CONTENTS Acronyms .................................................................................................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................. v Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................................. vi SECTION I: CAMEROON COUNTRY CONTEXT .......................................................................................................... 1 Topographic and ethnic diversity ........................................................................................................................... 1 Economic and political context ............................................................................................................................... 1 Regional conflict and migration ............................................................................................................................. 2 A snapshot of challenges related to SSI in Cameroon .................................................................................. 3 Rationale for a Social Sustainability and Inclusion Diagnostic for Cameroon ..................................... 4 SECTION 2: STRUCTURE OF THE SSI DIAGNOSTIC .............................................................................................. 5 SSI Profile ....................................................................................................................................................................... 5 Legal and Institutional Framework ....................................................................................................................... 5 Social Dimensions of Climate Change ................................................................................................................. 6 SSI dataset ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Diagnostic Roadmap .................................................................................................................................................. 6 SECTION 3: THE STATE OF SSI IN CAMEROON ..................................................................................................... 7 Challenges faced by vulnerable populations .................................................................................................... 7 Youth ........................................................................................................................................................................... 7 Women........................................................................................................................................................................ 8 ii Rural areas .............................................................................................................................................................. 9 Refugees and IDPs ............................................................................................................................................... 11 Conflict-affected areas ........................................................................................................................................ 12 How does climate change intersect with social inclusion in Cameroon? .............................................. 13 SECTION 4— TREND ANALYSIS AND BENCHMARKING .................................................................................... 15 Trends analysis show rising labor informality, decrease in Cameroonians’ participation in civic live, and regression in societal attitude towards women empowerment .............................................. 15 Benchmarking Cameroon globally and against Sub-Saharan countries show the urgency to promote financial inclusion and inclusive labor opportunities .................................................................. 17 Cameroon trails behind its SSA and global peers with respect to social accountability ................. 18 Cameroonians are the most food insecure and have a high reliance on remittances ...................... 18 SECTION 5— POLICY PATHWAYS FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION .............................. 19 Social Inclusion in Cameroon — the current state of affairs ...................................................................... 19 Social Sustainability and Inclusion in Cameroon — the way forward ..................................................... 19 Supporting political and economic decentralization ............................................................................... 19 Developing efficient and accountable institutions .................................................................................... 20 Strengthening policymaking on SSI through institutional cohesion and stakeholder inclusion .... 20 Investing in social cohesion and resilience through local action ....................................................... 21 Promoting inclusion of women and youth through legal and policy reforms ............................... 21 iii ACRONYMS CAR Central African Republic CEMAC Central African Economic and Monetary Community CPDM Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement DHS Demographic & Health Surveys ECAM Enquête Camerounaise Auprès des Ménages (Household Survey) FFS Farmer Field Schools FHHs Female-Headed Households GDP Gross Domestic Product IDP Internally Displaced People MINAS Ministry of Social Affairs MINPROFF Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and the Family NDC Nationally Determined Contributions NDS National Development Strategy NWSW North West & South West PwD Persons with Disabilities SGBV Sexual and Gender Based Violence SOGI Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSI Social Sustainability and Inclusion WDI World Development Indicators WMO World Meteorological Organization iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The report was prepared by a World Bank team led by Jana Elhorr and consisting of Maria Waqar, Chalwyn Caulker, Natalia Pecorari, Alim Ousmanou, Mohamadou Oumarou, Barrister Felix Agbor Nkongho, and Alex Zito. The report has benefitted from invaluable inputs from the following colleagues in the wider WBG task team: Issa Tiati, Nabil Chaherli, Jose Cuesta, Sonya Sultan, Raju Singh, and Cliff Cortez. The team is indebted to WBG senior leadership and management for their guidance and support throughout the process. Special thanks to Abdoulaye Seck (Country Director, Cameroon Country Unit), Louise Cord (Global Director, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), Simeon Ehoui (Regional Director, Africa West), Senait Assefa (Practice Manager, Social Sustainability and Inclusion), and Keiko Kubota (Operations Manager, Cameroon Country Unit). Throughout the development of the report, parts of the analysis benefited from various feedback and consultations conducted for other World Bank Group products mainly the Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostic and the Climate Change Development Report. The team would like to extend its gratitude and thanks for all the support and inputs. All maps used in the report have been cleared by the World Bank Maps Clearance team as of January 23rd, 2023. The report has been designed by Cybil Maradza. v CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Cameroon is experiencing structural constraints refugees, the paucity of quantitative and qualitative and shocks that underscore the importance data made it difficult to analyze challenges of of prioritizing social inclusion in development other vulnerable groups. The Diagnostic initially interventions. These constraints include (i) an attempted to examine ethnicity as a dimension for economic sector that is largely rural and informal, inclusion/exclusion, but this task proved to be highly ii) development that is uneven and not inclusive, iii) challenging given that Cameroon has over 200 ethnic internal conflict, and iv) climatic hazards. These factors groups. Furthermore, quantitative data for persons reinforce each other in specific geographic areas and with disabilities (PwD) and Sexual Orientation and regions to intensify fragility and isolation. Similarly, Gender Identity (SOGI) are largely unavailable. these structural constraints and shocks also interact with social identities — such as gender and age — to WHAT ARE THE SPECIFIC VULNERABILITIES OF compound social exclusion and marginalization. THESE GROUPS AND HOW DO THEY INTERSECT? The Social Sustainability and Inclusion (SSI) Diagnostic The Diagnostic adopts a comparative approach to (the Diagnostic hereafter) is aimed to understand analyze levels of inclusion for the four identified the dynamics of social inclusion in Cameroon. The vulnerable groups. The four groups are youths Diagnostic presented below is a synthesis of four distinct (15-24), women, populations in rural areas and outputs: 1) the SSI profile which uses a multidimensional populations in conflict or crisis areas. and intersectional analytical framework to assess vulnerabilities among different groups; 2) an analysis Youth assessing the effectiveness of the legal and institutional framework with respect to SSI issues, 3) a harmonized Youth have a higher likelihood of being unemployed dataset comprising all the relevant indicators relating and underemployed compared to older cohorts. A to the SSI framework used to benchmark and analyze sluggish demographic transition, in addition to the trends for vulnerable groups within Cameroon; and 4) a failure to shift to high-productivity non-agricultural note on the social dimensions of climate change. Since sectors, has created a mismatch between the ‘youth the Diagnostic’s rationale and findings are aligned bulge’ and available employment opportunities. In with Cameroon’s National Development Strategy 2014, 42% of the youth respondents claimed to be 2020-2030 (NDS30). It can guide the government in employed compared to 82% of older adults. While designing policies and interventions in collaboration underemployment is rampant among working-age with its development partners. population in Cameroon, young people are more likely to be underemployed compared to older WHICH VULNERABLE POPULATIONS DOES THE cohorts. Young people have a higher likelihood of DIAGNOSTIC FOCUS ON? being both visibly underemployed (work less than 40 hours a week), and invisibly underemployed (work The Diagnostic analyzes multidimensional and for less than the national minimum wage). Out of the intersectional vulnerabilities for four main 42% employed youth, a remarkable 40% did unpaid groups: youth, women, residents of rural areas, work compared to 7% of older adults. Doing unpaid and residents of conflict-affected areas. While work is common among young people and is directly the Diagnostic includes limited analysis related to associated with working poverty in this group. vi EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Rampant youth unemployment and underemployment compared to men, and (ii) lower access to maternal is driven by the lack of relevant skills among young healthcare services compared to countries in the people and the preference for older job candidates same income bracket. In 2016, women’s enrolment by employers by in the public sector. Qualitative rates for secondary school were 10-percentage evidence discusses in the SSI Profile highlights that points behind those for men (55% vs. 65%). Moreover, youth unemployment is driven by inadequate education women lack access to maternal and child health and skills among the youth and their lack of political services facilities. Although the proportion of births connections to secure government jobs. Moreover, the attended by skilled health staff is higher in Cameroon youth are also likely to face discrimination in the job than the aggregate for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) market as employers, especially in the country’s public – 69 vs. 61% – the figure is lower compared to the sector, prefer older employees. aggregate for countries in the same lower-middle income bracket (69 vs. 75%). Similarly, the maternal Young people are also more withdrawn from civic mortality ratio is remarkably higher than the participation and public life compared to older aggregate figure for lower-middle income countries cohorts on account of the difficulty they face in (529 vs. 253 deaths per 100,000 live births). obtaining identity documents. Compared to other age cohorts, young respondents reported low participation Compared to men, women also face higher levels in community organizations in 2018 (32.7% vs. 51% of exclusion from