeships too (Ad- and facilitate recognition of such skills. Systematic ams, Johansson da Silva, and Razmara 2013).55 55 Adams, Johansson da Silva, and Razmara (2013) offer an excellent overview of strategies for improving the quality of skills development in the informal sector. 126 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All 6.3.2. Formalizing the Role of the Private of skilled workers in their firms by establishing their Sector in Skills Development own in-company training centers/schools. Usually, the companies establish these centers in collabora- Formalizing the role of the private sector, including for- tion with the public TVET authorities. For the coun- mal-sector employers, as skills providers is crucial for tries where they are located, these company-based AFW. With the rapid changes in the nature of work, stra- training centers are a ‘win-win’ operation. The cen- tegic public-private partnerships are a necessity. In- ters relieve the government’s burden of investing in creasing the menu of dynamic and responsive options highly specialized TVET programs. At the same time, in the TVET and higher-education sectors requires the the centers ensure that the company’s growth is not involvement of the private sector (including employ- hampered by shortages of qualified staff. Effective ers and their employees) in the policy development, training centers provide hands-on practical training financing, and actual delivery of skills training. The to youth, leading to their certification. The companies expansion of training opportunities needed is so sub- then hire some of the graduates, and those graduates stantial that the public sector alone cannot absorb all who are not recruited can easily find work elsewhere, the trainees and students. Many countries in the region based on the highly transferable skills acquired from already have national bodies responsible for TVET and their training. To address skills shortages, some AFW higher education. Unfortunately, in countries such as governments have established formal partnerships Côte d’Ivoire, employers’ appetite for engaging these with individual corporations (for example, ArcelorMit- national bodies has been weak, partly due to the limited tal in Liberia [ArcelorMittal 2021], Dangote in Nigeria, de facto influence of the bodies, and partly due to the and Toyota in Kenya [box 6.3]). Other governments costs associated with their participation in activities. have established partnerships with groups of firms operating in technology parks and hubs (such as Edo In addition to relieving the pressure on limited govern- Tech Park in Nigeria). Governments can strategically ment financial resources, the participation of private extend these types of public-private partnerships to providers has, in many economies, introduced a posi- many more employers. tive dimension of healthy competition. Private TVET and higher-education institutions are often closely Other employers also provide on-the-job training for aligned to labor market needs and tend to respond existing employees to boost firm productivity and more flexibly to the evolving demand than public in- profitability; such investments offer opportunities for stitutions. Competition is an important element for en- lifelong learning, thereby increasing the adaptability suring the quality and relevance of programs. Because of the workforce to the changing nature of work. To their survival depends on their capacity to attract good incentivize employers to offer training, some coun- students, private institutions have stronger incentives tries collect training levies toward a training fund. to launch curricular and pedagogical innovations. AFW Giving employers an effective voice in managing the governments therefore need to develop a clear vision training fund is essential to ensure that the levies are regarding contributions from these private providers; used as intended to upgrade the skills of workers in establish effective quality assurance mechanisms for areas of relevance and need to employers. Mexico’s licensing and accreditation and for terminating pro- Integral Quality and Modernization program exempli- grams and institutions that do not meet minimal qual- fies a successful payroll-based levy collected by the ity standards; and monitor the socioeconomic distri- government to promote skills upgrading in small and bution of their students, allowing low-income students medium-sized enterprises. Malaysia’s Penang Skills to access student loan systems where such systems Development Center uses a different model, relying exist. In countries such as Chad and Côte d’Ivoire, pri- on membership fees to fund skills upgrading for the vate enrollments have quadrupled in the past decade. participating firms (Banerji et al. 2010). The Malay- Governments should clearly define their vision regard- sian Center fund also supports a substantial number ing contributions of private TVET and higher education of small and medium-sized enterprises. The Center as a substantial pillar of the expansion strategy. for Port and Logistics Training model in Senegal (box 6.4) offers an example of an alternative model in Some large domestic companies and multinational which several firms form a partnership to benefit from corporations in AFW are addressing acute shortages sector-specific trainings. For AFW, this alternative Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 127 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.3. Examples of Company-Based Training Academies for the Youth The Dangote Group in Nigeria. Dangote Academy was established in 2010 to provide technical and management training for the Dangote Group, which has engagements in cement manufacturing, sugar refining, fertilizer manufacturing, mining, energy, agro-business, and transport and logistics. Currently, Dangote Academy has centers in Lagos and in Obajana, Kogi state. Dangote Academy was created to meet the demands of the Dangote Group for specialized technical and management recruits based on the identified training and practical skills gaps affecting a large proportion of Nigerian postsecondary graduates. The official vision is to provide a technical talent pipeline for the Dangote Group while filling the industrial skills-gap in Nigeria. Dangote Academy’s main training schemes include the following: ■ The vocational trainee scheme, which targets recent polytechnic graduates seeking to become skilled technicians and operators. This 12-month practical training program allows trainees to practice in workshops and factories. ■ The graduate engineer trainee scheme, which focuses on graduates in mechanical, electrical/electron- ic, and chemical engineering. This scheme runs for 12 months and includes workshop skills and in- plant training. ■ The junior technical skills scheme, which trains students in basic engineering then intensive technical skills via a training workshop under specialist instructors. This scheme is followed by in-plant training in one of the Dangote factories under the supervision of an engineer and manager. It is an 18-month program open to secondary school and technical college students. ■ The Dangote Graduate Drivers Academy, which aims to improve the quality of transport fleet drivers. It offers safety and defensive training and covers highway management standards with an aim to reduce accident rates and improve drivers’ attitudes and aptitudes on managing assigned consignments. ■ The ADF-VDMA Technical Training Program, which is based on the German dual-track vocational train- ing model. The program, which the academy runs at its facility in Obajana, is a tripartite collaborative arrangement involving VDMA (the Mechanical Engineering Industry Association); the Government of Germany (through its development agency, GIZ); and Aliko Dangote Foundation. The program offers an 18-month residential training in industry mechanics to youth 16–24 years old for free, operating in batches/cohorts of 120 youth. It also offers a variety of short courses to industry professionals (at sub- sidized rates). Thus far, Dangote Academy has graduated 650 participants from the vocational trainee, graduate engi- neer trainee, and junior technical skills schemes and seen 85 percent of the graduates hired into different business units within the Dangote Group. Dangote Academy will graduate the first batch of 120 trainees (of which 10 percent are women) from the ADF-VDMA program in the third quarter of 2022. Toyota in Kenya. Since 2014, Toyota has operated the Toyota Kenya Academy in Nairobi, which is part of the corporate social activities under the Toyota Kenya Foundation. In addition to its technical automo- tive training (including for technicians in the informal automotive service industry) and managerial staff development, the academy also trains technicians in construction equipment, agricultural equipment, and other areas outside of the automotive field. The academy provides further education opportunities appropriate to real on-site skills needs. (Box continues on next page) 128 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.3. Examples of Company-Based Training Academies for the Youth (continued) The curricula are developed by Toyota but aligned with the Kenya Qualification Framework. The three- month courses are fee-based, but stipends are available through the Toyota Kenya Foundation. Many of the graduates receive offers of employment from Toyota Kenya on completion of their training. The acad- emy collaborates with the Technical and Vocational Education and Training Authority, Japan International Cooperation Agency, and Kenyan universities. Sources: Dangote Academy’s website (https://www.dangote.com/our-business/dangote-academy/); Dangote Group’s submission to the World Economic Forum for Dangote Academy (shorturl.at/cACX2); Toyota Kenya’s website (https://toyotakenya.com/toyota-academy/). model is relevant for industries with strong, well-func- 6.3.3. Developing Simple and Inclusive tioning employer associations and clearly defined Skills Qualification Frameworks training needs. AFW countries must put in place simple yet inclusive Finally, some governments have created conditions national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) to clarify for the participation of the private sector in the learning pathways and ensure the quality and com- overall national TVET system. For example, some parability of trainings provided. NQFs and regulatory have created conducive conditions for accredit- frameworks help countries align competency-based ing private institutions to provide industry-linked curricula to skills outcomes and expected career TVET trainings as seen in Nigeria’s Vocational and pathways. NQFs facilitate progression within the ed- Innovation Enterprise Institutions.56A few non-AFW ucation system and create simple pathways for stu- countries have successfully outsourced responsibil- dents to transfer their credits across different streams ity for the management of major elements of their of education. For example, NQFs can provide horizon- national TVET system to the private sector. One ex- tal pathways for qualified youth in the TVET system ample is SENAI, Brazil, which operates a network of to rejoin the general education stream. NQFs should more than 700 training centers. SENAI is partially also recognize emerging innovative learning models government funded and linked to the Brazilian Con- such as microcredentials and stackable credentials.57 federation of Industry, whose training centers align NQFs should provide avenues for the youth (either in skilling with specific industry skills needs. In Moroc- training or in the workforce) and the adult population co, the government has achieved considerable suc- to grow their skills profiles. Developing and operating cess with the Institutes à Gestion Déléguée (decen- a comprehensive NQF takes time, resources, and sus- tralized institutes) in selected industries. Although tained commitment; therefore, governments should the state pays all operational costs, management is pursue NQFs in phases. First, NQFs should serve as the responsibility of industry associations (box 6.4). a tool for defining progression pathways for students. The Moroccan model is relevant for AFW countries Defining these pathways is particularly important for eager to attract foreign investors within a specific countries struggling with FCV, as capacity for imple- industry. However, to be successful, the model re- mentation is very low. Countries with more capacity quires the existence of well-functioning industry can choose to target initially those priority industries associations capable of managing a sophisticated where certifications are most pertinent. Development training center. of NQFs could prioritize emerging areas of skills needs 56 In Nigeria, the government has partnered with the private sector through the establishment of Vocational Enterprise Institutions and Innovation Enterprise Institu- tions. These institutions focus on providing skills-based, vocational, technical, and professional training at postbasic and postsecondary levels to equip school leavers and workers. Both institutions provide financial aid. 57 Stackable credentials refer to a series of certificates that build on each other. When a student has collected a ‘package’ of predefined microcredentials, the student may transfer the credits to a next-level certificate or degree. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 129 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.4. Examples of Sustainable Approaches to Training Programs for the Existing Workforce Center for Port and Logistics Training. Initially created in response to demand from the National Employ- ers Association in 2007, the Center for Port and Logistics Training, Senegal is the result of a successful public-private partnership. A tripartite convention outlining the future operations of the center was signed in 2006 by the Senegalese state, the president of the Port Industry Community, and the Agence Française de Développement. With financial support from the Agence Française de Développement and the Sen- egalese government, management of the center was left to the Association for Training in Port Trades, which coordinates private companies in the port industry. Today, the center trains at three levels (Level 5: Drivers, Level 4: Specialized Technicians, and Level 3: Specialized Senior Technicians) in the fields of transport, logistics, handling, and port operations. Each program lasts for two years, with an obligation of trainees to spend one-third of the time in an internship. The center has more than 100 partner companies from the industry. These partnerships are valuable for the students, as the companies offer them internships during the training. The center’s link with the private sector is strong due not only to the management of the center but also to the teachers, who are professionals from the sector. Teachers contribute to training by ensuring the students receive relevant and up-to-date content. Between 2011 and 2021, more than 900 trainees successfully graduat- ed from the center, and more than 5,500 attended short skills-upgrading courses. Institutes à Gestion Déléguée. As part of the Vocational Training Strategy for 2021, the Moroccan Gov- ernment aims to increase the role of the private sector in technical and vocational education and training. A key element of the strategy is establishment of Institutes à Gestion Déléguée in sectors with a strong value-added and strategic importance for further economic development. The institutes have formed in partnership with private professional organizations (national and international). Currently, there are 10 institutes in five sectors: aeronautic, automobile, renewable energy, textile/garment, and transport & road safety. Most of the institutes are located in the sector-specific special economic zone for which the institute provides tailored training courses. An example is the Institut des Métiers de l’Aéronautique, opened in 2011. The institute, situated next to Mohammed V International Airport in Casablanca and within the aeronautics-focused Midparc Casablanca Free Zone, offers both initial and advanced skills training. An expansion project completed at the beginning of 2017 allowed for the institute to increase its yearly ca- pacity from 800 to 1,200 trainees in training programs and to add 300 spots for continuing education. This expansion was part of an effort to meet the 2020 goal of adding 23,000 technicians to the aeronau- tics segment. The institutes are primarily considered a means to attract foreign investors in need of a highly skilled, specialized workforce. The principle is that the state covers all costs of establishing and running the insti- tute, including salaries, learning materials, and maintenance. Typically, the management is outsourced to the association of private enterprises within the sector. The state has no role in day-to-day management, and the institutes are free to define the contents of the training according to the specific needs of the partners. Sources: Busso (2020); www.cfmpl.sn. 130 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All (such as digital skills) and accelerate the process by In many countries, it is an instrument for assessing adapting ideas from elsewhere to suit national condi- the competences of applicants for admission into tions and priorities. Governments can also use NQFs higher education, especially applicants who do not as a tool for quality control and accreditation of both fully meet the entry requirements. In some countries, public and private service providers. it is a tool to test the qualification of migrants. In the context of AFW, it could help foster improved quality When harmonized with other countries’ frame- of training in the traditional apprenticeship system. works, NQFs ease regional mobility of the labor Creating a system for RPL requires clear guidance force. Regional qualification frameworks allow em- and tools (especially digital technologies) for assess- ployers to recognize qualifications acquired in other ing skills competencies and subsequent certifica- countries and stimulate exchange of students and tions. The system should therefore roll out in phases, teaching staff across the community of countries. targeting first a few industries or trades where certifi- Regional qualification frameworks vary considerably cations are most relevant and in demand; identifica- in their objectives, sector coverage, design, and use. tion of those industries or trades should be based on Some act as a common reference framework (such data. Box 6.5 provides an example of how RPL works as the European Qualifications Framework or the in Kenya. Qualification Reference Framework of the Associ- ation of Southeast Asian Nations). Others are more expansive and aim to establish common standards 6.4. Dismantling Barriers to Skills (such as the South African Development Communi- Acquisition ty’s Qualifications Framework inspired by the South African National Qualifications Framework). UNES- CO, in collaboration with the Economic Community The second set of interventions aims to dismantle ac- of West African States (ECOWAS) Commission, has cess-related barriers to skills acquisition. These interven- arranged several regional events with the aim of en- tions include diversifying the options for skills acquisition couraging the development of qualifications systems and reducing the costs of training. Remedial programs within the region and stimulating the creation of a re- and bootcamps are one way to help large numbers of gional qualification framework. Thus far, five member youth and adults, especially the poor and illiterate, to states in ECOWAS (Nigeria, The Gambia, Senegal, access job-relevant training. These interventions can fill Ghana, and Capo Verde [African Union 2020]) have learning and skills gaps that would otherwise disqualify developed or are in the process of developing an NQF prospective participants. Additional interventions in- or national vocational qualifications framework. AFW clude increasing the supply of high-quality, affordable countries can also target a priority industry or field skilling opportunities and targeting financial aid for stu- (such as engineering) and harmonize qualification dents based on merit and need. standards in that field. Furthermore, an NQF should allow for formal certifi- 6.4.1. Diversifying Program Offerings to cation of competences achieved through recognition Meet the Needs of a Range of Learners of prior learning (RPL). RPL offers those who have acquired their skills through informal or nonformal Remedial programs, bootcamps, and sec- training an opportunity to search for jobs in the for- ond-chance programs can serve diverse learners, mal sector. RPL is a process to identify, assess, and including university entrants with weak preparation certify the knowledge, skills, and competencies of for STEM degrees, jobseekers in need of a quick a person regardless of how, when, and where their upskilling boost, and adults and youth with weak learning occurred. Assessment is measured against foundational skills. Critical constraints hampering prescribed standards (learning outcomes) for a skills development and access to postsecondary ed- partial or full qualification. RPL has a long tradition ucation can be eliminated through these short-term in countries like Australia and the United Kingdom, training programs. Remedial programs may offer un- but it is a more recent phenomenon in low- and mid- derprepared students an opportunity to acquire the dle-income countries. RPL serves different purposes. prerequisites to meet the threshold for entry into a Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 131 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.5. Recognition of Prior Learning in Kenya Recognition of prior learning (RPL) policy in Kenya provides an umbrella framework to all RPL-related activities carried out in Kenya. RPL is integrated into the existing legal and policy frameworks in the ed- ucation and training sector and aligned to the Kenyan national qualifications framework. The RPL policy outlines the objectives and expected outcomes of RPL and defines the various institutional frameworks and their specific roles and processes in carrying out RPL. The aim of RPL is to promote access, employability, mobility, and progression while giving fair chances to disadvantaged, discouraged, and traditionally marginalized groups. Moreover, the policy intends to expand engagements in RPL by government agencies, employers and employees, training institutions, and RPL practitioners. The RPL policy supports the implementation of the Credit Accumulation and Transfer system in Kenya as Internationalization of Kenyan Qualifications. The National Industrial Authority has been implementing RPL in technician levels 2, 3, and 4. The Big 4 Agenda 2018–22 identifies promotion of RPL as a priority in addressing the existing skills shortage in Kenya. The Kenya National Qualification Authority, in consultation with stakeholders, has developed the RPL Policy Framework 2020; the RPL Implementation Guidelines; and the Kenya National Qualification Authority accreditation, assessment tools, and certification guidelines. www.knqa.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Guidelines-for- The RPL guidelines can be found at  RPL-2020.pdf. Source: Peer Learning Webinar African Continental Qualifications Framework, March 6, 2021, Session 4 Juma Mukhwana Director General, Kenya National Qualification Authority. Note: RPL = recognition of prior learning. particular stream of education. These programs are Kenya provides bootcamp trainings related to tech- particularly useful in developing STEM fundamentals nical, entrepreneurial, and other soft skills and helps and digital skills. The programs may level the playing link the graduates to jobs. The school has an 85 per- field for underrepresented groups, including wom- cent graduate employment rate. en, and for vulnerable youth with low-quality prior education, especially those interested in STEM pro- Second-chance programs ensure inclusivity and grams. For example, The Gambia’s African Higher help address learning gaps by reteaching founda- Education Centers of Excellence (ACE) Impact proj- tional skills to out-of-school or disadvantaged youth ect provided pre-engineering remedial courses to and illiterate adults. These programs can create upper-secondary school graduates. At times, these pathways for school dropouts, including those inter- programs take the form of a bootcamp: short-term, ested in re-entering the formal education system. intensive training. Bootcamps are particularly pop- Successful programs are those that have “multiple ular within ICT in courses such as coding, database entry and exit points and close associations with design, and software development. Often these formal education” and combine technical, cogni- courses are provided in collaboration with ICT giants tive, and life skills training (Keiko et al. 2015). Most such as Google, IBM, Microsoft, and CISCO and lead AFW countries have second-chance programs in the to a certificate recognized by the ICT industry. Boot- form of adult education. Often the programs com- camps are a cost-effective way to boost the skills of bine functional literacy training with teaching of life specific target groups for employment within a rela- skills (nutrition, health, and civil rights) and elemen- tively short time, which means that bootcamps have tary vocational training. Typically, the programs are huge potential in the region. The Moringa School in provided at designated adult learning centers, but in 132 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.6. India – Digital Skills Training for Street Vendors According to Praveen (2021), the Indian government is taking steps to digitalize the country. At pres- ent, only upper-class and middle-class people make large-scale digital payments; ordinary people and small traders clearly lack knowledge about digital payments. In response, the government has recently launched the Mein Bhi Digital 3.0 campaign to train street vendors to make and receive payments digital- ly. The campaign will train street vendors in 223 cities across the country. India’s leading digital payment companies will conduct the training on behalf of the government. These companies will train street vendors in different parts of the country on digital payments, Unified Payment Interface identification, and QR codes. In addition, the companies will provide all the necessary informa- tion related to digital payments. This training and information will enable small and less educated mer- chants running shops on the streets to make and accept digital payments. some countries, such as Ghana and Senegal, adult 6.4.2. Expanding Access to Flexible, education is also available in the form of continued Affordable, Quality Skilling Opportunities and distance education for persons already in em- ployment. In the last decade, a wide range of basic AFW governments can take advantage of new and digital literacy courses for adults have emerged in innovative ways to increase access to flexible, low- the region. Considering the large number of illiterate cost, and high-quality pathways for skills acquisition. adults and youth in AFW, governments can embark The high number of youth not transitioning to ter- on sustained mass-literacy campaigns for young tiary education or other postsecondary non-tertiary adults age 15–34 (with a special focus on those skilling programs that characterizes AFW countries age 25–34) that leverage the penetration of mobile represent a waste of human resources. In countries phone technology in the region to reach a signifi- struggling with FCV, young people excluded from cant number of this population over a shorter period education and employment tend to feel socially ex- of time. Trainings are most effective when tailored cluded, making them potential recruits of insurgents. to the line of work/trade and to the mother tongue In addition, higher education in the region is still not of the trainees; examples include Niger’s mobile equitable. AFW governments, the private sector, and phone-based Project Alphabetisation de Base par skilling institutions can consider two interventions Cellulaire and India’s digital skills training for street regarding expanding access through the provision of vendors initiative (box 6.6). In Ghana, the Grameen affordable, quality skills training and education. The Foundation works with community agents and uses first is reducing the costs associated with providing a Digital Farming platform to provide cocoa farmers postsecondary education and TVET such as by rely- with timely training and tailored advice on sustain- ing on online or blended learning. The second is de- able agriculture practices and suitable investments fraying the cost of attending the training or education for their farming businesses. The AFW Sahel white for the poorest students. paper suggests a series of additional interventions to support adult literacy programs.58 More TVET and higher-education institutions in AFW countries should take full advantage of the opportu- nities offered by digital technologies for education. AFW governments can learn from the COVID-19 crisis and maximize the use of their growing investments in 58 Although high adult illiteracy rates are endemic in AFW countries, they are more pronounced in the Sahel subregion. Therefore, the Sahel Education White Paper (World Bank 2021) and this Regional Education Strategy align closely in addressing this challenge. