INVESTING IN THE POOR AND VULNERABLE FOR AN INCLUSIVE PROSPERITY A POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT IN TOGO EXECUTIVE REPORT © 2022 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 Telephone: 202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org This work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. Rights and Permissions The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as full attribution to this work is given. Any queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522-2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of this report was led by Aissatou Ouedraogo (Economist), Miriam Muller (Social Scientist), and Felicien Donat Accrombessy ( Sr. Economist, Statistician) (EAWPV). The other members of the core team included Didier Yelognisse Alias, Mohammed Coulibaly, Ada Kolobadia, Akakpo Domefa Konou, Alina Mykytyshyn, Kouadio Guillaume Stephane Ndri, Awa Sanou, Audrey Metzler, Christopher Carlos, and Ayala Wineman(Consultants, EAWPV); Walker Kosmidou-Bradley (Geographer), Franck Adoho (Sr. Economist) and Carlos Rodriguez Castelan (Lead Economist) (EAWPV). The team thanks the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) Commission for the invaluable collaboration throughout the harmonized household survey (EHCVM) implementation, the data management, and the measurement of the welfare aggregates. Special thanks to Stanislas Tchilabalo Telou and Dien Guema (National Institute of Statistics and Economic and Demographic Studies (INSEED)) for the close collaboration on the EHCVM data preparation and the national poverty measurement work, and Koame Kouassi (Director General, INSEED). The team would like to acknowledge the many contributions and feedback of the country team. Throughout the preparation of the report, the team received useful feedback and support from Erick Herman Abiassi (Senior Agriculture Economist, SAWA4); El Hadj Adama Toure (Sector Leader, SAWDR); Urbain Thierry Yogo (Sr. Economist) and Nicholas Woolley (ET Consultant) (EAWM1); Joachim Boko, Tina George, Raphaela Beatrice Karlen, and Friederike Uta Rother (Sr. Social Protection Specialists, HAWS2); Stephanie Brunelin (Sr. Economist, HAWS2); Aly Sanoh (Sr. Economist) and Aboudrahyme Savadogo (Economist) (EAWPV); Maimouna Gueye and Maria Eileen Pagura (Senior Financial Sector Specialists, EAWF1); and kersten kevin stamm (Economist, EPGDR), and et Nouhoum Traore (CDIMA, Economist). The report greatly benefited from feedback from peer-reviewers Ruth Hill (Lead Economist, EAPGV) and Nistha Sinha (Senior Economist, EAEPV). The project also benefited from helpful feedback from Aly Sanoh (Sr. Economist, EAWPV), Sharad Alan Tandon (Sr. Economist, EMNPV), and Jason Allen Weaver (Sr. Economist, HAWE2) who peer- reviewed the Project Concept Note. The team gratefully acknowledges guidance from Johan Mistiaen (Practice Manager, EAWPV), Hawa Wague Cisse (Resident Representative, AWMTG), Coralie Gevers (Country Director, AWCF2), and Andrea Coppola (Program Leader, EAWDR). The team thanks Etsehiwot B. Albert (Program Assistant), Senait Kassa Yifru (Operation Analyst), Santosh Kumar Sahoo (Program Assistant), Arlette Sourou (Sr. Program Assistant) and Syed Sada Hussain Shah Naqvi (Temporary) (EAWPV); and Martin Buchara (Program Assistant, EAEPV); Harende Kpango and Kossiwa Naman (Team Assistant, AWMTG) for logistical assistance and communication support throughout the preparation of the report. Finally, the team would like to thank everyone at the INSEED and the World Bank who contributed to making this project a collaborative effort. 4 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments 3 Executive summary 6 What has happened to welfare in Togo since 2011? 6 Which socioeconomic groups need further policy attention? 6 What constraints sustained poverty reduction? 7 Constraints to rural income growth 8 Low resilience to shocks 8 Gender inequalities 9 What can be done to achieve sustained and inclusive poverty reduction in Togo? 10 Accelerating rural income growth 10 Building and increasing households’ resilience to natural and economic shocks 10 Closing gender gaps 11 Motivation and content 12 1. How pro-poor was growth likely to have been in Togo between 2011 and 2018/2019? 14 2. What was the poverty profile in 2018/2019? 18 2-1 Monetary poverty in 2018/2019 19 Poverty incidence in 2018/2019 19 Inequality in 2018/2019 20 2-2 Multidimensional poverty 22 2-3 The impact of COVID-19 on poverty 25 2-4 Trends in nonmonetary welfare in Togo between 2011 and 2018/2019 28 Progress in human capital 28 Progress in access to basic infrastructure 29 Who benefited the most from the recorded progress in nonmonetary welfare? 31 3. What are the key challenges to sustained poverty reduction in Togo? 32 3-1 Constraints to rural income growth 33 Constraints to agricultural income growth 35 Constraints in the nonfarm sector and low jobs quality 39 3-2 Vulnerability to poverty and its sources 43 What is the level of vulnerability to poverty in Togo? 43 What types of vulnerability affect the Togolese the most, and what are their sources? 44 3-3 Gender inequalities and poverty 47 Gender disparities in education and health 48 Women’s voice and agency: The crucial role of stimulating progress across other dimensions of gender equality 51 Disparities in economic activity 53 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 5 4. What are the proposed policy options to overcome constraints? 56 4-1 Accelerate rural income growth 57 Address market access gaps 57 Address private investments gaps 58 Address weak land rights 59 Reorient agricultural policies and pursue subsidy reforms 59 Accelerate nonfarm income growth 60 4-2 Increase household resilience to shocks 61 Overcoming poverty-induced vulnerability 61 Overcoming risk-induced vulnerability 63 4-3 Close gender gaps in endowments, economic opportunities, and agency 65 Assist girls in completing primary and secondary school 65 Increase access to family planning, and enhance reproductive and sexual health, particularly for adolescent girls 65 Reduce child marriage 66 Prevent GBV, and address its consequences 66 Improve women’s economic opportunities, and enhance the productivity of self-employed women 67 5. Summary and concluding remarks 72 References 74 Annex 81 6 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT EXECUTIVE SUMMARY What has happened to welfare in Togo Which socioeconomic groups need further since 2011? policy attention? Togo’s poverty incidence in 2018/20191 was estimated Despite the recorded progress in welfare, there are stark at 45.5 percent, equivalent to 3.6 million people. An regional disparities with the rural area alone hosting 2.7 additional 19 percent of the population is considered million of the 3.6 million of the Togolese poor. Poverty vulnerable to falling back into poverty. This means that over incidence is significantly higher in rural areas (58.7 percent, 5 million —that is almost 2 out of 3 —Togolese are either versus 34.3 percent in urban areas), and the Savanes poor or vulnerable to poverty. While the Multidimensional region displays the highest poverty incidence followed by Poverty Index (MPI)—estimated at 0.21—is the lowest in the Kara Region. In addition to facing a high incidence of the WAEMU region (where it ranged from 0.22 for Cote monetary poverty, the rural population presents a much d’Ivoire to 0.32 for Benin), inequality measured by the Gini higher multidimensional poverty index—estimated at 0.21 coefficient—estimated at 38.1—is among the highest in the in 2018/2019 at the national level (0.31 in rural areas). As WAEMU region, except Burkina Faso where it is 38.6. a result, that population is subject to significant overlaps between monetary poverty and nonmonetary deprivations. The overall economic performance observed between For instance, 32 percent of the rural population is both 2011 and 2018/2019 contributed to poverty reduction. The monetarily and education deprived, compared to only 9 country recorded relatively stronger economic growth from percent among the urban population. Regarding household 2011 to 2018/19 than from 2000 to 2010 (an annual average composition, individuals from households with one adult of 3.2 percent and 1.2 percent, respectively).2 This growth female—that is, households in which the only adult is a likely benefited the poor because of strong contributions woman—display a higher poverty incidence compared to by the agriculture and services sectors, which employ 65 those with one adult male (45.3 percent and 19.6 percent, percent and 25 percent of the poor, respectively. Indeed, respectively). World Bank staff calculations using past growth rates of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita and the 2018/19 There are also significant gender and age disparities welfare aggregate show a decrease in poverty incidence by in poverty incidence. Gender disparities in poverty approximately 7 to 9 percentage points between 2011 and incidence are high, especially among 25-to-29-year- 2018/19. olds, for whom the gap is almost 14 percentage points. According to key informant interviews, existing gender gaps have been widened by the COVID-19 pandemic, which has disproportionately affected women’s economic opportunities given women’s overrepresentation in informal and market activities. In addition, there are 1 The EHCVM was conducted in two waves over 2018 and 2019. We will use 2018, 2019, or 2018/2019 to refer to data from the survey. 2 EHCVM 2018/19 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 7 substantial differences in poverty incidence across age Educational attainment is a major determinant and groups. Specifically, children under 15 years display a driver of poverty and inequality in Togo. Evidence much higher poverty incidence (about 53 percent) than suggests that low educational attainment is transmitted older population subgroups (45 percent and 38 percent, intergenerationally in Togo, meaning that parents’ level respectively for those between 15 and 17 years old and of education is highly predictive of their children’s level those who are 18 years or older). of education. While evidence indicates improvement in access to schooling, there is a striking gap in net The depth of poverty is significantly more pronounced in enrollment rate across the poor and the nonpoor, rural areas. The poverty gap was estimated at 15 percent particularly in upper secondary (10 percent and 26 percent, (21 percent and 7 percent in rural and urban areas, respectively) and post-secondary education (2 percent respectively). With a national poverty line estimated at and 13 percent, respectively). In addition, while both the 273,619 CFAF (493 USD) per capita per year in 2018/19, these poor and nonpoor present similar rates in terms of illness results imply that it would take approximately 103 USD per incidence, the rate of health facility visits is much lower year to lift a rural poor person out of poverty, on average, among the poor. Disparities in health facility visits are compared to 34 USD for an urban poor person. Considering particularly more noticeable among children under 5 (50 an annual average GDP of $16.7 billion USD (constant 2017 percent and 69 percent, respectively, for the poor and the international $,PPP) over the period of 2018 and 2019, the nonpoor) and individuals aged 65 and older, where the gap 15 percent poverty gap means that it would take about 1.5 is 26 percentage points ( 35 percent for the poor and 61 percent of Togo’s GDP to lift all the Togolese poor out of percent for the nonpoor). poverty in 2018/2019. Togo experienced progress in nonmonetary dimensions What constrains sustained poverty of welfare; however, significant disparities by geographic reduction? location and across population subgroups remain. The The main areas covered in the current Poverty and Gender evidence of progress in terms of monetary poverty is Assessment (PGA) are rural incomes, with a focus on mirrored in several nonmonetary dimensions of welfare, agriculture; vulnerability to poverty; and gender disparities. including human capital (including but not limited to The selection of these three topics is motivated by the infant and under-five mortality, school lag, and learning fact that (1) agriculture is an important source of income poverty) as well as access to basic services including generation for most Togolese rural households, especially electricity, safe drinking water, and sanitation. Despite the poor and, as a result, it is important to understand these improvements, access varies significantly by wealth factors that constrain rural income growth; (2) a large quintiles, particularly in electricity and safe drinking water. share of the population is vulnerable to poverty, making it Precisely, only 19 percent and 25 percent of the population crucial to understand the sources of such a vulnerability; at the bottom of wealth distribution (measured in terms of and (3) persistent gender inequalities are likely to be consumption per capita per year) had access to electricity exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, so focusing on and water in 2018/19, respectively, compared to 80 percent gender can unlock an important source of income gains and 61 percent for those at the top of the distribution. while promoting gender equality. Geographic analysis of access to safe drinking water with geospatial data also reveals important disparities both across and within regions, especially in the Savanes region, where the distance to safe drinking water varies from less than one km to more than 4 km. 8 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Constraints to rural income growth There are also constraints to raising incomes in the nonfarm sector, particularly in rural areas. Only 4 percent Two-thirds of the Togolese rural households (71 percent of rural nonfarm enterprises have written accounts (5 for the poor) are categorized as agricultural households, percent in urban areas), and barely 1 percent are registered yet the agriculture sector faces multiple constraints (5 percent in urban). In addition, over 25 percent are for achieving sustained income growth. As in many of seasonal. Nonfarm businesses also tend to be young, Togo’s peer countries, Togo’s agriculture sector faces with more than half being in operation for five years or several challenges that limit productive investment less. Although this high share of “young” enterprises and commercialization, leading to limited rural income could suggest a proliferation of new businesses in recent opportunities. Adoption of yield-enhancing technologies is years, it is more likely driven by these businesses’ low limited, with only 37 percent and 8 percent of households, resilience, resulting in a high exit rate. Moreover, the sector respectively, using fertilizer and improved seeds and barely is concentrated in a very few segments—with the food 1 percent using irrigation. These low adoption rates are due industry alone representing 60 percent of all businesses— to multiple factors, including weak financial markets that and faces weak market access: 50 percent of households result in liquidity constraints and a lack of access to input with nonfarm businesses report the lack of demand as a markets. Furthermore, low education level among farmers challenge for their businesses. The sector also exhibits can limit their ability to acquire technical knowledge low labor productivity (about 4,250 CFA francs [CFAF] and therefore inhibit the use of modern agricultural versus CFAF 7,000 in urban areas. With an average number technologies. Evidence also points to agricultural labor of hired worker being just 0.3 individuals, the sector constraints, especially among the poor. On the regulatory presents limited prospects for generating employment for side, the agricultural business environment is not nonmembers of the household, which in turn results in conducive to entrepreneurship in the agricultural sector; low wage employment rates among the rural population. Togo scores the lowest among all West African Economic Even workers with wage employment face low-quality jobs and Monetary Union (WAEMU) countries in terms of quality in all four key dimensions: income, benefit, stability, and regulations and the time and cost to register a new seed working conditions. This situation is the case for both rural variety (according to the World Bank report, Enabling the and urban workers. Business of Agriculture 2019). These constraints lead to low crop yields, which in turn lead to low production levels, Low resilience to shocks creating barriers to commercialization. Indeed, according Togo’s vulnerability to poverty further hinders its ability to to EHCVM 2018/2019, the share of agricultural output achieve sustained poverty reduction. Overall, 64.9 percent commercialized is only 20 percent. The lack of sufficient of the Togolese population is either poor or vulnerable production for own consumption is the leading reason for to poverty. The corresponding figure in rural areas is non-commercialization among households that do not substantially higher—at 83.0 percent. When vulnerability participate in the market, regardless of poverty status. is decomposed into poverty-induced vulnerability (that is, As the rural population struggles to meet its food needs, persistently low levels of consumption due to low levels households are unable to move from a subsistence to a of physical and human capital accumulation) and risk- commercial orientation, which limits their agricultural induced vulnerability (that is, variability of consumption, income opportunities. which reflects household-level exposure to shocks), TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 9 poverty-induced vulnerability dominates (46.1 percent, and gender roles. It continues through adolescence, when versus 18.9 percent for risk-induced vulnerability).3 As a a larger share of girls starts dropping out of school, with result of this high poverty-induced vulnerability, the overall less than one in two completing secondary, (affecting one vulnerability rate follows the same pattern as the poverty in four Togolese young women). This is due to several incidence across regions. For example, the Savanes and factors, including time use patterns shaped by gender Kara regions, which have the highest poverty incidence, norms, adolescent pregnancy, and child marriage. Child also exhibit the highest vulnerability rates (84.7 percent marriage and adolescent fertility increase health risks for and 80.9 percent, respectively). women and reduce the amount of time they have to fully participate in economic opportunities. Women (ages 24-44 Togo’s high vulnerability to poverty is due to exposure years) spend about 5 times as many hours weekly in unpaid of its population to shocks such as illness or death of a domestic work compared to men, affecting their labor force household member, irregular rainfall, and crop or animal participation quality. Women’s disadvantages in access disease. With limited access to health centers, especially to quality employment—indicated by disproportionate in remote rural places, shocks such as severe illness can levels of informality—and their vulnerability, limited seriously impact productivity and can affect earnings. landownership, and challenges in accessing finance and For instance, 47 percent of households reported having productive assets further trap them in poverty. Different a sick household member who did not seek medical care forms of gender-based violence (GBV) are widespread even though the illness led to work stoppage, which can (affecting more than a third of Togolese women), and social, result in income losses. Low educational attainment also religious, cultural, and geographical factors are known to hampers resilience to shocks, as it reduces opportunities further amplify gender inequities in specific contexts. As a to access other income generating activities in the face result, women in Togo, and rural women in particular, have of an economic shock such a job loss. Inopportunely, severely limited agency and decision-making capacity both households facing these shocks have very few formal outside and within the household – for instance, only 30 coping mechanisms. Less than 1 percent of Togolese percent of Togolese women can make their own decisions households report receiving help from the government regarding sexual and reproductive health and rights. following a shock. As a result, these households resort to informal safety net strategies, such as relying on help from The COVID-19 pandemic eroded the well-being of relatives and friends, or negative coping strategies (for the Togolese, although recent economic recovery example, asset sales and reduced consumption), which combined with income support by the government lead to asset depletion and human capital deterioration may have mitigated these effects. Simulation results Such practices create a vicious cycle for the poor, which suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic has likely increased hinders progress toward sustained poverty reduction. poverty by approximately 4 percentage points, which translates to almost 0.3 million additional poor people. Gender inequalities The corresponding increase in the poverty gap was 1.56 percentage points. To mitigate the negative impact of the Gender gaps in Togo cut across many dimensions. pandemic, the GoT implemented the Novissi4 cash transfer Inequality starts in childhood when girls are disadvantaged program. in access to schooling because of prevalent social norms 3 The sum of these two vulnerability measures equals the total vulnerability rate, which is 65 percent. 