markets and their livelihoods and 56.75% for the national average and adults are more exposed to the detrimental effects of respectively). Overall, reports of difficulty in obtaining climate change. These disparities are especially identification have risen sharply (from 28% in 2015 acute in rural areas. Women have relatively higher to 58.70% in 2018) and are higher among youth rates of unemployment (nearly 30% vs. 14%) and (65.77%) compared to adults (56.06%). Qualitative higher informality rates (88% vs. 78%) compared data confirmed these trends regarding lack of access to men in 2014. Women also have less access to to identification documents, specifically highlighting financial and productive assets compared to men. In issues obtaining a national identity card (issued 2017, 66% of women had access to bank accounts through a central office in Yaoundé). compared to 76% of men. Furthermore, 71% of women are engaged in informal agricultural labor, Women and only 30% of them held jobs in nonagricultural fields in 2018. As providers of subsistence crops for Women in Cameroon have low human capital as their households, women are particularly sensitive to reflected in their (i) lower educational attainment the climatic fluctuations that result in food insecurity vii CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION and price hikes. Moreover, women’s lower human harassment and enhance their entrepreneurship and capital, especially in rural areas (see discussion property ownership. However, qualitative evidence below), hinders their capacity to adapt their crops shows that gender norms continue to subvert and crop calendars to the changing climate. these measures; women parliamentarians lack substantive power to change policy and employers Women also lack agency and decision-making in male-dominated fields continue to discriminate power in private and public spaces. The findings against women. of Demographic & Health Surveys (DHS) highlight that woman in Cameroon lack the ability to control Populations in rural areas resources and make decisions related to their well-being inside their households. Moreover, the There is a remarkable rural-urban divide in access prevalence of adolescent marriage also alludes to to infrastructure and health services. In 2014, rural the lack of agency young women have in their lives. areas were worse off than urban areas with regards Nearly one third of women ages 15-24 were married to basic sanitation (44.05% vs. 82.2%), safe drinking or living in union (32.4%) and nearly 38% of young water (22.7% vs. 61%) and provision of electricity women reported experiencing spousal violence in (23.03% vs 93.3%). Similarly, figures for women’s 2018. While women hold formal positions of authority enrolment in secondary schooling and their access in the parliament, their substantive power to change to maternal and child health services are also lower public policy remains low. in rural areas. The Far North, North, Adamawa, and East regions have the lowest availability of skilled Patriarchal gender norms are correlated with antenatal care for women. women’s low human capital, particularly in rural areas. In developing countries, women’s low rates for Inadequate access to services compounds educational attainment are often associated with (i) the vulnerability of rural households, undermining gendered division of labor, which disproportionately their ability to cope with external shocks. Residents encumbers girls with household chores, and (ii) of rural areas are heavily involved in informal adolescent marriage and pregnancy which make girls agricultural work, which makes them particularly drop out of school. In Cameroon’s rural areas, where vulnerable to exogenous shocks. For instance, patriarchal norms are more entrenched, women climate-related stressors affect agricultural harvest have lower educational attainment and lower access of rural residents, reducing their food security and to maternal and child health services compared to making their livelihoods increasingly precarious. their urban counterparts. Rates of births delivered The Early Famine Warnings Systems categorizes by skilled attendants were between 39.6% and 47.4% the rural Far North as stressed in the context of in the predominantly rural northern regions, 58.2% food security till May 2022. These vulnerabilities are in rural East region, compared to 80.4% to 99.4% in further aggravated by poor access to basic services. other regions. The provision of clean drinking water is well below the national average of 79.22% in the northern parts Gender norms also subvert formal legal and of Adamawa (32.82%, 2014), North (29.18%) and Far institutional provisions to empower women in North (24.65%). professional and public spaces. For instance, the gender quota in Cameroon’s parliament has Rural areas are also the most exposed to climate significantly advanced women’s formal political risks. The rural Far North which comprises representation — individual female parliamentarians Cameroon’s Sudano-Sahelian agro-ecological have increased from a mere 7 in 2002 to 61 in 2020. zone is the most climate vulnerable region of the Moreover, between 2015-2020, the country adopted country. This area is vulnerable to experiencing heat laws that seek to protect women against sexual waves, floods, and droughts, and agriculture which viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY is dominated by rainfed crops is the most affected and agricultural production) and higher consumer sector (see figure 4 below). Rainfall intensity has prices of basic food commodities such as maize and been increasing in the Far North, causing land beans (due to supply chain disruptions), inflicting erosion, decreased soil fertility, and crop inundation. a heavy toll on agricultural activities, and thus on In addition, rainfed crop yields have already been cut households’ welfare and the most vulnerable. in half, and crop net income is anticipated to plummet by 90% by 2100 (World Meteorological Organization Two separate types of conflict exist in the Far North: (WMO) 2021). During 2021, the area experienced a (i) Militant strikes by Boko Haram plague areas prolonged drought which resulted in acute water bordering Nigeria and Chad, and (ii) Communal scarcity due to the drying of reservoirs. violence rooted in the perennial herder-farmer/ fishermen is linked to resource scarcity aggravated State policies have aggravated the rural-urban by climate change. The Boko Haram insurgency, cleavage in development. Like the development which dates back to 2009, has plagued the Lake strategy of the colonial era, state-led development Chad countries, including Cameroon. Although in Cameroon is focused on exploitation of the coastal President Paul Biya claimed in 2018 that Cameroon areas and production of export crops in the southern had defeated the group after a four-year struggle,² regions. As a result, the rural northern areas have attacks by the group have escalated since 2020.³ been especially neglected with respect to public Moreover, the prolonged drought in 2021 created spending on infrastructure, health, and education. water shortages that ultimately sparked violence In addition, an increase in civil conflict in the among Arab Choa herders and Musgum farmers and northern regions has hampered plans of building fishermen, triggering a mass movement of people infrastructure and further aggravated economic across the border to Chad. exclusion for rural northern populations. Political conflict and civil unrest in Cameroon and Populations in areas of conflict and crisis its neighboring countries has triggered internal displacement of people within Cameroon, and mass Cameroon is facing violence in multiple regions, migration of people to and from the country. As of which poses additional regional constraints to June 2021, Cameroon had over 2 million displaced inclusion. The Far North has suffered the costs of people, which included Internally Displaced People the Boko Haram insurgency, while the socio-political (IDPs), refugees and returnees. As of June 2021, the crisis in the North-West and Nouth-West (NWSW) country hosted 450,000 refugees and asylum seekers, regions is another source of strain. It is estimated including about 325,000 refugees from the Central that the Western and Northern crises have caused African Republic and almost 118,000 from Nigeria.⁴ a significant contraction of the local economies.¹ As Moreover, the recent communal fighting in the Far North over 70 percent of the North-West and South-West has caused hundreds of thousands to flee to Chad. In regions’ population relies on agriculture for their December 2021, a reported 100,000 crossed over to livelihoods, this contraction has led to combined Chad to flee the violence and 9 out of 10 Cameroonian effects of lower incomes (due to reduced employment refugees in Chad were women and children.⁵ ¹ World Bank. 2020. The Anglophone Crisis in Cameroon: Assessing the Economic and Social Impacts and Implications for the World Bank Group. Washington, DC: World Bank. ² https://www.arabnews.com/node/1380086/world ³ https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north ⁴ https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2021 ⁵ https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2022/1/61ea74c34/unhcr-seeks-us596-million-100000-displaced-violence- cameroons-far-north.html ix CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION law, and supersede domestic laws in cases where the two codes are in conflict. However, as noted both by expert interviews and by the United Nations committees reviewing periodic reports related to these conventions, laws that specify how these conventions are to be applied do not exist. Therefore, evidence is lacking that these conventions are applied both comprehensively and consistently. Furthermore, key stakeholders, including judges, lawyers, law enforcement, and parliamentarians, are likely to lack sufficient knowledge of these conventions and their implications for the legal framework in Cameroon. Several ministries have overlapping mandates on social inclusion and their enforcement In addition to the political unrest, the Far North and mechanisms are unclear, creating a challenge NWSW are also vulnerable to climate-induced food for practically implementing laws and policies and economic insecurities. The Far North is heavily related to SSI. For instance, free education for PwDs reliant on subsistence farming and food crops, which is an example of an issue affected by overlapping are negatively affected by climate volatility. Climatic mandates. Both the Ministry of Social Affairs and shocks in the Far North disrupt food supply and the Ministry of Secondary Education are supposed to cause fluctuations in food prices. Crop devastation coordinate on this issue. However, poor coordination and stock depletion, and the ensuing hike in food and implementation of educational provisions for prices, aggravate food insecurity in the region. PwDs is reflected in their low enrolments rates for Climatic hazards reduce output of cash crops that schooling — while 2.9 million people in Cameroon support the regional economy of the NWSW regions. live with disabilities, only 0.19% of them are enrolled In the NWSW, the production of lucrative cash in school. Moreover, enforcement mechanisms of crops, including bananas, rubber, cocoa and coffee, laws related to workplace and employment-related generates revenues that can potentially attenuate discrimination are nebulous. the negative impact of disruptions in productivity of food crops. Yet, low agricultural productivity is WHAT ARE THE TOP PRIORITIES FOR GREATER devastating for this region since the majority of SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION IN livelihoods are dependent on the integrated value CAMEROON? chains and secondary manufacturing associated with cash crop production. Supporting political and economic decentralization DOES THE LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK CREATE AN ENABLING ENVIRONMENT FOR There is an urgent need to decentralize the polity ADDRESSING VULNERABILITY? to promote local engagement, accountability, and create an inclusive and durable political settlement. Although Cameroon’s legal framework for social The legacy of excessive centralization has created inclusion hinges on international conventions, the political and socioeconomic exclusion, fostering violent latter are not included in domestic legal codes and reprisals against the state, and worsened outcomes mechanisms for their implementation