Engendering Access to STEM Education and Careers in South Asia January 2023 Education South Asia Region This work is a product of the staff of the World Bank with external contributions. The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of the World Bank, its Board of Executive Directors, or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in the work. Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... 4 Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 5 What Kind of STEM Interventions Does South Asia Need? .......................................................... 8 1. The Gender Dimension—and Challenge—of Access to STEM Education and Careers .......... 9 Highlights of the Literature on Gender and STEM........................................................................ 10 This Report’s Focus and Goals ...................................................................................................... 13 2. Defining STEM in School and Life ............................................................................................ 16 3. STEM Trends, Globally and in South Asia................................................................................ 18 Primary Education ......................................................................................................................... 18 Lower Secondary Education ......................................................................................................... 21 Upper Secondary Education ......................................................................................................... 25 Tertiary Education ......................................................................................................................... 29 Technical and Vocational Education and Training ........................................................................ 30 University Education ..................................................................................................................... 31 The Global STEM Labor Market .................................................................................................... 33 The South Asian STEM Labor Market ........................................................................................... 34 4. KEY OBSERVATIONS FROM SOUTH ASIA ................................................................................. 38 Primary and Secondary Education ................................................................................................ 38 Technical and Vocational Education and Training ........................................................................ 38 University Education ..................................................................................................................... 38 The Labor Market.......................................................................................................................... 39 5. THE LEAKY PIPELINE ................................................................................................................. 42 6. POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS FOR SOUTH ASIA ....................................................................... 44 Stakeholder Interventions ............................................................................................................ 44 Government Interventions ........................................................................................................... 47 7. Considerations for Regional Integration.................................................................................... 53 To advance these goals, South Asian countries could host workshops with scientists and innovators to lead discussions and inspire collective action on green jobs and development; strengthen national research and education networks, finance STEM research, and foster the exchange of expertise across education institutions; target scholarships to help and encourage girls and women remain focused on STEM education in secondary education and beyond; strengthen outreach by the WePOWER initiative to harness the benefits of collective action, and consider similar initiatives in areas such as technology; and invest in cross-border trade. . 54 2 All in School. 2019. “Overview of Out-of-School Children in 2019.” New York. https://www.allinschool.org/news-and-stories/overview-of-out-of-school-children-in- 2019. ..................................................................................................................................... 55 Boxes 1. The South Asia WePOWER Network: A Success Story……………………………………………………………… 10 2. Education Influence on Women Passing STEM………………………………………………………………………… 11 3. Gender Bias in Textbooks………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 12 Figures A. A Multidimensional Framework for Increasing Access to STEM Education and Careers in South Asia……… 15 1. Gross enrollment in primary education in South Asia……………………………………………………………… 20 2. Gross enrollment in primary school, Gender Parity Index (GPI)……………………………………………….. 21 3. Net Attendance Percentage in Primary Education (Rural vs Urban)…………………………………………. 21 4. TIMSS Grade 4 Mathematics Achievement.…………………………………………………………………………….. 22 5. Gender Disaggregated Out-of-school children in Primary and Lower Secondary Education in South Asia (%).……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 23 6. School Enrollment in Primary and Secondary in South Asia (% Gross).……………………………………. 24 7. 2019 TIMSS Grade 8 Science Achievement.……………………………………………………………………………. 25 8. Gender differences in expected careers.………………………………………………………………………………… 27 9. Share of women among all 25-64 years old with at least a bachelor’s or equivalent degree in education (in percent).…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 32 10. 10a. Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15-64).………………………… 39 10b. Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population ages 15-64)...………………… 39 11. Employment Status by Academic Stream.………………………………………………………………………………. 42 12. The leaky pipeline in Bhutan.………………………………………………………………………………………………..… 46 Tables 1. Gross Enrollment Ratios worldwide in selected countries and in the South Asia Region...………. 20 2. Net Enrollment Ratios worldwide, and in the South Asia Region...………………………………………….. 24 3. Secondary School Enrollment, Global (% Net).………………………………………………………………………… 27 4. Normalized Education Data in the South Asia Region.…………………………………………………………….. 29 5. Global University enrollments in STEM disciplines.…………………………………………………………………. 33 6. United States Engineering Bachelor’s level Graduates by discipline.……………………………………….. 33 7. 7a. South Asia regional mobility in higher education: Inflow.………………………………………………….. 37 7b. South Asia regional mobility in higher education: Outflow.……………………………………………..… 37 8. Labor Force Participation Rates in South Asia………………………………………………………………………….. 39 9. India and Sri Lanka female labor force participation (%).…………………………………………………………. 39 10. Key socioeconomic reasons why girls and women are unable to pursue STEM related upper secondary, TVET and/or University education and careers.…………………………………………………….. 44 11. 11a. Gender disaggregated data on STEM education in Bhutan.……………………………………………… 47 11b. Gender disaggregated data on STEM careers in Bhutan requiring Bachelor’s Degree.…….. 47 12. Recommendations by Typology of Education level by Country to Engender Girls and Women to Pursue STEM Education and Careers …………………………………………………………………………………. 54 3 Acknowledgments This report corresponds with the South Asia Regional Study South Asia Human Capital Analysis (AA-P175865-ASA-BB). This report is based on collaboration between the South Asia Region Education Team and the South Asia Region Social Development WePower Team. The authors— Shobhana Sosale, Graham Mark Harrison, Namrata Tognatta Raman, Shiro Nakata, and Priyal Mukesh Gala extend special thanks to the WePOWER team--Maria Beatriz Orlando, Gunjan Gautam, Pranav Vaidya, and Yukari Shibuya for their helpful comments and inputs at different stages of preparation. The team is grateful to Lynne Sherburne-Benz and Cristian Aedo for guidance during the preparation of the report. The authors thank peer reviewers for their review and useful comments, including Anna Fruttero and Yoko Nagashima. The authors thank the experts from the South Asia Region who prepared background Country Notes. Specifically, for Afghanistan—Sohaila Isaqzai and Shakirullah Shakir; for Bangladesh--Kazi Nasrin Siddiqa; for Bhutan--Manju Giri; for India--Vimala Ramachandran and Tanu Shukla; for Maldives—Waleeda Mohamed; for Nepal--Arun Joshi and Ruzel Shrestha; for Pakistan--Fatimah Ihsan and Laila Ashraf; and for Sri Lanka--Shalika Subasinghe and Shobhana Sosale. Paul Holtz (Next Partners) edited the report. 4 Engendering Access to STEM Education and Careers in South Asia Executive Summary Globally, about 80 percent of men and more than half of women are in the workforce. Countries with larger shares of workers trained in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) grow faster and advance more quickly, enabling opportunities for and benefiting all members of society. Countries that invest in STEM education and skills expand talents that contribute to social, economic, and technological advancements, facilitating growth and supporting progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals. STEM investments also pay rich dividends to countries at every stage of development. For South Asian countries—Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—a foundation is enhancing the education and skills of girls and boys and expanding STEM opportunities for women and men entering the workforce. For many reasons, policymakers should care about STEM education for girls and women. Societies that understand STEM-related topics—such as climate change, clean water, and sustainability—are better able to respond to global challenges. Inclusive economic growth makes countries more likely to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. To realize their potential, countries must make available and pursue opportunities for as many of their people as possible. And governments and their development partners should strengthen STEM education and advance women’s participation in the workforce. That said, it is also imperative that STEM stakeholders—a diverse group from the public and private sectors—build a culture of inclusion and diversity to foster women’s advancement in STEM. STEM skills and experiences, coupled with a diversity of perspectives, are integral to building South Asia’s STEM workforce in research and in developing new products and ideas. Thus, inclusion and diversity must be championed by governments and by STEM stakeholders that stand to benefit from more diverse workforces. Though women themselves would likely be credible champions, in South Asia they are often constrained by a range of factors. This report addresses those factors. Focus and Goals of This Study This report aims to improve understanding of the barriers to and ultimately address the gender segregation in access to and participation in STEM in South Asia. To that end, it applies a hybrid multidimensional framework to help explain the motivations for access to STEM education. This framework is used to assess how South Asian countries fare on access to STEM education, identify gaps, and offer recommendations on how access challenges can be addressed. Of note are the multidimensional elements and influencers: • The key elements affecting learners are language and spatial skills, self-efficacy, self-perception, stereotypes and STEM identities, interest, engagement, motivation, and enjoyment. • The role of family and peers combines peer relations, parental beliefs and expectations, household assets and support, and family characteristics. • The role of schools combines psychological factors linked to assessments, STEM equipment, materials, and resources, student interactions, teacher-student interactions, teacher perceptions, female teachers, teaching quality and subject expertise, teaching strategies, textbooks and learning materials, and assessment procedures and tools. 5 • The role of society combines equal pay legislation, gender equality policies and laws, mass and social media, sex-disaggregated data for policymaking, societal and cultural norms, gender equality, and inclusive gender norms. The methodology first considers the participation and performance of females in STEM subjects in primary, secondary, and tertiary education, including technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Female participation in the labor force is then reviewed, with a focus on STEM careers. The framework and a situational analysis of access to STEM education in South Asia are summarized. It is envisaged that applying the multidimensional framework and status analysis will help initiate dialogue among South Asian countries to explore areas for collaboration and potential investments in this important area. The report also highlights growth in STEM sectors as part of the transition to green economies and identifies options for improving the representation of women in these sectors. The World Bank proposes that countries follow six “adaptation principles” to build resilience to climate change. Four are directly relevant to STEM education: • Principle 1: Facilitating adaptation by people and firms, to embed support for innovation and access to technology. • Principle 3: Helping firms and people manage residual risks and natural disasters. • Principle 5: Prioritization, implementation, and progress monitoring. • Principle 6: Building resilient foundations with rapid, inclusive development. Increasing access to education and opportunities for girls and women is among the most critical issues to consider in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals. Such education and opportunities are essential foundations on which countries can strengthen society and address other challenges identified by the goals, including good health and well-being and decent work and economic growth. Interventions can be tailored to local audiences and circumstances and to individual firms, nonprofits, nongovernmental organizations, and governments. Regardless of the types of STEM stakeholders, a foundation is the education and skilling of students—and the STEM opportunities made available to women and men entering the workforce. This report recognizes the importance of healthcare workers. But its focus is on other STEM professions— such as engineering and information technology—where women are underrepresented. The report delves into the performance and records of countries in South Asia. Within the region there are success stories, as well as some common and some specific challenges. Drawing on available data on STEM participation in the region, the report draws conclusions and offers recommendations for actions that might encourage more girls and women in South Asia to pursue STEM education and careers—while at the same time strengthening societies. Education’s Evolution—and Stagnation Around the world, significant advances have been made in increasing access to education. Yet many challenges remain in offering quality education to all children and imparting the skills needed at all levels of education systems. To fully benefit from the advances that STEM can bring, it must represent all of society. Diversity in genders, backgrounds, perspectives, and countries of origin is a strength in STEM, and in the concepts, ideas, products, and solutions that scientific and technological knowledge deliver to society. Yet globally, including in South Asia: 6 • Girls—especially poorer, rural ones—are underrepresented in science programs in secondary schools. • Young women are not engaged in most technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs and in most STEM disciplines in tertiary education. • A lower share of female STEM graduates work in STEM jobs. • Women often do not hold senior positions in STEM industries. Girls and women lose their potential for STEM talent in education systems and labor markets if they are not nurtured in STEM subjects from a young age. Primary and secondary education must provide the foundations for children to participate in and contribute to society. A critical component of that education is STEM, where girls’ participation and continuation rates fall with age and education in South Asia and around the world. This “leaky pipeline” results in girls and women showing increasing disengagement with STEM in secondary and postsecondary education—and ultimately in jobs and careers. As a result there is less diversity in perspectives and insights that drive technical progress and economic development. In South Asia the main leaks in the pipeline for females occur in: • Not enrolling in science in upper secondary education. • Not entering STEM programs in postsecondary education: about three-quarters of STEM students are male. And among the remaining quarter, 70 percent of female undergraduate STEM students are in health sciences. • Not joining the workforce. In many South Asian countries women’s labor force participation is much lower than men’s. Moreover, educated women are more likely to be unemployed. Participation in Education by South Asian Girls and Women South Asian girls and women face challenges in pursuing STEM at all levels of education. Though the region has made great advances on enrollments, secondary enrollments and learning achievements lag those of leading economies. And by the time they reach upper secondary education, male and female students have different perceptions of STEM careers—though such perceptions form much earlier. The transition to upper secondary school might be the biggest indicator of the gender gap in STEM. Though this transition might not reflect the different attitudes toward STEM among boys and girls—and their parents—it is because specific tracks for STEM, arts, and commerce become available only at this point. Thus the data clearly show when girls are underrepresented in STEM subjects. Accordingly, this demarcation point is not when interventions should be targeted since attitudes are already set. Instead, STEM education interventions need to happen much earlier, in primary education. The report presents data and analysis by level of education, highlighting the significant variations in the national enrollment data. Also presented are country examples of interventions to address the challenges. A key finding is that female students do well in STEM studies around the world and in South Asia. But their participation progressively declines through the levels of education, especially from upper secondary education onward—the “leaky pipeline.” Gender disparities prevail in labor force participation. Women’s participation rates in STEM careers are low in South Asia whereas men’s are much like that globally. Unemployment rates also provide insights into the labor market for women and those with more advanced qualifications. Unemployment exacerbates the underrepresentation of women in the workforce, including in STEM disciplines. The underrepresentation 7 of women in the labor force, especially highly educated women, exacerbates the STEM “leaky pipeline” observed in education. What Kind of STEM Interventions Does South Asia Need? As access to all levels of education increases in South Asia—especially for females—the expectation is that more women will enter the workforce. Specifically, more women are expected to pursue jobs and careers that require more advanced skills, including those associated with STEM, and to advance to leadership positions in the STEM workplace. But that will take time. And policy interventions and cultural shifts will be needed to bring greater balance to gender representation in STEM and other career fields. The report outlines the types of interventions to limit attrition in STEM subjects as girls and young women choose their education, careers, and personal life paths. It shows how interventions can be pursued by engaging stakeholders that support inclusion in STEM, whether in a specific country or in all of South Asia and offers recommendations that can be adapted to any aspect of STEM or by any interested stakeholder. For example, South Asia’s WePOWER initiative has a diverse network of public and private stakeholders and emphasizes locally driven initiatives. Some interventions will require the full engagement of governments. Though these interventions might be larger in scope and demand fuller policy discussions, they can build on stakeholder interventions, evidence from actions by stakeholders, and global good practices. This report provides potential investment options for South Asia. The priority placed on these options will vary by countries’ aspirations, development levels, ability to invest (whether through public or private financing), capacity to secure financing from development partners, and commitment to promoting girls’ and women’s STEM education and careers. To be more effective, interventions should be combined. For instance, STEM and tertiary education outreach should always be combined with supporting women in STEM. The report also provides recommendations for consideration in the key aspects of the hybrid multidimensional model applicable to South Asia in secondary education, technical and vocational education and training (TVET), and higher education—specifically, on gender stereotyping, role models, and trained teachers. The report concludes with considerations to foster regional integration, outlining goals based on observed collaborations and interventions in South Asia between partners, and considerations to advance the goals. 