4 https://novissi.gouv.tg/en/home-new-en. 10 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT What can be done to achieve sustained and increasing long-term investments to mitigate inclusive poverty reduction in Togo? the impact of climate change, and using digital technologies to enhance the coverage of subsidies via To resume progress in poverty reduction as the economy programs such as e-vouchers. recovers from the COVID-19 crisis, there is an urgent need for policies that accelerate rural income growth, build Moreover, attention should be given to the nonfarm resilience to economic and climate shocks, and close the economy, especially to food-related manufacturing and gender gap. services, with the aim of increasing the employability of the youth. Policies should aim to support private Accelerating rural income growth enterprises (especially micro, small, and medium enterprises) that effectively promote food processing, The high prevalence of poverty in rural areas calls for packaging, transporting, storing, distributing, and retailing. prioritizing policies to generate quick wins for faster rural Promising policies to achieve this aim include portfolio income growth. Such policies would promote investment guarantee to provide financing to these enterprises and in yield-enhancing technologies to increase agricultural mentoring and support for entrepreneurship development. productivity in a sustainable manner. Such productivity Increasing access to electricity also holds promise, given growth would first ensure food security and would then that perishable and processed foods require more value generate surpluses to enable households to move from added in the midstream of the food value chain, particularly subsistence farming to commercialization. Selected priority around processing and packaging. Given the youth bulge, policy options to achieve these goals include: providing young people with vocational trainings aligned with demand-side factors to ensure they acquire relevant h Facilitating input and output market access by skills and competences and leveraging the high penetration extending the coverage of rural feeder roads and of digital technology to provide mentorship and coaching, prioritizing the digital inclusion of poor farmers, can be another effective strategy for accelerating nonfarm building strong links between farmers and buyers income growth. by supporting the formation of effective farmer organizations, and supporting agro-dealers via the Building and increasing households’ resilience to natural provision of incentives to reach remote areas; and economic shocks h Encouraging private investment in agricultural inputs The most pressing actions to be undertaken are policies by increasing access to financial services, addressing that prioritize support for currently poor households but knowledge gaps and taking advantage of digital that do not leave out those who are likely to fall into penetration to improve the accuracy of knowledge poverty in the future. Such programs should consist of transmission (for example, e-extension programs via expanded social protection coverage to help address the WhatsApp videos) and thereby increasing knowledge underlying causes of chronic poverty at scale, for example, diffusion, and addressing weak land rights by through programs that: implementing the land law; and h Facilitate access to basic services such as education h Addressing policy biases and continuing agricultural and health that are critical to developing and subsidy reforms by diversifying government spending, protecting human capital TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 11 h Deliver income support, such as in the Novissi program; Closing gender gaps h Improve the targeting mechanism to better reach Addressing gender disparities will be important for vulnerable groups, including youth and women, with continued poverty reduction in Togo. In the past decade, an emphasis on children’s early years especially in Togo has already initiated several noteworthy reforms high quality early childhood education, which has been to promote gender equality in education, health, and shown to be one of the most effective interventions decision-making. However, several challenges remain. to enable long term human capital accumulation and Specific legislation addressing domestic violence is still increase intergenerational mobility; and missing, and there is also a gap between de jure and de facto legislation where positive legal change has already h Develop Adaptive Social Protection programs targeted been initiated. Proposed policies to close gender gaps in to those who are vulnerable to climate-related shocks, Togo should entail: particularly in rural areas where households are most affected by natural covariate shocks. h Assisting girls in completing primary and secondary school; Given the predominance of agriculture among the poor h Increasing access to family planning and enhancing and the vulnerable, climate-resilient agricultural practices, sexual and reproductive health education; including sustainable land management practices and h Reducing prevalence rates of child and early marriage; improved management of water resources are important. h Preventing different forms of GBV and addressing their Another medium- and long-term policy option consists of consequences; improving the coverage and efficiency of social safety nets h Improving women’s access to quality employment; by collaborating with humanitarian partners to coordinate h Enhancing the productivity of self-employed women; the delivery of adaptive safety nets. and h Supporting female farmers to build and sustain their businesses—including through supporting women’s ownership of land. 12 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT MOTIVATION AND CONTENT Poverty remains a challenge in Togo, with 45.5 percent of it is the sector that hosts the largest share of the poor (65 the Togolese population found to be living beneath the percent of the total poor population), so understanding the national poverty line (estimated at CFAF 273,619 per capita roots of this high poverty prevalence in the sector can help per year) in 2018/2019. The poverty gap was estimated lift the poor out of poverty. Second, vulnerability to shocks at 15 percent (21 percent in rural areas and 7 percent in poses a significant challenge to achieving sustained poverty urban areas). With a national poverty line estimated at reduction among both rural and urban populations. The CFAF 273,619 CFAF (US$493) per capita per year in 2018– vulnerability rate was estimated at 65 percent in Togo in 19, these results imply that it would take approximately 2018/2019, meaning that the 45.5 percent poverty incidence US$103 per year to lift a rural poor person out of poverty, does not take into account about 19 percent of Togolese on average, compared to US$34 for an urban poor person. who are likely to become poor in the future because of Considering an annual GDP of US$$7.1 billon in 2018/2019, shocks. It is therefore important to understand the sources the 15 percent poverty gap means that it will take about of vulnerability to minimize a costly slide back into poverty. 4.5 percent of Togo’s GDP to lift all the Togolese poor out Third, gender inequality persists in the social, economic, of poverty. The main goal of the current PGA is to provide and political spheres in Togo; and the pandemic is likely a comprehensive and updated analysis of poverty and deepening this disparity. The focus on gender can unlock inequality, along with an assessment of gender equity, an important source of income gains while promoting that lays a strong foundation for evidence-based policy to gender equality. Last, and importantly, these three areas achieve an accelerated and sustained poverty reduction. are not new development challenges for Togo. The same To do so, the PGA identifies social and economic factors challenges were identified in the previous assessment that set the poor apart at the national level, and among conducted 25 years ago.5 regional and population subgroups, with a focus on three selected topics: rural incomes, vulnerability to shocks, and The PGA also aligns with the development priorities of gender inequalities. the government of Togo (GoT) as identified in its new roadmap “Feuille de Route Gouvernementale Togo 2025” Multiple reasons motivate the PGA’s focus on the three (FRGT) adopted in October 2020. The main vision of the selected topics. First, the focus on agriculture is appropriate FRGT is “A Togo in peace and a modern Nation with inclusive because it is an important source of income generation for and sustainable economic growth”. The vision includes 10 the majority of the Togolese households. In addition, ambitions built around 3 strategic axes: 5 https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/196661468765003270/pdf/multi0page.pdf. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 13 Strategic axis 1: Strengthen inclusion and social harmony This report is organized around the following four and consolidate peace: questions: i. Offer an identity and guarantee health coverage and 1. How pro-poor was growth likely to have been in Togo access to basic services for all; between 2011 and 2018/2019? ii. Provide education accessible to as many people as 2. What was the poverty profile and nonmonetary well- possible and in line with the labor market; being in Togo between 2011 and 2018/2019? iii. Ensure security, peace and justice for all; 3. What are the key challenges to sustained poverty reduction in Togo? Strategic axis 2: Boost job creation leveraging the strengths 4. What are the proposed policy options to overcome of economy: such challenges? iv. Make agriculture a real growth engine and job creation; Where appropriate and relevant, the assessment includes v. Uphold the country’s place as a logistics and services benchmarking analysis to position Togo relative to its hub; regional peers, specifically WAEMU countries, Guinea, and vi. Create veritable extractive and processing industries aspirational peers (mainly Ghana and Rwanda).6 Strategic axis 3: Modernize the country and strengthen its It is important to note that the 2018/2019 poverty structures. incidence is not comparable to the rates from previous years (2011 and 2015). The survey methodology and vii. Make Togo a regional reference in digital; welfare measurement have improved since the 2015 viii. Strengthen the country’s attractiveness to investors; survey (see annex A1 of appendix A for details).7 The ix. Solidify the structures of the State and stabilize its assessment therefore uses trends in nonmonetary poverty public accounts; to investigate how the welfare of the Togolese population x. Put sustainable development and prevention of future evolved between 2011 and 2018/2019. For this purpose, the crises at the heart of the country’s priorities. macroeconomic trends analysis focuses on the 2011/2019 period to assess how economic growth likely contributed to poverty reduction between 2011 and 2018/2019, in order to align with the analysis of nonmonetary trends, which covers the same period. 6 The selection of Ghana and Rwanda as aspirational peers follows the selection made in the Country Economic Memorandum. 7 Appendix A refers to the background paper on poverty and inequality conducted as part of the PGA. 14 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 1 HOW PRO-POOR WAS GROWTH LIKELY TO HAVE BEEN IN TOGO BETWEEN 201 1 AND 2018/2019? TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 15 Togo has recorded significant progress in its economic In the same vein, the average growth of the service performance since late 2010s (Figure 1a). With the sector was more than twice its value in the preceding easing of political tensions, higher public investment, decade (8.4 percent between 2011 and 2018/2019 versus 4 and improvements in the business environment, growth percent between 2000 and 2010). In contrast, the industry accelerated to 5.3 percent from 2008 until 2016. The sector saw the lowest average growth compared to its agriculture sector, which employs most of the poor, historical value, decreasing more than twofold (Figure 1b). recorded a much better performance over the 2011–19 In addition, value added per worker in the service and period compared to its performance registered in 2000–10. agriculture sectors has been consistently higher8 than that Precisely, the average growth of the agriculture sector’s in industry, except between 2009 and 2012, where it was contribution to GDP between 2011 and 2018/2019 was 4.9 higher in industry than in agriculture (Figure 1c).9 percent (compared to 0.1 percent in 2000–10). Figure 1. Macroeconomic performance in Togo over the periods 2000–10 and 2011–2018/2019, and employment sector of the poor a. GDP and GDP per capita growth rate b. Average annual growth in sectoral c. Employment sector by poverty status contributions to GDP (% of population) 10.0 12 100 10 5.0 80 Annual growth rate (%) 8 60 0.0 6 4 40 -5.0 2 20 -10.0 0 0 2000-2010 2011-2019 Poor Non-poor Poor Non-poor 2000 2005 2010 2015 2011 2018-19 GDP per capita Agriculture Services Agriculture Services GDP Industry Industry Sources: Panels a and b based on 2020 data from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators; panel c based on QUIBB 2011 and EHCVM 2018/2019. 8 According to the World Bank Group Jobs and Structural Change Tool, the observed growth in valued added per worker in the agriculture sector between 2011 and 2019 was mainly driven by growth within the sector such as area expansion. As for the service sector, it experienced not only growth within the sector (e.g., more workers in the sector) but also across sectors (e.g., positive externalities from other sectors such as the increased investment in industry in the late 2000s and early 2010s) as well as dynamics within the sector.. 9 The high value added per worker in the industry sector between 2009 and 2012 was the result of high government spending in the industry during that period. 16 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT The overall positive economic performance between 2011 Christiaensen 2019), the evidence provided so far on the and 2018/2019 likely contributed to poverty reduction in macroeconomic trends supports the inference that poverty Togo. The national poverty incidence in Togo obtained using decreased between 2011 and 2018/2019. Specifically, the national poverty line estimated at CFAF 273,619 (US$493) the better performance of the services and agriculture per capita per year stands at 45.5 percent, corresponding sectors, which employ the largest share of the population, to 3.6 million people. The previous most recent poverty particularly the poor (Figure 1c), suggests that the poor numbers are from the 2011 and 2015 national surveys have benefited from the growth recorded between 2011 and (Questionnaires Unifiés des Indicateurs de Base du Bien- 2018/2019. This suggestive evidence is supported by the être, QUIBB), which estimated the poverty incidence at 58.7 downward trend of the back-casted poverty incidences in percent in 2011 and 55.1 percent in 2015. These numbers are Figure 2. The back-casting is performed using the 2018/2019 not directly comparable to the 2018/2019 numbers because welfare aggregate and past growth rates of GDP per capita.10 of improvements in the survey instrument and methods for Trends in nonmonetary welfare also indicate improvement welfare measurement as discussed in appendix A, annex in well-being between 2011 and 2018/2019 (as discussed in A1. Nevertheless, based on the premise that the source of the next section), though important disparities remain. growth matters for poverty reduction (Beegle and Figure 2. Back-casted poverty incidences (%) 60 58.7 55.10 54.92 55 49.60 50 52.82 45.59 45 48.83 40 Not comparable to 2011 and 2015 35 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Pass through = 0.7 Pass through = 0.5 Official poverty rates Sources: Based on EHCVM 2018/2019 and 2020 data from the World Bank’s World Development Indicators. Note: Official poverty incidences in red dots not drawn to scale. The back-casting examines projected poverty rates based on growth in per capita GDP between 2011 and 2018/2019. The estimates are produced for each year by multiplying each household’s per capita consumption level in the 2018/19 data by a constant scale factor and then recalculating the poverty rate based on the new consumption distribution. The scale factor is equal to the amount of growth in GDP per capita between 2018/19 and the appropriate year, multiplied by a pass-through rate. The pass-through rate indicates the rate to which growth at the macro level is transmitted to household level consumption. We use 0.5 and 0.7 pass-through rate to obtain an upper and a lower bound of the potential levels of poverty reduction. 10 To check the consistency of the back-casted results, we also use the welfare aggregates from the 2011 data to perform a nowcasting exercise. Overall, the results are consistent, with about 2 percentage points of difference between the two methods (see Figure 3b in appendix A). Nevertheless, it is noteworthy to highlight that these are conservative estimates of progress in poverty reduction based on overall economic growth. Household survey-based estimates of poverty reduction would require additional work and modeling techniques to reconcile non-comparability in the household survey data. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 17 The COVID-19 pandemic, however, has had a strong impact swift measures to contain the spread of the virus, which on the economy, halting the growth momentum. Although seriously curtailed economic activities. Higher food prices Togo has been relatively unaffected in terms of direct following the pandemic outbreak undermined households’ health effects, the economic and social consequences of ability to meet their basic needs, leading to increased food the pandemic have been severe, as is the case for many insecurity across the country- as discussed in section 2.3. countries in Sub-Saharan Africa. Growth decelerated sharply Moreover, the overall inflation had been estimated to have to 1.8 percent in 2020 (–0.8 percent in per capita terms), increased poverty by 1.2 percentage point. as private consumption and investment fell following 18 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 2 WHAT WAS THE POVERTY PROFILE IN 2018/2019? TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 19 2-1. MONETARY POVERTY IN While poverty incidence among individuals households with only one female adult is close to the from 2018/2019 national number who represent about 16 percent of all households (Figure 3) it is much lower among their Poverty incidence in 2018/2019 counterparts with only one male adult. This is certainly because households with only one female adult are Almost three in five Togolese in rural areas are poor. likely to share similar characteristics with households Poverty incidence is significantly higher in rural areas (58.7 at the national level such as head’s age and geographic percent) than in urban areas (26.5 percent)—equivalent location (Table 2). Furthermore, gender-based differences to 2.7 million individuals and 0.9 million individuals, in poverty incidence among the adult population are respectively. As a result, the distribution of the poor by area high, particularly among 25-to-29-year-olds, for whom the of residence is strongly skewed, with rural areas accounting gap is almost 14 percentage points (39.3 percent poverty for 76.1 percent of the poor but only 59 percent of the total incidence for females, versus 25.4 percent for males). In population. The poverty incidence also varies considerably terms of disability, poverty incidence among individuals across regions and by household socioeconomic from households headed by someone with a major characteristics. At the regional level, the highest incidence disability12 was estimated at 50.2 percent compared to 45.5 of poverty is recorded in Savanes (65.1 percent followed by percent (the national poverty incidence). Kara (56.0 percent). By household characteristics, poverty incidence is significantly higher among individuals whose household head has no education or works in agriculture; it is the lowest among those with a head who has tertiary education or who works in the services sector (Table 1). Table 1. Poverty incidence in Togo, by household characteristics, 2018/2019 Percent of population11 Employment sector of Education level of household head household head Agriculture Industry Services No Primary Secondary Tertiary Only one Only one education female male adult adult Poverty incidence 65.0 37.0 28.5 59.6 50.4 33.4 8.6 45.8 19.3 Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. 11 Note that the sum of the percentages does not add up to 100% as these statistics do not constitute a distribution, but rather the incidence of poverty among the different subgroups. 12 The EHCVM collected data on various type of disabilities including vision, hearing, speech, walking, and memory, as well as inability to perform task such as household chores and dressing oneself. The disability was characterized as major when the level is reported to be severe. According to the survey results, about 17 percent of the Togolese population had at least one disability and 8 percent had a major disability in 2018/2019. 20 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Table 2. Household socio-demographic characteristics in Togo, by household type, 2018/2019 Household size (number of Head age (years) Female head (%) Rural (%) Literacy rate (%) individuals Only one female adult 2.5 44.9 100 51.5 53.2 Only one male adult 1.3 36.8 0 36.6 86.3 All households 4.2 44 28 53.2 67 Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Figure 3. Distribution of household types 50 40 30 20 10 0 Two adults Multiple adults One female adult One male adult Others Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Inequality in 2018/2019 Investigating the inequality structure allows for identification of the sources of inequality for more Inequality, measured by the Gini coefficient, was informed policy interventions for inclusive growth. estimated at 38.1 in 2018/2019. The Gini coefficient is Analysis of the Theil index allows a better understanding the most commonly used measure for inequality. A Gini of the nature of inequality by decomposing the inequality coefficient of 0 indicates perfect equality whereas 1 into between- and within-population subgroups. The signifies complete inequality. In relation to the Lorenz overall level of inequality is equal to the sum of the Curve, the Gini coefficient measures the area between the within- and between- components (Tbetween+Twithin =Ttotal, Lorenz Curve and the diagonal (Figure 4a). In Togo, this where Ttotal is the value of the Theil index). Comparing the inequality is mostly driven by urban areas, for which the share of the between-group component (Tbetween / Ttotal) coefficient was estimated at 37.3 compared to 33.1 for rural across households can shed light on the attributes that areas. Statistics at the regional level indicate that the Lomé are correlated with differences in the welfare level across Commune exhibits the highest Gini coefficient (37.7) and population subgroups. the Plateaux region displays the lowest (32.5). Furthermore, Togo has the highest Gini coefficient among all its peers The connection between educational attainment of the in the WAEMU region, except Burkina Faso where the Gini household head and inequality is particularly striking.13 Figure 4b shows the shares of inequality explained by coefficient is estimated at 38.6. 13 Education is decomposed in four categories: No education, primary level, secondary level, and tertiary level. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 21 Figure 4. Inequality in Togo and its sources a. Lorenz curve of per capita expenditure b. Decomposition of inequality by individual drivers, and their contribution to overall inequality (%) Education of head Household with/without children Employment sector Urban/rural Region Household Decomposition Marital status Age of head Employed/unemployed Handicapped member 0 10 20 30 Sources: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: “Household with/without children” refers to the difference between households that do and do not contain at least one individual under age 14. “Marital status” compares the following: single, married (monogamous), married (polygamous), widow/widower, and separated/divorced. “Age of head” groups households according to the age of head: 15–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45–54, 55–64, and above 65 years old. the differences between population subgroups according The difference by poverty status is also striking where the to individual household attributes. The educational statistics are 0.4 percent and 3.1 percent, respectively, for attainment of the household head explains about 23 the poor and non-poor(Figure 5b). The evidence points percent of inequality among the selected household to improved access to education through several policy characteristics; household composition, employment measures undertaken by the Togolese government. sector of the head, and residence area and region Nevertheless, there is a striking gap in enrollment rate contribute about 15–16 percent each. Other significant across the poor and the nonpoor. The gap is particularly factors of inequality include household demographic noticeable at the upper secondary level where the net composition (9.6 percent) and marital status (6.1 percent). enrollment rate is 9.7 percent and 25.7 percent, respectively, for the poor and the nonpoor, and post-secondary level Rural individuals with fathers with no education are much where it is 2.2 percent and 13.4 percent, respectively.15 This less likely to reach or exceed secondary education. 14 In poverty-based inequality in access to education combined rural areas, only 0.5 percent of those whose father has no with the limited intergenerational education mobility formal education have post-secondary education compared merits some attention, given the strong correlation between to almost 5 percent for those in urban areas (Figure 5a). educational attainment and poverty incidence (Table 1). 14 The same trend is observed with regard to the level of education of the mothers. 15 EHCVM 2018/19 22 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 5. Intergenerational mobility in education, Togo a. Level of education of individuals who have a fatheår with no education b. Level of education of individuals who have a father with no education (by place of residence) (by poverty status) 40 35 35 30 30 25 25 20 20 15 15 10 10 5 5 0 0 Primary Secondary Post-secondary Primary Secondary Post-secondary Urban Rural Togo Urban Rural Togo Sources: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: The sample is restricted to individuals between 20 and 34 years of age. Intergenerational mobility in employment is also low in wide regional MPI disparities.17 In 2018, the MPI in Togo Togo. Individuals are more likely to work in agriculture was 0.21, which is the lowest among its peers (Figure 6a). when their parents work in this sector, especially in rural Nonetheless, there are significant disparities in the MPI areas. For example, an individual whose father worked by place of residence, with rural areas being the most in agriculture is at least 3.2 times more likely to work in affected (MPI of 0.31, versus 0.10 in urban areas). The agriculture than someone whose father was employed in incidence of multidimensional poverty was estimated at services or industry.16 High intergenerational transmission 38.4 percent in 201818 and follows the same patterns in in employment sectors, combined with the high correlation terms of geographical disparities as monetary poverty between poverty and employment sector, can make poverty (Figure 6b). The difference by household composition is and inequality reduction more challenging. significant. While the monetary poverty incidence among individuals from households with one adult female is close to the national number (see table 1, section 2-1), the 2-2. MULTIDIMENSIONAL multidimensional poverty incidence for this group is much POVERTY higher, estimated at 57 percent. These results suggest that such individuals (that is, those from one female Although Togo has a low multidimensional poverty adult households) are more likely to face nonmonetary index (MPI) compared to its peers, the country displays deprivation than monetary poverty. 