are unclear. of social accountability. Devolution of power which According to Article 45 of the 1996 Constitution, all increases political autonomy and decision-making such international conventions carry the force of at the local level, has the potential to (i) rebuild trust x EXECUTIVE SUMMARY and accountability between the state and disaffected ministries, causing subsequent policies to also be communities, and (ii) improve service delivery to fragmented. In contexts of high levels of exclusion, populations in remote, underdeveloped areas. such as Cameroon, policymaking across all governing institutions must aim to minimize vulnerability and Decentralization should be substantive and not marginalization. This can only be achieved through simply a formal measure to appease critics. The inter-ministerial collaboration and collective action, government has repeatedly expressed its intention which minimizes duplication and redundancy. to devolve power. However, it has fallen short of achieving this substantively. The country’s first-ever Effective, data-driven policymaking depends on regional elections, held in 2020, entailed indirect meaningful inclusion of all stakeholders, including voting by a pro-regime electoral college. As expected, local communities and their representatives. As the ruling Cameroon People’s Democratic Movement discussed in Section I, Cameroon is characterized (CPDM) swept these elections, affirming the regime’s by geographic, ethnic, and linguistic diversity. Thus, unwillingness to decentralize the polity. Moreover, effective legal and policy interventions warrant the country’s vital exports — many of which are the involvement of local communities and their produced in the restive NWSW— continue to be representatives. A platform that brings together all controlled by the state-owned CDC. the ministries, development and private partners, and local CSOs can be particularly helpful for not Developing efficient and accountable institutions just facilitating collaborative and participatory policymaking, but also in disseminating knowledge Decentralization can also be an important step in on best practices. Moreover, collecting data in fragile creating responsive and accountable institutions and conflict areas in Cameroon’s can be challenging that effectively deliver services at the local level. and potentially dangerous. Data is also likely to The centralized state bureaucracy cannot effectively get outdated quickly due to the fluid political and address the multiple, intersectional challenges afflicting social context. Nevertheless, there is a pressing Cameroon’s vulnerable populations. With 70 Members of need for robust, geographically representative data government for 36 line ministries, the current centralized for analyzing trends related to vulnerability and bureaucratic setup is (i) bloated and inefficient, and marginalization. This data can only be collected if (ii) is also often plagued by inertia due to overlapping local communities are included. jurisdictions and poor discipline.⁶ Devolving power to lower tiers of government can improve service Investing in social cohesion and resilience through delivery and accountability, and accelerate state local action responsiveness to complex local challenges, such as the rehabilitation of IDPs and refugees. The state needs to play a proactive role in strengthening local leaders and civil society to Strengthening policymaking on SSI through build solidarity and promote social cohesion in institutional cohesion and stakeholder inclusion the populace. Local authority figures and traditional leaders can play an important role as mediators of Policymaking related to social sustainability and peace, especially in rural areas. Moreover, control inclusion at the national level requires institutional and allocation of resources in a participatory cohesion and cooperation. As highlighted in and inclusive manner can mitigate grievances of the section above, mandates related to social marginalized groups, such as refugees and Muslims, sustainability and inclusion are fragmented among thereby weakening potent drivers of conflict. ⁶ World Bank, 2016. Cameroon: Systematic Country Diagnostic, pg. 70. xi CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION Similarly, climate action that builds community people and creating jobs for them, are quite limited. resilience should prioritize vulnerable regions and The government needs to allocate greater resources marginalized groups. The government should examine to these programs and also expand their geographic local climate adaptation strategies to identify parochial scope (many of these programs focus on the Center barriers to implementing national-level climate region). Moreover, recent efforts to support women’s change policies and programs. Localized climate economic participation through laws relating to assessments, particularly those conducted in climate- sexual harassment and childcare benefits, should be vulnerable areas such as the Far North and NWSW, supplemented by efforts to change informal sexism should inform the Nationally Determined Contributions and gender-based discrimination at the workplace. (NDCs). Additionally, the government should invest in For this purpose, the capacity and resources of the regional learning and statistical systems to collect Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and the Family better quality data on climate-related conflict. There (MINPROFF) and Ministry of Social Affairs (MINAS) is also a need to assess the barriers that constrain should be strengthened. marginalized populations, such as women and youth, from benefiting from investments in climate-smart Since the majority of women and young people are agriculture and infrastructure. engaged in informal work, the government must address issues plaguing the informal sector. As Efforts to increase social adaptation to climate discussed in this report, women and youth tend to be variability should focus on enhancing women’s agency self-employed in the informal agricultural sector. Yet at the community level. African countries in general, informal work does not have legal status in Cameroon. including Cameroon, are failing to take advantage of There is a need to draft laws to address issues the unique knowledge, skills, and perspectives that pertaining to (i) protection of informal workers —their women have regarding climate adaptation. Women work conditions and earnings etc., and (ii) productivity are particularly knowledgeable about local sowing of microenterprises, which is related to their ability to seasons, traditional multi-cropping practices, wild access loans and microfinance and provide competitive edible plants, and livestock management. They also training and capacity building to their employees. play major roles in disaster recovery and resilience. Consequently, there is a critical need to develop gender- Moreover, political decentralization should aim to responsive policies that remove barriers to women’s enhance local representation of women and youth advancement and utilize their unique knowledge and to facilitate their participation in public life. The skills. These may include (i) providing greater support to intersectional nature of the challenges women and women’s associations to strengthen women’s agency, youth face due to regional disparities in development (ii) targeting female farmers by creating Farmer and civil unrest, make it difficult for them to influence Field Schools (FFS), and/or developing rural advisory policy at the national level. Therefore, devolution of services to assist women farmers, and (iv) increasing power to lower tiers of government should facilitate women’s access to cultivated land and improving their their participation in community life and enhance plot management. their ability to affect public policy. Promoting inclusion of women and youth through legal and policy reforms Legal and policy measures to enhance economic participation of women and youth should account for existing trends pertaining to their economic exclusion. Although youth unemployment is rampant, programs for enhancing skills of young xii SECTION 1: CAMEROON COUNTRY CONTEXT TOPOGRAPHIC AND ETHNIC DIVERSITY ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL CONTEXT Cameroon is known as ‘Africa in miniature’ because of its topographical diversity. The Cameroon is a lower-middle-income country and country is characterized by remarkable variation is also the largest economy in the Central African in landscapes, ranging from the northern plains, Economic and Monetary Community (CEMAC). central and western highlands, and coastal regions The country is rich in natural resources, with vast and tropical forests in the south. The semi-arid north reserves of oil and gas, mineral ores, and timber. is Cameroon’s hottest and driest region, experiencing Moreover, it produces some of the world’s most temperatures of 27-30°C in the warmer sessions lucrative agricultural products, including coffee, and colder seasons respectively, and receiving less cocoa, maize, and cassava. Cameroon’s top exports than 100 mm of rainfall. In contrast, temperatures in 2020 were crude Petroleum ($1.46B), cocoa vary from 20-25°C in the southern region, and Beans ($590M), petroleum Gas ($234M), sawn wood this variation is largely dependent on altitude. The ($400M), and rough wood ($194M).¹⁰ With a GDP per wettest regions in the south receive 400 mm of capita of $1537 in 2020, Cameroon produces 45% rainfall on average.⁷ The rich volcanic soil at the of CEMAC’s nominal GDP in 2020.¹¹ foot of Mount Cameroon in the southwest enables extensive agriculture.⁸ Despite its remarkable ethnic, linguistic, and geographic diversity, Cameroon has a centralized The country’s topographical diversity corresponds to state system which lacks political autonomy and its remarkable ethnic diversity. There are 250 ethnic economic liberalization. In 1961, the northern groups in the country which can be roughly divided into portion of the British Cameroons became integrated five cultural groupings: (i) The Western Highlanders in Nigeria while the rest was unified with the which include Bamileke, Bamoun, and many other former French Cameroon to form an independent small groups, (ii) people of the coastal tropical forests, which include Bassa and Duala, (iii) people in the southern tropical forest area, including the Beti, Bulu, Fang, and Bakas, and (iv) Muslim populations residing in the Sudano-Sahelian region and central highlands, which includes the Fulani, and (v) the Kirdi in the northern desert and central highlands.⁹ ⁷ https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/africa/cameroon ⁸ Mbaku, John Mukum, 2005. Culture and customs of Cameroon. Greenwood Publishing Group. pg. ⁹ Mbaku, John Mukum, 2005. Culture and customs of Cameroon. Greenwood Publishing Group. pg. 2 ¹⁰ https://oec.world/en/profile/country/cmr?redirect=true ¹¹ Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostics, 2022. 1 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION state. The federal state incorporated the English- agriculture for their livelihoods, this contraction speaking region into a centralized state ruled by has led to combined effects of lower incomes Francophone elites who concentrated power in (due to reduced employment and agricultural the capital, Yaoundé.¹² Since then Cameroon has production) and higher consumer prices of basic essentially operated as a single-party state. Paul food commodities such as maize and beans (due Biya, the current president of the country, came to supply chain disruptions), inflicting a heavy toll to power in 1982 and is currently one of Africa’s on agricultural activities, and thus on households’ longest-serving presidents. Cameroon’s state-driven welfare and the most vulnerable. development model has its roots in the colonial-era private companies that exploited local raw materials Two separate types of conflict exist in the Far North: without investing in local development.¹³ (i) Militant strikes by Boko Haram plague areas bordering Nigeria and Chad, and (ii) Communal The first ever regional elections held in 2020 violence rooted in the perennial herder-farmer/ were a good start to initiate a genuine process for fishermen is linked to resource scarcity aggravated decentralization and inclusion, but early results by climate change. The Boko Haram insurgency, show a different story. The country’s first-ever which dates back to 2009, has plagued the Lake regional elections, held in 2020, entailed indirect Chad countries, including Cameroon. Although voting by a pro-regime electoral college affirming President Paul Biya claimed in 2018 that Cameroon the regime’s unwillingness to decentralize the polity, had defeated the group after a four-year struggle,¹⁶ and ignoring growing demands for greater political attacks by the group have escalated since 2020.