8 Engendering Access to STEM Education and Careers in South Asia 1. The Gender Dimension—and Challenge—of Access to STEM Education and Careers To fully benefit from the advances that science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) can bring to socioeconomic development, STEM fields must be inclusive and fully represent all of society. Diversity—in genders, backgrounds, perspectives, countries of origin—is a strength in STEM and in the concepts, ideas, products, and solutions that scientific and technological knowledge bring to society. Yet: • Girls are generally underrepresented in science education in secondary schools. • Young women are significantly underrepresented in most technical and vocational education and training (TVET) programs—and in most STEM disciplines in tertiary education. • Women are underrepresented in the STEM workforce. • Women are underrepresented in senior positions in STEM industries and organizations. 1 The above apply to girls and women everywhere and often to other groups including rural residents and poorer people. Also, South Asian women are generally underrepresented in the workforce and specifically in STEM as in other parts of the world. Performance differences in STEM education at primary and lower secondary school levels have implications for girls’ enrollment in upper secondary school, STEM education at the TVET and university levels, and the transition from school to work. Social norms also play a major role in influencing the types of programs open to girls, directly affecting their labor market choices and options and likelihood of engaging in nontraditional technical jobs and academic careers. That said, digital developments have opened doors for acquiring new skills and gender-neutral jobs. STEM education could produce a new workforce with the tools and knowledge needed to harness innovative solutions to development, growth, and climate change problems. STEM education provides a bedrock for deploying renewable energy, for new green jobs, and for climate-sensitive solutions. This report is intended for policymakers and development partners to consider the importance of investing in STEM education and to influence thinking about the importance of preparing larger, better-skilled workforces around the world. As part of a new research and policy work, the World Bank’s South Asia Region Education Global Practice and WePOWER South Asia Gender and Energy Facility II (SAGE II) collaborated to examine how access to and choice on STEM affect enrollments in upper secondary, TVET, and higher education in South Asia. The goal is to improve access to and participation in STEM programs and careers. Previous work by WePOWER SAGE indicates systematic underrepresentation more broadly, but specifically among girls in STEM education and careers (box 1.1). This shortfall is due to factors such as education experiences in school, choices embedded in social norms, teacher behaviors, parents’ expectations, information asymmetries, institutional and structural barriers, and so on. 1 UNESCO (2017). 9 Box 1.1 South Asia’s WePOWER Network: A Success Story Launched in 2018, the WePOWER Network in South Asia aimed to promote women in the energy and power sector in the eight South Asian countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. WePOWER has two main goals: supporting workforce participation by women in energy projects and institutions, and promoting normative change for women and girls in STEM education. WePOWER has grown exponentially since its creation, having completed more than 1,400 gender activities impacting over 28,000 female professionals and students and securing 28 partners by the end of 2021. With a network comprising a diverse group of public and private stakeholders and an emphasis on locally driven initiatives, WePOWER’s impressive reach has led to tangible results such as the hiring of 328 women through job fairs, career counseling, mentorship programs, and the like; recruitment of 690 interns and enrollment of 652 female students in study tours; and participation of 11,156 female professionals in workshops and training sessions. It has also led to infrastructure enhancements, with more than 200 women- friendly facilities built and services provided. To promote retention, workshops and seminars for returning mothers are also an important focus area for WePOWER. Source: www.wepowernetwork.org. Please explore for the latest updates. Gender and STEM is not a new topic—a wealth of resources provide detailed data for specific countries and globally. One reason is that growth in STEM professionals in a country correlates with societal advancement and economic growth. 2 Giving all segments of society the opportunity to pursue a quality STEM education strengthens human capital and broadens the pool of potential STEM professionals. By investing in STEM education and skills, a country expands the range of talents that contribute to technological, economic, and societal advancements that facilitate growth and supports progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals. In recent years inclusivity coupled with a diversity of perspectives, experiences, and skills have become seen as integral to STEM workforces engaged in research and in conceiving and developing new products and ideas. Thus, inclusion and diversity must be championed not just by women and governments, but by the STEM sectors that stand to gain from a more diverse workforce. Highlights of the Literature on Gender and STEM A vast literature exists on gender and STEM in both academic and nonacademic settings. Though women have achieved parity in life sciences in many countries, they still trail men in engineering and computer 2 See EIGE (2022) for analysis of this correlation in the European Union. 10 science. 3 South Asia is lowest among all regions, with women accounting for just 17 percent of researchers. 4 But there is variation across STEM subjects. Women tend to be more concentrated in subjects like biology and chemistry than in computer science, engineering, and physics. Though most of the literature has focused on Europe and the United States, the findings are still relevant to South Asia. Decades of research and hundreds of journal articles on engineering, sociology, psychology, economics, and business highlight the diverse interest in the topic. Various themes have emerged to explain both the low numbers of women studying engineering and the low number staying in the profession. Achievement gaps are slowly narrowing. But despite having ability and appropriate academic preparation, women are less likely to pursue education pathways that lead to engineering degrees. The cultural biases and structural barriers that divert young women from pursuing engineering (and other STEM fields) begin in early childhood. And engineering workplaces, both in industry and academia, inhibit participation by female engineers. Indeed, cultural biases and underrepresentation of women—leading to a lack of role models—are the main obstacles hindering the advancement of girls and women in these fields. 5 Sex has no influence on academic ability, including in STEM subjects. Early interventions are essential to cultivate children’s interest in STEM. Yet many social, familial, and developmental behaviors—among children as well as adults—do the opposite, resulting in gendered differences in interests. Consider the early emergence of stereotypical beliefs about math, science, and engineering among children, or the ways that adults (consciously or unconsciously) contribute to and reinforce the development of these differences. A lot of research has examined why few women choose to enter engineering programs, as well as the gendered dynamics of such programs. Even textbooks can convey implicit and explicit bias on gender roles and capabilities in STEM: for example, that doctors are male and nurses are female (box 1.2). So, what happens in college is a continuation of processes that begin much earlier in students’ lives. First, some fields are typified by a masculine culture that inhibits a sense of belonging for women. Second, women often do not get enough early education in fields like physics, engineering, and computer science. And some researchers have found large gender gaps in self-efficacy in those three fields, which can help explain why women do not pursue them. 6 In the United States, women who are candidates for engineering faculty face more questions and scrutiny during hiring—and just 16 percent of faculty are women, while only 11 percent are professors. 7 3 UNESCO (2015). 4 UNESCO (2015), https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/usr15_fig_3-2_female_researchers.pdf. 5 National Academy of Engineering and National Research Council (2014). http://www.ncwge.org/TitleIX40/STEM.pdf. 6 Cheryan, S., Ziegler, S. A., Montoya, A. K., & Jiang, L. (2017). Why are some STEM fields more gender balanced than others? Psychological Bulletin, 143(1), 1–35. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000052. 7 Yoder 2017; https://www.nap.edu/read/18810/chapter/1. 11 Box 1.2 Gender bias in textbooks The situation for women in STEM is not dissimilar in South Asia. A 2015 study explored why female Increasing girls’ interest and achievement in STEM requires ensuring that curriculums enrollment was low in the region’s postgraduate accommodate their perspectives and avoid degree programs, with few women researchers. In India gender stereotypes. Yet a recent review— almost half of postgraduate candidates were women covering more than 110 national curriculum (39 percent for Ph.Ds., 54 percent for master’s frameworks for primary and secondary education in 78 countries—found that many math and degrees). Yet few continued a career in research. science textbooks and learning materials Indeed, the proportion of South Asian women conveyed gender bias. researchers to men by subject was quite low, at just 15 percent in engineering and 16 percent in energy. For example, in India more than half the illustrations in math and science textbooks at the primary level portrayed only male characters.The share of female researchers varied by country, Just 6 percent showed only female ones. In math from 8 percent in Nepal to 37 percent in Sri Lanka. In Sri textbooks only men were depicted in commercial, occupational, and marketing Lanka a larger portion of women researchers were situations. No women were depicted as engaged in “softer” sciences, but far fewer in engineers, executives, or merchants. engineering and technology (27 percent) and social Source: UNESCO 2017. sciences (30 percent). In India the percentage of women in research and science and engineering roles was just 15 percent. Interviews with global experts conducted for the study found that in South Asia, cultural restrictions and lack of career opportunities played major roles in the decline in women researchers after the Ph.D. level. The main barriers identified were women’s lack of mobility, networks, and recognition. 8 These findings were reaffirmed by a 2019 World Bank assessment of South Asia’s power sector that interviewed engineering students. 9 To support girls and women in STEM, it is essential to encourage participation in STEM activities from an early age. 10 Spatial play and extracurricular activities outside the classroom—such as museum visits, competitions, clubs, and robotics and coding camps—foster interest in STEM, especially among girls. Combining efforts such as mentoring and outreach, including contests and professional development programs, can dispel stereotypes about who can do STEM and what may result from STEM studies and careers. Actively combating stereotypes in curriculums and textbooks and educating teachers on implicit bias can also help. A key area identified for closing STEM gender gaps at universities is exposure to female experts, faculty, and peers to enhance social belonging. 11 Studies on tertiary education point to the importance of mentors and role models to augment women’s participation in STEM. But further research is needed to understand STEM gaps in education and careers and what works to close them. 8 Economist Intelligence Unit (2015). 9 WePOWER, World Bank Group, and ESMAP (2019). 10 Hammond and others (2020). 11 Fiske, Dasgupta, and Stout (2014). 12 As noted, STEM is vital to a country’s economic and social prosperity. 12 These fields produce thinkers, researchers, and technicians who advance progress in health, energy, nutrition, education, food security, transportation, infrastructure, communications, and other areas. STEM innovations play a central role in solving global challenges such as overcoming disease, protecting the environment, increasing energy access and efficiency, and enhancing education. 13 Moreover, STEM jobs are often good jobs. Demand for STEM workers is rising, and such jobs pay more. 14 The gender gap in STEM careers contributes to large disparities in pay between women and men. 15 Moreover, the gender gap in STEM is a missed opportunity for economies and an inefficient allocation of labor and talent. Shortages in STEM workers threaten economies, compromising their potential to reap the benefits from advances in STEM. 16 This Report’s Focus and Goals This report aims to improve understanding of the barriers at play and ultimately mitigate gender disparities in access to and participation in STEM across South Asia. It applies a hybrid multidimensional framework to define what access to quality STEM education entails (box 1.1). This framework is used to assess how South Asian countries fare on access to STEM education, identify gaps, and offer recommendations on how access can be improved. In addition, it is hoped that the framework and analysis will help initiate dialogue among South Asian countries to explore areas for collaboration and potential future investments in this important area. The report considers gender and STEM education from both national and regional perspectives. Some common themes emerge, as do some recommendations and interventions that could be considered and implemented across South Asia to boost girls’ and women’s participation in STEM education and careers. The report focuses on the energy sector to show the potential for new skills, careers, and workforces. The report faces some limitations. In considering topics such as access to and quality of education, access to STEM curriculums, and resources for teaching and learning, certain challenges go beyond the sole consideration of gender. Similarly, some South Asian countries have limited demand for STEM workforces. Though that might affect women workers, an assessment of the broader expansion of STEM in the economy is beyond the scope of this report. The hybrid multidimensional framework used in this report helps visualize and conceptualize the ecological and socioemotional aspects of access to STEM education and careers in South Asia. It combines elements of a global framework developed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and a U.S. framework from the New York Academy of Sciences, weaving in dimensions unique to South Asia (box figure 1.1). Global frameworks assess the range of factors influencing girls’ and women’s participation, achievement, and progress in STEM studies. The UNESCO framework puts the learner at the center, with family and peers, school, and society as the main influencers. (For reference, other global frameworks are presented in annex 1.) 12 Hammond and others (2020). 13 UNESCO (2017). 14 Rothwell (2013); Aktakke, Nazli and others (2019); World Bank (2016). 15 ILO (2018). 16 CEDEFOP (2016); Freeman (2014). 13 This report’s hybrid multidimensional framework is used to assess one dimension of STEM: access by education level. Though quality is just as important, data constraints and assessment complexities at the country level have been barriers. The quality dimension warrants separate research—as do governance, institutional management, and financing. Box figure 1.1 A multidimensional framework for increasing access to STEM education and careers in South Asia Source: UNESCO 2017. Source: NYAS, 2016. Key aspects applicable to South Asia—gender stereotyping, absence of role models, and lack of trained teachers—apply to secondary education, technical and vocational education and training (TVET), and higher education. 14 The methodology first considers the participation and performance of females in STEM subjects in primary, secondary, and tertiary education, including technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Female participation in the labor force is then reviewed, with a focus on STEM careers. The framework and a situational analysis of access to STEM education in South Asia are summarized. It is envisaged that applying the multidimensional framework and status analysis will help initiate dialogue among South Asian countries to explore areas for collaboration and potential investments in this important area. The report highlights growth in STEM fields as part of the transition to green economies and identifies options for increasing the representation of women in these areas. The World Bank proposes that countries follow six “adaptation principles” to build resilience to climate change. Four are directly relevant to STEM education: • Principle 1: Facilitating adaptation by people and firms, to embed support for innovation and access to technology. • Principle 3: Helping firms and people manage residual risks and natural disasters. • Principle 5: Prioritization, implementation, and progress monitoring. • Principle 6: Building resilient foundations with rapid, inclusive development. Increasing access to education and opportunities for girls and women is among the most critical issues to consider in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals. Such education and opportunities are essential foundations on which countries can strengthen society and address other challenges identified by the goals, including good health and well-being and decent work and economic growth. Interventions can be tailored to local audiences and circumstances and to individual firms, nonprofits, nongovernmental organizations, and governments. Regardless of the types of STEM stakeholders, a foundation is the education and skilling of students—and the STEM opportunities made available to women and men entering the workforce. This report recognizes the importance of healthcare workers. But its focus is on other STEM professions— such as engineering and information technology—where women are underrepresented. The report delves into the performance and records of countries in South Asia. Within the region there are success stories as well as some common and some specific challenges. Drawing on available data on STEM participation in the region, the report draws conclusions and offers recommendations for actions that might encourage more girls and women in South Asia to pursue STEM education and careers—while at the same time strengthening societies. 15 2. Defining STEM in School and Life Despite significant attention to STEM in education, workforce development, and the economy, there is no universal definition for and understanding of what STEM means. As an acronym, STEM stands for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. These are typically viewed as distinct topics—especially for children, where the focus is on providing the fundamentals of education and separate classes and curriculums for each topic. But in education systems worldwide, different countries prioritize different aspects of STEM, such as engineering, technology, or environmental themes. In labor markets there is greater acknowledgment of the interconnections between the elements of STEM, yet even here a consistent definition of a STEM career is absent. For example, the International Labour Organization (ILO) defines 10 Major Groups of occupations: Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers; Professionals; Technicians and Associate Professionals; Clerks; Service Workers and Shop and Market Sales Workers; Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers; Craft and Related Trades Workers; Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblers; Elementary Occupations; Armed Forces occupations. 17 And though each of these categories has underlying subgroups (including those focused on STEM), countries often report employment data at the Major Group level. Even within categories, countries use different descriptions. For example, Sri Lanka indicates that more than 50 percent of women are skilled agricultural, forestry, and fishery workers, while only 16 percent are in elementary occupations—which might be expected to include most agricultural labor. For the purposes of this report, STEM is considered in the following ways: • In basic education, STEM is mainly represented globally by the study of general science and mathematics. National and international benchmarks tend to focus on these two disciplines. Some countries are placing growing emphasis on technological (or digital) skills and literacy. But those tend to be viewed as tools rather than as formal elements of the curriculum. • In secondary education, STEM again focuses on science and mathematics, and on acquiring the foundations of knowledge in core subjects. But there are often more opportunities for differentiation based on student interests and abilities. For example, a science focus may be offered (in addition to, for example, an arts/humanities or commerce focus). Science might be split into biology, chemistry, earth science, and physics, and it could include elements of environmental studies, design, and engineering (among other fields). According to the National Science Teaching Association, STEM “is not a single subject” and “is also not a curriculum, but rather a way of organizing and delivering instruction.” 