16 EHCVM 2018/19 17 The MPI is based on three equally weighted dimensions: education, health, and living standards (see annex A2 in appendix A for details). 18 The incidence of multidimensional poverty is different from the MPI. Indeed, for each household, a multidimensional poverty score is obtained through a weighted average of the variables considered. A household is considered poor in multidimensional poverty if its score is greater than 1/3 (which is equiva- lent to having at least one deprivation on the three dimensions considered – that is, education, health, and living standards). The MPI (the figure 0.21) is the product of the incidence (the number 38.4) and the intensity of multidimensional poverty (which is 55.8). The incidence is the proportion of poor households while the intensity is the average score of poor households. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 23 Figure 6. Multidimensional poverty in Togo and selected comparators, and by region and component a. MPI across benchmark countries b. Incidence and intensity, by region (%) c. Relative contribution of MPI components 0.40 Savanes 0.35 0.35 0.32 0.31 Plateaux 0.30 0.27 Maritime Other urban 0.25 0.22 0.21 Lomé MPI 0.20 Kara 0.15 Centrale Plateaux 0.10 Rural Lomé 0.05 Other urban Centrale 0.00 Lomé commune 0% 50% 100% Guinea Benin Guinea Bissau Senegal Côte d’Ivoire Togo 0 20 40 60 Education Health Incidence Intensity Living standard Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is based on harmonized and comparable indicators to insure comparability across countries in panel a. The drivers of MPI in Togo differ by geographic location. About 6 percent of the Togolese population is deprived In rural areas, the MPI is driven primarily by deprivation simultaneously in monetary, education, and health in living conditions, whereas deprivation in health is dimensions. Rural areas display much larger overlaps the major problem in urban areas. The fact that living of deprivation dimensions. For instance, only about 2 conditions contribute very prominently in rural areas while percent of the urban population faces deprivation in the opposite is observed in urban areas is not surprising, all three dimensions whereas the corresponding figure given that most dwellings in urban areas tend to have for the rural population is more than four times larger improved materials. What is concerning is the contribution (Figure 7). The strikingly high overlaps in rural areas are of health deprivations to MPI in urban areas, particularly in line with findings elsewhere (Schoch, Lakner, Ngyen, in the Lomé Commune where it accounts for half of the and Baah 2020). The overlaps of deprivation dimensions MPI. The contribution of education deprivation to MPI also suggest that policies directed exclusively toward one deserves some attention, because it is the second major of the deprivations (for example, targeting monetary factor in most regions (figure 5b). The deprivations in deprivation in rural areas) may fail to reduce the degree education and health are likely driven by limited access of deprivation of a large proportion of individuals who to school and health facilities, which also varies greatly also suffer from education deprivation and who present within regions. For example, the time to get to the nearest a higher vulnerability to poverty. Such findings underscore health care facility in Lomé Commune alone varies from 1.0 the complexity of poverty, especially among the rural hour to 2.5 hours (map 1). In most rural and central areas, population, and highlight the importance of devising travel time to the nearest hospital can be anywhere from multipart interventions for successful poverty reduction 1.5 hours to 2.5 hours or more. These results are indicative schemes. of strong within-region inequalities of access to basic services, which can disproportionately affect the poor. 24 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Map 1. Travel time to basic infrastructure facilities a. Travel time to the nearest school facility (hours) b. Intergenerational mobility with respect to mothers’ education Sources: Settlements information comes from the Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University and Novel-T. 2020. GRID3 Togo Settlement Extents Version 01, Alpha. Palisades, NY: Geo- Referenced Infrastructure and Demographic Data for Development (GRID3). Source of building Footprints “Ecopia Vector Maps Powered by Maxar Satellite Imagery” © 2020. https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-qdxc-0c73. School facility source: © 2021 OpenStreetMap contributors. Health facility source: © 2021 OpenStreetMap contributors and Maina J, Ouma PO, Macharia PM, et al. A spatial database of health facilities managed by the public health sector in sub-Saharan Africa. Sci Data. 2019;6(1):134. Published 2019 Jul 25. doi:10.1038/s41597-019-0142-2. Figure 7. Overlap between monetary and nonmonetary poverty in Togo a. Lomé Commune b. Other urban areas c. Rural 12.5 4.8 13.7 23.7 20.4 7.2 15.0 20.6 13.9 1.9 2.1 8.3 3.1 1.9 4.5 2.4 6.1 3.7 3.9 3.5 4.0 Monetary deprived Monetary deprived Monetary deprived Education deprived Education deprived Education deprived Health deprived Health deprived Health deprived Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: The numbers in the diagram show the percentage of population with each deprivation. The definition of education and health deprivation is the same as the Multidimensional Poverty Index used in the main text. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 25 2-3. THE IMPACT OF COVID-19 heterogeneous, disproportionately affecting the urban population. Specifically, poverty likely increased by about ON POVERTY 3.5 percentage points in urban areas (as well as in Grand Lomé), whereas the corresponding figure in rural areas is Although the pandemic has not had a major health less than 2 percentage points. Given the rural-urban divide impact on the Togolese population, it has had serious in poverty, the fact that urban areas were most affected socioeconomic impacts. As of February 13, 2022, Togo led to a decrease in overall inequality by approximately had recorded 36,660 confirmed cases of COVID-19, with 3 percentage points. Inequality also decreased within about 35,145 recoveries and 271 deaths.19 Despite swift all areas of residence, with Grand Lomé exhibiting the measures taken by the GoT, such as the Novissi program,20 largest decline. The pandemic likely increased poverty to mitigate the impact of the outbreak and the gradual across household demographic categories. For example, relaxation of restrictions to control the spread of COVID-19, poverty likely increased by about 6 percentage points in the pandemic is expected to have long-lasting effects households with only one adult male whereas it increased on household welfare. To monitor the impact of the by less than 4.1 percentage points for other household pandemic on households’ welfare, the World Bank and the categories.22 National Statistics Office conducted a series of nationally representative high-frequency phone surveys (HFPS). These surveys targeted a subsample of about 1,520 households Box 1 previously included in the last national household survey in 2018/2019.21 This section presents key findings from the To mitigate the impact of the pandemic on social welfare, the GoT first three rounds of the HFPS conducted between May implemented the Novissi cash transfer program. Implementing and December 2020. The analysis is also complemented partners included the World Bank, the University of California, with simulations using EHCVM 2018/2019 data along with Northwestern University and the US non-profit organization GiveDirectly. The program was designed for Togolese informal information from the HFPS to provide insight regarding how workers aged 18 and over who were registered on the biometric the COVID-19 outbreak is likely to have affected poverty in voter list and who had lost their income as a result of the Togo. COVID-19 pandemic. The program was implemented through 2 models: Novissi Model 1 and Novissi Model 2. Novissi Model 1 Simulation results suggest that the COVID-19 pandemic used a low-tech approach to target individuals in areas under a has likely increased poverty by approximately 4 declared state of emergency while Novissi Model 2 used a high- percentage points, which translates to almost 0.3 million tech approach of targeting the 200 poorest cantons based on additional poor people. The simulated impact of the satellite images, population census data, and machine learning. pandemic on poverty by area of residence is 19 https://covid19.gouv.tg/situation-au-togo/. 20 https://novissi.gouv.tg/en/home-new-en. 21 The distribution of households by area of residence and by welfare status show that the HFPS sample is representative of the national household survey sample (see the methodological document on simulations of the impact of COVID-19 on welfare). 22 To mitigate the impact of the pandemic on welfare, the GoT implemented the Novissi cash transfer program. (Novissi Model 1 and Novissi Model 2). Novissi Model 1 used a low-tech approach to target individuals in areas under declared state of emergency while the Noviss Model 2 used a high-tech approach of targeting from the 200 poorest cantons based on satellite imagery, population census data, and machine learning. 26 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 8. Percent of Togolese population with severe food insecurity, by place of residence (% of population) Savanes Plateaux Maritime Lomé Kara Centrale Rural Urban Togo 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 EHCVM HFPS Source: World Bank staff calculation based on EHCVM 2018/19 and HFPS May-June 2020. Results from the HFPS show that over 30 percent of from 2018.23 The situation was worse in rural areas Togolese households were unable to access main staple (Figure 8). At the regional level, Savanes experienced the foods when needed, with the poor and rural households largest increase in severe food insecurity, followed by the disproportionately affected. Specifically, 40 percent of Central and Plateaux regions (Figure 8). When comparing poor households (and 35 percent of nonpoor households) by household composition, severe food insecurity was who needed corn could not access it. The problem was more prevalent among those residing in households with more pronounced among rural households (43 percent) one adult female (60.6 percent) than in all other types of than those in urban areas (27 percent). One of the leading households. There is also a negative correlation between reasons for lack of access was high food prices, reported wealth quintile and severe food insecurity, with the share by 4 out of 10 households, with higher proportions in urban of those severely food insecure dropping incrementally areas. This difference is not surprising, given that urban across wealth quintiles. households are more likely to purchase food than their rural counterparts who tend to produce food for their own The COVID-19 pandemic and related lockdown measures consumption. have also significantly limited access to learning opportunities, especially for poor and rural residents. More than half of the Togolese population (55.3 percent) Like many other countries around the world, Togo experienced severe food insecurity. This number implemented school closures from April to June 2020 to corresponds to an increase of over 6 percentage points curb the spread of the novel coronavirus. These closures 23 The HFPS was conducted in May and June 2020, which correspond to the survey time of the second wave of the EHCVM. As a result, the increase is unlikely driven by seasonality. In addition, the recall period in the HFPS is over the last seven days whereas it is over the last 12 months in the EHCVM, implying that the increase in food insecurity incidence could have been higher in the HFPS had the recall period been longer. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 27 led to limited learning opportunities and hit the poorest the hardest. For instance, only 0.6 percent of rural residents “COVID has ruined everything. COVID has had access to online learning compared to 14.2 percent of come to reinforce the poverty of women.” urban residents. Likewise, there was a large gap in access to online learning by poverty status, as just 0.4 percent of poor residents had access compared to 10.7 percent of “Women hold a lot of informal activities and nonpoor residents. Only 7.5 percent of Togolese residents this pandemic has obviously had an impact on continued learning with a tutor, with the proportions household income and therefore we know that differing across poor (4.5 percent) and nonpoor (10.3 women provide a lot in the care of families and percent) individuals. School teaching was available for less therefore, if there is a drop in income, it works. than 1 percent of Togolese residents, regardless of their on the family, the family. Globally, it is women place of residence and poverty status. More than half of who take care of the children. So if she has a Togolese households reported self-education as the main decrease in income, this affects health itself, her health and her access to care and access. in learning strategy during the COVID-19 lockdown, with little child care. ” difference observed by place of residence or poverty status. COVID-19 has had disproportionate impacts on women‘s by the pandemic (restaurants, street vendors, merchants), economic opportunities and health. Key informants they suffered more severe economic exposure than men. emphasized not only that the COVID-19 pandemic left The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on women’s income women (often informal workers) unprotected but also that, has consequences for their health and well-being, as well because women tend to work in the sectors hit hardest as that of their children. 28 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 2-4. TRENDS IN Capital Diagnostic (HCD) conducted in 2020, Togo has recorded an improvement in its human capital over NONMONETARY WELFARE the past decade. Infant and under-five child mortality IN TOGO BETWEEN 2011 AND decreased substantially between 2010 and 2017 (from 78 to 2018/2019 42 deaths per 1,000 live births).24 This decrease occurred in both rural and urban areas. Infant mortality and under-five The trends in nonmonetary welfare indicate improvements mortality are higher among boys than girls, a trend that in households’ well-being between 2011 and 2018/2019 has persisted throughout the past decade. For instance, in even though important disparities remain. 2019 there were 72 male and 61 female under-five deaths per 1,000 live births. The incidence of malaria per 1000 people per year also fell from 360 in 2013 to 297.7 in 2019.25 Progress in human capital Furthermore, school lag26 in Togo has been decreasing Togo recorded noticeable improvements in its health steadily over the past decade, with a reduction in the outcomes but with heterogenous progress across regions urban-rural gap (Figure 9a). Across regions, the Centrale and by gender. According to the Human Capital Index (HCI) region recorded the most significant improvement (from report, the HCI in Togo is 0.43 in 2020, indicating that a 27.4 percent in 2011 to 13.2 percent in 2018/19), whereas the Togolese child born today will be able to reach 43 percent Plateaux region exhibits the least improvement (only 2.5 of her potential when she is an adult. Although this score percentage points from 21.7 percent in 2011 to 19.2 percent is relatively low compared to aspirational peers such as in 2018/19). The improvement in school lag occurred across Ghana (0.45), it puts Togo in a slightly better position both male and female students, though the relative change compared to the sub-Saharan African average, which is is slightly higher among boys (Figure 9b). estimated at 0.38. Moreover, according to the Togo Human Figure 9. Trends in school lag in Togo between 2011 and 2018/2019 a. By residence area, 2011 vs. 2018/2019 (%) b. By gender, 2011 vs. 2018/2019 (%) 30 25 23.8 25 21.9 24.2 21.9 20.6 20 19.5 20 15.8 16.8 16.9 14.8 15 14.8 14.7 15 13.7 10 9.4 10 5 5 0 0 Togo Lomé Commune Other urban Rural Boys Girls Togo 2011 2018/19 2011 2018/19 Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018-19 and QUIBB 2011. Note: School lag of a student at a given class is calculated as theoretical age for that class minus the student’s age. The theoretical age for a particular class is the age of a student who started school at the official school entrance age without any class repetition. 24 General Direction of Statistics and National Accounting, Multiple Indicators Cluster Surveys (MICS) 2010, Final Report. Lomé, Togo/National Institute of Statistics and Economic and Demographic Studies (INSEED), 2018. MICS6 TOGO, 2017, Final Report. Lomé, Togo. 25 The Togolese authorities 26 The school lag of a student at a given class is calculated as theoretical age for that class minus the student’s age. The theoretical age for a particular class is the age of a student who started school at the official school entrance age without any class repetition. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 29 Encouragingly, the country recorded some progress in Progress in access to basic infrastructure closing the gender gap in school enrollment and also realized modest reductions in learning poverty for both Improvement in access to basic infrastructure between boys and girls. According to the World Bank’s World 2011 and 2018/2019 is another indication of welfare Development Indicators, the gross enrollment rate in improvement in Togo, but subgroup disparities remain. primary for girls modestly improved from 118.8 percent The share of the population with access to electricity, safe to 121.5 between 2011 and 2018, whereas that for boys drinking water, and sanitation increased by 17, 19, and 13 decreased from 130.6 percent to 126.0 percent during percentage points (from 36, 41, and 28 percent, respectively, the same period. The gender gap reduction in school in 2011). Encouragingly, statistics at the regional level enrollment is more significant at the tertiary level: the with respect to access to clean water reveal that Centrale gross enrollment rate for girls improved by 71 percent (from and Savanes, which initially had the most limited access 5.2 percent to 8.9 percent) whereas the corresponding (Table 3), recorded the biggest improvements, with access improvement was 19.1 percent for boys (from 15.1 percent increasing by 26.3 percentage points and 23.4 percentage to 18.0 percent). Although gender disparities in Togo are points, respectively. Despite the significant improvement still evident in enrollment and completion rates, one can in access to basic infrastructure, access varies greatly by observe a positive trend in terms of gender equality in wealth quintiles, particularly in electricity and sanitation education: whereas 59 percent of women aged 45–59 have (Figure 10). no education at all compared to 26 percent of men in the same age range, the gender gap in educational attainment Evidence also points to high variation in access within is much smaller in younger cohorts. Togo also realized regions. For instance, geographic analysis of access to modest reductions in learning poverty between 2014 and safe drinking water with geospatial data reveals important 2019, though the decrease was higher for boys (from 85.6 disparities (Map 2). Only in the Grand Lomé, the west of percent to 82.2 percent) than for girls (from 84.8 percent to the Plateaux region, and the east of the Maritime region 82.1 percent).27 is the distance to drinking water less than 1 km. The most constrained access to drinking water is observed The overall improvements in education outcomes reflect in the northern regions, especially in Savanes, where the the GoT’s commitment to improve access to, and quality distance to safe drinking water in some areas exceeds 4 of, education. Education spending in 2018 represented km. Distance to safe drinking water also varies significantly almost 22 percent of total government spending. In within regions. For example, distance to clean drinking fact, public spending in education followed GDP growth, water in some western areas of Plateaux is less than 1 km, increasing by 1 percentage point of total GDP over the past but it can be more than 4 km in the east of the same region. decade. 28 Importantly, expenditures per pupil rose by 75 Urban centers in Savanes tends to have better access to percent between 2010–11 and 2018/2019—from CFAF 30,661 drinking water (less than 1 km) than most rural areas in (US$52.30) to CFAF 53,760 (US$91.80). Nonetheless, the the region (more than 4 km in some areas). The distance to evidence suggests there is room for improvement in terms safe drinking water is also constrained in the eastern and of a more progressive public spending in education by southeastern parts of Maritime region, where it is more offering scholarship benefits based on household wealth than 4 km in most areas. level rather than targeting based on academic excellence (World Bank, 2021a). 27 Learning poverty refers to the inability to read and understand a simple sentence by the age of 10. It is measured by the share of children at the end-of-primary age below the minimum reading proficiency, adjusted by the share of out-of-school children. 28 Public Expenditure Review. 30 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 10. Access to basic infrastructure by wealth quintiles Map 2. Distance to clean drinking water (% of population) 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Safe Drinking Piped Water Electricity Sanitation Water Quintile 1 Quintile 2 Quintile 3 Quintile 4 Quintile 5 Source: (a) World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019; (b) Settlements: Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University and Novel-T. 2020. GRID3 Togo Settlement Extents Version 01, Alpha. Palisades, NY: Geo-Referenced Infrastructure and Demographic Data for Development (GRID3). Source of building Footprints “Ecopia Vector Maps Powered by Maxar Satellite Imagery” © 2020. https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-qdxc-0c73. Water Sources: © 2021 OpenStreetMap contributors. Table 3. Trends in access to basic infrastructure and housing conditions, Togo, 2011 and 2018/2019 Percent of population Electricity Drinking water Sanitation Improved housing materials 2011 2018/19 2011 2018/19 2011 2018/19 2011 2018/19 Area of residence Lomé Commune 85.1 91.5 75.0 86.6 72.6 85.3 93.0 96.8 Other urban 69.5 82.5 52.6 76.2 23.1 41.7 56.0 74.1 Rural 9.3 27.2 26.0 44.5 11.2 19.9 14.0 25.2 Region Centrale 26.9 47.9 29.1 55.4 6.0 18.6 11.2 26.9 Kara 26.7 37.4 42.3 65.1 11.0 32.0 17.6 24.1 Lomé 80.0 91.5 71.1 86.6 68.0 85.3 90.8 96.8 Maritime 23.0 41.9 34.3 45.2 11.5 22.9 32.7 48.3 Plateaux 18.2 39.0 25.7 45.4 13.4 18.7 21.7 42.3 Savanes 8.6 24.9 26.4 49.8 23.1 31.8 13.7 21.6 Togo 35.6 52.2 41.2 60.3 27.7 40.4 38.4 51.3 Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019 and QUIBB 2011. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 31 Who benefited the most from the recorded the bottom 10 and top 90 is estimated to have reduced progress in nonmonetary welfare? by 11 percent. In contrast, the situation remained almost stagnant in urban areas, increasing by 0.2 percent. The The trends in inequality in nonmonetary welfare index corresponding figure for the bottom 40 and top 60 in rural suggest that the progress achieved in improving welfare areas is much larger, reaching almost 18 percent. However, benefited the population at the bottom of the distribution, it was only about 10 percent among the urban population. principally those in rural areas. In addition to ending extreme poverty, the World Bank aims to boost shared The changes in inequality in asset ownership index prosperity—measured by welfare growth of the poorest support the pattern observed with nonmonetary welfare. 