¹⁷ and economic autonomy by the English-speaking Moreover, the prolonged drought in 2021 created population in the NWSW regions. The period leading water shortages that ultimately sparked violence up to the 2020 elections, saw violent clashes among Arab Choa herders and Musgum farmers and between the government and separatist militia in the fishermen, triggering a mass movement of people NWSW regions that displaced nearly 10,000 people.¹⁴ across the border to Chad. REGIONAL CONFLICT AND MIGRATION Political conflict and civil unrest in Cameroon and its neighboring countries has triggered internal Cameroon is facing violence in multiple regions, displacement of people within Cameroon, and mass which poses additional regional constraints to migration of people to and from the country. As of inclusion. The Far North has suffered the costs of June 2021, Cameroon has over 2 million displaced the Boko Haram insurgency, while the socio-political people, which includes Internally Displaced People crisis in the NWSW regions is another source of (IDPs), refugees and returnees. As of June 2021, strain. It is estimated that the Western and Northern the country hosted 450,000 refugees and asylum crises have caused a significant contraction of the seekers, including about 325,000 refugees from the local economies.¹⁵ As over 70 percent of the North- Central African Republic and almost 118,000 from West and South-West regions’ population relies on Nigeria.¹⁸ Moreover, the recent communal fighting in ¹² https://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2870404/view ¹³ Systematic Country Diagnostics 2022. ¹⁴ Food Assistance Fact Sheet (2020), USAID. ¹⁵ World Bank. 2020. The Anglophone Crisis in Cameroon: Assessing the Economic and Social Impacts and Implications for the World Bank Group. Washington, DC: World Bank. ¹⁶ https://www.arabnews.com/node/1380086/world ¹⁷ https://www.hrw.org/news/2021/04/05/cameroon-boko-haram-attacks-escalate-far-north ¹⁸ https://reliefweb.int/report/cameroon/cameroon-humanitarian-dashboard-january-june-2021 2 SECTION 1: CAMEROON COUNTRY CONTEXT the Far North has caused hundreds of thousands to countries (529 deaths in 100,000 live births vs. 460 flee to Chad. In December 2021, a reported 100,000 deaths in 100,000 live births).²⁰ crossed over to Chad to flee the violence and 9 out of 10 Cameroonian refugees in Chad were women Vast disparities in economic and social and children.¹⁹ development exist along a North-South cleavage in Cameroon, highlighting the exclusion of rural A SNAPSHOT OF CHALLENGES RELATED TO population from markets and services. Compared SSI IN CAMEROON to the predominantly rural north, the south has lower poverty and greater access to public spending.²¹ Cameroon is experiencing structural constraints Roughly 80% of the country’s poor reside in the and shocks that underscore the importance four poorest regions – the Far-North, the North, the of prioritizing social inclusion in development North-West and Adamawa— that are part of the interventions. These constraints include (i) an Sudano-Sahelian Western Highlands and Guinea economic sector that is largely rural and informal, Savannah zones.²² While in the northern part per ii) development that is uneven and not inclusive, capita consumption has declined since 2001 (by iii) internal conflict, and iv) climatic hazards. These about 15 percent), it increased in the south (by factors reinforce each other in specific geographic approximately 50 percent).²³ There are also grave areas to intensify fragility and isolation — the rural disparities in public spending per capita and human northern areas, for instance, have the highest levels development in the north and south — the median of poverty in the country and are also vulnerable years of female education is zero years in the North to climate change. Similarly, these structural and Far North regions and almost 10 years in constraints and shocks also interact with social Yaoundé and Douala.²⁴ identities — such as gender, refugee status, and age — to compound social exclusion and marginalization. The northern regions — particularly the Sudano- Sahelian ecological zone in the Far North— are The country’s economic growth during 2014-2019 also vulnerable to climatic shocks, creating has not been inclusive. Despite the challenging multidimensional poverty.²⁵ The Sudan-Sahelian security environment, the country consistently regions are particularly ecologically fragile and experienced an average of 4.5% growth in its Gross vulnerable to extreme climate-related events and Domestic Product (GDP), propelled by a sharp processes, including drought, high temperatures, increase in services and private consumption and water shortages and salinization of water and soil.²⁶ investment. However, social indicators for Cameroon Moreover, low female education in these areas is are for a country with widespread poverty and low associated with high child mortality and fertility, human development. Almost a third of children under which aggravates pressures on arable land.²⁷ In five are stunted and the total maternal mortality ratio this region, temperatures are rising 1.5 times faster is still higher than the aggregate for low-income than the global average and 80 per cent of farmland ¹⁹ https://www.unhcr.org/en-us/news/briefing/2022/1/61ea74c34/unhcr-seeks-us596-million-100000-displaced-violence- cameroons-far-north.html ²⁰ Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2016. ²¹ Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2022. ²² Cameroon Country Partnership Framework, 2017-2021. ²³ Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2022. ²⁴ Ibid. ²⁵ Ibid. ²⁶ Cameroon Country Study (2021), Norwegian Refugee Council. ²⁷ Cameroon Systematic Country Diagnostic, 2016. 3 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION is degraded, according to recent UN estimates.²⁸ A Diagnostic employs a multidimensional framework dwindling supply of water sparked clashes between and uses rich data to present objective trends fishermen and herders in the Far North in August- relating to exclusion and fragility. Moreover, it September 2021, forcing thousands to flee across discusses how structural challenges related to the border to Chad.²⁹ rural underdevelopment, conflict, and migration intersect with gender and demographic identities to In 2020, the Cameroonian economy was strongly compound marginalization. Such a multidimensional impacted by the combined effects of the COVID–19 and intersectional lens is especially warranted to pandemic, the persistence of security and study social inclusion in Cameroon, where political humanitarian crises, and the decline in world oil and socioeconomic disparities coincide with spatial, prices. Among Central African countries, Cameroon ethnic, and linguistic differences. was the hardest hit by the COVID–19 pandemic in 2020, from a health and economic perspective. Real Since the Diagnostic’s rationale and findings are GDP contracted by 2.4% in 2020, compared with aligned with Cameroon’s development goals, it can growth of 3.7% in 2019. This 6.1 percentage point guide the government in designing policies and decline in economic activity is largely explained by the interventions in collaboration with its development fall in world oil prices. Growth has also been affected partners. Cameroon’s National Development Strategy by the persistence of the security and sociopolitical 2020-2030 (NDS30) is aimed to make the country crises that the country is experiencing.³⁰ ‘‘an emerging and democratic country united in its diversity’’.³² The Strategy centers on four pillars: (i) Foreign and internal conflict has created structural transformation of the national economy; challenges relating to rehabilitation of refugees, (ii) development of human capital and wellbeing; (iii) political inclusion, and economic reconstruction. promotion of employment and economic integration; Cameroon, which has a population of roughly 25 and (iv) governance, decentralization, and strategic million, is now home to nearly 2 million refugees, management of the State.³³ The government seeks to asylum seekers and IDPs.³¹ The prevailing conflict in achieve these pillars by using an inclusive approach the country has disrupted economic activity, closed centered on increased employment and political borders, and damaged social cohesion. Moreover, participation of the youth, empowerment of women and the inflow of migrants has created strain on service other vulnerable populations, even spatial development, delivery in host regions and has intensified the threat and promotion of bilingualism and multiculturalism. The of sexual and gender-based violence faced by female government’s aim of achieving sustainable economic refugees and IDPs. growth and inclusive social development is, thus, aligned with the focus and analysis of the Diagnostic. Moreover, RATIONALE FOR A SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY the government has stipulated that cooperation with AND INCLUSION DIAGNOSTIC FOR CAMEROON development partners must be anchored in the NDS30. Due to the alignment between the NDS30 and the SSI Understanding the dynamics of social sustainability Diagnostic, the latter can serve as a foundation for and inclusion are needed to ensure an inclusive directing cooperation on social inclusion between the recovery and development in Cameroon. The Cameroon and the World Bank Group. ²⁸ UNHCR, 2021. ²⁹ Ibid. ³⁰ African Development Bank, 2021. ³¹ Food Assistance Fact Sheet (2020), USAID. ³² National Development Strategy 2020-2030, pg. 2 ³³ Ibid, pg. 39 4 SECTION 2: STRUCTURE OF THE SSI DIAGNOSTIC The Diagnostic is a synthesis of four distinct outputs: Limitations of data availability made it difficult to 1) an SSI profile which uses a multidimensional comprehensively examine social vulnerability for and intersectional analytical framework to assess all the relevant groups in society. Due to paucity vulnerabilities among different groups; 2) an of available data, the report does not capture analysis assessing the effectiveness of the legal and vulnerabilities associated with ethnic identity and institutional framework with respect to SSI issues, presents only sparse analysis relating to persons 3) a harmonized dataset comprising all the relevant with disabilities (PwDs), sexual and gender identity indicators relating to the SSI framework used to (SOGI) minorities, and refugees and IDPs. benchmark and analyze trends for vulnerable groups within Cameroon; and 4) a note on the social LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK dimensions of climate change. This output focused on Cameroon’s legal SSI PROFILE framework and the institutional mechanisms for its implementation, with respect to social The profile uses a framework that comprise inclusion. The output engages in a broad survey four pillars for assessing whether people — of laws addressing discrimination and inequities, irrespective of their identity, demographic status, following on to a discussion of legal provisions and geographic location — can fully participate specifically relating to inclusion of women, youth, in the society. These pillars are: Social Inclusion and other populations (PwDs and SOGI minorities). (Pillar I), Resilience & Social Cohesion (Pillar II), Civic It also analyzes the mandates and actions of the participation & Social Accountability (Pillar III), and institutions for the implementation of laws and Women’s Agency & Empowerment (Pillar IV). The profile adopts a mixed methods approach and analyzes rich quantitative and qualitative data to examine how four vulnerable groups fare with respect to the four SSI pillars. The quantitative data comprise 98 indicators for the four SSI pillars extracted from multiple representative surveys and index sources. The data is used to generate descriptive statistics to assess the level of inclusion for four vulnerable groups: youth, women, residents of rural areas, and residents of conflict-affected areas. The qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and desk reviews is used to validate and contextualize the trends observed in the quantitative data. 5 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION policies relating to social inclusion. It specifically