18 Furthermore, STEM “is identified in many different ways.” Technology plays a growing role in secondary education, both as a tool for teaching and learning and as a distinct discipline in classes such as computer science and coding. • Technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is designed to provide the skills required for employment. There is growing focus on TVET worldwide, and many programs are geared toward technology-driven careers. TVET programs are frequently focused on trades, and in some cases require developing applied skills that build on the foundations of science and mathematics gained in basic and 17 ILO (2010). 18 NSTA (2020). 16 secondary education. At its best, TVET integrates classwork with practical applications to solve problems and find solutions. The idea that high-end STEM education is essential for professional qualifications requires reexamination. For example, STEM workers play a direct role in driving economic growth in the United States. 19 But the excessively professional definition of the STEM economy as requiring at least a bachelor’s degree has resulted in policymakers overlooking the strong potential of workers with less than a bachelor’s degree but some STEM education. • At the university level, STEM programs are designed to build on the separate foundations of science and mathematics and prepare graduates to enter a STEM workforce where problem solutions might not be immediately known. Many engineering and technology programs are introducing problem solving and design classes in the first year to teach students how to solve practical problems. For example, engineering, chemistry, and biology disciplines might require physics and calculus in the first year, then use these core subjects—together with digital technology—as tools. Moreover, STEM disciplines at the university level are increasingly interconnected and multidisciplinary: biology, chemistry, and physics share common underpinnings; and bioengineering, materials engineering, and environmental science and engineering developed from the intersection of previously distinct disciplines. And in response to demands from employers, more STEM programs expect students to master so-called soft skills such as teamwork, time management, decision-making, and written and oral communications. • Though not analyzed in this report, at the postgraduate and research levels, this blurring of distinctions between STEM disciplines becomes even more pronounced. STEM master’s degrees, and especially Ph.D. degrees, are focused on training students how to solve problems using a STEM “toolkit.” And as with undergraduate degree programs, problem definition and communication skills are essential. Describing STEM careers can be even more challenging. Some STEM-focused companies employ both a STEM workforce as well as myriad business, administrative, and other staff. Similarly, many non-STEM- focused companies have STEM employees essential to their operations (such as IT staff). As STEM workers advance in their careers, they may move out of STEM-focused jobs into managerial or leadership positions. And many graduates of university STEM programs never enter STEM careers at all, choosing instead to use the skills they obtain in their education and training to contribute to other sectors of the economy. In addition, STEM employment can be divided into jobs that require a university undergraduate degree and those that do not. 20 This report’s narrative is generally oriented around the descriptions provided above, where much of the global and South Asia data are focused. At the same time, the report goes beyond the descriptions provided above to identify new initiatives to strengthen female participation in STEM education and careers, discuss good ideas that could be translated to and implemented in South Asia, and build ecosystems that strengthen STEM undertakings to address global and regional challenges. 19 Rothwell (2013). 20 NSF (2021). 17 3. STEM Trends, Globally and in South Asia This chapter provides insights into global trends in enrollment and achievement in STEM subjects, with comparisons for South Asia. Data and results are included for Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. STEM is considered a key element in socioeconomic development, and in recent years these countries have made rapid advances in access to basic and secondary education and strengthened higher education. Still, challenges remain in addressing the “leaky pipeline”—that is, girls’ attrition from lower secondary education onward—to ensure greater inclusion in STEM education and careers. Moreover, COVID-19 has significant disrupted schooling and learning everywhere. Learning loss is measured by the number of days of school closures, the reduced contact hours and time spent on topics, and the availability of remote learning. Primary Education In primary (basic) education, children in all countries typically learn from standard curriculums. For STEM these include mathematics and general science, and boys and girls have similar educational experiences. Globally, between 2000 and 2015 the number of children of primary school age (6-11) out of school nearly halved—from 100 million to 52 million—with a 44 percent drop in the number of girls out of primary school. 21 Since 2008 about 8.8 percent of children around the world have been out of school (9.7 percent of girls). In 2019 and 2020, gross primary enrollment ratios in South Asia were like those in richer countries (table 3.1). Table 3.1 Gross primary enrollment ratios in South Asia—including for females—are comparable to those in leading economies Percent Leading economies South Asia Country All Female Country All Female Canada 101 101 Afghanistan 107 85 China 103 104 Bangladesh 120 125 France 103 102 Bhutan 106 107 Germany 103 103 India 100 101 Italy 101 100 Maldives 98 99 Japan 98 98 Nepal 142 143 United Kingdom 100 100 Pakistan 95 89 United States 101 101 Sri Lanka 100 100 Global average 102 101 SA Average 99 99 Source: World Bank 2021. http://wdi.worldbank.org/table/2.8. Note: The gross enrollment ratio is the number of students enrolled in a given level of education, regardless of age, expressed as a percentage of the official school-age population corresponding to that level of education. Data are for 2019 and 2020. Over the past two decades most South Asian countries achieved rapid increases in basic education enrollments (figure 3.1). The number of primary schools has grown substantially, putting boys and girls closer to schools, especially in rural areas. In recent years the gender parity index for primary education has reached or exceeded 1 in all South Asian countries except Afghanistan and Pakistan, indicating that boys and girls are participating in equal numbers. 21 UNESCO (2017). 18 Figure 3.1 Gross primary enrollment ratios in South Asia have mostly risen in recent decades Percent 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 2004 2010 2018 2019 2020 Source: World Bank 2021. Still, the out-of-school rate for Central and Southern Asia is 5.9 percent—meaning that 11 million children still do not receive a basic education. 22 Most South Asian countries retain disparities in primary education between urban and rural areas (figure 3.2), and poorer children have fewer opportunities for a quality education. Figure 3.2 Net attendance in primary school tends to be higher in South Asia’s urban areas Percent 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Rural Urban Source: World Bank 2021. As in most countries, primary school students in South Asia are required to take mathematics and general science. In India and Sri Lanka science is taught within the framework of environmental science, giving 22 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2017). 19 students a context in which to learn the fundamentals and potentially providing practical, real-world applications that could benefit society and point to future careers. In Bhutan science is structured around agriculture, health and hygiene, and population education. But across South Asia, there are concerns about the quality of teaching in basic education and about the resources available specifically for science labs and experiments. Benchmarking the achievement levels of South Asian students against their global peers is difficult because most countries in the region do not participate in international assessments such as the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) or the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Since 1995 TIMSS has provided comparative international data every four years on mathematics and science achievement in grades 4 and 8. Pakistan is the only South Asian country that takes part in TIMSS, and only for grade 4 (figure 3.3). Figure 3.3 East Asian economies were the world’s top achievers in grade 4 mathematics Source: Mullis and others 2020. TIMSS and similar studies measure performance based on gender for each participating country, as well as comparisons between countries. In 2019, 58 countries participated in the grade 4 assessment. In mathematics there were 27 countries that showed gender parity, 27 where boys outperformed girls, and 4 where girls outperformed boys. For science there were 33 countries with no gender gap, 18 where girls outperformed boys, and 7 where boys outperformed girls. (Though Pakistan’s overall performance was near the bottom of the rankings, girls outperformed boys in science.) In the absence of international benchmarking of performance in South Asia, national assessments provide some measure of the relative performance of boys and girls. In Nepal grade 5 girls do slightly better than boys in mathematics. In Sri Lanka too, grade 5 girls outperform boys, and the performance of both boys 20 and girls has improved 60 percent since 2002. Sri Lanka’s results indicate that performance is correlated with reading comprehension and literacy, where girls globally tend to do better than boys. South Asia’s impressive gains in enrollments and access to primary education need to be maintained to bring the entire region up to global averages. In addition, efforts should be made to improve science and mathematics education and to benchmark science and mathematics education outcomes with global peers. For students to receive quality instruction in primary education and potentially pursue STEM-related careers, they need to have the STEM education and skills needed to succeed in the global economy. Lower Secondary Education Globally, in lower secondary education there is typically a standard series of required classes for students, though there may be some differentiation in level. Again, STEM curriculums usually include mathematics and science. Between 2000 and 2015 the number of children of lower secondary school age (12-14) out of school fell 37 percent around the world. In 2000 there were 15 percent more out-of-school girls than boys, but by 2015 that trend had reversed—with 7 percent fewer lower secondary age girls out of school than boys. In 2020, 16.4 percent of lower secondary age children were not in school, 23 indicating significant attrition between primary and lower secondary schooling for boys and girls (figure 3.4). Figure 3.4 Both sexes have become more likely to attend school in South Asia, but females have made more progress Percentage of students out of school Source: World Bank 2021. In general, in South Asia, through about age 15, there is a common mathematics and science curriculum for all students in a given country. Beyond general science, this often includes the foundational disciplines of biology, chemistry, and physics. 23 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database, (http://data.uis.unesco.org/). Data as of September 2021. 21 In Sri Lanka lower secondary school science includes practical skills, and where available includes a laboratory focused on digital skills. 24 Middle secondary schools (ages 14-16) may provide additional options such as health, agriculture and food technology, and design—topics that give students an early view of a broader, integrated approach to STEM topics and potential opportunities, as well as a practical approach to science education. Likewise, in Bhutan there is an opportunity to focus on computer applications where available. These examples of application-driven STEM education, while also delivering on the fundamentals, improve learning outcomes and provide real-world examples that could inspire students to pursue further STEM education and ultimately opt for STEM careers. South Asia suffers from a significant drop in secondary relative to primary enrollments (figure 3.5). In 2020 the out-of-school rate in Southern Asia for lower secondary education was 16.4 percent—nearly twice the rate for primary education. 25 The region’s adjusted gender parity index of 0.86 indicates that the gender disparity favors girls’ enrollments at this age. The drivers of enrollments in lower secondary school are complex both across and within countries in South Asia. Figure 3.5 Though gross secondary enrollments have improved in South Asia, a sharp drop persists from the primary level Percent Source: World Bank 2021. In 2019 net secondary enrollment ratios were equal for boys and girls in some of the world’s leading economies, above 90 (except in Germany), and significantly above the global average (table 3.2). In South Asia these ratios were close to the global averages, though Sri Lanka’s approached that of the leading economies. 24 Here and throughout this chapter, unless otherwise indicated, all country data for South Asia are drawn from the country background papers prepared for this report. Summary notes/Infographics for each country are presented in annex 2. 25 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2021). 22 Table 3.2 Most net secondary enrollment ratios in South Asia are close to global averages Percent Leading economies South Asia Country All Female Country All Female Canada 100 100 Afghanistan 50 37 France 95 95 Bangladesh 65 72 Germany 85 85 Bhutan 70 77 Italy 95 95 India 62 62 Russian Fed. 91 91 Maldives 47 51 United Kingdom 97 97 Nepal 62 63 United States 92 93 Pakistan 37 34 Global average 66 66 Sri Lanka 91 92 Source: World Bank 2021. Note: The net enrollment ratio is the number of children of official school age who are enrolled in school relative to the population of the corresponding official school age. Data are for 2019 and 2020. Country specifics shine some light on South Asia’s variations in net secondary enrollment ratios: • In Bangladesh the ratio for females exceeds that for males. For females the ratio rose from 50 percent in 2010 to 72 percent in 2018, and for males from 45 percent in 2004 to 69 percent in 2016. But females appear to drop out of secondary education more, perhaps reflecting issues beyond academic ability and performance. • In Bhutan the ratios are closer, at 77 percent for females and 64 percent for males, 26 with relatively even enrollment and transition rates for males and females in lower and middle secondary schooling. • As with many countries in the region, India shows some variations. For example, 80 percent of villages with small Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe communities have access to a secondary school— compared with 4-6 percent where such communities comprise the majority. Nationwide, school enrollment decreases substantially from age 14 onward, especially in rural districts. Overall, the net secondary enrollment ratio is 62 percent for girls and boys. • Secondary school enrollments in Afghanistan and Pakistan are low, especially for females. Sri Lanka’s net secondary enrollment ratio is 91-92 percent, with no significant gender differences. Still, there are differences by region and income group, with males from the poorest quintile having a notably higher dropout rate than females. Males also tend to repeat secondary school grades more often. The 2019 TIMSS assessment also considered mathematics and science achievements in grade 8 for 39 countries. For mathematics there were 26 countries with no gender difference, 6 where males outperformed females, and 7 where females outperformed males. For science, 18 countries had no gender gap, while in 15 girls outperformed boys and in 6 boys outperformed girls. These results indicate that, relative to grade 4, girls maintain or even increase their performance relative to boys as they progress through the education system. The TIMSS assessment also investigated access to and use of technology in mathematics and science education. Access to computers measurably improved performance, though such access might indicate 26 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) Database. (http://uis.unesco.org/). Data as of February 2020. 23 access to other resources that can also affect performance. 27 Use of computers in the classroom likewise had a small impact on achievement, though most students reported that teachers never or almost never used computers in the classroom. Across South Asia, limited data on mathematics and science achievement are available at the lower secondary level. That is, for ages with a common science curriculum for all students. • Results from India show that, in grades 8 and 10, males and females appear to perform equivalently on mathematics and science—though scores for both are below those for other subjects. • In Nepal males outperform females in mathematics and science in grades 8 and 10, reversing the results seen in grade 5. • In Sri Lanka females in grade 8 outperform males on mathematics and science, though both have improved since 2012. At the General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level (GCE O/L), typically taken at ages 15-16, 76 percent of females get a passing grade compared with just 58 percent of males. For science the pass rates are 69 percent for females and 63 percent for males, and for mathematics 56 and 47 percent. Pass rates for both subjects are lower than those for others. Given that Sri Lankan students must pass the GCE O/Ls to advance to the collegiate (upper secondary) level, these results indicate that more females are eligible to pursue STEM tracks as they progress through the education system. Though no South Asian country has participated in the global Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) in recent years, Bhutan did participate in the 2017 PISA-D. PISA-D evaluates education systems in low- and middle-income countries, focusing on 15-year-old students and their knowledge of reading, mathematics, and science. Bhutan’s results indicate that females outperform males in reading, males outperform females in mathematics, and there are no significant differences in science. While Bhutan’s scores were below the averages for the regular PISA, they exceeded the averages for the eight other countries participating in the PISA-D. In mathematics and science Bhutan’s scores were the second highest, trailing only Ecuador. Before focusing on STEM opportunities at the Upper Secondary level, it is worthwhile to consider general learning within the South Asia Region. The education data (table 3.3) underpinning the World Bank Human Capital Index 28 provides important insights with respect to the expected years of schooling, harmonized test scores calculated to provide a global measure of achievement and learning adjusted years of school. The results indicate that while there has been substantial progress in school enrollment, there is considerable room for improvement in teaching and learning across the region. 27 Mullis and others (2020). 28 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/HD.HCI.OVRL 24 Table 3.3. Normalized Education Data in the South Asia Region Expected Years Harmonized Learning-adjusted Country of Schooling Test Scores Years of Schooling Girls Overall Girls Overall Girls Overall Afghanistan 6.9 8.9 350 355 3.9 5.1 Bangladesh 10.5 10.2 370 368 6.2 6.0 Bhutan 10.7 10.2 370 387 6.3 6.3 India 11.2 11.1 399 399 7.2 7.1 Nepal 12.2 12.3 369 7.2 Pakistan 8.7 9.4 343 339 4.8 5.1 Sri Lanka 13.2 13.2 400 8.5 Source: World Bank, Human Capital Index (2020). Upper Secondary Education Globally, students in upper secondary education (12 – 17 years of age) often begin to focus on pursuing higher education or entering the workforce. Many countries offer some choice among an arts/humanities, commerce, or science stream. Some countries encourage students to choose from a more diverse set of individual classes. Mathematics education typically varies based on progress toward calculus classes. Education can also focus on science areas such as biology, chemistry, and physics, but also extend to more interdisciplinary studies such as environmental science. For STEM, some countries also offer classes such as computer science, design, and engineering. Moreover, many countries allow interested students to enroll in vocational training at ages associated with upper secondary education. For instance, in Nepal grade 10 graduates can take a year and a half to two years of vocational training. Bhutan also introduces students to TVET curriculum in its mainstream education system, starting from pre-primary to grade 12. Given the range of offerings, enrollment data for upper secondary education are hard to generalize. Globally, the number of out-of-school children at this age levels 12 - 17 years dropped from 177 million in 2000 to 137 million in 2018. 