40 percent in all countries. Given the noncomparability The gap between the bottom 40 and top 60 decreased of consumption data across surveys in Togo, this by approximately 5 percent at the national level.29 By section analyzes changes in inequality in nonmonetary geographic location, the gap decreased by over 16 percent welfare, including asset ownership. The difference in in rural areas and increased in urban areas, though that the nonmonetary welfare index between the top 60 and increase was insignificant (0.3 percent). The modest bottom 40 of the non-monetary welfare index decreased decrease in the gaps in nonmonetary welfare and assets by approximately 12 percent, a much larger change than indexes among the urban population calls for attention to that observed between the bottom 10 and top 90 percent persistent inequality among the urban population. (Figure 11b). This reduction in inequality was mainly driven by rural areas, where the gap in the welfare index among Figure 11. Changes in inequality in nonmonetary welfare in Togo, 2011 vs. 2018/2019 a. Trends in inequality in nonmonetary welfare index b. Percent change in inequality in nonmonetary welfare 5 0.80 0.60 0 0.40 -5 0.20 -10 0.00 -15 2011 2018 2011 2018 2011 2018 National Rural Urban -20 National Rural Urban Top90-bottom10 Top60-bottom40 Top90-bottom10 Top60-bottom40 Source: World Bank staff calculations based on QUIBB 2011 and EHCVM 2018/2019 data. Note: The nonmonetary welfare index is based on comparable indicators across QUIBB 2011 and EHCVM 2018/2019 for education, access to basic services (drinking water, electricity), dwelling characteristics (human waste evacuation, water waste evacuation, quality of dwelling material, cooking fuel), and asset ownership. The index is obtained by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and is normalized to vary between 0 (low nonmonetary welfare) and 1 (high nonmonetary welfare). One of the limitations of looking at trends using PCA is that the weights change over time. To overcome this shortfall, we fix the coefficients by applying the ones from 2018/2019 to 2011. To check the robustness of the results, we also apply the coefficients from 2011 to 2018/2019. The results remain consistent. Top90–bottom10 = welfare index for the top decile of the distribution minus that of the bottom decile; Top60–bottom40 = welfare index for the top 60 percent of the distribution minus that of the bottom 40 percent. 29 EHCVM 2018/2019 32 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 3 WHAT ARE THE KEY CHALLENGES TO SUSTAINED POVERTY REDUCTION IN TOGO? TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 33 Three broad constraints to sustained poverty reduction stand out: (1) impediments to accelerating rural income growth, (2) vulnerability to poverty due to shocks, and (3) high gender gaps. 3-1. CONSTRAINTS TO RURAL Differences in income across poor and nonpoor farm households are not rooted in the types of agricultural INCOME GROWTH activities in which they engage but in access to productive assets. Both poor and nonpoor households tend to have Before discussing constraints in the agriculture sector, this the same crop portfolio in terms of land allocation, with section starts by positioning the importance of agriculture maize occupying by far the largest share of land, followed as a source of income for rural households. by cotton (Figure 12a). The only noticeable exceptions are rice (which is more prevalent on the farms of poor Rural households in Togo derive income from multiple households) and cashew (which is more prevalent on sources, with significant disparities across households. the farms of nonpoor households) (Figure 12a). Poor According to the Rural Income Analysis (RIA) conducted households and those with one adult female realize as part of this PGA, rural households derive income from lower yields across almost all crops, which translates multiple sources, with income from agriculture alone into much lower agricultural incomes. This difference can accounting for 54 percent of total income (61 percent for be at least partly attributed to unequal access to quality poor households and 47 percent for nonpoor households). productive assets. For example, the evidence shows that Approximately 50 percent of households (54 percent hired labor is positively correlated with crop yields (Kloss among the poor) are simultaneously engaged in crop and and Petrick 2018), and the RIA corroborates this correlation livestock production. Households at the top of the wealth (see section 2 in appendix B).30 The poor, however, are less distribution are more likely to engage in nonagricultural likely to use hired labor. In addition, although the poor are wage employment (16 percent, versus 8 percent for the more likely to farm larger land sizes (1.8 ha versus 1.6 ha bottom quintile). As a result, the share of agricultural for the non-poor), they are less likely than the nonpoor to income significantly varies by wealth quintile (65 percent perceive their plots as being of high quality (22.5 percent for the bottom quintile versus 42 percent for the top). of plots, versus 31 percent of plots for the nonpoor).31 Income portfolios also differ by household composition. Moreover, households with one adult female are much Specifically, households with one adult female are more more likely to report poor soil quality than households likely to engage in agriculture (61 percent), livestock (42 with one adult male. What makes these results concerning percent), and nonfarm employment (56 percent) than their is that subjective assessments of soil quality are positively counterparts with one adult male (57, 31, and 30 percent, correlated with crop yields (Figure 13). respectively). Households with one adult male are much more likely to engage in wage employment (31 percent compared to 11 percent for households with one adult female). 30 Appendix B refers to the background paper on the RIA conducted as part of the PGA. 31 In the sample for this assessment, only households engaged in agricultural activities are observed. As a result, it does not include households that are unable to access land. Nevertheless, land shortage has been cited by 29 percent of the rural population as a cause for poverty. 34 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 12. Crop choices in Togo, by poverty status, household composition, and gender (% of households) a. By poverty status b. By household composition and gender 100 100% 80 60 50% 40 20 0 0% Rural Non-poor Poor One female One male Multiple Male Female adult adult adults Maize Sorghum Cowpea Cotton Yams Cashew nut Cassava Paddy rice Peanut Millet Other crops Source: World Bank staff calculation based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Figure 13. Correlates of plot yields in Togo a. Maize yields in kg/ha, logged (plot level) b. Fertilizer use (plot level) Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: The figure shows the coefficients of linear regression with 95 percent confidence intervals. Crop type is controlled in panel a. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 35 Lack of sufficient Figure of plotto production 13. Correlates ensure yields own consumption in Togo recent Country Economic Memorandum and the ongoing impedes commercialization. Commercialization rates of jobs diagnostic, as well as consultations with relevant agricultural products are very low despite a high market stakeholders to guide the prioritization of constraints. This participation rate. Almost 8 out of 10 households in rural section provides an overview of those constraints, which Togo commercialize at least some of their agricultural include (1) a market access gap, (2) an investment gap, production. However, the share of output commercialized (3) a policy bias, and (4) severe gender disparities across is just about 20 percent, on average. Although the share endowments, economic opportunities, and agency. does not vary across poor and nonpoor households, it is much lower in the most remote region (13.4 percent in Market access gap Savanes) and the poorest (14.4 percent in Kara). Among the households not selling their output, more than 8 out of 10 The low coverage and poor quality of infrastructure in report a lack of sufficient production for own consumption, Togo limits market access thereby impeding agricultural indicating that increased agricultural productivity is a productivity growth and commercialization. Low sale prerequisite for market participation. This statistic is prices, long distances to markets, and road impassability similar for the poor and the nonpoor. are the top challenges reported by households for the commercialization of their outputs (Figure 14b). In 2020, the African Development Bank ranked Togo 43 (out Constraints to agricultural income growth of 54 countries) in its flagship African Infrastructure Development Index, a composite indicator that assesses Rural households in Togo face constraints similar to the state of infrastructure in Africa in transport, electricity, those observed in peer countries; this provides a learning information and communication technology, and water and opportunity for Togo. The RIA identified a myriad of sanitation. Although Togo outperformed Niger (ranked 50), constraints faced by rural Togolese households in the it ranked two places behind Benin (40) and was far behind agriculture sector. The prioritization of these constraints aspirational countries like Ghana (13) and Rwanda (17). will be key, because they have different implications Poor physical connectivity can limit access to productivity- for poverty reduction and also because the country enhancing inputs, because without good-quality roads has limited resources. However, prioritizing constraints agro-dealers are unable to reach production zones in a requires a deep diagnostic, which is beyond the scope of cost-effective manner. The EHCVM data shows that rural the current assessment. Fortunately, the evidence on farm households in Togo must travel an average of 11–13 km to characteristics (in terms of investment, commercialization, reach the nearest supplier of inputs, and the distance is market access, and so on) in the RIA is consistent with what even greater for poor households (Figure 14a). With poor has been observed in other countries—mainly Burkina road conditions, this physical distance can translate into Faso and Mozambique, which share similarities with Togo— long travel times, which can deter investment in inputs, where more in-depth rural income diagnostics (RIDs) have as illustrated in figure 12b by the negative correlation been conducted. The current assessment for Togo takes between distance to fertilizer markets and the likelihood advantage of the knowledge produced from these RIDs, to use fertilizer. the evidence from the descriptive analysis, the literature, existing Word Bank analytical diagnostics including the 36 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 14. Market and infrastructure access and challenges in commercialization a. Access to market and infrastructure (% of households) b. Challenges faced by households when selling crops (% of households) Clay road (%) Sale prices are low Asphalt road (%) Markets are too far Distance to city (km) Distance to city (km) Distance to farm equipment (km) Roads are too far Distance to get chemicals (km) Lack of buyers Distance to get fertilizer (km) Cost of transportation Distance to get seeds (km) Other difficulty 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 Poor Non-poor All rural Poor Non-poor All rural Source: World Bank staff calculation based on EHCVM 2018/2019 Moreover, although mobile phones provide an effective Investment gap means to spread knowledge, the rural poor face poor service coverage. Indeed, knowledge is critical for the Weak financial markets adoption and effective use of agricultural innovations (Gupta, Ponticelli, and Tesei 2020) and access to phones Liquidity constraints resulting from lack of saving also improves access to market price information (Aker, devices and limited access to credit inhibit productive 2010). According to EHCVM data, 38 percent of the poor investment, including labor access. Only 0.3 percent of live in a community without consistent phone reception— commercial banks’ loan portfolio goes to the agriculture compared to 24 percent for the nonpoor. Furthermore, a sector, with an average interest rate of 15 percent.33 As recent comparative analysis of phone plan costs found a result, most Togolese do not have access to credit, that Togo exhibits the highest fees in the WAEMU region.32 which may limit their ability to undertake productive These high usage fees can certainly further limit access by investments. Only about 5.6 percent of Togolese aged 15 the poor. or older borrowed money to start, operate, or expand a farm or business in 2017 (Demirgüç-Kunt et al., 2018). The corresponding figure for the poorest bottom 40 percent is barely 2.2 percent, which is much lower compared to the 32 https://arcep.tg/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/CP20220302-Analyse-comparative-des-tarifs-des-communications-electroniques-UEMOA.pdf 33 https://www.togofirst.com/en/agriculture-panorama/2502-5007-an-overview-of-agriculture-in-togo-present-and-future. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 37 neighboring country Benin (4.5 percent) and aspirational 12a shows no correlation between access to extension peers such as Ghana and Rwanda (4.4 percent and 6.4 services and crop yields, hinting at the potentially poor percent, respectively). The lack of storage facilities and the quality of the current extension system. seasonality of agricultural activities force farmers to sell the bulk of their production immediately upon harvest, Weak land rights when prices are depressed. This practice not only leads to Land tenure security is associated with greater lower profits but also generates income only once a year, investment in the land. The low yields in the Savanes which creates liquidity constraints during the agricultural region means that increasing agricultural productivity in season for many farmers. This situation coupled with this region will require climate-smart investments such a lack of access to credit limits farmers’ ability to take as water management and soil conservation techniques. advantage of productive investments such as hired labor These are long-term investments that require strong or investments that require high fixed costs, such as small- tenure security. For example, in Burkina Faso, households scale irrigation, which have been shown to benefit many that report owning their land are twice as likely to invest in households (Xie et al., 2018). It is noteworthy noting that, anti-erosion measures as are those that report having the to address credit access constraints, the GoT has set up an land on loan. Experimental evidence from Benin suggests incentive mechanism for agricultural financing (MIFA), the that land rights formalization increases land investments acceleration of which constitutes one of the priorities in (Goldstein et al., 2018). According to EHCVM data, however, the FRGT (Project 14). 97 percent of farmed plots in Togo do not have any formal documentation. Technical knowledge gap Governance and policy bias Evidence points to weak extension services in terms of both access and quality. According to data from the The regulatory framework is not readily conducive to EHCVM, about 40 percent of male farmers and 72 percent of entrepreneurship in the agriculture sector. The World female farmers in rural Togo are illiterate. This low literacy Bank report, Enabling the Business of Agriculture 2019 rate limits their ability to acquire technical knowledge and (EBA) showed that government policies and regulatory inhibits technology adoption34 or diversification into high- frameworks do not make it easy for rural farmers and value crops. For example, the positive correlation between agribusinesses to operate (World Bank, 2019). The EBA poor soil quality and fertilizer application (figure 12b) hints assessment reveals that regulations in the seed and to the fact that farmers tend to compensate for poor soil fertilizer sectors are perceived to be too stringent, making quality with fertilizer. However, the evidence shows that it difficult for agro-dealers to supply seeds and fertilizer fertilizer does not have significant impact on crop yields cost-effectively. Registering machinery, sustaining livestock, except for maize, suggesting that farmers lack the proper and protecting plant health are other areas in which Togo knowledge for applying fertilizer on nontraditional crops. In underperformed relative to most peer countries. The GoT this setting of low knowledge, the use of extension agents has made significant progress in recent years, but the is perceived as the most suitable tool to disseminate country’s underperformance across multiple indicators in agricultural knowledge. Yet, according to the 2018/2019 the agriculture business environment compared to peers community survey, merely 16 percent of villages reported (Figure 15) suggests that more still needs to be done. receiving such services. Importantly, the evidence in figure 34 Results from a random field experiment in Niger shows that training farmers in water management and soil conservation techniques increased uptake of these practices by up to 60 percentage points. 38 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 15. Enabling the Business of Agriculture ranking 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Morocco Côte d’Ivoire Ghana Senegal Rwanda Mali Burkina Faso Benin Guinea Niger Togo Source: World Bank 2019. Public spending reflects government policies that have of rural households, especially the poor in this sector constrained crop diversification and the development of would be important for shared prosperity. value chains with the potential for high growth. Like most benchmark countries, Togo has historically prioritized Gender bias in agriculture selected crops viewed as strategic for food security (mostly cereals such as maize and sorghum) or export crops (cotton Addressing the aforementioned constraints will not and soya beans) (Druilhe and Barreiro-Hurlé, 2012; Jayne et necessarily improve agricultural income for rural al., 2018). In Togo, cotton and maize were the crops primarily Togolese women if the particular constraints women face targeted by the government subsidy program. However, are not also addressed. As discussed in section 4.3, social these crops have recorded only modest productivity and cultural norms constrain women’s decision-making, growth since 2000, a sign of the inefficiencies that have confining them to unpaid work and limiting their access to characterized generations of input subsidy programs in productive assets. Mobility constraints coupled with child- Africa (Ricker-Gilbert et al., 2011). Togolese cotton farmers rearing responsibilities can affect the ability of women to cultivate small plots (just under 2 ha per household) generate income outside of the home. Women also face and consequently have little scope to take advantage of gender disparities with regard to access to and use of key economies of scale. Small plot sizes combined with low productive assets such as land and livestock, and access cotton yield mean that cotton farmers cannot rely entirely to input and credit (Table 4); and they are less likely than on cotton revenue. It is important to note that soybean men to have access to technical knowledge. Indeed, the cultivation has been steadily increasing in Togo, partly traditional way of implementing extension services, which thanks to the Support Project for Youth Employability and mainly uses men as entry points, can increase gender Integration in Growth Sectors (PAEIJ-SP), positioning the inequalities in access to knowledge and the adoption of country as the leading exporter of organic soybeans to the agricultural technologies (Beaman and Dillon, 2018). The European market in 2021. However, data from the 2018/19 implication of these constraints is that plots managed EHCVM indicates that less than 3 percent of plots cultivated by women are significantly less productive than those by rural households are allocated to growing soybeans. managed by men (figure 12a), confining women to lower Therefore, the implementation of policies for the inclusion crop incomes (Table 4). Closing this gender productivity TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 39 Table 4. Farm characteristics in Togo, by gender of plot manager All plots Male-managed plots Female-managed plots Revenue (CFA francs) Gross income 68,930 80,632 33,083 Farm size (ha) Average plot size 0.68 0.73 0.54 Improved seeds 7.9 9.2 4.1 Inorganic fertilizer 36.1 35.9 37 Farm practices (%) Organic fertilizer 5 5.6 3.2 Animal traction 15.1 16.8 9.8 Irrigation 1.5 1.2 2.4 Source: World Bank staff calculation using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: ha = hectare. gap could substantially contribute to poverty reduction in that generate wage employment for nonmembers of the Togo. As an illustration, ensuring that women farmers have household. The average number of hired workers was only the same access as men to fertilizer and other agricultural 0.3 individual. inputs would increase maize yields by 11 to 16 percentage points in Malawi and by 17 percentage points in Ghana Nonfarm enterprises in rural Togo face challenges that (Gilbert, Sakala, and Benson, 2002; Hill and Vigneri, 2014). inhibit their success and growth. Among the challenges enumerated by business owners, a weak business environment characterized by few customers (experienced Constraints in the nonfarm sector and low by 61 percent) tops the list (Figure 18). Expansion of the rural jobs quality nonfarm economy is also inhibited by poor infrastructure. By slowing the flow of goods between rural and urban The rural nonfarm economy is dominated by the off- areas, the long distances inevitably limit businesses’ ability farm food economy. More than half (57 percent) of rural to acquire inputs, move products along a supply chain, or households derive some income from the nonfarm sector, reach more customers. When rural owners of nonfarm pulling in an average of 39 percent of income from this enterprises were asked to list the challenges they have source. The food industry represents the most common experienced, 14 percent (compared to only 3 percent in type of nonfarm business (Figure 16), thus demonstrating urban areas) cited access to electricity, 11 percent cited the significance of the food economy in rural Togo.35 Rural other problems with infrastructure (such as water and nonfarm enterprises tend to be “young” and informal— phone services), and 23 percent cited access to supply almost half of these businesses have existed for under of raw materials, which could be related to the available five years (Figure 17), and just 2 percent maintain written infrastructure. When poor households are located farther business accounts. Furthermore, although nonfarm from urban areas, they have fewer options to diversify their enterprises represent an important source of self- household incomes through off-farm market activities, employment, they tend not to serve as “job creators” such as retail. 35 This is also the case in the urban nonfarm sector, in which 40 percent of businesses are in the food economy. 