SSI DATASET discusses the institutional challenges in ensuring social inclusion of women and youth and the The dataset comprises indicators from a institutional challenges in implementing social multitude of surveys and indexes which have accountability. been harmonized and aggregated to facilitate comparison at the group level. Table 1 below SOCIAL DIMENSIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE shows the information about the data sources for the harmonized data in .xlsx format, the levels of The climate note analyzes the social dimensions of analysis and the subjects covered. climate change in Cameroon, examining regional and gender-based disparities in exposure to DIAGNOSTIC ROADMAP climate variability. The climate note uses existing quantitative data and secondary literature to examine The diagnostic synthesizes these different outputs the intersections of climate change and existing social and is organized under the following sections: vulnerabilities in Cameroon. By mapping a combined • Section III analyzes the state of SSI in Cameroon index for SSI and climate risk, the report shows that with respect to the vulnerable populations certain regions of Cameroon – the NWSW regions and identified in the profile, and analysis of social the conflict-affected Far North – are more exposed to dimensions of climate change. climatic hazards. The report then analyzes the different • Section IV presents an analysis of how important mechanisms through which climate variability destroys indicators related to SSI have changed over time livelihoods in these regions. The analysis also examines in Cameroon, providing a visual snapshot of how how climatic risks disproportionately affect women due SSI has changed in Cameroon. to their heavy dependence on subsistence agriculture. • Section V benchmarks SSI indicators for The analytics and discussion provide a strong case for Cameroon against global and regional figures. adopting an inclusive, people-centered approach for • Section VI provides policy pathways for social climate action. sustainability and inclusion in Cameroon. TABLE 1: QUANTITATIVE DATA SOURCES Source Years Levels of Subjects Available disaggregation available Covered Afrobarometer 2013, 2015, 2018 Gender, age, urban/rural, region, Civic participation, social cohesion, ethnicity*, disability** social accountability, household income, services, safety Enquete Camerounaise 2007, 2014 Gender, age, urban/rural, region, Labor markets, household income Aupres des Menages ethnicity* and assets, living conditions, (ECAM) education Demographic and Health 2004, 2011, 2018 Gender, age, urban/rural, region, Maternal and child health, Survey (DHS) ethnicity* women’s access to and control over resources, spousal violence World Development Varied May include gender, age groups, Labor markets, services and Indicators (WDI) urban/rural infrastructures, women in government 6 SECTION 3: THE STATE OF SSI IN CAMEROON This section focuses on the main findings of the described themselves as employed, nearly 40% analysis discussed in the Cameroon SSI Profile were unpaid, followed closely by self-employed and Climate note. The first sub-section discusses (39 %) (see Figure 1, right). These figures allude the drivers of vulnerability and challenges related to the widespread problem of underemployment to the four SSI pillars for the four vulnerable or labor underutilization among the youth, which populations: youth, women, rural areas, conflict- can be categorized as visible (involuntarily working affected areas. It also includes limited analysis for less than 40 hours a week), and invisible related to refugees and IDPs. Whereas the second (working for less than the national minimum wage). sub-section discusses vulnerabilities created by the Although underemployment is widespread among intersection of climate change and social exclusion working-age population in Cameroon, the rate for two particularly vulnerable groups: conflict- of underemployment is higher for young people affected regions and women. compared to other age cohorts (30% vs. 25.7%). The loss of productivity and low remuneration CHALLENGES FACED BY VULNERABLE associated with underemployment directly correlate POPULATIONS with high levels of working poverty among the youth. Young people fail to convert their self-employment Youth ventures into viable microenterprises due to lack of access to credit and microfinance. The youth’s socioeconomic exclusion is characterized by (i) higher unemployment and underemployment, (ii) lesser access to financial services, and (iii) lower participation in civic organizations, compared to non- youths/older cohorts (36-64). A multifaceted and intersectional approach is required to address barriers to youth’s inclusion. A sluggish demographic transition, in addition to the failure to shift to high-productivity non-agricultural sectors, has created a mismatch between the ‘youth bulge’ and available employment opportunities. Although official figures for employment show that the proportion of unemployed youth is 2%, out of the 89% of young respondents who 7 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION FIGURE 1: EMPLOYMENT STATUS BY AGE of young people and creating jobs for them are quite limited and majority of the youth employment 100% 7% 5% schemes target the Center region. While 84% of young people work in the informal sector, informal work is 75% 40% 26% not legally recognized in Cameroon. This limits the 88% ability of (i) young employees to seek legal protection 50% 17% from arbitrary dismissal, and (ii) young employers 87% to improve productivity of their microenterprises by 62% 25% accessing financial services and capacity building. 39% 3% 9% Young people are also relatively more withdrawn 0% Children Youth Adults Seniors from civic and political life, alluding to the serious disconnect between the bulging youth population Self-Employed Paid Employee and the governing regime. Compared to other Non-Paid Employee Employer Other age cohorts, young respondents reported the Source: ECAM (LSMS) 2014. lowest participation in community organizations in 2018. the youth’s civic and political alienation While several factors drive unemployment and is associated with their difficulty (i) in obtaining underemployment for all youth, patriarchal gender identity documents that would allow them to vote, norms make it relatively more challenging for and (ii) their poor representation in the country’s young women to find secure, well-paying jobs. ‘outdated’ regime that has governed two generations Qualitative evidence in the report posits that youth of Cameroonians. Socioeconomic exclusion of the unemployment and underemployment are driven youth in the NWSW areas is an urgent concern given by inadequate education and skills among the the prevalence of long-standing grievances and a youth, their lack of political connections to secure burgeoning insurgency that threatens to destabilize government jobs, and employer preference for the country. During the period following up to the older employees. These constraints are likely to 2020 elections, a fresh spate of violent clashes be worse for young women for two main reasons: between the government and separatist militia in First, women are likely to be less educated than their the NWSW regions displaced nearly 10,000 people.³⁴ male counterparts in the same age cohort — girls were 4 points behind boys for secondary schooling Women enrolment rates in 2016. Second, women are also likely to face gender discrimination while seeking Women’s socioeconomic exclusion is characterized by their employment in male-dominated sectors. As a result, (i) lower access to formal labor, assets, and financial services, young women face even greater informal barriers and (ii) lower participation in civic organizations, compared to in seeking employment. Compared to their male men. The legal and institutional framework for empowering counterparts, a higher proportion of young women women is overall weak in Cameroon. Moreover, the recent are engaged in temporary labor (36% vs. 16%) and institutional and legal provisions to empower women are do unpaid work (29% vs. 16%). undermined by their low human capital and gender norms. The legal and policy framework does not adequately Compared to men, women have less access to address the distinct drivers of youth exclusion. formal labor, financial services and assets, and Government programs aimed at enhancing skills are less likely to be embedded in social networks. ³⁴ Food Assistance Fact Sheet (2020), USAID. 8 SECTION 3: THE STATE OF SSI IN CAMEROON Women have relatively higher rates of unemployment FIGURE 2: SHARE OF POPULATION WITHOUT (nearly 30% vs. 14%) and higher informality rates ACCESS TO SAFE DRINKING WATER AVERAGED (88% vs. 78%). Roughly 71% of women are engaged BY REGION in informal agricultural labor, and only 30% of them hld jobs in nonagricultural fields in 2018. The higher dependence of women on informal, agricultural labor increases their vulnerability to climate-related shocks, particularly in the northern areas of the country that face high climate-related risks. Women’s disproportionate representation in the informal sector, as agricultural traders and short-term employees, has also made them vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic. Furthermore, women, like youth, also have reduced access to financial and credit services, and are less likely to own land and homes compared to men. Women’s economic exclusion is mirrored in the social and civic spheres —their participation in community organizations is lower than that of men by nearly ten points (35% vs. 43%). Source: ECAM (LSMS) 2014. Despite recent formal interventions to enhance women’s economic and political inclusion, the legal inclusion in markets and public life. For instance, and institutional framework in addition to the political lower rates of enrolment in secondary schooling for will to empower women through policy change is girls, particularly in rural areas, explain women’s weak. The political gender quota has significantly lesser access to high-productivity, higher-paying jobs advanced women’s formal representation in politics in nonagricultural fields. Similarly, women select — individual female parliamentarians have increased out of labor force participation due to adolescent from a mere 7 in 2002 to 61 in 2020. Moreover, marriage and early pregnancy — trends that are between 2015-2020, the country adopted laws that more prevalent in in rural areas (in 2018, 42% of seek to protect women against sexual harassment young women aged 15-24 were married in rural and enhance their entrepreneurship and property areas compared to 24.5% in urban areas). Although ownership. However, the legal framework does not figures show that in the last decade women’s include specific provisions for Sexual and Gender decision-making power has increased and the Based Violence, especially intimate partner violence. incidence of spousal violence has reduced at the Moreover, the Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and national level, gaps persist in rural areas. Family— the main stakeholder for women’s inclusion — is mostly involved in raising awareness and RURAL AREAS building capacity instead of being actively engaged in introducing and passing legislation. The rural-urban divide in access to infrastructure and health services is stark. Migration of refugees into Formal interventions to empower women are rural areas has further added strain on delivery of undermined by women’s low human capital in rural public services and aggravated inequitable access, areas, and patriarchal gender norms. Meaningful highlighting the need to fast track decentralization. inclusion of women demands (i) improvements in their human capital, and (ii) a change in ‘sticky’ Despite overall improvements in access to public gender norms that limit their agency and their services at the national level, remarkable spatial 9 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION disparities in access to infrastructure and health their ability to cope with external shocks. Compared services continue to exist. Rural areas lag behind to urban centers, residents of rural areas are more urban areas with regard to basic sanitation (44.05% likely to be involved in informal economic activities, vs. 82.2%), safe drinking water (22.7% vs. 61%) making them particularly vulnerable to exogenous and provision of electricity (23.03% vs 93.3%). shocks. For instance, climate-related stressors affect Considerable improvements in service delivery agricultural harvest of rural residents, reducing have occurred over time at the national level, but their food security and increasing precarity of their the magnitude of pre-existing gaps in rural areas livelihoods. The Early Famine Warnings Systems make it difficult for these areas to catch up. While categorizes the NWSW and parts of Far North as 62.67% of Cameroonians had access to electricity in stressed in the context of food security till May 2022. 