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 133 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All digital infrastructure to offer youth and adults already include access to affordable and reliable electrici- in the workforce, as well as youth enrolled in the TVET ty and internet; access to devices (laptops, desktop and higher-education sectors, a wide range of online computers); digital skills for trainers and trainees; courses and resources, responding directly to the and capacity in digital education pedagogy for train- labor market’s skills demands. Enrollments in online ers and faculty. courses at the tertiary level have expanded globally in recent years due to its flexibility and low cost to students. The format of digital education within ter- 6.4.3. Targeting Financial Aid for Students tiary education includes blended learning programs Based on Merit and Need hosted by traditional brick-and-mortar institutions (for example, African Development University, Niger) Expanding access to skills and higher education will and fully online programs offered by open or virtual require diversifying student financing options to sup- universities (such as virtual universities in Burkina, port marginalized and vulnerable youth. For trainees in Nigeria, and Senegal). Virtual universities can help pretertiary TVET programs, especially youth from un- ease some of the overcrowding in brick-and-mortar derprivileged families, options like voucher schemes, universities. Given the hands-on nature of TVET train- stipends (such as the Tanzania Skills Development ing, some providers have started to integrate blended Fund Bursary Scheme), and no-cost skills training platforms for learning (for example, industrial welding packages are ways to ease access to education and skills training in Kenya [box 6.7]). training. Regarding tertiary education, some schemes offer low-interest loans and targeted scholarships. Increasingly, short-term online courses are being Examples include Rwanda’s student loan and bur- offered by the private sector (by IBM and Micro- sary program, managed by the Development Bank soft, for example) in partnership with development of Rwanda (2019), and the Ghana Education Trust, organizations and tertiary education institutions. which dedicates a share of the value-added tax to Governments in coordination with the private sec- scholarships for gifted but financially needy students. tor and development partners can also consider Such schemes have proved to be effective ways to mass-skilling (digital skills training) of youth through increase access for youth from underprivileged fam- mobile-friendly digital platforms at both national ilies. Some countries—Malaysia and Mexico, for ex- and regional levels (as in, for example, the Haram- ample—have mandated a minimal proportion of 5 to bee Youth Employment Accelerator in South Africa 10 percent of low-income students to whom private and the African Development Bank’s Coding for Em- providers should grant full financial support. For the ployment program). These mass-skilling opportuni- poorest students, online training programs can still ties will offer affordable training to the youth who are be costly. Access to digital devices, reliable internet, upper-secondary school graduates but in the NEET and the cost of the overall training can be expensive; category, are in vulnerable jobs, or are refugees. On- in these cases, financial aid may still be necessary to line courses can help the trainees acquire, at their defray the cost of enrolling. Affordable approaches own pace, a series of certificates, digital badges, to digital education include negotiations with tele- and/or degrees, known as ‘stackable’ or ‘micro’ cre- communication companies for preferential pricing dentials in a particular subject area. They provide a (zero-rating) in accessing educational resources. Im- pathway for persons who cannot afford a full degree plementing innovative models for purchasing devices program or commit to a longer-term program. Ad- for students and other digital technologies may also equate quality control is crucial in governing these help; examples include the student laptop purchas- credentials, and employers and tertiary institutions ing scheme supported in Senegal’s higher-education must be informed about the essence of these cre- project and the framework agreements/contracts in dentials and the specific competencies associated Burkina Faso’s higher-education project (box 6.8). with the different certificates. Stackable credentials Schemes providing financial support to youth from are globally still emerging but could be transforma- less privileged families have great potential in AFW, tional for a region like AFW. Key enabling factors but their success hinges on strong management and required to successfully deploy digital education a high level of transparency. 134 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.7. Blended Learning Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Higher Education Industrial welding skills in Kenya. Industrial welding skills, especially from local communities, are likely to be in high demand due to the government infrastructure projects and the projected and ongoing oil and gas exploration in Turkana and Garissa counties in Kenya (including the construction of a pipeline). Ac- cordingly, the Turkana County Government in northern Kenya, in collaboration with the Kenya Association of Manufacturers and the East African Institute of Welding, offered a five-month industrial welding skills program to youth from the refugee and host communities. A dual learning approach was adopted, with 60 percent of the course involving company training and 40 percent involving institution-based training. The Ministry of Health issued safety precautions on re-opening of technical and vocational education and training (TVET) due to COVID-19. As the institutions reduced their intake to accommodate students, the Ministry of Education recommended e-learning as a panacea to the crisis. The newly developed learn- ing management system went on to host mostly theoretical lessons (digital skills, entrepreneurship, em- ployability, and occupational safety and health topics). Practical lessons were conducted at the institute. Technology features included online lectures via Zoom; notes (text, audio, video); exercises; and discus- sions/chat sessions. These technological features were compatible with mobile devices such as smart phones and tablets to complement computers for remote access of content. The technology was set up to work both online and offline, with content updating when the user was online but staying accessible even when the user was offline. Regarding lessons learned, the success of this blended-learning approach depends significantly on the trainer’s capacity to deliver digital lessons. A lot of training is required to build trainers’ capacities. Not all content can be delivered digitally in TVET, but with reality-modelled practical training (welding simu- lators), students can practice some skills digitally. Digital technologies allow educators to design learning opportunities and therefore become part of the learning process. Choice of a partner is key. Private insti- tutions tend to be more flexible and have capacity to leverage resources as opposed to public institutions. African Development University in Niger. The African Development University in Niger (https://ilimi.edu. ne/), which started its activities in 2017, is a school of continuing education using virtual learning technol- ogy as its core delivery method. The university’s version of blended learning includes in-person and synchronous teaching. All classes are taught on campus in a classroom setting, but students also have online access from their homes. Virtual classes are taught by remote faculty and supported by newly hired faculty associates (also known as teaching assistants). The faculty associates lead in-class activities, monitor live-streams, facilitate ex- ams, and provide academic support such as tutoring and make-up sessions. In-person classes continue to run as normal with full-time faculty members. In both class formats, students can partake in engaging discussions and group work with their classmates and interact with their faculty and faculty associates. Due to the inadequate internet infrastructure throughout the country, even virtual classes are taught on campus. These infrastructure challenges nationwide resulted in the university boosting its internet capabilities, obtaining a learning management system, and restructuring its curriculum format so that faculty and students can take advantage of the learning process. These actions placed the university in a unique position to deliver education in the country, albeit limited and interrupted education, as the inter- net still goes down or becomes extremely slow periodically. (Box continues on next page) Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 135 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.7. Blended Learning Approaches in Technical and Vocational Education and Training and Higher Education (continued) As a small school and growing institution with tight resources, the university had to be resourceful. Creating interactive classes included the use of repurposed, refurbished, or personal laptops and the pur- chase of video cameras. Campus wide, the interactive classes required boosting the on-campus internet capacity and spending time encouraging and persuading students to give the new format a chance. The university’s model requires that the legislation allows teaching staff to be contracted on a part-time basis, which is not the case in all Western and Central African countries. Source: International Labour Organization (2020). Note: TVET = technical and vocational education and training. 6.5. Managing the Quality and bring with them standards for quality (in terms of Relevance of TVET and Tertiary products and services) and influence over their en- Education Programs tire industry, for example, through their networks of clients, suppliers, and subcontractors (Development Bank of Rwanda 2019).59 “Moral persuasion” by The third set of interventions seeks to improve the high-level officials, along with powerful incentives, quality and relevance of TVET and tertiary education financial and otherwise, can help unleash interac- programs. Among the interventions for improving tions that ripple through the TVET and higher-edu- program quality and relevance, the Regional Edu- cation system, providing models and templates for cation Strategy highlights three that are especially strengthening the quality and relevance of more and pertinent to the region’s nascent systems of TVET more training programs.60 and higher education: (a) forging closer links be- tween service providers and employers; (b) increas- The interactions between training service providers ing access to digital technologies for innovations in and employers benefit both parties in multiple ways. teaching, learning, and research; and (c) investing Importantly, these engagements can ensure that stu- in research and development by capitalizing on re- dents acquire market-relevant skills. Academic staff, gional approaches. trainers, and students can be placed in companies through internships and formal apprenticeship ar- rangements; industry experts can serve on governing 6.5.1. Forging Closer Links between councils/boards of tertiary institutions and curricu- Service Providers and Employers lum design committees; training institutions can pro- vide consultancy services on prototyping and product Because the work of service providers and employ- development for industry partners; and joint applied ers rarely brings them into passing contact with research projects can be undertaken to solve prob- each other, let alone for sustained interactions, lems that undermine firm productivity and profits. skills providers must be proactive in facilitating and Industry experts can deliver courses as lecturers or incentivizing productive collaborations. Engaging work as part-time staff at training centers. For exam- industry-leading employers and professional orga- ple, an “entrepreneur in residence” role can be es- nizations (such as national professional engineering tablished to recruit seasoned entrepreneurs to teach groups) is particularly important; such employers entrepreneurship modules. These entrepreneurship 59 In Korea, the government created the BRIDGE model, which links the country’s consortium of small and medium-sized enterprises to Samsung and other leading conglomerates (Almeida and Cho 2012). 60 O’Hare (2008) describes the role of regional technology centers, the Dublin Institute of Technology, and the National Institutes of Higher Education in accomplishing this result in Ireland. 136 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.8. The Virtual University of Senegal’s Student Laptop Loan Scheme The Virtual University of Senegal was established with support from the African Development Bank, World Bank, and other donors. Its objectives are to (a) meet a growing demand for access to higher education; (b) reduce inequalities of access; (c) integrate into the social fabric; (d) deliver training in line with market demand (employment and self-employment); (e) act as the vector of concepts related to autonomy, the use of information and communication technology for pedagogical purposes, the abilities stemming from lifelong learning, and the abilities required for collaborative work; (f) make the concept of “training for all” a reality; (g) accelerate digital development of the territory; and (h) strengthen the coun- try’s position in the knowledge economy. The university has open digital spaces in different locations (including rural areas) where students can congregate for group work or other projects. These spaces also help students to receive support through career guidance and build a sense of belonging. The university offers opportunities for community service as well: students can submit proposals to competitive grants, implement community projects that faculty have identified, and collaborate on activities led by staff. As part of its student loan scheme, the government partners with a commercial bank in Senegal. The government removes taxes from laptops to minimize the cost and further brings down the cost that stu- dents have to pay to about 10 percent of actual cost. Further, the government serves as a guarantor to the students, which gives the bank more confidence. Source: Fatou et al. (2019). modules, complemented by courses that incorporate jobs and help employers reduce the cost and time in- soft skills that build resilience and develop complex volved in finding, training, and hiring suitable talent. problem-solving, leadership, teamwork and creativ- For jobseekers, formalized short-term, on-the-job ity skills in students, will be important in enabling training may provide the additional practical experi- graduates to successfully navigate a mostly informal ence required to get a job. Experience from Rwanda and resource-constrained economy. Dual appren- suggests that for most occupations, these programs ticeship (German model), which is the predominant should have a duration of at least six months, often TVET model in many European countries, combines more, in order for the trainee to acquire the level of structured work-based learning anchored in a formal skills needed to obtain gainful employment. apprenticeship contract with structured off-the-job learning in a TVET institution. In most cases, the ap- In AFW, compared to other regions, the private sec- prenticeships last several years. With the exception tor is smaller and less organized, and the TVET and of South Africa, Côte d’Ivoire, Malawi, and Mauritius, higher-education institutions are weaker;  as a result, formal apprenticeship programs are not very com- building a strong culture of employer-skills provider mon in Sub-Saharan Africa. However, most formal models has become increasingly relevant for AFW TVET programs incorporate a period of industrial at- countries. TVET and higher-education institutions tachment through an internship component, usually can support these activities by setting up dedicated at the end of the program. Further, there are proven career centers. In Tunisia, for instance, all TVET in- avenues to ease the training-to-job transition period stitutes and universities have recently established, for students and trainees. Youth who are ready to with support from the World Bank, 4C departments, enter the workforce, skills providers, and employers that is, Centers for Careers and Competency Certifi- can connect on digital recruiting platforms that link cation. These centers accomplish several missions: the youth to training, career guidance services, and liaising with firms to find internship opportunities for Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 137 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All students, conducting regular tracer surveys, organiz- virtual laboratories, and other digital tools (such as ing job fairs, and holding workshops to train students virtual reality in medical training and other areas); in job-related competencies.61 Initiatives exemplify- cloud computing; artificial intelligence; and machine ing successful efforts to forge closer links between learning. This approach enables high-quality teach- service providers and employers include Sèmè City ing and research, especially in STEM programs, even in Benin; Educate! in Kenya, Uganda, and Rwanda; when budgets are tight. The use of these digital tech- Giraffe in South Africa; Learn and Earn in India; and nologies can build digital skills in both the instructors Najja7ni in Tunisia—all of these examples seek to im- and the students. prove the learning and employability of marginalized youth (box 6.9). Digital technologies can play a critical role in helping service providers and governments regularly assess the performance of institutions through various in- 6.5.2. Increasing Access to Affordable stitutional data collection and analysis. They allow Digital Technologies for Teaching, for more effective management information sys- Learning, and Research tems for student, trainer/faculty, and staff data as well as for efficient graduate tracer studies. Policy Widening access to digital technologies could en- makers, leaders of TVET and higher-education insti- hance learning, research, and pedagogical innova- tutions, and students need such data to understand tion, in turn modernizing and increasing the relevance the quality and relevance of the programs offered and quality of TVET and higher education. Combin- to students. Evaluating such data is the first step ing digital technologies with innovative education in identifying areas that require performance im- approaches can improve the quality and relevance provement. For example, enrollment and graduation of education and training programs. Ashesi Univer- rates of students across the various programs will sity in Ghana (box 6.10) and African Development help ascertain if institutions have the right balance University in Niger, for example, have well-rounded between STEM and non-STEM student enrollments. curricula and positive graduate outcomes thanks to Graduate tracer studies can also provide important strong technical courses and a quest to ensure stu- information on the employability of graduates and dents acquire the technical and twenty-first-century feedback from alumni about how to strengthen the skills necessary for the digital and green economies. programs offered. There are several critical innovative approaches to consider. The first involves developing modernized These technology-oriented interventions must be in- curricula and related facilities (especially for reform- clusive, scalable, and sustainable, aiming at closing ing computer science and engineering programs) the digital divide. Facilitating such digital transfor- accompanied by innovative pedagogies and stu- mation, especially in the public sector, will require dent-centered assessments. This approach includes additional investment in hardware and capacity promoting critical thinking and leadership skills, fa- building, which some AFW governments are start- cilitating collaboration, encouraging complex prob- ing to engage in. Specifically, these investments will lem solving, and integrating advanced technologies; entail (a) governments and service providers work- as a result, it can make learning and research more ing closely with the private sector to provide devic- stimulating, engaging, practical, and effective. The es and internet to students and teachers/trainers second approach adopts computer-assisted adap- through sustainable and affordable schemes and tive learning applications for remedial training to (b) access to these technologies being accompa- track poor-performing students and boost the qual- nied by strong student, faculty, and staff capacity ity of the pipeline of students. The third approach building with respect to the use of the technologies. uses microcredentials and other digital resources to In Senegal, the government is providing students fill gaps created due to lack of qualified instructors/ in public higher education with free on-campus in- faculty. The fourth aims to incorporate simulations, ternet and access to 5 gigabytes of data per month 61 These job-related competencies include communication, preparation of CVs, digital skills, and entrepreneurship. 138 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.9. Innovative Examples of Youth Skilling Initiatives and Programs Attuned with Industry Needs Educate! The Educate! initiative uses a scalable model in working closely with governments, schools, and youth to implement its programs (https://www.experienceeducate.org/). The initiative works in three ways. First, it works with governments on systems-level adoption of skills-based education and employment solutions. As the largest youth skills provider in East Africa, the initiative has worked with governments and schools in Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda to integrate core components into the national curricula. Second, it also partners with schools to support transferable and entrepreneurial skills training in schools. Third, the initiative provides industry- and group-specific skills bootcamps for out-of-school youth (those who cannot access secondary school). Educate! helps youth acquire transferable skills like critical thinking, creativity, and communication in addition to entrepreneurial skills. The initiative reports that its training leads to improved soft skills, in- creased secondary-school completion rates (25 percent increase in university enrollment for young wom- en), more youth selecting STEM and business majors, delayed fertility (21 percent less likely to have a child), reductions in risky behavior, and declines in intimate partner violence. Results from a quasi-exper- imental evaluation covering the 2015–17 period, conducted toward the end of the secondary education of participants, found that participants (a) had a 95 percent (244 percent for girls) income increase, compared to a comparison group; (b) were 50 percent (113 percent for girls) more likely to be employed, compared to a base of 17 percent; and (c) were 44 percent more likely to own a business (91 percent for girls). The initiative’s vision for 2024 is to measurably impact 1 million students and reach 4 million stu- dents more broadly across Africa each year. Long term, Educate! aims to fully incorporate its skills-based education model into national education systems across Africa. The initiative can reach a large number of youth at low cost as its model uses existing school infrastructures; makes use of exceptional Educate! graduates (mentors); and uses innovative technologies to deliver, manage, and monitor results. The ini- tiative also invests in rigorous evaluations. Sèmè City. Sèmè City is Benin’s international knowledge and innovation city (https://www.semecity.bj/ en/). It aims to educate youth for future jobs across technical and vocational education and training, high- er education, and lifelong learning; ensure the production of scientific research results with an intended impact; and support high-growth entrepreneurs in Benin. Sèmè  City is already operational in Cotonou. Its first programs have been developed with leading in- ternational partners and leverage peer-to-peer teaching (coaches, no teachers); project-based learning; real-world/hands-on projects; and a design-thinking approach in its coding and design schools. One of the main attractions is its ability to mix academic institutions, research labs, and a new business incubator that has already supported over 1,000 start-ups. Sèmè City’s main site is being developed on 336 hectares in Ouidah, a peri-urban area. This smart eco-city will provide students, researchers, and entrepreneurs with a stimulating and unique environment using innovative solutions for renewable energy, eco-construction, mobility, waste management, circular economy, and urban agriculture. The aim is to position Ouidah as one of the first “living labs” in West Africa experimenting with innovative solutions, ensuring job creation and skills transfer, and putting data and technology at the city’s service. Sèmè City has been established with financial support from the World Bank and the French Develop- ment Agency, among several other partners. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 139 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.10. Innovative Education at Ashesi University (Ghana) Ashesi University (Ghana), in addition to its strong technical courses, has received international recog- nition for its innovative multidisciplinary curriculum aiming at developing critical thinking, leadership skills, ethical reasoning, and effective communication skills (https://www.ashesi.edu.gh/). Since grad- uating its first batch of 30 students in 2002, the young private, not-for-profit institution has grown to a total enrollment of about 1,300 students. Ashesi University was among the first African higher-education institutions to combine the liberal arts and sciences with professional majors to serve the purpose of edu- cating entrepreneurial leaders with a strong ethical commitment. In 2017, the Qatar Foundation’s World Innovation Summit in Education awarded the founder of Ashesi, Patrick Awuah, its Prize for Education in recognition of how Ashesi’s innovative curriculum is empowering Africa’s youth. At the heart of the Ashesi experience is an interdisciplinary core curriculum; a strong emphasis on experiential learning; and a cam- pus culture emphasizing ethical behaviors, leadership, and sustainability. while off-campus, which is possible due to an agree- services, and so on [table 6.1]). The networks can ment between the Ministry of Higher Education and also host high-performance computing equipment SONATEL—the country’s principal telecommunica- to support research that demands high-speed da- tions operator (Bashir 2020). ta-processing capacity and complex calculations (such as in bioinformatics, genomic sequencing, and Research and education networks can be powerful climate change modeling). Implementing sustain- instruments for experience sharing and pooling of re- able funding models and provision of technical sup- search and ICT resources. In several countries around port to strengthen the networks is a necessity. the world, national research and education networks have scaled up their ICT-related support to educa- tional institutions (including schools) and served 6.5.3. Investing in Research and as critical conduits for collaboration and sharing of Development by Capitalizing on Regional digital resources. However, in AFW, the few networks Approaches that exist are barely functional owing to the lack of funding, cost of high-speed broadband, and gaps Although the region has many challenges with respect in technical capacity. Few TVET and tertiary educa- to unemployed, unskilled, and vulnerable youth and tion systems in the region are connected to reliable adults, it still needs in parallel a sufficient focus on existing national research and education networks. research and development within the higher-educa- Institutions do not have consistent budget line items tion agenda. This focus will ensure that homegrown supporting connectivity, computer labs, and the like. innovative solutions respond to and address the re- Removing these barriers can enable innovations and gion’s many pressing economic, social, and environ- collaborations in teaching, learning, and research. mental challenges and that the region can improve National research and education networks play a vi- its global competitiveness. However, investments in tal, if still embryonic, role in AFW’s systems of formal research and development and highly specialized TVET and higher education. These networks connect skills training can be expensive for countries. The students and faculty to an enormous and vibrant eco- region has small, fragmented, and often siloed econ- system of information, learning resources, and re- omies. Six out of the 22 AFW countries (four from search outputs from across the globe. The networks the Sahel) are either land- or sea-locked. Natural re- serve as a body for securing their members access to source endowments and human capital vary widely more reasonably priced and secure broadband con- from one country to another. At the same time, the nections and other digital technology services and countries have shared challenges such as climate platforms (learning management systems, secured change, energy, water, food security, infectious dis- email, virtual private networks, video conferencing eases and many others already listed in this strategy. 140 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Table 6.1. Digital Technologies for Teaching, Learning, Research, and Management Types of Technology Teaching & Learning Research Academic Management Connectivity Computers / Internet / NRENs ✓ ✓ ✓ Technology Remote connection to digital labs ✓ ✓ Individual Digital Cellular phones and mobile applications ✓ ✓ Technologies Drones for remote sensing Satellite imaging ✓ Blockchain for secure microcredit & degrees ✓ 3D printing, AR/VR ✓ Online educational content ✓ ✓ AI and ML tools ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Digital Platforms Learning Management System/Online Educational ✓ ✓ Portals with Learning Resources (including MOOCs, microcredentials) Labor market information system ✓ Multi-device-friendly skilling and job platforms ✓ ✓ ICT-based management information systems for ✓ education Converging AI-driven personalized and adaptive learning ✓ ✓ Technologies62 Big data for formative assessment feedback ✓ ✓ Predictive analytics for identification of at-risk ✓ students Big data analysis and remote sensing ✓ Source: Skills and Higher Education Background Paper for the AFW Education Strategy (adapted from World Bank [2021f]). Note: AI = artificial intelligence; AR = augmented reality; ICT = information and communication technology; ML = machine learning; MOOCs = massive open online courses; NREN = national research and education network; VR = virtual reality.  egional integration and collaboration are therefore R consider steps toward building effective national in- a vital lifeline for AFW. AFW countries can capitalize novation systems. on regional approaches to share and consolidate re- sources in conducting research and in training the Thematic networks of researchers, where the collab- next generation of quality researchers and faculty in oration may take the form of joint research activities highly specialized skills. Regional approaches offer and joint training and education programs, provide opportunities to harness each country’s competitive avenues for sharing limited resources in an effective advantages, benefit from peer-learning, and leverage manner. Examples of an existing regional education economies of scale in efficiently facilitating cross-bor- network includes the Partnership for Enhanced and der mobility of knowledge, data, students, research- Blended Learning. The main purpose of this partner- ers, and faculty. AFW governments can crowd in re- ship is to address the challenge of staff shortages. To- sources and focus on key priority research areas such day, the partnership consists of universities and tech- as climate change, ICT, health, renewable energy, and nical partners based in the United Kingdom, Canada, sustainable agriculture, building on the World Bank’s and more than 20 African countries. The initiative is implementation of the ACE project63 (box 6.11) and supported by the Foreign, Commonwealth, and De- the Regional Scholarship and Innovation Fund (under velopment Office of the United Kingdom. Members the Partnership for Skills in Applied Sciences, Engi- in West Africa include six universities in Nigeria and neering, and Technology). In forming a medium- to six in Ghana. Another example is the Regional Cen- long-term agenda, AFW governments also need to ter of Excellence for ICT in East Africa funded by the 62 Converging technologies are the synergistic combination of four groups of technologies: information technology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, and cognitive technologies (World Bank 2021a). 63 In AFW, the ACE project has supported Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, and Togo. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 141 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.11. An Example of a Regional Intervention: The Africa Centers of Excellence The Africa Higher Education Centers of Excellence (ACE) project. Western and Central Africa (AFW) was the first region, in 2014, to launch the highly innovative ACE project, a flagship project in higher educa- tion. The ACE project has since grown through a series of three manifestations (ACE I and ACE Impact in AFW and ACE II in Eastern and Southern Africa). It has supported more than 70 centers in more than 50 universities across 20 countries (11 from AFW) in Sub-Saharan Africa. In total, the World Bank and the French Development Agency have supported Sub-Saharan African governments with US$587 million and US$72 million, respectively. The ACE project seeks to build Africa’s knowledge economy, train a highly skilled workforce, and improve applied research capacity in key thematic areas such as STEM (for example, energy, mining, water, and information and communications technology [ICT]); transport; ed- ucation; environment (climate change); health; and agriculture. All of these areas are part of key sectors for Africa’s development. As of January 2021, the centers across the series had enrolled almost 60,000 students (~20,000 Masters; ~5,400 PhD; and the rest in professional short courses); established 73 in- ternationally accredited programs; led to over 7,000 research publications; and generated more than US$140 million in external revenue. The centers were at the forefront of both the Ebola and Covid-19 crises in AFW in terms of genomic sequencing; mass testing and screening; public health campaigns; data provision for national- and regional-level public health policy making; and production of personal protective equipment (such as using 3D printing) and hand washing/sanitizing machines. Key lessons from the program include the following: ■ Results-based financing has proven to be an effective tool in incentivizing behavior change related to key objectives within higher education. ■ Ownership and collaboration at both the institutional and national levels and strong center leadership are key factors that determine the ability of centers to reach their targets. ■ Links with the private sector are critical to knowledge transfer and integration of center graduates into their sectors. ■ Regional platforms promote knowledge sharing, which ensures regular peer-learning and cross-bor- der mobility and partnerships. ■ Regional networks among various centers create a collective cognition of regional challenges and solutions leading to sustained collaborations beyond the project lifetime. Twelve thematic regional net- works have been established by the AFW centers and their partners. ■ Centralized digital data collection allows for a comprehensive and more efficient process for evaluat- ing results and improves data quality from multiple centers. ■ Investments in infrastructure and pedagogy for digital education are critical to advancing access, teaching, learning, and research goals in higher-education institutions. ACE Impact (centers in AFW) and regional thematic networks. At the inception of the ACE Impact proj- ect in 2019, the French Development Agency committed to support, with a €6 million grant, four thematic regional networks under the project through an initiative called ACE PARTNER. The networks, which are a collection of centers, focus on health, water, ICT, and sustainable mining. Each network has an assigned a coordinator who sits at the lead center. As of January 2022, altogether, the networks have supported 38 fellows; funded 44 research and development programs (for mobility and joint research publications); and organized 10 thematic workshops (two being bootcamps for the ICT and mining networks). Mem- bers have participated in 10 international research workshops. Eight start-ups have been incubated via the 100% digital French Development Institute/Kedge Business School incubation program for the ACE (Box continues on next page) 142 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.11. An Example of a Regional Intervention: The Africa Centers of Excellence (continued) project. Joint massive open online courses have been created for training, and €2.6 million has been raised from partners (mostly by the health network for COVID-19). The networks have also pulled in sever- al partners (Atos, World Water Council, SEN’EAU, and Rockefeller Foundation, among others). At the peak of the COVID-19 crisis, ACE Impact sought more opportunities for center collaboration across disciplines, faculty and student mobility, regional and international partnerships, joint grant writing, and development of online courses. Therefore, in 2021, ACE Impact competitively selected eight multidisciplinary thematic networks. Each selected network has received a seed grant of ~US$100,000 from the World Bank regional grant, managed by the regional facilitation unit of the project (the unit is hosted at the Association of African Universities). The eight networks focus on sustainable engineering; transport and logistics; marine litter; energy; food safety; food security; digital education; and reproduc- tive, maternal, and child health. Note: ACE = Africa Higher Education Centers of Excellence; AFW = Western and Central Africa; ICT = information and communications technology; WANIDA = West African Network for Infectious Diseases. German Government.64 The center serves as a re- have traditionally attracted the least amount of gov- gional innovation hub supporting East African univer- ernment spending; a reassessment and possible sities in providing technical skills that meet the needs increase in allocations is in order. For tertiary-level of the private sector, public sector, and civil society TVET, higher education, and the existing workforce, stakeholders in the region’s digital transformation. fostering sustainable service provision will require The ACE project, jointly funded by the World Bank measures to mobilize more resources and manage and the French Development Agency, through which the cost of service delivery. multidisciplinary regional networks have been estab- lished, serves essentially the same purpose. Consid- ering the shortage of quality teaching staff, higher ed- 6.6.1. Diversifying Sources of Funding ucation in AFW would benefit from creation of more regional networks of this nature. Developing and maintaining high-quality skilling and higher-education systems requires substantial invest- ments. No AFW countries have the financial resources 6.6. Fostering Sustainable Service to undertake this responsibility on their own. Innova- Delivery tive financing mechanisms that include partnerships with the private sector are required. Sustainable resource mobilization includes income generation The fourth and final set of interventions focuses through philanthropic donations; contract research; on fostering sustainable service delivery. With tight consultancies; continuing education, possibly in the fiscal constraints continuing throughout the region, form of professional short-term tailored courses for it is essential to ensure sustainable service delivery private clients, nongovernmental organizations, and of programs in TVET; higher education; and upskill- the public sector; and increased tuition fees for those ing of the existing workforce, especially in the pub- who can afford to pay. Participating in grant compe- lic sector. Nontertiary-level TVET and nonformal titions can also provide new funding. For example, education and training, including apprenticeships, one center supported by the World Bank under ACE 64 www.giz.de/en/worldwide/80869.html Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 143 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All I (2014–20) with an US$8 million grant raised more Development Authority is governed by representa- than US$100 million in additional funding through tives of employers (seven seats), the government other international competitive grants. Experience (four seats), and workers (three seats). Other skills suggests that financial incentives increase an indus- development funds are typically funded by devel- try’s willingness to engage in skills development be- opment partners such as the World Bank and of- yond its own immediate internal needs. Co-funding of fer competitive grants (often application based) to programs by companies and governments is another training centers/trainers. common way to increase resource mobilization, both in TVET and higher education. In some countries, the When introducing co-funding mechanisms like the government has introduced a shared funding model, Skills Development Fund in Singapore, it is essential whereby industry finances the costs of the on-the-job- that those who finance the training levy have a say on training while governments finance the costs of the how the funds are spent, governed, and managed to off-the-job training in TVET institutions (as discussed ensure that they feel they are getting value for their earlier with regard to formal dual apprenticeships). money. Successful and sustainable co-funded skills In other countries like Ghana, the Ghana Education development funds also have (a) well-defined and Trust Fund is funded by a percentage of the national regularly reviewed objectives and purposes; (b) a na- value-added tax to support tertiary education. tional revenue authority that collects the funds rather than the agency managing the training fund (in line The fast-changing nature of work requires that the with international experience, although countries like labor force has opportunities to constantly upskill or Singapore have done well outside this approach); (c) reskill to adapt to evolving market skills needs. Col- an updated database of levy-eligible employers and lectively, governments, training providers, and in- public data on the funds usage and accumulated dustry partners must prioritize strengthening of the surpluses (if any); (d) a reasonable levy rate (inter- skilling ecosystem so that funding is always avail- nationally ~1 percent of payroll bill of employers); able to support the lifelong learning of workers. Few (e) mechanisms in place to ensure that the planned AFW countries have effective lifelong learning sys- direct allocation to training centers and/or employ- tems. The capacity of institutions and companies ers toward training costs are met; (f) innovative ap- to deliver short-term intensive training programs to proaches to allow employers in the informal economy address spikes in demand for specific skills needs to benefit from the skills development funds; and (g) should be boosted through funding sources like considerations for allowing individuals to choose or skills development funds (box 6.12). Often, private buy training to encourage lifelong learning, especially training institutions are more efficient at responding by the existing workforce. to emerging needs for upskilling. Most skills devel- opment funds are geared toward providing funding to employers for upskilling of their existing work- 6.6.2. Promoting Performance-Oriented force, but some also target TVET training centers. and Equitable Resource Allocation In some countries, companies—depending on size and purpose—are required by law to pay a certain Based on global experience, with respect to public percentage (typically ~1 percent) of their pay- allocations to TVET and higher education, linking al- roll bill to a fund earmarked for training purposes. locations to performance indicators and key national Payroll levies were first introduced in Brazil in the objectives can make a substantial difference in the 1940s and then spread to other countries in Latin performance of institutions and may contribute to America and the Caribbean and other parts of the innovation and optimization of resource utilization. world, for example, Fiji, South Africa, Tanzania, and Based on global lessons, during allocation of public Mozambique (Palmer 2020). In some countries, funds to TVET (especially tertiary level) and high- governance of the funds may transfer to bodies er-education institutions, governments should con- that include representatives from government and sider eight guiding principles: (a) close alignment industry partners, such as employers’ associations with national priorities, (b) explicit link to perfor- and trade unions. For example, Singapore’s Skills mance, (c) equity among all population groups, (d) Development Fund under the Singapore Workforce consistency and compatibility among the various 144 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Box 6.12. Variations in Skills Development Funds World Bank-funded skills development funds. With funding from the World Bank, skills development funds are operating in several African countries, including Ghana, Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Rwanda. The funds aim to support the provision of demand-driven, short-term skills training. Typically, the target groups include workers in the formal and informal sectors, out-of-school youth, and TVET institu- tions interested in developing innovative training programs. The duration of the trainings varies from 1 to 26 weeks. Topics covered are very broad, from simple practical skills such as welding, cake-baking, and growing of avocados to beekeeping, use of computers for diagnostics by auto mechanics, aquacultural practices, and fashion design. The funds are so-called challenge funds awarded based on applications. The applications are eval- uated according to their labor market relevance and the capacity of the applicants. Usually, the funds receive two to three times more applications than they can finance. A Grant Committee with participation of private sector and government representatives has the mandate to select the proposals considered adequate for funding. Experience shows that the funds have achieved excellent results in terms of stimulating innovative training programs and short-term skills upgrading in many different fields. Singapore Skills Development Fund. Under the Skills Development Levy Act 1979 (https://sdl.ssg.gov. sg/ ), employers must pay a monthly levy for all employees rendering services in Singapore, including for- eign employees and employees employed on a casual, part-time, or temporary basis. Domestic servants, gardeners, or chauffeurs are exempted from the levy. The levy payable is at 0.25 percent of the monthly remuneration for each employee, with minimum and maximum payable amounts based on the earnings of the employees. All levies collected are channeled to the Skills Development Fund, which supports workforce-upgrading programs and provides training grants to employers when they send their employees to attend training under the national Continuing Education and Training system. The scheme allows the Workforce Development Agency (WDA) to fund its network of training centers. Currently, employers are eligible for subsidies covering 50–90 percent of course fees for WDA-supported courses and 75–97 percent of the cost of Ministry of Education–funded courses. The Skills Development Levy and Skills Development Fund are administrated by the SkillsFuture Singapore Agency. Individuals cannot apply for the Skills Development Fund on their own. They must ask their company to sponsor them for training. Individuals can, however, apply for SkillsFuture Credits to pay for their training. The SkillsFuture Credits consist of credits that citizens can use to pay for out-of-pocket course fees for at- tending work-skills-related courses. The credits can apply on top of existing course fee subsidies provided by the government. The scheme is managed by the WDA. Note: WDA = Workforce Development Agency. financing instruments, (e) objectivity and transparen- and accountability (Salmi 2017; Arnhold et al. 2018). cy in the allocation process and criteria, (f) funding Governments should carefully consider their capacity stability over a reasonable period of time, (g) alloca- to monitor results when considering these allocation tion as a block grant, and (h) institutional autonomy mechanisms. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 145 High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Table 6.2. Impact of Funding Approaches on Policy Objectives Policy Measure Equity Quality & Relevance Research Output Efficiency in Re- Resource source Utilization Mobilization Funding formula ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ – Performance contracts ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ Competitive fund ✓ ✓ ✓ – – Matching fund – – – – ✓ Source: Developed by the authors. Governments can implement various types of per- AFW countries need stronger public financial man- formance-based allocations (either separately or in agement processes to improve the effectiveness and combination) with the above-mentioned principles efficiency of public spending on education. Many AFW in mind, including funding formulas, performance countries lack sufficient capacity to plan and allocate contracts, and competitive grants. Funding formu- the budget to meet strategic sector objectives and las are the most objective and transparent for allo- execute the budget as planned. Major weaknesses cating to recurring expenses. Governments can use include lack of capacity to track expenditures and mathematical formulas to incentivize institutions control payroll and non-salary spending. Efforts to de- by tying resource allocation to important indica- centralize spending to local authorities or to individu- tors (input and output) of institutional performance al TVET and higher-education institutions to improve (such as student enrollment or research outputs). the quality and relevance of teaching and training South Africa uses funding formulas to allocate have succeeded in some settings but not in others. public resources to higher-education institutions What matters is the adequacy and timeliness of funds with equity-linked incentives incorporated into the and the capacity of the relevant authorities and man- formula (for example, proportion of Black students agers to do their work. Thus, countries should build enrolled). Performance contracts are non-binding capabilities in financial management suited to their regulatory agreements negotiated between gov- specific context to ensure efficient and adequate ernments and TVET/higher-education institutions flows of funds in the system. To achieve effective and defining a set of mutual obligations. The govern- efficient allocation and use of public funding and bet- ment provides additional funding once the institu- ter monitoring of results, AFW countries need greater tions meet the set performance targets. Chile has management capacity and competitive recruitment; used performance contracts to trigger substantial frequent training of senior ministry staff and heads of progress of its institutions. The ACE project uses institutions; and stronger technical staff, including performance contracts (between governments ICT, data management specialists, institutional re- and the universities) to incentivize performance searchers, and financial and procurement specialists. of the centers. Competitive grants serve as an ef- fective and flexible resource allocation mechanism for transformative investments. These grants can 6.6.3. Consolidating Service Delivery and have different windows to which institutions can Program Offerings to Manage Costs submit proposals for review and selection. Expe- rience from Tunisia, Chile, and China confirm the Globally, the number of TVET and higher-education in- ability of competitive funds to improve quality and stitutions has mushroomed, often without adequate relevance, pedagogical innovations, management, control of the quality and relevance of the programs of- and revenue generation (through matching grants). fered; while the increase of course offerings may ease Each of these three approaches or a combination access, especially for rural youth, it does not necessarily of them can help address various policy goals (ta- increase the range of specializations to choose from. ble 6.2). Usually, the majority of institutions offer standard skills 146 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy High-Impact Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All Figure 6.5. Interventions to Build Job-Relevant Skills for All What? Why? How? Strengthen governance The skilling ecosystem is highly • Reform traditional apprenticeships of skills provision fragmented, is mostly informal, and • Formalize employers' roles in skills provision has limited quality controls In place • Enhance QF to diversify learning pathways and facilitate and thus is di cult to manage mobility Dismantle barriers Lack of equitable access to • Support equitable access to remedial programs and to skills acquisition a ordable, flexible, and quality basic bootcamps, e.g.. mass literacy and digital skills training including low education and skills programs is • Diversify student financing options hampering expansion of a skilled • Expand access to flexible, lower cost and high quality foundational skills workforce skilling options Manage service Programs must adequately prepare • Develop job-oriented & entrepreneurship skills with industry delivery for quality youth for jobs in dynamic job markets participation and relevance and increase research outputs • Harness digital technologies and promote innovative aligned with national and regional pedagogies opportunities • Invest in targeted R&D, leveraging regional approaches Foster sustainability Service delivery options should be • Diversify resource mobilization for sustainability (including of service delivery designed to ensure they are e cient, for research and innovation) viable, and long-lasting • Promote performance oriented and equitable resource allocation programs requiring low initial investments. Consolida- 6.7. Priority in High-Impact tion of the TVET and higher-education systems through Interventions to Build Job-Relevant mergers and fusions would allow better utilization of the Skills available resources, especially when combined with sector specialization among the institutions, and reduce the excess supply of identical skills offerings. Improved AFW countries are striving to transform their econo- capacity utilization would mean higher management ef-  uild sub- mies and pull their citizens out of poverty; b fectiveness and lower unit costs. Rwanda Polytechnics stantial capacity to develop local solutions to the is an example of the merger of a number of postsecond- many development challenges; and become global- ary TVET institutions with overlapping programs previ- ly competitive in a world that is increasingly inter- ously. It is an umbrella structure comprising the eight linked, digital, and green. To achieve these goals, public Integrated Polytechnic Regional Centers. The AFW’s workforce development (existing and future) merger has allowed concentration at the Rwanda Poly- must be front and center in policy making and in- technics level of a large number of administrative and vestments, with efforts including improving learning development functions as well as better coordination of outcomes and widening access to education for girls the course offerings by the individual polytechnics. and other vulnerable young people at the basic and secondary-education levels. Skills development or Ability to respond to the steady changes of the skills lack thereof touches all economic sectors. Hence, in demand requires the different levels of the TVET the Regional Education Strategy in this chapter has and higher-education systems to have a clear man- suggested four sets of complementary high-impact date and the capacity to fulfil their mandate with interventions for governments, skills providers, and agility. Experience shows that empowering individual the private sector. These interventions address what institutions with the right to introduce new courses, it will take to build job-relevant skills and research phase out those not in demand, and adjust the teach- capacity in an inclusive and sustainable manner, ing staff accordingly has a significant positive effect namely strengthening the governance of skills pro- on the performance of the institution. Management vision, dismantling barriers to skills acquisition, can achieve the best results when guided by an advi- managing service delivery for quality and relevance, sory board with participation from the business com- and fostering sustainability of service delivery (fig- munity and other local stakeholders. ure 6.5). Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 147 PHOTO BY: © 018 TLF IMAGES/SHUTTERSTOCK 7. Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Achieving the expected outcomes of this Regional sector in the national budget. Bigger public bud- Education Strategy calls for a deepening of capabil- gets must be coupled with tighter PFM to ensure ities to enable effective implementation and M&E. that public budgets for education are deployed This chapter highlights capacity strengthening in equitably and efficiently to achieve the expected three priority areas: (a) tax administration and PFM; results in learning outcomes, coverage, and labor (b) managerial and technical capabilities for policy market outcomes. and program design and implementation; and (c) data systems to drive evidence-based decision-mak- ing and course correction. In all three areas, growing 7.1.1. Improving Tax Administration capacity through learning-by-doing—with nationals to Enable More Public Spending on working with technical experts rather than via ad Education hoc technical assistance—would embed new ca- pabilities throughout the education system, enable Common tools to improve tax administration and tax dynamic decision-making, and enhance ownership payment can enlarge government coffers and enable of the reform agenda across all AFW countries. The more public funding for education in AFW countries. It scope and complexity of the actions needed call for is beyond the scope of this report to elaborate on the urgency in developing and enhancing system-wide full range of options, but common tools worth consid- capabilities, including in decentralized offices and at eration include systematization of taxpayer identifica- lower tiers of government. tion and registration, tax payment, and tax audits. The informal sector in many AFW countries is large, mak- ing an estimated contribution of at least 33 percent of 7.1. Strengthening Public Financial the GDP (figure 7.1a). Accordingly, stepping up efforts Management to identify taxpayers, collect accurate information on them, and update tax registries would help enlarge the personal and corporate tax bases. A second tool Better public financial management, which is is facilitation of tax filing and payment through e-ser- critical to this strategy’s success, includes both vices. Across world regions, the annual median time more efficient tax administration—to enable more to pay taxes in 2020 is the longest in AFW, averaging funding for education—and greater discipline in 37 business days compared with 29 in Sub-Saharan budget planning and execution—to ensure sound Africa and just 19 in Middle East North Africa (figure stewardship of the resources. As elaborated in 7.1b). The lengthier process in AFW suggests that its chapter 3, the majority of AFW countries spend tax systems could be simplified, both to incorporate too little on education. For most of these countries, more taxpayers from the informal sector and to reduce increasing public spending on education is more the prevalence of tax avoidance, tax evasion, and other likely to be feasible through increases in the overall tax-related corruption. AFW countries might also take size of the public budget than through further in- steps to improve risk management and tax compli- creases in the (already high) share of the education ance, including expanded use of third-party data to Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 149 Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Figure 7.1. Indicators of Constraints on Tax Collection in Western and Central Africa (a) Size of the Informal Sector per Country (b) Annual Median Time to Pay Taxes in 2020 (Hours) 60 120 AFW 50 100 South Asia 40 80 Sub-Saharan Africa 30 60 Low income 20 40 Upper middle income 10 20 Latin America & Caribbean 0 0 Mauritania Cameroon Cabo Verde Togo Burkina Faso Mali Niger Chad Ghana Liberia Cote d'Ivoire Senegal Congo Gambia Benin Lower middle income East Asia & Pacific Europe & Central Asia Size of the informal sector (% of GDP) Middle East & North Africa Share of informal employment (% of total employment) [RHS] 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Sources: Doing Business database, International Labor Organization Statistics Database, and estimates from Medina and Schneider (2018). Note: GDP = gross domestic product; RHS = right-hand-side axis. assess the accuracy of tax returns and selection of tax- 7.1.2. Strengthening PFM to Get More payers for follow-up attention. Value for Money Enhancing trust between taxpayers and the govern- Strong PFM systems deliver more value for money by ment is essential for success in collecting more tax ensuring strategic allocation of public spending, fiscal revenues. This trust, according to Kouamé (2021), discipline in budget execution, and effectiveness in enhances taxpayers’ compliance with the tax code service delivery to achieve results. Misdirected public and willingness to pay their dues (that is, it increases spending in education takes many forms, with exam- “tax morale”); this trust, in turn, is nurtured by ac- ples including the following: tions the government takes to improve fiscal trans- parency and grant better access to fiscal data, in- ■ Building schools without due attention to the lo- cluding data at the local level for informed citizen cation and number of intended beneficiaries engagement in government budget processes (Ali, ■ Staffing schools without considering the number Fjeldstad, and Sjursen 2014; Chen and Neshkova of students enrolled 2019; Montes, Bastos, and Oliveira 2019). With the ■ Bypassing competitive bidding in procuring open budget index averaging 29.9 in AFW in 2019, textbooks and other pedagogical materials and citizens and taxpayers would be better informed. equipment Concerning corruption, although some AFW coun- ■ Continuing to pay teachers who are chronical- tries recorded some progress in this area, it remains ly absent from work and retaining on the payroll a major issue: 46.6 percent of firms reported cor- “ghost teachers” who may have died or who have ruption being a major obstacle, and 17.2 percent of been assigned to non-education duties (such as firms felt pressured to give gifts in meetings with tax political work) officials in AFW during the period 2015–19. Corrup- ■ Allowing materials procured for use in schools tion contributes to lowering both tax revenues and (such as textbooks) to be stolen and sold on the public spending efficiency. open market ■ Allocating funds for wasteful perks (such as for- eign travel or foreign service expenses). The Public Expenditure and Financial Accountabil- ity framework offers an overall assessment of the 150 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity room for enhancing PFM in AFW countries.65 The as- including those outcomes given priority in this strat- sessment is not specific to budget processes in the egy. To this end, AFW countries could consider tak- education sector. Nonetheless, the results in a few ing the following actions in a few key areas of PFM. areas (such as medium-term perspective in expen- First, strengthen the PFM of the payroll for teachers diture budgeting, performance information for ser- to address problems detrimental to teacher motiva- vice delivery, payroll control, and internal controls on tion and morale (such as salary arrears and delayed non-salary expenditures) highlight PFM weaknesses payment of salaries). Second, prioritize incremental with likely adverse impact on education in AFW (see resources for inputs that improve learning (for exam- annex 2 for details on the assessment). On a letter ple, quality-enhancing, non-teacher-related inputs scale ranging from A to D, 13 of the 15 AFW coun- or additional staff in areas such as early grade in- tries for which data were available scored D+/D on struction where staffing shortages are prevalent and performance information for service delivery. On particularly detrimental to student learning). Third, multiyear expenditure planning, which is critical for define and implement minimum service standards long-term efficiency gains, only Ghana and Burki- of service delivery (such as norm-based criteria to na Faso received a B rating. Payroll control is weak allocate teachers, learning materials, equipment, throughout the region, with 13 of 15 countries rated and infrastructure); this action should include formu- at D+/D. This poor showing is concerning given the las for budget transfers that consider not only pop- large share of public budgets absorbed by the wage ulation size but also indicators of poverty and other bill for government employees, including teachers. vulnerabilities. Internal controls for non-salary expenditures fared somewhat better, with about half of the countries Results-based financing—in which service providers rated at B or higher. receive budgets for meeting specific targets—can relieve service delivery bottlenecks and improve Tightening PFM of public budgets for basic edu- providers’ performance under certain conditions. Its cation is critical because the bulk of such budgets feasibility depends, for example, on the capacity of flow to service providers as in-kind allocations rather budget recipients to respond positively to incentives than as budgets for each provider.66 As in most other (Lee and Pedreira 2019). In Zambia, a results-based countries, publicly financed primary and secondary financing arrangement successfully increased the schools in AFW receive resources for service delivery share of textbooks that actually arrived to schools in in the form of in-kind allocations of staff, textbooks, a timely manner (World Bank 2020a). To tighten the learning materials, and equipment. In some coun- link between budgets and performance, Morocco is tries, schools may also receive small grants for locally introducing performance-based contracts as part of relevant priorities managed at the school level (box the funding arrangements for the country’s region- 7.1, for example, outlines a program in Cameroon).67 al training academies (World Bank 2019b). In AFW, More discipline in PFM can help ensure that bud- most institutions at the tertiary level (namely univer- gets, especially for basic education, are used strate- sities, polytechnics, and specialized training institu- gically and effectively to achieve desired outcomes, tions) receive their funding as dedicated budgets. 65 The Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability framework is a tool developed by seven partners (the European Commission, International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and the governments of France, Norway, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom) in collaboration with the framework’s users and other international organizations (see www.pefa.org/). It provides a thorough, consistent, and evidence-based analysis of PFM performance at a given time and can be repeated to track changes over time. It was first published in 2005, then last comprehensively upgraded in 2016. The 2016 framework considers seven pillars of performance, which are assessed using 31 indicators that are further disaggregated into 94 dimensions. The seven pillars are budget reliability, transparency of public finances, man- agement of assets and liabilities, policy-based fiscal strategy and budgeting, predictability and control in budget execution, accounting and reporting, and external scrutiny and audit. As of this writing, a tool for Subnational Government Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability assessment is being piloted. 66 The discussion here draws on Bashir et al. (2018). 67 Evidence on the school-based management of small grants continues to accumulate. In a meta-analysis of rigorous assessments of such interventions reported by Snilstveit (2016), small grants managed at the school level had little to no impact on learning in the three AFW countries—The Gambia, Niger, and Senegal—where this approach was attempted and rigorously evaluated. Bashir et al. (2018) noted that school-based management approaches are more likely to succeed when the population around the school—from which parents and teachers are drawn—is relatively well educated. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 151 Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Box 7.1. Piloting Results-Based Financing through School Grants in Cameroon In Cameroon, a pilot program on performance-based school grants showed improvements in student enrollment, teacher engagement, and transparency in management and budget issues. Each school in the pilot received an initial grant if it met certain initial preconditions including opening a bank account and signing a performance contract. The initial grant aimed to address underlying inequities by allocating additional funding to underresourced schools. The intervention then provided grants and teacher bonuses to schools for achieving simple targets related to student retention, teacher attendance, financial trans- parency, community satisfaction, and textbook use. The total grant ranged from US$500 to US$1,000, compared with a regular grant of US$200. Of the total grant, 70 percent was used to finance the implemen- tation of the school’s action plan, and the remaining 30 percent was allocated to teacher and head teacher bonuses. The efficiency of these grants could be improved through direct payments to schools. Cameroon’s pilot project provides some vital lessons for the effective implementation of school-based grants. First, the success of school grants largely depends on how they are designed and implemented. In Cameroon, results-based financing shifted the focus to outcomes and aligned incentives to the achievement of those outcomes. Second, the size of the grant matters. Governments must find a balance between alloca- tions that are adequate to implement school-level interventions and allocations that are affordable and sus- tainable. Next, school grants can enhance equity, establish minimum preconditions, and ensure availability of basic inputs in schools. School grant interventions must engage community members and put school-lev- el accountability measures in place. Finally, direct transfers to schools can reduce leakages, improve time- liness of disbursements, and strengthen efficiency. The aim is to roll out the pilot to 3,000 public schools by 2023, and an accompanying impact evaluation will measure the effect of the grant on learning outcomes. Source: World Bank 2019a. 7.2. Deepening Technical and planned activities; and minimal controls on payroll Managerial Capabilities for and non-salary spending, which can lead to chron- Implementation ic lateness in paying teacher salaries. Efforts to de- centralize spending to subnational units or to rely on school-based management of funds to improve ed- Enhanced capabilities in PFM and in working with ucation outcomes have succeeded in some settings decentralized entities and other collaborators matter but not in others. Building up AFW countries’ PFM if promising solutions are to succeed. Greater PFM capabilities would address these challenges and help capacity is needed to improve the efficacy and ef- ensure efficient and fair flows of funds. ficiency of public spending on education in AFW countries.68 Many ministries of education lack ad- The capacity of the technical staff in education who equate capacity to execute a budget as planned or have system-wide responsibility for core services to even to plan in the first place budget allocations that support the work of teachers and school managers will meet strategic objectives. Specific weaknesses must also be strengthened. In basic and secondary include budget classifications that hinder meaning- education, these services include curriculum devel- ful tracking of expenditures, including intergovern- opment, examinations and student assessments, mental fiscal flows; low predictability of funding for teacher training, and school inspection and super- education, which impedes timely implementation of vision. Strengthening capacity in these domains in 68 See Bashir et al. (2018) for a detailed discussion of the results summarized here. 152 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity a systematic and coherent manner is essential to suggests that systematic training and coaching of creating high-performance systems. AFW countries managers, especially those in rural schools, also mat- would benefit from customizing promising inno- ters (Lemos and Piza 2020). vations to local conditions and from developing a continuous process of iteration to absorb implemen- In all three areas noted above, capacity building will tation feedback for improvement (Crouch 2020). In be critical to support AFW countries in their quest to postbasic education, wherein service providers have improve education outcomes in the coming years. more autonomy, system-level technical expertise re- Given the limited success of past endeavors (see, lates to oversight of areas such as quality assurance, for example, World Bank [2005] and [2009]), con- regulation of service providers, institutional perfor- sideration of new approaches is warranted (see mance, qualifications frameworks, and student fi- box 7.2). In particular, these approaches must rec- nance. Throughout the system, building capacity ognize that many of AFW’s ministries of education does not always mean creating new institutions; it lack the capacity to integrate, align and tailor op- can also mean reorganizing existing entities for great- tions for capacity development to fit their evolving er coherence and effectiveness. In Nigeria, many in- needs in the course of policy planning and program stitutions support teacher training and instructional implementation.69 processes in schools, but with insufficient resources and sometimes-overlapping functions, these institu- tions are not yet sufficiently aligned to provide effec- 7.3. Strengthening Education tive services for improving the overall learning system Data Systems for Informed (Bashir et al. 2018). Decision-Making Enlarging the managerial capacity of school manag- ers and leaders of other education establishments Reliable education management information systems would equip them to oversee day-to-day operations, are essential to drive results and must be strengthened assess needs, plan new programs, manage budgets, among both data producers and users. Strengthening and so on. The best managers ensure effective use the education management information system cre- of resources (such as school-based grants and other ates a culture of data-driven decision-making and locally mobilized funding); supervise, guide, coach, can help ensure a closer match between resources and motivate staff to do good work; foster a condu- and priority goals in education. Negotiations with the cive workplace culture free of abuse; and engage Ministry of Finance on budget allocations and execu- with external stakeholders (Adelman and Lemos tion, for example, require timely and accurate data on 2020). Research on eight countries associated a basic parameters such as enrollments, teachers, and 1.00 standard deviation increase in management implementation of the national curriculum. Data sys- capacity in school managers—based on 20 manage- tems that provide disaggregated data—by schools, ment practices—with a gain in learning outcomes of teachers, and students—can guide targeted actions 0.23 to 0.43 standard deviation (World Bank 2018). and broader reforms to improve efficiency and fair- An increase of this size in Sub-Saharan African is ness in service delivery. Sierra Leone’s Education comparable to the influence of structured pedagogy, Data Hub exemplifies an education management in- the most impactful intervention among those thus far formation system that offers timely and easily acces- subjected to rigorous evaluation in the region (Bashir sible system-wide indicators (such as enrollments, et al. 2018). Given managers’ vital role, competitive staffing, school facilities, and examination results) as and merit-based recruitment and career ladders to well as details on each school.70 The website for the incentivize professional growth are critical factors. hub also includes features for interactive data explo- Experience with this type of reform in Peru in 2013 ration by users. 69 Examples of current options for capacity development include courses and workshops offered by UNESCO’s IIEP and Capacity Development for Education; the USAID’s Early Grade Reading Assessments; and the World Bank’s Open Learning Campus (https://olc.worldbank.org/), including its Independent Evaluation Group’s initiative on Evaluation Capacity Development. 70 See https://educationdatahub.dsti.gov.sl/. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 153 Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Box 7.2. Toward More Effective Capacity Building for Education Outcomes in AFW Two examples of successful multi-donor capacity-development partnerships—one for the financial sector and the other for disaster risk management—provide useful inspiration for new approaches to capacity building toward better education outcomes in AFW (Fredriksen 2016). Example #1: Capacity development for the financial sector, via two complementary tracks Regional technical assistance centers. These centers are part of a special initiative to improve the per- formance of economic and financial institutions (International Monetary Fund [IMF] 2020). As of 2022, a total of 17 centers are in operation around the world, nine of them established between 2002 and 2013, including five in Africa.71 Managed by the IMF, these centers are funded by donors, the IMF, and the host and beneficiary countries. The Regional Technical Assistance Center for East Africa (East AFRITAC), the first one in Africa—set up in 2002 and hosted by Tanzania—serves seven East African countries. Its Phase V (2020 to 2025) budget envelope of US$59 million consists of US$50 million from donors, US$6 million from member countries, and U$3 million from the IMF (IMF n.d.). A 2013 evaluation highlights East AF- RITAC’s contribution to developing the capacity of member countries’ finance ministries, central banks, revenue authorities, and statistical agencies (Fredriksen 2016). Tax administration is an added focus area in Phase V to help member countries achieve strong, sustainable, and inclusive growth and make prog- ress on their Sustainable Development Goals and Financing for Development agendas. Financial Sector Reform and Strengthening Initiative. This initiative, also known as FIRST, was launched in 2002 in the wake of the East Asian financial crisis with the aim of promoting financial sector reforms. An external evaluation found that by 2014, the initiative had benefited 115 countries since inception, includ- ing those in Sub-Saharan Africa, by enlarging the capacity of implementing entities in the financial sector “to produce development strategies, draft new laws and regulations, [obtain] institutional assistance, and run crisis simulation exercises” (Development Portfolio Management Group 2014). Example #2: Capacity development for disaster risk management, via the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery (GFDRR) The GFDRR is a global partnership involving 34 donor countries and nine international agencies with a focus on building the capacity of low- and middle-income countries to reduce and manage risks stem- ming from natural hazards and climate change. Working with more than 400 local, national, regional, and international partners, GFDRR provides grant funding for technical assistance, training, and knowledge sharing in disaster- and climate-risk–management policies and strategies. In 2015, it offered $70 million for such activities benefitting 89 countries. GFDRR’s success in galvanizing multi-donor support with a focused agenda contains lessons for education sector capacity-building efforts in AFW. Source: adapted and updated from Bashir et al. 2018. Note: East AFRITAC = Regional Technical Assistance Center for East Africa; GFDRR = Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery; IMF = Internation- al Monetary Fund. The latest technology also simplifies the collection distribution of out-of-school children. Several ed- of geospatial data that can further support informed ucation projects in AFW countries struggling with decision-making in various areas. Examples include FCV, for example, Nigeria and Cameroon, have start- school mapping to assess the reach of remote ed using the Geo-Enabling Initiative for Monitoring learning systems and estimating the geographical and Supervision tool for monitoring in hard-to-reach 154 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity areas. In AFW’s embryonic systems of postbasic overreliance on project-related technical assistance education systems, education management infor- (which typically ends when the project closes), use mation systems can adopt an initial focus on key in- of individual consulting services, and ad hoc training dicators of provision (such as intake and graduates of individual government officials. A better approach by field of study). These systems can then gradually is to invest in enlarging the pool of competent spe- broaden to include indicators of labor market out- cialists trained through targeted programs adapted comes as well (such as employment and earnings to the context of countries in the region. These pro- by field of study). grams should be hosted by AFW universities and oth- er institutions, possibly via regional and international Given the severity of AFW’s learning and skills crisis, twinning programs in key thematic areas. Past efforts improving national capacity to collect and use learn- have also defined capacity constraints too narrowly ing assessment data and track graduates’ labor mar- as simply a lack of technical skills and competen- ket outcomes is especially important. As the amount cies, paying insufficient attention to “soft” skills. Soft of high-quality data grows, capacity-building efforts skills (such as coordination, change management, must also equip data users—that is, policy makers, and consensus building) are key to navigating the analysts, and other stakeholders—with basic data organizational and political economy impediments to reform. This weakness can be addressed by creat- literacy for monitoring both system performance ing venues for continuous peer learning, experience and service providers’ accountability. In basic edu- sharing, and cooperation among AFW countries. cation, the challenge is to use the data to guide the design and redesign of resources (such as scripted lessons and other tools for teaching at the right level) 7.4. Priorities for Enhancing and related training programs geared toward help- Implementation and M&E ing teachers teach more effectively. In Edo State, for example, the World Bank is supporting the devel- opment of an education management information Achieving this Regional Education Strategy will require system that will include data on students’ learning significant capacity for policy and program imple- outcomes and customize support for teachers. At mentation and for M&E. Based on the foregoing dis- the postbasic levels, data on graduate employment cussion, figure 7.2 highlights key areas for attention and earnings provide a critical test of institutional ef- in building this capacity. One priority is to boost the fectiveness in equipping the graduates of TVET and technical capacity of ministries of education in PFM higher-education programs with job-relevant skills. and in education core services to guide and support Systematic use of such data, complemented by in- teaching and learning. Increased capacity in these formation from labor market observatories and labor areas will ensure better management of financial re- market forecasts, can help align program design to sources for education as well as better use of the re- labor market opportunities and trends. In most AFW sources to provide more effective education services. countries, however, capabilities in these data-related A second priority is to equip the heads of schools and areas are nascent. other educational institutions—those who operate at the frontline of service provision—with the capacity In all areas of capacity building, new approaches will to lead and manage their staff and institutions effec- be needed to institutionalize capabilities for improv- tively. In all areas, relying on local universities and ing the performance of AFW’s education systems. diverse modalities can help embed the new capaci- Many ministries of education realize that low ca- ties within the system, thus allowing AFW countries to pacity is often the binding constraint on implemen- institutionalize this critical component to improve the tation and have invested accordingly.72 Experience performance of the whole system. In view of the vital highlights some critical blind alleys to avoid, such as role of data in M&E and informed decision-making, 71 For details on these centers, see https://www.imf.org/en/Capacity-Development/how-we-work. 72 See Bashir et al. (2018) and Fredriksen (2016) for further details. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 155 Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Figure 7.2. Enhancing Implementation Capacity What? Why? How? Deepen technical and Weak capacity compromises • Equip heads of schools/institutions with management and managerial capacity in key understanding and ownership of leadership skills areas among educators and education reforms and innovations • Deepen technical and operational capacity in core areas and reduces service providers' agility • Use local universities and diverse modalities to embed policymakers in service delivery capabilities within the system Strengthen data systems Lack of reliable and timely data • Build a simple, reliable, fit-for-purpose EMIS to provide results-relevant makes it di cult to hold policymakers • Ensure routine collection and use of learning assessment information for monitoring and service providers accountable for data education outcomes • Use graduate employment as key performance indicator and course correction for TVET and HE. Note: EMIS = education management information system; TVET = technical and vocational education and training; HE = higher education. greater capacity is also needed to build and maintain is to ensure effective deployment of funds to reverse a fit-for-purpose education management informa- learning losses and dropout rates. Cash transfers and tion system, one that not only provides reliable data other financial incentives to support girls and other to track key education outcomes, but also facilitates vulnerable population groups will be key to keeping use of the data to improve system performance. them enrolled. Investing in low-cost remote learning and training teachers in technology can help mini- mize learning losses, improve teachers’ pedagogical 7.5. Navigating Cross-Cutting skills, and increase the education system’s resilience Challenges to Strengthen Education to future shocks. TVET and tertiary education must for Resilience be repositioned to scale up online learning rapidly, with an increased focus on equipping young people with skills for jobs. Local innovations in the region’s Education systems in AFW must effectively address universities have a role to play in the fight against multiple cross-cutting challenges that could impede COVID-19. The Genomics of Infectious Diseases cen- progress toward the prioritized goals of this Region- ter in Nigeria within the ACE project and the West Af- al Education Strategy. Key challenges include the rica Center for Cell Biology and Infectious Pathogens COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath; chronic FCV; in Ghana both serve as regional leaders in genomic and climate change.73 AFW countries can leverage sequencing of the COVID-19 virus and in national ef- new technologies, especially digital ones, to increase forts to conduct mass testing and maintain pandemic the education sector’s resilience against these chal- control. Other ACE in Senegal and Nigeria have used lenges. Action in five areas warrant attention to help 3D printing to produce facial masks and parts for lo- the education system regain its momentum in build- cally made ventilators. ing human capital for growth and development (fig- ure 7.3). Second, countries in the region must recognize and re- duce the high levels of endemic FCV. In some settings, First, AFW countries must mitigate the impact of the the violence in and around schools has reached such COVID-19 pandemic on learning. The pandemic has high levels that regular schooling is no longer viable. laid bare the weaknesses of the region’s education As indicated earlier in chapter 5, AFW governments systems: millions of learners are unable to attend must demonstrate their commitment by signing the classes in person, and many remain stranded with Safe Schools Declaration and promoting the Guide- few other options to continue learning. Protecting lines for Protecting Schools and Universities from education spending will be critical. Equally important Military Use during Armed Conflict. They must also 73 See annex 1 for more details. 156 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity Figure 7.3. Navigating Cross-Cutting Areas to Rebuild Education for Resilience What? Why? How? Combat challenges Millions of learners are unable to • Protect education spending and use resources e ectively of the COVID-19 attend classes in person and many • Use financial incentives to support girls & vulnerable groups Pandemic still have few options to continue • Enable low-cost remote learning avenues learning • Train teachers on use of tech and new tools for remote learning • Equip youth with skills for jobs in the depressed labor market • Leverage universities to fight the pandemic through local innovation Address fragility, There is a high presence and • Sign the Safe Schools Declaration and protect schools from attacks conflict, and magnitude of conflict and violence • Enable schools operate safely through early warning signs and violence issues in the region security protection • Reduce drivers of conflict & violence through peace-building curricula Tackle climate Educational attainment is the single • Develop education content, curriculums, and teacher training change strongest predictor of climate change materials on local impact of climate change awareness and green jobs exhibit • Provide skills training with a focus on green economy jobs stronger intensity of high-level • Construct schools to be resilient against climate-induced shocks and cognitive skills use ecofriendly building materials • Support universities to contribute to better education and research on climate change Adopt education Education technologies can boost • Promote structured pedagogy through digital devices technologies education outcomes and improve • Develop virtual classrooms for purely remote or hybrid learning systems • Provide digital skills for students for digital economy jobs • Use EdTech to improve education data and management to facilitate better decision-making Harness Innovation has great potential to • Test and evaluate innovative solutions (blockchain to track cutting-edge catalyze change in education systems expenditures for accountability, machine learning to prevent dropout, innovation artificial intelligence and behavioral sciences to shift social norms, adaptive learning, and virtual reality) Source: The World Bank Note: ACE = African Higher Education Centers of Excellence; AFW = Western and Central Africa; FCV = fragility, conflict, and violence. go beyond advocacy alone to ensure that schools can incorporate material to encourage peaceful behavior operate safely (thanks to early warning arrangements among children and youth. and robust security protection, for example) or offer other options for learning in case of disruptions (such Third, AFW countries must act to reduce the adverse im- as pop-up schools, learning circles, remote learning, pact of climate change on education through strategies use of religious spaces and other venues less vul- for adaption and mitigation. Educational attainment nerable to attacks). Widening access to secondary, is the single strongest predictor of climate change tertiary, and vocational education and expanding job awareness and perceptions of its risks (Lee et al. opportunities are also critical to help prevent youth 2015); exposure to climate-specific courses can lead from joining extremist organizations and engaging young people to adopt climate-friendly behavior.74 Cli- in violence. In higher education, conflict studies can mate change is also altering the landscape of jobs and deepen understanding of the dynamics of violence, skills. New jobs in the green economy will require more and leadership training to build negotiation skills cognitive skills (Consoli et al. 2016) as well as techni- can help promote substantive and effective engage- cal expertise in many areas of rising demand (such as ment in peacebuilding. The school curricula can also disaster management, water conservation, and green 74 Cordero et al. (2020) found that students who attended a year-long university course on climate change each reduced their annual carbon emissions by 2.86 tons of carbon dioxide. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 157 Enhancing Implementation and M&E Capacity technology). Some AFW universities are responding ■ Conducting a portion of instruction at post-prima- with new programs and research. The ACE project in ry levels via virtual classrooms through remote or Ghana, for example, is researching and developing online arrangements (Twinomugisha 2019). integrated solutions to coastal degradation. Institu- ■ Requiring all tertiary-level students to acquire tions in Côte d’Ivoire and Senegal are making similar digital skills to equip them for job opportunities efforts to strengthen education and applied research in the digital economy. AFW countries can lever- in basic STEM fields that can offer insights for tackling age economies of scale through regional initia- climate-related issues (including water and electrical tives in digital skills training programs (such as engineering, transport and logistics, environmental through the World Bank’s ACE projects in The sciences, and climate-adapted agriculture). Broader Gambia).76 initiatives also need to create curricula for teaching the ■ Mobilizing the power of educational technology public and students in schools about climate change to improve education data and management sys- and life skills for adaptation and mitigation (for exam- tems. Improved systems will support data-driven ple, recycling, water harvesting, tree planting, adjust- policy development and implementation (as in Li- ing consumption habits, and changing transportation beria’s latest school census exercise). choices). In today’s era of climate change, training teachers and others to carry out evacuation protocols For the benefits in all four areas to materialize, govern- in the event of emergencies is critical; at the same ments in AFW will need to invest in reliable and afford- time, decisions about school construction must aim able electricity and digital infrastructure (including to increase resilience to climate-induced shocks by internet connectivity and devices). taking explicit measures to minimize exposure to heat, wind, flash floods, soil erosion, and other problems. Fifth, AFW countries must explore and adapt cut- ting-edge innovations for application in education. Fourth, AFW countries must consider leveraging the po- While advanced technologies will not be relevant or tential of educational technologies to improve education even feasible everywhere in AFW, their potential to outcomes. This potential exists in at least four areas: enhance the performance education systems in the region is clear. Examples include blockchains to track ■ Using digital devices to support structured peda- education expenditures; machine learning to identify gogy. In South Africa, for example, virtual coach- and protect students, especially girls, from dropping ing using digital lesson plans proved to be as ef- out of school (Adelman et al. 2018); adaptive learning fective as on-site coaching in boosting teachers’ to increase student learning (Muralidharan, Singh, instructional practice and students’ literacy out- and Ganimian 2019); and virtual reality to develop comes (Kotze, Fliesch, and Taylor 2019).75 job skills. 75 World Bank operations in Nigeria’s Edo State, Rwanda, and Liberia are supporting the approach. 76 The College of Engineering at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (Ghana) is providing technical assistance to The Gambia through the ACE project with setting up a university that will offer applied science, engineering, and technology programs. 158 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 159 PHOTO BY: © 2020 RICHARD JUILLIART/SHUTTERSTOCK 8. The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW This chapter reviews trends in the World Bank’s ed- (by the International Development Association and ucation portfolio in the region, the portfolio’s perfor- the International Bank for Reconstruction and De- mance, and the lessons learned. Based on lessons velopment, among other institutions). Annual com- learned, the chapter presents guiding principles to mitments have tripled since 2018. In AFW, new com- enhance the effectiveness of the World Bank’s port- mitments to education reached US$814 million in folio toward achieving the objectives of the Regional 2020 and US$1.1 billion in 2021. The average was Education Strategy. These principles include the use only US$428 million from 2015 to 2019. Part of the of country classifications to better tailor the strategy’s recent increase in new commitments has stemmed high-impact interventions to the context of each AFW from the World Bank’s stronger emphasis on invest- country. ing in people under its Human Capital Project, which launched in 2018, and its Africa Human Capital complement, which launched in 2019. The World 8.1. Portfolio Analysis and Lessons Bank made most of the commitments under the Learned International Development Association, not only be- cause most countries in the region are eligible with the association, but also because some operations The World Bank, the largest development partner, is benefiting middle-income countries may also be eli- working on education programs in more than 80 coun- gible, for example, if they target poor areas (this was, tries. The World Bank approved more than US$66 for instance, the case for one large operation in Nige- billion in financing for education over the last two ria in 2017 with a commitment of US$611 million). decades. Its current portfolio includes 180 projects The AFW portfolio has also grown in relative terms. worth US$23.3 billion, constituting 8 percent of to- Although the AFW-approved operations represent- tal World Bank lending. In fiscal year 2020/21, the ed only 9 percent of the total commitments in 2018, World Bank approved new commitments of US$6.3 the value grew to 18 percent in 2021. International billion for education, the largest amount ever record- Development Association projects tend to be much ed (World Bank 2021b). New commitments have larger (US$111 million each on average) than Inter- since increased even further with the response to the national Bank for Reconstruction and Development COVID-19 pandemic. In addition, the World Bank is projects (US$63 million each). the implementation agency for more than half (54 percent) of the Global Partnership for Education’s More than a third of the investments underway sup- grant portfolio (US$1.95 billion of US$3.62 billion in port basic education (figure 8.1); the rest are for skills active grants). development, secondary education, higher education, sectoral reforms, and programs targeting early child- The World Bank’s growing education portfolio sup- hood education. The pipeline has a stronger focus on ports AFW countries in responding to their education secondary education and skills, but basic education needs. The current portfolio, as of January 2022, is still important. Some of the most recent projects comprises US$3.76 billion of operations already aim to help countries cope with the adverse impact of underway and another US$1 billion being prepared the COVID-19 crisis on education. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 161 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Table 8.1. World Bank Commitments to Education in Western and Central Africa,77 2015–21 (US$ Million) Fiscal Year IBRD IDA Other Grants, incl. World Bank Total as a GPE Grant Agent 2015 - $188.0 $237.3 $425.3 2016 $100.0 $145.0 $40.8 $185.8 2017 - $718.5 $718.5 2018 - $295.0 $34.4 $329.4 2019 - $478.7 $478.7 2020 - $768.0 $46.3 $814.3 2021 - $980.0 $118.0 $1,098.1 Source: World Bank operational data. Note: GPE = Global Partnership for Education; IBRD = International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; IDA = International Development Association. Figure 8.1. Size of Portfolio by Type, US$ Figure 8.2. Independent Evaluation Group’s Overall Performance Ratings for Education 1,800,000,000 Projects in Western and Central Africa, Fiscal 1,600,000,000 Years 2009–20 (%) 1,400,000,000 100% 1,200,000,000 90% 1,000,000,000 80% 800,000,000 70% 600,000,000 60% 50% 400,000,000 40% 200,000,000 30% - 20% Basic Education Skills Secondary Higher Education Sector Reform Early Years COVID 10% 0% Source: World Bank operational data. FY09-FY11 FY12-FY14 FY15-17 FY18-20 Unsatisfactory Satisfactory Moderately Unsatisfactory Highly Satisfactory Moderately Satisfactory The analysis also showed a large increase in World Bank commitments for education in AFW, which has Source: Independent Evaluation Group data. led to a larger active portfolio today (table 8.1). The World Bank remains the largest financier of education in the developing world. However, the World Bank in- a large portion of the governments’ expenditures are vestments are small compared with the total amounts on salaries. Thus, the implementation of the strategy the governments spend on education—even though requires governments to play an active role. 77 The countries included in AFW are Benin, Burkina Faso, Cabo Verde, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, the Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Togo, Senegal, and Sierra Leone. 