LEBANON FOREST NOTE Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management © 2023 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank Acknowledgments 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433 The World Bank would like to thank the Government of Lebanon—especially the Ministry of Telephone: +1-202-473-1000 Internet: www.worldbank.org Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Disaster Risk Management Unit in the Office of the President—as well as other state and non-state actors for their partnership and cooperation during the development of this report. The World Bank owes special thanks to the representatives of these entities for their dedicated leadership and support in the protection and sustainable management This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank Group with external contributions. The findings, of Lebanon’s forest landscapes, and in addressing the increasing threat of forest fires due to interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World climate change. Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank is immensely grateful to all stakeholders who actively participated in the workshops The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy, completeness, or currency of the data included in this and provided input into the technical reports and strategy development, for generously offering their work and does not assume responsibility for any errors, omissions, or discrepancies in the information, time and sharing valuable perspectives and ideas. or liability with respect to the use of or failure to use the information, methods, processes, or conclusions This report was prepared under the leadership of Andrea Kutter (Senior Natural Resources set forth. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work Management Specialist) and Sandrine Jauffret (Senior Natural Resources Management Specialist) do not imply any judgment on the part of the World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the as part of a World Bank team that included Lamia Mansour (Senior Environmental Specialist); endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. George Mitri (Consultant); and the OCA Global consulting team under the leadership of Fabiana Silva Shigaki. The report was produced in collaboration with the Nature Conservation Center at Nothing herein shall constitute or be construed or considered a limitation on or waiver of the privileges the American University of Beirut, represented by Salma N. Talhouk (Lead Expert); Edward Antoun and immunities of the World Bank, all of which are specifically reserved. (Forestry Specialist); and Suzan Zeidan (Environmental Specialist); Karine Zoghby (Institutional Policy Expert); Wassim Katerji (Forestry Data and Information Specialist) and Noura Jezzini (Environmental Analyst). The Arabic translation of the Executive Summary was done by Souleima Rights and Permissions Ghorayeb Boustany. The material in this work is subject to copyright. Because the World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge, this work may be reproduced, in whole or in part, for noncommercial purposes as long as The World Bank also owes thanks to Jean Christophe Carret (Country Director, Middle full attribution to this work is given. East Department); Lia Sieghart (Practice Manager, Environment, Natural Resources and Blue Economy, Middle East, and North Africa); Salim Rouhana (Sustainable Development Please cite the work as follows: “World Bank. 2023. Lebanon Forest Note: Supporting Sustainable Forest Sector Leader, Lebanon); and Timothy Brown (Senior Natural Management Specialist, Management for Forest Fire Risk Reduction. The World Bank: Washington D.C.” Environment, Natural Resources, and the Blue Economy Global Practice) for the substantive orientation provided in conducting the technical work. Additional thanks go to Sachin Shahria All queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to World Bank (Consultant, Environment, Natural Resources, and the Blue Economy Global Practice) for his Publications, The World Bank Group, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA; fax: 202-522- support as PROGREEN liaison. Editing and proofreading by Jennifer Stastny and design by 2625; e-mail: pubrights@worldbank.org. The Ethical Agency. Funding for this report was provided by PROGREEN, an umbrella trust fund that supports a Cover photos: Andrea Kutter. Further permission required for reuse. sustainable and integrated development of forest and other natural landscapes. The team would like to express its gratitude to all PROGREEN donors for making this work possible. CONTENTS Preface .................................................................................................................................................................................. 1 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Administrative map of Lebanon .......................................................................................................................... 19 Executive Summary ................................................................................................................................................... 3 Figure 2: Monthly temperature (min, max, and mean) and precipitation from 1991–2020 ......................................... 20 Figure 3: Rivers of Lebanon ................................................................................................................................................ 21 1. Country Context ................................................................................................................................................... 18 Figure 4: Ownership of forested and other wooded lands in Lebanon .......................................................................... 26 1.1 Lebanon’s landscape ................................................................................................................................................. 19 Figure 5: Forest map of Lebanon ........................................................................................................................................ 28 1.2 Contribution of forests to Lebanon’s green recovery ............................................................................................. 23 Figure 6: Forest and other woodlands areas and trends over 20 years ........................................................................ 29 Figure 7: Loss in vegetation cover between 2000 and 2010, and between 2010 and 2018 ...................................... 29 2. Characteristics of Forests in Lebanon ............................................................................................... 25 Figure 8: Extent of forest loss per district (Kadaa) ............................................................................................................ 30 2.1 Bioclimatic characteristics ......................................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 9: Bioclimatic map of Lebanon ................................................................................................................................ 31 2.2 Forest biodiversity and type of ecosystem services .............................................................................................. 31 Figure 10: Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot .................................................................................................................... 31 Figure 11: Horsh Beirut ........................................................................................................................................................... 34 3. Forest Governance ............................................................................................................................................... 35 Figure 12: Comparison of living biomass and carbon stock in Forest and OL ................................................................ 34 3.1 Institutional framework for sustainable forest management ................................................................................. 36 Figure 13: Timeline of forest-related laws in Lebanon ........................................................................................................ 40 3.2 Forest law and policy ................................................................................................................................................. 40 Figure 14: Different usage of each forest type by the local community ........................................................................... 46 Figure 15: Distribution of the values (percent) of Lebanese forest ecosystem services components ......................... 49 4. Contribution of Forests to the National Economy ................................................................... 44 Figure 16: Factors that attract visitors to rural areas .......................................................................................................... 50 4.1 Economic value of forests in Lebanon ..................................................................................................................... 45 Figure 17: Increase of forest fragmentation between 1965 and 1998 on the eastern flank of Mount Lebanon ......... 52 Figure 18: Extent of artificialization in the coastal zone between 1998 and 2010 .......................................................... 53 5. National Forest Challenges ........................................................................................................................... 51 Figure 19: Extent (in square meters) and percentage of land-cover types affected by quarries .................................. 53 5.1 Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation ..................................................................................................... 52 Figure 20: Charcoal production and illegal and unsustainable tree cutting ..................................................................... 54 5.2 Vulnerability to climate change and natural disasters ........................................................................................... 59 Figure 21: Estimation of forest loss from 2001 to 2021 due to cutting activities (for fuelwood and other uses) ........ 54 5.3 Private sector engagement ....................................................................................................................................... 59 Figure 22: Aakar: Hermel forest fire in 2021 ........................................................................................................................ 55 Figure 23: Average annual production in tonnes and variation of net revenue from pine-nut production in 6. Wildfires as Drivers of Forest and Landscape Degradation in Lebanon .............. 63 US$ thousand between 1996 and 2016 ............................................................................................................ 56 6.1 Lebanon forests’ vulnerability to fire ......................................................................................................................... 64 Figure 24: Synthesis of the different direct and indirect causes and drivers of deforestation and forest 6.2 Lebanon’s forests and wildfires ................................................................................................................................ 65 degradation in Lebanon ....................................................................................................................................... 58 6.3 Wildfire mitigation through sustainable forest management ................................................................................. 67 Figure 25: Benefits of PPP in Lebanon ................................................................................................................................. 60 Figure 26: Number of fires and burned areas in Lebanon from 2008 to 2021 ................................................................ 64 7. Opportunity Areas for Sustainable Forest Landscape Management Figure 27: Wildfire risk map for Lebanon and types of landscape in Lebanon where primary ignition of and Addressing Fire Risks in Lebanon .............................................................................................. 70 wildfires was recorded between 2003 and 2015 .............................................................................................. 65 7.1 Improving governance and local capacities ............................................................................................................ 72 Figure 28: Cumulative fire occurrences and burned area from 2008 to 2020 ................................................................. 66 7.2 Actions to improve data and information access on forest fires ........................................................................... 78 Figure 29: Average monthly number of fires and burned area in forests/shrublands and grasslands ......................... 66 7.3 Supporting industries for value-addition of wood and non-wood forest products .............................................. 78 Figure 30: Comparison in fire inter-annual seasonality ...................................................................................................... 67 7.4 Supporting nature-based tourism ............................................................................................................................. 81 Figure 31: Local community structure ................................................................................................................................... 75 7.5 Supporting forest ecosystem restoration to reduce fragmentation and fire risks ............................................... 84 References .......................................................................................................................................................................... 77 Annexes ................................................................................................................................................................................ 85 Annex 1: Bioclimatic zones of Lebanon ................................................................................................................................. 90 Annex 2: Examples of Lebanese environmental NGOs and their field of activity (State of the Environment Report 2020) ............................................................................................................................................................. 90 © Adobe Stock LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Summary of proposed strategies and short, medium, and long-term priorities for conserving ILO International Labour Organization Lebanon’s forested lands .......................................................................................................... 7 IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Table 2: List of main policies and strategies ........................................................................................... 41 LARI Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute Table 3: Value of forest benefits in CPMF countries ............................................................................... 49 LDN Land Degradation Neutrality Table 4: Action required on forest governance ....................................................................................... 73 Table 5: Action required on community engagement ............................................................................. LEV Economic Vision of Lebanon 76 Table 6: Action required on wood-based industries (wood production, fuelwood and charcoal) ............ 79 LNCSR Lebanese National Council for Scientific Research Table 7: Action required on non-wood forest products ........................................................................... 80 LRI Lebanon Reforestation Initiatives Table 8: Action required on nature-based tourism .................................................................................. 82 MoA Ministry of Agriculture Table 9: Action required on forest ecosystem restoration ....................................................................... 84 MoE Ministry of Environment LIST OF BOXES MEW Ministry of Energy and Water Box 1: The International Union for Conservation of Nature/IUCN’s first green-listed protected and MoT Ministry of Tourism conserved area in Lebanon ....................................................................................................... 33 NARP National Afforestation/Reforestation Programme Box 2: The potential for the private sector to support sustainable forest management and protection 61 NDC Nationally Determined Contributions Box 3: Local PPP initiatives .................................................................................................................. 62 NFFMS National Forest Fire Management Strategy NFFS National Forest Fire Strategy NFP National Forest Programme LIST OF ACRONYMS NGO Non-governmental organization AFD French Development Agency NRP National Reforestation Plan AFDC Association for Forests Development and Conservation NWFP Non-wood forest products CAS Central Administration of Statistics of Lebanon OWL Other wooded land CDR Council for Development and Reconstruction PARSIFAL Programme d’appui à la Résilience Sociale, aux Infrastructures, CEDRE Conférence économique pour le développement, par les réformes et avec les entreprises à la Forêt et à l’agriculture au Liban CPF Country Partnership Framework PPP Public-private partnerships CPMF Collaborative Partnership on Mediterranean Forests RDNRD Rural Development and Natural Resources Directorate DGUP Directorate General of Urban Planning SALMA Smart Adaptation of Forest Landscapes in Mountain Areas DRDNR Directorate of Rural Development and Natural Resources SFM Sustainable forest management DRI Democracy Reporting International SLMQ Sustainable Land Management in the Qaraoun Catchment DRM Disaster risk management TEV Total economic value EU European Union UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification FAO Food and Agriculture Organization UNDP United Nations Development Programme FRA Forest resources assessment UNEP United Nations Environment Programme GDP Gross domestic product UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization GEF Global Environment Facility UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change GHG Greenhouse gas UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees GIZ German Agency for International Cooperation UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund ha Hectares UoB University of Balamand IFFMS Integrated Forest Fire Information Management System WUI Wildland-urban interface © Adobe Stock Preface Country Forest Notes (CFNs) are centerpieces of the World Bank Group Forest Action Plan (2016–2020) and the World Bank Climate Action Plan (2020–2025). They provide a thorough assessment of the status of forests and the forestry sector, and of the investment needed to sustainably manage this valuable renewable natural resource. As stated in the World Bank Group’s Forest Action Plan, “The World Bank aims to support client countries’ efforts to implement priority actions linked to forests and their development priorities, by focusing more The World Bank aims to support deliberately on the positive contributions that forests make to poverty reduction, food security, economic development, building resilience towards climate change, and climate change mitigation.” client countries’ efforts to implement priority actions linked The World Bank promotes a forest landscape approach and is committed to providing assistance to to forests and their development priorities, by focusing more developing countries to: Address climate change and resilience Support rights and participation deliberately on the positive contributions that forests make to poverty reduction, food Integrate the sustainable management of forests Strengthen institutions and governance into development decisions security, economic development, The emerging Lebanon Climate Change Development tourism. Climate-smart recovery investments can also generate building resilience towards Report (CCDR) will guide the World Bank’s future engagement portfolio with Lebanon, with a special focus on addressing climate change risks. The CCDR will stress the potential competitiveness gains and access to new markets for businesses. Lebanon’s natural capital (including its forests) is a critical pillar of the country’s economic and social recovery, as climate change, and climate need for safeguarding Lebanon’s recovery from various crises— including climate change—by exploring opportunities to invest it feeds directly into key growth- and recovery-driving sectors. change mitigation. in growth-driving sectors, thereby creating jobs and addressing Based on the findings in the Lebanon Forest Note, the inequalities. Climate-smart recovery investments hold the World Bank and the Government of Lebanon look forward potential to address deep inefficiencies, especially in the energy to collaborating on the best way to implement the identified sector. They can also protect Lebanon’s natural capital and open opportunities in support of sustainable forest management up much-needed new income and job opportunities, especially and a reduced risk of forest fires. in natural-resources-dependent sectors such as agriculture and © Adobe Stock 1 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 2 The business case is based on an analysis of challenges to, Despite multiple challenges, Lebanon is strongly committed Executive and opportunities for, making the forest sector (and other to conserving forest landscapes and increasing forest sectors dependent on forest ecosystem services) dynamic cover. Sustainable forest management provides the basis for and effective contributors to Lebanon’s gross domestic a triple win: for Lebanon’s economic growth; for the security of product (GDP). It also considers ways to manage increased Lebanese peoples’ livelihoods; and for the global environmental Summary risks, especially from forest fires. The Note is intended to serve agenda—by helping to combat climate change, conserve as a basis for further discussions with the government and other biodiversity, and contribute to achieving land degradation partners, with a view to realizing identified opportunities. neutrality. Sustainable forest management is also a proven concept for better managing forest fire risks, actual events, and Lebanon’s forest landscapes are unique in the restoration efforts. Exploring opportunities for developing small Mediterranean region and, over the centuries, have provided and medium-sized forest-based enterprises would not only multiple socioeconomic, cultural, and environmental generate increased revenue for the Government of Lebanon benefits. However, societal changes have had a significant but also develop higher or new income sources (especially for impact on these landscapes, putting them at risk of further the rural population and vulnerable groups) through additional degradation. Lifestyle changes and restrictions on access to job prospects in wood-based and non-wood-based industries. The Lebanon Forest Note (Note) articulates opportunities for supporting the forests and woodlands have contributed to the abandonment Development of forest-based enterprises would also bring non- protection and sustainable management of Lebanon’s forest landscapes. of traditional community use, management, and protection monetary co-benefits linked to increased resilience, climate- It considers the increasing pressure on natural resources due to of forests. This neglect has left forests vulnerable to arson, change mitigation, and biodiversity conservation. vandalism, and natural disasters. If not managed, increasing anthropogenic activities/stresses, as well as their increased vulnerability pressure on forests jeopardizes the sustained delivery of the The opportunities identified in this Note are sensitive and to climate change and natural disasters, especially forest fires. ecosystem services provided by Lebanon’s forestry sector, responsive to Lebanon’s unique size, geography, and estimated at a value of US$587 per hectare (ha). political and economic circumstances. Six opportunity areas are identified for sustaining Lebanon’s forests and forest The Note presents a forward-looking business case for Lebanon In 2015, the Government of Lebanon approved the National landscapes and strengthening the forest sector—notably by to protect its forest ecosystem services, while increasing the Forest Program (NFP) 2015–2025. This provides a framework supporting sustainable forest management, including wildfire for development of the forestry sector in Lebanon, risk management. These opportunity areas reflect activities that socioeconomic benefits for Lebanon’s sustainable development goals and aligns national goals with international agreements, address the gaps and weaknesses discussed in the analytical global environmental commitments. and modernizes the existing laws and regulations. segment of the Note. While some proposed activities are long- The program presents the government’s current national policies term, short-and mid-term recommendations are suggested as and strategies, as well as its long-term vision and mission for priorities for consideration by the Government of Lebanon. forest and rangeland management and conservation. It also fosters active community participation and collaboration with public and private stakeholders. The recent focus on community- based forest conservation (involving local stakeholders in the management of forests and woodlands, and combining scientific THE IDENTIFIED OPPORTUNITIES ARE TO: with traditional knowledge) has renewed interest in protecting and sustaining Lebanon’s forests and trees. • Improve governance and local capacity for sustainable forest management Owing to an alarming increase in the occurrence and severity of wildfires impacting Lebanon’s forest • Improve access to data and information on forest fires landscapes, a National Forest Fire Management Strategy (NFFMS) was developed in 2009 and updated in 2023. Successful implementation of the NFFMS will depend on several • Add value to wood and non-wood forest products conditions, namely: • Restore forest ecosystems to reduce fragmentation and • The creation of a formal mechanism through which relevant fire risks agencies (especially the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Environment, and the Disaster Risk Management Unit • Incentivize private landowners to protect and manage at the Prime Minister’s Office) can communicate and forest and trees on their properties jointly strategize • A unified system of fire data and information collection • Support sustainable nature-based tourism enterprises and management These are discussed below, with additional • Appropriate allocation in the national budget for implementation detail in Table 1 on page 7. of the NFFMS. © Shutterstock © Freepik © Freepik Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 4 Improve governance and local capacity Add value to wood and non-wood Improve access to data Conclusion for sustainable forest management, forest products and information on forest fires including wildfire risk management Forest governance and institutional capacities are essential Production of wood products and non-wood forest products Lebanon’s forest landscapes are highly vulnerable to The implementation of the proposed actions will help for ensuring the protection and sustainable management (NWFPs) may be an important economic activity in countries fires, and climate change will aggravate this situation. to protect Lebanon’s forest landscapes and enhance of forests and the long-term provision of their ecological, with forests. Tree species valued for their wood are used for Currently, information on fire risks, fire events, and post-fire the robustness of the forest sector in the context of economic, and social benefits. Effective forest governance various purposes, including construction, furniture, and fuel. activities in Lebanon is fragmented, and not readily accessible current and future challenges, including climate change. provides a framework for decision-making, planning, and However, Lebanon has no viable industry for wood products and to all relevant stakeholders. The proposed interventions (summarized in Table 1) are implementation of forest-related policies and programs. It NWFPs (such as pine nuts, honey, and carob). Studies suggest consistent with the various national plans and strategies noted, also ensures the participation of stakeholders—such as local that, in some countries, the direct contribution of NWFPs to An integrated forest fire information management system specifically the National Forest Program and the National Forest communities and civil society—in decision-making processes. food security can amount to roughly 50 percent compared to (IFFMS) would provide a common and accessible platform Fire Emergency Plan. However, successful realization of these The need for community involvement in sustainable forest other staple foods. NWFPs also contribute indirectly to food for such information (Table 1). A roadmap and terms of target interventions will require a dedicated budget (including management is based on a growing appreciation of forests as security, as they can be sold to buy other products in times of reference for the development of an IFFMS have been made allocations from national budget), an emergency fund, revenues, an important carbon sink, as well as a crucial source of livelihood need. NWFPs are therefore an important safety net for the rural available to the Government of Lebanon. bonds, a national forest fund, and credit lines. for many. Community participation plays a vital role in addressing population in Lebanon, the most vulnerable segment of society. drivers of deforestation and forest degradation—such as forest However, overexploitation and unsustainable management fires and unsustainable harvesting of forest resources for practices have led to a decline in the availability of these Restore forest ecosystems to reduce commercial activities. products