29 During this period upper secondary enrollments for females increased substantially, and globally are now on par with those of males (table 3.4). Table 3.4 Secondary School Enrollment, Global (% Net) Indicator 2010 2015 2016 2017 2018 Female 62.19 65.76 65.84 66.26 66.26 Male 62.96 65.66 65.81 66.13 66.27 Source: UNESCO Institute of Statistics 2020. Completion rates are an important indicator of achievement. Globally, just 72 percent of students who start an upper secondary education program complete it in a timely manner. 30 The completion rate rises to 81 percent two years after the on-time completion date. Students in general academic programs have a much 29 UNICEF (2021). 30 OECD (2020). 25 higher completion rate than those in vocational programs, perhaps indicating that students tracked to vocational education are less academically inclined or prepared due to inequities at lower education levels. In addition, females are more likely to complete upper secondary education. By the time students reach upper secondary education, males and females have different perceptions about STEM careers, though perceptions of gender, science, and even potential STEM careers start much earlier in childhood. A 2015 survey (OECD 2016) found that a quarter of boys and girls 15-years of age (figure 3.6) anticipated a career in a science-related discipline. 31 But there was a stark breakdown in the types of careers envisioned. Nearly three-quarters of girls anticipated a career in healthcare, while less than a quarter were focused on science or engineering. By contrast, nearly half of boys anticipated a career in science or engineering, a quarter in healthcare, and a fifth in information and communications technology (ICT). Interest in ICT has likely increased since the onset of COVID-19 in 2020. These numbers are reflected in STEM enrollments in higher education. In TVET, 8 percent of males were focused on STEM positions— nearly three times the share of females. (OECD 2016) Figure 3.6. Gender differences in expected careers % of respondents Girls Boys 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Science and Engineering Health ICT Technicians or Associate Professionals Source: Adapted from World development indicators. Washington, D.C. The World Bank. The TIMSS advanced assessment provides one, albeit limited, global analysis of enrollment and achievement in advanced mathematics and advanced physics in the final year of upper secondary school in nine countries. In mathematics, six countries had more males enrolled; just two had more females. And in six countries, males outperformed females. Similar trends were observed for physics, where more males were enrolled in all nine countries and males outperformed females in eight. (OECD 2016) In 2019, for the first time, more females than males in the United Kingdom took A-level science exams (conducted in the final years of upper secondary school). (The Guardian 2019) But 63 percent of those females took biology and chemistry exams—likely reflecting a preference for healthcare careers—while 31 OECD (2015). 26 only 23 percent took physics exams (typically associated with engineering). Similar trends are evident with advanced placement exams in the United States. South Asia’s enrollments for upper secondary education show a continued, accelerated decline relative to lower secondary. In Central and South Asia half of young people of upper secondary age—69 million potential students—are out of school. 32 National enrollments in the region also show significant variations: • In Bangladesh in 2018 there were 7.1 million out-of-school youth of upper secondary age, or 3.5 times the number out of lower secondary school. About a fifth of females and males drop out of upper secondary school, though that share halved in the past decade. • In Bhutan in 2019, 5 percent more girls were enrolled in upper secondary school. • India faces a critical lack of available places in public upper secondary schools for students who wish to continue their studies. Moreover, female enrollments in private upper secondary schools are below those of boys, partly reflecting the perceived costs of raising females. • In the Maldives some 7,200 boys and girls took A-level exams after grade 12 in 2019. Yet only 676 took the mathematics exam, and 613 took the physics exam—reflecting limited emphasis on STEM disciplines. • In Nepal 54 percent of the nearly 600,000 students in grades 11-12 were girls in 2019, up from 47 percent in 2015. • In Pakistan in 2017 there were 9.8 million out-of-school youth of upper secondary age, almost twice the number not enrolled in lower secondary school. • In Sri Lanka in 2019, 56 percent of females were enrolled at the upper secondary (collegiate) level (grades 12-13). Across South Asia, upper secondary school is where students focus their studies based on their interests and skills. Upper secondary grades offer tracks that may include STEM, arts/humanities, and commerce. Some countries in the region also have tracks dedicated to vocational training at this age. The transition to upper secondary school is perhaps indicative of the biggest gender gap in STEM. Though this transition might not reflect the divergence in attitudes toward STEM among females and males—and their parents—because tracks for STEM, arts/humanities, and commerce only become available at this point. So, the data clearly show when females are underrepresented in STEM subjects. But interventions for STEM education need to happen much earlier, at the primary level. Moreover, while females interested in health careers are likely to pursue the science stream, the female talent pool available for nonhealth STEM higher education and careers is likely much smaller. The underrepresentation of girls in upper secondary science streams across South Asia is a concern because, as noted, most females pursuing STEM fields are interested in health careers—amplifying the leaky pipeline in engineering. Representative enrollments in upper secondary education show that: • In Bangladesh in 2020 20 percent of females take the Higher Secondary Certificate Science and Home Economics examination, compared with 26 percent of males. Between 2018 and 2020 there was a 32 UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) database, (http://data.uis.unesco.org/). Data as of September 2021. 27 10 percent increase in the number of females taking the exam, but more data are needed to assess whether this can be maintained. • In Bhutan in 2021, 16 percent of females and 21 percent of males (of 1,138 students) chose the science stream. Female enrollments in STEM courses were higher in biology (767 girls enrolled) and environmental science (225 girls enrolled); the higher enrollment in biology reflects a preference for health- related careers. • India shows significant variations in STEM streams in upper secondary schools. Across India, 30 percent of upper secondary students choose the science stream. But science streams are often oversubscribed, and access depends on interest and exam scores. Coupled with a lack of science tracks in many secondary schools and extensive private coaching for students who can afford it, access to science in upper secondary education is heavily dependent on students’ location (urban or rural) and socioeconomic status. These challenges significantly affect diversity in STEM education and careers for both sexes. The state government of Tamil Nadu, India, provides greater access to science tracks. And, unlike some other states in India—and countries in South Asia and around the world— admission is based not on exam results but on student preferences. As a result, 60 percent of upper secondary students in Tamil Nadu choose a science track, with a larger share of females doing so. This access-driven model could increase the number of girls who pursue STEM careers. • In the Maldives just 10 percent of graduates take the mathematics and physics A-level exam. • In Nepal females account for 38 percent of the science stream. • Sri Lanka has extensive data on STEM tracks at the upper secondary (collegiate) level. In 2019 a third of students pursued such tracks (bio science, physical science, biotechnology, or engineering technology), with 41 percent of males and 27 percent of females doing so. Of the 62,000 females who chose STEM tracks, half pursued bio science—2.5 times the number of males. Many of these students will likely choose further study (and careers) in health. Another 17,200 females chose physical science, 9,300 chose biotechnology, and just 4,000 (less than 2 percent of females enrollees) chose engineering technology. These data demonstrate the leaky pipeline for females with the prerequisites to pursue, for example, engineering degrees at university, but do not do so. By contrast, 52 percent of females chose the arts track. Students who choose or are admitted to a STEM track in upper secondary school would generally be expected to be high achieving. Though limited data is available across South Asia, secondary school exit exams provide insights for some countries: • In Bhutan in 2021, 97 percent of students in the science stream passed final exams, including 98 percent of females and 96 percent of males—exceeding the 90 percent national average passing rate, which included arts and commerce. For individual STEM subjects, pass rates for males and females exceeded 94 percent for biology, chemistry, physics, computer studies, and environmental science. The pass rate was lower for mathematics: 79 percent for males and 81 percent for females. • In Sri Lanka students can sign up for the General Certificate in Education Advanced Level (A/L) exams after two years of the collegiate track. Students take three subject matter exams. Nationally, 40 percent more females pass all three exams, more females obtain three A scores, and more males fail all three exams. STEM pass rates are typically lower than for non-STEM courses. A slightly larger share of males 28 passes the chemistry and physics exams, while females do much better on the biology and combined mathematics exams. Tertiary Education Over the next few years about half of people under 25 will enter tertiary education in OECD countries. Most will enter programs for bachelor’s degrees, followed by short-cycle programs 33. In OECD countries where short-cycle programs provide training for health and education, most enrollees are women. Conversely, where most labor market demand for short-cycle training is in nonhealth STEM disciplines—such as engineering, manufacturing, and construction—men account for the majority of enrollees. 34 But about 58 percent of first-time tertiary graduates in OECD countries are women, and women have higher graduation rates. Globally, 37 percent of university students pursue STEM degrees, with nearly 40 percent of those in health- related courses. 35 There are wide variations in male and female enrollments in the broad STEM classifications (table 3.5). Though it is a success story that many women are pursuing university degrees in health disciplines, they are underrepresented in nonhealth STEM programs. And overall, women’s enrollments in STEM are relatively small. These global trends reinforce the need for early interventions to foster females’ interest in engineering. Table 3.5 Globally, women’s university enrollments in STEM disciplines skew toward health, natural sciences, and mathematics Percentage of total enrollments United Discipline Enrollment World Canada France Germany Kingdom Natural sciences, mathematics, All 5 11.0 9.7 10.2 14.9 and statistics Female 13 10.5 7.6 9.6 14.0 Engineering, manufacturing, and All 13 11.3 13.6 20.7 9.2 construction Female 8 4.4 6.4 9.2 3.4 Information and communications All 5 4.0 2.8 6.5 4.3 technology Female 3 1.3 0.8 2.7 1.3 Health and welfare All 14 15.1 15.5 7.3 16.2 Female 15 21.4 20.7 10.3 21.6 Source: UNECE 2015. Though it is hard to estimate national data on the number of graduates in engineering disciplines, including women, U.S. data provide a reference point. The 10 disciplines shown in table 3.6 cover 90 percent of female engineering graduates in the United States in 2019. Engineering disciplines associated with health and environmental careers had the highest shares of female students. About 22 percent of engineering 33 OECD. 2015. ISCED 2011 Level 5: Short-cycle tertiary education. The content of ISCED level 5 programmes is noticeable more complex than in upper secondary programme(s) giving access to this level. ISCED level 5 programmes serve to deepen knowledge by imparting new techniques, concepts and ideas not generally covered in upper secondary education (whereas ISCED level 4 programmes serve to broaden knowledge and are typically not significantly more advanced than programmes at ISCED level 3). Programmes classified at ISCED level 5 may be referred in many ways, for example: higher education, community college education, technician or advanced/higher vocational training, associate degree, back+2. For international comparability purposes, the term ‘short-cycle tertiary education’ is used to label ISCED level 5. https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/education/isced-2011-operational-manual/isced-2011-level-5-short-cycle-tertiary- education_9789264228368-10-en 34 OECD (2021). 35 UNECE (2022). 29 graduates with bachelor’s degrees were female. By contrast, 32 percent of engineering graduates in India are female—but just 12 percent in Japan and 13 percent in Taiwan, China. Table 3.6 Women account for small shares of most U.S. engineering graduates at the bachelor’s level Percent Engineering discipline Number of Share of Female graduates engineering share graduates Mechanical 31,936 23.4 14.8 Computer science (in engineering) 19,082 14.0 17.4 Electrical 13,767 10.1 14.2 Civil 12,221 9.0 25.9 Chemical 11,586 8.5 35.4 Computer science 10,398 7.6 18.5 Computer engineering 7,906 5.8 13.3 Biomedical 7,130 5.2 45.4 Industrial 6,690 4.9 32.3 Environmental 1,288 0.9 50.6 Source: American Society for Engineering Education 2020. Technical and Vocational Education and Training Skills training is an essential part of education opportunities around the world. But implementation varies dramatically, and there are substantial age variations and educational backgrounds among those who enroll in these programs. In many countries technical and vocational education and training (TVET) is considered less desirable than traditional upper secondary or university education, especially for wealthier individuals. It is often viewed as geared toward males and trades. Entrance requirements vary substantially, and the variation in types of programs—certificate, diploma, and so on—makes them difficult to compare or determine equivalence. In many countries TVET offerings include a lot of technical and STEM-based programs. For that reason, TVET is important in the education value chain and for gender-based consideration in STEM education and employment. In South Asia the opportunities available through TVET programs vary dramatically. Students can enroll in programs instead of attending upper secondary school or return to training programs later in life. For instance: • In Bangladesh the number of TVET institutions and overall enrollment has more than doubled since 2010. The government aims to increase female enrollment in TVET programs to 40 percent of the total, but in 2019 there were approximately 280,000 women in such programs—about 25 percent of the total. • In Bhutan most TVET programs focus on STEM disciplines, often for students who do not receive scholarships for university. The country’s six technical training institutes and two Institutes for traditional arts offer 86 courses; the three top ones involve electrical, masonry, and automobile subjects. Nearly a third of the 1,700 TVET students are female. 30 • India has extensive TVET. Between 2000 and 2019 the number of industrial training institutes almost quadrupled, to 16,000, and 80 percent are private. Some 3.4 million students are enrolled in the institutes, though only 11 percent are female. • Nepal’s TVET system caters primarily to young people and to adult workers who were unable to attend formal schooling or are out of the system. It is seen as a second choice rather than an integral part of a diverse education portfolio. In recent years the system’s capacity has increased, and while enrollment numbers have increased, enrollment as a share of capacity has lagged. In engineering diploma programs, enrollment more than doubled between 2015 and 2019, reaching 8,655. During this period the share of women in engineering programs rose from 12.5 to 17.5 percent—equivalent to an additional 1,000 women enrollees. • Sri Lanka’s TVET system jumped from 140,000 students in 2016 to more than 250,000 in 2019— reflecting the government’s new policy of free TVET education in 2018. STEM programs account for nearly more than 60 percent of enrollments, but in 2019 women accounted for just 38 percent of STEM enrollments. Still, two-thirds of women enrolled in TVET are in STEM programs. University Education University graduates in STEM fields, particularly engineers, are essential for strong socioeconomic development. Yet there is significant unmet demand for engineers across disciplines and countries. 36 Further, employers bemoan the lack of preparedness of graduates to fill open STEM positions. The quality of STEM graduates depends on the quality of their university programs, and their preparedness for university education depends on their primary and secondary education. And while not all STEM university graduates end up in STEM careers, there is often an imbalance between the available STEM graduates and STEM positions in a country to ensure the retention of skilled, educated talent. Similarly, university STEM programs need to develop in students both the STEM and soft skills needed to succeed in the STEM workplace. For instance: • In Bangladesh higher education includes universities and tertiary colleges affiliated with universities. In 2017, 135 universities enrolled 860,000 students and 1,862 tertiary colleges enrolled 1.81 million. That was a sharp increase from 2010, when enrollments totaled 1.47 million students. Though the gender parity index improved from 0.39 in 2010 to 0.49 in 2015 for universities, and from 0.68 to 0.77 for tertiary colleges, these are still far below parity. Given the strong performance of girls in higher secondary education, significant barriers to female participation remain in higher education. Nearly half of university students study STEM disciplines, including those related to health. But in tertiary colleges that share is just 9 percent. • Bhutan had about 13,000 students enrolled in colleges and universities in 2019, up 40 percent from 2014. In recent years the gender parity index has approached 1. In addition, many students pursue degrees overseas. About 40 percent of upper secondary graduates enroll in higher education. But disparities exist in STEM disciplines, where 41 percent of students are female (when health disciplines are subtracted). In 36 Royal Academy of Engineering Global Engineering Capability Review (2019). 31 engineering and construction 32 percent of 2,832 students are female. In mathematics and statistics 55 percent of 110 students are female, and in natural sciences 56 percent of 111 students. • India has 27.2 million undergraduates in higher education—47 percent of whom are women. About 17 percent of undergraduates are studying science disciplines (48 percent of them women), 15 percent engineering and technology (28 percent women), and 2 percent information technology and computer science (42 percent women). These are huge numbers. After China, India graduates the most engineers in the world, and its percentages of women are comparable to STEM powerhouses such as the Japan, Taiwan (China), and the United States and better than global averages. 