2018, only 23% did so in rural areas. Moreover, while These vulnerabilities are further aggravated by poor access to safe drinking water improved nationally, access to basic services. The provision of clean it remained more than ten points lower for rural drinking water is well below the national average of areas, from 52.2% to 65.8%. As Figure 2 shows, 79.22% in the northern regions of Adamawa (32.82%, the northern, East, and Adamawa regions, which 2014), North (29.18%) and Far North (24.65%). are predominantly rural, had the lowest access to safe drinking water in 2014. Similarly, women’s The rural-urban divide in access to services has secondary schooling and maternal and child health been further aggravated by the influx of refugees services also lag in rural areas. The largely rural Far and IDPs into rural areas. Over 90% of refugees from North, North, Adamawa and East regions had lowest Central African Republic (CAR) and Nigeria, including availability of skilled antenatal care for women (see those living outside official camps, live in rural areas, Figures 3 and 4). adding strain to already poor access to basic services in these areas. Refugees are particularly vulnerable Inadequate access to services compounds the to exogenous shocks on account of having lesser vulnerability of rural households, undermining access to services, greater food insecurity, and fewer FIGURE 3: CLUSTER AREAS WITH LOWEST FIGURE 4: WOMEN REPORTING SKILLED 20% OF WOMEN REPORTING ANTENATAL ANTENATAL CARE, AVERAGE BY REGION CARE FROM A SKILLED PROVIDER Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018. Source: Demographic and Health Survey, 2018. 10 SECTION 3: THE STATE OF SSI IN CAMEROON economic resources compared to host populations. respectively), and camps in the northern regions Refugees living in the northern regions, including have considerably less access to health services than the climate-vulnerable Far North, faced greater food those in the East and Adamawa regions (38% vs. 51% insecurity compared to those living in the East and and 52%, respectively). Furthermore, male-headed Adamawa regions: more than 60% have difficulty households appear to have better access to health achieving their nutritional needs. The COVID-19 services than female-headed households (55% pandemic has intensified hardship of refugees and vs. 45%, respectively). In terms of market access, IDPs, limiting their access to health services and refugees in camps having better access than those aggravating their food insecurity. There was a nearly who live outside of them (86% vs 72%). Moreover, 60% increase in the number of refugees in need of families with young household heads appear to be humanitarian assistance during 2020. better prepared to locate at more convenient sites in terms of access to markets and health services Globally, support for decentralization has than older household heads (60+). demonstrated improved in local service delivery and reduction in inequities in rural areas, and this While the majority of refugee households face approach could help Cameroon address issues of food and economic insecurity, FHHs, women, exclusion. The centralized state lacks the capacity and refugees residing in the northern areas are to handle the complex challenge of delivering comparatively worse off. Food insecurity and lack of services to regions that suffer from several, economic resilience is widespread among refugees intersecting challenges related to climate-induced – a UNHCR study showed that 45% of refugees failed shocks, conflict, and influx of refugees and IDPs. to meet their daily dietary needs and only 13% of Therefore, decentralization that encompasses local, refugee households had multiple sources of income. participatory approaches would be able to serve the FHHs and women in general were comparatively needs of marginalized communities in rural areas. more disadvantaged— 49% of FHHs struggled to satisfy nutritional needs, compared to 44% of REFUGEES AND IDPS male-headed households, and only 7% women had more than one source of income compared to The majority of refugees and IDPs lack access to 13% men. Refugees in the northern regions are far services and experience income and food insecurity. more exposed to food insecurity: more than 60% However, the intensity of their vulnerability is have difficulty achieving their nutritional needs. determined by geographic location, demographic This food insecurity was aggravated due to the characteristics, residence (inside or outside camps), communal conflict in the Far North in 2021 which and gender. halted operations of humanitarian organizations in the region. Refugees have unequal access to markets and health and infrastructure services, signifying the Female refugees and IDPs are also vulnerable to importance of adopting an intersectional lens to the threat of sexual and gender-based violence. view vulnerabilities of the displaced. When CAR Women are inclined to disproportionately bear refugees are compared, (i) households headed by the brunt of the disruptions and hardship that older individuals, (ii) Female-Headed Households refugees face in the form SGBV and intimate- (FHHs), (iii) those located outside camps, and (iv) partner violence. Women in rural areas of East, those located in the northern areas, face greater Adamawa, and northern regions— places with the hurdles in accessing markets and health services highest concentration of refugee populations — also compared to their counterparts. Refugees living measure the lowest on indicators for human capital in camps have greater access to health services and agency within households, which is likely to than those who live outside of camps (86% vs 24%, increase their vulnerability to SGBV and intimate- 11 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION partner violence. In 2018, women reporting a say in in state institutions. The NWSW regions, which large household purchases were 40% in Adamawa, have had long-standing grievances related to ethnic 35.8% in Far North, and only 24.2% in North Region, marginalization and regional autonomy, have high compared to rates between 65.2% and 85.1% in all rates of participation in community organizations other regions. Moreover, qualitative evidence from KII and low trust in governing institutions. Nearly 60% suggests that the incidence of SGBV has increased of respondents in the NWSW were part of social in the NWSW, coinciding with the growing unrest and organizations, well above the national average internal displacement of people in the region. of nearly 39%. Whereas only 15% and 5% of respondents in these regions respectively had trust CONFLICT-AFFECTED AREAS in the president, compared to the national average of 59% (see Figure 5 below). In comparison, figures The Far North and NWSW regions markedly differ for the Far North are markedly different. While in their social and political dynamics. By implication, only 33% respondents were affiliated with social policy approaches, tailored for mitigating conflict and organizations, they had high trust in governing enhancing social inclusion, need to account for these institutions (76% of them had trust in the president, contextual differences. likely to be driven by the population’s reliance on the government to crush the terrorist insurgency). The Far North and NWSW, which have experienced Moreover, they also had high trust in traditional and an increase in political conflict in recent years, religious authorities, unlike their counterparts in the exhibit different levels of social cohesion and trust NWSW (see Figure 6 below). FIGURE 5: TRUST IN THE PRESIDENT BY FIGURE 6: SHARE OF PEOPLE REPORTING REGION TRUST IN TRADITIONAL AND RELIGIOUS AUTHORITIES, AVERAGE BY REGION Source: AFROBAROMETER 2018. Source: AFROBAROMETER 2018. 12 SECTION 3: THE STATE OF SSI IN CAMEROON Policies for social inclusion in the Far North and faced by two vulnerable populations: residents of NWSW need to account for regional differences in conflict-affected areas and women. The effects (i) social and communal networks, and (ii) center- of the changing climate are compounded by low region relations. Context-specific strategies are levels of social inclusion that these groups face in needed to rehabilitate the communities reeling from society, which alludes to the importance of adopting conflict. There is a need to restore trust and confidence a people-centered approach for climate action. in the political system in the NWSW regions through greater regional autonomy, civic participation, and In Cameroon, climatic risks disproportionately affect decentralization. Whereas in the Far North, social geographic areas with the lowest levels of social capital needs to be built and consolidated to increase inclusion, highlighting the interactive nature of inter-communal trust and cooperation, and this can regional and geographic vulnerabilities. be potentially done by engaging local traditional leaders. Building community-centered networks of When scores for the aggregate climate risk and SSI trust and reciprocity is especially important in the Far index are mapped to Cameroon’s regions, the Far North, which has been experiencing climate-related North and the NWSW emerge as the most vulnerable. intercommunal clashes since August 2021 and has When the climate risk index is combined with the SSI forced hundreds of thousands to flee to Chad.³⁵ index, and mapped to Cameroon’s regions, two areas emerge as the most vulnerable: The Far North and HOW DOES CLIMATE CHANGE INTERSECT the NWSW (see Figure 7). The SSI index measures WITH SOCIAL INCLUSION IN CAMEROON? variation in levels of social inclusion for the different regions in Cameroon. When this index is combined The impact of climate change on economic with the climate risk index, the Far North and the productivity and agricultural output in Cameroon NWSW emerge as the most vulnerable. These results has been the subject of substantial research, warrant the need to examine how climatic hazards (i) however there is only sparse literature on the compound social exclusion of vulnerable groups, and social impact of climatic risks in Cameroon.³⁶ (ii) interact with drivers of social inclusion to impede The Diagnostic sheds light on climate challenges climate mitigation and adaptation. FIGURE 7: CLIMATE RISK AND SOCIAL INCLUSION FIGURE 8: PERCENT OF WOMEN IN COMBINED, BY REGION AGRICULTURAL JOBS Climate Risk Female & Social Agricultural Exclusion Employment Source: Authors´ own elaboration using a social exclusion index Source: Ministry of Women's Empowerment and Family 2014. and a climate risk index, combined. ³⁵ UNHCR, 2021. ³⁶ See climate note for references on studies relating to effects of climate change in Cameroon. 