40 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 30+20+6168124 Figure 16. Distribution of rural nonfarm enterprises by sector/subsector (% of enterprises) Transport Other 4.0% 3.9% Personal services 11.6% Food processing Nonfood retail 30.2% 7.7% Manufacturing/construction 16.0% Food retail Food wholesale 20.1% 6.4% Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Figure 17. Years in operation of rural nonfarm enterprises (% of enterprises) 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0-2 2-5 5-10 10-20 >20 Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Access to electricity is another limiting factor for rural limited access to electricity leads to very low processing income growth. According to the analysis based on the and storing capacity in the agriculture sector (milling, EHCVM survey data, access to electricity increases the dairy, meat), which could provide a source of income for likelihood of nonfarm participation by 15 percent, which is nonagricultural households (Barret et al., 2018). Moreover, positively correlated with investment in inputs (especially the lack of electricity means that there is little after-dusk in hiring labor) and, consequently, with crop yields. Yet economic activity. Even when there is access to electricity, Togo has the highest rural-urban access gap in electricity it is erratic, which can be a serious challenge for industries across all WAEMU countries (Figure 19); just 27 percent of that require a reliable source of electricity such as dairy, rural households have access compared to 88 percent meat, fruit, and vegetables. of urban households, a gap of 61 percentage points. The TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 41 Figure 18. Challenges faced by rural nonfarm enterprises in Togo Internet 1.3 Tech problems of manufacturing 5.1 Power outage 5.2 Too much taxes 7.3 Insecurity 7.4 Access to equipment 9.6 Access to electricity 13.6 Lack of room 14.4 Access to credit 17.6 0 5 10 15 20 Urban Rural Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: WAEMU = West African Economic and Monetary Union. Figure 19. Electricity access gap between rural and urban areas across WAEMU countries 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 GNB MLI CIV BEN SEN BFA NER TGO Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: WAEMU = West African Economic and Monetary Union. Low jobs quality is another constraining factor to The ongoing Jobs Diagnostic in Togo will provide a more sustained poverty reduction. In addition to the constraints comprehensive understanding of the main constraints in in the agriculture and the nonfarm sectors, which are the sector and relevant priority policy options to overcome mainly self-employment, rural populations, like their such constraints. counterparts in urban areas, face poor jobs quality (box 1). 42 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Box 2. Low jobs quality in Togo Creating new and better jobs is critical for ending extreme poverty and fostering sustainable development. The evidence presented in the poverty profile section on the correlation between employment type and poverty corroborates this in the context of Togo. Unfortunately, the jobs sector in Togo, like in many other developing countries, faces multiple constraints. Although Togo exhibits a high employment rate, most Togolese workers are underemployed. Specifically, the employment rate was estimated at 76 percent in 2018; however, most Togolese workers are visibly underemployed.a The rate of underemployment significantly increased in the past decade, rising from 24 percent in 2011 to 44 percent in 2018 (preliminary results from Brunelin et al., forthcoming). Geographical and gender disparities in underemployment are striking. The problem of underemployment is more pronounced in rural areas (52 percent) than in urban areas (33 percent). Women are disproportionately more affected than men (53 percent of women compared to 35 percent of men in 2018). This gender gap in underemployment levels has increased in the past decade from 12 percentage points in 2011 to 18 percentage points in 2018. Evidence suggests low capacity for decent jobs creation in the Togolese economy, confining most of the population to self-employment and work in family businesses, which together account for almost 80 percent of jobs (Brunelin et al., forthcoming). Again, women and the rural population are worse off, with about 90 percent of female workers being self-employed or working in a family business (compared to 68 percent for men and 61 percent for urban workers). However, family businesses and self-employment face multiple constraints as discussed previously, and these constraints also hold among urban households. Even workers with paid employment face low-quality jobs in all four key dimensions: income, benefit, stability, and working conditions. Furthermore, female workers lag behind in all dimensions of job quality, as measured by the Job Quality Measure (JQM) (figure B1.1). The largest gender gap in the JQM is observed in the dimension of income (0.4 for women versus 0.6 for men (Hovhannisyan et al., 2021)). Even though the law provides for equal remuneration for equal labor, in practice women are often underpaid. Figure B1.1. JQM by residence area and by gender a. JQM by residence area b. JQM by gender 3.0 3.0 2.0 2.0 JQM JQM 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 Lomé Other Rural Female Male Commune urban Income Benefit Stability Working Conditions Wage employee (%) Source: Source: Hovhannisyan et al. 2021. Note: Preliminary results subject to change. JQM = Job Quality Measure. a. Visible underemployment concerns people who have a job but work less than 35 hours per week, or less than 7 hours per “working day.” TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 43 3-2. VULNERABILITY TO negative shock and its potential impact on household welfare.37 Compared to their urban peers, rural inhabitants POVERTY AND ITS SOURCES are more vulnerable to poverty (83 percent versus 39 percent in urban areas) (Figure 20). The higher level of Vulnerability to poverty is, by definition, a factor that vulnerability to poverty in rural areas is partly driven by the constrains efforts to reduce poverty. The Togo National rural population’s reliance on agriculture, which is subject Development Plan adopted in 2018 and its FRGT (Feuille de to natural covariate shocks (such as drought and crop Route Gouvernementale Togo 2025) recognize the need for and animal diseases). Indeed, 90 percent of those whose proactive policies to protect households from shocks that household head is primarily employed in agriculture are put households at great risk of falling into poverty. This is estimated to be vulnerable to poverty, compared to 49 especially likely when households are unable to protect percent and 43 percent for those whose head is employed themselves through formal or informal arrangements, and in industry and services, respectively. when capacity is limited for any existing social safety net program to expand coverage to the “new” poor in times Vulnerability to poverty varies greatly across regions of need. Without appropriate mechanisms to buffer the and by household composition. The Savanes region has impact of these shocks, they are likely to undermine the highest rate (85 percent) followed by the Kara region progress in poverty reduction and shared prosperity and (81 percent), whereas Lomé Commune displays the lowest can have severe and long-lasting negative effects in terms rate (33 percent). Even relatively wealthier regions like of human development. Plateaux and Centrale, the least poor regions after Lomé Commune, exhibit high incidences of vulnerability to What is the level of vulnerability to poverty poverty. This finding indicates that, even in regions that in Togo? tend to do far better in terms of the incidence of poverty, a sizeable proportion of individuals remains at risk of About two-thirds of Togolese are estimated to be falling into poverty. In terms of household composition, an vulnerable to poverty. 36 Vulnerability to poverty is a overwhelming proportion of individuals from households measure of the likelihood that a nonpoor household or with a single adult female are vulnerable to poverty relative individual will fall below the poverty line during a given to their counterparts with one adult male (26 percent period, reflecting both the probability of a versus 13.5 percent, respectively). 36 EHCVM 2018/2019. The measure of vulnerability to poverty and the poverty incidence should not be summed because they capture different metrics of poverty. In this estimation, we identify households that are vulnerable to poverty. 37 We employ a multilevel approach developed by Gunther and Harttgen (2009) to estimate expected mean and variance in consumption using both observed and unobserved household- and community-level characteristics. We then estimate vulnerability assuming a log normal distribution for consumption. We chose a threshold of 29 percent, above which a household is categorized as vulnerable to poverty. The methodology enables us to quantify vulnerability to poverty, including which types of shocks the vulnerability is tied to, and examine its sources (poverty- or risk-induced). 44 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 20. Vulnerability and poverty incidences, by region (% of population) 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% Centrale Kara Grand Lomé Maritime Plateaux Savanes Poverty rate Vulnerability rate Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019 What types of vulnerability affect the The high prevalence of poverty-induced vulnerability in Togolese the most, and what are their Togo is partly driven by a higher exposure to idiosyncratic sources? shocks relative to covariate shocks. About 66 percent of households in Togo experienced some type of shock three Poverty-induced vulnerability is more prevalent in Togo, years before the survey time. This figure is much higher especially in rural areas. Vulnerability can be poverty- than in Senegal (48 percent) and marginally higher than induced (that is, structural vulnerability due to low physical in Côte d’Ivoire (60 percent). Togolese are more subject to assets and human capital accumulation leading to chronic idiosyncratic shocks (50 percent) than covariate shocks (28 poverty) or risk-induced (transitory vulnerability following percent), a pattern that is common in the WAEMU region, the occurrence of a shock leading to transitory poverty).38 with the exception of the Sahelian countries (Burkina Faso, When vulnerability is decomposed into these types, we Mali, and Niger) where the opposite is observed certainly find that poverty-induced vulnerability strongly dominates, owing to the high prevalence of drought in these countries. especially in rural areas (Figure 21). Approximately 46 The top-three idiosyncratic individual shocks reported by percent of Togolese (63 percent in rural areas) are exposed Togolese households are severe illness or injury (by far to poverty-induced vulnerability, whereas 19 percent (21 the most prevalent at 31 percent), followed by death of a percent in rural areas) face risk-induced vulnerability. The household member (15 percent) and theft (7 percent). At relative importance of poverty-induced vulnerability (that the same time, drought and irregular rainfall (7 percent) is, the ratio of poverty-induced to risk-induced) is highest and floods (5 percent) are the top natural covariate shocks in the Savanes and Kara regions (4.7 and 3.5, respectively). reported. These results suggest that the populations in these regions are more exposed to chronic poverty. 38 The decomposition of vulnerability to poverty-induced and risk-induced follows Günther and Harttgen (2009). TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 45 Figure 21. Vulnerability types, by geographic location and by household composition (% of population) a. By residence area b. By region c. By household composition 90% 90% 80% 80% 80% 70% 70% 70% 60% 60% 60% 50% 50% 50% 40% 40% 40% 30% 30% 30% 20% 20% 20% 10% 10% 10% 0% 0% 0% Lomé Other Rural Togo One One Two Multiple adults Centrale Kara Lomé Commune Maritime Plateaux Savanes Commune urban male female adults adult adult Risk-induced vulnerability Risk-induced vulnerability Risk-induced vulnerability Poverty-induced vulnerability Poverty-induced vulnerability Poverty-induced vulnerability Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. A high level of exposure to illness such as malaria can Although current levels of exposure to covariate shocks lead to productivity loss and can seriously constrain are relatively low, future climate change disasters put poverty reduction when access to health care is limited. the Togolese at great risk of shocks, threatening progress According to the household survey, up to 47 percent of rural in poverty reduction. This risk-induced vulnerability, households reported having a sick member who did not although relatively low compared to poverty-induced seek medical services even though the sickness prevented vulnerability, can have serious negative, long-lasting, and him or her from working. Statistics from the same survey wide-reaching impacts when climate disasters such as also indicate that , malaria is associated with the inability droughts and floods occur. For rural households, exposure to perform daily activities in about 66 percent of the cases to drought leads not only to production losses (73 percent in rural areas (60 percent at the national level). Poor health of households) but also to asset depletion. Flood disasters, care conditions, combined with an inability to hire labor which are increasingly frequent in Togo, can have serious due to liquidity constraint, put the rural poor at a great negative impacts on food production—also threatening risk of labor income losses when facing health shocks. food security39 and leading to loss of private assets such For example, when undetected or untreated, malaria as dwellings and personal belongings, particularly among can reduce income by 10 percent (Dillon, Friedman, and urban households. This risk tends to disproportionately Serneels 2014). In recognition of the economic costs of affect the poor, who are more likely to live in precarious illness or injury, objective 2.1 of the Country Partnership settings (Winsemius et al. 2018). Framework (CPF) focuses on strengthening health services. Improved access to health services and universal health coverage are also priorities for the GoT, as outlined in the FRGT. 39 https://www.fao.org/resources/digital-reports/disasters-in-agriculture/en/. 46 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Map 3. Percent of buildings in each settlement at risk of flood a. Togo b. Maritimes Source: Settlements: Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN), Columbia University and Novel-T. 2020. GRID3 Togo Settlement Extents Version 01, Alpha. Palisades, NY: Geo-Referenced Infrastructure and Demographic Data for Development (GRID3). Source of building Footprints “Ecopia Vector Maps Powered by Maxar Satellite Imagery” © 2020. https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-qdxc-0c73.Flood hazard data: Fathom v2 Fluvial floods 2020, FATHOM limited. Predictions using geospatial data show that significant Inopportunely, households have very few options to cope numbers of the Togolese are at risk of facing flood. with these shocks, which leads them to resort to informal According to predictions with a probability of a flood safety net strategies. Over half (55 percent) of households occurring once in 10 years, 0.79 percent of all buildings in reported using savings as a coping mechanism; help Togo are at risk of flooding, corresponding to more than from parents and friends (27 percent) is the second most 2,500 buildings. This number increases to 1.79 percent common coping strategy used by households (figure 21). of buildings in a one in 100-year event. By geographic These coping strategies are also the most common in peer location, the most exposed areas to the risk of flooding are countries in the region (45 percent using savings and 28 Grand Lomé followed by Maritime and Plateaux regions. For percent receiving help from family and friends, on average). Grand Lomé, 2.2 percent of all buildings would be subject The results by poverty status show that, owing to their high to flooding risk with a one in 10-year probability and engagement in agriculture, poor households are much 2.9 percent with a one 20-year flood. The corresponding more likely to rely on sales of food stock and livestock. numbers are 1.50 percent and 1.90 percent (with a one in Approximately 6 percent of households living under the 10-year probability ) and 2.6 percent and 1.9 percent (with national poverty line sell food stock (versus 4 percent at a one in 20-year probability), for Maritime and Plateaux national level) and 5 percent liquidate livestock (versus 3 regions, respectively (Map 3). percent at the national level) to cope with shocks. These TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 47 Figure 22. Coping strategies following a shock (% of households) 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Centrale Kara Lomé Commune Maritime Plateaux Savanes Savings Help from parents and friends No strategy Other strategies Borrow Buy cheap food Sell food stock Sell livestock Reduce consumption Sell asset Help from government Help from NGO Source: World Bank staff calculations based on EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: NGO = nongovernmental organization. percentages are much larger among households in the likely to push many vulnerable Togolese households into poorest region, Savanes (Figure 22), where a larger share poverty. Indeed, with limited formal systems, households of households is engaged in crop and livestock production. must resort to a variety of negative coping strategies (such as reduced food consumption or asset sales, as described A common pattern in Togo and its WAEMU peer countries earlier) that make it difficult to escape a cycle of poverty is the very low share of households that receive help from and vulnerability. the government to deal with a shock. According to data from EHCVM 2018/2019, only 0.3 percent of households in Togo and 0.8 percent, on average, in WAEMU countries 3-3. GENDER INEQUALITIES reported receiving help from the government to cope AND POVERTY with a shock. This low formal coping mechanism reflect consistently low expenditures in social safety nets and Despite notable progress over the last years, gender in health have. According to the World Bank 2021 Public disparities persist in Togo in endowments (education and Expenditure Review, the share of public spending in health health), economic opportunities (labor market inclusion, and social protection was estimated at 0.5 percent of GDP entrepreneurship), and access to and control over between 2009-2016. The near absence of formal coping assets.40 The country has made progress reducing gender mechanisms and the limited informal risk-sharing among inequalities in several areas, including the economic Togolese households, combined with the prospect of autonomy of women. The proportion of women in the total sustained negative impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, are agricultural population with ownership or secure rights 40 This section is based on quantitative analysis (mostly using data from EHCVM 2018/2019, Demographic and Health Survey 2013–14, and the World Bank’s World Development Indicators). In addition, a thorough literature review was conducted on gender equality issues in Togo. Finally, key informant interviews were conducted with approximately 20 stakeholders from government, development partners, nongovernmental organizations, and academia regarding (1) drivers of gender equality in Togo, (2) explanations of quantitative findings, and (3) interconnections between poverty and gender in Togo. Interviews were transcribed and coded before the analysis. Boxes in gray throughout the text capture anonymous citations from those interviews. 48 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT “I take the Togolese society, we are subject to our culture. The woman, if it is the woman, you invest in the life of your daughter, she will go to someone else, she will go to marry, that’s a bit why….” to agricultural land increased from 53.3 percent to 56.40 Poverty further entrenches girls and women into unequal percent between 2014 and 2021. Women’s representativity 41 positioning and severely limits their access to services has also increased from 21 percent and 31 percent between (including education and health). Poverty was frequently 2014 and 2020 for ministerial positions and from 17.58 named as a precursor to gender inequality over the life percent to 18.68 percent in national parliaments and cycle: because of poverty, many parents can’t afford school regional and local bodies between 2013 and 2018. Several for their children and, when they have to choose who to policies put in place by the Togolese government42 may send, prioritize boys. Similarly, access to (reproductive and have contributed to this progress. Nonetheless, there maternal) health services become more difficult for the are persisting disparities between men and women that poor. operate as major constraints to inclusive growth and poverty reduction. According to the analytical framework “As households or dwellings are far from put forward in de Paz and Muller (2021), opportunities to schools in the rural environment so you accumulate human capital and assets, to exercise agency, see the little girl has to go back home at and to be economically active and productive represent noon, where she is the one who has the fundamental nonmonetary dimensions of poverty, which responsibility to prepare food. There is are important to look at when assessing multidimensional no water, she’s the one who has to fetch poverty. At the same time, given their important role water, come and prepare food and so in the end, even if she has the will to go in either promoting or constraining access to quality back to school she will go back to school economic opportunities, the abilities to accumulate human tired.” capital and assets and to exercise agency constitute essential dimensions driving poverty outcomes in terms of monetary aspects, because labor income is one of the Gender disparities in education and health main contributors to an individual’s standing with respect to the poverty line. Gender disparities in Togo are evident in educational enrollment, attainment, and completion. Disproportionally “In terms of inequalities, what I can say also more women than men ages 15+ have no education– yet in relation to access to (health) treatment, I the extent of the gaps varies when comparing different mean, poverty means that sometimes women, age groups, regions, and income levels. Among older age even if they are in need, wait for their cohorts, the gap is significantly larger compared to younger husbands to give permission before they go to cohorts and among the population: 56 percent among the hospital.” women vs 30 percent among men have no education in rural areas, compared to 24.3 percent of women and 7.3 percent 41 The Togolese authorities. 42 Among such policies are the adoption in 2018 of the land code integrating gender equality, the Support Project for Youth Employability and Integration in Growth Sectors (PAEIJ-SP), the National Promotion Project of Rural Entrepreneurship (PNPER), the Support Project for the Empowerment of Rural Women in Togo through the project (PAFERT), the Incentive Mechanism for Agricultural Financing (MIFA) which finances women in the agricultural sector and the alloca- tion of 25% of public contracts to the youths and women. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 49 of men in urban areas. Girls are still 4.4 percentage points expectation that daughters will leave their family to join less likely than boys to complete primary school, and 11.2 another family could explain underinvestment in girls— percentage points less likely to complete secondary school because, ultimately, any investment will be transferred to on average. The gender gap in enrollment is particularly another family. Instead of educating a girl, therefore, her pronounced at upper secondary level (17.6 percent of girls family may perceive it to be rational to marry her earlier, and 20.6 percent of boys enrolled) and the gap widens rather than later. for completion: Data from the annual statistics 2017-2018 indicates that only 42.8 percent of girls complete secondary school compared to 54.4 percent of boys. “And when they have a lot of children, they sometimes prefer to educate the men rather Reasons for not attending primary or secondary school than the women. Indeed, we say to ourselves differ between girls and boys—likely related to social that it is better to put the means on the men to push them to advance, because we have norms and ingrained gender roles. When asked about the a traditional system, patrilineal, that’s it, reasons for not attending primary school, girls are more yes patrilineal which makes that the families likely to report refusal by family, distance to school, lack of think that by investing in a man, it is more financial resources, and “being a girl.” Boys are more likely the perpetuation of the family stock than the to report preference for work. investment in a woman who will certainly marry into another family and leave with the Marriage and pregnancy are also cited as reasons for family heritage.” girls not to attend school. At the upper-secondary level, marriage accounts for 4.15 percent and pregnancy for 3.3 percent of girls not attending school (EHCVM 2018/2019). Another gender-specific limiting factor cited by key A high prevalence of early pregnancy seems to be a major informants is the low share of women among teaching impediment to girls’ success in school. In 2016, of 1,337 staff. Women are severely underrepresented as teachers cases of pregnancy, only 208 pregnant girls completed in primary schools (15.9 percent in 2013–14) and even more the school year (Republique du Togo, n.d.). The pressure so in secondary schools (6.8 percent in lower-secondary on girls to marry early is also related to a reduced value and 6.6 percent in upper-secondary schools; UNICEF assigned to their schooling—in part because of the 2019). Lack of female teachers is negatively correlated patriarchal family structure in the Togolese society. The with girls’ schooling outcomes and aspirations. Women teachers increase the likelihood of parents enrolling their “As households or dwellings are far from daughters, function as female role models, and may act schools in the rural environment so you as advocates for girls, representing their perspectives see the little girl has to go back home at and needs, promoting more girl-friendly learning, and noon, where she is the one who has the preventing gender-based violence (GBV) in schools (Kirk responsibility to prepare food. There is no 2006). water, she’s the one who has to fetch water, come and prepare food and so in the end, even if she has the will to go back to school she will go back to school tired.” 