162 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Table 8.2. Independent Evaluation Group’s Additional Ratings for Education Projects in Western and Central Africa, Fiscal Years 2009–20 (%) Fiscal Years Highly Satisfactory Moderately Moderately Unsatisfactory Highly Satisfactory Satisfactory Unsatisfactory Unsatisfactory Quality at Entry FY09–FY11 0 18 27 18 36 0 FY12–FY14 0 5 47 26 21 0 FY15–17 0 33 33 22 11 0 FY18–20 7 64 14 14 0 0 Quality of World Bank Supervision FY09–FY11 9 18 27 18 27 0 FY12–FY14 5 11 68 16 0 0 FY15–17 0 22 67 11 0 0 FY18–20 7 36 50 7 0 0 Source: World Bank operational data. The performance of the AFW education portfolio has Table 8.3. Independent Evaluation Group’s improved over time. Between 2014 and 2019, the In- Performance Ratings for Project M&E in Western dependent Evaluation Group rated 75 percent of the and Central Africa, Fiscal Years 2009–20 (%) education projects in AFW as moderately satisfactory Fiscal Years High Substantial Modest Negligible or better. There have been clear gains over time, with a decrease in the share of the projects rated moderate- FY09–FY11 10 20 40 30 ly unsatisfactory or unsatisfactory, and an increase in FY12–FY14 0 16 68 16 those rated moderately satisfactory, satisfactory, and highly satisfactory, with these latter three ratings repre- FY15–17 0 56 44 0 senting projects that meet minimum expectations (fig- FY18–20 0 86 14 0 ure 8.2). Similar to overall project performance ratings, the Independent Evaluation Group ratings of quality Source: World Bank operational data. at entry, project supervision, and M&E have improved over time as well (table 8.2 and table 8.3). financing. Results-based financing rewards countries The use of results-based financing instruments in the for achieving agreed-upon results; once countries education sector has increased but remains limited. achieve the results, disbursements are made. In con- The World Bank as a whole has increased so-called trast, traditional investment project financing supports ‘results-based financing’ operations, including pro- specific activities, with disbursement made specifical- gram-for-results financing and investment project ly toward those agreed-upon activities. financing with performance-based conditions. Re- sults-based financing operations comprise 51 percent The average size of operations using investment proj- of the pipeline, with recent large operations such as ect financing with performance-based conditions has BESDA and innovative programs such as EdoBEST increased over time. From 2015 to 2018, the average using results-based financing. Nonetheless, its impor- size of new AFW education projects using investment tance in the current portfolio is limited. Most AFW edu- project financing was systematically below US$50 cation operations still use traditional investment project million. This average size increased to US$60 million Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 163 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.3. Financing by Education Level, Active Figure 8.4. Number of Projects by Education Portfolio (US$ million) Level, Active Portfolio Workforce Development Workforce Development and TVET and TVET Tertiary Education Tertiary Education Secondary Education Secondary Education Public Administration Education Public Administration Education Primary Education Primary Education Other Education Early Childhood Other Education Education Early Childhood Adult, Basic and Education Continuing Education Adult, Basic and $0 $200 $400 $600 $800 $1,000 $1,200 Continuing Education 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Financing Project Count Source: World Bank operational data. Source: World Bank operational data. in 2019 and to US$90 million in 2020. There was a re- development and adult learning, which are relatively duction in 2021 in the average size of projects in part new subsectors for World Bank investments. because a number of comparatively smaller emergen- cy projects were approved in response to the COVID-19 In terms of types of interventions, the commitments pandemic. But overall, the tendency in the region— to teacher training, FCV focus, digitalization, and and in the World Bank more generally—is toward fewer governance have been increasing, and investment but larger projects. This shift can help the World Bank in infrastructure remains important in the portfolio, more effectively manage its projects and also reduce highlighting the needs on the ground.78 Based on an the transaction costs involved in preparing/providing analysis of project appraisal documents, table 8.4 implementation support for more projects. and figure 8.5 highlight the main types of activities being financed.79 Financing for tertiary education and The subsector focus in the AFW education portfolio skills is not disaggregated in table 8.4 and figure 8.5, has been shifting from primary education to second- but financing for other levels of education is disag- ary education (figure 8.3 and figure 8.4). Though the gregated into 10 areas: teachers; safe schools; digital World Bank has historically focused on primary ed- resources; disability and inclusion; finance (such as ucation, its focus has shifted in AFW. Total commit- scholarships for girls’ education); private sector sup- ments in the active portfolio are larger for secondary port; infrastructure (such as building schools); gover- education than for primary education. Support for nance (and systems strengthening, which includes tertiary education and for workforce development financing for project implementation units hosted by and TVET, when combined, make the total amount ministries); community empowerment; and curricu- allocated to higher education also quite a bit larger lum, textbooks, and language of instruction. Not sur- than the amount allocated to primary education. AFW prisingly, financing for digital resources has increased is also increasing its commitments to early childhood in recent years. Among the 10 categories identified, 78 These data are not readily available from the World Bank’s operational database, so it will be necessary to read individual project appraisal documents to assess in more detail what exactly is being financed. Projects tend to be organized into a small number of components. In most cases, the amount of financing allocated in a project to a particular component is available, although the disaggregation of financing into amounts within subcomponents is often not available. Thus some simple rules should apply for tabulating the information. For example, consider a subcomponent worth US$2 million that focuses on both teachers and infrastructure. In that case, unless more detailed information is available, it may be necessary to assume that US$1 million is allocated to teachers and US$1 million to infrastructure. 79 In some cases, especially for older projects, the specific amounts allocated to various activities are not available. 164 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Table 8.4. Identifiable Financing Streams for Various Types of Activities, 2015–21 Fiscal Years Teachers Safe Schools Digital Disability Finance Private & Inclusion Sector Amounts (US$ million) FY15–16 72.2 0.0 13.7 29.7 175.7 33.5 FY17–18 224.1 0.0 17.5 125.0 40.8 113.8 FY19–20 123.5 15.8 56.6 33.8 74.8 27.9 FY21 206.2 99.5 121.6 51.7 111.6 0.0 Share, percent FY15–16 9.4 0.0 1.8 3.9 23.0 4.4 FY17–18 25.6 0.0 2.0 14.3 4.7 13.0 FY19–20 12.2 1.6 5.6 3.3 7.4 2.8 FY21 19.5 9.4 11.5 4.9 10.5 0.0 School Governance Community Curriculum, Tertiary Total Infrastructure Empowerment Textbook, & Skills & Language Amounts (US$ million) FY15–16 64.1 56.3 19.9 34.5 265.8 765.2 FY17–18 157.7 39.4 3.3 136.1 18.0 875.8 FY19–20 94.8 174.1 31.7 88.5 289.3 1010.9 FY21 134.1 112.0 77.6 56.8 88.9 1059.8 Share, percent FY15–16 8.4 7.4 2.6 4.5 34.7 100 FY17–18 18.0 4.5 0.4 15.5 2.1 100 FY19–20 9.4 17.2 3.1 8.8 28.6 100 FY21 12.7 10.6 7.3 5.4 8.4 100 Source: Based on a review of project appraisal documents. the largest category of financing is for teachers—pri- support, and infrastructure) and those that focus marily for teacher training. more on improving the quality of the education pro- vided and the management of the sector (such as The share of financing allocated to education quality on teachers, school safety, digital resources, gover- interventions vis-à-vis education access has been nance, community empowerment, curriculum, text- increasing. The data in figure 8.5 indicate that in- books, and language of instruction). As shown in terventions form two categories: those that focus figure 8.6, a larger share of commitments has gone more on improving access to education (such as to issues of quality versus issues of access over this on disability and inclusion, finance, private sector period. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 165 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.5. Financing by Types of Activities, 2015–21 (US$ Million) 350 300 Financial Commitment ($ million) 250 200 150 100 50 0 Teachers Safe Digital Disability and Finance Private Infrastructure Governance Community Curriculum, Tertiary Schools Inclusion Sector Empowerment extbook and Skills and Language FY15-16 FY17-18 FY19-20 FY21 Source: Based on a review of project appraisal documents. Figure 8.6. Approximate Shares of Financing for ■ Removing barriers to girls’ schooling. Efforts in- Access versus Quality (%) clude financing scholarships, stipends, and loans; providing safe transport and a safe school envi- 100.0% ronment; and improving access, enrollment, and attendance. 90.0% ■ Promoting safe and inclusive schools. This catego- 80.0% ry relates to learning in school, school health con- 70.0% siderations, and efforts to reduce gender-based 60.0% violence. 50.0% ■ Improving the quality of the education provided. Quality may improve through school clubs; gen- 40.0% der-informed curricula; gender-sensitive peda- 30.0% gogy; menstrual hygiene management, hygiene, 20.0% sanitation, and toilets for girls; programs promot- 10.0% ing skills for life and labor market success; invest- ments in STEM fields for girls; and other activities 0.0% FY15-16 FY17-18 FY19-20 FY21 related to readiness for the labor force, jobs, and Quality Access skills development. Source: Based on a review of project appraisal documents. All recent projects have components related to girls’ education; this was not the case a few years ago. The wide range of different activities being implemented Figure 8.7 examines the extent to which the active should provide useful lessons. portfolio includes program components or activities targeting girls’ education, a major priority in AFW. (For The objectives of the strategy will not be achieved by more on the importance of girls’ education globally education practice alone; accordingly, AFW education and in Africa, see Wodon et al. 2018a, 2018b). The projects are increasingly incorporating other practices. analysis is again based on a detailed review of project For instance, the Togo Employment and Opportunities appraisal documents, with activities targeting girls’ for Vulnerable Youth project is a Social Protection and education classified into three categories: Jobs project that benefits from strong collaboration 166 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.7. Activities Related to Girls’ Education, Active Portfolio 16 14 12 10 Project Count 8 6 4 2 0 Schorlarships, Stipends & Loans Safe Transport & School Environment Access, Enrollment & Attendance Learning in School Health Aspects Gender-Based Violence School Clubs Gender-Informed Curriculum Gender Sensitive Pedagogy MHM, Hygiene, Sanitation & Toilets STEM Fields Labor Force, Jobs & Skills Development Removing barriers to girls' Promoting safe and Improving the quality of education Developing skills schooling inclusive schools for life and labor market success Source: Based on a review of project appraisal documents by the Gender Team. with the Education Global Practice. Similarly, in Niger, in how it invests and engages and supports countries the First Laying the Foundations for Inclusive Develop- as they design and undertake critical reforms in ed- ment Policy Financing project is a Development Policy ucation across the learning life cycle. Integrating the Operation managed by the Macroeconomics, Trade, lessons of experience in designing the World Bank’s and Investments Global Practice, whose first pillar operational support will be essential. The ways in aims to improve the educational attainment of adoles- which the World Bank will integrate eight lessons are cent girls. There are also synergies with Health, Nutri- highlighted below. tion, and Population, such as through the Population and Health Support project in Niger, which aims to First, the World Bank will root the interventions it sup- increase the use of reproductive health and nutrition ports in previous lessons of what does and does not services and to promote access to secondary school work. These lessons reside in World Bank operation- for girls. Collaboration is also strong with sectors such al experience (figure 8.8), the experiences of other as the governance sector; the agriculture sector; and organizations, and the most recent evidence. Cen- the water, sanitation, and hygiene sector. tral to determining what works is advisory services and analytics. Today, advisory services and analytics mainly focuses on early learning, public expenditure 8.2. Integrating Lessons Learned reviews, and human capital assessments. This focus to Enhance the World Bank’s will expand to include issues such as education and Effectiveness FCV, community-based approaches to education, educational technology and remote learning, teacher effectiveness, skills, adult literacy, tertiary education, Building on its current portfolio of large and innova- and reviews of teacher unions via a political econo- tive operations and on good progress so far, the World my lens. The World Bank will help AFW programs to Bank can and will do more in light of AFW’s challeng- incorporate advisory services and analytics into their es in education. The magnitude of these challenges structure to ensure iterative and sustained engage- demands an ambitious and transformative response, ment and to avoid proliferation of fragmented, sup- not only in how much the World Bank invests, but also ply-driven advisory services and analytics. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 167 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.8. Word Cloud on Lessons Learned from Fourth, the World Bank will encourage a mix of financial Implementation Completion Reports instruments and increase the relative importance of results-based financing in the region. Program-for-re- sults financing will ensure focus on results, particu- larly for delivering services and overcoming imple- mentation constraints. When the changes concern developing an enabling environment for better edu- cation, Development Policy Operations will be priori- tized. Overall, in the region, the World Bank will keep shifting the focus toward outcomes instead of inputs. New operations will emphasize achieving specific results rather than delivering specific inputs, as the latter do not always produce the desired outcomes. Source: Analysis of Implementation Completion Reports. Fifth, the World Bank will emphasize multisectoral interventions in the region. Tackling education chal- lenges requires a problem-driven rather than a Second, the World Bank will prioritize innovative merely sectoral approach. Thus, the present strategy high-impact interventions in the region. AFW coun- is not a strategy for the education sector alone, but tries should place a premium on learning and inno- rather a strategy to improve education outcomes, vation to accelerate change and, where possible, which requires collaboration across sectors. The Ed- leapfrog to new solutions to longstanding problems. ucation Global Practice will actively collaborate with This approach will require a greater risk appetite, the Health, Nutrition, and Population Global Practice and when failures occur, the lessons should inform to ensure that children are well nourished, healthy, the design of new operations. Cutting-edge innova- and ready to learn. Collaboration with Social Protec- tions to boost learning outcomes may be piloted de- tion and Jobs will be sought to help tackle financial pending on a country’s appetite and capacity. Thus, constraints to accessing education and to ensure the World Bank will help the region to adopt a prob- smooth transitions between the educational system lem-driven iterative approach to design, implement, and the labor market. Working with governance will and redesign operations. In a similar vein, the region be essential in the design operations to address the should prioritize large-scale interventions and im- institutional constraints that undermine effective portant reforms—including policy reforms—rather service delivery. Partnership with other Global Prac- than operations that contain a multiplicity of small tices such as Macroeconomics, Trade, and Invest- interventions. ments will help ensure that there is enough fiscal space to invest in education. Overall, the strategy en- Third, the World Bank will support regional approach- visions the World Bank’s Education Global Practice es, especially in the poorest AFW countries, to facil- working closely with other Global Practices to foster itate peer learning and sharing of human capital, a whole-of-government approach to enhance edu- knowledge, and other resources. Regional approach- cation outcomes throughout AFW. Beyond collabo- es will allow for exploiting of economies of scale to ration, this effort is about understanding that other lower costs and increase bargaining power and for sectors are equally important in implementing re- creating cross-border mobility. Two World Bank– forms to improve education outcomes. For instance, funded regional interventions are the higher-educa- investing in water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities in tion ACE project and the TVET East Africa Skills for schools is not just an addition to an education project Transformation and Regional Integration Project. but a crucial intervention to increase access to edu- Similarly, the Sahel Women’s Empowerment and De- cation for girls. mographics Project, an initiative to increase women and adolescent girls’ empowerment in the Sahel re- Sixth, in the region, the World Bank will have a strong gion, shows the importance of working across sectors focus on capacity building, which requires collabora- at the regional level. tive work that transcends the borders of the education 168 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW sector. For instance, investing in public financial man- postbasic education through TVET and higher edu- agement, better M&E, more accountability, and more cation, coverage and learning outcomes continue to transparent procurement beyond the ministries of matter, but so do the prospects for the employment education is critical to achieve results at scale and and earnings of graduates. The relevance of the prior- to reach the intended beneficiaries in a cost-efficient ities highlighted in this strategy—relating to strategic manner. leadership, high-impact interventions, and capacity for implementation and M&E—differ for AFW coun- Seventh, the World Bank will use clear and effective tries grouped in this manner, as the summary in an- communications and engage with partners to max- nex 4 shows. imize synergies. The World Bank will partner with other organizations to align efforts for maximum joint impact on outcomes, to the benefit of AFW countries; 8.3.1. Country Classification for Primary ensure sharing of knowledge and experience; coordi- and Secondary Education nate financing; and avoid duplication. For the Sahel region and countries struggling with FCV, the World This strategy uses indicators for primary education Bank will place special emphasis on coordination as as the entry point to create country groupings for well as robust integration of security and develop- use as a first step in enhancing the responsiveness of ment activities. The strategy calls for added support World Bank support to country conditions.80 Regard- to capacity-building priorities in key areas. ing coverage capacity, two distinct groups emerge based on the primary gross enrollment ratio and Eighth, the World Bank will increase its footprint on the the corresponding out-of-school rate, two indicators ground to improve its own responsiveness, strengthen that together reflect a system’s capacity to ensure context specificity, and get closer to clients to better educational access for this cycle of schooling. In the support them during projects. AFW, in turn, will in- first group are countries with “Mature” education crease and diversify its skill mix to strengthen exper- systems that are able to accommodate most of the tise on critical areas such as educational technolo- primary-school-age population. The second group gies, digital skills, climate change and education, and comprises countries with “Developing” education education in fragile settings. systems that need greater capacity; these countries cannot yet enroll everyone in the target age group, as suggested by gross enrollment ratios (though 8.3. Using Country Classifications these have risen toward full coverage more recently) to Enhance the Responsiveness of and out-of-school rates (which remain high). Within World Bank Support each group, the countries separate further into two subgroups based on the World Bank’s Harmonized Learning Outcomes (HLO) data. In the first subgroup, The Regional Education Strategy recognizes that al- recent trends in student learning indicate improve- though AFW countries share many common challeng- ment. In the other, progress has lagged. es in education, their high degree of heterogeneity requires World Bank support that is tailored accord- Applying explicit criteria to currently available data ingly. For this purpose, the strategy offers a country yields a snapshot of the distribution of the 22 AFW classification for use as a first step in exploring solu- countries across the four groups.81 The snapshot, tions adapted to the variety of country contexts in the shown in figure 8.9, offers a useful first impression to region. In basic education, the criteria relate simply inform the strategy’s approach for country-level en- to enrollment coverage and learning outcomes. In gagement. Namely, it contextualizes more detailed 80 Two reasons motivate the focus on indicators for primary education: data availability and relevance. Data on coverage and learning outcomes—the two indicators used for the classification—are available mostly for primary education for most of the 22 AFW countries. Furthermore, the development of secondary education is closely tied to the progress in establishing a strong foundation in primary education. 81 As a snapshot—one based on currently available data—a country’s group membership may change because of genuine shifts in the phenomena, improvements in the underlying data, use of new grouping criteria, or changes in all three areas. While the coverage-related indicators have benefited from international experience with collection and standardization over many years, those for learning that are standardized for cross-country comparison are of more recent vintage. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 169 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.9. Country Grouping for Primary and Secondary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019 Countries West and Central Africa 22 Grouped by Mature Developing coverage capacity 7 15 Grouped by likely progress in Improving Lagging Improving Lagging student learning 3 3 5 8 Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Emerged Emerging on Path Emerging on Path Delayed A B Cameroon CAR Congo, Rep. Ghana Benin Chad Gabon Sierra Leone Burkina Faso Cote d'Ivoire Togo Gambia, The Guinea Niger Liberia Senegal Mali Mauritania Nigeria Countries uncategorized for lack of HLO data Cabo Verde, Guinea-Bissau; Equatorial Guinea Source: Analysis of data for the gross enrollment rate in 2005 and circa 2019, the out-of-school rate circa 2019; and trends in HLO data 2009–2019, as detailed in annex 3. Note: The number in each dark blue block is a count of the countries in the indicated group; membership is defined by the criteria specified in table A3.1. CAR = Central African Republic; HLO = harmonized learning outcomes. country-level or subnational assessments of priorities require sustained experimentation and systemat- and program design along the following broad lines: ic learning from experience to identify the most effective pathways forward. ■ Group 1 (“Emerged”). Countries perform rel- atively well on both coverage and progress in learning; they can build on this progress and aim 8.3.2. Country Classification for TVET to move learning outcomes closer to international and Tertiary Education benchmarks. ■ Group 2 (“Emerging on Path A”). Countries AFW countries are investing in skills and tertiary ed- have achieved full coverage but struggle to boost ucation to equip their people with the human capital learning outcomes; those with fewer economic to access desirable jobs and form a well-trained work- and political challenges than other AFW coun- force that can boost economic productivity. The de- tries (for example, Ghana) can be expected— ployment of educated and skilled workers in econom- with support, as needed—to make more effort to ic production thus offers a useful basis for grouping improve student learning. countries in the region to frame this strategy’s discus- ■ Group 3 (“Emerging on Path B”). Countries are sion on skills and tertiary education. Data availability, still expanding each of their system’s capacity to simplicity, and resonance regarding workforce utili- universalize access but are already making prog- zation all guide the choice of the specific indicators ress to boost student learning; the challenge is to presented below. ensure continued expansion of access without compromising learning outcomes in the process. The country classification uses two indicators—em- ■ Group 4 (“Delayed”). Countries lag on both cov- ployment in “better jobs” and internet accessibility—to erage capacity and learning outcomes. Finding capture the likely jobs outlook for postbasic education the right way to improve on both fronts will likely and training graduates. For employment, the indicator 170 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.10. Country Groupings for Skills and Tertiary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019 Countries West and Central Africa 22 Grouped by current outlook for better jobs Favorable Less favorable Uncertain Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 b/ Cabo Verde Cameroon CAR Gambia, The Cote d'Ivoire Sierra Leone Ghana Congo, Rep. Benin Senegal Gabon Burkina Faso Liberia Guinea-Bissau Mauritania Mali Nigeria Chad Togo Guinea Niger Unclassified for lack of data Equatorial Guinea Source: Analysis of data on rate of employment in “better jobs” and internet access, etc. Note: Countries are grouped based on three criteria that are detailed in annex 4. Group 1 countries satisfy all three criteria; Group 2 countries satisfy at least two of the three criteria; Group 3 satisfy none or at most just one of the three criteria. a/ While CAR (Central African Republic) and Sierra Leone satisfy one of the three criteria, the other countries in the “Uncertain” group satisfy none of the criteria. is the share of the working-age population (15–64 the marketplace, and enable other connections (such years) that works as paid employees or as employers as supply chains) that support the creation of better (typically a tiny share), the same as in the World Bank’s jobs. Internet accessibility also offers quick access to Human Capital Project.82 These jobs are deemed “bet- information to guide the design and delivery of train- ter,” both for the economy and for individuals, in that ing programs and the means to facilitate graduates’ they tend to exist under arrangements wherein the knowledge of and access to the better jobs.84 work is likely to entail “a minimum of [task] special- ization and organization, which helps boost produc- Based on explicit criteria applied to the selected in- tivity and allows for people to use their skills” more dicators, the 22 AFW countries separate into three fully (World Bank 2020a, 115). The second indicator groups vis-à-vis the likely jobs outlook: Favorable, is a parsimonious way to incorporate a forward-look- Less favorable, and Uncertain.85 Figure 8.10 shows ing consideration into the country classification. It is the membership of AFW countries in the three defined as the number of “unique” mobile-broadband groups. Because other diverse factors (such as subscriptions per 100 inhabitants.83 In today’s tech- tax policies and ease of doing business) that may nology-rich environment, the internet is at the core of affect the jobs outlook are not explicitly taken into the ecosystem for boosting economic productivity; it account, some countries near the cutoff criteria for can help accelerate innovations using emerging digital each group may in fact slide toward membership in technologies, connect buyers and sellers efficiently in an adjacent group.86 Furthermore, because the AFW 82 The indicator is the same as the “better jobs” rate used to compute the World Bank’s Utilization-Adjusted Human Capital Index. Excluded from “better jobs” are those held by people working “in subsistence own-account/family agriculture, [as] small scale traders, and [as] landless agricultural laborers” (World Bank 2020a, 115). 