13 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION Climatic hazards cause food insecurity in the Far food for their households, women are particularly North and economic insecurity in the Northwest sensitive to the vagaries of climate that result in and South. Climatic shocks in the Far North, which food insecurity and price hikes. is heavily reliant on subsistence farming and food crops, disrupt food supply and cause fluctuations in In the rural Far North, climate change interacts food prices. Crop devastation and stock depletion, with the gendered division of labor to reduce and the ensuing hike in food prices, aggravate food agricultural productivity and increase tenure insecurity in the region. In the NWSW, climatic insecurity of women. In the rural Far North, hazards reduce output of cash crops that support which has the highest representation of women the regional economy. Low agricultural productivity in the agricultural sector in the country (see Figure is devastating for this region since majority of 9). Women typically work as farmers, while the livelihoods are dependent on the integrated value herders are mostly powerful men. The mobility of chains and secondary manufacturing associated herds during times of climate-induced resource with cash crop production. scarcity threatens crop output of female farmers. Moreover, male herders have the power to Climatic hazards interact with drivers of conflict arbitrarily occupy greener pastures during times in both regions to devastate livelihoods and of drought, exacerbating women’s land insecurity. aggravate socioeconomic exclusion. In the Far North, climate shocks have (i) intensified Women’s low human capital in the Far North make competition over scarce resources, and (ii) sped up it difficult for them to adapt to climatic shocks. climate adaptation efforts, exacerbating communal Compared to the rest of the country, women in conflict and violence. In August 2021, water-scarcity the Far North have the highest fertility rates, and fueled violent fighting between Choa Arab herders lowest (i) enrolment rates for schooling, and (ii) and Musgum fishermen and farmers on the access to antenatal healthcare. Consequently, they Logone-Birni floodplain. Whereas in the NWSW, the lack the capacity and resources to adapt their separatist insurgency has interacted with climate crops and crop calendars to the changing climate. variability, making it difficult for farmers to practice climate adaptation. The crisis has compounded woes of climate-stressed farmers, traders, and exporters dependent on cash crops. Farmers have found it difficult to access their farms and external markets and to procure weather-resistant seeds. Many of them have been forced to flee to other parts of the region. Climatic hazards interact with the gendered division of labor and women’s low adaptive capacity to compound their vulnerability, especially in the Far North. Women are particularly vulnerable to climate change due to their disproportionately high representation in the informal agricultural sector. Women mostly specialize in producing food crops for their families’ subsistence, while men specialize in cash crops for sale. As providers of 14 SECTION 4: TREND ANALYSIS AND BENCHMARKING To better understand the state of SSI in Cameroon, as employment. The more important figures related the Diagnostic employs selected indicators for to labor force participation in Cameroon relate to trend analysis and benchmarking regionally and informality rates, which remain extremely high, globally. This section does not present all indicators, hitting 84.6 % for persons aged 25+ in 2014 and however chooses selected ones based on the reaching 96.2 % for youth (15-24). Furthermore, availability of data because time-series social data informality rates are higher for women— 90.3 % are typically sparse or missing in Cameroon. of women aged 25 and above work in the informal sector compared to 79.1% of men. TRENDS ANALYSIS SHOW RISING LABOR INFORMALITY, DECREASE IN CAMEROONIANS’ Access to basic services has noticeably increased PARTICIPATION IN CIVIC LIFE, AND REGRESSION in Cameroon between 2010 and 2020. Access to IN SOCIETAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS WOMEN electricity has increased during the last decade, from EMPOWERMENT half of the population having access in 2010 (52.8 %) to roughly 65 % in 2020. Similarly, access to other Metrics for labor force participation indicate rising basic services, such as clean drinking water, has also informality. In terms of labor markets, Cameroon improved. However, the increase in access to water has low unemployment rates that have stayed steady at the national level is relatively less remarkable; it over the last decade, falling marginally from 4.1 % increased only by 4 percentage points from 62 % in in 2010 to 3.9 % in 2021. However, as discussed in 2010 to 66 % in 2020. Figure 9 below presents a quick preceding sections, these figures are misleading illustration of the positive or negative change in the because they consider unpaid and voluntary work selected metrics for social inclusion in the last decade. FIGURE 9: SELECTED METRICS FOR LABOR EMPLOYMENT AND ACCESS TO SERVICES DURING 2010-2020 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Households with access People using at least basic Unemployment Vulnerable to electricity, % drinking water services, % rate employment Source: World Bank, DataBank. 15 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION Cameroonian households are resorting to a variety are now more likely to demonstrate against the of methods to cope with economic shocks caused government. Cameroonians do not just participate by a worsening security situation and climatic less in social organizations; they also vote less. The hazards. They maintain several sources of income share of people voting in the last national election (71.8 % of households according to the National decreased from 51 % in 2013 to 43.5 % in 2018. Households Survey ECAM-4) and are increasingly This is not surprising given that the same political relying on remittances. The proportion of households regime in Cameroon has been in power for nearly relying on remittances has climbed from 16.5 % 40 years. Moreover, Cameroonians, particularly of households in 2013 to 25.9 % of households in those in the restive NWSW, are now more inclined 2018. Despite these efforts, a sizable proportion of to demonstrate or protest against the current regime. Cameroonians remain food insecure— the proportion The proportion of people who have attended a of food-insecure households rose from 55.25 % in demonstration or protest march increased from 9.4 2013 to 61.3 % in 2018. percent in 2013 to 11.7 percent in 2018. Figure 10 shows selected metrics for civic engagement and Additionally, people in Cameroon are now less social accountability during the period 2010-2020. involved in civic and community life. The share of respondents who actively participate in social Women’s financial inclusion and visibility in or community organizations fell from half of the public affairs has improved over time. There Cameroonian population (51%) in 2013 to roughly have been notable improvements with respect to 39 % in 2018. This is not surprising as the worsening women’s financial inclusion. The share of women security situation is likely to have impacted civic holding an account at a financial institution or with networks and social trust. a mobile-money service provider jumped from about 11% in 2011 to 30 % in 2017. Similarly, there has Although Cameroonians have become less been remarkable progress in women’s political engaged in formal civic and political activity, they engagement, with the proportion of women in parliament increasing from 13.9% in 2010 to 33.9% in 2020. In addition, women’s changing attitudes FIGURE 10: SELECTED METRICS FOR CIVIC towards spousal violence are indicative of their ENGAGEMENT AND SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY growing agency. The share of women who believe DURING 2010-2020 a husband is justified in beating his wife fell from 50% 46.5% in 2011 to 27.7% in 2018. 40% Despite this progress, societal attitudes related to 30% women’s empowerment have overall deteriorated. The proportion of people who believe that men are 20% better leaders than women, or that women should 10% not have the same right to own land as men, rose from 24% and 22.4% in 2013 to 28 % and 34.5% in 0% 2018 respectively. These figures potentially indicate Share of population Share of population Share of respondents that ever attended who voted in last who are members of that women’s increasing economic inclusion and a demonstration or national elections social organizations protest march visibility in public life is viewed unfavorably by large Source: Afrobarometer. segments of society. Figure 11 shows selected metrics for women’s empowerment and agency 16 SECTION 4: TREND ANALYSIS AND BENCHMARKING during the period 2010-2020. vs. 73%), and significantly higher than the global average of 44%. Vulnerable employment refers BENCHMARKING CAMEROON GLOBALLY AND to own-account workers and contributing family AGAINST SUB-SAHARAN COUNTRIES SHOW workers as a percentage of total employment. THE URGENCY TO PROMOTE FINANCIAL Vulnerable workers are less likely to have formal INCLUSION AND INCLUSIVE LABOR work arrangements, and are therefore more likely OPPORTUNITIES to lack decent working conditions, adequate social security and voice through effective representation Cameroon presents a mixed picture with respect to by trade unions and similar organizations.³⁷ Figure financial inclusion and access to employment when 12 below compares metrics for financial inclusion in compared to SSA and the world. Cameroon sharply Cameroon to regional and global averages. lags behind SSA with respect to financial inclusion. Data from the Social Sustainability Global Database While citizens in Cameroon have higher access to (SSGD) show that just 27% of Cameroon's population basic services than their counterparts in SSA, global has access to a bank account, compared to 32% figures for access to basic services are much higher. in SSA and 43% globally. As discussed in earlier For instance, in 2020, the rate of access to electricity was sections, figures for labor force participation must 64.7%, which is significantly higher than the regional be contextualized for a more nuanced understanding average of 48.3 %, but far below than the global average of vulnerability and labor force participation. of 90.5%. The figure for access to water at the national Although the country had a 3.9% unemployment level is higher than the regional average for SSA (77 % rate in 2021, which is significantly lower than the vs. 72%), but it is still far less than the global average of regional (7.7%) and global (6.2%) averages, the 86 %. Figures for access to educational services display country has a high rate of vulnerable employment. a similar trend. While gross secondary enrolment rates The rate of vulnerable employment in Cameroon is are significantly higher than the regional mean (60 % roughly equivalent to the regional average of (71% vs. 44 %), they are far lower than the global average (76 FIGURE 11: SELECTED METRICS FOR WOMEN’S FIGURE 12:COMPARING METRICS FOR ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT AND AGENCY DURING THE AND FINANCIAL INCLUSION IN CAMEROON PERIOD 2010-2020 COMPARED TO REGIONAL (SSA) AND GLOBAL 40% AVERAGES 35% Bank account ownership 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% Share of Women Women Women in Share of Share of women with 25 with an Parliament people people who years or account at believing believing believe a older a financial that men that husband is that institution are better women Unemployment rate Vulnerable employment justified in finished or with a leaders should not beating secondary mobile- than have the his wife school, money- women same right % service to own land provider, % as men National Regional Global Source: World Bank, DataBank & Social Sustainability Global Source: World Bank, DataBank & Social Sustainability Global Database (SSGD). Database (SSGD), 2022. ³⁷ https://ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_631497.pdf 17 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION %). Figure 13 below compares metrics for access to are more in line with the global and regional levels, services in Cameroon to regional and global averages. with approximately 61 % of the population believing this, compared to about 65 % at the regional and CAMEROON TRAILS BEHIND ITS SSA AND global levels. For example, participation in elections GLOBAL PEERS WITH RESPECT TO SOCIAL falls significantly behind the regional (66.5%) and ACCOUNTABILITY the global (63.9%) levels, standing at 44.2 % of the Cameroonian population. Figure 14 below compares Cameroon receives a rating of 25.82 on the Control of metrics for social accountability and civic engagement Corruption Indicator (0-100), well below the regional in Cameroon to regional and global averages. average of 36.7 or the global average of 50. The Control of Corruption Indicator (0-100) is part of the Worldwide CAMEROONIANS ARE THE MOST FOOD Governance Indicators and captures perceptions of the INSECURE AND HAVE A HIGH RELIANCE ON extent to which public power is used for private gain. REMITTANCES This includes both petty and grand forms of corruption, as well as "capture" of the state by elites and private Indicators measuring household capacity for interests. The public's confidence in the government, resilience in Cameroon present a mixed picture on the other hand, is comparable to the global average when benchmarked against their regional and global of 43 % of the population trusting the government, but counterparts. Remittances are a widely adopted method lower than the regional average of 49%. by households to strengthen their resilience to external shocks. Remittances are a particularly important social Citizen engagement in Cameroon presents a mixed safety net in Cameroon — 27 % of Cameroonians rely on picture when compared to SSA and the world. remittances, compared to 21 % of people in SSA and the Cameroonians are less inclined to participate in world. However, Cameroonians are more food insecure formal politics compared to their regional and global compared to their counterparts in SSA and the world in counterparts. Participation in demonstrations or protest general. The proportion of people who has never gone march is comparable to global and regional levels of without enough food to eat stood at 38.7 % in 2019, which roughly 11 % of the population. Perceptions regarding is far lower than the regional average of 47.8 % and the the ability to freely join any organization without fear global average of 61.5 %. FIGURE 13: COMPARING METRICS FOR ACCESS FIGURE 14: COMPARING METRICS FOR CIVIC TO SERVICES IN CAMEROON TO REGIONAL ENGAGEMENT AND SOCIAL ACCOUNTABILITY (SSA) AND GLOBAL AVERAGES IN CAMEROON COMPARED TO REGIONAL (SSA) AND GLOBAL AVERAGES Access to electricity Confidence in the Government Voted in last Control of national corruption elections Attended a Free to join any Access to water Secondary enrolment rate demonstration organization National Regional Global National Regional Global Source: Social Sustainability Global Database (SSGD), 2022. Source: Social Sustainability Global Database (SSGD), 2022. 