and produced negative economic and environmental fragmentation and fire risks © Andrea Kutter, World Bank impacts. Table 1 sets out opportunities for adding value to wood Given the considerable extent of forest landscapes under and non-wood products in the short, medium, and long term. Forest ecosystem restoration can yield multiple benefits, private ownership in Lebanon, it is imperative to devise including climate resilience, carbon sequestration, strategies that support private landowners’ interests in conservation of biodiversity, and reduction of fire risk by conserving forested lands. The proposed strategies focus on: restoring degraded forests to a more natural state. This is IT IS IMPERATIVE THAT ACCESS fostering collaboration between public institutions and enhancing governance to strengthen sustainable forest management; of particular importance for highly fragmented and degraded TO NATURAL LANDSCAPES forests. Reducing fire risks can also positively impact the engaging communities on sustainable forest management, socioeconomic fabric of rural forest landscapes and so AND FORESTS RECOGNIZES including wildfire mitigation; and involving private landowners strengthen local communities. Measures to prevent catastrophic LOCAL (Table 1 on page 7.). fires include education and awareness campaigns on the value of forest landscapes. Support sustainable nature-based tourism OWNERSHIP AND PROVIDES SUPPORT Nature-based tourism is a significant contributor to SCHEMES FOR COMMUNITY the country’s tourism industries and the economy. Forest landscapes are home to diverse wildlife and vegetation, INVOLVEMENT. making them an ideal destination for nature-oriented tourists seeking to explore and enjoy nature. Nature-based tourism has the potential to contribute to local economies and provide local job opportunities. However, access to natural and forest landscapes by tourists and tour operators rarely benefits landowners and communities. It is imperative that access to natural landscapes and forests recognizes local ownership and provides support schemes for community involvement. This would include access to jobs in the hospitality sector to incentivize locals to support forest management and protection. Nature-based tourism provides visitors with an opportunity to experience the local culture and traditional way of life of communities living in and around the forests, as well as the environmental benefits of forest management and conservation. © Adobe Stock 5 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 6 Table 1: Summary of proposed strategies and short-, medium-, and long-term priorities for conserving Lebanon’s forested lands Strategic focus Short- to medium-term priorities Long-term prospects Strategic focus Short- to medium-term priorities Long-term prospects Improve Create a multi-sectoral “government forest Formalize the coordination mechanism Involve private landowners Assess the status of forests and trees Develop a range of policy tools—from governance and mechanism” consisting of public institutions on Lebanon’s forest landscapes with on privately owned land and private local initiatives to national programs— local capacity and government entities concerned with forest clear mandates and agreed roles, landowners’ willingness to, inter alia, and engage private forest landowners Promote landscapes (including the Ministry of Agriculture responsibilities, and reporting lines (for collaborate with municipalities to improve on options and opportunities for forest collaboration (MoA), the Ministry of Environment (MoE), the example, through a Council of Ministers forest management and reduce fire risks on stewardship (for example, land use between public Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Unit, and other decree or memorandum of understanding) their land ordinances that aim to achieve zero net institutions government and municipal entities) and ensure forest loss; tax incentives and easements; and enhance that the framework sets out the agreed roles and Develop a mechanism to access climate and direct financial incentives) governance responsibilities of relevant entities, and identifies finance, including carbon finance, to to strengthen key issues for support forest conservation and forest fire In the case of absent landowners or sustainable forest effective coordination mitigation contested tenure, develop strategies that management protect and empower the community Hold regular meetings or develop communication and local authorities, thereby making tools, such as email lists and messaging apps, landowners accountable for the imminent to ensure that entities can break departmental threat of fire and ensuring that abandoned and regional silos and engage with peers. forests do not become a liability Communication will ensure awareness of latest to communities developments and of projects, laws, and upcoming events and opportunities for collaboration Develop new legislation to update and enhance the roles and responsibilities of each government Improve access to data Verify the road map for the development Develop an IFFMS institution, and to ensure open and timely and information on forest of an Integrated Forest Fire Information collaboration and sharing of data and information fires Management System (IFFMS) Design an outreach program that provides between various stakeholders data and information on forest fires, and Secure funding for implementing the terms targets relevant entities at national and Engage Conduct a needs assessment to identify current Develop community forest management of reference local levels communities on knowledge and skills of local communities plans into forest operational plans sustainable forest regarding sustainable forest management and fire management, management Develop long-term funding and resource including wildfire strategies, including relevant lines in the mitigation Develop a related capacity-development plan national budget for community-based forest and organize capacity-development events on management, sustainable practices, and sustainable forest management and fire mitigation wildfire prevention and suppression efforts Establish a local forest and woodland volunteer Develop a comprehensive national program. Enroll, train, and involve residents monitoring, reporting and evaluation/ and youth in basic practices such as clearing of verification system to track the progress of herbaceous biomass near village residences, and forest and wildfire management efforts by along roads and walking paths local communities Offer capacity development and training for local communities, including access and benefit-sharing plans for forest management and product uses Develop community forest management plans1 that consider local needs, priorities, and resources 1 Community forest management plans are initial management plans to be developed over time into a forest operational plan. 7 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 8 Strategic focus Short- to medium-term priorities Long-term prospects Strategic focus Short- to medium-term priorities Long-term prospects Add value to Conduct a feasibility analysis for developing a wood- Develop forest operational Restore forest Prioritize restoration actions to reduce forest Develop forest operational plans that reflect wood and non- based industry, including the value chain for NWFPs management plans that build on ecosystems fragmentation and reverse land degradation, sustainable management practices for wood wood products community forest management to reduce as agreed in the NFP 2015–2025 and the and NWFPs (by prescribing annual cutting and Engage forest owners, managers, and local plans, including reforestation fragmentation 2023 National Forest Fire Emergency harvesting levels) and follow guidelines for Wood products communities by providing capacity-building schemes, setting sustainable annual and fire risks Management Plan restoration efforts and fuelwood opportunities and training on sustainable forest wood harvesting levels, and other management practices and productive uses of forest management objectives Support forest operation plans that promote Design and operate a national forest monitoring products restoration efforts with endemic, climate- system (NFMS) with monitoring, reporting, and resilient species verification (MRV) including: Strengthen the legal and regulatory framework for sustainable use of forests for wood production, Conduct fire prevention measures in fire • Periodic forest assessments for deforestation including by developing clear policies and guidelines hotspots and forest degradation monitoring • Technical guidance and institutional/ Develop a subsidized distribution plan for tree Empower local communities to manage capacity support to the institutional setups at seedlings, as well as technical assistance and financial community-owned forest landscapes, based subnational and local levels incentives to encourage municipalities, farmers, on an agreed management plan • Coordinated collection of subnational-level and private landowners to plant more trees on their information properties Incentivize private landowners to proactively manage forest and trees on their properties Scale up forest restoration efforts, as agreed Provide financial and technical support to small- in the NFP 2015–2025 and the 2023 National scale wood producers to adopt sustainable forest Forest Fire Emergency Management Plan management practices and improve their productivity and profitability Support Develop municipal guidelines for creating Establish partnerships between local sustainable tourism-related infrastructure in forest communities and conservation organizations, nature-based landscapes private companies, and government agencies Non-wood Develop an inventory and status report on NWFPs in Develop a local and international tourism to promote sustainable tourism in forest areas forest products Lebanon market strategy for NWFPs Train contractors to develop tourism and protect forest ecosystems (NWFPs) infrastructure such as trails, visitor centers, Create awareness about the importance of NWFPs and Establish seed banks and nurseries and rest areas Develop a nature-based tourism strategy and their role in forest sustainability for NWFPs to preserve and propagate action plan, including clear regulations endemic plant species Train communities and tour operators to Develop sustainable harvesting guidelines and training support responsible tourism and provide Train tourism operators in tools and safety sessions for collectors Fund research into NWFPs and identify information to visitors about forest measures related to forest conservation and priorities, including management conservation and fire risks fire mitigation Expand the licensing program to collect additional NWFP strategies that take into account their species ecological role and economic potential Encourage municipal planning of nature- based tourism activities that highlight the Promote local initiatives related to NWFPs, such as natural beauty of forest landscapes community gardens, farmers’ markets, and nature-based tourism Develop campsites, lodges, and other accommodation options that are nature- Expand policies that support the sustainable use friendly and sustainable and conservation of NWFPs, such as promoting the certification of sustainably harvested NWFPs and creating Develop the capacity of tour operators to incentives for their value-addition promote sustainable tourism practices and work with tourists to prevent environmental damage, including from forest fires 9 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 10 ‫إىل زيادة يف إيرادات الحكومة اللبنانية فحسب‪ ،‬بل سيؤدّي أيضً ا إىل تطوير مصادر‬ ‫دخل أعىل أو جديدة (بخاصة لسكان الريف والفئات املستضعفة) من خالل فرص‬ ‫عمل إضافية يف الصناعات الخشبية وغري الخشبية‪ .‬كام أن تطوير املؤسسات القامئة‬ ‫عىل الغابات من شأنه أن يوفر منافع مشرتكة غري نقدية مرتبطة بزيادة املرونة‪،‬‬ ‫يستند بيان الجدوى إىل تحليل التحدّ يات والفرص املتاحة من أجل جعل قطاع‬ ‫الغابات (والقطاعات األخرى التي تعتمد عىل خدمات النظم اإليكولوجية للغابات)‬ ‫من عنارص مساهمة بشكل دينامييك وف ّ‬ ‫عال يف الناتج املحيل اإلجاميل للبنان‪.‬‬ ‫كام أنّه ينظر يف طرق إدارة املخاطر املتزايدة‪ ،‬وبخاصة تلك الناتجة عن حرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫املوجز التنفيذي‬ ‫والتخفيف من ّ‬ ‫تغرّي املناخ‪ ،‬والحفاظ عىل التنوع البيولوجي‪.‬‬ ‫أساسا للمزيد من املناقشات مع الحكومة والرشكاء‬ ‫وتهدف االورقة إىل أن تكون ً‬ ‫م تحديدها‪.‬‬ ‫اآلخرين‪ ،‬بغية تحقيق الفرص التي ت ّ‬ ‫فحساسة وتستجيب لحجم لبنان الفريد‬ ‫ما الفرص التي تحدّ دها هذه الورقة ّ‬ ‫أّ‬ ‫يته وظروفه السياسية واالقتصادية‪ .‬تم تحديد ستّة مجاالت للفرص التي تسمح‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫اف‬‫ر‬ ‫وجغ‬ ‫ية الطبيعية يف لبنان فريدة من نوعها يف منطقة‬ ‫تعدّ املساحات واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫يف استدامة الغابات واملناظر الطبيعية للغابات يف لبنان وتعزيز هذا القطاع—ال سيام‬ ‫من خالل دعم اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك إدارة مخاطر حرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫كاّم ً‬ ‫هائاًل من الفوائد االجتامعية‬ ‫ر القرون ّ‬ ‫البحر األبيض املتوسط‪ ،‬وقد وفّرت عىل م ّ‬ ‫تستعرض هذه الورقة حول غابات لبنان (الورقة) الفرص املتاحة من أجل‬ ‫للتغرّيات املجتمع ّ‬ ‫ية تأثريا كبريا عىل‬ ‫واالقتصادية والثقافية والبيئية‪ .‬ومع ذلك‪ ،‬كان ّ‬ ‫وتعكس مجاالت الفرص هذه األنشطة التي تعالج الثغرات ونقاط الضعف التي‬ ‫رضها لخطر املزيد من التدهور‪ .‬التغيريات يف منط الحياة‬ ‫ماّم ع ّ‬ ‫هذه املناظر الطبيعية‪ّ ،‬‬ ‫ية وإدارتها املستدامة‪ .‬كام تنظر هذه‬ ‫حامية املساحات الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية الطبيع ّ‬ ‫نوقشت يف الجزء التحلييل من الورقة ة‪ .‬ويف حني أن بعض األنشطة املقرتحة طويلة‬ ‫والقيود املفروضة عىل الوصول إىل الغابات واألرايض الحرجية يف التخيل عن االستخدام‬ ‫األجل‪ ،‬تورد الورقة توصيات قصرية ومتوسطة األجل كأولويات مقرتحة عىل حكومة‬ ‫املجتمعي التقليدي للغابات وإدارتها وحاميتها‪ .‬وقد ترك هذا اإلهامل الغابات عرضة‬ ‫بب به‬ ‫الدراسة إىل مستوى الضغط املتزايد عىل املوارد الطبيع ّ‬ ‫ية الذي تتس ّ‬ ‫لبنان لتنظر فيها‪.‬‬ ‫ر إدارة هذه املساحات‬ ‫مدة والتخريب والكوارث الطبيعية‪ .‬ويف حال مل تج ِ‬ ‫للحرائق املتع ّ‬ ‫واملناظر الحرجيّة الطبيعية‪ ،‬فإن الضغط املتزايد عىل الغابات يضع استدامة خدمات‬ ‫األنشطة‪/‬الضغوط التي هي من صنع اإلنسان‪ ،‬وإىل زيادة هشاشتها لجهة‬ ‫النظام اإليكولوجي التي يقدّمها قطاع الغابات يف لبنان يف دائرة الخطر‪ .‬تجدر اإلشارة‬ ‫إىل أن هذه الخدمات تقدّر قيمتها بـ ‪ 587‬دوالرا أمريكيا للهكتار الواحد‪.‬‬ ‫تغرّي املناخ والكوارث الطبيعية‪ ،‬وال سيام حرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫في عام ‪ ،2015‬وافقت الحكومة اللبنانية على البرنامج الوطني للغابات‬ ‫أما الفرص املحددة هي‪:‬‬ ‫‪ .2015-2025‬في الواقع‪ ،‬يو ّ‬ ‫ •تحسني الحوكمة والقدرات املحلية من أجل اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‪.‬‬ ‫إطارا لتطوير قطاع الغابات في لبنان‪،‬‬ ‫ً‬ ‫فر هذا البرنامج‬ ‫ويوائم األهداف الوطنية مع االتفاقيات الدولية‪ ،‬ويحدّ ث القوانين واألنظمة القائمة‪.‬‬ ‫تطلعي للبنان يهدف إىل حامية الخدمات التي‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫وتعرض الورقة بيان جدوى‬ ‫ويعرض الربنامج السياسات واالسرتاتيجيات الوطنية الحالية للحكومة‪ ،‬ويحدّد رؤيتها‬ ‫ورسالتها عىل املدى الطويل يف موضوع إدارة الغابات واملراعي والحفاظ عليها‪ .‬كام أنه‬ ‫يوفّرها النظام البيئي للغابات‪ ،‬وإىل زيادة الفوائد االجتامعية واالقتصادية‬ ‫ • تحسني الوصول إىل البيانات واملعلومات املتعلقة بحرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫ية النشطة والتعاون مع أصحاب املصلحة من القطاعني العام‬ ‫املجتمعي عىل الغابات (أي إرشاك‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫را عىل أهميّة الحفاظ‬‫خً‬ ‫يعزز املشاركة املجتمع ّ‬ ‫والخاص‪ .‬وقد أدّى الرتكيز مؤ ّ‬ ‫ية العامل ّ‬ ‫ية‪.‬‬ ‫ألهداف التنمية املستدامة والتزامات لبنان البيئ ّ‬ ‫أصحاب املصلحة املحليني يف إدارة الغابات واألرايض الحرجية‪ ،‬والجمع بني املعارف‬ ‫العلمية والتقليدية) إىل تجديد االهتامم بحامية الغابات واألشجار يف لبنان واستدامتها‪.‬‬ ‫ • إضافة قيمة إىل املنتجات الحرجية الخشبية وغري الخشبية‪.‬‬ ‫نظرا للزيادة املقلقة يف حرائق الغابات التي تؤثر عىل املناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية الطبيعية يف‬ ‫تم تطوير اسرتاتيجية وطنية إلدارة مخاطر حرائق الغابات يف عام‬ ‫لبنان ونظ ً‬ ‫را لشدّ تها‪ّ ،‬‬ ‫ثم جرى تحديثها يف عام ‪.2023‬‬ ‫‪ 2009‬ومن ّ‬ ‫ • استعادة النظم اإليكولوجية للغابات للحد من مخاطر التجزئة‬ ‫والحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫وسوف يعتمد التنفيذ الناجح لهذه االسرتاتيجية عىل رشوط عديدة‪ ،‬وهي‪:‬‬ ‫ • إنشاء آلية رسمية تسمح لإلدارات ذات الصلة (وبخاصة وزارة الزراعة ووزارة‬ ‫البيئة ووحدة إدارة مخاطر الكوارث يف مكتب رئيس الوزراء) بالتواصل ورسم‬ ‫االسرتاتيجيات بشكل مشرتك‪.‬‬ ‫ ‬ ‫ • تحفيز أصحاب األرايض الخاصة لحامية الغابات واألشجار الواقعة‬ ‫حد لجمع البيانات واملعلومات عن الحرائق وإدارتها‪.‬‬ ‫ •وجود نظام مو ّ‬ ‫عىل ممتلكاتهم وحسن إدارتها‪.‬‬ ‫ •تخصيص اعتامدات مناسبة يف املوازنة الوطنيّة لتنفيذ االسرتاتيجية الوطنيّة إلدارة‬ ‫مخاطر حرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫عىل الرغم من التحديات املتعدّ دة‪ ،‬فإن لبنان ملتزم بشدة بالحفاظ عىل املساحات‬ ‫ • دعم مؤسسات السياحة املستدامة القامئة عىل الطبيعة‪.‬‬ ‫ية وزيادة الغطاء الحرجي‪ .‬وتوفّر اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‬‫ية الطبيع ّ‬‫واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫األساس لتحقيق فوز ثاليث األبعاد‪ :‬من أجل النمو االقتصادي يف لبنان؛ ومن أجل ضامن‬ ‫وتناقش الورقة هذه املسائل أدناه‪ ،‬وترد تفاصيل إضافية‬ ‫أمن سبل رزق الشعب اللبناين؛ ومن أجل األجندة البيئية العاملية—من خالل املساعدة‬ ‫يف الجدول‪ 1‬يف الصفحة ‪.7‬‬ ‫وع البيولوجي‪ ،‬واملساهمة يف الحد من تدهور‬ ‫يف مكافحة تغري املناخ‪ ،‬والحفاظ عىل التن ّ‬ ‫األرايض‪ .‬وتعترب اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات هي أيضا مفهو ً‬ ‫ما مثبتًا إلدارة أفضل ملخاطر‬ ‫حرائق الغابات واألحداث التي تجري عىل أرض الواقع ولجهود إعادة التأهيل‪ .‬ولن‬ ‫يؤدي استكشاف فرص تطوير مؤسسات صغرية ومتوسطة الحجم القامئة عىل الغابات‬ ‫‪© Freepik‬‬ ‫‪© Shutterstock‬‬ ‫‪© Shutterstock‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪Lebanon Forest Note‬‬ ‫تحسني الوصول إىل البيانات واملعلومات املتعلقة‬ ‫قيمة مضافة للمنتجات الحرجية الخشبية وغري‬ ‫تحسني الحوكمة والقدرات املحلية من أجل إدارة‬ ‫الخامتة‬ ‫بحرائق الغابات‬ ‫الخشبية‬ ‫يدة ملخاطر حرائق الغابات‬ ‫مستدامة‪ ،‬وال س ّ‬ ‫يام إدارة ج ّ‬ ‫ية الطبيعية‬ ‫سيساعد تنفيذ اإلجراءات املقرتحة عىل حامية املساحات واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫رضة بشدة للحرائق وسيؤدي‬ ‫ية يف لبنان مع ّ‬‫ية الطبيع ّ‬‫تعترب املساحات واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫قد يكون إنتاج املنتجات الحرجية الخشبية وغري الخشبية نشاطًا اقتصاديًا ها ً‬ ‫ما يف‬ ‫ية رضوريّة لضامن حامية الغابات‬ ‫إن الحوكمة يف إدارة الغابات والقدرات املؤسسات ّ‬ ‫ية‪ ،‬مبا يف‬‫ّ‬ ‫واملستقبل‬ ‫يف لبنان وتعزيز متانة قطاع الغابات يف سياق التحديات الحالية‬ ‫يا‪ ،‬يف لبنان‪ ،‬إن املعلومات املتعلّقة مبخاطر‬ ‫ً‬ ‫حال‬ ‫الوضع‪.‬‬ ‫تغري املناخ إىل تفاقم هذا‬ ‫البلدان ذات غطاء حرجي‪ .‬وتستخدم أصناف األشجار املختلفة املشهورة بخشبها‬ ‫ية عىل‬‫ّ‬ ‫واالجتامع‬ ‫ة‬‫ي‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫واالقتصاد‬ ‫ة‬‫ي‬‫ّ‬ ‫اإليكولوج‬ ‫وإدارتها املستدامة والحفاظ عىل فوائدها‬ ‫ما التدخالت املقرتحة (امللخصة يف الجدول ‪ )1‬فتتامىش مع مختلف‬ ‫ذلك تغري املناخ‪ .‬أ ّ‬ ‫الحرائق واندالعها وأنشطة ما بعد الحريق مجزأة‪ ،‬وال يسهل عىل أصحاب املصلحة‬ ‫ألغراض مختلفة‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك البناء واألثاث والوقود‪ .‬ومع ذلك‪ ،‬ال يعرف لبنان صناعة‬ ‫را لصنع القرار والتخطيط وتنفيذ‬ ‫عالة للغابات إطا ً‬ ‫األمد الطويل‪ .‬وتوفّر الحوكمة الف ّ‬ ‫الخطط واالسرتاتيجيات الوطنية املذكورة أعاله وتتّسق معها‪ ،‬وتحديدًا الربنامج الوطني‬ ‫املعنيني كافة الوصول إليها‪.‬‬ ‫كربى للمنتجات الخشبيّة وغري الخشبيّة (مثل الصنوبر والعسل والخروب)‪ .‬وتشري‬ ‫السياسات والربامج املتعلّقة بالغابات‪ .‬كام أنها تضمن مشاركة أصحاب املصلحة ‪ -‬مثل‬ ‫للغابات والخطة الطارئة الوطنية بشأن حرائق الغابات‪ .‬ومع ذلك‪ ،‬فإن النجاح يف‬ ‫ن بعض البلدان تشهد مساهمة مبارشة للمنتجات الحرجية غري الخشبية‬ ‫الدراسات إىل أ ّ‬ ‫املجتمعات املحلية واملجتمع املدين‪ -‬يف صنع القرار‪ .‬فالحاجة إىل مشاركة املجتمع‬ ‫(مخصصات من املوازنة‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫تحقيق هذه التدخّالت املستهدفة يتطلّب موازنة ّ‬ ‫مخصصة لها‬ ‫ومن شأن نظام متكامل إلدارة املعلومات املتعلقة بحرائق الغابات (‪)IFFMS‬‬ ‫يف األمن الغذايئ تصل إىل ما يقارب ‪ 50‬يف املئة مقارنة باألغذية األساسية األخرى‪ .‬كام‬ ‫املحيل يف اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات تستند إىل تقدير متزايد ألهميّة الغابات باعتبارها‬ ‫الوطنية)‪ ،‬وصندوق للطوارئ‪ ،‬وإيرادات‪ ،‬وسندات‪ ،‬وصندوق وطني للغابات‪،‬‬ ‫م وضع خارطة‬ ‫منصة مشرتكة ومتاحة لهذه املعلومات (الجدول ‪ .)1‬لقد ت ّ‬ ‫أن يوفّر ّ‬ ‫ية بشكل غري مبارش يف األمن الغذايئ‪ ،‬وذلك‬ ‫تساهم املنتجات الحرجية غري الخشب ّ‬ ‫حاساًم لكسب الرزق بالنسبة‬‫ً‬ ‫فضاًل عن كونها مصد ً‬ ‫را‬ ‫ية‪ً ،‬‬ ‫خزان كربون غاية باألهم ّ‬ ‫وخطوط ائتامن‪.‬‬ ‫طريق لبلورة نظام متكامل إلدارة املعلومات املتعلّقة بحرائق الغابات وتحديد الرشوط‬ ‫إلمكانية بيعها من أجل رشاء منتجات أخرى يف أوقات الحاجة‪ .‬وبالتايل‪ ،‬فإن املنتجات‬ ‫را حيويًا يف التصدي لدوافع إزالة‬ ‫للكثريين‪ .‬وتؤدي مشاركة املجتمعات املحليّة دو ً‬ ‫الخاصة بها وت ّ‬ ‫م توفريها للحكومة اللبنانيّة‪.‬‬ ‫الحرجية غري الخشبيّة شبكة أمان مهمة لسكان الريف يف لبنان‪ ،‬وهم الرشيحة‬ ‫الغابات وتدهورها—مثل حرائق الغابات والحصاد غري املستدام ملوارد الغابات ألغراض‬ ‫األضعف يف املجتمع‪.‬‬ ‫األنشطة التجارية‪.‬‬ ‫‪© Andrea Kutter, World Bank‬‬ ‫إعادة تأهيل النظم اإليكولوجية للغابات للحدّ من‬ ‫ومع ذلك‪ ،‬أدى االستغالل املفرط ومامرسات اإلدارة غري املستدامة إىل انخفاض يف توافر‬ ‫ية الخاضعة للملكية الخاصة‬ ‫بالنظر إىل االمتداد الواسع للمساحات الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية الطبيع ّ‬ ‫ال بد للوصول إىل‬ ‫هذه املنتجات وكان له آثار اقتصاديّة وبيئيّة سلبيّة‪ .‬يحدّد الجدول ‪ً 1‬‬ ‫فرصا إلضافة قيمة‬ ‫يف لبنان‪ ،‬ال بدّ من تصميم اسرتاتيجيات تدعم مصالح ماليك األرايض الخاصة يف‬ ‫مخاطر التجزئة والحرائق‬ ‫إىل املنتجات الخشبية وغري الخشبية عىل اآلجال القصري واملتوسط والطويل‪.‬‬ ‫الحفاظ عىل األرايض الحرجية‪ .‬وتركز االسرتاتيجيات املقرتحة عىل ما ييل‪ :‬تعزيز التعاون‬ ‫بني املؤسسات العامة وتعزيز الحوكمة لتقوية اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات؛ وإرشاك‬ ‫املساحات واملناظر‬ ‫إلعادة تأهيل النظام البيئي للغابات فوائد متعدّ دة‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك املرونة املناخية‪،‬‬ ‫املجتمعات يف اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك التخفيف من حرائق الغابات؛‬ ‫وعزل الكربون‪ ،‬والحفاظ عىل التنوع البيولوجي‪ ،‬والحدّ من مخاطر الحرائق من خالل‬ ‫وإرشاك ماليك األرايض من القطاع الخاص (الجدول ‪ - 1‬الصفحة ‪.)5‬‬ ‫إعادة الغابات املتدهورة إىل حالة طبيعية أكرث‪ .‬ويكتيس هذا األمر أهمية خاصة‬ ‫ية‬‫الحرجية الطبيع ّ‬ ‫بالنسبة للغابات شديدة التجزؤ والتدهور‪ .‬ميكن أن يؤثر الحد من مخاطر الحرائق‬ ‫أيضً ا بشكل إيجايب عىل النسيج االجتامعي واالقتصادي للمناظر الحرجيّة الطبيعيّة يف‬ ‫ية‪ .‬وتشمل تدابري منع الحرائق الكارثية حمالت‬ ‫األرياف وبالتايل تعزيز املجتمعات املحل ّ‬ ‫والغابات أن يعرتف‬ ‫التثقيف والتوعية بشأن قيمة املناظر الحرجيّة الطبيعيّة‪.‬‬ ‫بامللكية املحلية وأن‬ ‫دعم السياحة املستدامة القامئة عىل الطبيعة‬ ‫يوفر خطط دعم‬ ‫تساهم السياحة القامئة عىل الطبيعة مساهمة كبرية يف صناعات السياحة واالقتصاد‬ ‫نا للحياة الربية والنباتات‬‫د املساحات واملناظر الحرجيّة الطبيعية موط ً‬ ‫يف البالد‪ .‬وت ُع ّ‬ ‫للمشاركة املجتمع ّ‬ ‫ية‬ ‫ياح املهتمني بالطبيعة والذين يسعون‬ ‫ية‪ .‬ومع ذلك‪ ،‬فإن وصول السياح ومنظمي‬ ‫ّ‬ ‫للس‬ ‫مثالية‬ ‫وجهة‬ ‫يجعلها‬ ‫ية وتوفري فرص العمل املحل ّ‬ ‫وعة‪ّ ،‬‬ ‫ماّم‬ ‫الستكشافها واالستمتاع بها‪ .‬وللسياحة القامئة عىل الطبيعة القدرة عىل املساهمة يف‬ ‫املتن ّ‬ ‫االقتصادات املحل ّ‬ ‫را ما يفيد ماليك‬ ‫الرحالت السياحية إىل املساحات واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية الطبيعية ناد ً‬ ‫األرايض والجامعات‪.‬‬ ‫ية الطبيعية‬‫لذا‪ ،‬من الرضوري أن تكون نشاطات الوصول إىل املساحات واملناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية كام من الرضوري أن توفّر خطط دعم‬ ‫يتها وأن تعرتف بهذه امللك ّ‬ ‫واعية لطبيعة ملك ّ‬ ‫ملشاركة الجامعات فيها‪ .‬وسيشمل ذلك األمر إيجاد الوظائف يف قطاع الضيافة لتحفيز‬ ‫السكان املحليني عىل دعم إدارة الغابات وحاميتها‪ .‬وتوفّر السياحة القامئة عىل الطبيعة‬ ‫ية وطريقة الحياة التقليدية للجامعات املحل ّ‬ ‫ية التي‬ ‫للزوار فرصة الختبار الثقافة املحل ّ‬ ‫تعيش يف الغابات و من حولها‪ً ،‬‬ ‫فضاًل عن الفوائد البيئية إلدارة الغابات وحفظها‪.‬‬ ‫‪© Adobe Stock‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪Lebanon Forest Note‬‬ ‫‪Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫آفاق طويلة األجل‬ ‫األولويات القصرية واملتوسطة األجل‬ ‫الهدف االسرتاتيجي‬ ‫آفاق طويلة األجل‬ ‫األولويات القصرية واملتوسطة األجل‬ ‫الهدف االسرتاتيجي‬ ‫تطوير مجموعة من أدوات السياسات‪-‬من املبادرات‬ ‫تقييم حالة الغابات واألشجار عىل األرايض اململوكة من القطاع الخاص وكذلك‬ ‫إرشاك ماليك األرايض الخاصة‬ ‫إضفاء الطابع الرسمي عىل آلية‬ ‫إنشاء ”آلية حكومية للغابات“ متعدّدة القطاعات تتألف من ّ‬ ‫املؤسسات‬ ‫تحسني الحوكمة والقدرات املحلية‬ ‫املحلية إىل الربامج الوطنية‪-‬وإرشاك ماليك الغابات من‬ ‫استعداد ماليك األرايض من القطاع الخاص للتعاون‪ ،‬يف جملة أمور‪ ،‬مع‬ ‫التنسيق بشأن املناظر الحرج ّ‬ ‫ية‬ ‫العامة واإلدارات الحكومية املعنية باملساحات واملناظر الحرجية‬ ‫القطاع الخاص يف الخيارات والفرص املتاحة لإلرشاف عىل‬ ‫البلديات لتحسني إدارة الغابات والحد من مخاطر الحرائق عىل أراضيهم‪.‬‬ ‫الطبيعية يف لبنان من خالل‬ ‫الطبيعية (مبا يف ذلك وزارة الزراعة‪ ،‬ووزارة البيئة‪ ،‬ووحدة إدارة مخاطر‬ ‫تعزيز التعاون بني املؤسسات العامة وتقوية الحوكمة‬ ‫(مثاًل‪ ،‬أوامر باستخدام األرايض تهدف إىل وقف‬ ‫الغابات ً‬ ‫مهام واضحة وأدوار ومسؤوليات‬ ‫الكوارث‪ ،‬وغريها من الهيئات الحكومية والبلدية) والتأكد من أن‬ ‫لتعزيز اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‬ ‫خسارة الغابات متا ً‬ ‫ما؛ حوافز وتسهيالت رضيبية؛ وحوافز‬ ‫وتسلسل إداري متفق عليها‬ ‫اإلطار يحدّد أدوار هذه اإلدارات والهيئات ذات الصلة املتفق عليها‬ ‫مالية مبارشة)‪.‬‬ ‫(عىل سبيل املثال‪ ،‬من خالل‬ ‫ومسؤولياتها‪ ،‬ويحدّد القضايا الرئيسة من اجل تنسيق ف ّ‬ ‫عال‪.‬‬ ‫مرسوم من مجلس الوزراء أو‬ ‫يف حالة غياب ماليك األرايض أو الحيازة املتنازع عليها‪،‬‬ ‫مذكرة تفاهم)‪.‬‬ ‫عقد اجتامعات منتظمة أو تطوير أدوات االتصال‪ ،‬مثل قوائم الربيد‬ ‫بلورة اسرتاتيجيات تحمي الجامعات والسلطات املحليّة‬ ‫اإللكرتوين وتطبيقات املراسلة‪ ،‬لضامن قدرة هذه الهيئات عىل تخطي‬ ‫نها‪ ،‬وبالتايل تجعل ماليك األرايض مسؤولني عن‬ ‫ومتك ّ‬ ‫وضع آلية للحصول عىل متويل‬ ‫العوائق عىل مستوى املحافظات واملناطق والتفاعل مع األقران‪ .‬يضمن‬ ‫الخطر الوشيك الذي يقيض بنشوب حريق وضامن أال‬ ‫لألنشطة املتعلّقة باملناخ‪ ،‬مبا‬ ‫التواصل الوعي بأحدث التطورات واملشاريع والقوانني والف ّ‬ ‫عاليّات‬ ‫تصبح الغابات املهجورة عبئًا عىل الجامعات من حولها‪.‬‬ ‫يف ذلك متويل الكربون‪ ،‬لدعم‬ ‫القادمة وفرص التعاون‪.‬‬ ‫حفظ الغابات والتخفيف من‬ ‫الحرائق فيها‪.‬‬ ‫ية كافة‬‫بلورة ترشيعات جديدة لتحديث أدوار اإلدارات الحكوم ّ‬ ‫تصميم نظام متكامل إلدارة املعلومات املتعلقة بحرائق‬ ‫التحقق من خارطة الطريق الهادفة إىل تطوير نظام متكامل إلدارة املعلومات‬ ‫تحسني الوصول إىل البيانات‬ ‫ومسؤولياتها وتعزيزها‪ ،‬وضامن التعاون املفتوح والذي يت ّ‬ ‫م يف الوقت‬ ‫الغابات‬ ‫املتعلقة بحرائق الغابات املعلومات املتعلقة بحرائق (‪)IFFMS‬‬ ‫واملعلومات املتعلقة بحرائق‬ ‫املناسب وتبادل البيانات واملعلومات بني مختلف أصحاب املصلحة‪.‬‬ ‫الغابات‬ ‫تصميم برنامج توعية يوفر بيانات ومعلومات عن حرائق‬ ‫تأمني التمويل لتنفيذ الرشوط إجراء تحليل جدوى لتطوير صناعة قامئة عىل‬ ‫الغابات‪ ،‬ويستهدف الكيانات ذات الصلة عىل املستويني‬ ‫األخشاب‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك سلسلة القيمة للمنتجات الحرجية غري الخشبية‪.‬‬ ‫الوطني واملحيل‪ .‬وضع خطط لإلدارة التنفيذية للغابات‬ ‫تستند إىل خطط اإلدارة املجتمعية للغابات مبا يف ذلك‬ ‫إرشاك ماليك الغابات ومديريها واملجتمعات املحلية من خالل توفري فرص‬ ‫خطط إعادة التحريج‪ ،‬وتحديد مستويات جمع األخشاب‬ ‫بناء القدرات والتدريب عىل مامرسات اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات واالستخدام‬ ‫املستدامة سنويّا‪ ،‬وأهداف اإلدارة األخرى‪.‬‬ ‫املثمر للمنتجات الحرجية‪.‬‬ ‫وضع خطط لإلدارة املجتمعيّة‬ ‫إجراء تقييم للحاجات من أجل فهم املعرفة واملهارات التي يتمتّع بها‬ ‫إرشاك الجامعات يف اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك‬ ‫تعزيز اإلطار القانوين والتنظيمي لالستخدام املستدام للغابات يف إنتاج‬ ‫للغابات وتحويلها إىل خطط‬ ‫أفراد املجتمعات املحلية يف ما يتعلق باإلدارة املستدامة للغابات وإدارة‬ ‫التخفيف من حرائق الغابات‬ ‫األخشاب‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك عن طريق وضع سياسات ومبادئ توجيهية واضحة‪.‬‬ ‫تنفيذية‬ ‫الحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫وضع خطة توزيع مدعوم لشتالت األشجار‪ ،‬باإلضافة إىل املساعدة الفنية‬ ‫وضع اسرتاتيجيات طويلة‬ ‫وضع خطة مناسبة لتنمية القدرات وتنظيم ف ّ‬ ‫عاليّات لتنمية القدرات‬ ‫والحوافز املالية‪ ،‬لتشجيع البلديات واملزارعني وماليك األرايض من القطاع‬ ‫األجل للتمويل واملوارد‪ ،‬مبا يف‬ ‫بشأن اإلدارة املستدامة للغابات والتخفيف من حدة الحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫الخاص عىل زراعة املزيد من األشجار يف ممتلكاتهم‪.‬‬ ‫ذلك تخصيص بنود ذات صلة‬ ‫ضمن املوازنة الوطنية لإلدارة‬ ‫ية‪ .‬تسجيل السكان‬ ‫إنشاء برنامج تط ّ‬ ‫وع محيل للغابات واألرايض الحرج ّ‬ ‫تقديم الدعم املايل والتقني لصغار منتجي األخشاب العتامد مامرسات اإلدارة‬ ‫املجتمعية للغابات‪ ،‬واملامرسات‬ ‫والشباب وتدريبهم وإرشاكهم يف املامرسات األساسية مثل إزالة الكتلة‬ ‫املستدامة للغابات وتحسني إنتاجيتهم وربحيتهم‬ ‫املستدامة‪ ،‬وجهود الوقاية من‬ ‫الحيوية العشبية النامية بالقرب من مساكن القرية‪ ،‬وعىل طول الطرق‬ ‫حرائق الغابات وضبطها‪.‬‬ ‫ومسارات امليش‬ ‫توفري تنمية القدرات والتدريب للمجتمعات املحلية‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك خطط‬ ‫تطوير اسرتاتيجية للسوقني املحلية والدولية للمنتجات‬ ‫إعداد قامئة جرد وتقرير عن حالة املنتجات الحرجية غري الخشب ّ‬ ‫ية يف لبنان‪.‬‬ ‫إضافة قيمة إىل املنتجات‬ ‫وضع نظام وطني شامل للرصد‬ ‫للوصل إىل املنافع الخاصة بإدارة الغابات وتقاسمها واستخدام منتجاتها‬ ‫غري الزراعية‪.‬‬ ‫الخشبية وغري‬ ‫واإلبالغ والتقييم ‪ /‬التحقق لتتبع‬ ‫التوعية بشأن أهمية املنتجات الحرجية غري الخشب ّ‬ ‫ية ودورها يف استدامة‬ ‫الخشبية‬ ‫التقدم املحرز يف الجهود التي‬ ‫وضع خطط مجتمعية إلدارة الغابات‪ 1‬تأخذ يف االعتبار االحتياجات‬ ‫إنشاء بنوك للبذور واملشاتل الخاصة باملنتجات الحرجية‬ ‫الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫تبذلها املجتمعات املحلية لجهة‬ ‫واألولويات واملوارد املحلية‬ ‫غري الخشبية‪ ،‬للحفاظ عىل األنواع النباتية املستوطنة‬ ‫املنتجات الخشبية وخشب‬ ‫إدارة الغابات وحرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫ونرشها‪.‬‬ ‫وضع مبادئ توجيهية للجمع املستدام للخشب ودورات تدريبية للعاملني عليه‬ ‫الوقود‬ ‫توسيع برنامج الرتخيص لجمع أنواع إضافية من املنتجات الحرجية غري الخشبية‪.‬‬ ‫متويل البحوث املتعلقة باملنتجات الحرجية غري الخشبية‬ ‫وتحديد األولويات‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك اسرتاتيجيات اإلدارة التي‬ ‫تعزيز املبادرات املحلية املتعلقة باملنتجات غري الزراعية‪ ،‬مثل الحدائق‬ ‫تأخذ يف االعتبار دورها البيئي وإمكاناتها االقتصادية‪.‬‬ ‫املجتمعية وأسواق املزارعني والسياحة القامئة عىل الطبيعة‪.‬‬ ‫توسيع نطاق السياسات التي تدعم االستخدام املستدام لهذه املنتجات‬ ‫وحفظها‪ ،‬مثل تشجيع التصديق عىل املنتجات التي يتم حصادها عىل نحو‬ ‫مستدام وخلق حوافز إلضافة قيمتها‪.