37 India also maintains data on engineering disciplines. Whereas 52 percent of males study the traditional disciplines of mechanical, civil, and electrical engineering, just 24 percent of females do. But while about 36 percent of males study electronics engineering, computer engineering, and information technology, 63 percent of females focus on these disciplines. • The Maldives National University offers undergraduate degrees in civil engineering, computer science, information technology, marine science, and environmental management. • Nepal has about 400,000 undergraduates, and 54 percent are female. But of the nearly 30,000 students studying engineering, only 17 percent are female. In science and technology disciplines that share is 36 percent. One of the factors contributing to this gender imbalance is that many female students attend community campuses in rural locations, and most of these do not offer STEM disciplines. But even at constituent and private universities, female participation in STEM significantly lags that of males. • Pakistan has about 1.6 million students enrolled in higher education, 44 percent of whom are female. Some 133,000 are studying engineering and technology at the undergraduate level—just 12 percent of whom are female. Computing enrolls 137,000 students, 25 percent of them female. By contrast, of the 100,000 studying medical subjects, 63 percent are female. These trends are representative of South Asia as a whole. • Sri Lanka enrolls 128,000 undergraduates in 15 state-supported universities. Another 21 nonstate higher education institutions offer programs. Nearly half of all students study STEM courses (including in health) at state universities, including 22 percent of males and 27 percent of females. Most nonstate institutions focus on information and communications technology, health sciences, and other STEM disciplines. Higher education is increasingly a global endeavor for South Asian students, who often pursue degrees overseas. The region has relatively few incoming university students, with only India (49,348) and Sri Lanka (1,306) having measurable numbers. But student outflow is considerable. Top destinations include Australia, Canada, Japan, Malaysia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Not surprisingly, India has the largest outflow of students (461,792), followed by Nepal (93,921), Pakistan (59,784), and Bangladesh (44,338). 37 National Science Foundation (2018). 32 The Global STEM Labor Market Globally, three-quarters of men and just under half of women are participating in the labor force. 38 Unemployment rates for women are consistently above those for men. In 2017 the global share of women in wage and salaried employment marginally exceeded that of men. But that share is highly dependent on economic development, with developing countries having much lower wage and salaried employment, especially for women (14 percent versus 24 percent of men). And the gap is widening in developing countries. Though part-time employment may offer flexibility, women are more likely to be employed part- time both by choice and involuntarily. Gender-based pay gaps persist, and in developed countries this gap widens at higher levels. There is no consistent definition of what a “STEM career” is, making it especially hard to assess women’s representation in the STEM workforce and draw broad conclusions. Though some national data exist, there are few national, regional, or global research reports on STEM employment. About 5 percent of the U.S. workforce is in science and engineering jobs that require at least a bachelor’s STEM degree, and many others with science and engineering training work outside the field. Another 20 percent of the workforce works in science and engineering fields without a bachelor’s degree. Though 52 percent of the U.S. college-educated workforce is female, only 30 percent of the STEM workforce is. In 2017 women in the United States accounted for 29 percent of physical scientists, 27 percent of computer and mathematical scientists, and just 16 percent of engineers. By contrast, women make up 70 percent of the health workforce and 48 percent of those working in life sciences with a bachelor’s or higher degree. 39 The U.S. National Science Foundation has proposed greater reporting on STEM workers who do not have a STEM bachelor’s (or higher) degree. Skilled technical workers require extensive technical knowledge but not a bachelor’s degree. These include mechanics; construction, extraction, and production workers; and installation, maintenance, and repair workers. In Europe about 2 percent of jobs require a science and engineering professional, and another 5 percent an associate professional. About 41 percent of scientists and engineers in Europe are women, and the current growth rate exceeds that for men. 40 In both Europe and the United States the growth rate in jobs requiring STEM capabilities exceeds that of non-STEM employment. In most countries the majority of STEM workers do not have a bachelor’s (or higher) degree. Skilled STEM workers, many with TVET credentials, are essential for any science- and technology-driven economy. Beyond the traditional scope of a STEM career, there has been an increased focus on the need for digital skills at work. Most new jobs created will require such skills, and even existing ones will require increased 38 ILO (2017). 39 National Science Foundation (2018). 40 EU Skills Panorama (2014). 33 digital competence. Regardless of actual capability, women usually report less confidence and ability in their information and communications technology skills. 41 Globally, there is broad interest in strengthening female representation in STEM careers. This is manifested through extensive research and activities in the European Union, United States, and many other regions and countries. In South Asia too, there is growing interest among girls and women to participate in STEM education. But again, it is difficult to obtain detailed data on types of STEM work, levels of education acquired and required, age, seniority, and management levels. The South Asian STEM Labor Market As elsewhere, in South Asia a smaller share of working-age women is in the workforce even though females do well in STEM-related studies. Indeed, gender disparities in labor force participation tend to be wider in the region (table 3.7). Table 3.7 Women’s labor force participation rates tend to be low in South Asia Percent Labor Force Participation (2019), % Country Male Female World 75.8 47.3 Afghanistan 66.8 22 Bangladesh 80.7 36 Bhutan 71.2 61 India 74.4 23 Maldives 78.5 (2014) 46.8 (2014) Nepal 53.8 26 Pakistan 80.3 22 Sri Lanka 72.9 35 Source: International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT database. In general, men’s participation in South Asia’s labor force mirrors global trends (figure 3.7a). But except for Bhutan and the Maldives, female participation rates in the region are far below the global average (figure 3.7b). Although the female participation rate has increased in recent years for most countries in the region, in India and Sri Lanka it has declined. 41 Gebhardt and others (2019). 34 Figure 3.7a Men’s labor force participation is about the same in Figure 3.7b South Asian women are much less likely to be South Asia and globally in the workforce 100 60 80 50 40 60 30 40 20 20 10 0 0 2004 2011 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2004 2011 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 South Asia Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15-64) South Asia SAS Labor force participation rate, female (% of female (modeled ILO estimate) population ages 15-64) (modeled ILO estimate) World Labor force participation rate, male (% of male population ages 15-64) World WLD Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population (modeled ILO estimate) ages 15-64) (modeled ILO estimate) Source. International Labour Organization, ILOSTAT database. Unemployment rates also provide insights into the labor market and further reflect the underrepresentation of women in the workforce, including in STEM disciplines: • In Bangladesh the overall unemployment rate was 4.2 percent in 2017. But it was 14.9 percent for people with higher secondary qualifications and 11.2 percent for those with tertiary degrees. At all levels, unemployment rates were higher for women: 26.2 percent for higher secondary graduates and 21.4 percent for those with tertiary degrees. • In 2018-19 Bhutan’s overall unemployment rate was 3.4 percent. But for people with upper secondary qualifications, it was 8.9 percent, and for those with a bachelor’s degree, 13.0 percent. While 70 percent of men with TVET credentials are employed, for women it is 39 percent—a stark difference. • In 2019-20 India’s unemployment rate was 5.0 percent for men and 4.2 percent for women. For all levels of education, a larger share of men is employed. For example, 56 percent of men with a higher secondary education are in the labor force compared with 16 percent of women. Among those with undergraduate degrees, 70 percent of men are in the labor force compared with just 24 percent of women. The differences are smaller for TVET, with 73 percent of men and 38 percent of women in the workforce. • In the Maldives in 2014 the unemployment rate for women was 5.9 percent; for men, 4.8 percent. But the unemployment rate for women was a vast improvement from 2009, when it was 23.7 percent. • Nepal’s unemployment rate for women was 13.1 percent (2018) for men, 10.3 percent. Consistent, detailed data on employment and the level of education associated with jobs in specific sectors is difficult to find globally and across South Asia. But some insights can be gleaned from available data in some countries: • In Bangladesh a national labor market survey found that a larger share of women works in STEM- focused careers. But 60 percent of them work in skilled agriculture, forestry, and fishing, which often might not require formal credentials, would not typically be classified as STEM or skilled technical employment, 35 and includes market-oriented agricultural workers and subsistence farmers. About 15 percent of employed women work in manufacturing, primarily in the ready-made garment sector. Women account for just 15 percent of “technicians and associates” and 35 percent of “professionals,” which includes both STEM and non-STEM careers. • Bhutan had 340,000 workers in 2017, with 50 percent in agriculture, 12 percent in industry, and 37 percent in services. The government employs about a fifth of the workforce. Just 6 percent of the labor force holds university degrees, 35 percent of whom are women. About 8,000 people are projected to enter the workforce each year, most of whom are better educated than previous generations. But with 4,000 tertiary graduates a year, there is a significant mismatch between qualifications and available positions for Bhutan’s most highly educated. This disparity is likely to affect women university graduates more than men. And though Bhutan has South Asia’s highest share of women in the workforce, women remain underrepresented in managerial, professor, and technical occupations—those most likely to include STEM fields. In 2020 about 1,100 women were employed in STEM jobs with a bachelor’s degree or higher, along with 765 employed in wholesale and retail trade and repair of motor vehicles and motorcycles. • Commensurate with its population and size, India has South Asia’s largest labor market. Every year there is a large number of graduates from vocational and university STEM programs. But only 3.8 percent of the population above age 15 has any credential in a technical field, and just 2.1 percent of women. In rural areas just 0.8 percent of the population has a technical credential. Nearly half of Indian employers surveyed complained of a skills gap among graduates relative to needs. Indeed, even in the information technology field, Indian companies were unable to recruit 140,000 graduates in 2018, equivalent to 30 percent of the need. • In 2014 the Maldives had a workforce of 145,000. But expatriates—usually from Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka—accounted for a large share of this workforce. For example, 40,000-50,000 were working in construction. Travel and tourism provide 34,500 jobs, but the lack of highly skilled Maldivians threatens long-term economic development. 42 • Nepal has relatively low overall labor force participation, and women account for only about a third of the labor force. Three-quarters of men aged 25-45 are in the labor force, compared with just one-fifth of women aged 25-34. This is especially striking given that more women (229,961) than men (211,858) are enrolled in the country’s tertiary education system. Though that may be partly due to family considerations, the lack of workforce participation by highly educated women represents a significant deadweight loss for the economy. And though about 37 percent of women aged 35-44 are in the workforce, many university graduates do not take up long-term careers. About 8 percent of that population works in STEM fields, and 27 percent of STEM jobs are held by university graduates compared with 11 percent for non-STEM jobs. But women make up just 22 percent of the STEM workforce. Nepal also has data on gender differences in salaries. On average, women earn 70 percent of what men do, even among highly skilled STEM workers. 43 The data indicate that advanced skills do not pay off in terms of wages for highly educated women interested in STEM careers. 42 ILO in Maldives. http://ilo.ch/wcmsp5/groups/public/---asia/---ro-bangkok/---ilo- colombo/documents/publication/wcms_676138.pdf 43 Authors’ calculations using data from the 2017/18 national labor force survey. 36 • Among Sri Lanka’s workforce of 8.1 million, a third are women. About 45 percent are in STEM careers, with 30 percent of males and 15 percent of females, and the gender ratio equals that of the overall workforce. Data from 2018 indicate that university graduates from STEM and education disciplines had higher employment rates than those from non-STEM disciplines (figure 3.8). Figure 3.8 STEM university graduates are more likely to be employed in Sri Lanka Source: University Grants Commission 2018. 37 4. KEY OBSERVATIONS FROM SOUTH ASIA This section summarizes key observations of STEM education and employment in South Asia, with a focus on gender considerations. Primary and Secondary Education • South Asian countries have made major advances on school enrollments in recent decades, and the gap in the gender parity index has narrowed significantly. • Though there continues to be attrition in enrollments as children reach secondary school age, girls’ dropout rates have fallen substantially. • Boys and girls perform at similar levels academically, and in many countries in the region that includes mathematics and science for all age groups. • Focused science and mathematics tracks typically become available in upper secondary education, though the availability and quality of these tracks vary considerably by country. • Girls are underrepresented in science and mathematics tracks in upper secondary education, reflecting the lack of access and less interest in STEM education and future careers. This phenomenon, observed globally, is sometimes referred to as the “leaky pipeline.” • Girls in science tracks are often focused on health careers, shrinking the talent pool available for other STEM disciplines. • Girls’ performance in science tracks is similar to that of boys. • The quality of teaching and learning—especially in science and mathematics—remains a concern. Where data are available, science and mathematics performance in South Asia lags global averages. Technical and Vocational Education and Training • Females are significantly underrepresented in TVET programs in South Asia (as globally), with even wider disparities in STEM offerings. • STEM-focused TVET is generally perceived as being geared toward males. • A perception remains that TVET programs are a second-choice option for further education. Yet globally, many STEM jobs require TVET skills rather than a university degree. University Education • University enrollments in South Asia have jumped in recent years, and the region’s gender parity index for universities is increasing. • Women are underrepresented in engineering and technology disciplines. This trend continues the “leaky pipeline” observed in science tracks in upper secondary education, coupled with large shares of female STEM undergraduates pursuing health-related degrees. • Female enrollments in STEM fields vary by country in the region, but the overall trends are consistent with global trends. • The quality of STEM education available to many university students is a concern. • Employers note a skills gap between university graduates and job requirements. 38 The Labor Market • A significant disparity persists between South Asia and leading global economies in female labor force participation. • The underrepresentation of females in the workforce exacerbates the STEM “leaky pipeline” observed in education. • Better-educated women are less likely to work than those with less formal education. This observation indicates fewer highly educated STEM graduates are working and amplifies the effect and implications of the “leaky pipeline” in South Asia. A host of socioeconomic reasons explain why South Asian girls and women do not or cannot pursue STEM- related upper secondary, TVET, and university education and careers (table 4.1). These reasons are drawn from the country notes prepared for this report, which collected data based on secondary sources (see annex 2). In some cases, the secondary sources represent data from primary sources. Thus, the data are the most proximately representative. 39 Table 4.1 Socioeconomic reasons South Asian girls and women do not or cannot pursue STEM-related upper secondary, TVET, and university education and careers Reason Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Maldives Pakistan Sri Lanka Gender stereotypes A wide gap between rural and Issues such as Girls face barriers to STEM institutions and Sociocultural factors Negative gender Women’s childcare (secondary, TVET, urban schools, with rural girls childbearing and STEM education at all opportunities in the such as early stereotypes play a and eldercare university education) having the fewest rearing as well as levels due to the long labor market are marriage are role in girls’ access responsibilities opportunities and lacking perceptions that distance to secondary dominated by males. barriers to girls’ to STEM hinder their confidence to pursue STEM. women are inferior schools (especially at the Parents tend to STEM education. education. Certain participation in the Girls also have a higher deter women from upper secondary level) withdraw support for trades are not labor force. dropout rate after secondary joining STEM fields. and limited number of women to pursue accepted for girls school because of poverty, In addition, teenage such facilities in rural higher education and women, early marriage, and pregnancy is high— areas. In states where the because they are especially in TVET. motherhood. Dear of gender- preventing girls from government does not expected to get based violence also keeps taking up STEM have higher secondary married early. Girls are girls out of school, especially education and schools, education is also not encouraged to in rural areas. Furthermore, careers. often too costly to permit pursue STEM for the perception that even if girls’ participation. dowry-related reasons: girls are educated, they would parents aspire to find have limited livelihood highly educated men opportunities such as farming as husbands for their and manual labor. daughters, which could imply higher dowries. Girls pursuing STEM education are considered a financial burden for the family. Absence of role More male than female The absence of A low percentage of Having fewer female Girls and women The absence of models (secondary, teachers. In TVET male female teachers in women professors in teachers, particularly lack role models in proper guidance TVET, university teachers are about four times rural schools adds to universities discourages in STEM subjects, STEM fields, which and female role education) more common, leaving an impediments to girls’ women from enrolling. discourages girls from keeps them from models—along absence of role models for STEM education. taking up certain pursuing STEM with male-centric women. subjects. education when values and they enter tertiary sociocultural education. biases—hinder women from opting for STEM education. Lack of trained For lack of teachers trained in Remote schools have Subject specialist Teachers are less Teachers are not Insufficient There is a serious teachers (secondary, STEM, school lessons are a limited supply of teachers are in short trained in science and sufficiently qualified numbers of shortage of TVET, university insufficient for students. well-trained teachers. supply, especially in computer education, and lack teachers are teachers in TVET education) Hence they turn to private science and mathematics especially in rural information related trained in STEM due to low pay and coaching—an additional at the secondary and community schools. to STEM education. subjects. lack of expense that most families university levels. There is also a lack of There is also a lack opportunities for are unable or unwilling to resources in these of human resources career bear. There is also a schools relative to to teach STEM development. difference in competencies of urban ones. subjects. 