18 SECTION 5: POLICY PATHWAYS FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION This section briefly discusses structural, regional disparities putting certain communities institutional, and policy-related processes that at high risks of climate change impacts. Coupled can potentially improve social sustainability and with other risks such as low human capital, inclusion in Cameroon. It is intended to act as a limited access to services, and high levels of basis for dialogue with the Cameroonian government. poverty, these communities face the risk of being The first sub-section discusses the critical ways further excluded from economic growth. in which the state has fallen short of creating an inclusive, peaceful society. The second sub-section iv. Promote inclusion of women and youth to discusses processes that the state can embark on to stimulate economic growth and promote increase social sustainability and inclusion through financial inclusion. Factors causing exclusion of institutional and policy measures that include women and youth are distinct, but the government communities and strengthen local action. has not adequately addressed these specific issues through legal and policy measures. SOCIAL INCLUSION IN CAMEROON — THE CURRENT STATE OF AFFAIRS v. Promote social accountability, citizen engagement, and inclusive institutions: The Cameroon lacks a peaceful, inclusive society where centralized bureaucracy lacks accountability and people can equally enjoy rights of citizenship, capacity to inclusively deliver services. irrespective of their gender and demographic identities, and geographic location. Regional vi. Comprehensively integrate concerns related disparities in development and increasing fragility to social inclusion in public policy: The legal highlight the state’s limitations to: and policy framework does not systematically integrate concerns of vulnerable populations. i. Ensure political inclusion: Instead of addressing the core grievances that drive conflict, the state SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION IN has chosen to use militarily means to crush CAMEROON — THE WAY FORWARD opposition.³⁸ Supporting political and ii. Build social cohesion: The Cameroonian economic decentralization society is characterized by lack of inter-ethnic solidarity. There has been increased suspicion There is an urgent need to decentralize the polity and competition among ethnic groups because to promote local engagement, accountability, of policies of ethnic favoritism. and create an inclusive and durable political settlement. The legacy of excessive centralization iii. Improve social resilience: Cameroon has has created political and socioeconomic exclusion, ³⁸ See McCandless, E., 2020. Resilient social contracts and peace: Towards a needed reconceptualization. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 14(1), 1-21. 19 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION fostering violent reprisals against the state, and Strengthening policymaking on SSI through worsened outcomes of social accountability. institutional cohesion and stakeholder inclusion Devolution of power which increases political autonomy and decision-making at the local level, Policymaking related to social sustainability has the potential to (i) rebuild trust and accountability and inclusion at the national level requires between the state and disaffected communities, and institutional cohesion and cooperation. As (ii) improve service delivery to populations in remote, highlighted in the section above, mandates related underdeveloped areas. to social sustainability and inclusion are fragmented among ministries, causing subsequent policies to Decentralization should be substantive and not also be fragmented. In contexts of high levels of simply a formal measure to appease critics. The exclusion, such as Cameroon, policymaking across government has repeatedly expressed its intention all governing institutions must aim to minimize to devolve power. However, it has fallen short of vulnerability and marginalization. This can only be achieving this substantively. The country’s first-ever achieved through inter-ministerial collaboration regional elections, held in 2020, entailed indirect and collective action, which minimizes duplication voting by a pro-regime electoral college. As expected, and redundancy. the ruling Cameroon People's Democratic Movement (CPDM) swept these elections, affirming the regime’s Effective, data-driven policymaking depends on unwillingness to decentralize the polity. Moreover, meaningful inclusion of all stakeholders, including the country’s vital exports — many of which are local communities and their representatives. As produced in the restive NWSW— continue to be discussed in Section I, Cameroon is characterized controlled by the state-owned CDC. by geographic, ethnic, and linguistic diversity. Thus, effective legal and policy interventions warrant Developing efficient and accountable institutions the involvement of local communities and their representatives. A platform that brings together all Decentralization can also be an important step in the ministries, development and private partners, creating responsive and accountable institutions and local CSOs can be particularly helpful for not that effectively deliver services at the local level. just facilitating collaborative and participatory The centralized state bureaucracy cannot effectively policymaking, but also in disseminating knowledge address the multiple, intersectional challenges afflicting on best practices. Moreover, collecting data in an Cameroon’s vulnerable populations. With 70 Members of FCV context (Fragility, Conflict, & Violence) such government for 36 line ministries, the current centralized as Cameroon can be challenging and potentially bureaucratic setup is (i) bloated and inefficient, and dangerous. Data is also likely to get outdated (ii) is also often plagued by inertia due to overlapping quickly due to a fluid political and social context. jurisdictions and poor discipline.³⁹ Devolving power Nevertheless, there is a pressing need for robust, to lower tiers of government can improve service geographically representative data for analyzing delivery and accountability, and accelerate state trends related to vulnerability and marginalization. responsiveness to complex local challenges, such as This data can only be collected if local communities the rehabilitation of IDPs and refugees. are included. ³⁹ World Bank, 2016. Cameroon: Systematic Country Diagnostic, pg. 70. 20 SECTION 5: POLICY PATHWAYS FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION Investing in social cohesion and resilience include (i) providing greater support to women’s through local action associations to strengthen women’s agency, (ii) targeting female farmers by creating farmer field The state needs to play a proactive role in schools (FFS), and/ordeveloping rural advisory strengthening local leaders and civil society to services to assist women farmers, and (iii) increasing build solidarity and promote social cohesion in women’s access to cultivated land and improving the populace. Local authority figures and traditional their plot management. leaders can play an important role as mediators of peace, especially in rural areas. Moreover, control Promoting inclusion of women and youth and allocation of resources in a participatory through legal and policy reforms and inclusive manner can mitigate grievances of marginalized groups, such as refugees and Muslims, Legal and policy measures to enhance economic thereby weakening potent drivers of conflict. participation of women and youth should account for existing trends pertaining to their economic Similarly, climate action that builds community exclusion. Although youth unemployment is resilience should prioritize vulnerable regions rampant, programs for enhancing skills of young and marginalized groups. The government should people and creating jobs for them, are quite limited. examine local climate adaptation strategies to The government needs to allocate greater resources identify parochial barriers to implementing national- to these programs and also expand their geographic level climate change policies and programs. scope (many of these programs focus in the Center Localized climate assessments, particularly those region). Moreover, recent efforts to support women’s conducted in climate-vulnerable areas such as the economic participation through laws relating to Far North and NWSW, should inform the Nationally sexual harassment and childcare benefits, should be Determined Contributions (NDCs). Additionally, the supplemented by efforts to change informal sexism government should invest in regional learning and and gender-based discrimination at the workplace. statistical systems to collect better quality data For this purpose, the capacity and resources of the on climate-related conflict. There is also a need Ministry of Women’s Empowerment and the Family to assess the barriers that constrain marginalized Center (MINPROFF) and Ministry of Social Affairs populations, such as women and youth, from (MINAS) should be increased. benefiting from investments in climate-smart agriculture and infrastructure. Efforts to increase social adaptation to climate variability should focus on enhancing women’s agency at the community level. African countries in general, including Cameroon, are failing to take advantage of the unique knowledge, skills, and perspectives that women have regarding climate adaptation. Women are particularly knowledgeable about local sowing seasons, traditional multi- cropping practices, wild edible plants, and livestock management. They also play major roles in disaster recovery and resilience. Consequently, there is a critical need to develop gender-responsive policies that remove barriers to women’s advancement and utilize their unique knowledge and skills. These may 21 CAMEROON: SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY AND INCLUSION Since majority of women and young people are to their employees. engaged in informal work, the government must address issues plaguing the informal sector. As Moreover, political decentralization should aim to discussed in this report, women and youth tend to enhance local representation of women and youth be self-employed in the informal agricultural sector. to facilitate their participation in public life. The Yet informal work does not have legal status in intersectional nature of the challenges women and Cameroon. There is a need to draft laws to address youth face due to regional disparities in development issues pertaining to (i) protection of informal workers and civil unrest, make it difficult for them to influence —their work conditions and earnings etc., and (ii) policy at the national level. Therefore, devolution of productivity of microenterprises, which is related to power to lower tiers of government should facilitate their ability to access loans and microfinance and their participation in community life and enhance provide competitive training and capacity building their ability to affect public policy. 22