83 This indicator was chosen because it is calculated and tracked as part of the Digital Economy for Africa core targets and due to its clarity and extensive coverage of AFW countries. 84 As highlighted in the World Bank’s Jobs for Economic Transformation initiative, the creation of better jobs requires a complex set of policies that work together to enable “more people [to] find work, . . . [to] get better at what they do, and . . . [to] . . . move from low-productivity work (such as self-employment and unpaid family work in farming) to better, higher productivity jobs (such as wage employment in the manufacturing or service sectors).” For simplicity, the current classification focuses only on internet accessibility as a key asset in this process of economic transformation. 85 See table A4.1 for the precise specifications of the classification criteria. 86 For example, The Gambia appears in the “Favorable” group based on the criteria used in the classification. But because the country has a weaker economy (and thus a weaker outlook for better jobs) than the other countries in this group, it may in fact fit better in the “Less favorable” group. However, such ad hoc adjustments are minimized to keep the classification criteria clear and transparent. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 171 The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW countries are compared only to each other, even most just one of the three criteria considered. those in the most highly rated group may still lag be- The four Sahel countries in this group—Burki- hind their peers in other regions in the prevalence na Faso, Chad, Mali, and Niger—are among the of better jobs and internet accessibility. Bearing in 10 poorest and least urbanized in AFW; they are mind these limitations, the classification can none- also numbered among the region’s seven most theless offer a useful starting point for the World conflict-affected countries. These countries, as Bank’s country-level engagement on investment in well as the others classified as having an “Un- skills and tertiary education. certain” jobs outlook, face especially daunting challenges in setting priorities and discerning The three-way country classification highlights the appropriate sequencing of actions to improve importance and implications of situating investments the conditions for better jobs creation. Investing in skills and tertiary education in the broader context in skills and tertiary education in these countries of the jobs outlook. The groups capture, for example, requires even more than the usual level of scru- the following broad nuances of emphasis in coun- tiny to ensure relevance to each country’s devel- try-level dialogue: opment agenda, responsiveness to employers’ demand for skills, and adaptation to implemen- ■ Group A (“Favorable”). These countries have the tation capacity. most favorable conditions in AFW. Taking advan- tage of these conditions, they might do even bet- The country classification offers clarity on what key ter, for example, by intensifying the use of digital concerns in skills development and tertiary edu- technologies for innovation and job creation, fur- cation—such as young people’s transition into the ther tightening the alignment between training workforce—need targeted inquiry and action. The and education programs and emerging job op- share of youth age 15–24 who are NEET, a common portunities, and encouraging and enabling more indicator published by the International Labor Orga- youth to take advantage of such technologies to nization, captures possible difficulties in the school- access better jobs. to-work transition among young people.87 Among ■ Group B2 (“Less favorable”). Countries in this AFW countries, the NEET rate ranges from an esti- group do well on some but not all aspects of the mated 11 percent in Togo to 38 percent in Senegal, rate of employment in better jobs and internet ac- with a regional average of 24 percent in 2018— cessibility. For example, although the Republic of somewhat lower than the regional average in other Congo, Côte d’Ivoire, Gabon, Mauritania, and Ni- Sub-Saharan Africa countries, but comparable to geria exceed the regional averages for both indi- the average in low- and middle-income countries cators, they fall short on the rate of better jobs for elsewhere (figure 8.11). In all four countries in the their level of income. In such countries, efforts to “Favorable” jobs outlook group, the NEET rates are correct this shortfall would help reduce the risk of among the highest in AFW. Especially concerning underutilization of the future pipeline of skilled la- is the apparent inactivity of well-educated youth in bor. At the same time, ensuring that investments Ghana and The Gambia, where those with postbasic in skills development and tertiary education are education account for some 40 and 28 percent, re- closely tied to emerging job opportunities takes spectively, of the NEET population, compared with on added importance. just 3 percent in Senegal. Although the contrast ■ Group C (“Uncertain”). These countries do may arise from data differences, the gaps are suffi- relatively poorly on both the rate of better jobs ciently large to warrant further study to distill possi- and internet accessibility, satisfying none or at ble lessons from Senegal’s experience, and explore 87 The International Labor Organization’s definition counts persons in the “in education or in training” group if they are enrolled in formal or nonformal education or training through institutionalized arrangements, but excludes those engaged in informal learning through informal arrangements (for example, for “learning that occurs in the family, in the workplace, in the local community, and in daily life, on a self-directed, family-directed, or socially-directed basis” [UNESCO Institute for Statistics 2018]). Because of the informality of socioeconomic and institutions in most AFW economies, it is conceivable that some youth included in the NEET category may in fact be undergoing some form of training (such as informal apprenticeships) under arrangements that fail to register as institutionalized training according to the data collection protocols. 172 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Figure 8.11. Share of NEET Youth (Age 15–24) and Share with Postbasic Education, Western and Central Africa and Other Regions, 2018 or Latest Available Year (%) a/ 60 55 50 40 40 38 34 35 33 30 30 31 30 29 30 28 26 25 24 24 24 24 22 22 22 23 22 20 20 20 20 18 17 17 18 14 13 11 11 10 8 7 5 4 4 3 4 3 4 3 3 0.5 1 1 0 Congo, Rep. Cabo Verde Ghana Gambia, The Senegal Togo Liberia Cameroon Gabon Nigeria Côte d'Ivoire Mauritania Sierra Leone Benin Guinea-Bissau CAR Burkina Faso Chad Guinea Niger Mali Equatorial Guinea WCA Average Other SSA LIC, non-SSA LMIC, non-SSA UMIC, non-SSA Not Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 classified % NEET among population aged 15-24 % with post-basic education in NEET group aged 15-24 Source: International Labor Organization STAT database for the share of NEET youth age 15–24 based on the International Labor Organization’s estimate models for 2018 and analysis of the following national household surveys for the share of NEET youth with postbasic education: 2018 EHCVM for Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal, and Togo; 2018 NLSS for Nigeria; 2017 EGEP for Gabon; 2016 GLSS-VII for Ghana; 2016 HIES for Liberia; 2015 HIS for The Gambia; 2015 ENV for Côte d’Ivoire; 2014 ECAM for Cameroon; 2014 EPCV for Mauritania; 2011 SLIHS for Sierra Leone; 2011 ECOM for Congo, Rep.; and 2008 ECASEB for CAR. a/ Data for only three of the AFW countries—Sierra Leone; Congo, Rep.; and CAR—cover the five years prior to 2018. Note: AFW = Western and Central Africa; CAR = Central African Republic; LIC = low-income country; LMIC = lower-middle-income country; NEET = not in education, employment, or training; SSA = Sub-Saharan Africa; UMIC = upper-middle-income country. options for improving utilization of available human 8.3.3. Mapping the Strategy’s capital.88 Among the rest of the AFW countries, Ni- Interventions by Time Frame, Country geria has indicators that stand out. Its high NEET Context, and Education Level rate (35 percent), combined with its high share (55 percent) of the educated in the NEET population (55 Because AFW countries are highly heterogenous, they percent with postbasic education), signals a poten- will require different packages of interventions to im- tial problem worth further attention, particularly in prove education outcomes (table 8.5). In all countries, the context of a somewhat weak jobs outlook and strategic leadership and implementation capacity will skills mismatch. matter, but the actions under these rubrics are likely to differ across countries. For example, some coun- tries may need to engage in dialogue and consultation with key stakeholders to prepare the ground for craft- ing ‘win-win’ solutions and a communications plan to 88 The fact that the three countries share similar NEET rates implies that the share of employed youth is also comparable. If further data analysis reveals large differ- ences in the quality of jobs held by employed youth, the contrast provides yet another line of potentially useful inquiry. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 173 Table 8.5. Priorities by Domain and Pillar of Intervention, with Time Horizons and Emphasis on Country Type and Level of Education Domain Pillar Intervention Time Horizon Emphasis on…. (for results) Short & Long Term What Type of Countries? a/ What Level? 174 Medium Term Strengthening Strategic Leadership for Long-Term Impact Galvanize commitment to education priorities   X All countries All levels Establish governance for coherence and accountability Expand, or at least protect, funding for education   X All countries All levels   X All countries All levels Improving teaching Transform the teaching profession X   Groups 2 and 4 Primary and secondary and learning Enhance students’ readiness to learn X   Groups 2 and 4 Early childhood development Provide learning resources and educational technology X   Groups 2 and 4 All levels Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Teach at the right level and in a language children understand X   Groups 2 and 4 Primary Promote regular learning assessments X   Groups 2 and 4 Primary and secondary Expanding Reduce the cost of education X   Groups 3 and 4 Secondary opportunities Inform parents and students X   Groups 3 and 4 Secondary Investing in high-impact Shift sociocultural norms X X Groups 3 and 4 Secondary interventions for quick wins Include vulnerable groups X X Groups 3 and 4 and FCV countries All levels Ensure safe learning environments X   Groups 3 and 4 and FCV countries All levels Increase the availability and accessibility of schools X   Groups 3 and 4 Secondary Building Strengthen governance of skills provision X   Groups B and C TVET job-relevant skills Dismantle barriers to skills acquisition X X Groups B and C TVET Manage service delivery for quality and relevance X   Groups B and C TVET Foster sustainability of service delivery X X Groups B and C TVET and higher education Enhancing implementation capacity Deepen technical and managerial capacity   X All countries All levels for long-term impact Strengthen data systems X All countries All levels The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW Source: World Bank.Note: FCV = fragility, conflict, and violence; TVET = technical and vocational education and training. a/ For countries in the various groups, see figure 8.9 for basic education and figure 8.10 for postbasic education. The World Bank’s Education Portfolio in AFW sustain the support and interest of stakeholders. In for large-scale student assessment and for data other countries, funding for education is particularly collection are lacking, dysfunctional, or underfund- inadequate, so the challenge is to leverage the lead- ed. Addressing this gap according to the needs and ership of top policy makers to release this constraint resources available is essential to ensure that the as a priority. In still other countries, teacher salary capacity built under these constraints is nonetheless arrears present a binding constraint that must be ad- institutionalized and sustained over time. With regard dressed to create a supportive context for advancing to the high-impact interventions to achieve short- and the agenda to transform the teaching profession. With medium-term outcomes, some will matter more than regard to capacity building, taking stock of existing ca- others in the various country groups. But here too, the pacity and implementation plans in relation to the re- design options under each intervention will need to form agenda are necessary first steps. In some coun- be adapted to suit the availability of financial and hu- tries, for example, the organizational infrastructure man resources to sustain the investment. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 175 PHOTO BY: © 2018 BURAK BERBEROGLU/SHUTTERSTOCK. Annex 1: Implications for Education of COVID-19, Climate Change, and Cutting-Edge Innovations This annex provides more detail on the challenges and For example, recent evidence from Ethiopia shows corresponding actions needed in three cross-cutting that the coffee price shock after the 2008 global areas with implications for education: the COVID-19 financial crisis increased the school dropout prob- pandemic, climate change, and innovation.89 ability of children age 15 and older by nearly 8 per- cent (Asfaw 2018). Similarly, during the 2005–15 recession in Brazil, the risk of dropping out was 8 The Challenges Posed by COVID-19 percent higher for secondary students and 20 per- for Education cent higher for tertiary students from households that experienced an economic shock (Cerutti et al. 2019). The effects will also be unequal. In Sierra Le- COVID-19 will exacerbate many of the challenges the one, when the schools reopened after being closed region is facing. At the peak of school closures, an es- for almost an entire academic year during the Eb- timated 101 million learners across education levels ola outbreak, girls age 12–17 were 16 percentage in the region could not attend their classes in person. points less likely to be in school than boys (Bandiera Yet remote learning is highly limited by the lack of in- et al. 2019). These differential impacts also include ternet access and the paucity of learning resources higher rates of adolescent pregnancies and early delivered through broadcasts and other media. Sur- marriages: out-of-wedlock pregnancy rates for girls veys during the pandemic showed that only half the age 12–17 at the onset of the crisis increased by respondents in Sub-Saharan Africa used some sort of 7.2 percentage points. remote learning, compared with 92 percent among those in Latin America and the Caribbean. This Regional Education Strategy provides multiple in- terventions throughout the three domains to address Evidence from high- and medium-income countries the challenges posed by COVID-19. First, several of shows that COVID-19–related school closures have the interventions mentioned in the strategy are cru- had negative effects on learning outcomes and in- cial to minimize dropout rates. For instance, multi- creased inequalities (Maldonado and De Witte 2020; sectoral interventions will be key, including targeted Engzell, Frey, and Verhagen 2020; Gore et al. 2021). cash transfers or financial incentives to support the COVID-19 has also led to economic downfalls. Em- most vulnerable households with a focus on girls. In- pirical evidence from other countries shows that formation systems must be strengthened to detect economic downfalls can increase dropout rates. those at risk of dropping out. 89 As indicated earlier, fragility, conflict, and violence is another important area of cross-cutting challenges in AFW. However, as the issue has received attention in the body of the text, this annex does not discuss it further. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 177 Annex 1: Implications for Education of COVID-19, Climate Change, and Cutting-Edge Innovations To recover the inevitable learning loss, many inter- of climate change, flood responses, and water ventions are important. For instance, countries must conservation. scale up their remote-learning initiatives to create re- ■ Skills training can focus on jobs for the green silience for future shocks and remediate the learning economy. loss. In addition to radio, television, and online plat- ■ Distribution of financial incentives to attend forms, countries can used interactive voice recording schools can incorporate criteria related to cli- to reach even more students. This strategy will also mate change, such as the vulnerability of differ- support countries in their expansion of Read@Home ent populations to climate shocks. programs. ■ Training materials for teachers can incorporate content on climate change adaptation. Training Tertiary education can support school systems in can also prepare teachers to carry out evacuation the rollout of online learning. Universities can also protocols at the onset of emergencies induced by unfold focused applied research and promote local climate change. innovation in response to COVID-19, for example, by ■ Countries can invest in online, television, and ra- focusing on how to address shortages in critical sup- dio-based learning, which is in itself a climate plies and reduce supply chain disruptions. After the change adaptation activity. The installed capac- crisis, the role of technical and vocational education ity to deliver content through this format can en- and training as well as tertiary education will be es- sure continuity of education even in the case of sential to ensure that young people have the skills to climate-related emergencies that make school participate in a very depressed and demanding labor attendance physically impossible. market. Schools can be constructed to generate resilience to At the end of the day, one of the most critical policies climate-induced shocks. For instance, the buildings will be to protect education funding, which is also sup- can be located and oriented on sites according to ported by this strategy. Any attempt to reduce educa- climatic considerations to minimize solar heat; max- tion funding as a way to cut expenditures during the imize use of prevailing wind direction; and ensure crisis will be counterproductive. Education is key not protection from flash floods, soil erosion, and water only to improving the well-being of this generation of flowing downstream. children but also to generating medium- and long- term economic growth that will benefit future gen- ■ Similarly, several measures can help with mitiga- erations and putting the region on the path toward tion efforts: sustainable development. ■ Curricula can include content on climate change mitigation, such as causes and impacts of cli- mate change and activities that reduce, capture, The Implications of Climate Change or sequester greenhouse gas emissions. for Education ■ Life skills trainings can include ways to mitigate the impact of climate change, such as recy- cling materials, changing purchasing habits, and Education can play a key role in mitigating and adapt- adopting good practices such as water harvest- ing to the effects of climate change in the region, both ing and plantation drives. in the medium and short term. Mitigation efforts aim ■ Cash transfers to encourage school attendance to tackle the causes and minimize the impacts of cli- can incorporate messages to promote the use of mate change, while adaptation considers how to re- low carbon green (clean) cookstoves by benefi- duce its negative effects, especially on people. ciaries. This messaging could reduce pressure on forested areas; improve energy use, respiratory ■ In the short term, education projects could bene- health, and lack of access to education; and pro- fit from the following measures for incorporating tect the environment. adaptation as a subject: ■ Back-to-school campaigns and other educa- ■ Curricula could include content on climate tion-related campaigns can include messages change adaptation, such as the local impacts about climate change mitigation. 178 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 1: Implications for Education of COVID-19, Climate Change, and Cutting-Edge Innovations ■ Decisions on new school locations can take into instance, the Africa Centers of Excellence project has consideration alternative modes of transporta- supported many centers specialized in climate-relat- tion to reduce fuel consumption. ed issues, such as the Regional Water and Environ- ■ Construction of new schools can incorporate mental Sanitation Centre Kumasi in Ghana; the Africa ecofriendly materials and far surpass the pre- Center of Excellence in Education and Research with vailing energy efficiency standards in the project Water, Energy, and Environment Sciences and Tech- location. nologies in Burkina Faso; and the Center on Climate ■ Teacher training can include climate change Change and Agricultural Biodiversity in Côte d’Ivoire. mitigation content such as energy conservation techniques. The Potential of Cutting-Edge The procurement and distribution of educational Innovations for Education technology can strive to limit the potential damage to the environment, for example, by minimizing the use of batteries and prioritizing low-intensive energy ■ Addressing the education crisis in Western and devices. Central Africa requires pushing boundaries and testing innovative solutions that, even though they In the medium term, the contribution of education to may not yet have been evaluated, have great po- reducing climate change is undeniable. Many studies tential to catalyze change in education systems. have shown that educational attainment is the sin- These interventions will be accompanied by rigor- gle strongest predictor of climate change awareness, ous impact evaluations that will allow practitioners and an understanding of the anthropogenic cause of to learn and scale up the successful solutions. In- climate change is the strongest predictor of climate novative interventions that cut across the differ- change risk perceptions (T. Lee et al. 2015). For in- ent pillars of this strategy include the following: stance, students who attended a one-year university ■ Improving governance and education finance ef- course on such topics reduced their individual car- ficiency using blockchain. Blockchain can help bon emissions by 2.86 tons of carbon dioxide  per ensure that education financing is transparent, year (Cordero, Centeno, and Todd 2020). accountable, and reaches the intended benefi- ciaries. Tracking expenditures and responsible The role of the skills development sector is also crucial. entities using blockchain can have profound ef- Compared to non-green jobs, green occupations tend to fects on the efficiency of education finance. require higher-level cognitive skills (Consoli et al. 2016). ■ Increase access and reduce dropouts using Education is the only way to build the skills to power the machine learning. Machine learning can use transition to green and resilient economies and jobs. administrative data to predict dropouts and consequently target interventions to those at Several countries have made critical strides on this risk. Evidence from Central America shows that agenda. For instance, Korea has long offered an these models correctly identify 80 percent of exemplary curriculum on environmental issues to sixth graders who will drop out within the next secondary students, including education model year, a performance better than that of oth- schools and school-forest initiatives (S. Lee and Kim er commonly used targeting approaches and 2017). In the Philippines, the Dark Green Schools models used in the United States (Adelman et program offers a distinctive “whole institution” ap- al. 2018). proach and accreditation system for environmental ■ Shift sociocultural norms using artificial intelli- topics (Galang 2010). South Africa has launched gence and behavioral sciences. Some companies skilling for green jobs initiatives with several part- are developing bots created using artificial intelli- ners (OneWorld Sustainable Investments 2017). gence and behavioral sciences to interact with stu- dents in computer labs and shift social norms to- Finally, higher-education institutions are an import- ward girls’ education and early pregnancies. These ant innovation hub for climate change solutions. For solutions can provide an innovative way to shift Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 179 Annex 1: Implications for Education of COVID-19, Climate Change, and Cutting-Edge Innovations social norms while developing digital skills (Rascon programs and create realistic scenarios to practice n.d.).90 skills in resource-constrained settings. ■ Increase quality of education using adaptive learning. Rigorous evidence from India shows When using educational technologies, it is import- that computer-based adaptive learning platforms ant to follow the principles established in the Africa for secondary students can increase test scores Human Capital Plan:  (a) put people at the center; while being cost-effective compared to tradition- (b) adapt, recognize, and harness the actions of di- al schooling models (Muralidharan, Singh, and verse actors; (c) tailor approaches to the specific Ganimian 2019). context; (d) start in the most challenging environ- ments; (e) mitigate risks; and (f) prioritize technolo- Develop skills through virtual reality. Access to sim- gies that support teachers. (The plan is available in ulations, virtual laboratories, and virtual reality can full here: https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/ help improve the quality of training and research worldbank-africa-human-capital-plan.) 90 https://sites.google.com/view/movies-and-mobile-nigeria/home. 180 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 2: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings for AFW, 2016–21 The Public Expenditure and Financial Accountabili- they provide insights into the PFM processes across ty program provides a framework for assessing and the country that are also applicable to the sector. reporting on the strengths and weaknesses of public Four key indicators have been selected to under- financial management (PFM) using a letter-grade stand PFM bottlenecks in Western and Central Af- scoring system (A-D). The 2016 Public Expenditure rica (figure A2.1). and Financial Accountability framework has 31 in- dicators under seven broad categories: budget re- Performance information for service delivery is di- liability; transparency of public finances; manage- vided into four subcategories: performance plans for ment of assets and liabilities; policy-based fiscal service delivery, performance achieved for service strategy and budgeting; predictability and control delivery, resources received by service delivery units, in budget execution; accounting and reporting; and and performance evaluation for service delivery. Medi- external scrutiny and audit. While the framework’s um-term perspective in expenditure budgeting covers indicators are not specific to the education sector, medium-term expenditure estimates and ceilings, Figure A2.1. Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings on Key Indicators in Western and Central African Countries, 2016–21 a. Performance Information for Service Delivery b. Medium-Term Perspective in Expenditure Budgeting A A B+ B+ B B C+ C+ C C D+ D+ D D Cameroon (2017) Liberia (2021) Mali (2021) Mauritania (2020) Niger (2017) Nigeria (2019) Sierra Leone (2018) Togo (2016) Burkina Faso (2017) Chad (2018) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Guinea (2018) Senegal (2020) Gabon (2017) Ghana (2018) Cameroon (2017) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Guinea (2018) Niger (2017) Nigeria (2019) Togo (2016) Chad (2018) Liberia (2021) Mauritania (2020) Senegal (2020) Gabon (2017) Mali (2021) Sierra Leone (2018) Burkina Faso (2017) Ghana (2018) A B/B+ C/C+ D/D+ A B/B+ C/C+ D/D+ Source: Constructedc. PEFA from Ratings Public on Payroll Expenditure Controls and Financial d.accessed Accountability national assessment data Internalon Controls October on 28,Non-Salary Expenditure 2022 at https://www.pefa.org/sites/ A pefa/files/bulk_downloads/assessments_1635418156.csv. A Note: PEFA = Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability. B+ B+ (Graphic continues on next page) B B C+ C+ C C D+ D+ Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 181 D D C C D+ D+ D D Annex 2: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings for AFW, 2016–21 Cameroon (2017) Liberia (2021) Mali (2021) Mauritania (2020) Niger (2017) Nigeria (2019) Sierra Leone (2018) Togo (2016) Burkina Faso (2017) Chad (2018) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Guinea (2018) Senegal (2020) Gabon (2017) Ghana (2018) Cameroon (2017) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Guinea (2018) Niger (2017) Nigeria (2019) Togo (2016) Chad (2018) Liberia (2021) Mauritania (2020) Senegal (2020) Gabon (2017) Mali (2021) Sierra Leone (2018) Burkina Faso (2017) Ghana (2018) Figure A2.1. Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings on Key Indicators in Western and B/B+ 2016–21 Central African Countries, A C/C+ (continued) D/D+ A B/B+ C/C+ D/D+ c. PEFA Ratings on Payroll Controls d. Internal Controls on Non-Salary Expenditure A A B+ B+ B B C+ C+ C C D+ D+ D D Nigeria (2019) Burkina Faso (2017) Cameroon (2017) Gabon (2017) Guinea (2018) Liberia (2021) Mali (2021) Mauritania (2020) Niger (2017) Senegal (2020) Sierra Leone (2018) Togo (2016) Chad (2018) Ghana (2018) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Chad (2018) Gabon (2017) Nigeria (2019) Cameroon (2017) Guinea (2018) Niger (2017) Senegal (2020) Togo (2016) Burkina Faso (2017) Cote d'Ivoire (2019) Ghana (2018) Liberia (2021) Mauritania (2020) Sierra Leone (2018) Mali (2021) A B/B+ C/C+ D/D+ A B/B+ C/C+ D/D+ Source: Constructed from Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability national assessment data accessed on October 28, 2022 at https://www.pefa.org/sites/ pefa/files/bulk_downloads/assessments_1635418156.csv. Note: PEFA = Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability. alignment of strategic plans with medium-term bud- to identify control weaknesses and ghost workers. In- gets, and consistency of budgets with the previous ternal controls of non-salary expenditure measure the year’s estimates. The payroll control indicator mea- extent of segregation of duties that would allow the sures the degree of integration of payroll and person- perpetration and concealment of errors or fraud, the nel records, management of payroll changes, internal effectiveness of expenditure commitment controls, control of payroll, and the existence of payroll audits and compliance with payment rules and procedures. 182 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 3: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for Primary and Secondary Education This annex explains the criteria and underlying data Data on the gross enrollment ratio and the out-of- used to separate the 22 countries in Western and school rate.92 For most countries in the region, data Central Africa (AFW) into four groups as a first step on the gross enrollment ratio, for both the base year toward improving the responsiveness of the World (circa 2005) and the latest available year (circa Bank’s operations in primary and secondary educa- 2019), come from the United Nations Educational, tion in the region.91 Following Bashir et al. (2018), Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) In- the grouping relies on data for primary education stitute for Statistics. For Gabon, whose primary cycle to take advantage of the greater availability of stan- comprises five grades instead of the six in all the oth- dardized data for the 22 countries. The same clas- er AFW countries, gross enrollment ratio is estimated sification is used for secondary education, both to by dividing the sum of enrollments in primary school keep things simple and to sustain focus on the still and in the first grade of lower-secondary school by wide disparities across countries in primary school- the population age 6–11 years old, with six being ing. The two cycles are closely connected, and prob- the start of compulsory education in the country.93 lems of coverage and learning outcomes in second- For a few countries, household surveys are used to ary education often arise from inadequate attention estimate the gross enrollment ratio in order to align to issues in the previous cycle. more closely with the period considered here.94 The out-of-school rate is estimated from analysis of the Country classification criteria. Drawing on Bashir et latest available household surveys, supplemented by al.’s (2018) study, the following groupings combine the Institute for Statistics data for countries without two coverage-related indicators—the gross enroll- such surveys in recent years. ment ratio and the out-of-school rate—to place a country in the “Mature” or “Developing” groups (ta- Data on learning outcomes. With increasing partici- ble A3.1). Based on trends in learning outcomes, the pation in international and regional student assess- countries separate into two more groups: “Improv- ments through multiple rounds of data collection, ing” or “Lagging.” systematic learning data have become more plenti- ful in recent years, including for AFW countries.95 To 91 Primary education lasts six years in all countries except Gabon, where it lasts five years. Secondary education comprises two sub-cycles (a lower-secondary cycle of two to four years and an upper-secondary cycle of two to three years), with the two cycles combined in ways that produce a total of seven years in all countries in the region. 92 The gross enrollment ratio is the total enrollment in primary education divided by the population in the primary-school age range. The out-of-school rate is the share of children in the primary-school age range who are not attending school. 93 The Government of Gabon (2020) is the data source for these underlying parameters. 94 For Nigeria, the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey yields a gross enrollment ratio estimate for a later year than the currently available Institute for Statistics estimate, which is for 2016; for consistency, the gross enrollment ratio for the base year is also estimated from a household survey: the 2003 Nigeria De- mographic and Health Survey. For similar reasons, the gross enrollment ratio for Guinea-Bissau uses data from the 2019 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey to replace the currently available Institute for Statistics estimate, which is for 2010, and data from the 2006 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. For Sierra Leone, the earliest available Institute for Statistics data, which is for 2011, is replaced by the gross enrollment ratio estimate from the 2005 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey. 95 International standardized tests include the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Survey, the Programme in International Student Assessment (for reading in the secondary grades), and the Programme in International Literacy Survey (for reading in the primary grades). Scores from these tests are expressed in units with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation across students of 100 points. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 183 Annex 2: Public Expenditure and Financial Accountability Ratings for AFW, 2016–21 Table A3.1. Country Grouping Based on Indicators of Coverage and Learning in Primary Education Indicators Mature Group Developing Group Coverage a/ Gross enrollment ratio, 2005 High Low Gross enrollment ratio, 2019 High Low Out-of-school rate, circa 2019 Low High Learning outcomes Improving Lagging Harmonized learning outcomes, 2009–19 b/ Positive Trend Negative Trend Other assessments c/ a/ Gross enrollment ratios are “high” if 90 percent or higher and “low” if below 90 percent. Out-of-school rates are “high” if 20 percent or higher and “low” if below 20 percent. b/ Harmonized learning outcomes (HLO) show a “positive trend” if they rose in assessments conducted during 2009–19 at a rate of at least 0.02 standard deviation units; HLO show a “negative trend” if they fell at a rate of at least 0.02 standard deviation units. Changes in HLO ranging from a rate of no more than 0.02 standard deviation units to no less than -0.02 standard deviation units during 2009–19 show a “positive trend” if, in addition, the latest HLO score exceeds the AFW mean and a “negative trend” if it is at or below the regional mean. For countries with two HLO data points during 2009–19, the time lapse between assessments averages about five years. Gabon is an outlier with a gap of 13 years. Countries with short gaps between HLO data points (just two years for Ghana and Liberia) or with only one HLO score (Central African Republic, Mauritania, and Sierra Leone, all with below-average scores in the region) are classified in the “Lagging” group. c/ Mainly national learning assessments, which are especially relevant for the countries in the region not in the Program for the Analysis of Education Systems, such as Ghana and Nigeria (more details are in table A3.2). Figure A3.1. Country Groupings Based on the Gross Enrollment Ratio and Out-of-School Rate in Primary Education, Western and Central Africa, 2019 160 140 Percentage of OOS Children / GER 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Congo, Rep. Cabo Verde Ghana Cameroon Gabon Togo Sierra Leone Equatorial Guinea Niger Mali Senegal Liberia Nigeria Chad Guinea Burkina Faso Cote d'Ivoire Mauritania Gambia, The CAR Benin Guinea-Bissau Mature Developing Out-of-School (OOS) Rate Gross Enrollment Ratio, 2005 Change in GER between 2005 and 2019 Sources: Gross enrollment ratio data from analyses of UNESCO Institute for Statistics data (http://data.uis.unesco.org, accessed April 29, 2021); supplemented by more recent estimates for Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria based on household surveys. The out-of-school rate is based on original analyses of the most recent microdata from the Demographic and Health Surveys (Benin 2018, Cameroon 2018, The Gambia 2020, Guinea 2018, Liberia 2019, Mali 2018, Nigeria 2018, Senegal 2019, and Sierra Leone 2019); Living Standards Measurement Surveys (Burkina Faso 2014, Gabon 2017, and Niger 2014); Multiple Indicators Cluster Surveys (Central African Republic 2019, Chad 2019, Republic of Congo 2015, Côte d›Ivoire 2016, Ghana 2017, Guinea Bissau 2019, Mauritania 2015, and Togo 2017; and Institute for Statistics data (countries without recent household surveys: Cabo Verde and Equatorial Guinea). Note: OOS = out-of-school rate; GER = gross enrollment ratio. 184 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 3: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for Primary and Secondary Education facilitate comparisons, both across countries and over Because the 2020 edition of the HLO database does time—specifically, by putting test scores from dif- not yet incorporate the 2019 PASEC test scores and ferent assessments onto a common unit—the World its next update is scheduled only in two years’ time, Bank created a Harmonized Learning Outcome (HLO) the 2019 PASEC scores are converted to the HLO database using the methodology described in Patrinos scale using the same conversion factor as for the and Angrist (2018) and Altinok, Angrist, and Patrinos 2014 PASEC scores. The result allows for anchoring (2018). The current 2020 HLO edition of the data- the change in learning outcomes between 2014 and base contains 668 country-time observations from 2019 for the PASEC countries in the two rounds of 162 countries (World Bank 2020a).96 Because very PASEC assessments.97 For non-PASEC countries, the few AFW countries participate in international assess- HLO data tend to rely on assessments of reading in ments, their HLOs are estimated based on regional the early primary grades rather than on assessments assessment results (that is, Program for the Analy- of reading and mathematics at the end of the primary sis of Education Systems [PASEC] for Francophone cycle (table A3.2). For these countries, their place- countries in AFW) or from the results of Early Grade ment in the country groupings also draws on trends Reading Assessment (EGRA). In brief, the estimation in national learning assessments where available. method takes advantage of the fact that countries like For Nigeria, a new HLO score has been computed Ghana and Senegal took part in both international and using data from the 2019 Nigeria National Learning regional assessments as well as in EGRA; their scores Assessment, which tested students in fourth and on these tests could be used to create “conversion eighth grade. The new estimate, based on the fourth- factors” to translate a regional test score or an EGRA and eighth-grade mathematics assessment, takes score to the HLO scale (which has a mean of 500 and advantage of the fact that the assessment included standard deviation of 100). Given that assessments released items from the Trends in International Math- take place in different years in many AFW countries, ematics and Science Surveys, which provides the ba- trends are based on the average annual change in sis for estimating a conversion factor to translate the HLO scores. 2019 assessment score to the HLO scale. 96 As of this writing, an update of the database is planned every two years. 97 Up until 2006, PASEC assessments took place on a rolling schedule, not always in the same year for all countries. For Gabon, the first PASEC assessment was conduct- ed in 2006, and the second in 2019, a gap of 13 years. The score for 2006 is taken from the 2020 edition of the HLO database while the score for 2019 was computed using the method described above, thus providing two data points to compute the annual rate of progress in learning on the HLO scale. For Mauritania, only one PASEC assessment was conducted, in 2004; in the absence of other information, a conservative assumption was made to put the country in the “Lagging” group. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 185 Annex 3: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for Primary and Secondary Education Table A3.2. Harmonized Learning Outcome Scores for Countries in Western and Central Africa, 2009–19 Country Data Source a/ HLO score b/ Base year Latest available Base year Latest available Change per year Intertemporal year year (in SD units) comparability of underlying assessment Benin PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 384 421 0.07 Acceptable Burkina Faso PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 404 414 0.02 Acceptable Cabo Verde n.a. n.a. n.a. Cameroon PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 379 383 0.01 Acceptable Central African Republic n.a. EGRA-NR 2019 369 n.a. Chad PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 333 335 0.00 Acceptable Congo, Dem. Rep. PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 371 388 0.03 Acceptable Côte d’Ivoire PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 373 360 -0.03 Acceptable Equatorial Guinea n.a. n.a. n.a Gabon PASEC 2006 PASEC 2019 456 450 0.00 Acceptable Gambia, The EGRA 2011 EGRA 2016 338 353 0.03 Modest Ghana c/ TIMSS 2011 EGRA 2013 318 307 -0.05 Modest Guinea PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 408 371 -0.07 Acceptable Guinea-Bissau n.a. n.a. n.a Liberia EGRA-NR 2011 EGRA-NR 2013 343 332 -0.06 Poor Mali EGRA-NR 2009 EGRA-NR 2015 312 307 -0.01 Poor Mauritania PASEC 2004 n.a. 342 n.a. Niger PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 305 351 0.09 Acceptable Nigeria d/ EGRA-NR 2014 NLA 2019 309 342 0.07 Poor Senegal PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 412 427 0.03 Acceptable Sierra Leone n.a. EGRA 2014 316 n.a. Togo PASEC 2014 PASEC 2019 384 374 -0.02 Acceptable Source: For both the base year and the latest available year, the source is the 2020 edition of the HLO database (World Bank 2021), accessed on 3 May 2021 at https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/harmonized-learning-outcomes-hlo-database. Exceptions are the sources in the shaded cells whose data have yet to be incorporated into this database. For countries with 2019 PASEC data, the scores were converted to the HLO scale using the same conversion factor as for the 2014 PASEC scores. For Nigeria, results from the 2019 Nigeria National Learning Assessment were converted to the HLO scale. b/ The HLO score is on a scale with a mean of 500 and a standard deviation of 100. c/ Although Ghana’s TIMSS results in 2003, 2007, and 2011 (which assessed eighth-grade students) show a consistent positive trend, the latest result for 2011 remains below the international mean. National assessments in the primary grades—in 2013, 2016, and 2018—suggest that learning has stagnated at low levels. This pattern, as well as the fact that the HLO score has declined (albeit based on different source data for base year and latest available year), suggests that the country belongs in the “Lagging” group. d/ Classification for Nigeria in the “Lagging” group is based on its HLO score being below the regional average and the fact that Nigeria lacks strictly comparable learning assessment data in two points in time. The latest HLO score is based on NLA 2019. HLO have also been computed for Nigeria using EGRA in 2010 and 2014, but these assessments were based on samples that are not representative at the national level. The HLO score based on 2010 EGRA-NR was 325. This placement in the “Lagging” group is consistent with the pattern of relative stagnation in the five-yearly Nigeria Education Data Surveys conducted by the Nigerian Population Commission. The surveys test those age 6–15 for literacy, with respondents deemed literate if they are able to read one or more words in English or one of three national languages. Note: EGRA = Early Grade Reading Assessment; EGRA-NR = Early Grade Reading Assessment (non-nationally representative sample); n.a. = not available; NLA = National Learning Assessment; PASEC = Program for the Analysis of Education Systems; SD = standard deviation; TIMSS = Trends in International Mathematics and Science Survey. 186 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 4: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for TVET and Higher Education This annex explains the criteria and underlying Country classification criteria. After considering various data used to separate the 22 AFW countries into options and for reasons explained in chapter 7, two crite- three groups for the purpose of assessing pro- ria were chosen that best capture the potential demand gramming priorities for technical and vocational in AFW for higher-level skills.99 The first is the Better Em- education and training (TVET) and higher educa- ployment Rate, an indicator used in the World Bank’s tion in the region. As with the country classifica- Human Capital Project and in its Jobs for Economic tion for basic education, it relies on simple, parsi- Transformation initiative. The second is the number of monious indicators and readily available data that unique mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 inhab- capture, albeit imperfectly, the demand for bet- itants. Together, these indicators provide a transparent ter-educated and better-trained workers who are basis for separating the 22 AFW countries into country supplied mainly through formal TVET and higher groups differentiated by the prospects for employment education.98 The classification is thus only a first growth in the more modern sectors of the economy and, step for crafting high-impact interventions for by implication, the demand for related skills. each AFW country. In every setting, more detailed information, whenever available, must be mobi- Indicators, data sources, and criteria for classification. lized to adapt the interventions to local needs and Table A4.1 below summarizes the key indicators and conditions. data sources. AFW countries are grouped in three Table A4.1. Indicators and Data for Country Classification for TVET and Higher Education in Western and Central Africa Indicator Definition Data Source Better Employment Rate Number employed in better jobs divided by working age popula- World Bank Jobs Group’s diagnostic and data tion (age 15–64). site: https://datatopics.worldbank.org/JobsDiag- nostics/; supplemented by analysis of household Better jobs include non-agricultural employees (namely, wage surveys for Nigeria and Guinea-Bissau. earners) and employers, but exclude those working “[in] subsis- tence own-account/family agriculture, [as] small scale traders, and landless agricultural laborers” (World Bank 2020a, 115).100 Internet access “Unique” mobile-broadband subscriptions per 100 inhabitants See note below. Per capita gross national As per World Bank Work Development Indicator World Development Indicators: https://data. income worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD Source: AFW Education Strategy team. Note: World Bank estimates based on two data sources: number of unique mobile broadband subscriptions from GSMA (Global System for Mobile Communication Association), accessed with subscription at https:/www.gsmaintelligence.com/data/; and population data from United Nations Population (2019), accessed at https:// population.un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/. 98 As elsewhere, AFW’s TVET and higher-education institutions, especially in the public sector, are nascent and do not always provide excellent programs that equip their graduates with market- and job-relevant skills. AFW countries are thus working to improve them as part of the effort to develop the system to help young people acquire such skills. 99 Options considered and discarded, mainly because of the lack of minimally reliable data for most of the 22 AFW countries, include enrollment-related indicators for TVET and higher education as well as population-related indicators for those in the not in employment, education or training category. Western and Central Africa Education Strategy 187 Annex 4: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for TVET and Higher Education steps. In the first step, the countries are separated Figure A4.1. Relationship between Better into two groups simply on the Better Employment Employment Rate and Gross National Income Rate in relation to income: in one group, the Better per Capita across AFW Countries, 2020 Employment Rate exceeds the rate predicted for a country at its level of income, while in the other, the CPV .3 Better Employment Rate is no higher than the pre- dicted level. In the second step, these countries are Better Employment Rate (BER) .25 further grouped according to their Better Employ- GHA GAB ment Rate in relation to the regional average (figure .2 A4.1). The third step is to separate the countries into COG GMB CMR two groups based on the mobile subscription rate: MRT .15 SEN NGA Average WCA BER the first group of countries has a rate above the re- CIV LBR .1 gional average, and the other group of countries has SLE BFA CAF TGO BEN MLI a rate no higher than the average. GNB GIN .05 NER TCD 6 7 8 9 Country classification. With the foregoing distinc- Log of GNI per Capita tions, AFW countries fall into three groups as follows Resource Poor Resource Rich with respect to likely jobs outlook for TVET and high- er-education graduates: favorable, less favorable, Source: Analysis of World Development Indicator for GNI per capita and Better Employment Rate data are from the International Labor Organization and JOIN and uncertain (figure 8.10). In the favorable group database (accessed at https://datatopics.worldbank.org/JobsDiagnostics/) supplemented by analysis of household surveys for Nigeria (NLSS 2018) and are countries where all three conditions are satis- Guinea-Bissau (EHCVM 2018). fied: the Better Employment Rate exceeds the rate Note: BER = Better Employment Rate; GNI = gross national income; WCA = Western and Central Africa. predicted based on per capita income, the Better Employment Rate exceeds the regional average, and mobile broadband subscriptions per 100 in- group with an uncertain outlook, at most only one habitants also exceeds the regional average. In the of these criteria prevails; as figure 8.10 indicates, group assessed as having a less favorable outlook, most countries in this final group satisfy none of the only two of these three criteria prevail. And in the three criteria. Figure A4.2. “Unique” Mobile-Broadband Subscriptions per 100 Inhabitants, 2020 60% 51% 50% 45% 40% 38% 35% 34% 32% 32% 32% 31% 30% 28% 28% 27% 23% 21% 21% 20% 18% 20% 17% 16% 12% 12% 10% 7% 0% Congo, Rep. Cabo Verde Ghana Côte d'Ivoire Nigeria Mauritania Gabon Senegal Liberia Togo Sierra Leone Gambia, The Burkina Faso Benin Cameroon Guinea-Bissau Mali Guinea Equatorial Guinea Chad Niger Central African Republic Source: Digital Economy for Africa – GSMA SIMs Per Unique Subscriber (Feb 2021) / United Nations Population (2020). 188 Western and Central Africa Education Strategy Annex 4: Country Grouping Criteria and Data for TVET and Higher Education Table A4.2. Country Classification for TVET and Higher Education, Western and Central Africa, 2020 Country Better Employment Rate Internet access exceeds Country classification AFW average Exceeds predicted value for Exceeds the AFW average income level Cabo Verde √ √ √ Favorable Gambia, The √ √ √ Ghana √ √ √ Senegal √ √ √ Gambia, The a/ √ √ √ Less favorable Cameroon √ √ Liberia √ √ Togo √ √ Congo, Rep. √ √ Côte d’Ivoire √ √ Gabon √ √ Mauritania √ √ Nigeria √ √ CAR √ Uncertain Sierra Leone √ Benin Burkina Faso Chad Guinea Guinea-Bissau Mali Niger Equatorial Guinea No data No data Unclassified Source: Analysis of data on rate of employment in “better jobs” and internet access. Note: The check marks indicate that the condition in the column heading has been met. a/ Although The Gambia meets all three classification conditions, it nonetheless appears in the “Less favorable” group. 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