50 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Poverty is stated to be one of the main underlying Family formation has important implications for the causes behind negative maternal health outcomes in ways that women participate in the economic sphere Togo because poor women often cannot afford the direct and how they take advantage of services, but it is also or indirect costs of services and because they or their directly linked to poverty and women’s ability to move families may not prioritize maternal health services over out of poverty. In Togo, the total fertility rate is still high other competing necessary expenses. Fewer than one at 4.26 births per woman, but it has fallen from one of the in two women (43.13 percent) of women from the poorest highest levels among peer neighboring countries to the quintile delivered with skilled birth assistants, whereas lowest. Wanted fertility has been stagnant between 1998 nearly all women from the wealthiest quintile (96.91 and 2014 (4.2 children versus 4.1 children) and is still very percent) did so (Atake 2021). Urban-rural discrepancies are high in rural areas, particularly when compared to urban also large, and so are differences when comparing women populations (4.9 children per woman in rural areas versus from different education backgrounds: higher education 3.1 children in urban areas). Moreover, according to the is associated with a high proportion of facility-based 2013–14 Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), wanted deliveries in both 1998 (100 percent) and 2013 (97.4 percent). fertility decreases significantly with increased education, Maternal mortality in Togo was 396 deaths per 100,000 live varying from 5.3 children wanted (no education) to 2.2 births in 2017, higher than in some neighboring countries (higher education; Figure 23). (Burkina Faso, 320; Ghana, 308; Rwanda, 248; Senegal, 315) but lower than in Côte d’Ivoire (617), the Gambia (597), Contraceptive use is very low yet has increased Guinea (576), Mali (562), Niger (509), and the Sub-Saharan significantly since 1998, doubling from roughly 13.9 Africa average (534).43 percent to 24 percent in 2013–14. The use of contraception among married women increases with the level of education attained: only 14.3 percent of women with no education use contraception compared to 22.3 percent of “But being in poverty can influence the quality of care that is given to women, it can direct those with primary education, 25.3 percent with secondary the choice of which institution to visit, for education, and 31.2 percent with tertiary education.44 example, those who are well off access more Key informants stated that access to contraception is quickly private institutions where sometimes the constrained by financial, cultural, and geographic factors. care is much better compared to some public They also referred to men’s exercise of control over the institutions.” contraceptive choices of their wives, so women’s limited agency is stated as one of the drivers of nonuse. 43 World Development Indicators. 44 World Development Indicators. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 51 Figure 23. Wanted fertility rate, actual fertility rate, and the gap by educational level 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 TOTAL NO EDUCATION PRIMARY SECONDARY HIGHER Wanted fertility rate Actual fertility rate Gap: actual minus wanted Source: DHS 2013/14 Women’s voice and agency: The crucial 2017). Furthermore, it is estimated that, in the African role of stimulating progress across other region, each year earlier that a girl marries reduces the dimensions of gender equality probability of literacy among women who married early by 5.7 percentage points, and the probability of having at Women’s agency, or the ability to make and implement least some secondary schooling by 5.6 points (Nguyen and decisions, is fundamental to ensuring that women can Wodon 2014). Consequently, adolescent fertility is directly build their human capital, make use of services, and take linked to the limitation of job opportunities and quality on economic opportunities. In Togo, multiple dimensions employment later in life (WHO 2020). point to the limitations women experience with respect to their agency. Among them, early marriage and teenage The adolescent fertility rate in Togo dropped significantly pregnancy are prevalent in Togo. from 140.8 births per 1,000 women ages 15–19 in 1980 to 88.3 births in 2018/2019, and has almost stagnated since Teenage pregnancy and child marriage have severe 2000. These figures are higher than in neighboring countries, negative implications for girls’ well-being, including later like Benin and Senegal, but below those in Burkina Faso, in life. Early pregnancy reduces girls’ years of schooling, Chad, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, and Mali. According to key and teenage mothers are less likely than adult mothers informants, in Togo (like in other countries) high teenage to finish secondary education, and in some cases primary fertility rates can be partially explained by the high education (Arceo-Gomez and Campos-Vazquez 2011; incidence of poverty. Another driver of adolescent fertility Berthelon and Kruger 2012). In Uganda, for example, child raised prominently was the lack of sexual and reproductive marriage and early childbearing are proven to decrease education. Besides the absence of such education from the girls’ level of educational attainment and increase their school curriculum, a particular concern was raised about vulnerability to interpersonal violence (Wodon et al. parents not discussing sexuality with their children. 52 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT under specific conditions, although, significantly, tolerance “ Poverty, poverty (...) makes that when the for wife beating is lower in Togo than in its neighboring girl sees her friends, for example, how they peers. Higher levels of education are associated with lower dress, that they have a phone or a watch, tolerance for wife beating. To effectively tackle and eradicate they also tend to have the same thing, so they are easier attracted, and older men in GBV, negative social norms need to be addressed and zero addition have the means and therefore the tolerance of violence against women should be promoted; girls can get pregnant.” not only is this recommendation in line with the literature (Alexander-Scott, Bell, and Holden 2016; Heise 2011; Jewkes, Stern, and Ramsoomar 2019; Kerr-Wilson et al. 2020), but One in four girls (25.0 percent) is married at age 18 in it is also confirmed by key informants interviewed for this Togo (MICS 2017). Women marry earlier than men, and assessment. They consistently emphasize the importance both women and men in rural areas marry even earlier. of addressing “mentalities.” Poverty is among the main drivers of child marriages globally (Wodon et al. 2017) and was referred to as key Another dimension of limited agency is evidenced by the driver in Togo by key informants. In addition, gender norms limited decision-making ability reported in respective and cultural practices were emphasized as critical in surveys. According to the 2013–14 DHS, fewer than one in explaining high early marriage rates. Beyond being rooted two women (47.2 percent) participates in decision-making in poverty, however, child marriage reinforces poverty about major household purchases, 42.1 percent participate on the transgenerational level (Borgen Project 2020). It in decisions about their own health, and 64.6 percent decide is therefore important to address this issue not only as about visits to family, relatives, and friends. Key informants one of the key gender-differentiated negative symptoms emphasize, though, that there are significant variations in of poverty but also as one of the key factors reproducing terms of women’s decision-making power when comparing poverty for the girl herself and her children. women from different regions, rural versus urban, or religious affiliations and that the observed limitations are Violence against women stands out as a critical negation largely driven by social norms that limit women’s role to of women’s agency and is prevalent in Togo. According to a subordinate status within families and communities. the 2013–14 DHS, 35.7 percent of women in Togo have been Poverty and, specifically, women’s economic dependence exposed at some time to emotional, physical, or sexual on men are also cited as major drivers of women’s lack of violence by a partner (Figure 24). Prevalence is higher in power within the household. rural areas than urban areas, and women with no or little education as well as those from poorer households are “Poverty means that sometimes women, even more likely to be exposed. Somewhat more than one-third if they are in need, wait for their husbands to of survivors (36.8 percent) have sought help to stop physical give permission before going to the hospital or sexual violence, according to the 2013–14 DHS. Although and this has an impact on their health. this figure constitutes a limited share of survivors, it is Because they don’t have the means and can’t above the shares in Benin, Chad, Mali, and Senegal. Almost make decisions. “ one in three people justifies violence against women TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 53 Figure 24. Sexual, physical, and emotional violence against women (%) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Total 15-49 Urban Rural No Primary Secondary Higher Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Togo Residence education Education Quintile Emotional violence commited by husband/partner Sexual violence commited by husband/partner Physical violence commited by husband/partner Physical and sexual violence commited by husband/partner Physical and sexual and emotional violence commited by husband/partner Physical or sexual or emotional violence commited by husband/partner Source: DHS 2013/14. Disparities in economic activity same life period (37.45 hours versus 34.10 hours). This leaves women with a total workload that is massively Women spend significantly more time in domestic unpaid larger than that of men. Women who marry as adolescents work compared to men (16.9 hours per week versus 5.3 work fewer hours outside the home compared to those hours per week, according to the 2018/2019 EHCVM). The who marry later in life—further limiting their (economic) gender gap is even larger in rural areas (18.9 hours versus autonomy. Key informants highlight that these observed 6.2 hours) than in urban areas (14.2 hours versus 4.0 hours). prepandemic discrepancies in time use have become The gender gap in time use is largest in the core productive more severe. Women, traditionally in charge of care and years (24–44) of life: 23.7 hours versus 4.8 hours (Figure 25). unpaid work, have become responsible for additional care At this stage, women work the most hours in unpaid work for the sick and children at home during the pandemic. whereas men invest less time than they did in earlier years School closures and overall mobility restrictions have had of life. Conversely, men are more likely to spend time on significant implications for women’s ability to generate work outside the home compared to women during that incomes during the pandemic. 54 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Figure 25. Average hours spent on unpaid domestic work per week, by age group 25 20 15 10 5 0 7-12 13-18 19-24 25-44 45-64 65$ Male Female Total Source: Calculated from EHCVM 2018/2019. Women’s participation in the labor market—and the skilled or unskilled workers. Of total female employment, quality of that participation—matter for their ability to 87.5 percent can be categorized as vulnerable, whereas the generate incomes and move out of poverty. In Togo, female share of vulnerable employment among men has always labor force participation increases with income group, and been lower and stood at 62.09 in 2019 (Gender Statistics). the gender gap in labor force participation is largest in Moreover, 94.3 percent of female employees are employed the poorest income quintiles. According to the 2018/2019 informally, compared to 73.9 percent for men, according the EHCVM, female labor force participation stands at 53.0 the 2018/2019 EHCVM. Women and girls are often exploited percent, much lower than male labor force participation of in domestic work and have limited options outside the 70.8 percent. The gender gap in labor force participation is informal economy. Most female employees work in the larger in rural areas than in urban areas (23.8 percentage informal sector, which means they are not protected by points versus 10.1 percentage points, respectively), driven labor laws (UNICEF 2019). by lower rates of participation among women in rural areas. Women are more likely to work in self-employment,45 and Although the majority of women is engaged in the labor the share of self-employed women has remained almost force, the quality of jobs they undertake remains poor constant over the past few decades. For men this share (see earlier reference in box 1). For example, according dropped significantly after 2006 (from 84.5 in 1994 to 64.2 to the 2018/2019 EHCVM, 40 percent of employed women in 2019), and more recent information puts women’s self- are contributing family workers, compared to 24.4 percent employment at 60 percent and men’s at 58 percent.46 of male workers. Men are more likely than women to be Interestingly, Togo’s gender gap in self-employment differs 45 Self-employment entails multiple subcategories: self-employed workers with employees (employers), self-employed workers without employees (own- account workers), members of producers’ cooperatives, and contributing family workers (also known as unpaid family workers). 46 Preliminary results by authors of the Jobs Diagnostic/Strategy for Togo (Brunelin et al., forthcoming). TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 55 when comparing urban and rural populations. In urban Land ownership and the limitations women face in this areas, 67 percent of female workers and 43 percent of male regard—despite the legal possibilities—were mentioned workers are self-employed; in rural areas, the shares are prominently as major problems in Togo. Closing the de 70.4 percent of men and 54.9 of women workers. jure–de facto legal gap in land ownership was mentioned as a policy priority by several interviewees. Unequal land Besides time use, social norms, and human capital ownership was referred to as one of the main explanatory constraints, women’s ability to be economically active factors behind the links between gender inequality and is further limited by the constraints they face with poverty in Togo. Relatedly, several interviewees in the respect to access to finance, bank accounts, and assets. qualitative data mentioned that women cannot access Women in Togo are about half as likely as men to have credit in the ways that men can. access to mobile banking (11.7 percent versus 21.13 percent, respectively, according to EHCVM 2018/2019). The gender gap is even larger in rural areas, driven by the “ These are the areas in which there would be particularly low access among women there (6.7 percent leverage. Much more on access to land. When for women compared to 16.9 percent for men). Access to women have access to land and when this idea has made into the heads of the people, it’s mobile banking increases with income quintile—but with going to be a big effect on the empowerment a persistent gender gap across all income groups. In terms of women themselves. .” of access to a bank account (not necessarily mobile), women are still disadvantaged but their access is greater. About 25.21 percent of women versus 38.3 percent of men Finally, it is important to highlight that, according to have access to a bank account (EHCVM 2018/2019). Overall key informants, gender disparities intersect with other access is much higher in urban than rural areas and is social variables, such as religion, location of residence, proportional to income level. and age. Depending on the region, certain religious beliefs are more practiced. Specific religions impose different rules and customs on their members—often with different “ Poverty is linked to gender inequality since implications for men and women. Similarly, specific women are limited in their access to productive customs differ when comparing different regions. Hence, resources such as land, credit, etc...” policy responses should always take those differences between different groups of women into consideration. 56 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 4 WHAT ARE THE PROPOSED POLICY OPTIONS TO OVERCOME CONSTRAINTS? TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 57 4-1. ACCELERATE RURAL GoT has several projects (Priority projects P23, P24, and P26 in the FRGT 2025) that collectively aim to expand coverage INCOME GROWTH and improve the quality of mobile phone and internet services. For farmers, the priority for digital inclusion The RIA identified a set of opportunities to accelerate should be to leverage the power of digital technologies to agricultural income growth following the framework provide targeted agricultural extension services bundled adopted in the Burkina Faso RID. These opportunities with other farmer services such as market information and include boosting crop productivity to transition out of financial services. subsistence agriculture and, consequently, generate surpluses for commercialization and income diversification Encourage value chain development via contract farming into non-farm self-employment (see section 3 in appendix for a greater commercialization. Approximately 50 percent B for more details). However, the discussion in section 3 of the Togolese rural households (70 percent in Savanes points to numerous constraints that presently limit Togo’s and 59 percent in Plateaux) are simultaneously engaged ability to tap into such opportunities. To overcome these in crop farming and livestock rearing. This high prevalence constraints, ambitious yet realistic policy actions need of agro-pastoralism combined with the increasing urban to be taken by the GoT and its development partners. demand for high-value crops and livestock products holds Furthermore, to increase the relevance of such policies the promise to increase rural income for households these actions are also mapped onto the priorities of the in these regions. This can be achieved through the GoT as laid out in various policy and strategy documents development of complementary and inclusive value chains such as the FRGT as well as the components of the new for high-value crops and livestock to secure markets for West Africa Food System Resilience Program (FSRP).47 The famers. The evidence suggests that farmers are willing proposed policy options identified by the RIA to accelerate to undertake quality-enhancing investment when the rural income growth are (1) address market access gaps, (2) market is secured (Bernard et al., 2018), which can in turn address private investment gaps, (3) address policy biases, make their products competitive in terms of consumer and (4) accelerate nonfarm income growth. Policy options preferences. For successful value chain development, Ton to overcome gender inequalities in rural income growth et al. (2017) highlight the importance of having a price are discussed in the section 4.3. premium for annual crops, especially when the contract structure does not include an independent third party. Address market access gaps They also highlight the importance of being proactive in having a system and mechanisms to ease adaption and Extend the coverage of rural roads and prioritize the to solve contractual issues that may arise, especially digital inclusion of poor farmers. Expansion of rural roads in the first year when contract failures are the highest. has been identified as a key development priority by the Devaux et al. (2018) identified the length of time (about GoT and is highlighted in the FRGT (Priority project P13). 10 years) of support provided (from government, private Road construction is costly, however, and, although roads sector, nongovernmental organizations, and others) as an are much needed everywhere in Togo, it is necessary to important attribute of successful value chain development. prioritize axes that would have the greatest impacts on The authors also identified participatory approaches and rural poverty reduction. Ensuring the digital inclusion of linking farmers to local traders as being important. poor farmers will also be key for poverty reduction. The 47 The FSRP is a new World Bank Multi-Phase Programmatic Approach Program to improve food system resilience, promote intraregional value chains, and build regional capacity to manage agricultural risks (World Bank 2021b). 58 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Address private investments gaps Promote access to labor saving technologies Increase access to financial services48 Promote and support access to labor-saving technologies to grow productivity. Togo has a high unrealized crop yield Increase access to financial services by strengthening potential, particularly in maize and cassava where the mobile financial services beyond account features mainly gap is 43 percent and 32 percent, respectively, compared designed for money transfers. The GoT is committed to to 35 percent and 16 percent, respectively in Côte d’Ivoire supporting digital finance, with plans to create a digital (International Food Policy Research Institute – IFPRI bank for all (priority project P8 in FRGT 2025) and a hub – 2016). As a result, there will be gains from adopting for digital innovation (priority project 26 FRGT 2025). These policies that promote investment to increase productivity. commitments need to translate into concrete actions The evidence on labor constraints and the strikingly that include the private sector. The GoT could encourage low level of mechanization, especially among the poor, interoperability between mobile operators and financial underscores the need to facilitate the adoption of labor- institutions by providing incentives or support to operators saving technologies such as tractors and herbicides, which to undertake innovative investments that would enable are currently very low.49 This adoption can be facilitated the offering of a diversified digital financial products. From by digital platforms, such as Hello Tractor in Kenya,50 and individual consumers side, companies that have proved to would raise labor productivity and, consequently, free up be successful at doing so include those that offer mobile labor for off-farm endeavors. wallet services including free saving accounts, low money transfer fees (1 percent), and bill free payments services. Addressing technical knowledge gap Featured enterprises services include salary payment to Increase and improve extension services by leveraging employees, payment to suppliers, and bill payment. Other digital penetration, particularly, the proliferation of features include international transactions within the smartphones, to increase coverage and effectiveness WAEMU region at low cost. Importantly, users should have of such services. This can specifically be achieved via access to agents readily available to respond to inquiries the delivery of timely, customized information specific to via calls at no cost to them. Given that monetary policies local context in terms of soil characteristics and weather in the WAEMU zone (to which Togo belongs) falls under the conditions (Fabregas, Kremer, and Schilbach, 2019). For purview of the Banque Centrale des Etats de l’Afrique de these policies to achieve a sustained poverty reduction l’Ouest (BCEAO), the GoT should work with the bank to ease and shared prosperity, the digital inclusion of the poor the regulatory burden for the nascent financial technology will be crucial. Given the low education level of the rural industry to encourage competition in the sector to reduce population, especially the poor, it will be imperative to users’ costs, increase access points, and, consequently, lead increase their digital literacy. Simplifying the design of the to better inclusion of the poor. Given the low education of platforms used for the dissemination of such information rural households in Togo, attention should also be given (that is, agricultural advisory services) and making them to raising the level of financial literacy and, particularly, user friendly will also be equally important (Fabregas, digital services apps should be user-friendly to increase Kremer, and Schilbach 2019). ensure usage. 