‬‬ ‫‪.‬تاباغلل ةيليغشت ةطخ حبصتل تقولا رورمب اهريوطت متي ةيلوأ ةرادإ ططخ يه ةيعمتجملا تاباغلا ةرادإ ططخ ‪1‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪Lebanon Forest Note‬‬ ‫‪Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫آفاق طويلة األجل‬ ‫تتصميم خطط تشغيلية للغابات تعكس مامرسات اإلدارة‬ ‫ية (من‬‫املستدامة لألخشاب واملنتجات الحرجية غري الخشب ّ‬ ‫الهدف االسرتاتيجي األولويات القصرية واملتوسطة األجل‬ ‫إعطاء األولوية إلجراءات إعادة التأهيل للحد من تجزئة الغابات وعكس اتجاه‬ ‫تدهور األرايض‪ ،‬عىل النحو املتفق عليه يف الربنامج الوطني للغابات للفرتة‬ ‫إعادة تأهيل النظم‬ ‫اإليكولوجية للغابات‬ ‫‪1 Country Context‬‬ ‫خالل تحديد مستويات القطع والجمع السنوية) واتباع‬ ‫‪ 2025-2015‬والخطة الطارئة الوطنية بشأن حرائق الغابات لعام ‪.2023‬‬ ‫للحد من مخاطر التجزئة‬ ‫الخطوط التوجيهية لجهود إعادة التأهيل‪.‬‬ ‫والحرائق‬ ‫دعم خطط تشغيل الغابات التي تعزز جهود إعادة التأهيل عرب األنواع املستوطنة‬ ‫‪Lebanon is a small country in the Middle East region with a surface‬‬ ‫تصميم نظام وطني وتشغيله لرصد الغابات يشتمل عىل‬ ‫القادرة عىل التكيف مع املناخ‪.‬‬ ‫‪area of 10,452 square kilometers (km2) and an estimated population of‬‬ ‫الرصد واإلبالغ والتحقق مبا يف ذلك‪:‬‬ ‫ • التقييامت الدورية لرصد إزالة الغابات وتدهورها‬ ‫الحساسة للحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫اتخاذ تدابري الوقاية من الحرائق يف النقاط ّ‬ ‫‪6,769,151 (World Bank 2021). The country is on the eastern shore of the‬‬ ‫ • تقديم التوجيه التقني والدعم عىل مستوى‬ ‫‪Mediterranean Sea and extends 217 kilometers from northeast to southwest‬‬ ‫املؤسسة‪ /‬القدرات إىل األجهزة املؤسسية عىل‬ ‫متكني املجتمعات املحلية من إدارة املناظر الحرجية الطبيعية للغابات التي هي ملك‬ ‫‪and 56 kilometers from southeast to northwest. Lebanon is divided‬‬ ‫الصعيدين دون الوطني واملحيل‬ ‫املجتمع‪ ،‬بناء عىل خطة إدارة متفق عليها‪.‬‬ ‫‪administratively into eight governorates: Beirut, Mount Lebanon, North, Akkar,‬‬ ‫ • تنسيق جمع املعلومات عىل الصعيد دون الوطني‬ ‫تحفيز ماليك األرايض من القطاع الخاص عىل إدارة الغابات واألشجار بشكل استباقي‬ ‫‪Baalbek-Hermel, Beqaa, South, and Nabatiyeh (Figure 1 on page 11).‬‬ ‫توسيع نطاق جهود إعادة تأهيل الغابات‪ ،‬عىل النحو املتفق‬ ‫يف ممتلكاتهم‪.‬‬ ‫عليه يف الربنامج الوطني للغابات ‪ 2025-2015‬والخطة‬ ‫الطارئة الوطنية بشأن حرائق الغابات لعام ‪.2023‬‬ ‫إقامة رشاكات بني املجتمعات املحلية ومنظامت املحافظة‬ ‫وضع املبادئ التوجيهية البلدية إلقامة البنية التحتية ذات الصلة بالسياحة ضمن‬ ‫دعم السياحة املستدامة‬ ‫عىل الغابات والرشكات الخاصة والوكاالت الحكومية لتعزيز‬ ‫املناظر الحرجية الطبيعية‪.‬‬ ‫القامئة عىل الطبيعة‬ ‫السياحة املستدامة يف املناطق الحرجية وحامية النظم‬ ‫اإليكولوجية للغابات‪.‬‬ ‫تدريب املقاولني عىل تطوير البنية التحتية السياحية مثل ممرات امليش واملراكز‬ ‫للزوار ومناطق الراحة‪.‬‬ ‫وضع اسرتاتيجية وخطة عمل للسياحة القامئة عىل الطبيعة‪،‬‬ ‫مبا يف ذلك أنظمة واضحة‪.‬‬ ‫تدريب الجامعات ومنظمي الرحالت عىل دعم السياحة املسؤولة وتوفري املعلومات‬ ‫للزوار حول الحفاظ عىل الغابات ومخاطر الحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫تدريب منظمي الرحالت السياح ّ‬ ‫ية عىل وسائل السالمة‬ ‫وتدابريها املتعلقة بحفظ الغابات وتخفيف الحرائق‪.‬‬ ‫تشجيع التخطيط البلدي لألنشطة السياحية القامئة عىل الطبيعة التي تسلط الضوء عىل‬ ‫‪© Shutterstock‬‬ ‫الجامل الطبيعي للمناظر الحرجية الطبيعية‪.‬‬ ‫تطوير مساحات التخييم والنزل وخيارات اإلقامة األخرى الصديقة للطبيعة واملستدامة‪.‬‬ ‫تطوير قدرة منظمي الرحالت السياحية عىل تعزيز مامرسات السياحة املستدامة‬ ‫والعمل مع السياح ملنع اإلرضار بالبيئة‪ ،‬مبا يف ذلك من حرائق الغابات‪.‬‬ ‫‪© Adobe Stock‬‬ ‫‪© Shutterstock‬‬ ‫‪Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ Figure 1: Administrative map of Lebanon Figure 2: Monthly temperature (min, max, and mean) and precipitation from 1991–2020 35°C 175 mm Akkar 30°C 150 mm North 25°C 125 mm BEIRUT 20°C 100mm Baalbek-Hermel Beirut 15°C 75 mm Mount Lebanon 10°C 50 mm Max Temperature Beqaa Mean Temperature South 5°C 25 mm Min Temperature Precipitation Nabatiye 0°C 0 mm JAN MAR MAY JUL SEP NOV FEB APR JUN AUG OCT DEC Source: World Bank 2022a Source: Council for Development and Reconstruction ECODIT 2005 © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 1.1 Lebanon’s landscape Lebanon has several bioclimatic zones due to its diverse topography and climate features (Annex 1). Its forest cover and Rivers in Lebanon are considered abundant relative to the size of the region. Despite its small size, the country has 14 The landscape of Lebanon is dominated by rugged mountains other wooded land extends to around 23 percent of the country rivers of short length, characterized by small catchments and an made of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone and sandstone, area, making Lebanon rich in biodiversity (it contributes estimated annual discharge of 2,800 million cubic meters. Owing which give rise to substantial karst formations. The mountains 1.11 percent of the world’s plant species). The number to the country’s steep topography, a substantial percentage occur in two parallel chains, the Lebanon and the Anti- of recorded species in Lebanon includes as many as of water from these rivers flows into the sea. The remaining Lebanon, which together cover more than 70 percent of the 2,600 terrestrial plant species. Eight and a half percent available water from rivers is channeled for domestic use, for country’s total area. of these species are broadly endemic to Lebanon, agriculture, and for electricity generation (supplying 20 percent Syria, and Palestine, and 3.5 percent are strictly of the electricity needs of the country). The remainder is lost to Lebanon’s climate is characterized as Mediterranean. endemic to Lebanon. Lebanon has one of the highest evapotranspiration or directed towards groundwater recharge Summers (June to September) are hot and dry, and winters densities of floral diversity in the Mediterranean (Shaban 2021). (December to mid-March) are cool and rainy. The average Basin (MoE, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNHCR 2020)2 annual temperature is 15 degrees Celsius, and the mean with an exceptionally high species per area ratio, at Rivers constitute about 42 percent of water resources in annual rainfall ranges between 700 and 1,000 millimeters 0.25 species per square kilometer (MoE, UNEP, and Lebanon (Shaban 2021). In addition, Lebanon’s mountains on the coast and 1,600 millimeters in the highlands, where GEF 2016).3 and high rainfall contribute to the replenishment of groundwater precipitation is in the form of rain and snow (Figure 2) reservoirs (Fanack Water 2022). (World Bank 2022a). 2 MoE (Ministry of Environment); UNDP (United Nations Development Program); UNICEF (United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund); UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). 3 UNEP (United Nations Environment Program; GEF (Global Environment Facility). 19 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 20 © Shutterstock overall health of water resources. Additionally, forests provide access to food, healthcare, education, and other basic services. various ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, The inflation rate—which increased from 3 percent in 2019 to Figure 3: Rivers of Lebanon biodiversity conservation, and recreational opportunities. 154 percent in 2021 (World Bank 2021)—was accompanied Preservation, restoration, and sustainable management of by currency devaluation. This had adverse consequences, forested watersheds are crucial not only for water security but including a collapse in basic services. also to help mitigate climate change and promote sustainable development in Lebanon (UNEP 2016). In the face of economic collapse, there has been a surge in wood harvesting to meet subsistence needs as communities Lebanon’s water resources face numerous challenges, have turned to cutting down trees for firewood and for owing to increasing demand, pollution, and climate change producing charcoal. In fact, the return to the use of local natural impacts (Shaban 2020). The country experiences a significant resources is reflected in the growth of the agriculture, forestry, imbalance between water supply and demand, particularly and fishing sectors. These grew from 3.2 percent of the GDP during dry seasons. Population growth, urbanization, and in 2018 and 2019 to 8.9 percent in 2020, despite the related agricultural expansion contribute to overexploitation of water socioeconomic challenges. For example, the rental of forested sources, leading to water scarcity issues. Inefficient irrigation lands increased from 0.001 percent in 2018 to 0.003 percent in practices and inadequate wastewater treatment further degrade 2020 (World Bank 2022b). water quality. The Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW) has recognized the need for comprehensive water resource In addition to drought and heat events, increased forest management strategies to address these challenges (MEW fires and forest pest outbreaks due to anthropogenic 2016 and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2015). pressures are threatening the fragile biodiversity, Hence, an Updated National Water Sector Strategy (2020-2035) ecosystems, and natural habitats of Lebanon (MoE and (MEW 2022) was developed. UNDP 2011). The socioeconomic challenges that Lebanon faces are compounded by climate change, which adds to the country’s Source: Shaban 2021 Recent economic, political, and social challenges, and long-term vulnerabilities. According to Lebanon’s fourth national soaring black-market prices have affected the capacity communication to the United Nations Framework Convention of many communities to access and purchase fuel for on Climate Change (UNFCCC), scenarios developed to predict heating and cooking. The country’s GDP plummeted from changes in temperature and precipitation suggest that by 2040 US$55 billion in 2018 to US$18.8 billion in 2021, while real there will be a 1 degree Celsius increase in temperature on the GDP per capita fell by 37.1 percent (World Bank 2021). As a coast and a 2 degrees Celsius increase inland. Their projection result, the poverty rate reached 82 percent in 2021, compared is that the rainfall pattern will concomitantly decrease by 10 to to 30 percent between 2011 and 2018. Unemployment 20 percent. Rising temperatures and altered rainfall patterns, Watersheds—encompassing the areas surrounding rivers, reached 30 percent in 2022, up from 11 percent in 2019 particularly extreme events, will pose significant challenges for lakes, and groundwater sources—play a vital role in (World Bank 2023). This constant crisis mode has crippled water resource management and affect key sectors, including preserving water resources. They serve as natural filters and Lebanon, obstructing its development and decimating its coping agriculture and forestry. regulators, influencing the quality and quantity of water available. capacity, with vulnerable households bearing the brunt of limited Effective watershed management strategies are crucial for maintaining healthy water systems. However, encroachment, deforestation, and improper land use practices have disrupted watersheds in Lebanon, compromising their ability to provide clean and sustainable water (UNDP 2018). Article 4 of Lebanon’s Water Law No. 77 of 2018 states the general objectives of sustainable water management, which includes the conservation and restoration of aquatic environments, as well as terrestrial ecosystems and associated wetlands. Forest watersheds play a vital role in preserving and enhancing water resources in Lebanon. These ecosystems offer numerous benefits that are essential for sustainable water management. Forests act as natural water filters, reducing sedimentation and pollutant loads in rivers and streams (Ghabayen and Mosleh 2020). The root systems of trees help stabilize slopes and reduce erosion, protecting water sources from sediment runoff. Furthermore, the dense vegetation cover in forests helps retain moisture in the soil, ensuring a sustained supply of water to springs, rivers, and wells during dry periods (Saba 2019). This natural regulation of water flow helps maintain the ecological balance and contributes to the © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 21 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 22 1.2 Contribution of forests to Forests are a foundation of a green economy, sustaining a wide range of sectors and livelihoods (UNEP 2012). The According to the Second Biennial Update Report submitted to the UNFCCC in 2017, Lebanon’s forest sector contributed target (UNDP 2021). The commitment suggests that the forest sector, by playing an important role in reducing greenhouse gas Lebanon’s green recovery production of timber is not the only contribution of forests to 3.9 percent (0.78 million tons) of the country’s total GHG (GHG) emissions, will contribute substantially towards meeting a green economy. Forests improve people’s wellbeing in emissions in 2010—primarily owing to deforestation, forest these targets for mitigating climate change. Forests act as The challenges Lebanon has been facing (a severe numerous ways: directly, by providing resources for basic degradation, and the burning of wood for energy. However, carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere economic and monetary crisis, the Port of Beirut explosion, needs such as energy, shelter, and food; and indirectly, by Lebanon’s forests, if effectively managed, can play a significant through the process of photosynthesis and storing it in their the Covid-19 pandemic, and political instability) urgently providing the ecological foundations for GDP in many other role in carbon sequestration and storage: they are estimated to biomass and soils (FAO 2021). Accordingly, forest conservation call for a green recovery, which delivers economic growth sectors: agriculture, tourism, water supply, health, and so forth remove 1.9 million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) and reforestation efforts can contribute significantly to reducing alongside emissions reductions and increased resilience (UNEP 2015). per year through photosynthesis and carbon storage. Yet, global GHG emissions (World Resources Institute (WRI) 2021). (UNDP 2021). More than half the population is below the national this potential is threatened by several factors such as climate Lebanon’s updated NDC highlights the importance of preserving poverty line (World Bank 2021) and unemployment rates have Forest restoration and conservation have generated new change, unsustainable forest management practices, and other and expanding its forest areas, implementing sustainable forest increased significantly, especially among the youth (ILO and the job opportunities that contribute to producing goods threats such as forest fires. Lebanon’s GHG emissions, primarily management practices, and enhancing the capacity of forest Central Administration of Statistics (CAS) of Lebanon 2022). or providing services that benefit the economy, the from the energy sector, are expected to grow significantly under ecosystems to store carbon (UNDP 2021). Therefore, Lebanon’s The arrival of approximately 1.13 million displaced people as environment, and society-at-large. The following key forest a business-as-usual scenario. In 2015, GHG emissions totaled forest sector can contribute to the country’s overall efforts to a result of the Syrian crisis has further strained the country’s programs are intended to concurrently restore forest landscapes 27,107 Gg of CO2e. As part of its updated Nationally Determined reduce GHG emissions and mitigate climate change; its updated resources, causing an increase in road traffic, greenhouse gas and support local economies by creating green job opportunities Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement in 2021, Lebanon NDC recognizes this potential by including measures to support (GHG) emissions, and pressures on natural resources, including and enhancing livelihoods (UNCCD and MoA 2018): committed to reducing GHG emissions by 20 percent by 2030 as forest conservation and reforestation. forests. The economic situation remains difficult, with the Gross an unconditional target, and 31 percent by 2030 as a conditional Public Debt at an all-time high, triggering banking debt and • The National Afforestation/Reforestation Program (NARP) exchange rate crises, and resulting in a long-lasting recession launched by the Ministry of Agriculture in 2012 is known as (UNDP 2021). the Blueprint for the 40 Million Trees Campaign in Lebanon. The project aims to increase the forest cover of Lebanon by To outline its recovery from the most recent financial crises 7 percent, from 13 percent to 20 percent, over 20 years. It and to define future growth, Lebanon has created three will do so by engaging communities throughout Lebanon in national plans (UNDP 2021): the planting of 40 million forest trees and encouraging local practices that lead to the sustainable conservation of forests • The 3-year development priorities of the Financial Recovery and other wooded lands (UNCCD and MoA 2018). Plan. This plan’s main goal is to overcome immediate financial obstacles. • Smart Adaptation of Forest Landscapes in Mountain Areas (SALMA) is a five-year project funded by GEF, implemented • Economic Vision of Lebanon (LEV). The LEV lays out a by the FAO and executed by the MoA. The project’s goal is to comprehensive plan for reviving the country’s economy restore up to 1,000 ha of forests and manage another 1,000 through targeted investments in the industries identified as ha by engaging communities. the main drivers of growth. • PARSIFAL (Programme d’appui à la Résilience Sociale, • The Capital Investment Plan (CIP). The CIP lists infrastructure aux Infrastructures, à la Forêt et à l’agriculture au Liban) is initiatives that will advance short- and medium-term a project funded by the French Development Agency (AFD), opportunities for economic growth, while also supporting implemented by AFD, and executed by AFD and the Council national development objectives. for Development and Reconstruction. Its intention is to help vulnerable populations by restoring a range of products and Moving on from the CIP, a McKinsey report published services to no less than 700 ha of land with native species. in 2019 provided a more in-depth investigation into the economic challenges and opportunities facing Lebanon • Safeguarding and Restoring Lebanon’s Woodland, a project today. The report focused on the need to improve “productive supporting the activities and strategies of reforestation in sectors” (industry, agriculture, tourism, knowledge economy, and Lebanon, was funded by GEF, implemented by UNDP, and financial services) and acknowledged the vicious economic cycle executed by the MoE. It was completed in 2016. Lebanon is currently caught in. The results from the McKinsey report, the presentation of the CIP, and Lebanon’s commitments at CEDRE (Conférence économique pour le développement, par les réformes et avec les entreprises),9 clearly focus on the need for stabilizing the economy, ensuring growth, and addressing unemployment through job creation (UNDP 2021). Structural reforms covering all sectors of the economy are identified as key to unlocking the economy’s growth potential, making it sustainable, and generating jobs (The Lebanese Government’s Financial Recovery Plan 2020). © Adobe Stock 9 CEDRE is the primary platform for political discourse in Lebanon. 23 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 24 Forests in Lebanon have either regenerated naturally or Forest ownership presents several challenges for effective 2 Characteristics of were planted on a large scale. Lebanon’s forests, including forest management. More than half the Lebanese forests the local coniferous species—stone pine (Pinus brutia), Aleppo (61 percent) and the majority of other wooded land (OWL) pine (Pinus halepensis), Lebanese cedar (Cedrus libani), (86 percent) are privately owned (Figure 4). Private owners seek Cicilian fir (Abies cilicica), juniper (Juniperus spp.) and Italian to maximize revenues from their land, which can lead to profit- Forests in Lebanon cypress (Cupressus sempervirens)—have regenerated naturally driven management decisions that prioritize land conversion for after extensive cutting. Changes in traditional land use and building development or agriculture. Furthermore, the limited lifestyles over the course of the twentieth century (characterized authority of state agencies over private lands makes it difficult by depopulation of rural areas and migration towards urban to apply and enforce management strategies and achieve forest areas, land abandonment, and a decrease in traditional grazing conservation goals. and wood gathering practices) contributed to natural forest regrowth. This natural regeneration increased fuel biomass and subsequently raised wildfire risk or altered the fire regime by Lebanon’s unique forests have captured the attention of several increasing the frequency, size, and severity of fires (Mitri et al. civilizations. There are many ancient texts describing trade of wood, resins, 2014; Mantero et al. 2020). and essential oils from Lebanon’s cedar and other cone-producing (coniferous) Figure 4: Ownership of forested and other wooded lands in Lebanon trees such as fir, pine, and juniper for precious materials, food, and clothing. Ministry of Finance: Administrative and tax regulations Ministry of Finance: Management State Religious (Waqef) Municipal Natural Reserve Individual Communal (Mashaa) Ministry of Environment: Management 86% Private 61% Public 39% 14% © Adobe Stock FOREST % OWL % Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 26 Figure 5: Forest map of Lebanon Implementing a comprehensive set of incentives can effectively encourage private landowners in Lebanon to engage in sustainable forest and tree management. While long-term options—like payment for environmental services and access to carbon markets—require system implementation and legal considerations, short- and medium-term alternatives can provide immediate benefits. Access to dedicated impact funds, such as the Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) Fund, can incentivize private landowners to adopt sustainable practices. Another viable option for unmanaged private forestland near communities involves municipal control. The municipality places a lien on the property, or temporarily assumes management rights until the landowner recommences responsible forest and tree management. This temporary management could be facilitated by the surrounding communities, which would directly benefit from the arrangement. Clear criteria for defining “unmanaged” areas must be developed, and a community forest management plan should be established to clarify access and benefit-sharing arrangements. It is essential to consider necessary amendments to municipality or governorate laws and regulations to ensure successful implementation of these incentives. Lifestyle changes and restrictions imposed on forest and woodland access have contributed to the abandonment of traditional community forest use, management, and protection. This, in turn, has resulted in neglect of Lebanon’s forests, leaving them vulnerable to arson, vandalism, and natural disasters (Talhouk et al. 2014). However, the recent focus on community-based forest conservation, involving local Source: FAO and MoA 2005 stakeholders in the management of forests and woodlands, and combining scientific with traditional knowledge, has renewed the interest in protecting and sustaining forests and trees. © Andrea Kutter, World Bank Forests in Lebanon are unique in the semi-arid environment of the eastern Mediterranean region. This is because of extreme variability in physiography, soils, and microclimatic conditions, which has created diverse ecosystems and Ideally, private forest properties are managed by their habitats delineated by changes in type and structure caused by respective owners. However, while Lebanon’s forest laws different patterns of natural resources exploitation (Sattout and include recommendations on managing private forests, Abboud 2007). landowners are not legally enforced to manage and rid forested areas of flammable dead plant matter (fire fuel). The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has adopted the FAO While there are expectations and recommendations for definition of a forest as a basis for assessing forest landowners to undertake this responsibility, the absence of a resources. According to the FAO definition, a forest is a legal obligation means that if a landowner lacks the financial “land spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than means or is otherwise unable to carry out such actions, there 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent or trees is no mechanism in place to compel them to do so. As a result, able to reach these thresholds in situ”. Woodlands are not the responsibility for fire fuel clearance and related forest classified as “forest” and are defined as “spanning more than management practices falls upon the voluntary actions and 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover capabilities of individual landowners (Al Hajal 2021). of 5–10 percent”. 4 Land cover refers to the surface cover on the ground (whether vegetation, urban infrastructure, water, bare soil, or other) and land use refers to the purpose the land serves. Land use/land cover map of Lebanon 2017, 1:20,000 (vector map) developed by the National Scientific Research Center (CNRS). © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 27 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 28 The MoA has launched a new FRA to update Lebanon’s the forest’s current state, resulting in poor decision-making and The increasing pressure on coastal forests due to urban include wild pistachio (Pistacia spp.), oak (Quercus spp.), and forest data and map, with results expected by 2023 (MoA inadequate planning and implementation of better management expansion is evident as the percentage loss of forest carob (Ceratonia siliqua), all of which have evolved to withstand 2022). Additional national forest resources assessment reports practices. For example, these reports generated trends lands is highest near dense coastal cities such as Beirut, drought and hot summer temperatures (Christodoulakis 1992), were published in 2010, 2015, and 2020 (FAO 2020b). However, predicting that forest areas in Lebanon will remain the same, Saida, and Sour (Figure 8). Low-altitude coastal forests and occupy coastal soils that have typically poor agricultural these were based on the initial official data from 2005 and do while OWL areas will increase (Figure 6). Yet these predictions are semi-natural and exhibit varying degrees of degradation capability (Talhouk et al. 2018). not provide added information based on field data collection. As do not consider the level of fragmentation of Lebanon’s forests, (Makhzoumi et al. 1999). Examples of coastal tree species a result, these reports have led to incorrect assumptions about which poses a threat and causes further forest degradation. Figure 8: Extent of forest loss per district (Kadaa)5 (Source: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification and MoA 2018) Figure 6: Forest and other woodlands areas and trends over 20 years 2.5% 2% 150 1.5% Thousand hectares 1% 100 0.5% 50 0% Akkar Aley Baabda Baalbek Batroun Bcharreh Beirut BentJbail Chouf Metn Hasbaiya Hermel Jbail Jezzine Kesrouane Koura Marjayoun MiniehDannieh Nabatieh Tripoli Rachaiya Saida Sour Zahleh Zgharta West Bekaa 0 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Source: FAO 2020b The National Report on Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN) reported 1,783 ha (0.7 percent) loss of forested lands between The forests most vulnerable to climate change are those Juniper (Juniperus excelsa), cedar (Cedrus libani), fir (Abies 2000 and 2010 (MoA 2018) and 1,065.43 ha (0.42 percent) between 2010 and 2018 (Association for Forests Development located in north Lebanon (Akkar) and Hermel. In the cilicica), Turkey oak (Quercus cerris L. var. pseudo-cerris), and Conservation (AFDC) and MoA 2023). Loss of grasslands and crop lands for the same periods was reported at 1,201 ha most recent fire events high mountain regions were also ash (Fraxinus ornus), and hornbeam (Ostrya carpinifolia) (0.4 percent) and 934.87 ha (0.3 percent), and 2,257 ha (7 percent) and 1,588.43 ha (5 percent) respectively (Figure 7). susceptible, since they have been affected by a change in are categorized as extremely sensitive to climate change local climate—from a sub-humid to a semi-arid bioclimatic (AFDC 2019). In addition to the impacts of climate change, level (MoA 2015; Mitri and Gebrael 2022). Calabrian pine, the forests are subjected to multiple stresses that negatively impact Figure 7: Loss in vegetation cover between 2000 and 2010, and between 2010 and 2018 Kermes or Palestine oak (Q. calliprinos), and the Mediterranean their resilience, including fragmentation, pest outbreaks, and cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) are displacing the Aleppo unsuitable management practices. oak (Q. infectoria) at higher elevations on the western 2000–2010 2010–2018 slopes in the northern part of the Lebanon mountain range (Chouchani 1972). 