40 urban and rural teachers, especially in STEM. Nonavailability of The labor force has poor There are few STEM Many students are Most rural women Higher education Not having Female enrollments STEM education representation of women , jobs in the labor enrolled in university attend higher opportunities and appropriate higher in STEM courses are institutions/ and unemployment is high market, so fewer education, but some education at job opportunities in education often low because lack of opportunities among graduates. people choose STEM attend coaching centers community campuses STEM fields are institutions nearby there is a (secondary, TVET, courses. not accessible to lower- near their villages. lacking on the translates to girls perception that university education) and middle-income These campuses do islands. not being allowed some occupations students—influencing not offer STEM to travel far from and trades are their decision to pursue subjects. home to pursue better suited to STEM. Moreover, few STEM education. men. schools in tribal areas offer STEM courses in higher secondary education. Cost of education The cost of higher education Parents’ economic Education is costly, Parents have different The cost of living Enrollments (TVET, university is considered a big barrier to status is a especially with the social and economic forces young adults decrease in higher Education) pursuing STEM. determining factor expense of extra coaching expectations for girls to enter the education because for girls to continue when government- and boys, favoring workforce as early it is unaffordable. education, especially supported schools are education for boys. as possible, making if they do not receive unavailable. These costs it impossible to state-sponsored become decisive barriers pursue a full-time scholarships. for certain groups and higher education marginalized populations. degree. Source: World Bank staff and Authors’ findings. 41 5. THE LEAKY PIPELINE The “leaky pipeline”—the consistent loss of girls’ and women’s potential STEM talent throughout the education system and into the labor market—occurs both globally and in South Asia. It reduces the diversity of perspectives and insights that drive technical progress and economic development. The main “leaks” in the pipeline for females result from: • Low enrollments in science tracks in upper secondary education. • Limited pursuit of STEM programs in postsecondary education. Men account for 75 percent of TVET students in STEM, and 70 percent of female undergraduate STEM students are in health sciences. • Poor workforce outcomes. In many South Asian countries, women’s labor force participation rates are much lower than men’s. Similarly, South Asian women—especially more educated ones—tend to have higher unemployment rates. Data for Bhutan show the leaky pipeline throughout undergraduate education as well as for employment in STEM disciplines requiring a bachelor’s degree or more (tables 5.1a and 5.1b). At every transition point the available talent pool shrinks considerably for both males and females. But for (nonhealth) STEM paths it is especially clear for females beginning in upper secondary education. From then on, the attrition rate for females in STEM fields exceeds that for males. Women are also significantly underrepresented in employment in Bhutan; labor force participation rates are 71 percent for men and 61 percent for women. In addition, there appears to be a mismatch between graduates and demand in several fields—as shown by comparing the number of bachelor’s level graduates with employment in, say, electrical engineering or ICT with current employment. This mismatch has implications for retaining STEM workers, and especially for women’s employment opportunities. Table 5.1a. Gender disaggregated data on STEM education in Bhutan Source: World Bank staff and Authors’ findings. 42 Table 5.1b. Gender disaggregated data on STEM careers in Bhutan requiring Bachelor’s Degree Source: World Bank staff and Authors’ findings. 43 6. POTENTIAL INTERVENTIONS FOR SOUTH ASIA As female access to primary, secondary, and tertiary education increases across South Asia, the expectation is that more women will enter the workforce and pursue careers requiring more advanced skills—including those associated with STEM—and advance to leadership positions. But it will take time for that to happen. Moreover, the gender disparities between higher education enrollments and labor force participation rates indicate that deliberate policy interventions and cultural shifts will be required to bring greater balance to gender representation in STEM and other career fields. Globally, several factors have been identified as contributing to female underrepresentation in STEM education and the STEM workforce, including family and peers, societal norms and pressures, and education considerations. 44 In many cases these are amplified in South Asia. This report focuses on a more limited set of potential interventions for South Asia based on the analysis of regional trends, challenges, and capabilities covered in previous chapters. A strong pathway from STEM education to careers inherently depends on an integrated, systematic approach that provides students with the skills and motivations to pursue STEM fields and explicitly focuses on addressing the “leaky pipeline” for girls and women that hinders the diversity crucial to a robust STEM sector. Education is assessed by different levels, from basic to university level, and for underrepresented groups, including but not limited to gender, and interventions for the labor market to strengthen female participation in STEM careers. The three intervention points—designed for maximum impact to ease the attrition observed as girls and young women choose their educations, careers, and life paths—are enrolling in upper primary and lower secondary education, for planning and enrolling in tertiary education, and entering and early years in the labor force (including those not currently entering the labor force). Two types of interventions can be considered. First, those that can be implemented by interested stakeholders and that support inclusion in the broader STEM enterprise, either in a particular country or South Asia as a whole. One potential stakeholder is the WePOWER initiative (see box 1.1). But the recommendations can be adapted to any STEM sector or any interested stakeholder or actor. Second, interventions generally require the full engagement of governments. Though these interventions may be larger in scope and demand a fuller policy discussion, they can build on some of the stakeholder interventions and the evidence that has been developed because of the actions in the sector or by stakeholders, and on global good practices. Stakeholder Interventions Stakeholder interventions can be done at different scales, including by firms, nonprofits, nongovernmental organizations, or governments. And they can be implemented locally, nationally, or regionally. Though examples exist from around the world, interventions can be tailored to local audiences and circumstances. Some versions of these actions are frequently attempted, including in South Asia. But a coordinated intervention, with well-designed materials and evaluation processes, significantly increases the potential impact and the likelihood of adoption by stakeholders, STEM sectors, and even governments. Though the cost might be higher in terms of financial and staff support, a broader, more inclusive STEM workforce offers considerable benefits. 44 UNESCO (2017). 44 Sectoral outreach At all levels of the education system, outreach from different actors in STEM can shape perceptions of STEM activities and careers for students and their parents. Health sciences are a readily acknowledged STEM career field, but others are failing to attract enough women. Systematic and standardized resources, coupled with well- designed dissemination, develop interest in STEM subjects, jobs, and careers. Examples include: • Multimedia aids—developed by educators on STEM jobs and economic and societal benefits. • Role models—interviews with current workers on jobs, educational expectations, corporate benefits, and career paths. • Open houses and tours—showcasing local facilities such as factories and power plants. Support for STEM outreach By building relationships with students and raising awareness, stakeholders build knowledge and human capacity in STEM outside the formal academic environment. Activities can include: • After-school programs focused on STEM problem-solving. • Science fairs and competitions, with coordination and judges provided by STEM stakeholders. • Summer camps and programs offering extracurricular STEM programs to interested and talented students. Support for STEM in primary and secondary education While education and curriculums are generally a government responsibility, interested stakeholders can provide additional resources that support learning and align with teaching goals. Local and regional challenges offer a concrete path to teaching the importance and relevance of STEM to daily life. Examples include: • Problem-based learning examples from STEM sectors and stakeholders. • Practical and lab exercises. • Field trips to demonstrate concepts taught in the classroom. • Science museums that connect classroom concepts to careers, business sectors, and societal challenges. In 2013 Singapore’s Ministry of Education launched the STEM focused Applied Learning Programme, which encourages practically oriented learning experiences and connects to current and anticipated societal and business needs. Schools can work with businesses in designing curriculums. Support for STEM teachers High teacher quality and female STEM teachers help retain girls in STEM subjects. In addition to providing supplementary classroom materials as described above, stakeholders can provide resources and support teachers by: • Offering mini-internships to learn more about STEM careers and showcase STEM applications and experiential learning. • Mentoring teachers on STEM subjects and curriculums. Outreach to tertiary education STEM stakeholders must encourage women studying STEM at universities and TVET institutions to complete their studies and enter the workforce. Dedicated actions are needed to raise awareness and ensure that female students are aware that the full participation of women in employment is encouraged and facilitated. Opportunities for outreach include: 45 • Participation on advisory boards by universities, faculty, and departments. • Targeted career fairs. • Internships in STEM fields. • Departmental seminars and lectures by sector professionals. • Presentations on careers and corporate cultures. • Role models, including the opportunity to speak with female STEM professionals. • Tours of facilities. • Supporting, through strategic finance and activities, extracurricular clubs and Women in Engineering chapters. Support for female STEM students Efforts to recruit a diverse workforce can benefit from identifying potential employees well before they complete tertiary education. Offering scholarships to strong students ensures that financial constraints are not a burden in finishing a program and can build an early rapport. Internships provide practical experience and introductions to potential employers, as well as opportunities for companies to benefit from interns. Strengthening STEM curriculums Every STEM discipline in tertiary education benefits from contributions from associated sectors to developing and delivering the curriculums offered to students. Sector stakeholders—ranging from global entities to local employers—are expected to provide guidance on course work, lab design and equipment, and even problems and mentoring for design courses. Though much of this can be done informally, participation on advisory boards, responding to employer surveys, and regular engagement with departments strengthens academic offerings and should strengthen links between students and STEM stakeholders. Building the capacity of STEM faculty, including women Though stakeholders should engage with all faculty to build capacity, working specifically with female faculty can play a critical role in the retention, success, and careers of female STEM students. To strengthen STEM teacher and research capacity in higher education, stakeholders may: • Deliver guest lectures and solicit invited talks to students. • Provide internships to faculty. • Offer research funding and consulting opportunities. • Share equipment, either through donations or access, to build partnerships. Corporate and sector outreach To recruit and retain workers, employers must show that they value the contributions of females and that they take seriously their commitment to an inclusive work environment. Potential corporate initiatives include: • Equal pay for women. • Access to childcare facilities. • Formal maternity and family leave policies. • Professional networking opportunities. • Corporate data on retention and advancement rates for women employees at different levels. • Commitments to female representation on major committees. • Targeted training and mentoring for women employees on leadership and technical skills. • Policies and actions supporting women in leadership roles, such as commitments to board memberships. 46 The U.K. WISE Campaign works with STEM businesses, policymakers, schools, and other organizations to encourage women and girls to pursue STEM careers. It also engages directly to improve gender balance in STEM roles. A global nonprofit could be a catalyst—supported by top CEOs and companies—that seeks to develop more inclusive workplaces for women. It provides workshops, diagnostic tools, good practices, and advisory services to build organizations committed to advancing women in the workplace. Chevron, the global energy giant, in 2015 developed The Chevron Way: Engineering Opportunities for Women, an initiative that focuses on attracting, retaining, and advancing women in the company. Government Interventions Governments could implement some specific interventions to support the broader STEM enterprise in South Asia and the increased participation of girls and women in STEM education and careers. The interventions proposed here focus on strengthening the pipeline of talented females for STEM education and careers, as well as building the knowledge and data needed to retain women in STEM at all levels. In 2021 the United States Office of Science and Technology Policy released Best Practices for Diversity and Inclusion in STEM Education and Research: A Guide by and for Federal Agencies, a publication that summarizes good practices and provides extensive recommendations for government. Primary and secondary education STEM teaching Without a strong cohort of properly trained teachers for students at all levels, STEM sectors will suffer from a weaker workforce at all levels. Though credentials do not guarantee better teaching, in OECD countries about half of lower secondary mathematics and science teachers have a master’s degree. And about two-thirds of these teachers are women, providing mentors and role models to students in their classrooms. Strengthening teacher training and providing the resources to enable schools to have qualified, dedicated mathematics and science teachers for all students is critical to building the STEM workforce of the future and ensuring that all segments of society—including women and underrepresented groups—contribute to STEM- based economic development. Tertiary education STEM teaching A vibrant STEM sector requires a strong STEM higher education sector. As tertiary education continues to expand and to enroll more women, there must be continuous improvement in the quality and quantity of faculty. Initiatives should include: 47 • Increasing the share of faculty and lecturers with Ph.Ds. • Increasing the number and proportion of female faculty in STEM disciplines. • Reducing faculty-student ratios to improve teaching and mentoring, and to facilitate opportunities for more extensive research. • Providing ongoing support for professional development to ensure that STEM faculty remain at the fore of knowledge generation and dissemination. Quality STEM basic and secondary education With increasing enrollments and increased demand for STEM education, education systems must invest in the systems needed to teach to a global standard to prepare a STEM competent labor force. This includes: • Benchmarking academic performance against international standards. • Ensuring that sufficient local capacity exists for upper secondary students interested in STEM tracks. • Prioritizing the availability and accessibility of appropriate water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities for girls and women in all schools and education facilities. • Providing dormitories at schools for female students who cannot live at home. • Incorporating problem-based learning into curriculums. • Creating resilient, sustainable laboratory and IT facilities in schools at all grade levels. • Supporting science fairs and competitions for interested students. • Constructing, where appropriate, dedicated science-focused schools to facilitate access for interested and qualified students. Quality STEM tertiary education For most STEM disciplines, academic programs should combine international standards with local considerations. In addition, targeted interventions to recruit and retain talented women and other underrepresented groups strengthen STEM programs. Initiatives can include: • International benchmarking and accreditation for STEM programs. • Problem-based learning in national accreditation. • Resilient and sustainable teaching, laboratory, and IT facilities. • Strong public funding for research and development, with links to industry partnerships. • Dedicated dormitories and learning communities for female STEM students. • Dedicated scholarship and fellowship programs for female STEM students. • Internship opportunities for all STEM students, especially female students. Enhanced gender-disaggregated data on STEM education, with a focus on upper secondary, TVET, and university programs There is a strong need for complete disaggregated data on STEM education at all levels. Readily available data would enable better interventions and stronger alignment between education outcomes (graduates) and employment. Specific topics to consider include: • Enrollment data for STEM tracks in upper secondary schools. • Disaggregated, cumulative enrollment and completion data for TVET STEM programs. • Disaggregated, cumulative enrollment and completion data on STEM programs and disciplines in higher education institutions. • Graduation data for TVET and undergraduate students for each STEM discipline. • Disaggregated data on female teachers and university academic staff in STEM disciplines. 48 Enhanced data on women in the workforce There is a strong need globally, including in South Asia, for better disaggregated data that provide a more complete picture of women in the labor market, especially in STEM careers. Better data would enable additional, evidence-based interventions to be considered. Though the categories defined by the International Labour Organization (ILO) are useful, they can be too broad to provide detailed information on, for example, the different types of STEM careers and the training required to best contribute to the workforce. In 2007 Norway began requiring boards of listed companies to have at least a 60/40 gender balance. Within 10 years, female board membership rose from 6 to 42 percent; the average in Europe is 22 percent. To effectively benchmark national performance in STEM, labor market surveys must: • Consider sector-based employment in STEM disciplines. • Clearly distinguish and report between STEM careers requiring bachelor’s degrees (and above) and those requiring TVET credentials (or apprenticeship). • Consider age and educational attainment in STEM career progression. • Provide longitudinal data reflecting rapid changes in the educational background of the workforce. • Effectively track considerations such as maternity and family leave and time away from the labor force. These issues are especially important for women in the labor market. • Conduct tracer studies of student cohorts—including those with upper secondary credentials, TVET credentials, and university degrees. Finally, individual and coordinated policy efforts and actions that could address the socioeconomic challenges identified in table 4.1 are explained in table 5.1. Table 5.1 Recommendations to help girls and women pursue STEM education and careers, by education level Education level and challenge All levels Data, curriculums, teachers, and social norms Gather enhanced gender-disaggregated data on STEM education. Complete disaggregated data on STEM education at all levels. Readily available data will enable better designed interventions, and stronger alignment between education outcomes/graduates and employment. Specific aspects for consideration: Gather enhanced data on Women in the Workforce: There is need (globally, including in the South Asia region) for better disaggregated data that provides a more complete picture of women in the labor market, and especially in STEM careers. With better data, additional interventions can be considered that are evidence-based. While ILO categories are useful, they can be too broad to provide detailed information on, for example, the different types of STEM careers and the training required to best contribute to the workforce. To effectively benchmark national performance in STEM, labor market surveys need to consider: Strengthen STEM Curricula: To harness contributions from associated sectors, develop and deliver curricula linked to every STEM discipline in tertiary education. Global bodies to local employers can provide formal and informal guidance on course work, lab design and equipment, and even problems (and mentoring) for designing courses to strengthen the academic offerings and provide stronger links between students and the sector: 49 Provide additional teaching and learning resources. While education, and curricula, are generally the responsibility of