48 The proposed actions presented here are based on consultations with Digital Finance experts at the World Bank 49 According to the EHCVM survey, less than 1 percent of the Togolese rural farmers have access to a tractor. 50 https://hellotractor.com/ TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 59 Address weak land rights Reorient agricultural policies and pursue subsidy reforms Address weak land rights by scaling up the land titling program and ensuring that land formalization is accessible Diversify government spending and increase support to small-scale farmers at a low cost. Land reform has been to long-term investments to mitigate the impact of identified a key priority by the GoT (priority reform R1 in climate change. Diverting part of GoT funding to promote FRGT 2025), and the country has begun putting in place an and support the adoption of water management and improved regulatory framework with the adoption of the soil conservation technologies will be necessary to new land code in 2018. The law sets the foundation for a sustain agricultural income growth. Water, soil, and forest more progressive system of institutional land management conservation technologies have been found to improve in Togo, because it aims to address land speculation and household resilience to climatic shocks and increase expropriation, secure customary land rights, and reduce income. These sustainable farm practices should be land conflicts. This land reform needs to be vigorously promoted and supported in agricultural programs, with pursued. The momentum has been set with entry into force particular attention to the Savanes region, where crop yield of the MCC Togo Threshold Program in November 2020 potentials and unrealized potentials have been estimated with the flagship Land Reform to Accelerate Agricultural to be lowest (Figure 26) and where forest has been reducing Productivity project. It is imperative that the project is along with an increasing land pressure.51 supported and implemented successfully. Figure 26: Growth potential by narrowing yield gaps Source: Maruyama et al. (2018) IFPRI agro-typologies 51 https://www.togofirst.com/en/agriculture-panorama/2502-5007-an-overview-of-agriculture-in-togo-present-and-future. 60 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Continue reforms to agricultural input programs to One promising segment of the nonfarm economy is improve efficiency and expand farmers’ access to key value the food industry, where almost 6 out 10 nonfarm rural chains. Since 2016, the country’s fertilizer subsidy program enterprises are situated in the food economy. Promoting has been reformed and efforts have been made to improve the transformation of the agrifood system can generate targeting and efficiency. Through use of an electronic employment opportunities by increasing the technical wallet voucher system, the new program is more efficient skills of nonfarm business owners and providing rural youth than its predecessor. An expansion of the program to more with vocational trainings aligned with demand-side factors farmers and more crops, without sacrificing targeting and to ensure they acquire relevant skills and competences efficiency, would increase agricultural income growth. At (World Bank, 2021c). For these training to be effective in the same time, the GoT should continue reforms to reduce generating knowledge of successful entrepreneurship, they regulatory bottlenecks in the private sector to streamline should be offered over a longer period and geared toward the registration and certification of seeds, fertilizer, and those with low educational levels (Grimm and Paffhausen, machineries to foster the development of a robust private 2015). Training in skill development alone will not be input supply systems that benefits the broader agricultural sufficient to boost the nonfarm sector. Indeed, like in the sector. agriculture sector, facilitating access to finance via policies such as portfolio guarantees to micro, small, and medium enterprises will be crucial to facilitate entrepreneurship. Accelerate nonfarm income growth Furthermore, addressing priority constraints in the Grow the rural nonfarm economy through the support agricultural sector will be key to develop the nonfarm of private entrepreneurship in agricultural trade and sector. The constraints that deserve particular attention processing. While agriculture remains the main source of include access to markets, finances, and digital technology. employment for rural households, it is important to keep in In addition, expanding access to electricity with the goal mind that the rural nonfarm economy can be leveraged for of achieving universal access will be critical. Given that employment growth. For some farm households, nonfarm perishable and processed foods require more value added employment could be the most promising avenue to exit in the midstream of the food value chain, particularly for poverty, as shown by the larger share of nonfarm income processing and packaging, increasing access to electricity in total income composition of the nonpoor (26 percent of holds promises. The importance of improving access to total income for households in the richest quintile versus 17 electricity is clearly recognized by the GoT, which maintains percent for those in the poorest quintile). As noted earlier, the ambition to bring access to electricity to 75 percent of households with access to nonfarm income are more likely its population by 2025 and achieve universal access by 2030 to use fertilizer (see Figure 13b) and to hire agricultural (Priority project 5 in the FRGT). However, public investment labor, which are key drivers of agricultural productivity. alone will not be sufficient to reach these goals. The GoT will need to attract private investment through greater liberalization of the electricity sector. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 61 Table 4.1. Summary of proposed policy priorities to accelerate rural income growth Identified constraint Proposed policy action Priority of policy Source of evidence Alignment with FRGT execution for recommendation* Market access gap Extend the coverage of rural roads Medium/Long term 1 Aligned with priority project P13 and P16 Upgrade ICT services and prioritize the Medium-term 1 Aligned with priority digital inclusion of poor farmers. reform R4 Encourage contract farming to develop Medium-term 2 value chains Private investment gaps Promote access to credit in the Medium/long-term 1 Aligned with priority agriculture sector projects P14 Strengthen mobile financial services Medium/long-term 1 Aligned with priority beyond transaction projects P5 and P27 Support access to labor saving Short-term 1 Partially aligned with the technologies P12 project Increase and improve extension services Short-term 1 Increase access to electricity Medium/long-term 1 Aligned with the P5 project Scale up the land titling program Medium/long-term 1 Aligned with priority and ensure that land formalization is reform R1 accessible to small-scale farmers Government policy bias Promote and support the adoption Short-term 1 Partially align with prior- of water, soil, irrigation, and forest ity projects P35 and P36 conservation technologies and priority reform R6 Constraints to nonfarm Support private entrepreneurship in Medium/long term 2 Aligned with priority income growth agricultural trade and processing projects P14 and partially with 15 Youth training, mentoring and coaching Medium/long term Aligned with priority to develop skills and competences projects P11 aligned with demand side factors *1=Evidence from the current PGA and from other sources including previous RIDs and the literature; 2= Evidence from other sources including previous RIDs and the literature. 4-2. INCREASE HOUSEHOLD Overcoming poverty-induced vulnerability RESILIENCE TO SHOCKS Policies protecting the poor should be focused primarily on income transfers, active labor market policies, and Section 3 has highlighted that a sizeable share of investment in important sectors such as education, water the Togolese population is vulnerable to poverty and sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) and preventive health contend with the occurrence of shocks. The centrality of care. The targeted population should consist of the actual poverty-induced vulnerability, as opposed to risk-induced poor and people at risk of becoming poor, because their vulnerability, as well as the prevalence of demographic expected mean consumption lies below the poverty line idiosyncratic shocks, present an imperative to explore (poverty-induced vulnerability). This group represents the policy options capable of addressing these challenges. Togolese captured by the poverty incidence rate of 45.5 percent and the vulnerability to poverty rate of 63 percent. 62 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Income transfers Consequently, safety net programs should provide households with the means to recover from the impacts Short-term policies such as income transfers and social of illness or death. Indeed, the strong link between health safety nets play a central role in supporting the poor and deprivation and multidimensional poverty underscores the people at risk of becoming poor. The prevalence of the need for preventive measures to reduce exposure to poverty-induced vulnerability due to consistently low levels illnesses such as malaria. Scaling up and better targeting of physical/livestock and human capital, especially in rural health safety net services (map 4) would limit the negative areas, calls for policies centered on the redistribution of consequences of a health-related shock. In the future, social income. This situation lends itself to the rigorous design safety nets will benefit from the FRGT, which has already and implementation of adaptative social safety nets identified improved social inclusion as one of its main that can support both those who are currently poor and strategic objectives. This will be achieved by delivering IDs those at risk of falling into poverty because of persistently to citizens and implementing the ‘’Registre Social Unique’’ low levels of consumption (Skoufias and Baez 2021). For as identified in the FRGT. Both initiatives will improve the the most vulnerable, programs like Novissi implemented identification and targeting of social safety net measures. during the COVID-19 pandemic in Togo are a step in that direction (Republique Togolaise 2020). The Novissi platform Map 4. Health shocks and reception of health safety net helped the Togolese government to deliver contactless, services in Togo emergency cash transfers to the most vulnerable. Medium- and long-term policies that reduce the drawdown of assets are needed to enable households to limit their likelihood of poverty-induced vulnerability. Strengthen and expand social protection systems Supporting households through strengthened and expanded social protection systems is key to reducing poverty-induced vulnerability. In the aftermath of a shock, most households reported a decline in their income (87 percent), assets (80 percent), and food purchases (71 percent). Under these circumstances, direct transfers could help households hold on to their productive assets and not jeopardize their long-term welfare trajectory through reduced investments in children’s education, health, and nutrition. The predominance of idiosyncratic demographic shocks among Togolese households will also be key to strengthening social safety nets in the medium term. Close Source: World Bank staff calculations using EHCVM 2018/2019. Note: Demographic shocks are severe illness or death of a household member over the three years to 33 percent of households report being affected by a before the survey. Health safety net includes the reception of health-related safety net programs such as free health care for children under five and mosquito bed nets over the last 12 months before the survey. severe illness or injury and 15 percent by the death of a The latter represents over 80 percent of the received safety net services. household member, with female-headed households more exposed than their male counterparts. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 63 Investment in education, health care, and WASH plans to improve physical infrastructure, equip educational institutions with digital tools, and enhance the quality of With a high rate of poverty-induced vulnerability and teaching and professional training (Republique Togolaise high multidimensional poverty index, the country would 2020). Investing in WASH infrastructure would strengthen greatly benefit from policies that enable intergenerational outcomes in human capital accumulation over the long mobility in human capital. There are several parameters term. Improved sanitation increases long-term cognitive that such systems need to consider to be responsive to scores (Orgill-Meyera and Pattanayak 2020) and has the needs and priorities on the ground. First, it is critical positive health and economic outcomes. It is even more to build human capital and preserve advances made in critical for women and girls because access to sanitation that domain in the event of an economic or natural shock and hygiene are essential for their dignity and personal through strengthened income support and increased security. disease programs Under the government’s latest road map (FRGT), the Ministry of Education plans to improve Active labor market policies physical infrastructures, equip educational institutions with digital tools, and enhance the quality of teaching To tackle the issue of persistently low levels of and professional training (Republique Togolaise 2020). consumption, alternative policies to support employment Investing in education is particularly important given the could promote mobility. This can help workers access low intergenerational mobility in education and the high different labor markets and overcome sectoral mismatches correlation between poverty and educational attainment (McKenzie, 2017). For example, subsidizing and supporting as well as its contribution to the Multidimensional Poverty job seekers to apply for positions available in another Index. geographical area could make seasonal migrations possible for workers. Women can also benefit from additional From a long-term perspective, policies should focus on support to reduce gender-based inequalities as some human capital accumulation by promoting access to economic activities are traditionally assigned to a specific children’s education, nutrition, and health services. For gender. For example, in Burkina Faso, the government is instance, Bossuroy et al. (2021) find that a multifaceted making an effort to include women in the forest sector by intervention in Niger, including human capital programs bringing awareness to inclusive laws in the forest code in the forms of coaching and training, helped increased (Kristjanson et al. 2019). household consumption and resilience to shocks. The impact evaluation of the program also found that the Overcoming risk-induced vulnerability intervention encouraged parents to invest in young children’s human capital. Investing in education is Even though idiosyncratic shocks (demographic, economic) particularly important given the low intergenerational are the drivers of vulnerability to poverty across the country, mobility in education and the high correlation between exposure induced by covariate shocks (flooding, drought/ poverty and educational attainments and its contribution irregular rainfall, animal disease, and crop disease) should to the MPI. High quality early childhood education has not be overlooked, particularly in rural areas. Therefore, been shown to be one of the most effective interventions current policies to overcome risk-induced vulnerability to enable long term human capital accumulation and have focused on insurance mechanisms such as adaptative increase intergenerational mobility (Heckman and social protection and weather index insurance. Karapakula, 2019). Under the FRGT, the Ministry of Education 64 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Risk insurance such as weather index insurance and Adaptative social protection investment in agricultural research programs Building and strengthening households’ resilience to Viable climate-risk insurance options and investment shocks will also require adaptive social protection schemes in agricultural research that mitigate exposure to for tackling natural and economic covariate shocks (Abay natural covariate shocks could stimulate more risky and et al. 2020). Natural and economic covariate shocks are profitable agricultural investments to increase returns. more prevalent in rural areas than in urban ones. Adaptive Natural covariate shocks were more likely to be reported social protection systems should reduce the high variability by poor households (compared to nonpoor households) in input and output prices to smooth incomes for most and those whose head works in the agriculture sector. rural households that engage in agriculture. This can be The most frequently reported natural covariate shocks achieved via innovative risk financing mechanisms that were flooding, drought/irregular rainfall, animal disease, enable an effective and timely adaptive social protection and crop disease. The literature supports the finding that program implementation (Hansen et al., 2019) to ensure households depending on agriculture tend to invest in low- food security. This would fit with the government’s objective risk and therefore low-return activities because they lack to increase the use of inorganic fertilizers (Republique formal insurance schemes to protect them in the event of a Togolaise 2020). Poor and vulnerable households would climate-related shock. Promoting weather index insurance benefit from adaptive social protection schemes by to help financial institutions manage systemic risks will improving their capacity to prepare for, cope with, and encourage credit supply and, consequently, investments. In adapt to shocks. An example is the Ethiopia’s Livelihoods addition, agricultural research programs to develop climate- Early Assessment and Protection (LEAP) program. The resilient and climate-smart agricultural technologies will main feature of the program is that it builds up on the go a long way toward building the resilience of farming government’s Productive Safety Net Program (PSNP) by activities to climatic shocks and climate change, as adding a layer of contingent finance that triggers the discussed in section 4.1 and acknowledged in the Country immediate release of funds to scale up PSNP interventions Economic Memorandum (World Bank 2021a). following a drought (Drechsler and Soer, 2016). Table 4.2. Summary of proposed policies to increase resilience to shocks Identified constraint Proposed policy action Priority of policy execution Alignment with FRGT Poverty-induced vulnerability Continue to strengthen cash transfers Short/medium-term programs Strengthened and expanded social Short/medium-term Aligned with priority projects P2 protection systems via unified digital and P8 registry Invest in education, health care, and WASH Medium-term Aligned with priority project P3 to enable intergenerational mobility in human capital Active labor market policies Medium/long-term Risk-induced vulnerability Promote risk insurance such as weather Medium/long-term Aligned with priority projects P14 index insurance to help financial and P35 institutions manage systemic risks Invest in agricultural research programs to Medium/long-term Aligned with priority project P35 develop climate-resilient and climate- smart agricultural technologies Adaptive social protection systems to Medium/long term reduce the high variability in input and output prices to ensure food security TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 65 4-3. CLOSE GENDER GAPS IN cash transfers, school vouchers and scholarships, school subsidies for school managers and families, and school ENDOWMENTS, ECONOMIC feeding programs have proven to be effective methods OPPORTUNITIES, AND to increase girls’ enrollment rates. The GoT has already AGENCY moved in this direction by making lower-secondary school free of charge for all and upper-secondary school The diagnosis of gender disparities calls for a number of free of charge for girls, as outlined in the objectives of specific policy interventions. At the same time, interviews the Action Plan in the Educational Sector 2020–2030 and with key informants stress the idea that one of the most in the FGRT 2025. Finally, explicitly addressing gender- important (yet long-term) investments involves addressing specific barriers (school-based GBV, lack of menstruation social norms that limit women’s ability to participate fully hygiene management products), the promotion of positive in Togolese society and enjoy the same opportunities as attitudes toward girls’ education, and creating safe spaces their male counterparts. For that to happen, a concerted for young women have proven successful in several cases effort to reach different stakeholders and audiences in the Africa region (Benshaul-Tolonen et al. 2019; Erulkar simultaneously will be needed, and one of the important and Muthengi 2009). aspects will entail working with men and boys as well. Bring in men and boys as allies to promote gender equality will ultimately benefit not only women and girls but also men Increase access to family planning, and and boys, families, and society as a whole. The suggested enhance reproductive and sexual health, policies are also in line with the Government Roadmap for particularly for adolescent girls 2021-2025 , which acknowledges gender as a cross-cutting Policies to reduce adolescent fertility should empower theme and a guiding principle. young women socially and economically and develop their technical and life skills through socio-educative Assist girls in completing primary and classes and community mobilization programs. The secondary school Empowerment and Livelihood for Adolescents (ELA) program in Uganda offered adolescent girls vocational and Multiple efforts have already been put in place in Togo life skills trainings, and a safe space to meet and socialize to promote girls’ access to schooling, yet education with other adolescent girls. ELA led to improved knowledge is central to positive outcomes in other dimensions and awareness of reproductive health, increased of well-being. Therefore, a combination of general and contraceptive use, and decreased incidence of teenage gender-specific interventions may be necessary to further pregnancy by 26 percent (Bandiera et al. 2020). Similarly, improve gender equality outcomes in education. General positive results were observed in an intervention in South interventions to enhance access to schooling—such as Africa for all students in middle and secondary schools expansion of schools and related infrastructure, such as (Magnani et al. 2005). Improved knowledge on and access water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities—deliver gains for to family planning and contraceptive use through sexual girls that are comparable to girl-targeted interventions reproductive health education at school, paired with the (Evans and Yuan 2019). Lifting financial constraints to provision of contraceptive methods and awareness-raising facilitate access to primary and secondary schooling campaigns, has shown positive effects in several evaluated will be particularly helpful. For example, (conditional) interventions (Ajuwon and Brieger 2007; Dupas 2011). Finally, 66 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT programs that increase incentives to continue school, Prevent GBV, and address its consequences such as in a cash transfer program