8% 7% 6% 5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0% Forest Grassland Cropland Source: MoA 2018; AFDC and MoA 2023 5 District (Kadaa) is an administrative division of the Governorate (Mohafazah) in Lebanon. © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 29 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 30 Figure 9: Bioclimatic map of Lebanon Lebanon’s forest and woodlands are home to many 2.2.1 FOREST AREAS UNDER 2.1 Bioclimatic characteristics endangered and endemic species. There are 81 percent (more than 2,000) terrestrial floral species, of which 8.5 percent PROTECTION The typology of forests in Lebanon changes with bioclimatic zones, are endemic (221 species), 1.3 percent are rare (34 species), Protected areas (PAs) in Lebanon fall under four categories: which are based on altitude, climate, and the nature of the source rock. and 2.7 percent are threatened (69 species). Seven mammal • Nature reserves are established by legislative texts and are (See Annex 1) (Abi-Saleh and Safi 1988) (Figure 9). species have already gone extinct; 31 percent of the remaining under the guidance of the MoE. mammals are uncommon; 20 percent are fragile; and 7.5 percent Several forest tree species have reached the limit of their natural are close to extinction, according to reported statistics on faunal • Natural sites are protected by a decision or decree of distribution range in Lebanon. The cedar of Lebanon is found in its southern richness (ECODIT and MoE 2011). the MoE, based on the Law of Protection of Natural Sites limit, in Niha (Chouchani 1972). Cilician fir (Abies cilicica) populations, located in (08/07/1939). the northern portion of the western mountain range, constitute the southernmost Lebanon’s forests have significant socioeconomic and • Protected forests are declared by a decision of the Minister geographic extent of the species range (Zohary 1973). The western and environmental value and contribute substantially to the of Agriculture, based on the Law of Protection of Forest Wealth northern limits of the Hermon oak (Quercus look Kotschy) distribution range, livelihoods of poor and marginalized rural communities and Forests (Law 85 dated 1991) and the Law of Protection of as well as the southern limits of the Quercus cedrorum Kotschy, the Turkey oak (MoA 2015). Lebanon’s forests supply important provisioning Forests (Law 558, dated 24/07/1996) (Gloss 2019). (Quercus cerris L.), and pubescent oak (Quercus pubescens Willd.) distribution ecosystem services, notably those based on the traditional • Himas are community-based natural resources management ranges are also located in Lebanon, with endemic subspecies or varieties harvesting of non-wood forest products, fuelwood, and the systems that promote sustainable livelihoods, resources that have adapted to the local environment in isolated stands (Al-Qaddi provision of grazing lands. Certain species, including zaatar, conservation, and environmental protection for human et al. 2017). pine nuts, and carob pods, have a quasi-commercial value. wellbeing. Himas are under the supervision of the municipality, Several rural communities still rely on the sale of fuelwood, the the union of municipalities, or the governor in the case of manufacture of charcoal, and livestock grazing to supplement villages where there are no municipalities (Law 130, dated their income. 30/4/2019). The regulating services of Lebanon’s forests include control Protected areas in Lebanon—specifically forest natural of soil erosion (because the country is mountainous with reserves—incorporate rich biodiversity. They provide shallow soils), pollination (which supports agriculture in the habitats for about 370 bird species, 2,000 plant species marginal highlands), water collection and cleansing, and (many of which are endemic to Lebanon) and 30 species carbon sequestration. Research on the value of the ecosystem of mammals. The protection and maintenance of biodiversity services that Lebanese forests provide is scarce. Estimates and other natural resources depends on the conservation of 2.2 Forest biodiversity and types of ecosystem services should consider the protective value of the watershed, whose forest landscapes. Lebanon currently has 18 sites designated contribution to the economic value of Lebanon’s forests has as nature reserves, which occupy approximately 2.7 percent Lebanon is part of the Mediterranean biodiversity “hotspot” (Figure 10) and ranks third in plant diversity and endemism, after the received little attention and is poorly understood (Croitoru and of the country. In recent years, the number of PAs in Lebanon Tropical Andes and Sundaland (MoE, UNEP, and GEF 2016). The biological wealth of Lebanon is intricately linked to its geomorphology Liagre 2013). has increased. Nationally designated PAs include 26 protected and microclimates (MoE and ECODIT 2002), which have generated a unique biodiversity in a limited land area (Myers et al. 2000). forests, 25 Himas, and 29 protected natural sites/landscapes. Despite Lebanon’s small land area (covering only 0.007 percent of the world’s land surface), the country hosts about 0.8 percent of Lebanon’s forests offer essential cultural ecosystem Internationally recognized PAs include three biosphere reserves the world’s recorded and catalogued species (MoE, UNEP, and GEF 2016). services as they contribute to the country’s national (measuring 414 square kilometers—almost 4 percent of the identity (cedar of Lebanon), its traditional agricultural territory); four Ramsar sites; five World Heritage Sites; and 19 Figure 10: Mediterranean biodiversity hotspot (Source: Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund 2010) heritage (pine and carob) and, more recently, to livelihood Key Biodiversity Areas, including Important Bird Areas (MoE and LIECHTENSTEIN HUNGARY M O L D O VA SLOVENIA UKRAINE RUSSIAN diversification through nature-based tourism, agrotourism, UNDP 2023, MoE, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNHCR 2020). FRANCE CROATIA ROMANIA MEDITERRANEAN HOTSPOT BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA S E R B I A FEDERATION and rural tourism (United Nations Convention to Combat INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES MONACO SAN MARINO MONTENEGRO B U LG A R I A Black Sea Desertification/UNCCD and MoA 2018). In addition to their Natural forest reserves play a key role in the conservation KOSOVO GEORGIA ANDORRA I TA LY FYR MACEDONIA significant biodiversity, Lebanon’s forests support nature-based of the country’s natural and cultural identity and diversity, ALBANIA PORTUGAL S PA I N TÜRKIYE tourism, and non-material cultural, recreational, educational, and irreversible damages will directly affect the welfare GREECE and spiritual services. of communities and society. Nature reserves constitute ATLANTIC Gibraltar (U.K.) a model of sustainable development that supports local and TUNISIA SYRIAN rural development through nature-based tourism. Financial M A LTA CYPRUS Me A R A B R E P. OCEAN dite rranean LEBANON M O R O CCO Sea ISRAEL I R AQ © Andrea Kutter, World Bank contributions from visitors augment the income of local West Bank And Gaza JORDAN communities living within the area of the natural reserves. By ALGER IA involving locals in their activities, the reserves’ committees can A R A B R E P. maximize the benefits nature tourism offers local communities, L IBYA SAUD I Western OF EGYPT without compromising the reserve’s protected status. Sahara AR AB IA Re M AUR ITANIA d SU DAN Se a CAPE VERDE M AL I NIGER ERITREA SENEGAL C HAD IBRD 47215 | THE GAMBIA APRIL 2023 This map was produced by the Cartography Unit of the World B U R K I N A FA S O Bank Group. The boundaries, colors, denominations and any other G U I N E A - B I S S AU information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the GUINEA NIGERIA World Bank Group, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries. SIERRA LEONE ETHIOPIA 31 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 32 because municipalities face a lack of funding and bureaucratic Figure 12 provides evidence that Trees Outside Forests are BOX 1 complexities when intending to plan or achieve tasks. There as important as trees inside forests in terms of biomass and is a need to improve the capacity of municipalities to expand carbon stock, and are therefore an important tree resource and manage trees outside forests to ensure sustainability of on the national level. Further assessment and monitoring of The International Union for Conservation of Nature/ urban forests. Trees Outside Forests is required to highlight their importance IUCN’s first green-listed protected and conserved area A National Forest Resources Assessment conducted in and generate better national policies and decisions. in Lebanon (IUCN 2023). 2005 indicated that Trees Outside Forests were ornamental Figure 12: Comparison of living biomass and carbon stock in Forest and OL species found in urban areas; remnant native trees found Forest Other Land © Image The Shouf Biosphere Reserve in Lebanon (green-listed in 2018) in woodlots or along rivers; old juniper trees in grasslands; riparian trees along rivers; and olive trees in olive groves. 3.59 Why is the Shouf Biosphere Reserve green-listed? Trees Outside Forests have been identified as providing several The Shouf Biosphere Reserve is the largest of Lebanon’s The reserve provides habitats for 25 internationally and important functions (FAO and MoA, 2005). They offer: 3.061 nature reserves, stretching over 156.47 square kilometers. nationally threatened species. There are 48 species The reserve hosts 32 species of wild mammals, of which endemic to Lebanon (Lebanon/Syria/Turkey) and 14 rare • A means of income (productive trees, wood collection) nine are considered rare internationally. Covered with species, while 214 species are restricted to the eastern • A form of protection (wind break, soil, and water conservation) oak forests on its northeastern slopes and juniper and Mediterranean/Middle East area. 1.795 • A source of recreation and tourism (parks, green areas, and oak forests on its southeastern slopes, the reserve’s most 1.5305 so on) famous attractions are its three magnificent cedar forests, The Green List Sustainability Standards provide a global which extend over four villages (about 620 hectares of benchmark for how to meet the environmental challenges • An environmental benefit (carbon sequestration and pollution cedar, or Cedrus libani, forest). These Cedar forests of the twenty-first century. reduction, among other benefits). account for a quarter of the remaining cedar forest in Lebanon and represent the natural southern limit of this The Shouf Biosphere Reserve is one of the successful tree, with some trees estimated to be 2,000 years old. models of sustainable management of protected areas. The size of the reserve makes it a suitable location for the It should encourage all other national and regional Total living mass Total carbon stock conservation of medium-size mammals such as the wolf reserves to learn from its example, exchange expertise, (Million tonnes) (Million tonnes) and the Lebanese jungle cat, as well as various species and empower people to preserve nature. of mountain gazelle and endemic plants. There are 436 Source: G. FAO and MoA 2005 identified plant species distributed over 61 families. Figure 11: Horsh Beirut. © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 2.2.2 TREES OUTSIDE FORESTS There is no specific definition of Trees Outside Forests. socioeconomic and environmental services both to The concept is defined by FAO only by default in reference to rural and urban communities— in agricultural and the forest in general. The FAO refers to trees growing outside urban tree-based systems respectively (Nabbout et forests and not belonging to the category of forests, forest lands, al. 2018). or other wooded land: “Trees outside forests are located on Other Land (OL). It includes trees and shrubs on agricultural Trees outside forests in urban areas provide numerous land, agroforestry systems, orchards, barren land, urban areas, services to cities, including improving air quality, gardens, parks etc. Trees outside forests may be productive, reducing urban heat islands, enhancing the aesthetics such as orchards, and trees in fields and other agroforestry of neighborhoods, and contributing to the wellbeing of systems, or protective, such as trees with an ecological or residents. Assessing the health and condition of urban trees landscaping function; or ornamental, such as trees around allows timely interventions to maintain tree health and prevent houses, and in parks and towns.” (Bellefontaine et al. 2002). potential hazards. In Lebanon, the olive tree (56,300 ha), the stone pine In 2022 an assessment was performed on trees in the Beirut (14,000 ha) (Investment Development Authority of Green areas. The findings revealed that all green spaces Lebanon (IDAL) 2017), and the carob tree (241 ha) assessed are badly maintained and in need of rehabilitation are multifunctional resources with a wide range of or additional planting. The absence of regular maintenance is Source: G. Mitri (Source: FAO 2018) 33 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 34 Laws and regulations that govern the forest sector in 3.1 Institutional 3 Forest Governance Lebanon are limited in scope, and administrative regulations are issued according to specific needs and sites. The lack of framework for sustainable protection, sustainable management, and restoration of forests is also the result of conflicting land-use regulations, linked to forest management multiple laws created by various government departments (FOA 2020a). Furthermore, most state-owned forests are not Forest management is directly and indirectly dependent mapped, and their borders are not delineated. This leads to on multiple sectors and government agencies that govern land-tenure and user-rights conflicts. In some regions, illegal land use, natural resources, and livelihoods. This includes Forest governance in Lebanon is challenging. This is because prolonged activities such as cultivation, construction, and quarries have government and non-governmental institutions tasked with been observed on parts of state-owned forest lands. In fact, to territorial planning at national and subnational levels, as well as political vacuum and lack of political consensus have led to overlapping private forest owners, forest users, and farmers. date, Lebanon does not have a digitized cadaster system that administrative roles and responsibilities, absence of cadastral data, is accessible to multiple public institutions and that includes conflicting regulations, absence of law enforcement, lack of compliance forest data. This legal ambiguity relating to land tenure, coupled 3.1.1 GOVERNMENT with the lack of data and illegal activities on public forest lands, to laws and regulations, and corruption. has increased the level of complexity of forest management The MoA is the primary institution governing the forest and created major obstacles for the forest sector, especially sector. However, competing, scattered, and overlapping in terms of planning, monitoring, and resource assessment. responsibilities and activities in different ministries are This challenge is further aggravated by overlapping roles and weakening its ability to lead the national governance of responsibilities between relevant institutions, especially between the sector (Food and Agriculture Organization 2020a). All forest the MoA and the MoE; lack of coordination between public lands, rangelands, and open areas—except those in natural institutions as well as the public and the private sector; limited reserves—are under the direct authority of the MoA’s Directorate involvement of local stakeholders; limited financial resources; of Rural Development and Natural Resources (DRDNR). Under and government employees working in an unstable political and the DRDNR is the Department of Forests and Natural Resources, economic environment. which has three divisions: (i) the Division of Reforestation and Investment; (ii) the Division of Public Garden and Rangeland, As a result of the challenges described above, forest and (iii) the Division of Fishing and Wildlife. There are management in Lebanon has historically lacked a 34 forest centers, eight regional offices/divisions, and eight long-term vision on how the country’s forests should be forest nurseries. Through these departments and divisions, the managed and protected to meet economic, ecological, and DRDNR sets priorities and policies for conservation, restoration, social objectives (MoA 2015). The Government of Lebanon, management, and use of forest and land resources in Lebanon. through its public institutions and the support of development It issues laws and regulations related to forest and rangelands, partners, has made efforts to address different issues and and is responsible for mainstreaming, capacity building, and regulate forest management through several initiatives. These local planning through regional forest centers. DRDNR also include developing plans and strategies such as the National monitors and enforces laws and regulations through 220 forest Afforestation/Reforestation Program (NARP), the National guards and eight agricultural engineers. Forest Program (NFP) 2015–2025, and the National Forest Fire Management Strategy (NFFMS) 2023. The MoA issues decisions to direct and organize actions affecting the forest sector and forest management. The MoA Paradoxically, while contributing to the forest sector by submits to the Council of Ministers national programs related to filling the gap created by a weak government, national non- the protection, conservation, use, and restoration of forests and governmental organizations (NGOs) also contribute to the rangelands. The Council of Ministers has the mandate to approve weakening of government institutions—by diverting funds and define the basis of Lebanon’s forest policy, while Lebanon’s needed to support and develop the capacity of government Parliament adopts legislation related to forests. However, the employees and institutions. NGOs have raised significant DRDNR is currently crippled by national political standoffs and international resources to monitor and advocate for improved lack of coordination with other government institutions, and forest management policies and practices. marginalized by internationally supported NGOs. As a result, most of the regional offices and forest centers are understaffed, have multiple responsibilities, and oversee large forest areas that exceed their capacity. In addition, limited coordination with other enforcement agencies such as the national police and justice authorities results in weak enforcement of the law and a reduced ability to stop forest violations. © Adobe Stock 35 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 36 The MoE is the primary institution governing the protection by overseeing and developing the needs and capacities of and UNEP 1992). In 1997, environmental education was resources and agroforestry; and so on. Based on the Capacity and conservation of forest biodiversity and the management of municipalities and providing support to control disasters (such introduced for the first time in the Lebanese general education Needs Assessment report, several national NGOs have been forests inside nature reserves and natural sites. The MoE is the as firefighting through the Civil Defense, and law enforcement through curriculum. However, continuous refinement and improvement singled out for their positive impact on forest fire and sustainable national authority in Lebanon with the mandate to protect the country’s the Internal Security Forces). To ensure the protection and sustainable of these programs is needed to improve the effectiveness of the forest management in Lebanon. Most national NGOs are environment and is the lead agency responsible for natural protected use of forests, municipalities and communities need to follow laws country’s environmental curriculum (Makki et al. 2003). credited for their advocacy in relation to development and area management. As noted earlier, protected areas in Lebanon are and regulations; implement operational forest management plans, implementation of national strategies, development of guidance divided into the following four categories, each with unique management including reforestation activities; coordinate concerns with ministries The Ministry of Justice is responsible for organising judicial notes, and local community capacity building and strengthening. objectives: nature reserves, natural parks; natural sites, and Himas and other relevant entities; and help monitor the proper use of the forest matters, ensuring effective law enforcement, and the Both NGOs and universities have responsibilities in relation (Law 130, dated 30/4/2019). The MoE executes its role through the resources. Despite their significant role at the local level, engagement application of the related regulations. It is also responsible to forest management, fire management, and community introduction of regulatory instruments; the participation in the formulation by municipalities and communities in general is limited. The forest for preparing bills and statutory texts and expressing views on engagement, and have implemented several interventions. of strategies, plans, and programs; and the mobilization of resources code mandates municipalities to manage publicly owned forests under relevant matters. However, there needs to be more effective coordination for the purpose of ensuring a nationwide enabling environment for the supervision of the MoA and DRDNR according to a specific plan between public and private, government and non-government sustainable environmental development (UNDP 2017). established by a decree (Article 54). In addition, municipalities have The National Council for Scientific Research provides entities, and their research data and findings need to be fed designated guards to be approved by the Minister in the MoA (Article 55). ministries with generated data and shared knowledge into an open and transparent system, so that everyone will The MoA and MoE have complementary—but at times relating to forest conservation, sustainable forest benefit from it (Source: Road Map for an IFFMS). Most NGOs overlapping—mandates, requiring close coordination. For example, The Lebanese Army, through the Ministry of National management, and forest fire mitigation (AFDC 2019). use a participatory, community-based approach for planning the management, conservation, and law enforcement functions of Defense Control, provides support to local communities, and implementing Sustainable Forest Management, as they forests fall primarily under the MoA, while nature reserves, biodiversity including by combating forest fires and engaging in have expertise in the development of operational management conservation, carbon sequestration, and climate change fall primarily reforestation activities. 3.1.2 NON-GOVERNMENTAL plans, management of forest and trees resources, and the under the jurisdiction of the MoE. With respect to forest fire management, ORGANIZATIONS AND UNIVERSITIES development and implementation of fire management activities both institutions (the MoA and the MoE) are tasked with implementing Through the General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadaster, (Capacity Needs Assessment). Moreover, several development specific components of the NFFMS. Regarding land use changes, the Ministry of Finance controls all types of land ownership (public Lebanon has more than 816 NGOs6 with environmental partners support Lebanon’s forest sector through projects with the MoA issues authorizations for forest land-use changes, while and private), in terms of administrative procedures and financial objectives registered at the Ministry of Interior and public institutions, universities, and NGOs. However, given the the MoE conducts environmental impact assessments and tax-related issues and activities. It also provides Municipalities (MoIM) (MoE, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNHCR current paralysis in the government, development partners’ related to land-use changes. Challenges to the annual budget to the MoA, the MoE, and other 2020) (See Annex 2 for examples). In addition, many Lebanese resources may be steered toward the private sector (universities collaboration, as a result of indeterminate entities involved in forest matters. The budget of universities are engaged in research and activities related to and NGOs). This will, in turn, further degrade the capacities of roles and responsibilities, and redundancies the MoA has remained well below 1 percent of climate change mitigation; conservation of natural resources; governmental entities to fulfill their mandates in the mid and between MoE and MoA activities, are the total government expenditure for most restoration of natural ecosystems following land degradation; long term. most obvious in national reforestation years since 1994 (International Labour assessment of wildfires and the economic value of forest strategies. For instance, in 2001 the Organization/ILO and FAO 2020). As a MoE initiated and led the National result, the allocated budget for relevant Reforestation Plan to increase total forest activities is almost absent. forest cover by up to 20 percent over 20 years. In 2012, the MoA launched The Ministry of Tourism oversees the National Afforestation/Reforestation policies and regulations related to Plan, the “40 Million Trees Campaign,” the improvement and development committing to increase the forest cover of tourism, especially in natural from 13 percent to 20 percent by 2030. areas and natural reserves. In 2015, © Andrea Kutter, World Bank the Ministry of Tourism issued a The Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Unit National Rural Tourism Strategy, of the Office of the Prime Minister strengthens which supports nature-based tourism, disaster risk management capacities in Lebanon, including activities such as hiking, trekking, which includes managing forest fires. Established in 2009, bird watching, and mountain biking in natural the DRM Unit works towards enhancing Lebanon’s resilience to withstand areas, forests, nature reserves and PAs (Ministry of natural and manmade disasters, reducing vulnerabilities, maintaining Tourism 2015). development objectives, and connecting partners to respond to disasters. Through the National Center for Educational Research The DRM Unit plays a significant role in addressing forest fire disasters, and Development, the Ministry of Education and Higher especially by activating the “National Operation Room” and organizing Education develops educational programs, and plans and the national response; disseminating a daily fire-risk situation report; updates curricula for all fields, including those related to the taking measurements; conducting analyses,and recommending environment (See CRDP Lebanon). An environmental education preventative actions; building capacity and sharing knowledge is urgently needed, as sustainable management and protection with governorate focal points; and reporting for regional and local of natural resources begins at an early age and continues stakeholders. throughout a person’s life. Furthermore, environmental education is the cornerstone of long-term environmental The Ministry of Interior and Municipalities plays a direct and strategies for solving and preventing environmental problems an indirect role in forest management and fire mitigation, and ensuring environmentally sound development (UNESCO 6 Refer to Annex 4 for a list of selected NGOs and their field of activity. © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 37 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 38 Figure 13: Timeline of forest-related laws in Lebanon Forest Code of 1949 1949 Outlines forest management and protection, and regulates forest activities including grazing, pruning, coppicing, thinning, and 3.2 Forest law and policy charcoal production. Classified forest into four categories according to ownership Until 1935, Lebanon followed the Ottoman Forest Laws. Law No.85 In 1949 the government adopted the “Forest Law,” one of the 1991 Imposes severe restrictions on forest activities and a total ban on harvesting and cutting resinous tress. It stipulates that all cedar, oak, juniper, and other forestsare protected oldest in the region, which covered all forests in Middle Eastern countries that were under the French mandate. This law is still Convention on Biological Diversity in effect today; it was amended in 2000 (Law No. 195) to include 1992 Imposes severe restrictions on forest activities and a total ban on harvesting and cutting resinous tress. It stipulates that all criminalizing illegal operations and acts. Lebanon’s Forest Law cedar, oak, juniper, and other forestsare protected outlines forest management and protection, and regulates forest activities including grazing, pruning, coppicing, thinning, and charcoal production. The first clause of the 1949 Forest 1994 Convention on Combatting Desertification Law defines the Forest as “a grove that includes different trees wrapped around each other, large or small, and bushes that Law No. 558 include trees that are not large and not intertwined with each 1996 Considers all coniferous forests protected, stipulates the creation of a forest protection service, and provides the basis for other, and generally used only for industry and fuel” (translation designating protected forests in terms of demarcation, management, financial support, supervision, activities, violations, and citations by the authors). Furthermore, Lebanon’s Forest Law sets a clear classification of forests into four categories, according to ownership. Law 195 2000 Consists of several amendments to the Forest Law, and deals with criminalization of illegal operations and acts. Penalties are in the form of fines or/and imprisonment In 1991, the Government of Lebanon issued a new law (Law 85) imposing severe restrictions on forest activities National Afforestation Plan – (MoE) to preserve and protect the remaining forests after the long 2001 Combats desertification and restores degraded land by increasing the forested area of the country by about 18,000 ha and devastating armed conflict. The law includes a total ban on harvesting from and cutting resinous trees. It stipulates that 1st National Forest and Tree Assessment and Inventory – (MoA) (2nd in 2023) all cedar, fir, cypress, oak, juniper, and other forests in Lebanon 2005 Assessment of forest resources are protected. While the law has helped protect resinous National Land Use Master Plan (NLUMP) 2005 – CDR/DGUP forests and effectively reduced deforestation, it has restrained Provides a master plan for land use on the national level the sustainable management of these forests, making them vulnerable to pests and forest fires. National Strategy for Forest Fire Management 2009 – (MoE) (update in 2023) 2009 Aims to reduce the intensity and frequency of forest fires. It is based on five pillars within a risk-management framework Between 1991 and today, Lebanon has issued different laws and regulations, at national and international levels, Action Program 2010-2014 – (MoA) to regulate forest management, usage, protection, 2010 Promotes sustainable management of forests and forest resources conservation, and rehabilitation. The laws, decrees, and ministerial decisions that regulate the sustainable use and Decisons No. 705/1, 731/1 and 322/1 management of forests and Other Wooded Land (OWL) in 2012– Set several rules and procedures to organize cutting, exploitation of forests, other wooded land and trees outside forest Lebanon are shown in Box 1, to provide an overview of the 2014 National Afforestation and Reforestation Program – (MoA) (2014-2028) legal instruments governing the forest sector. For example, the Implements the 40 Million Trees Program Forest Law (Law 49) is regulated by four decrees, one of which (Decree 9923) is about the organization of forest guards. The National Forest Program – (MoA) (2015-2025) Forest Law was amended by five ministerial decisions related 2015 Defines the national forest policy to forest management and the use of forest resources. In terms of regulatory tools and control measures, some laws impose Lebanon’s National Biodiversity and Action Plan (NBSAP) – (MoE) (2016-2030) monetary fines for tree-felling for urban expansion and/or for 2016 Adresses Lebanon’s obligations under Article 6a of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and is an update of the country’s first NBSAP issued collecting firewood. Nevertheless, these regulatory laws do not deal with management of forests, or address the significant Land Degradation Neutrality – (MoA) problems facing these forested areas. 