the government, interested stakeholders can provide additional resources that support learning and align with curricula objectives. Local and regional challenges offer a concrete path to teaching the importance and relevance of STEM to daily life. Examples may include: Support STEM Teachers: To foster a strong cohort of quality teachers teaching students at all levels so that the STEM sectors do not suffer from a weakened STEM workforce at all levels, • Strengthen teacher training programs and provide the resources to enable schools to have dedicated, qualified science and mathematics teachers so that all students have access to STEM education. This is critical to building the STEM workforce of the future and to ensuring that all segments of society, including women and under- represented groups, contribute to STEM based economic development. • Requisite training for teachers handling STEM subjects and deploying only them to teach the curricula. • Stipulate that all teachers desiring to teach STEM subjects have a master’s level degree. While acknowledging that credentials are not a guarantee of better teaching, it is noteworthy that in OECD countries, for lower Secondary Schools, 47 percent of Mathematics teachers and 52 percent of science teachers have a master’s level degree. At the same level, approximately 2/3 of Mathematics and Science teachers are women, providing mentors and role models to students in their classrooms. To improve teacher quality and strengthen female STEM teachers to support the retention of girls in STEM subjects, in addition to providing supplementary classroom materials, provide resources and support directly to teachers by: • Offering short-term internships to (a) learn more about STEM careers and (b) showcase STEM applications and experiential learning. • Mentoring teachers on STEM subjects and curricula. Strengthen the Capacity of STEM Faculty Members, including Female Faculty Members: To engage with all faculty members and specifically to work with female faculty members who play a critical role in the retention, success, and future careers of female STEM students, and to strengthen STEM teaching and research capacity in higher education: • Deliver Guest Lectures on campus and solicit Invited Talks to the sector. • Provide internships to faculty members. • Offer research funding and consulting opportunities. • Share equipment, either through donations or access, to build collaborations. Secondary, TVET, and Higher Education Gender Stereotyping • Facilitate building confidence among girls in rural schools to pursue STEM education. • Promote a communications strategy on the hopes and aspirations of girls, to discourage early marriage, and motherhood. • Adopt strategic communication strategies to diffuse positive messages about the perceptions that women can pursue STEM fields. • Frame women-friendly policies that enable women to fulfill their professional responsibilities along with their reproductive responsibilities. • Promote a communications strategy on the hopes and aspirations of girls, and the value of girls pursuing STEM education for higher income generation within families. • Promote a communications strategy on the hopes and aspirations of girls, discourage the payment of dowries, and the value of girls pursuing STEM education for higher income generation within families. • Set up a functional body to address cases of sexual harassment. • Nurture the application of STEM education in fields that are perceived to be women friendly. ICT related services can facilitate women to pursue home-based work. • Introduce innovative measures such as “feminization of STEM subjects and their application” to reduce stigma and societal stereotypes attached to STEM subjects. 50 Secondary, TVET, and Higher Education Absence of Role Models • Create strategic communications around the positive role of women in STEM by bringing role models to diffuse the messages. • Promote career counselling and guidance and facilitate exchange of information by role models. • Promote career counselling and guidance and facilitate exchange of information by role models to dispel the perception that even if girls are educated, they would have limited livelihood opportunities such as farming, and manual labor. • Develop STEM values-based strategic communications against cultural biases, career counseling and guidance. • Create awareness sessions targeting school students, parents, and communities by showing female role models, case studies, and job opportunities in TVET institutions. • Set up STEM focused colleges specifically for women and hire women teachers trained in STEM subjects. • Foster real-life applications of STEM, problem-solving and critical thinking among teachers, trainers, and students, using the demonstrative effects of women in STEM subjects. • “Feminization” of certain streams could encourage girls and women to center certain fields. For example, home- based work with ICT-related services. • Provide incentives for STEM-related organizations to increase representation for women, especially at the upper management level. Institute policies to improve the gender composition of the upper management in organizations. Secondary, TVET, and Higher Education Lack of Trained Teachers • Target teacher training for women in STEM education. • Equalize urban-rural competencies in STEM teacher training through real-life applications of STEM according to the urban-rural environments. • Consider introducing digital literacy and technology curriculum, foster learning/blended teaching-learning In STEM related subjects. • Create a cadre of subject-specialists (women teachers) in Science and Mathematics at higher education level. • Target subsidized, even free training for women teachers in science and mathematics. • Target teacher training in STEM subjects with incentives for taking up STEM education. • Target teacher training in science and mathematics with incentives for urban teachers to teach in rural areas for short periods of time. • Develop science and computer laboratories in rural schools. • Target teacher training in STEM subjects to foster technical knowledge and problem-solving skills. • Invest in female teachers and educators with the right knowledge and tools to inspire and help girls interested and enrolled in schools. TVET and Higher Education Non-availability of STEM Education Institutions/Lack of Opportunities • Facilitate the upgrading of teacher training and classroom teaching-learning of STEM to reduce dependence on external coaching centers that are not accessible to students from the middle class, and students from lower income status. This needs to be aimed at positively influencing women’s decision to pursue higher education in STEM. • Target STEM teacher training and school subject areas in STEM related courses at upper/higher secondary education in tribal areas. • Consider setting up “centers of excellence” that include career counselling and assistance to facilitate opportunities in the STEM fields in catchment islands. • Reassess the catchment areas of upper secondary schools to review the distance from home to school for girls and consider options such as bussing girls to school. • Increase the number of upper secondary schools in rural areas. • Most girls opt for attending higher education in community campuses that are in rural areas since the campuses are closer to their villages. Offer STEM related subjects in the community campuses. • Introduce female incentive schemes to draw young women into STEM education. • Consider the feminization of some of the occupations or trades that are considered to be more “masculine”. 51 • Increase security for girls, and women by creating safe schools to STEM the fear of gender-based violence. • Promote the establishment of early childhood development (ECD) centers to provide girls and women with secure options for pursuing their education. • In the labor market, advocate the recruitment of female workers. • Prioritize career counseling on the importance of STEM. • Ensure greater focus on women and inclusion throughout the secondary and higher education policy documents. • Develop family/female friendly benefits to retain employees. • The cost-of-living forces young adults to enter the workforce as soon as possible. Therefore, they cannot pursue a full-time higher education degree. Therefore, consider accommodating the needs of young people who are working by convening classes in the evenings and/or weekends. • In the medium and long-term, review labor market policies and laws to make them more female friendly with equal wages for similar occupations. • Introduce diversity trades in TVET institutions to match STEM-related subjects so that women and men get the requisite skills to match technological innovation and make the state-of-the-art transition in the labor market. TVET and Higher Education The Cost of Education • Consider combinations of subsidy-incentives packages to address the high cost of higher education. For instance, a menu of options to assist students to combine tuition waiver with scholarships, internships with stipends, low- interest loans with appropriate loan-recovery or waiver options. • Provide targeted state sponsored scholarships, and internships with stipends. • Promote targeted, subsidized extra tutoring for girls from vulnerable social groups and for marginalized populations. • Consider increasing scholarships and freeships for students to pursue Science, national competitions, and exhibitions to encourage students to take Science. • Undertake a more comprehensive gender review to reform grants, placements, salary scales, and promotions in the labor market. • Introduce female incentive schemes to draw young women into STEM education. • For TVET, in the long-term develop a policy to offer a higher stipend for female students. Source: Source: World Bank staff and Authors’ findings. 52 7. Considerations for Regional Integration Policymakers should care about STEM education for girls and women for many reasons. Societies that understand STEM-related topics—such as climate change, clean water, and sustainability—are better able to respond to global challenges. Inclusive economic growth makes countries more likely to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals. To realize their potential, countries must make available and pursue opportunities for as many of their people as possible. And governments and their development partners should strengthen STEM education and advance women’s participation in the workforce. Countries with larger shares of workers trained in STEM grow faster and advance more quickly, enabling opportunities for and benefiting all members of society. Countries that invest in STEM education and skills expand talents that contribute to social, economic, and technological advancements, facilitating growth and supporting progress toward the Sustainable Development Goals. STEM investments also pay rich dividends to countries at every stage of development. For South Asian countries— Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka—a foundation is enhancing the education and skills of girls and boys and expanding STEM opportunities for women and men entering the workforce. STEM education and careers in South Asia offer potential for regional cooperation provided the challenges can be constructively addressed. Regionally, the sharing of waterways, roadways, railways, and technology have direct bearing on countries’ welfare. Further, as part of growing efforts to foster a green economy, the application of STEM education and skills from the upper secondary school, TVET, and university levels will take on new meaning. Societies that better understand STEM-related topics such as climate change, clean water, and sustainability are better able to respond to global and regional challenges. Women are disproportionately affected by climate change, especially in fragile environments where livelihoods are directly affected by weather patterns. With the migration of workers across countries in South Asia, STEM education, skills, and careers are critical ingredients for cross-border trade. Thus, new ways of defining STEM occupations are required in South Asia to enhance STEM education, knowledge, and portability. Preparing a critical mass of semiskilled and skilled STEM migrant workers would have cross-border value, especially for migrants from smaller to larger economies. South Asian countries could collaborate on preferential trade through the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) to assess the prospects, challenges, and solutions for STEM education and careers and reap the dividends of collective action—whether in trade, tourism, or telemedicine, through the rotating chairpersonship of the SAARC, or by instituting fellowship and scholarship schemes, youth volunteer programs, visa exemption reciprocity agreements, and more communication networks for journalist. Science and technology is among the 12 areas of collaboration in the SAARC Integrated Program of Action. There are opportunities for deeper integration through science congresses for solving climate challenges, advancing agriculture technology solutions, and facilitating the exchange of students, professors, and professionals. Digital connectivity has also brought rapprochement between nations. SAARC member countries are harnessing this for telemedicine networking. Other knowledge networking and exchange areas in science and technology could support options for green jobs. Other opportunities for the application of STEM education, knowledge, and skills to foster regional integration include: 53 • Collaborating to create cross-border programs accreditation and developing equivalence credits across STEM programs. • Providing Skills Passports to facilitate portability of STEM skills with equivalence credits. • Facilitating knowledge and skills acquisition in such areas as harnessing the use of drones to assess environmental damage. This will require collaboration on the use of airspace in the South Asia Region. The responsible deployment of the drones, their programming, the analysis of data gathered, the geomapping of hotspots, and solutions to address the reduction, recycling and resuse of the materials to turn waste to wealth requires new STEM skills. • Tackling air pollution by using renewable energy generation, transmission, distribution, and utilization. • Moving faster to address transboundary weather events and protect their people by sharing resources, data, and expertise. • Building resilience in food systems by harnessing renewable energy and adopting climate-smart strategies for green buildings and transport in cities. • Exploring digital opportunities that encourage intraregional investments in STEM education, expanding access to services and markets, create jobs, foster innovation, lower transaction costs, and improve people’s lives. STEM education and digital literacy could offer game-changing solutions to the challenges to digitization, cybersecurity, and broadband internet and smartphone access. • Drawing on ongoing collaborations. For instance, significant untapped hydropower resources in the Himalayan region could help Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal trade in electricity, buy and sell surplus power, and meet their power needs with fewer carbon emissions. • Replicating the ongoing collaboration between India and Sri Lanka to boost scientific knowledge, extend cooperation on science and technology, and explore new areas for collaboration on wastewater technology, biotechnology, sustainable agriculture, aerospace engineering, robotics, big data analytics, and artificial intelligence. To advance these goals, South Asian countries could host workshops with scientists and innovators to lead discussions and inspire collective action on green jobs and development; strengthen national research and education networks, finance STEM research, and foster the exchange of expertise across education institutions; target scholarships to help and encourage girls and women remain focused on STEM education in secondary education and beyond; strengthen outreach by the WePOWER initiative to harness the benefits of collective action, and consider similar initiatives in areas such as technology; and invest in cross-border trade. STEM skills and experiences, coupled with a diversity of perspectives, are integral to building South Asia’s STEM workforce in research and in developing new products and ideas. Thus, inclusion and diversity must be championed by governments and by STEM stakeholders that stand to benefit from more diverse workforces. 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Montreal. http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/reducing-global-poverty-through-universal- primary-secondary-education.pdf. ———. 2020. “Data for the Sustainable Development Goals.” Montreal. http://uis.unesco.org/. ———. 2021. “Global Flow of Tertiary-Level Students.” Montreal. http://uis.unesco.org/en/uis-student-flow. World Bank. 2020. Human Capital Index 2020. Washington, D.C. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/human-capital. ———. 2021. World Development Indicators 2021. Washington, D.C. 57 Annex 1 Alternate Frameworks for Assessing Girls’ and Women’s Progress on STEM Education and Careers Several approaches have emerged to assess the range of factors that influence how poised girls and women are to engage in STEM education and exploit STEM-related opportunities in the workplace. The hybrid multidimensional framework used in this report combines ecological frameworks developed by UNESCO (for global analysis) and the New York Academy of Sciences (for the United States; see box 1.2). The Cheryan Ziegler Montoya Jiang Psych Bulletin offers a dynamic framework for consideration based on the gender system in the United States. The framework centers choices, preference, and interests as influencers and being influenced by: (a) variability in the micro-level factors such as early experience, self-efficacy, abilities and performance, and attitudes toward STEM, (b) variability in macro-level factors such as stereotypes in the fields, negative stereotypes of women, role models, discrimination, labor market, and peer support, and (c) variability in the representation of women across STEM fields such as beliefs, prescriptions, and roles. According to the Equity-Oriented Conceptual Framework for K-12 STEM literacy 45 that focuses on a framework that centers on disrupting systems of oppression and privilege to foster societal change agents include variables such as: dispositions, STEM identity development, empowerment, critical thinking, and problem solving, utility and applicability, empathy, and dispositions. 45 Equity-Oriented Conceptual Framework for K-12 STEM literacy | International Journal of STEM Education | Full Text (springeropen.com) 58 Source: Cheryan Ziegler Montoya Jiang Psych Bulletin in Press | PDF | Science, Technology, Engineering, And Mathematics | Gender (scribd.com) 59 STEM Opportunity Index | NMS.org Equity-Oriented Conceptual Framework for K-12 STEM literacy | International Journal of STEM Education | Full Text (springeropen.com) 60 Bian et al. (2018) argue a brilliance bias exists against girls in STEM fields as they are less likely to be considered “really, really smart” in relation to boys. Ford et al. (2019) suggest this brilliance bias can be present as early as elementary school, discouraging girls from pursuing STEM interests at young ages, making it difficult to spark their interest in STEM opportunities later in their academic careers. Successful K-12 STEM Education: Identifying Effective Approaches in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics | The National Academies Press (nap.edu) • In particular, students who had research experiences in high school, who undertook an apprenticed mentorship or internship, and whose teachers connected the content across different STEM courses were more likely to complete a STEM major than their peers who did not report these experiences. • Research in STEM learning and teaching over the past two decades allows the committee to characterize effective STEM education.41 Briefly, effective instruction capitalizes on students’ early interest and experiences, identifies, and builds on what they know, and provides them with experiences to engage them in the practices of science and sustain their interest. • The research shows a clear link between what students are expected to learn and mathematics achievement: At a given grade level, greater achievement is associated with covering fewer topics in greater depth. • Key element: Teachers with high capacity to teach in their discipline. However, the evidence of their effects on student achievement is more tenuous because very little research traces the causal pathway from professional development to student achievement. • Key element Adequate Instructional Time: Overall, the decrease in time for science education is a concern because some research suggests that interest in science careers may develop in the elementary school years. • Key element: Equal access to high-quality STEM learning opportunities. disparities in teacher expectations and other school and classroom level factors, such as access to adequate laboratory facilities, resources, and supplies, contribute to gaps in science achievement for underrepresented groups. • Key Element: School Culture. Research suggests that although teacher qualifications matter, the school context—its culture and conditions—matters just as much, if not more. The elementary schools that improved student learning in mathematics and reading shared five common elements: 1. School leadership as the driver for change. Principals must be strategic, focused on instruction, and inclusive of others in the leadership work. 2. Professional capacity or the quality of the faculty and staff recruited to the school, their base beliefs and values about change, the quality of ongoing professional development, and the capacity of a staff to work together. 