in Malawi, resulted in participating adolescent girls being 12.6 percentage GBV legislation can contribute to the reduction of the points less likely to be married than nonparticipants prevalence rates of different forms of violence against and decreased the incidence of teenage pregnancy by women. According to Klugman et al. (2014), women in 34 percent (Baird et al. 2014). A school subsidy program countries with dedicated domestic violence laws have 7 in Kenya significantly reduced primary school dropouts percent lower odds of experiencing violence compared for girls and delayed the onset of girls’ fertility, with the with women living in countries without such laws. adolescent pregnancy rate falling from 16 percent to 13 Although one of the objectives of the Plan National de percent within three years (Duflo, Dupas, and Kremer 2015). Development 2018–22 is to “build national capacities to fight against gender-based violence,” Togo currently does not have specific legislation on violence against Reduce child marriage women. A dedicated law would help to define GBV in a comprehensive way, which may encourage reporting Polices that aim to reduce prevalence rates of child because women could be more certain what exactly marriage should target the drivers behind it, such as constitutes an offense. Importantly, though, dedicated poverty and social norms. Interventions that aim at (1) laws on GBV can reduce its acceptance by altering social promoting social norm change around child marriage family norms and behaviors. Although social norm change is a formation patterns; (2) empowering girls and their families long and time-consuming process, the enforcement of economically through alternative livelihood programs, GBV legislation can be an effective step to initiative that adolescent empowerment programs, conditional cash change (WHO 2009). Finally, and importantly, dedicated transfers, and other financial incentives; and (3) enabling GBV legislation promotes cooperation across sectors and girls to continue and complete their schooling have proven a coordinated action against GBV (Aday 2015). Moreover, successful. Educating community members on the harms in many cases, national GBV legislation establishes the of early and child marriages and promoting positive creation of a national commission or coordinating agency social norms show some promising results in reducing for the prevention of GBV and protection of its survivors. the incidence of child marriage, as for instance in the This, in its turn, can be a significant step toward promotion community-based TOSTAN intervention in Senegal (Diop et of women’s policy and increased awareness around GBV. al. 2004). Moreover, one of the most promising strategies in reducing rates of child marriage is the encouragement Furthermore, providing quality services to those who of girls’ education, particularly completion of primary and have experienced violence is fundamental and important secondary school (for example, the Malawi cash transfer as a response. Enabling institutional service delivery program discussed in the previous paragraph). Provision across different sectors as well as access to justice for of financial and material aid for families of schoolgirls in survivors is key to protecting survivors. Togo has just Zimbabwe significantly increased girls’ school retention recently inaugurated its first one-stop center for victims of and reduced the likelihood of child marriage by 53 GBV—a promising initiative that, if found effective, could be percentage points (Hallfors et al. 2015). expanded. The establishment of all-women’s justice centers that mostly employ female officers, and where GBV survivors TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 67 receive assistance in filing a complaint, has increased the creation programs could be one avenue. In Togo, access rates of reporting of GBV, as shown in the experience of to productive assets and to credit have been raised as Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador, Ghana, India, Mexico, South fundamental constraints to women’s ability to generate Africa, and Uganda (Kavanaugh, Sviatschi, and Trako income. Increasing the productive capacity of women 2018). In general, it is crucial to pair protective measures and their income level, and ensuring equitable access and service delivery to survivors with comprehensive of women and men to productive means and economic prevention efforts, including those targeted at adolescents opportunities have been also listed as priority actions (see for instance the PREPARE intervention in South Africa; in the Togo PND 2018. Facilitating women’s access to Matthews and Gould 2017). Overall, Kerr-Wilson et al. (2020) employment sectors traditionally dominated by men, for assess the global evidence on what works to prevent GBV instance through the expanded public works program in and find that interventions effective in reducing VAWG South Africa, can be effective (Omotoso 2020). In Kenya, (violence against women and girls) included cash transfers young people were invited to apply to the Technical and or economic empowerment programs for women when Vocational Vouchers Program, receiving vouchers as a combined with group discussions on VAWG and gender- financial incentive. Women exposed to this intervention transformative programming, couples’ interventions, were almost 9 percentage points more likely to express a parenting programs to prevent domestic violence and preference for a male-dominated course, and 5 percentage child maltreatment, community activism to shift harmful points more likely to actually enroll in one, in contrast to gender norms, and school-based intervention to prevent nonparticipants (Hicks et al. 2011). dating violence. Community mobilization programs that aim at challenging discriminatory gender roles and social To support self-employed women’s entrepreneurship norms lead to long-lasting positive impacts on the rates of efforts, productivity, and earnings, policies should assist GBV. For instance, the SASA! intervention in Uganda, which self-employed women to formalize their businesses combined community mobilization activities with trainings and access formal financial services. Improving their of professionals, has led to a 64 percent reduction in technical, managerial, and leadership skills through children witnessing interpersonal violence in their homes combined social and economic empowerment programs and has improved parent-child relationships (Kyegombe and entrepreneurship trainings is similarly important. et al. 2014). Key informants emphasized the need for a Business registration and formalization programs offer a dedicated law on GBV as essential to help prevent GBV and huge potential for women entrepreneurs to access formal protect victims adequately and effectively. financial services, adopt new business practices, and boost productivity and income. In Malawi, a program combining business registration assistance with a bank information Improve women’s economic opportunities, intervention led not only to higher formalization levels of and enhance the productivity of self- women’s firms (83 percent) but also to meaningful increases employed women in the use of financial services and, ultimately, firm sales and profits (28 percent and 20 percent respectively; Policies that improve women’s economic empowerment Campos, Goldstein, and McKenzie 2019). A similar business and expand their access to quality employment should registration program in Benin also led to higher rates of include supply and demand aspects of women’s firm formalization among male and female entrepreneurs participation in the labor market. Creating more jobs (Benhassine et al. 2015). In addition, combined interventions in the formal sector for women through targeted job 68 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT aiming at social and economic empowerment provide an land demonstrate a greater bargaining power and financial opportunity to increase earnings and productivity of self- independence, which leads to better welfare outcomes employed women. Thus, participants of the ELA program in for their households, improved investments in children’s Uganda, which combined vocational and life skills trainings human capital, and enhanced food security in the home with a safe space for adolescent girls, were 72 percent more (Horan 2013; United Nations 2013). Evidence also shows likely to be engaged in income-generating activities and that formalized land rights boost women’s agricultural reported three times higher self-employment earnings, productivity and income, alleviating their vulnerability to compared to the original average (Bandiera et al. 2020). A poverty and contributing to the agricultural transformation similar intervention is the Adolescent Girls Initiative (AGI) at large (Meinzen-Dick et al. 2019; Mwesigye, Guloba, in Rwanda, which consisted of technical training for self- and Barungi 2020).Likewise, studies prove that women’s employment (in areas such as food processing, culinary land ownership is positively and significantly correlated arts, arts and crafts, and agri-business), psychosocial with decision-making in communities and within the support, life skills and business development training, household. It increases a woman’s power and control and business mentorship, revealed a substantial increase within her marriage and reduces her exposure to intimate- in nonfarm employment and wage employment among partner violence (Grabe, Grose, and Dutt 2015). Land rights participants (World Bank 2015). offer women a possibility to sustain their living in the event of widowhood or divorce. Secure land rights also create To enhance female farmers’ agricultural performance, incentives for long-term investments (Salcedo-La Viña productivity, and earnings, policies should assist in the 2020), facilitate easier access to extension and agricultural formalization of land and asset ownership for women. support programs, and ensure collateral for financial credit This would be particularly important in light of rural and loans (OHCHR 2017). women’s consistent disadvantage across all dimensions observed in this analysis. The recent reform of the land Programs that aim to strengthen technical and life skills code (June 5, 2018) is a remarkable step toward ensuring of women farmers through trainings, social networking, or women’s land rights. The code also provides the necessary extension services demonstrate promising effects on the measures and mechanisms needed to ensure equal access agricultural productivity (and adaptation to the climate to land for traditionally marginalized populations such as change). In Ethiopia, the Rural Capacity Building Project the rural poor, youth, and Indigenous and local community aimed at strengthening the agricultural services and women (Kipalu and Essimi 2021). Fully implementing productivity through the delivery of a professional training these reforms and their different dimensions will be with the gender-sensitive component. The project led to a key priority going forward. The ability to own land is an increase in the adoption of high-value crop farming, particularly important for women, because it entails a wide area of land cultivated, and economic participation of range of economic and social benefits, including economic household members, benefiting male- and female-headed independence, food security, protections under law, and households equally (Buehren et al. 2019). enhanced decision-making capacities. Women who own TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 69 Table 4.3. Summary of proposed policies to close gender gaps in endowments, economic opportunities, and agency Constraint Policy option Alignment with FRGT Assist girls in completing primary and Expansion of schools and related infrastructure, such as FRGT secondary school water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities to enhance overall “Strengthen the physical infrastructure and access to schooling. equip the schools, technical and vocational training institutions with digital tools” (p. 85). “Construct new classrooms, modernize existing facilities (including sanitary facilities) and enable Internet connection at schools” (p. 88). Lift financial constraints to facilitate access to primary and secondary schooling through (conditional) cash transfers, school vouchers, scholarships, school subsides and school feeding programs. Address gender-specific barriers: school-based GBV, lack of menstruation hygiene management products; promote positive attitudes towards girls’ education and create safe spaces for young women. Increase access to family planning, and Improve knowledge on and access to family planning and FRGT enhance reproductive and sexual health, contraceptive use through sexual reproductive health “Provide the Universal Health Coverage particularly for adolescent girls (SHR) education at school, paired with the provision of specifically for young people under age 18, contraceptive methods and awareness-raising campaigns. vulnerable populations, pregnant women, and the elderly” (p. 79). Empower young women economically and develop their technical and life skills through socio-educative classes and community mobilization programs. Enable girls to continue and complete their schooling (see above). Reduce child and early marriage Promote social norm change around child marriage and family formation patterns through community-based interventions. Empower girls and their families economically through alternative livelihood programs, adolescent empowerment programs, conditional cash transfers, and other financial incentives. Enable girls to continue and complete their schooling (see above). Prevent GBV and address its consequences Promote social norms change on GBV and reduce tolerance for it. Reduce women’s vulnerability through economic empowerment. Raise awareness on GBV and gender norms among young people. Enable institutional service delivery and access to justice for survivors of GBV. 70 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT Constraint Policy option Alignment with FRGT Improving women’s economic opportunities Create more jobs in the formal sector for women through and enhancing the productivity of self- targeted job creation programs. employed women Provide access to productive assets and to credit to enable FRGT women to generate income. “Promote financial inclusion, especially for the most vulnerable populations, through the creation of a digital bank” (p. 124). “Construct rural roads targeting agricultural areas with high export potential to connect farmers to the market” (p. 164). Facilitate women’s access to employment sectors FRGT traditionally dominated by men, such as for instance “Promote vocational training in the priority through public works programs or promotion of educational fields” (p. 34). attainment in relevant fields “Improve the quality of education and vocational training…” (p. 85). Support self-employed women’s entrepreneurship efforts, FRGT productivity, and earnings, by formalizing their businesses, “Develop and implement support plans providing access to formal financial services, and through for small and medium-sized enterprises vocational/entrepreneurship trainings (SME) through the facilitation of access to financing and to land” (p. 130). Improve women’s technical, managerial, and leadership skills through combined social and economic empowerment programs and entrepreneurship trainings. Enhance female farmers’ agricultural performance, FRGT productivity, and earnings by assisting in the formalization “Implement a national agricultural strategy of land and assets ownership for women and through to improve yields, promote access to entrepreneurship/vocational training. mechanization, irrigation and use of inputs (e.g., fertilizers)” (p. 138). “Reform the agricultural land policy” (p. 34) TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 71 72 TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS Togo made progress in improving the welfare of its As the economy recovers from the pandemic, there is population between 2011 and 2019. The overall economic an urgent need to address Togo’s persistent welfare performance of the country likely contributed to poverty disparities for an inclusive and accelerated poverty reduction, and trends in non-monetary measures of human reduction. This will require concerted efforts to: (i) accelerate capital and access to basic services and infrastructure rural income growth through policies that improve market reflect this progress. For instance, infant decreased access, encourage private sector investment, limit policy substantially between 2010 and 2017 (from 78 to 42 deaths biases, and increase nonfarm incomes; (ii) build and per 1,000 live births), and this improvement occurred in increase resilience to climate-related disasters (such as both rural and urban areas. Moreover, school lag in Togo drought and flooding), demographic idiosyncratic shocks has steadily decreased over the past decade, especially in (such as illness), and crises like the COVID-19 pandemic; rural areas, leading to a narrowing of the urban-rural gap. and (iii) close genders gaps through policies that help girls Notable progress has also been seen in closing the gender stay in school, enhance girls’ and women’s reproductive gap in primary school enrollment. In addition, according health and access to health care, eliminate child marriage, to the Human Capital Index (HCI) report, the HCI in Togo reduce violence against girls and women, and empower is 0.43. Although this score is relatively low compared to women economically. aspirational peers such as Ghana (0.45), it is higher than the Sub-Saharan African average (0.38). Furthermore, Togo The implementation of the proposed policy options recorded progress in access to basic infrastructure such as will require significant resource mobilization, which is access to electricity, safe drinking water, and sanitation. likely to pose a challenge. Social policies, particularly pro-poor policies tend to be subject to budget cuts even Nevertheless, as many as 45.5 percent of Togolese still when such policies are recognized as priority sectors lived in poverty in 2018/2019, and the country exhibits in the national development plan. For instance, fiscal significant geographical disparities. Rural areas account consolidation in Togo is sometimes performed at the cost for 76 percent of the poor, corresponding to 2.7 million of of social spending. The 2017-2019 fiscal consolidation led to all 3.6 million poor people. Of these poor rural households, cuts in spending in health and social protection services, 71 percent work in agriculture, a sector that faces multiple resulting to a negative growth of spending in the sector productivity and income-generation constraints. There by 0.2 percent of total GDP between 2016 and 2019 (World is also a significant gender gap in poverty incidence, Bank 2021). The potential of future competing needs that especially among 25-to-29-year-olds for whom the gap is require government fundings such as spending to increase about 14 percentage points. As in other countries around security due to the heightened insecurity on the eastern the world, the COVID-19 crisis has exacerbated poverty in and northern borders of the country, particularly in Burkina Togo, increasing the poverty rate by about 4 percentage Faso, is likely to further crowd out fundings in the social and widening the gender gap. sector. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 73 Significant coordination efforts will be key for the of some of the proposed policies will require regional successful implementation of the proposed policies. As a coordination. For example, for a better financial and result of low Government funding in the social sector, Togo digital inclusion of the poor, it is important to encourage is heavily dependent on external donor financing (World competition in these sectors to reduce users’ costs and Bank, 2021), which comes in highly fragmented manner. increase access points by easing the regulatory burden This high fragmentation requires significant coordination for the nascent financial technology industry. the fact efforts, which if not met, may limit the country’s ability that Togo belongs to the WAEMU zone and consequently to achieve economies of scales in the provision of social falls under the purview of the Banque Centrale des Etats services. 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(2021c). Guinea Poverty Assessment Overcoming Poverty A World Bank Poverty Assessment. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/ Xie, H., Perez, N., Anderson, W., Ringler, C., & You, L. (2018). en/196661468765003270/pdf/multi0page.pdf “Can Sub-Saharan Africa feed itself? The role of irrigation development in the region’s drylands for food security.” World Bank. (2012). World Development Report 2012: Water International 43 (6): 796–814. Gender Equality and Development. World Bank. © World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ handle/10986/4391 License: CC BY 3.0 IGO. TOGO POVERTY AND GENDER ASSESSMENT 81 ANNEX Calculating the Multidimensional Poverty as the multiplication of the incidence and the intensity Index (MPI) (MPI=A*H). The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is based on The choice of indicators for each dimension and three equally weighted dimensions: education, health their definitions are provided by the United Nations and living standards (drinking water, electricity, sanitation, Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty quality of walls, roof, floor materials, cooking fuel, access and Human Development Initiative (OPHI). Unfortunately, to improved toilets and assets ownership). Deprivation the questionnaire of the EHCVM cannot construct the in each of these three dimensions is captured by one or MPI variables the same as the one guided by the UNDP several indicators also equally weighted. The weighted and the OPHI. The main challenge comes from the MPI ranges from 0 (households without any deprivation) health dimension, since it lacked questions that measure to 1 (households deprived in all the three dimensions). the level of nutrition and infant mortality. We have A household is considered as multidimensionally poor if therefore constructed variables that replace the missing they are deprived in at least one of the three dimensions. indicators. Table A11compares the definitions and the This index allows the definition of the incidence(H) and the weights of indicators for the EHCVM 2018 with those of intensity (A) of multidimensional poverty. The former refers corresponding indicators given by the UNDP and the OPHI. to the proportion of multidimensionally poor households The health dimension is solely measured by an indicator (below the 0.33 threshold) whereas the latter is the average of consultation. Each indicator within a dimension is still index of multidimensionally poor. The final MPI is defined assigned with an equal weight. Table A1. Comparison of indicators used to construct the MPI Definition of UNDP / OPHI EHCVM 2018 Health Nutrition (1/6) Consultation (1/3) Any adult under age 70 or any child whom nutritional information is In the last 30 days, any household member became ill but available is undernourished. was unable to consult a health service because it was too expensive or too far away. Infant mortality (1/6) Any child under the age of 18 years has died in the family in the five- year period preceding the survey. Education Years of schooling (1/6) No household member aged school entrance age + six years or older has completed six years of schooling. School attendance (1/6) Any school-aged child is not attending school up to the age at which he/she would complete class eight. Standard of living Electricity (1/18) A household does not have electricity from network, generator, or solar panel. Drinking water (1/18) The household does not have access to improved drinking water or improved drinking water is at least a 30-minute walk from home, round trip. Sanitation (1/18) The household’s sanitation facility is not improved, or it is improved but shared with other households. Housing (1/18) At least one of the three housing materials for roof, walls and floor are inadequate: the floor is of natural materials and/or the roof and/or walls are of natural or rudimentary materials. Cooking fuel (1/18) A household cooks with wood, charcoal, petroleum, or animal waste Assets (1/18) A household does not own more than one of these assets: radio, television, telephone, computer, animal cart17, bicycle, motorbike, or refrigerator, and does not own a car or truck. Source: UNDP (2020) – Technical Note World Bank Poverty and Equity Global Practice, Africa Region