2018 Promotion of sustainable land management practices and land degradation neutrality National Strategy for Agriculture Sector 2020-2025 – (MoA) 2020 Improves governance and promotes sustainable use of natural resources Updated Lebanon’s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) – (MoE) NDC is a stepping stone to achieving the Low-Emission Development Strategies (LEDs) objectives in 2050 Forest Fire Emergency Plan – (MoE) 2022 Seeks to coordinate efforts in fire risk management throughout the 2022 fire season with the aim of improving fire risk management and minimizing the negative impact of fires on the economy, society, and the environment. © Shutterstock Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 40 In 2015 the Government of Lebanon issued the Lebanese project, Smart Adaptation of Forest Landscapes in Mountain National Forest Program (NFP). The NFP provides a Areas (SALMA). This is fully aligned with this national framework National programs and Lead government General objective Activities/themes strategies institution framework for the development of the forestry sector and contributes to forest management through the development in Lebanon, aligning national goals with international and implementation of Sustainable Forest Management Plans Lebanon’s National MoE Addresses Lebanon’s obligations Mainstreams biodiversity into sectoral agreements, and modernizing the existing laws and on around 1,000 ha. SALMA’s particular focus is on increasing Biodiversity and Action under Article 6a of the Convention and cross-sectoral strategies, plans, regulations (MoA 2019). Lebanese forests still face many the resilience of the forests to climate change, forest fires and Plan (NBSAP) 2016–2030 on Biological Diversity and is an and programs threats like fires, urbanization, unsustainable management, insects, pests and diseases, and improving the livelihoods of the update of the country’s first quarries, wars, diseases and so on. For this reason, the German local communities (FAO 2016a). NBSAP issued Agency for International Development (GIZ) offered support to the MoA, through the Rural Development and Natural Resources In 2017, the Government of Lebanon initiated a review of Directorate (RDNRD), to develop the NFP 2015–2025. This is the Forest Code to align with the economic, ecological, Lebanon National Forest MoA Defines national forest policy Achieves sustainable forest a framework program for the development of the forestry sector and social objectives of sustainable forest management, Program (NFP) 2015–2025 management (SFM) through in Lebanon and an attempt to guarantee effective organization taking into consideration the diversity of stakeholders establishing restoration and and collaboration with all public and private stakeholders. A long- and other laws that impact forests and the forest sector. rehabilitation plans in degraded lands term vision and mission were drawn up, focusing on international The MoA put the Forest Code under review and reformed it to and enhancing ecosystem resilience strategic goals related to forest and rangeland management align its provisions with new forest and rangeland management in forestland to mitigate the impact of and conservation, active community participation, and current approaches and concepts. Much work remains to be done to climate change national policies and strategies (AFDC 2019). The main goal strengthen inter-institutional coordination and the enforcement of the NFP is to restore degraded lands and increase forest capacity of environmental agencies, to tackle legal ambiguities, National Afforestation and MoA Implements the “40 Million Trees Strengthens collaboration between cover in Lebanon to meet the ecological, social, and economic and to integrate environmental criteria into law more effectively. Reforestation Program Campaign” sectors towards a consensual land-use needs of sustainable forest management at the national and (NARP) 2014–2028 planning system regional levels (MoA 2015). In line with this objective, the Ministry A list of the main national programs and strategies associated of Agriculture (through the RDNRD) and the FAO launched the with various aspects related to forests is presented in Table 2: MoA Action Program MoA Adopts integrated pro-grams for Promotes sustainable management of 2010–2014 forest ecosystems forests and forest resources Table 2: List of main policies and strategies National Strategy for MoE Reduces the intensity and Provides a risk-management Forest Fire Management in frequency of forest fires framework that will focus on the National programs and Lead government Lebanon 2009 Decision no. following: General objective Activities/themes strategies institution 52/2009 • Common database on forest fires (Updated version launched in • Prevention measures to reduce risk National Strategy for MoA Improves governance and Strengthens management May 2023) • Readiness to fight fire Agriculture Sector promotes sustainable use of and sustainable use of • Response to fires 2020–2025 natural resources resources • Recovery after fires Promotes sustainable investment and management of rangelands National Forest and Tree MoA Assesses forest resources Sets plans and programs for forest Assessment and Inventory ecosystems management Regulates management of (Final Report 2005) non-wood forest products (A new FRA report will be published by the end of Updated Lebanon’s MoE Provides a stepping stone to Mobilizes climate action for 2023) Nationally Determined achieving the Low Emission sustainable development and Contribution (NDC) 2020 Development Strategy a green economy National Land Use Master CDR – DGUP Provides master plan for land use Accounts for the following, regarding objectives by 2050 Contributes towards climate Plan (NLUMP) 2005 on the national level natural resources: mitigation and adaptation • Delineation of areas of ecological and cultural importance • Delineation of forest lands Land Degradation MoA Promotes sustainable land Assesses baseline trends Neutrality (LDN) 2018 management practices and in land cover/land use, land land degradation neutrality productivity, and soil organic National Reforestation MoE Combats desertification and Increases the forested area of the (A second LDN report is Plan (NRP) 2001 restores degraded land country by about 20 percent and underway) carbon stocks, using geo-processing tools combats desertification Maps exposure to land Provides an implementation degradation and sets national instrument with detailed technical voluntary targets for land methods for afforestation and degradation neutrality specifications for seedlings 41 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 42 Despite the national regulations and policies described above, there are currently few forest management plans in Lebanon. Forest management planning is new in the Lebanese forestry context. Only a few forest areas, such as Bkassine Pine Forest and 4 Contribution of Shouf Biosphere Reserve, have taken steps toward forest management planning and implementation. Furthermore, at the national level, the MoA still needs to approve the national forest management guidelines, which are available only in draft form. As mentioned previously, the FAO, through the MoA, is currently implementing SALMA. Funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), SALMA will develop management plans for eight different public forests. In addition, the project, Sustainable Land Management in the Forests to the Qaraoun Catchment (SLMQ) (funded by the GEF, implemented by the UNDP, and executed by the MoE Service of Natural Resources Department of Natural Resources Protection), will develop seven forest management plans. National Economy © Andrea Kutter, World Bank © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 43 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 44 4.1 Economic value of forests 4.1.1 WOOD AND OTHER PRODUCTS 4.1.2 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS in Lebanon There is only marginal wood (timber) production in Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are an important income-generating resource in rural areas of Lebanon, generating Lebanon and the related industry is small and often not an estimated US$80 million to US$97 million in annual sales, and providing primary and secondary income to 10,000 to Forests in Lebanon are multifunctional, and they play a profitable. It is estimated that 1 ha of timber from broadleaf trees 15,000 rural households. In 2016, FAO published a comprehensive report that lists the main NWFPs currently used in Lebanon. significant role in the provision of goods and services exploited over a 20-year cutting cycle may generate between It outlined the value chains for the following fire-related products: pine seeds, honey, Syrian oregano (Origanum syriacum), sage to local communities that rely on these services for US$2,175 and US$14,500 (Stephan 2013). The exploitation of (Salvia fruticosa), carob (Ceratonia siliqua), and laurel (Laurus nobilis). Thus, upgrading and supporting the NWFP value chains can their livelihoods. These forests provide direct goods like wood from coniferous trees remains prohibited (Law 85) and aid forest conservation as well as the sustainability of rural communities’ livelihoods. Below is an example of multifunctional values pine kernels, honey, non-wood forest products (NWFP), and as such these species currently provide no direct economic of Lebanon’s forests. wood products, indirect ecosystem services like pollination, benefits. Timber extraction has declined in Lebanon over the watershed protection, and carbon sequestration. Furthermore, past few decades due to deforestation, illegal logging, and Figure 14: Different usage of each forest type by the local community forests are important tourist and recreational destinations climate change, all of which have led to a decrease in the for city dwellers (MoA 2015). The high values for NWFPs country’s forest area (Fakhoury et al. 2020). Consequently, 100 and wood products (Sattout 2014) discussed in Section 3.2. Lebanon has become heavily reliant on imported timber to demonstrate the potential for investing in small- and medium- meet its demand (UNDP 2019). According to the International 90 size forest enterprises, as well as the significance of empowering Trade Centre, Lebanon imported around US$107 million worth 80 women and local communities in managing forests in Lebanon of wood products in 2019, with most of it coming from Europe (AFDC 2019). and North Africa (UNDP 2019). This heavy reliance on timber 70 Percentage (%) imports has made Lebanon vulnerable to market fluctuations, According to the National Forest Biomass Blueprint (NFBP) price increases, and supply chain disruptions. 60 (Mitri 2016a), forest biomass is an important measure of 50 ecosystem productivity that is used to quantify the role of Fuelwood and charcoal in Lebanon have significant forests in the carbon cycle and of providing wood products socioeconomic implications. It is estimated that using 40 for energy production. Sustainable forest management, fuelwood for heating in rural areas would save US$425 for each including the extraction of felling and pruning residues from ton of imported fuel oil (Stephan 2013). Fuelwood resources in 30 forests, has direct and indirect social, economic, and ecological Lebanon include harvest residues; small diameter trees; trees 20 benefits. These benefits range from ecological goals such as removed for degraded stand rehabilitation; trees damaged by reducing fire risks and controlling pests, to socioeconomic goals wildfire, insects, and diseases; and short rotation woody crops. 10 related to renewable fuel for energy and economic opportunities Pruning and thinning in forests can also provide significant wood in the community. The lack of forest management plans and 0 resources (Mitri 2016b). Permit-based harvesting is currently Grazing Fuel wood Beekeeping Hunting Plant Ecotourism unsustainable harvesting of forest biomass can pose a threat allowed only in broadleaf forests (FAO 2010). The consumption to forest values—including biodiversity, recreation, water collection of fuelwood for heating and cooking is quite common in the quality, and wildlife habitat. Guidelines for sustainable forest highlands of Lebanon; a case study report indicated that almost Cedrus libani Mixed Pinus pinea management are necessary to ensure the sustainable use of 20 percent of mountain village residences consume around forest biomass within a multifunctional set of goals. 190 tons of wood per year (Saad et al. 2020). The baseline inventory of energy consumption calculated by the study revealed that wood remains an important source of energy, supplying 4,219 MWh to residential buildings after domestic diesel (10,981 MWh), while the rest is supplied by solar thermal energy (1,722 MWh) and by liquid gas (1,599 MWh) (Saad et al. 2020). Pine nuts Investing in forest wood biomass for bioenergy in Pine nut exploitation covers 5,684 ha of land, accounting interview) compared to the previous range of 800 to 1,000 tons Lebanon is challenging because outdated laws make it for about 2.6 percent of total forest cover (AFDC 2019). per year reported by FAO in 2012. Lebanon exported 44 tons difficult to establish sustainable harvesting. In addition, Stone pine forests are found mostly on the western slopes of pine nuts in 2014 and 30 tons in 2015, for a total value of many forests are located on private land, which adds of Mount Lebanon, and are particularly present in the Metn, US$0.9 million and US$0.27 million, respectively. The quantity additional challenges and limitations. Therefore, the Baabda, and Jezzine areas, at elevations ranging from sea level of P. pinea nuts produced in Lebanon is limited by the excessive national forest strategy seeks to increase forest to 1,500 meters. Other types of pine forests are found at lower costs of harvesting and unsustainable forest management areas on public lands. According to data from FAO, elevations, whereas P. brutia forests cover a large area in North practices. As a result, it is critical to focus on quality promotion— Lebanon’s forest area has decreased by almost Lebanon (Hamade 2016). The average production of pine nuts including branding and sign-value—and the long-term viability half: from 576,000 ha in 1990 to 284,000 ha in has decreased by 40 percent to 60 percent (MoA 2021 private of forest-use activities (Hamade 2016). 2020 (UNDP 2019). This decrease is primarily attributed to deforestation, which has occurred at an alarming rate, with estimates suggesting that the country loses around 1 percent of its forest cover every year. © Andrea Kutter, World Bank Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 46 Honey Carob products There are about 6,200 beekeepers in Lebanon (MoA and based honey made from honeydew (oak and cedar honey) and Total annual carob production is estimated at 2,200 tons of Agricultural Survey estimates that there are about 1,400 carob FAO 2010). Honey production is estimated at 1,620 tons per wildflowers like Syrian oregano, and 2) orange blossom honey, pods, producing around 220 tons of seeds, and 660 to 770 plantations covering about 240 ha. Moreover, Lebanon was year, with a total estimated value of US$32 million, of which which is estimated to account for one third of total Lebanese tons of molasses (FAO 2016a). Ceratonia siliqua, also known estimated to have exported 154 tons of carob molasses in 2014. US$23 million is attributed to forests and shrubland honey honey production and is 33 percent cheaper than forest and as the carob tree, grows along Lebanon’s coast and on Mount The goal is to increase carob molasses production to meet the (United States Agency for International Development (USAID) shrubland honey (Hamade 2016, AFDC 2019). Lebanon’s western slopes, up to an elevation of 800 meters. potential demand of the Lebanese diaspora as well as the 2013). Lebanon exports 50 tons of honey per year for a Carob trees are planted as part of reforestation activities. After growing demand in niche food markets (GIZ and MoA 2016). value of US$0.63 million, whereas imports are much larger— The honey sector in Lebanon is underutilized; honey pitting, carob pods are transformed into molasses. The National around 250 tons of honey were imported in 2014 for a value of production remains below the country’s potential. There is US$2.54 million (Lebanese Customs 2018). a possibility of increasing honey production by capitalizing on export markets to both the Gulf Council Countries and countries In Lebanon, beekeeping is a complementary activity for of the Lebanese diaspora. Furthermore, policymakers and state both farmers and other individuals, and it provides a institutions can use honey production as a rural development significant source of secondary income. Honey is produced tool, contributing to poverty alleviation and valorizing local forest primarily from two sources: 1) forest and shrubland/forest- and natural resources (Hamade 2016). Aromatic and Medicinal Plants The aromatic plant Syrian oregano (Origanum syriacum) Sage (Salvia fruticose), a medicinal herb, is another is the most collected wild plant in Lebanon. Its annual important plant collected in Lebanon. Every year, 600 to collection volume is estimated to be around 1,000 tons and 1,000 tons of sage are collected, with a total value of US$1.8 million to 1 kilogram of the product is valued between US$5.6 and US$3 million. Sage is sold to traders at US$3 per dried kilogram. © Freepik US$30, depending on quality (AFDC 2019). Syrian oregano A small portion of the product is sold on the local market, and can be found in forests, shrubland, and wooded areas, as well as the remainder is sold to Jordan (AFDC 2019). non-wooded areas—particularly at altitudes ranging from 200 to 1,500 meters, on Lebanon’s Western Lebanon Mountain Range. The collection value of non-processed, non-mixed Syrian Laurel oregano is approximately US$5.33 million. In 2014, the total export of dried and za’atar mixes was estimated to be 548 tons, Production of laurel oil in Lebanon is a small-scale, regional endeavor, with worth approximately US$1.9 million. Approximately 32 tons of an estimated household production of 64 kilograms per season and earnings za’atar mixes, with a value of US$270,000, are imported from between US$800 and US$1,200 per season. Historically, the fruits were extracted Jordan and Syria (AFDC 2019). for oil and the leaves were used as a cooking spice in Menjez, Akkar, in northern Lebanon, as well as in Aita Al-Shaab and the surrounding villages in southern Direct sales are made by: (i) local collectors and processors, Lebanon. Essential oil has traditionally been used to make soap, whereas laurel who sell to consumers in the area and neighboring villages, essential oil is used in the cosmetic industry. The total oil production is estimated through direct channels; (ii) women’s cooperatives, to be around 7 tons of laurel crude oil worth US$112,000. In 2014, less than which assist local collectors in selling their products by 15 tons of oil, including laurel oil, were imported at a cost of US$120,000 participating in fairs, local exhibitions, and specialized news (Lebanese Customs 2018). sources, (iii) nature reserves that have invested significantly in developing branded local traditional products, such as Overexploitation of this resource is indirectly prevented by labor-intensive za’atar mixes. For example, the Shouf Cedar Nature Reserve production processes and difficult access to border forests. Additionally, purchases hand-ground Syrian oregano from local collectors there are few chances for production to increase, especially given that soap at a premium price of US$17 per kilogram, and then creates manufacturers’ access to Syrian laurel oil is anticipated to bring down prices. specific za’atar mixes, including a traditional local mix containing Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis) nuts, which sells for US$30 per © Freepik kilogram (Hamade 2016). © Freepik 47 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 48 4.1.3 ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Additionally, in Lebanon, culture and nature have interacted Additionally, it demonstrates that in most Lebanese closely to create distinctive cultural landscapes heavily provinces, recreational services (forest tourism) and Lebanon’s forests contribute 0.5 percent of the country’s GDP. One ha of forest land in Lebanon is assumed to have a reliant on the natural world and its resources (AFDC 2019). forest honey (provision of NWFPs) were most important total economic value (TEV)7 of US$296. This is a high value compared to other Collaborative Partnership on Mediterranean Traditional Lebanese cuisine, for instance, frequently uses and offered the highest economic value. Forests (CPMF)8 countries (Table 3). Based on the NFP 2015–2025, the total value of forest products and services with sustainable NWFPs like pine, molasses, and several types of sweets made management and adequate implementation of NFP requirements may reach US$181,274 million. This would equate to US$587 per ha from local products, fostering a close relationship and interaction Earlier studies on forest ecosystem functions and services (MoA 2015). This estimated value is higher than the corresponding TEV for Lebanon, which in 2010 was calculated at US$296 per ha. between local cultures and the forest as a resource. in Lebanon have provided area-based valuations of services, such as in the Shouf Biosphere Reserve (ECODIT Table 3: Value of forest benefits in CPMF countries (US$, 2010 prices) (Source: Croitoru and Liagre 2013) The hotspots of forest ecosystem services are highlighted 2015) or the Jabal Moussa Biosphere Reserve (Karam 2016). in a new report from Lebanon Reforestation Initiatives Others have presented a TEV of forest ecosystem services in Grazing and Recreation, Watershed Country WFPs* Carbond Biodiversity TEV (LRI 2021). The report enables comparison of the total value of Lebanon, ranging from wood products to tourism and grazing NWFPsb hunting protection four ecosystem services offered by the forests in each district, (Merlo et al. 2005). More recent studies have confirmed the main including forest tourism, carbon sequestration and storage, findings and provided updates and further details. Algeria -7 47 n.c 32 -3 n.c 69 improved air quality, and forest honey. Morocco 29 44 -6 29 -3 n.c 94 Tunisia 6 73 1 26 3 9 112 4.1.4 NATURE-BASED TOURISM Domestic rural tourism is an important sector in Lebanon. It attracts city residents and the Lebanese diaspora seeking the Lebanon -10 187 125 n.c -15 8 296 tranquil atmosphere of traditional villages, intermixed with agricultural lands, attractive scenery, and forests that harbor rich biodiversity. A recent study (Amidi et al. 2020) evaluated the ecosystem services of old reforested sites from the perspective Syria 4 10 n.c 101 8 n.c 123 of neighboring local communities. The results demonstrate the range of uses and benefits (aesthetic and touristic or recreational services) that local people attribute to the Lebanese forest landscape (Figure 16). Another study on rural tourism in Lebanon (Ghadban et al. 2017) revealed that the natural beauty and biodiversity of rural areas was one of the main drawcards for respondents Turkey 32 21 1 -8 11 7 63 (71.3 percent). Of the respondents who visited these areas, 51.4 percent mentioned the landscape and scenery. Weighted 25 31 n.c 8 6 7 77 Average* Figure 16: Factors that attract visitors to rural areas 100 Accordingly, the NFP estimate is a good indicator to guide percent of all services, with education and recreation identified 90 the present national policy. Provisioning services, on which as integral components. These latter are partly dependent on the local communities rely, account for 44 percent of the benefits conservation of forest ecosystems (habitat/support services), 80 of ecosystem services. NWFPs have the highest benefit (38.74 the value of which accounts for 4.7 percent of total forest benefits 70 Percent (%) percent), and cultural services account for approximately 18 (Figure 15) (MoA 2015). 60 Figure 15: Distribution of the values (percent) of Lebanese forest ecosystem services components (Source: MoA 2015) 50 40 Wood product 5.62 30 NWFPs 38.74 20 10 Conservation 4.72 0 Socio-cultural 17.7 Nature and Religious Climate History Culture and Cuisine and Landscape Events and biodiversity heritage traditions local food and scenery festivities Education 0.24 Recreation 0.2 While the nature-based tourism sector generates revenues, spiritual wellness. This land, or Waqf in Arabic, is another Watershed 28.2 it is an unorganized sector that does not contribute to forest significant cultural asset of Lebanon’s forests (AFDC 2019). management conservation and restoration (Abou Arrage et al. 2019). Soil protection 0.2 This is because tour operators generally do not comply with The cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani), and hence cedar Carbon international regulations and few professionals are specialized forests, have a unique national, cultural, religious, and 4.4 in the field. historical value and, ecologically, the species is regarded sequestration globally as a flagship species. The Lebanese flag features Significant forest and woodland areas (40 percent) are the cedar tree, which is thought to be the most symbolic of all 7 Based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) definition, TEV is the overall economic value of a particular natural resource, owned by religious entities (Christian, Muslim, and Druze) local trees. considering both use and non-use values. and can serve as destinations for general wellbeing and 8 The Collaborative Partnership on Mediterranean Forests (CPMF) countries are Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, and Turkey. 49 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 50 5 National Forest Making informed decisions on the management and The sections below shed light on direct and indirect drivers protection of forests becomes difficult without precise and of forest loss and degradation in Lebanon. These include: up-to-date information. As a result, resources may be allocated • Land-use changes resulting from urban expansion and inefficiently, regulations and initiatives may be unsuccessful, and infrastructure development Challenges hazards like pest outbreaks and wildfires may not be adequately • The expansion of agricultural areas addressed. Without a national database, it is also difficult to track • Unregulated quarries changes in forest cover and gauge the success of long-term • Unsustainable harvesting of firewood and charcoal production forest management measures. • Overgrazing • Increased incidences of pests and diseases affecting forests due to various stresses, including climate change. Forests in Lebanon are highly fragmented, and they are losing the ability to regenerate, causing many forest landscapes to disappear. The terrestrial ecosystem is constantly suffering from habitat loss, fragmentation, and 5.1 Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation destruction. The major causes that are responsible for this phenomenon are 5.1.1 DIRECT DRIVERS listed in the following paragraphs. In Lebanon, uncontrolled urbanization is the main cause of the loss, fragmentation, and destruction of terrestrial ecosystems and their habitats (MoE, UNDP, and GEF 2015). In the absence of Urban expansion a national database on forests, access to national data and information on A recent study of changes in land use/land cover between forest area is reported, it does not reflect forest fragmentation, forests by relevant entities remains a challenge, impacting the planning and 1984 and 2019 (Al-Shaar et al. 2021) found that vegetation which results in small forest patches that are more susceptible implementation of sustainable forest management (SFM). cover has increased slightly over the years and that the effect to external disturbances and biodiversity loss (FAO 2012). of urban expansion on forests differs with topography. While For example, Figure 17 shows how extensive and uncontrolled urban growth expanded into forest areas in flat lands (Bekaa, anthropogenic activities on the eastern flank of Mount Lebanon north, and south Lebanon), it did not do so in humid and fertile have led to a 50 percent decrease in total forest cover and a mountains (Mount Lebanon) and in arid mountains (Bekaa). 50 percent increase in the number of forest patches, from Although revealing, these studies do not reflect the long-term 131 to 730 (Jomaa and Khater 2006). impact of urban expansion on forests. In addition, when total Figure 17: Increase of forest fragmentation between 1965 and 1998 on the eastern flank of Mount Lebanon With more than half the Lebanese population living along the coast, forests along the Lebanese coastline are highly threatened by urban expansion. In fact, anthropogenic © Andrea Kutter, World Bank activities in the coastal zone have led to major transformations in recorded land cover/land use. Between 1998 and 2010, large areas of grasslands, forests, agricultural lands, and sea were transformed into artificial lands10 (Figure 18) (MoE, UNEP and UNDP 2013). © Adobe Stock 10 Non-built artificial zones: This category includes quarries, dumpsites, landfills, sea reclaimed land, construction sites, and urban vacant plots. Artificial green zones: This category includes sport centers and public parks. 51 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 52 Figure 18: Extent of artificialization in the coastal zone between 1998 and 2010 1,000 900 Uncontrolled fuelwood and charcoal production 800 The main reported economic activities in oak—and MoA (RDNRD) for the years 2007 to 2008, as well as from the Area in hectares 700 to a certain extent pine—forests, is the production of MoE for the same years, showed an annual average revenue of: fuelwood and charcoal (FAO 2016b). These activities are 600 • US$986,000 from bidding for the use of forest in communal lands causing degradation of forests and woodlands because they 500 are associated with unsustainable, and often illegal, cutting • US$23,000 from tree cutting and charcoal production licenses and production methods. In some remote areas this leads to (that is, 450 licenses for about 6,000 tons in 2008) (Mitri 2018) 400 fuelwood scarcity (Figure 20). 300 Estimates from 2010 indicated that fuelwood cutting Figure 20: Charcoal production (left) and illegal and unsustainable tree cutting (right) generated US$1,155,000, and charcoal production 200 generated US$9,500,000. In recent years, the dire economic 100 situation and the increase in fuel prices has forced people— © Edward Antoun particularly poor and vulnerable communities—to rely on wood 0 for heating and cooking, resulting in a drastic increase in the Swamps 98 – Sea 98 – Grassland 98 – Forest 98 – Agriculture 98 – demand for fuelwood and charcoal (MoE, UNDP, UNICEF, and artificialized artificialized artificialized artificialized artificialized UNHCR 2020). An annual estimation of forest loss due to cutting land 10 land 10 land 10 land 10 land 10 activities for fuelwood, charcoal production, and other uses, sheds light on the significant negative impacts of these activities, which are leading to the loss of more than 200 ha of forest each Quarries The MoA is the government authority that provides licenses year. This trend has peaked in the past three years in response for fuelwood collection and charcoal production. However, to the multiple crises in Lebanon (Global Forest Watch 2022) the Ministry has limited information on the yearly production of (Figure 21). Mapping the location of quarries in Lebanon between 1989 and 2005 shows that quarrying activities destroyed 738 ha of grasslands, 676 ha of arable lands, and 137 ha of forest area (Darwish et al. 2011). The number of quarries since then has increased fuelwood and charcoal. National data from the archive of the exponentially: in 2021 the number recorded was 1,425. This has destroyed 6,172 ha, including 2,378 ha of grassland and 1,099 ha of forest. (Figure 19) (Mitri et al. 2021). Figure 19: Extent (in square meters) and percentage of land-cover types affected by quarries (Source: Mitri et al. 2021) 18% Figure 21: Estimation of forest loss from 2001 to 2021 due to cutting activities (for fuelwood and other uses) 25% 10,991,250 15,694,425 800 700 Area in hectares (ha) 600 Forest 500 Grassland 400 Natural landscape 300 with little vegetation 200 Agricultural land 100 0 12% Artificialized land 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 7,345,125 Forest loss (ha) 240 76 59 91 253 118 147 374 273 103 114 143 158 151 172 269 275 257 369 546 718 Source: Based on data from Global Forest Watch 2022 https://www.globalforestwatch.org/ 39% 6% 23,775,975 3,865,050 Efforts to control quarrying have failed because such activities are extremely lucrative. This conduces to corruption at the political and public levels, which leads in turn to poor law enforcement. Quarrying activities accelerate the erosion processes and subsequent destruction of existing arable lands, modify pre-existing ecosystems, change landscape patterns and integrity, destroy natural habitat, and interrupt natural succession (Khater et al. 2003b). 53 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 54 Fires Pest and insect outbreaks © Andrea Kutter, World Bank Every year, 1 percent of Lebanon’s forests are affected by fires. Pest and insect outbreaks occur naturally in forest With an average frequency of 177 forest fires per year, affecting ecosystems. However, in Lebanon anthropogenic Figure 23: Average annual production in tonnes (top) and variation around 1,500 ha of forested areas, fires pose a major threat to pressures on forests have reduced the health of of net revenue from pine-nut production in US$ thousand (bottom) between 1996 and 2016 forests in Lebanon (MoE and University of Balamand (UoB) trees and increased their vulnerability to infestation 2021). Most fires occur between April and November and affect (MoE, UNDP, UNICEF and UNHCR 2020). 1,400 mixed forests and needle forests, driving forest degradation Below are three recent examples of severe damage caused and loss. For example, a large forest fire in Akkar between by insect outbreaks: 1,200 28 July and 3 August 2021 destroyed 1,200 ha of pine forest 1,000 (Pinus brutia) (FAO and MoA 2021) (Figure 22). The causes • The cedar web-spinning sawfly (Cephalcia tannourinensis) Tonnes 800 of half the forest fires are reported as unknown, while the has damaged the Tannourine-Hadath El-Jebbeh Cedar remaining fires are associated with negligence, activity in Forest, destroying more than 600 ha of cedar. The MoA- 600 nature, arson, and—to a lesser extent—agriculture and landfill. DRDNR has responded to this threat by taking measures 400 For example, between 2008 and 2021, the causes of forest that have successfully controlled the spread of this insect 200 fires were recorded as 57 percent unknown, 19 percent due since 2004 (Nemer and Kawar 2005). Scientists believe that to negligence, and only 1 percent due to agricultural activities outbreaks of the web-spinning sawfly are related to stress 0 (MoE and UoB 2021). Regardless of the causes of forest fires, experienced by the trees due to climate change (Al Khoury 1996 2016 the past three years (2019, 2020, and 2021) have been particularly et al. 2021). The resulting decline affects regeneration damaging, owing to increasing fire frequency and severity. Between capacity, which can lead to forest loss (Bassil et al. 2018). 2008 and 2021, 67 percent of forest areas have been reported destroyed 40,000 (MoE and UoB 2021). The effect of forest fires will be discussed in greater • The Western conifer seed bug (Leptoglossus occidentalis) 35,000 detail in Chapter 7. is attacking stone pines (Pinus pinea). This insect feeds 30,000 on the pine seeds while inside the cones, causing them .000 US$ 25,000 to dry out and fall from the tree. Studies have reported 20,000 that, between 2012 and 2017, cone production declined by 50 percent, while the percentage of damaged seeds 15,000 Figure 22: Aakar: Hermel forest fire in 2021 (Source: FAO 2021) increased on average from 3 percent in 2012 to 60 percent 10,000 in 2017 (el Khoury et al. 2021). The resulting economic 5,000 loss from this pest outbreak is reported as a decline of the 0 net revenue of pine nuts production from US$35 million 1996 2016 to US$15 million (Sattout and Faour 2017) (Figure 23). Despite its limited resources, DRDNR has succeeded in reducing Leptoglossus occidentalis outbreaks. • The gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) is destroying oak forests in Lebanon, infesting the oak species Quercus calliprinos and Quercus infectoria in particular (Moussa et al. 2021). In 2019, a gypsy moth outbreak in the Aamiq region damaged more than 160 ha of oak trees and, in 2020, another outbreak occurred in the Deir El Ahmar region (north Bekaa). Following a successful trial in Ammiq in 2019—which reduced the gypsy moth population by 90 percent by mass-trapping the insect with pheromone lures in different oak forests (Nemer et al. 2020)—the MoA launched a pest-management strategy using the same method. Additional biological control was applied by air-spraying Bacillus thuringiensis on more than 25,000 ha, covering most of the oak forests in Lebanon. © Joseph Eid/AFP, The Guardian However, gypsy moth is still a great threat to Lebanon’s oak forests, especially as the forests are simultaneously affected by other invasive insects: the oak moth (Thaumetopea sp.), which causes defoliation, and the oak leaf miner (Phyllonorycter libanotica), which causes desiccation of leaves. Insect and pest outbreaks can have a negative influence on the livelihoods of those who depend on Lebanon’s forests for wood, pine nuts, and honey production. On a national scale, comprehensive management techniques for forest insect outbreaks need to be established and successfully implemented. These should involve monitoring and early detection, biological control, and chemical control. © Hussein Malla/AP, The Guardian © Andrea Kutter, World Bank 55 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 56 © Andrea Kutter, World Bank Overgrazing Overgrazing in Lebanon has been reported for many years Lack of official and updated data on rangelands (including as one of the main causes of land degradation, leading to data relating to carrying capacity and livestock) restricts Political instability soil erosion, loss of vegetation, and an increased risk of opportunities to ensure sustainable management of these wildfires. In 1980, the FAO estimated rangelands to constitute resources. However, SLMQ (Sustainable Land Management Political instability has dominated Lebanon for the past 52 percent of Lebanese territory (FAO 1980). In 2008, available in the Qaraoun Catchment) (MoE, UNDP, and GEF 2018) several years. The ongoing political uncertainty also negatively rangeland area was reduced to 400,000 ha— equivalent to 38 included the development of national guidelines for rangeland impacts forest management and conservation, as it makes percent of Lebanon’s territory—due to erosion, agricultural management. To delineate rangelands at the national level, it difficult to enforce laws and regulations, and to plan and expansion, and urbanization (Darwish and Faour 2008). a set of biophysical and topographic conditions were created implement effective management strategies. In effect, poor Overgrazing leads to a decline in biodiversity, as it reduces the as part of the characterization of rangelands. To improve governance of the forestry sector is one of the root causes of availability of food and habitat for wildlife. Studies have shown management, and to encourage managers and practitioners to many drivers of deforestation and forest degradation. This is that overgrazing is widespread in Lebanon, particularly in the use the recommended tools and procedures, the project then evidenced by the non-enforcement or ineffective implementation mountainous and semi-arid regions of the country, where grazing included mapping possible grazing sites. of forest laws, policies, forest management plans, and protected animals outnumber the carrying capacity of the available land. areas management. In addition, poor governance has resulted Considering the poor productivity of rangelands, the carrying New management strategies need to address the restoration in a paucity of decisions on operational directives and guidelines capacity of rangeland in Lebanon does not exceed 800,000 of rangelands, the development of sustainable grazing for the implementation of forest management plans. Weak small ruminant heads (Darwish and Faour 2008). The heads of management plans, and the use of alternative land-use and inadequate human and financial capacities in turn impact goats and sheep in 2021 exceeds this limit and is estimated at practices such as agroforestry. Additionally, education and the ability to implement and monitor action plans, incentivize 531,289 and 431,285 respectively (FAOSTAT 2023). awareness can help to change the attitudes and behaviors of programs and enforce laws. farmers and herders, encouraging them to adopt more sustainable land-use practices. 5.1.2 INDIRECT DRIVERS There are several indirect drivers of forest degradation in Lebanon, which are related to broader social, economic, and Figure 24: Synthesis of the different direct and indirect causes and drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Lebanon political factors. Therefore, addressing socioeconomic factors is important for the sustainable management and conservation of Lebanon’s forests. Deforestation and forest degradation Direct causes Education and awareness Illegal logging Limited knowledge and cultural appreciation of natural contributes to the loss of forest cover and biodiversity. In addition, Unregulated Quarries Forest Overgrazing Pest and for fuelwood & urban growth fires diseases resources in general, and forests in particular, are limited awareness of the economic and social benefits of charcoal significant factors driving forest degradation. There is a forests (such as carbon sequestration, water regulation, habitat pressing need to invest in formal education, conduct awareness provision, and recreation) and the importance of sustainable campaigns, promote alternative livelihoods, and address poverty forest management practices (such as fire prevention, pest and Indirect causes and inequality. The lack of understanding of the importance of disease management, and reforestation) may lead to actions sustainable land-use practices or the long-term consequences that further aggravate forest degradation. Ignorance of the legal of certain actions often leads to engagement in activities that framework and regulations, policies, and national plans that No investment Lack of Weak Limited Fuel crisis in the forestry Absence of can result in forest degradation. Illegal logging, over-harvesting govern the use of forest resources, can also contribute to the monitoring community No timber Deficient national leading to high sector by the subvention of NWFPs, and conversion of forestland to agriculture, in turn degradation of forests. and control knowledge of production regulatory database for demand for fuel private sector program for of natural forest resource value chain framework the forest wood by the private forest activities resources revenues sector sector Economic crises Recently, multiple crises have threatened Lebanon’s coping capacities are in jeopardy (Al-Sayah et al. 2022). Underlying causes overall development path and the sustainable development As a result, although forest degradation is complex and varies of the forest sector. The Covid-19 pandemic, the pressure with location and context, it is evident that increased poverty Lack of on natural resources due to the influx of displaced Syrian due to the economic crisis is contributing to overgrazing, Political Limited Economic crisis Climate institutional people (Government of Lebanon and United Nations 2021), deforestation, and illegal logging, as more people revert to instability resources and and increase in events and policy capacities poverty and the Beirut port explosion worsened the country’s acute forest and other natural resources for survival. Hence, there is coordination and ongoing economic crisis. While biophysical indicators an urgent need to promote sustainable forest management and directly influence land and forest degradation, Lebanon forest-resources use to address poverty and inequality. has become less resistant to shocks and its adaptation 57 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 58 5.2 Vulnerability to climate ornus, and Ostrya carpinifolia (AFDC 2019). Forests stressed by fragmentation, pest outbreaks, forest fires, and inappropriate Figure 25: Benefits of PPP in Lebanon (DRI 2019; MoE, UNDP, UNICEF, and UNHCR 2020) change and natural disasters practices will be most affected by climate change (AFDC 2019). Climate change will increase pest and disease outbreaks, Climate change will cause more frequent and intense drought and the spread of invasive species. Climate change can affect conditions and higher temperatures in the Mediterranean forest pests and the damage they do in several ways: directly, (IPCC 2014). The Fourth National Communication on Climate by affecting their growth, survival, reproduction, and spread; and Can provide the public Change indicated that Lebanon is expected to experience an indirectly, by changing the host’s defenses and susceptibility and sector the technology, increase in temperature by 1.6 degrees Celsius to 2.2 degrees by impacting the interactions between pests, their environment, skills and know-how, Celsius by mid-century, and by 2.2 degrees Celsius to 4.9 and other species like natural enemies, rivals, and mutualists. it lacks degrees Celsius by the end of the century, depending on the With respect to climate change and insect outbreaks, national Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) scenario. These adaptation remains constrained by insufficient funding (MoE, increases are more intense than those projected in 2014, with UNDP, and GEF 2016). the Bekaa Valley and coastal areas being the most affected. Precipitation is expected to decrease by 6.5 to 9 percent by mid-century and by 9 percent to 22 percent by the end of the 5.3 Private sector engagement century, which is also more severe than previous projections. Considering Lebanon’s high rates of forest degradation Consecutive dry days and drought risks are expected to increase Undertake necessary More agile and better and deforestation, public and private actors need to in all regions, with a more pronounced effect in southern and make concerted additional efforts to restore forest cover investments to encourage PPP endowed with resources and competencies coastal areas (MoE, UNDP, and GEF 2022). by implementing forest activities (reforestation, forest implementation of forest management plans benefits than the country’s management, forest protection from insects and diseases, Forest fires in Lebanon are a major consequence of public sector research, studies, and monitoring). changing climatic conditions. Although the main drivers of forest fires in Lebanon are anthropogenic, climate change is Lebanon has a dynamic research community that brings aggravating the situation by creating environmental conditions in together both public and private institutions. However, forests and woodlands that are conducive to fires. Studies have this research community is constrained by limited funding and shown that extreme weather conditions, such as heatwaves, oftentimes works in isolation from the wider society. Additionally, have led to a spike in fire severity and frequency. A 2014 policy instruments show a lack of communication between the report (Salloum and Mitri 2014) found that the occurrence different public authorities and the leading agencies in the of fire correlated positively with deviations in mean monthly PPP can finace projects research community, the private sector, and civil societies. There temperatures, and negatively with deviations in mean monthly for municipalities, which is a need to mainstream efforts between the various concerned precipitation and mean monthly wind speed. In addition, an are deprived of important parties, and for various stakeholders to engage in effective increased probability of fire outbreaks correlates with high mean funding sources dialogue in a sustainable way (MoA 2015). temperatures and long dry seasons. The predicted increase in temperature and the expected decline in precipitation are Given limited government resources and outreach, the expected to result in higher fire frequency, especially if rigorous Government of Lebanon and development partners forest fire mitigation action is not implemented according have turned to public-private partnerships (PPPs) as a to national strategies and action plans (MoE, UNDP, and lifeline for the country’s ailing economy and deteriorating GEF 2016). The NFP highlighted the importance of attracting private sector investment into the forest sector, especially to establish infrastructure (Democracy Reporting International (DRI) 2019). plantations and to develop the value chains for NWFPs and wood products (MoA 2015). NGOs play a role in encouraging Partnerships with the private sector and local communities (Figure Climate change will lead to a shift in niche distribution and private sector companies to support reforestation activities and in introducing new economic opportunities through forestry and 25) are crucial for consolidating and expanding forest cover, habitat conditions. A decrease in the number of cold days means nature-based tourism (LRI 2021). alongside efforts to tap into new sources of finance, knowledge, that many species will not meet their chilling requirements for and technology. flowering and seed germination, and therefore for regeneration. Other influencing factors include earlier flowering; prolongation of the growth season; deficient winter hardening; decrease in snow; and other damaging winter patterns, all of which affect plant survival and reproduction. As a result, bioclimatic shifts will affect mostly those species surviving in the high-altitude zone of Lebanon (Tolba and Saab 2009). Forest species may change their distribution and geographical ranges by migrating to other habitats that meet their growth needs (AFDC 2019). The forest stands expected to be most affected by climate change are in north Lebanon (Akkar) and Hermel, due to the possible shift from a sub-humid to a semi-arid bioclimatic level (MoA 2015). Vulnerable species include Juniperus excelsa, Cedrus libani, Abies cilicica, Quercus cerris var. pseudo-cerris, Fraxinus © Andrea Kutter, World Bank © Adobe Stock 59 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 60 BOX 2 BOX 3 The potential for the private sector to support sustainable Local PPP initiatives forest management and protection Despite the factors constraining local authorities, some The projects were implemented at a regional level, municipalities have achieved several PPP success as the Jezzine Union of Municipalities comprises Involving the private sector in forest management Three areas need to be developed to incentivize private stories. These can serve as model for future PPP projects 29 municipalities. In most of these partnerships, the and protection is not a new concept. However, today sector engagement in sustainable forest management involving local authorities (DRI 2019). The Jezzine Union Union offered land as its share in the joint project, the emerging trend is for private entities to engage based and protection: of Municipalities in southern Lebanon initiated different while the private partner invested in the execution and on sustainability principles. Increasingly, companies are ecofriendly projects for boosting the local economy by operation of the project. The first of these projects, La engaging in sustainable forest management and protection • Promoting a positive enabling environment for the private collaborating with the private sector on several projects that Maison de la Forêt, opened in 2012 and was followed by committing to, for example, deforestation-free value sector through supportive public policies and governance contributed to local job creation. These partnerships included by other similar projects. These have succeeded in chain development of timber and non-timber forest products • Encouraging financial innovation and crowding in new eco-tourism and eco-agriculture, executed and operated by developing clear business plans to attract investors (Rainforest Alliance, 2023). finance, including through results-based payments, while private companies. (DRI 2019). enhancing and unlocking trapped capital Many countries have public-private partnerships that aim • Engaging with supply chain companies to achieve to reduce deforestation and greenhouse gas emissions by economically. environmentally, and socially sustainable connecting governments with private sector partners and La Maison de la Forêt Pine House Olive Factory Apply Factory value-chain operations. initiatives. In some cases, private enterprises invest some of their revenue in reforestation activities as part of their In Lebanon, multiple private firms have partnered with An eco-touristic project An eco-agricultural An eco-agricultural A planned project to corporate social responsibility (Groundviews, 2023) or to municipalities and local NGO partners to support efforts to showcasing the forests project to boost local project to support the build an apple factory offset GHG emissions from the production of their products restore Lebanon’s precious forest landscapes. of Bkassine. It consists of agricultural products, local Olive Farmers along the lines of the and associated logistics (Myers, Parra & Bedford). bungalows, restaurants, such as pine Cooperative to diversify Olive Factory conference rooms and nuts and honey and market their olive features activities such products as hiking © Andrea Kutter, World Bank Lebanon participates in regional and national projects that protected areas and develop a participative management promote PPP. For example, the country was part of the regional approach involving civil society. One of its goals is to promote project, Supporting the Implementation of Public-Private biodiversity, conserve protected areas, and reduce poverty Partnerships (PPP) for the Management of Mediterranean in and around protected areas by supporting long-term Protected Areas, launched in 2016. The project, established partnerships between public authorities, private sector operators under an agreement between the French Development Agency (for instance in the tourism, forestry, or energy industry), and the and Plan Bleu, encourages stakeholders to mobilize private local population (planbleu.org). sector financial and technical capacities through PPP to fund © Freepik 61 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 62 6 Wildfires as Figure 26: Number of fires and burned areas in Lebanon from 2008 to 2021 (Data source: MoE and UoB 2021) Wildfires in Lebanon from 2008 to 2021 Drivers of Forest 350 5,000 4,500 300 4,000 and Landscape 250 3,500 3,000 200 2,500 Degradation in 150 2,000 100 1,500 Lebanon 1,000 50 500 0 0 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 Number of fires Burned area in hectares Data collected between 2011 and 2021 shows how the destruction caused by wildfires in Lebanon is persistent, with an average number of 177 recorded 6.1 Lebanon forests’ wildfires, destroying an estimated 1,500 ha—or 1 percent—of total country vulnerability to fire © Andrea Kutter, World Bank land area each year (Figure 26) (MoE and UoB 2021). Most forests in Lebanon are in a wildland-urban interface (WUI11). Lebanon’s WUI is characterized by an increased risk of wildfire. The growing pattern of urban development into forested lands increases the threat of forest fires to human life and economic wellbeing. The threat of wildfires driven by urban expansion is exacerbated by a drying and warming climate, which makes forest fires more severe and more frequent (Ruffault et al. 2020). Moreover, abandonment of rural areas has led to a decrease in traditional agricultural land use in many places across the country. The primary effects of this trend have been fuel accumulation and structural changes in the fuel complex. These new fuel complexes increase the probability of fire initiation and fuel continuity, and therefore promote large wildfire occurrence (Mitri et al. 2014). Intermingling of the built and natural environment; poor management of natural landscapes; and increased presence of unmanaged forest regrowth in abandoned agricultural lands, is igniting forest fires and driving forest loss (Moreira et al. 2020). Recent maps of wildfire risks and types of landscapes where primary ignition of wildfires is recorded show that most wildfires in Lebanon occur in open, low vegetation or agricultural lands, and constitute a threat to nearby forests and woodlands (UoB 2022; Faour and Abdallah 2019) (Figure 27). © Freepik 11 The wildland-urban interface (WUI) is described as the area, or zone, where human developments intersect with wildland or vegetative fuels. 63 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 64 Figure 27: Left: Wildfire risk map for Lebanon (Source: MoE and UoB 2022); Right: Types of landscape in Lebanon where primary ignition of wildfires was Figure 28: Cumulative fire occurrences and burned area from 2008 to 2020 (MoE-UoB and Mitri 2021) recorded between 2003 and 2015 (Source: Faour and Abdallah 2019) 5,000 500 4,500 450 Burned areas (hectares) 4,000 400 Number or fires 3,500 350 3,000 300 2,500 250 2,000 200 1,500 150 1,000 100 500 50 0 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 Figure 29: Average monthly number of fires and burned area (BA) in forests/shrublands and grasslands (Majdalani et al. 2022) 80 6 Average monthly burned area (hectares) 70 5 Average monthly number of fires 60 4 50 40 3 30 2 20 1 10 6.2 Lebanon’s forests and wildfires 0 0 The risk of wildfires persists for several months. It becomes critical between July and September, with this period showing the highest number of burned areas and fire occurrences (Figure 28) (MoE and UoB 2021). However, the extended drought Forests and shrubs Grasslands Average monthly number of fires (≥ 5 ha) period prolongs the fire season until November, causing even greater threat to the forest. Consequently, Lebanon’s seasonal fire distribution is unusual and can be described as bimodal: driven by air-relative humidity and wind speed individually, combined with Authorities and concerned parties should align various wildfire mitigation activities and optimize resource use with wildfire risk patterns rare but recurrent prolonged droughts until November (Majdalani et al. 2022). The country then experiences late wildfires until the while investing in long-term management throughout the year (Figure 30) (MoE and UoB 2021). end of October, or even November. This is rarely observed in other Mediterranean countries (Mhawej et al. 2016). >> p67 65 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 66 Figure 30: Comparison in fire inter-annual seasonality (Source: Fire report UoB 2008–2021) 2023). The potential fire-induced losses can directly influence Competition and lack of coordination between relevant land productivity and forest health, causing rapid and direct governmental and nongovernmental institutions have led to 2021 Duration degradation, with often irreversible damages. The total cost reactive short-term actions to mitigate wildfire risks, rather of restoration efforts of land degraded by wildfires may be than adoption of long-term forest management actions. 2020 Peak month greater than the cost of protecting the forest and preventing The lack of coordination between responsible institutions has 2019 fire occurrence. Furthermore, land degradation increases reduced the government’s capacity to intervene effectively susceptibility to fires, and fire outbreaks aggravate land and reduce wildfire risks. Fire management has been based 2018 degradation. There is an urgent need to shift from reactive on spontaneous, unplanned decisions and actions during and 2017 actions to proactive approaches, where simultaneous prevention after big fire incidences and has focused mainly on providing of fire outbreaks and land degradation is guaranteed to stop the limited resources for fire suppression (tools, aircraft, vehicles, Fire season 2016 land degradation-wildfire cycles. The damage wildfires cause and so on) rather than addressing the structural causes of forest 2015 decreases the value of forests, estimated in 2005 at 4,770 euros fires (land ownership structure; forest and land management; 2014 per hectare (Sattout et al. 2005). Masri et al. (2006) estimates social cohesion; and the enforcement of laws and regulations). financial losses following forest fires in fruit pine, wild pine, and Controlled grazing is an effective tool for forest fire risk mitigation. 2013 broadleaf forests, to be US$114,330/ha, US$21,700/ha and The abandonment of traditional rural lifestyles and the expansion 2012 US$5,812/ha, respectively. of rural towns has led to a decline in agropastoral activities and 2011 a decrease in grazing land accessibility. In addition, political Sustainable forest management is an essential long-term and economic instability has led to the abandonment of rural 2010 strategy to avoid degradation, including mitigating wildfire lands. All these conditions have resulted in land absenteeism, 2009 risks. Adopting an integrated forest management strategy which has led to spontaneous and uncontrolled growth of forests and action plan to mitigate wildfires is a long-term process, and woodlands with highly flammable forest litter. Considering 2008 but is constantly disrupted by the urgent challenges of wildfire that all forest fires in Lebanon–intentional or unintentional–are Jan Mar May Jun Aug Oct Dec suppression actions, which have immediate consequences and caused by people, the integration of grazing to reduce forests’ 1st 2nd 1st 30th 29th 28th 27th high media visibility. In addition, the priorities of an integrated vulnerability to fires is an option worth considering. There is an forest management approach to mitigate wildfires may be obvious benefit to developing a program because sheep and perceived differently and challenged by members of civil society. goat dairy and meat products are highly valued. Targeted grazing For example, some residents may be reluctant to accept grazing is a proactive approach used to manage fire risk in forests. This restrictions or prescribed burning near built areas; some may practice involves strategically deploying livestock, such as favor establishing forest plantations; and some residents may goats or sheep, to graze in specific areas prone to wildfires. The number, severity, and duration of wildfires is due to drier and warmer climate conditions (Salloum and Mitri 6.3 Wildfire mitigation be unwilling to address biomass management around their General guidelines for forest grazing were presented in the residences for aesthetic, privacy, or environmental comfort National Guidelines for Rangelands Management in Lebanon 2014; Lebanon Ministry of Agriculture 2014; Emergency Plan through sustainable forest reasons (Francisco Moreira et al. 2020). (UNDP and MoE 2018). Controlled grazing in Lebanon should 2022; Ruffault et al. 2020). The most recent report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2022) management Rural and land abandonment, especially during and be encouraged through a national strategy and awareness campaign. Especially if properly timed and controlled, grazing warned that, in the near future, wildfire risks in the Mediterranean after the civil war, left agricultural lands unmanaged and may reduce the accumulation of fire fuel, while creating a new are expected to worsen owing to longer heat waves and Wildfires are unavoidable episodic events. Many forests forest regrowth unchecked. As a result, woody plants grew value and relevance to traditional pastoralism. sustained extreme heat and droughts. This trend is evidenced in Lebanon are in the wildland-urban interface (WUI) and are into continuous and highly flammable layers that took over by the number and intensity of the fires that occurred in June extremely vulnerable to wildfires. It is important to approach agricultural land, terraces, and grazing lands. Prescribed or controlled burning management is not 2021 in Italy, Greece, Turkey, and Lebanon. Between 2001 and their conservation with the understanding that wildfires are practiced in Lebanon and its implementation requires strict 2020, an average of 0.58 percent (2044 ha) of land (grassland, episodic and inevitable occurrences. Based on the Fire Weather Afforestation efforts with no provision for long-term regulations and community buy-in. The Lebanese Forest shrubland, and forest) burned annually in Lebanon, similar to Index (FWI)12 system and Drought Code (DC),13 (NRC 2023) management, increases wood biomass and thus the risk Code of 1949 limits and prohibits the burning of plant material France (0.53 percent) and Greece (0.57 percent) (Majdalani et in Lebanon, more than 80 percent of the variability in monthly of wildfires. The impressive afforestation efforts carried out on near forests (Article 106). Despite its advantages of reducing fire al. 2022). Soil water deficit, soil degradation, desertification, and burned area is a function of ambient temperature, relative public land during the 1960s and 1970s (Green Plan of Lebanon) risk at low cost, prescribed burning in Lebanon is complicated fire risks are all expected to increase. Climate change will directly humidity, wind speed, and precipitation (Majdalani et al. 2022). were stopped due to the outbreak of the civil war and were by proximity to towns and villages, agricultural lands, and (through environmental stress) and indirectly (through changed Effective forest management strategies may mitigate the not followed up with forest management strategy or silviculture other private property, and significant restrictions regarding fire regime and higher biotic-induced tree mortality) contribute impacts of climate change and ensure the long-term health and practices. Moreover, most of the recent reforestation and smoke management, liability issues, and safety. Moreover, to modifying the distribution patterns of forest ecosystems sustainability of forest landscapes of Lebanon (Plan Bleu 2019). afforestation activities are supported by development partners prescribed burning is not well understood at the community (Pereira et al. 2002) and species composition. More extended through projects. Hence, there are no budget provisions for level and permission to burn plant material may be perceived dry and warm summers in the Mediterranean Basin, particularly Wildfires have a significant socioeconomic impact. activities that include future fire-risk management after planting; as contradicting calls to prevent forest fires. Prescribed burning in Lebanon, indicate longer fire seasons, combined with more Nearly one third (32.9 percent) of Lebanon’s land is potentially nor do development partners follow up with forest management can help reduce fire risk and, simultaneously, avoid uncontrolled frequent and severe weather events, leading to higher-intensity, threatened by wildfires, with cascading effects on human plans, especially after the project ends. burning. However, its application depends on legal and social larger, and more catastrophic wildfires (Moriondo et al. 2006). life and economic, social, and ecological assets (Al Sayah issues and concerns that need to be addressed. In addition, prescribed burning requires well-trained personnel and depends on weather conditions. Accordingly, any future practice of prescribed burning will require further research and planning 12 The Fire Weather Index (FWI) is a meteorologically based index used worldwide to estimate fire danger. It consists of different components that account for before institutionalization and adoption (Antoun et al. 2013). the effects of fuel moisture and wind on fire behavior and spread. The higher the FWI is, the more favorable the meteorological conditions to trigger a wildfire. 13 The Drought Code (DC) is a numeric rating of the average moisture content of deep, compact organic layers. This code is a useful indicator of seasonal drought effects on forest fuels and the amount of smoldering in deep duff layers and large logs. https://cwfis.cfs.nrcan.gc.ca/background/summary/fwi. 67 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 68 6.3.1 NATIONAL FOREST FIRE Regulations protecting conifer trees have contributed to wildfires. Between 2008 and 2021, some distinct regional MANAGEMENT STRATEGY (NFFMS) 7 Opportunity Areas patterns emerged, suggesting that wild pine forests accounted A National Forest Fire Management Strategy (NFFMS) was for 41 percent of all forest areas burned from 2008 to 2021. The drafted after major fire events in Lebanon in 2007, when proximity of pine trees (which are highly susceptible to fires) to more than 200 fires were detected in less than 24 hours. other species has increased the risk of fires affecting large-scale for Sustainable However, the implementation of the NFFMS remains weak. forests with mixed species. Consequently, it is imperative to Very few actions were taken to implement the NFFMS endorsed implement mitigation, prevention, and preparedness actions that by the Council of Ministers in 2009 (Decision No.52/2009). will make forests less prone to fires (such as building fire breaks, Lack of implementation is due to the absence of a legal and pruning, reducing fuel, and providing water outlets). These measures have not been implemented to date. In addition, Forest Landscape organizational framework and an action plan. Furthermore, the NFFMS did not address the problem of overlapping duties development and implementation of sustainable management between the ministries (Elissar 2012) and no dedicated funding plans, especially for Pinus brutia forests near–or mixed with– for the implementation was allocated. Instead, fire-related Pinus brutia species, is of the utmost importance. responsibilities and competencies continue to be dispersed Management and across various agencies and sector ministries (Agriculture, Communication and coordination between institutions Environment, Economy, and Interior), contributing to the with competing mandates, roles, and responsibilities problem. The lack of coordination is still a significant hurdle, must not be limited to the senior management levels of despite the introduction of different strategic instruments these institutions. This can reduce their effectiveness and Addressing Fire (legislation, regulation, planning). Recent revisions to the forestall collective efforts towards a consistent path and NFFMS (2023) are expected to overcome identified weaknesses action plan for wildfire management. A recent example is and provide clarity regarding the role and responsibilities of each the Emergency Coordination Plan for Fire Preparedness, Risk stakeholder institution. Reduction and Awareness in Lebanon 2022 (MoE 2022), led by the MoE. This targets hotspot villages and aims to decrease Risks in Lebanon Despite challenges, local authorities, communities, and the number of fires and burned areas by establishing local first private actors communicate efficiently on wildfire risks. responder groups. Although the activities in this plan are of great Many entities are using tools and technologies to determine national value and the plan encourages collaboration among wildfire risks in Lebanon. However, the Capacity Needs civil society players, communication between ministries was Assessment report revealed that the fire danger index map carried out only at the higher level. The plan was not successful indicating the fire danger estimation daily, to allow decision- in creating an operational partnership with the MoA at the makers to allocate resources on the territory at risk, has regional level, especially since its local field offices remain not resulted in proper decision-making and dissemination marginally involved. processes. Moreover, most of the municipalities and local Lebanon’s forests and forest landscapes are under significant pressure. Forest governance in Lebanon is complex and hampered communities do not have adequate knowledge to access and by several factors. The success and effectiveness of a national This has increased their vulnerability, and compromised their contribution read early warning messages based on the fire danger index, and to act accordingly (Capacity Needs Assessment). forest management strategy requires good forest governance. to the economy, society, and the environment. To achieve this, there needs to be coordination between different institutions and agencies, the adoption of common goals and programs, and agreement on roles and responsibilities. As discussed above, forest governance is currently hindered by political and institutional instability, lack of leadership on forest management (including wildfire management), and limited capacity for sustainable forest management as a foundational approach to wildfire management. The absence of a dedicated funding source for addressing fire risks and events compromises collective fire-related actions. A clear funding plan identifying all the supporting funding instruments (national and international), and strengthening the application of fire-management activities, will reinforce the forest sector in Lebanon. In the absence of a budget line and an efficient and effective disbursement mechanism to address wildfires, the MoE has initiated the development of a framework for a National Forest Fire Emergency Fund (NFFEF) to address fire risks and actual events in a timely and impact-oriented manner. The objective of the NFFEF is to provide financial support for © Freepik efficiently managing and combating wildfires in Lebanon. © Shutterstock 69 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 70 Some of the core threats and challenges include decline in forest cover and quality due to forest degradation and deforestation; unsustainable forest resources usage; policy and governance failures; and land-use conflicts. In addition, almost 50 percent 7.1 Improving governance and © Shutterstock of Lebanon’s forests are on privately owned land. This chapter discusses the opportunities for sustaining Lebanon’s forests and local capacities forest landscapes and strengthening the forest sector by supporting sustainable forest management, including fire risk management. The opportunity areas address the gaps and weaknesses discussed in the previous chapters. 7.1.1 ENHANCE GOVERNANCE WITHIN AND COLLABORATION BETWEEN PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS The following opportunity areas are discussed: Forest governance and regulations are essential for ensuring the protection and sustainable management of forests and the long-term provision of their ecological, economic, and Improving governance and local capacity to bolster resilience and ensure sustainable social benefits. Effective forest governance provides a forest management framework for decision-making, planning, and implementation of forest-related policies and programs. It also ensures the participation of stakeholders such as local communities and a. Enhancing governance within—and collaboration between—public institutions civil society, in decision-making processes. b. Engaging communities in sustainable forest management and wildfire mitigation c. Involving private landowners In Lebanon, forests are primarily under the authority of two key ministries: the MoA and the MoE, established in their nascent forms in 1920 and 1981, respectively. Given its sixty-year head start, the MoA is well-staffed, with field officers Acting to improve data and information access on forest fires and personnel tackling forest management and conservation. The MoE—with a broad mandate ‘to be “responsible for the environment of Lebanon’”—was initially conceived to set regulations and standards. However, this is not possible without a staff base that has access to relevant knowledge and can exercise influence on matters pertaining to forest conservation Supporting industries for value-addition of wood and non-wood forest products and fire mitigation. As a result, the understaffed MoE has adopted a collaborative strategy, reaching out to communities through partnerships with NGOs and academic institutions, or a. Wood production, fuelwood and charcoal through project-funded personnel. b. Non-wood forest products (NWFP) Today, the MoA and the MoE face the same economic and political crisis. This weakens their abilities to enforce regulations or implement forest governance and policies from Promoting nature-based tourism their different perspectives. As a result, there is an increase in illegal logging, forest degradation, and wildfire outbreaks. More importantly, the lack of clarity regarding the roles and responsibilities of the two ministries is leading to redundancy and inefficiency, and is hampering the implementation of effective Supporting forest ecosystem restoration to reduce fragmentation and minimize forest governance. fire risks. Regardless of the above, both the MoA and the MoE have taken steps to improve forest governance in Lebanon, by unilaterally or collaboratively developing a national forest program, a national fire management strategy, community- based forest management approaches, and fire emergency Overall, the implementation of the proposed actions would protect Lebanon’s forest landscapes and the robustness of plans. These efforts provide a foundation upon which further the forest sector. The proposed interventions are consistent with the various national plans and strategies above, specifically the improvements can be made to strengthen forest governance National Forest Program (NFP) and the National Forest Fire Emergency Plan. The sustainability and success of each opportunity in Lebanon—for example, by creating a formal coordination area described below is entirely dependent on adequate budget provisions. This should include a national budget, an emergency mechanism and defining clear roles and responsibilities of fund, revenues, bonds, a national forest fund, and credit lines. involved entities. By continuing to build on these initiatives and by fostering greater collaboration between public institutions and local communities, Lebanon can make significant strides towards achieving more sustainable forest management practices and enhancing resilience to forest fire challenges. 71 Lebanon Forest Note Table 4: Action required on forest governance Frequency and Impact on forest Frequency and Impact on forest Action Impact on fire mitigation Action Impact on fire mitigation arrangements sustainability arrangements sustainability Create and formalize Once-off, then repeated Alerts government employees Activates institutional and Establish a task force Once-off, then repeated Brings together experts and Enhances development of a multi-sectoral regularly to the latest developments human resources to deal within the Government regularly decision-makers for better national fire management “Government Forest and keeps them informed of with forest fire mitigation. Forest Mechanism communication, cooperation, policies, strategies, and plans, Lead agencies: MoA, Lead agency: DRM Unit Mechanism” of public projects, laws, and upcoming Enhances information-sharing to tackle wildfire and collaboration oversee their implementation, MoE, DRM Unit and other sector employees events and opportunities, to ensure closer engagement management and and evaluates their government entities concerned with forest leading to better collaboration, on ways to prevent forest fires coordinate national fire effectiveness landscapes effective communication, and activities knowledge-sharing Develop communication tools—such as email Develop a comprehensive Once-off, then updated Enhances monitoring and Tracks the progress of wildfire lists, messaging apps, national monitoring and regularly tracking of forest-related management efforts over time, or regular meetings—to evaluation system to track activities, identifies successes and ensures that efforts are Lead agency: Lebanese ensure that employees the progress of forest and challenges, and informs effective, efficient, sustainable, National Council for Scientific can break “departmental” and wildfire management future planning efforts and reduce the risk and Research (LNCSR) silos and engage with efforts by various impact of wildfires peers organizations over time Set up working sessions Once-off, then repeated Establishes better relationships Ensures that stakeholders Develop long-term funding Once-off, then updated as Encourages initiatives on Improves the effectiveness for Government Forest regularly among employees, thereby discuss their respective roles and resource strategies required national and local levels to of wildfire prevention and Mechanism members, to promoting greater collaboration and responsibilities regarding develop long-term plans for supports capacity-building in Include relevant lines Lead agency: MoF establish and discuss their Lead agency: MoA and coordination on forest forest fires, and identify key sustainable forest practices. local communities for the MoA and MoE in roles and responsibilities, management issues related to effective the national budget that Enables governmental Ensures that local initiatives and identify the key issues coordination support the continuity institutions to achieve long-term have the skills and resources related to coordination and development of goals and apply innovative needed to implement effective community-based forest practices fire management practices Establish mechanisms to Once-off, then repeated Ensures that all institutions Identifies gaps and management (including and respond to wildfires ensure regular review of regularly are working together towards weaknesses in the current the use of sustainable policies and legislation as a common goal to sustain system, and sets out practices, as well as Lead agencies: MoA and MoE these evolve, to guarantee forest and natural resources a successful forest fire wildfire prevention and consistency and and promote efficient use of management strategy based suppression efforts) coherence as revisions resources on a clear, proactive policy Seek additional resources are made to respond to Prevents duplication of efforts Ensures that this policy can from international changed circumstances and so ensures effective be put into practice through partners and from the responses to any changed comprehensive and efficient private sector circumstances laws and regulations Ensures that best management practices are incorporated and effectively implemented Provide members of Continuous Strengthens governance Strengthens institutional and the Government Forest systems related to Sustainable technical capacities for the Lead agencies: MoA and DRM Mechanism with training Forest Management integrated management of Unit and capacity-building forest fires opportunities regarding forest governance and coordination 73 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 74 7.1.2 COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT IN SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT AND Table 5: Action required on community engagement WILDFIRE MITIGATION Frequency and Impact on forest Action Impact on fire mitigation Communities in Lebanon are represented by multiple stakeholders with diverse local influences, depending on the town arrangements sustainability or village dynamic, its regional location, and its sectarian context. Mainstream basic Continuous Reconnects residents with Combines traditional and new At the same time that forests are overexploited by communities and wildfires are threatening livelihoods, residents are faced with knowledge in sustainable forests knowledge, leading to more Lead agencies: Municipalities inefficient and dysfunctional public institutions. This is the result of years of political instability in governance. “Abandoned” to their forest management and effective understanding of the own fate, residents are taking the initiative—despite limited resources—to organize themselves and shift toward development and fire mitigation causes of wildfires and ways implementation of local solutions for forest protection and wildfire management. This is to ensure that local communities are able to to mitigate them Co-produce, with engaged improve their preparedness for wildfires, respond efficiently to local crises, and prevent wildfires. There are a few success stories local stakeholders, a set of local mobilization. Recent examples include the impact of the MoE National Fire Emergency Plan of 2022, which resulted in of digital forest videos that collaboration with local community groups around fire-risk-reduction activities. Such case studies should be documented and could teach basic, economical be readily scaled up, considering the Lebanon context and its limitations. This is especially important as diverse individual, economic, practices in sustainable and social-political factors mean that many communities are not yet engaged in forest and wildfire management. The catastrophic forest management fire events in Lebanon in recent years have highlighted just how vulnerable communities continue to be. They also foreground an and fire mitigation, and urgent need to understand the factors limiting community engagement and to replicate local successful initiatives. disseminate the videos through social media, schools, scouts, and local civil society groups Figure 31: Local community structure Establish a local volunteer Once-off, then repeated Ensures that more people are Ensures that more people are program regularly actively protecting the natural actively reducing the risk of resources in their area, leading wildfires and improving the Enroll, train, and involve Lead agencies: Municipalities to better forest management effectiveness of fire response Civil society residents and youth in and suppression efforts NGOs, club, associations, basic practices such as cooperative, Scouts, syndicates, clearing of herbaceous schools, etc. biomass near village residences and along paths Conduct a needs Regular assessments every Facilitates better understanding Allows for assessment of local Local authorities assessment to identify the year of the areas where training is knowledge and skills relating Municipalities Union, municipalities current knowledge and needed to forest fires management Lead agency: MoA skills of local communities regarding forest management Village residents landowners, entrepreneurs, educators, farmers, Organize an exchange Continuous Decentralizes knowledge, and Encourages peer-teaching Local community forest users (grazing, beekeeping, tourism, foraging), program, where Lead agency: Municipalities knowledge-sharing increases towards more fire-resilient expats, etc. communities can share Union local technical knowledge and communities stories and communicate capacity their experience in forest management practices and forest fire mitigation Religious groups, political parties Co-develop—with local Once-off, then updated as Encourages participation of Allows for better and regional experts and required local people in training pro- understanding of fire impact engaged stakeholders— grams by dovetailing training in relation to forest type, Lead agency: MoA Source: Khaled Taleb training materials relevant to their needs—this will have resulting in better planning to each forest type and a positive impact on planning and appropriate action community and their and application of forest needs management plans 75 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 76 Action Frequency and Impact on forest Impact on fire mitigation 7.2 Actions to improve data • Provide each institution with operational autonomy in relation to its specific data. arrangements sustainability and information access on • Collect geospatial data on socioeconomic activities in forest Develop community forest Once-off, then repeated/ Environmental impact: Prioritizes sustainable forest fires areas. management plans that updated as required Promotes protection/ practices that protect forests • Develop and update, on a regular basis, a localized and consider local needs, conservation of forests and from fire, reduce fire impacts, Lebanon’s forest landscapes are highly vulnerable to fires, interactive fire-prediction map. Lead agency: MoA priorities, and resources sustainable use of natural and ensure forests’ long-term and climate change will aggravate this situation. Currently, • Consider and assess the potential use of wireless sensors resources and services health data and information on fire risks, actual events, and post- networks. Economic impact: Increases fire activities, are fragmented and not readily accessible to all forests’ value and enhances relevant stakeholders. The development of an Integrated Forest • Incorporate field observations into forest fire damage- forest protection by creating Fire Information Management System (IFFMS) would provide a mapping. employment opportunities and common and accessible platform on fire data and information, • Identify, train, and include more stakeholders in data collection income for local people (through with the following considerations: (including communities); and forest-based enterprises such as eco-tourism, non-wood- • Consolidate all information systems sustained by the • Connect external systems into one main consolidated system. forest-product harvesting, and government under one server. so on) A road map, including terms of reference for the development of • Assign one government entity the responsibility of managing an IFFMS, was developed as part of the World Bank Technical the data and IT infrastructure. Assistance project and is available. Social impact: Involves communities in decision-making, so that they feel invested in and responsible for protecting and maintaining their local forest 7.3 Supporting industries for Despite these efforts, challenges to sustainable timber production in Lebanon remain. One of the main challenges Build a strong regional Once-off, then updated as Provides resources for Provides resources for value-addition of wood and is forest owners’ and managers’ inadequate understanding or awareness of sustainable forest management practices, and international required research, education, and research, education, and non-wood forest products including harvesting at sustainable levels. This has led to partnership program for training, and for implementing training; implementing new Lead agencies: MoA and MoE continued overexploitation of forest resources and degradation knowledge exchanges new, sustainable forest- forest fire management 7.3.1 WOOD PRODUCTION AND of forest ecosystems. There is also a pressing need to increase on forest and wildfire management practices practices; and responding management to wildfires FUELWOOD investment in the development of value chains for timber products, to increase their value and generate more income for Historically, wood production—particularly of cedar, fir, local communities. and pine tree species—has been an important economic 7.1.3 INVOLVEMENT OF PRIVATE LANDOWNERS activity in Lebanon. The wood of these species is highly valued for fuel and other purposes, for example in the construction Given the considerable proportion of forest landscapes under private ownership, it is imperative to devise strategies that and furniture-making industries. However, overexploitation and support private landowners’ interests in conserving forested land. Such strategies should involve positive and holistic approaches unsustainable management practices in the past have together that provide support at various levels—including information and training, financial incentives, and promotion and support of forest- led to a decline in the availability of these tree species. This has based entrepreneurship activities. It is worth noting that promoting the conservation and sustainable use of privately owned forests produced negative economic and environmental impacts and, is complicated in cases of absenteeism. In such situations, strategies should be devised to protect the community. Local authorities as a result, harvesting of cedar is now prohibited. should act by implementing local policies to ensure that abandoned forests do not become a liability to the community and that landowners are held accountable for the imminent threat of fire. In recent years, the Lebanese government and other stakeholders have been working to promote sustainable Such strategies (once-off, then updated as required, • Develop regional forest-management support for private timber production through various initiatives. One of the with the MoA and MoE as Lead Agencies) should: forest owners, so that they have all the necessary support key initiatives is the National Reforestation Strategy, which and knowledge to sustainably manage their forest and protect aims to increase forest cover and promote sustainable forest • Encourage the interaction and collaboration of the different it from fires. management practices. The strategy includes measures such forest owners, and strengthen the network of stakeholders involved in forest management, protection, and fire-risk • Promote the conservation and sustainable use of privately as tree planting, forest protection, and research into alternative management. owned forests through adequate strategies and national plans. timber species. In addition to the National Reforestation Strategy, other initiatives have been developed to promote sustainable • Develop positive and holistic approaches that offer support • Implement local policies to ensure that abandoned private timber production in Lebanon. These include the establishment at various levels, including information and training, financial forests do not become a liability and threaten the community, of forest-management plans and guidelines which outline the incentives, and promotion and support of forest-based and apply common protection measures to any area at risk. objectives and strategies for managing specific forest areas, entrepreneurship activities. • Develop monitoring tools to ensure the effectiveness of any and support licensing for wood harvesting. This ensures that • Consolidate and improve perceptions about risk within the whole measure taken regarding private forest ownership. timber products are produced in a socially and environmentally community, through the application of participatory approaches responsible manner (FAO and UNDP). (including the public, local authorities, and forest owners). © Freepik 77 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 78 Table 6: Action required on wood-based industries (wood production, fuelwood and charcoal) Despite the challenges, sustainable management of NWFPs Frequency and Impact on forest 7.3.2 NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS in Lebanon is crucial for their continued availability and for Action Impact on fire mitigation arrangements sustainability Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) are an important part the preservation of the country’s natural heritage. of Lebanon’s natural resource base and play a crucial A comprehensive strategy for the sustainable Feasibility analysis for Once-off, then updated as A sustainable wood-based Reduce fuel loads and role in supporting the livelihoods of rural communities. management of these resources should developing a sustainable required industry can ensure that forests promote forest protection and In Lebanon, these products include medicinal and aromatic include measures such as the wood-based industry are valued, and forest resources reforestation plants, laurels, pine nuts, carob products, and honey. NWFPs Lead agency: MoA promotion of sustainable harvesting are sustainably used in addition are essential for the local economy, as they provide an important practices, the regulation of to creating new income source of income for rural communities, particularly in areas trade, and the support of local resources where agriculture is challenging. NWFPs also contribute to the communities’ involvement in the preservation of Lebanon’s unique natural heritage and support management of forest resources. Provide training and Continuous Training and capacity-building Increase knowledge to reduce the country’s food security. These products are typically collected Additionally, awareness-raising capacity-building opportunities can ensure that fuel loads and promote forest and sold to local and international markets by rural communities, campaigns can help promote Lead agency: MoA opportunities for forest forests are valued and protected protection and reforestation generating income and employment opportunities. the value of NWFPs and the owners, managers, over the long term importance of their sustainable use and local communities, However, the unsustainable exploitation of NWFPs in for the benefit of both people and on sustainable forest Lebanon can lead to biodiversity loss and ecological the environment. management practices degradation. Overharvesting, particularly of medicinal and © Freepik aromatic plants, can lead to a decline in their populations and Addressing these challenges requires a loss of important genetic diversity. Additionally, the lack of comprehensive and coordinated action plan Strengthen the legal and Once-off, then updated as Help ensure the conservation Promote the establishment regulation and enforcement of laws related to the collection and that involves various stakeholders— including government regulatory framework required and sustainable management of firebreaks, early warning trade of NWFPs in Lebanon can lead to exploitation, particularly agencies, NGOs, the private sector, and local communities. for sustainable use of of forest resources and promote systems, and effective Lead agency: MoA of vulnerable communities. The absence of a comprehensive To address these challenges and to promote NWFPs in Lebanon, forests by the wood-based responsible and sustainable response mechanisms strategy for the sustainable management of NWFPs can also the following actions can be taken: industries sector, including timber production limit their potential benefits and contribute to the overexploitation the development of clear of these resources. policies and guidelines Develop a subsidized Once-off, then updated as Increase forests’ contribution Help reduce the risk of Table 7: Action required on non-wood forest products (NWFPs) distribution plan for required, with monitoring and to the national economy and wildfires through sustainable seedlings, and technical evaluation carbon sequestration, enhance management of the forest and assistance and financial control measures, and reduce creation of fuel breaks Frequency and Impact on forest Lead agency: MoA Action Impact on fire mitigation arrangements sustainability incentives to encourage illegal cutting municipalities, farmers, and private landowners to Generate awareness Once-off, then updated/ Increases forest value and Creates a culture of respect plant more trees dedicated of the importance of repeated as required improves livelihoods, while for the forest and its for wood and fuelwood on NWFPs and their role in promoting sustainable resources, which can reduce Lead agency: MoA their properties forest sustainability, by harvesting of NWFPs, thereby the incidence of accidental or publishing harvesting helping to ensure long-term intentional fires guides, organizing sustainability of the forest Build on community forest Once-off, then updated as Ensure that forests outside Improve integration of fire training sessions for ecosystem management plans and required, with monitoring and protected areas are managed mitigation measures into the local communities and develop forest operational evaluation sustainably and any activity is forest management plan collectors, and expanding management plans based on sustainable criteria licensing programs to Lead agency: MoA for all forests outside different NWFP species protected areas, including sustainable harvesting levels and fire mitigation Conduct a feasibility Once-off, then updated as Increases forest value and Develops new income sources measures analysis for updating and required improves livelihoods, while from NWFPs, which can help developing new value promoting sustainable use of local communities to mitigate Lead agency: MoA chains for NWFPs NWFPs forest fire Provide financial and Continuous Enhance forest management Improve forest management technical support to and wood production to facilitate fire reduction and Lead agency: MoA small-scale, wood-based- mitigation industry entrepreneurs, to Launch local initiatives Continuous Creates an economic incentive Generates revenues for adopt sustainable forest- related to NWFPs, such to conserve and restore forests, municipalities to enhance Lead agencies: Municipalities management practices and as community gardens and promote the sustainable their capacity for forest fire improve their productivity and farmers’ markets use of NWFPs mitigation and profitability 79 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 80 Addressing these challenges requires a concerted effort from the government, local communities, and nature-based tourism Frequency and Impact on forest operators. This includes developing and implementing sustainable nature-based tourism strategies and practices, investing in Action Impact on fire mitigation arrangements sustainability infrastructure, increasing public awareness and education, and promoting conservation and climate-change mitigation measures. Develop a national and Once-off, then updated as Creates economic opportunities Promotes the use of NWFPs, Table 8: Action required on nature-based tourism international market required, with monitoring and for forest products and which can reduce the strategy for NWFPs evaluation promotes sustainable harvesting accumulation of combustible Lead agency: MoA practices materials and the risk of Frequency and Impact on forest Action Impact on fire mitigation forest fires arrangements sustainability Establish seed banks and Once-off, with follow-up and Promotes the conservation Reduces the demand for wood Develop campsites, Continuous Reduces impact on the forest, Reduces the risk of forest fires nurseries for NWFPs, to continuous maintenance and restoration of forest and charcoal as fuel sources, lodges, and other which means less disruption spreading, as eco-friendly Lead agencies Individuals/ preserve and propagate ecosystems through the thereby reducing the risk of accommodation options to the ecosystem, helping to accommodation often also Lead agencies: MoA and entrepreneurs plant species propagation of NWFPs forest fires caused by human that are eco-friendly and preserve the forest and its incorporates fire-resistant the Lebanese Agricultural sustainable biodiversity materials and design features activities Research Institute (LARI) Reduces the need to harvest new resources, as eco-friendly Identify priorities and Continuous Provides a scientific basis Encourages research accommodation typically uses invest in research for policy development and related to fire prevention and Lead agencies: LARI and sustainable materials (such as related to NWFPs, promotes sustainable practices management Universities reclaimed wood or recycled such as management materials) strategies that consider their ecological role and economic potential Spread the word: Visitors Continuous Increases forests’ value and Increases public awareness, who have had positive improves livelihoods, as well which can help to protect and Lead agency: MoT experiences in the as encouraging sustainable preserve forest ecosystems Expand policies that Once-off, then updated as Promotes the sustainable use Reduces the accumulation forest can share their harvesting of NWFPs and support the sustainable required, with monitoring and and conservation of NWFPs, of combustible materials experiences with others thereby promoting long-term use and conservation evaluation which can promote long-term through sustainable harvesting and encourage them to sustainability of the forest of NWFPs, such as sustaina-bility practices, and discourages the Lead agency: MoA visit ecosystem promoting the certification intentional or accidental use of sustainably harvested of fire in forest management NWFP and creating practices Set guidelines for tourism- Once-off, then updated as Improves understanding of the Improved nature-based incentives for their related infrastructure such required current infrastructure and how to tourism infrastructure means production and use as trails, visitor centers, identify areas for improvement better access to remote areas Lead agency: MoT and rest areas in forest without affecting forests to aid firefighting efforts, while landscapes, and organize information on fire safety and training to support designated areas for activities 7.4 Supporting nature-based provides the necessary incentive schemes in terms of access and hospitality jobs to encourage rural dwellers to retain the responsible tourism and provide information that pose a fire risk can help reduce the risk of forest tourism naturalness of their lands. Nature-based tourism provides an to visitors about forest wildfires opportunity to experience the local culture and traditional ways conservation Nature-based tourism is a significant contributor to of life of the communities living in and around the forests. the country’s tourism industry and economy. Lebanon’s Conduct local municipal Once-off, then updated/ Nature-based tourism Visitor education on fire safety forest landscapes are home to diverse wildlife and vegetation, On the other hand, nature-based tourism is limited by lack planning of nature-based repeated as required activities can provide and nature-based tourism making them an ideal destination for eco-tourists seeking to of infrastructure, such as proper roads, paths, and signage, tourism activities that economic incentives for forest activities can help reduce the which can deter tourists from visiting Lebanon’s forests. Lead agency: MoT explore and appreciate nature. The forests provide a range showcase the forest’s conservation and promote risk of forest wildfires of activities, including hiking, camping, birdwatching, and Insufficient planning and management can result in overuse natural beauty and responsible land use nature photography. and damage to the natural resources of the forests, leading biodiversity (such as to degradation and negatively impacting the tourism industry. guided hikes, Nature-based tourism has the potential to contribute Climate change is also a significant challenge, as it affects wildlife watching, and to local economies and provide local job opportunities. forest biodiversity, habitats, and landscapes. Additionally, the educational tours) and However, access to natural and forest landscapes by tourists lack of awareness of the value and importance of nature-based develop an interactive and tour operators rarely benefits rural landowners and tourism limits the industry’s potential growth and impact. Despite crowdsourcing app. communities. Instead, the primary beneficiaries are city-based the challenges, nature-based tourism in Lebanon’s forests operators. It is imperative that access to natural landscapes and remains a promising industry that can generate significant forests recognizes local ownership of these landscapes and benefits for the environment, economy, and local communities, if managed sustainably. 81 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 82 Frequency and Impact on forest 7.5 Supporting forest ecosystem restoration to reduce Action arrangements sustainability Impact on fire mitigation fragmentation and fire risks Forest ecosystem restoration can yield multiple benefits, by conserving biodiversity, supporting climate resilience Initiate “voluntourism” Continuous Promotes forest health and Reduces the fuel load in and carbon sequestration, and reducing fire risks by restoring degraded forests to their more natural state. This is of forest management thereby reduce the risk of forests and therefore the risk Lead agencies: NGOs particular importance for Lebanon, as forests are highly fragmented and degraded. Reducing fire risks can also positively impact the practices, such as thinning wildfires of wildfires socioeconomic fabric of Lebanon’s rural landscapes, and thereby strengthen local communities. Measures to prevent catastrophic and pruning, to reduce fires include increasing community awareness of the immense value of Lebanon’s forest landscapes. the risk of wildfires and promote forest health Lebanon’s National Forest Program (NFP) 2015–2025 supports the restoration of degraded lands and the increase of forest cover to meet the ecological, social, and economic needs of sustainable forest management. The implementation of the NFP requires dedicated resources, institutional capacities, and the collaboration of various state and non-state actors. Develop tour operators’ Continuous Protects natural resources from Helps to prevent forest fires capacity to prevent depletion and degradation, and caused by human agency Lead agency: MoE visitors from overusing helps to reduce the impact of Table 9: Action required on nature-based tourism or damaging natural tourism on forests resources, and promote Frequency and Impact on forest sustainable tourism Action Impact on fire mitigation arrangements sustainability practices Develop and prioritize Once-off, then updated/ Environmental impact: Introduces fire-prevention actions to reduce forest repeated as required • Prioritizes restoration actions to measures in fire hotspots Support local communities Continuous Encourages the involvement Involves local communities fragmentation and fire risks reduce forest fragmentation and Lead agencies: MoA and MoE Undertakes forest restoration by providing training, of local communities in the in training and helps create reverse land degradation Lead agency: MoE efforts as agreed in the NFP • Incentivizes private landowners and create employment conservation of natural awareness about fire safety 2015–2025 and the 2023 to proactively manage forest opportunities related to resources and sustainable measures and the importance National Forest Fire Emergency, and trees on their properties forest activities (such as forest management of fire prevention to help reduce the risk of • Supports forest operational organized hiking trails and wildfires plans that encourage birdwatching) restoration efforts with endemic, climate-resilient species Economic impact: Develop marketing Continuous Promotes responsible tourism May indirectly reduce the risk Increases forests’ value and materials that highlight the practices and encourages of forest fires by promoting enhances forest protection Lead agencies: MoT and MoE unique natural and cultural visitors to appreciate the natural responsible behavior Social impact: features of the forests beauty of forests without Empowers local communities to causing harm manage public forest landscapes, based on an agreed management plan, so that they have a vested interest in protecting and Promote collaborative Continuous Collaborative partnerships Collaborative partnerships maintaining their local forest partnerships between can help protect and preserve can lead to more effective Lead agencies: MoA and local communities forest ecosystems for future fire prevention and municipalities with conservation generations management measures organizations and Design and operate the Once-off, then updated/ Encourages restoration efforts by Contributes to wildfire National Forest Monitoring repeated as required offering guidelines for sustainable prevention by: government agencies, to System (NFMS) harvesting levels for wood and encourage sustainable Lead agency: MoA Providing technical guidance NWFPs (that is, annual allowable land use and protect forest and institutional/capacity cutting and harvesting levels) support to the institutional eco-systems Monitors deforestation and forest setups at subnational and local degradation regularly levels Upscales forest restoration • Coordinating the collection of Develop a nature-based Once-off, then updated/ Provides a framework for Fire safety regulations efforts, as agreed in the NFP subnational-level information tourism strategy and repeated as required developing sustainable nature- can help reduce the risk of 2015–2025 and the 2023 • Upscaling forest restoration action plan, including based tourism opportunities forest wildfires National Forest Fire Emergency efforts, as agreed in the Lead agency: MoT regulations based on responsible land use Management Plan NFP 2015–2025 and the and forest conservation 2023 National Forest Fire Emergency Management Plan 83 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 84 References Abi-Saleh, B. and S. 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Stuttgart: Fischer. © Adobe Stock 89 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 90 Annex 2: Examples of Lebanese environmental NGOs and NGO Name Field of Activity Achievements their field of activity (State of the Environment Report 2020) Jouzour Loubnan Participates in the restoration of Designed and launched eight consecutive national awareness (established 2008) Lebanese woodland campaigns NGO Name Field of Activity Achievements www.jouzourloubnan.org/ Promotes sustainable forestation Planted more than 350,000 native trees in more than 20 areas in arid regions across Lebanon Association for Forests Promotes community-based CoM approved a MoU between MoE and AFDC to develop Created a seed bank lab Development and forest management and and implement an action plan for forest fire prevention and Conservation (AFDC) conservation, including fire landscape restoration (Decision 138 dated 2007/10/27) (established 1995) prevention Lebanon Mountain Trail Develops, maintains, and Prepared and updated a complete set of communication Working in collaboration with the IUCN, in May 2009 AFDC www.afdc.org.lb/ Raises awareness and builds released the long-awaited Lebanon’s National Strategy for Association (LMTA) promotes the Lebanon Mountain material, including brochures and maps capacity in support of national Forest Fire Management: Building Partnerships (established 2007) Trail, a 440-kilometer path that Attracts more than 30,000 visitors on the trail every year efforts to improve environmental crosses 75 towns and villages In 2019, AFDC—in collaboration with MoA, MoE, UNCCD, www.lebanontrail.org Organizes an annual walk-through spanning 30 days management Protects the natural, cultural, UNEP, UNDP, the LDN Global Mechanism, the GEF and and architectural heritage and Co-sponsored the production of a coffee-table book, A Million the IUCN—published the Integration of Lebanon’s Land landmarks near the trail Steps Degradation Targets within the National Action Program (NAP) to Combat Desertification Enhances economic opportunities Organizes training for local guides by promoting responsible tourism Lobbies MoT for recognition of local guesthouses and MoE for Association pour la Promotes protection and Active since 1962 in the restoration and rehabilitation of protection of trail corridor Protection des restoration of ancient buildings traditional Lebanese houses (historical façades), old souks, Sites et An-ciennes that carry historical khans, and old streets (Jbeil, Jounieh, Bikfaya, Zouk Mikhael, De-meures au Liban and/or unique architectural value Deir El Kamar) Lebanon Reforestation Preserves and manages forests Projects include the ecological rehabilitation as part of the (APSAD) (established Initiative (LRI) by supporting local governments Sustainable Land Management in the Qaraoun Catchment Lobbies for promulgating laws Lobbied for protecting a historical building in Sodeco (Beirut) 1960) (established 2011) and communities (SLMQ) (Bekaa), the Forest and Landscape Restoration and regulations protecting and converting it into a museum (Beit Beirut) Mecnamism to combat land degradation, as well as various www.apsad.net architectural heritage www.lri-lb.org reforestation activities all over the territory (Bakka, Mchaa’ Keserwan, Sfireh, Taran, Btormaz, Yammouneh, Dahr El Ahmar, Mdoukha) Friends of the Cedars Charged by the MoT to oversee The organization manages its own plant nursery (located of Bsharre Committee and manage the ancient cedar in Bcharre) and transplants approximately 12,000–10,000 (established 1986) grove of Bcharre (Arz el Rab, a seedlings per year, mostly cedars, to restore the cedar mantle Mada (established 2000) Reinforces the relationship In 2006, Mada defined a pilot zone (about 270 square World Heritage Site) overlooking Qadisha Valley between local communities and kilometers) stretching from Brissa to Qbaiyat, and signed www.cedarfriends.org www.Mada.org.lb Implements increasingly larger their natural environment for the cooperation protocols with the municipalities of Qbaiyat, Hrar, and bolder reforestation activities satisfaction of their subsistence Michmich, and Fnaideq to formulate a regional action plan to in the area of Bcharre needs, especially in Aakkar, promote and enhance the natural resources of the area Donnieh and Hermel The organization also conducted studies on flora and avifauna Friends of Nature Works on the protection of the Pioneered nature conservation prior to the Convention on and will soon extend them to fauna (established 1972) natural heritage of Lebanon in Biological Diversity in the creation of the first two nature The proposed national park is today embedded in the all its aspects, from research reserves through community engagement and precedent- NPMPLT (Decree 2366 dated 2009/06/20), along with six https://f-o-n.org/ to implementation, through setting legislation others developing and executing a diversity of tools: Provided the preambles and documentation for the creation i) conserves assets and of the Ministry of Environment and supported its continued Society for the Protection Dedicated to causes that protect SPNL advocated the establishment of protected areas and the landscapes status as a separate ministry of Nature in Lebanon species, conserve sites, improve Hima community-based conservation approach that has been ii) reduces threats (SPNL) (established lives, educate the youth, and prevalent in the Arabic region for more than 1,500 years iii) spreads awareness and Supported the establishment of many sister NGOs, protected 1983) unite people around the HIMA As a member of the World Conservation Union (IUCN), SPNL advocacy many forests and landscapes from fires, garbage, infestations, www.spnl.org/ has helped develop the first biodiversity project in Lebanon, iv) engages youth and logging, quarrying, and other threats known as the Protected Areas Project communities v) promotes nature-based tourism Established an archetypal artificial reef garden for marine SPNL has established the Environment Information Center and rural development ecosystem restoration (EIC) that serves as a key resource for the provision of environmental information to students, teachers, and Fosters in-situ conservation of endemic plants researchers in this field 91 Lebanon Forest Note Reducing Wildfire Risk through Sustainable Forest Management 92