3. Parent-community ties that involve active outreach to make school a welcoming place for parents, engage them in supporting their children’s academic success, and strengthen connections to other local institutions. 4. Student-centered learning climate. Such a climate is safe, welcoming, stimulating and nurturing environment focused on learning for all students. 61 5. Instructional guidance that is focused on the organization of the curriculum, the nature of academic demand or challenges it poses, and the tools teachers have to advance learning (such as instructional materials) The Equality Equation: Advancing the Participation of Women and Girls in STEM (worldbank.org) Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) are vital to the economic and social prosperity of countries. These fields produce thinkers, researchers, and technicians who advance progress in health, education, food security, nutrition, transportation, infrastructure, energy, communications, and other sectors. STEM innovations play a central role in solving global challenges, such as overcoming disease, protecting the environment, increasing energy access and efficiency, and enhancing education (UN 2017). Moreover, STEM jobs are often good jobs for workers. Demand for workers in STEM is rising, and these jobs pay more (Rothwell 2013) (for evidence on Europe and Central Asian countries, see Muñoz Boudet et al. 2019; on digital and information and communication technology [ICT] jobs, see World Bank 2016). Women and girls continue to be underrepresented in STEM careers, although there is wide variation among countries and across STEM fields. The gender gap in STEM careers contributes to large gender pay gaps (ILO 2018). Beyond income disadvantages for women because they have less access to STEM careers, the gender gap in STEM is also a missed opportunity for economies and an inefficient allocation of labor and talent. Shortages in STEM workers are a threat to economies, compromising the potential to reap the benefits of advances in STEM (CEDEFOP 2016; Dobson 2013). Barriers to STEM education for rural girls: A missing link to innovation for a better Bangladesh 62 63 Annex 2. Country Profiles: STEM Education and Careers for Girls and Women in South Asia BANGLADESH Though Bangladesh has made enormous strides on girls’ education over the past 25 years, rural girls often have fewer opportunities and do not receive a quality education. To address this concern, governments, international development entities, and civil society organizations have supported interventions with impacts large and small. But Bangladesh’s education system pushes rote memorization—a leading cause of poor achievement and low retention. Primary and Secondary Education (Grades 1-10) Bangladesh has achieved gender parity in primary and secondary educations. Indeed, girls have higher enrollments (figures 1 and 2). But, gender parity is not sustained in higher education, where 46 percent of female students drop out before completion (compared with 34 percent of males). And grade 10 results for 2018-20 show that the share of females studying science was lower than that of males. Female students at that level were more likely to study humanities. Tertiary Education In tertiary education, female students in STEM institutions are limited to medical, dental, and nursing college. Enrollments in engineering, textile, and tech institutions remain poor. Just 9 percent of female college students take STEM courses. Moreover, female tertiary graduates struggle to find jobs. Unemployment among females is 21 percent, nearly three times that of males. Technical and Vocational Education and Training Though more female student are enrolling in TVET institutions, the percentage of female students remains far below that of boys. The case is similar for female teachers in these institutions, with four times as many male as female teachers. STEM Workforce Bangladesh has seen a consistent rise in female participation in the labor force (figure 3), though female participation is still half that of males. In contrast, the number of men and women working is almost the same, though the quality of employment is lower for women. And though included in the employed labor force, women often do not get paid for their work— especially in agriculture—because they are family workers. When women do receive wages, they are far lower than for men. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • A shortage of teachers in some schools for some subjects. • Weak school infrastructure for enhancing STEM learning. • Low digital literacy continues among university students. And, • Falling wage employment opportunities in farm and agroprocessing industries, leaving women at greater risk of income insecurity. 64 BHUTAN The constitution of the Kingdom of Bhutan guarantees all children free education through the completion of middle secondary school (grade 10). It also mandates that the state provide education to improve and increase the knowledge, values, and skills of the entire population, with education directed toward the full development of human personality. Thus, all Bhutanese students, no matter their ability and interest, study the same science and mathematics curriculum through grade 10. Primary and Secondary Education (Grades 1-10) The government accords the highest priority to developing the competencies of students in STEM subjects. The Royal Education Council developed a new science and mathematics curriculum for implementation in grade 9 in 2021 and grade 10 in 2020, which will further be expanded to grade 7. The different curriculums focus on supporting real-time experiential learning to stimulate the development critical thinking, communication, creativity, and collaboration. Students from grade 6 are selected to study in a STEM school, to focus on a subject for in-depth study. Since 1978, completion rates for middle secondary education have increased considerably (table 1). Higher Secondary Education In 2018, 24,529 students were enrolled in higher secondary education—52 percent of them females. Students at this level choose from arts, commerce, or science streams. Science had the lowest enrollments for both females and males and in recent years there was no significant increase in female enrollments—perhaps because of the fixed number of courses available at the higher secondary level. Technical and Vocational Education and Training TVET has been introduced in the mainstream education system, with programs integrated at all levels of the school system starting in 2016. Enrollment in TVET requires different qualifications depending on the course and availability. Most TVET students join after failing to secure government-sponsored higher education scholarships. Among 12,026 enrollments in 2008-19, 72 percent were males and 28 percent females. Higher Education Female enrollment rates are lower in higher education. Male students greatly outnumber females in science and technology, business study, engineering, and traditional medicine. In contrast, females outnumber males in nursing, general disciplines, management, language and cultural studies, information technology, and law. During 2015-20 females accounted for 43 percent of STEM students (figure 1). Labor Market The goal of every TVET trainee is to secure a meaningful job. Youth unemployment in Bhutan is 12 percent: 10 percent for males and 14 percent for females. Unemployment is highest among those with a bachelor’s degree (13 percent), followed by higher secondary (9 percent) and middle secondary (4 percent). Females account for less than a third of employed TVET graduates, and only 61 percent of female TVET graduates were employed—compared with 80 percent of male TVET graduates. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Parents’ economic status is important for girls who do not receive state scholarships and girl’s household obligations may keep them from completing secondary, higher secondary, and more advanced education. • TVET is considered college for poor people. Training and working conditions for TVET graduates, especially women, are not congenial. And, • women in Bhutan perform 71 percent of unpaid care work, which largely goes unrecognized. 65 INDIA India has a large pool of young people who complete graduate-level courses, yet many remain unemployed. As a result, Indian industry faces a shortage of trained workers. Moreover, schools and higher education institutes face challenges in producing graduates with adequate knowledge and skills. Primary and Secondary Education (Grades 1-10) The primary and secondary levels determine whether students enter higher secondary school. Though India has made a lot of progress on primary education since 2000, only a small share of students makes it to higher secondary schools—with more girls than boys doing so, even across social groups (table 1). Moreover, no significant differences exist in the average performance of girls and boys in science and mathematics (table 2). Thus, the main concern is why gender differences persist in post-secondary technical enrollments. Higher Secondary Education Subject-wise teachers are lacking in higher secondary schools. Nearly 40 percent of such schools do not have mathematics teachers, a third do not have science teachers. These shortages might influence student choices and participation. Moreover, many schools in tribal areas do not offer science classes, leaving students with no choice but to enter the arts stream. Higher Education Participation differs more in higher education. In streams like arts, general science, commerce, information technology, and some other nonscience disciplines, gender differences are insignificant (figure 1). But many more women opt for medical sciences and education disciplines—while only 3.1 percent of women are enrolled in technical and professional courses. Technical and Vocational Education and Training India has seen steady growth in the number of technical and vocational educational institutions. Traditional engineering disciplines—mechanical, electrical, civil—attract fewer women than men. Yet women outnumber men in contemporary engineering disciplines such as electronics, computer science, and information technology. Moreover, women's participation in STEM has increased and can further improve if new areas are introduced, including biotechnology and artificial intelligence. Labor Market. Female labor force participation fell from 38 percent in 2005 to 26 percent in 2018, indicating that many highly educated women—often with degrees in STEM fields—are not working. Moreover, more women than men were found employable among the talent pool. Still, more men are employed in all sectors. So, women face disadvantages in the labor market. And women's participation in science education is skewed regionally. Most women scientists belong to forward castes, with negligible participation from other social groups. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Poor learning outcomes, starting at the primary level, inhibit the transition to higher education. Moreover, high entry barriers prevent entry to science streams in higher secondary schools. • Availability of local schools, including the distance that students need to travel in both rural and urban areas to attend higher secondary schools. And, • At the post-secondary level, the feminization of some professions and the domination of men in others. These differences are seen across and within STEM disciplines and streams. 66 MALDIVES According to the government of the Maldives, STEM education raises two main issues. First, most students pursue business because the science stream is not available on their home islands. Accordingly, few students pursue STEM subjects in higher education. Second, there is greater demand for STEM-educated graduates in local industries like energy and climate resilience. The government’s strategic action plan includes regulations to support women's participation in STEM and funding for STEM education. General Education (Grades 1-12) The Maldives imposes no barriers on either sex in attaining general education. But a recent survey found that more than half of students in general education were unaware of or did not have enough information about STEM. Of those, nearly three- quarters were girls. And though mathematics is compulsory in secondary education, only 45 percent of enrolled girls study science, compared with 51 percent of boys. Higher Education Of the 40 fields of study offered in higher education Institutions, only 10 are related to STEM—and only at the bachelor's level (table 1). The rest involve non-STEM fields like education, art and humanities, business administration, journalism, health and welfare, law, and services. Moreover, students have limited opportunities for scholarships and loans for STEM fields. Labor Market In 2014 the labor force participation rate was 79 percent for men and 47 percent for women. Between 2009 and 2014 the country's unemployment rate for men dropped from 7.9 to 4.8 percent, and for women from 23.7 to 5.9 percent. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Lack of information, opportunities, and qualified teachers. • Sociocultural barriers such as early marriages, for both boys and girls. • Lack of mentorship in STEM fields for students and young people aspiring to STEM careers. And, • Lack of job opportunities and higher education opportunities in STEM fields, especially in the islands. 67 NEPAL In recent decades Nepal has reduced illiteracy and expanded access to pre-university education, significantly increasing the number of students enrolled at the basic and lower secondary levels. Still, gender disparities remain in education. For example, in 2008 male literacy was 79 percent, while female literacy was 60 percent. Primary and Secondary Education (Grades 1-10). Girls and boys have similar promotion rates at the primary and secondary levels (figure 1). Moreover, dropout rates have fallen for all students—but with lower rates for girls across all grade clusters. In grade 3 there was no gender difference in the average score on mathematics, and in grade 5 girls scored slightly higher than boys. But by grade 8, boys outscored girls in mathematics and science. Thus, the gender divide in mathematics and science learning may start in grade 8, which is important because students must choose between STEM and non-STEM subjects in that grade. Higher Secondary Education (Grades 11-12). More girls than boys are enrolled in higher secondary education, which is a major social milestone. Otherwise, most girls in Nepal are married by the time they are 17-18. Still, girls take science exams at a much lower rate than boys (figure 2). Higher Education. Gender differences in STEM become especially pronounced in higher education. The share of female graduates in some STEM subjects—engineering, science, and technology—is the lowest among South Asian countries (table 1). The female-male ratio is much higher in management, education, humanities, and social sciences. Technical and Vocational Education and Training. Large shares of females are enrolled in health diploma programs, with a gender parity of 2.36. But for engineering diplomas, gender parity is just 0.21, and for agriculture it is 0.84—reflecting traditional male preferences for those subjects. TVET is considered a second-best option in Nepal, often ignoring its academic and career potential. Labor Market. Labor force participation in Nepal is 39 percent, with 54 percent for men and 26 percent for women. In addition, the unemployment rate for women is 13.1 percent—compared with men at 10.3 percent. Thus, many women are not in the labor force, and those searching for jobs are not getting them. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Female students tend to be less confident about their STEM abilities. Even though science and mathematics are compulsory school subjects, teaching and learning are of very low quality. • A shortage of female STEM teachers. • Colleges tend to have a male-oriented culture, which can make it hard for women to feel comfortable. • Parental support for women’s education falls after the bachelor's level. And, • Social barriers and differential treatment in the labor market. 68 PAKISTAN STEM education is a relatively new concept in Pakistan. Still, with the rapid global development of science and technology, it has become an important approach to enabling innovative learning. Some 60 percent of Pakistanis are younger than 30. So, investing in STEM education and careers is a practical, pressing need for economic growth. Though the government has introduced a few STEM policies, education does not receive the attention it deserves. Since 2018 budget allocations to education have averaged just 2.3 percent of GDP. Primary and Secondary Education (Grades 1-10) Public schools teach 56 percent of students; the rest are enrolled in private institutions. About 56 percent of students are male and 44 percent are female. Higher Secondary Education Enrollments are falling for female students in higher secondary school in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, and there are considerable gaps relative to male students—reflecting the limited availability of female higher secondary institutions. More girls are enrolled in arts than in science and computer science (figure 1). In Punjab female enrollments have been rising due to better access to schools in the province, but the trend in girls’ enrollments in arts relative to science is similar. Technical and Vocational Education and Training After completing mid-level education, students can opt for a technical or vocational stream for two years at the lower secondary level. Institutions throughout the country offer such courses. Students can continue to higher secondary levels while enrolled in technical and vocational institutes. In Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Punjab, female enrollments are rising for vocational training but are quite low in technical education. One reason women’s enrollments are lower than men’s is the type of trades offered, which are of limited interest to women. Labor Market Women account for less than 18 percent of Pakistan’s engineers, scientists, mathematicians, technologists, and inventors. Leveling the playing field for women in STEM would create opportunities and unleash an untapped resource for the energy sector. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Negative gender stereotypes play a huge role in girls’ access to STEM education. • Lack of female role models and absence of guidance. • Lack of teachers for STEM subjects with the needed technical knowledge and problem-solving orientation. • Lack of higher education institutions, and affordability. • Lack of acceptance of certain trades associated with women and girls such as cooking, sewing and so on. And, • Leading barriers to enrollment are lack of mobility or transport facilities. 69 SRI LANKA Sri Lanka aspires to become globally competitive by integrating technology with every sector of its economy, investing strategically in new technologies, and linking the education system to innovations. Thus, the country needs to develop a generation of students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to achieve technological advancements and innovations that enhance productivity in a sustainable way. The government has introduced policies to encourage demand for education, including free schools, subsidized public transport, scholarships for grade 5, and a health insurance scheme. In addition, different types of schools provide opportunities for students to pursue different subject streams at the collegiate level. Primary Education (Grades 1-5) At the primary level, STEM education is limited to mathematics and environmental studies. A national assessment of grade 4 students in mathematics found that girls scored higher than boys in both 2002 and 2015. Moreover, an assessment of 2019 grade 5 exams revealed gender differences—with 54 percent girls and 46 percent of boys scoring above the cutoff marks. Secondary Education (Grades 6-11) At the secondary level, in addition to mathematics, students are introduced to science, practical technical skills, and health science. Many schools with computer labs also offer classes in information and communications technology. National assessments of grade 8 students in mathematics and science in 2012, 2014, and 2016 indicated that girls outperformed boys in these subjects (figure 2). Collegiate Education (Grades 12-13) At the collegiate level, students can select bio science, physical science, biotechnology, or engineering technology streams. They can also choose non-STEM subjects such as commerce, arts, and vocational streams. Figure 3: Undergraduate Output among State Universities Technical and Vocational Education and Training Female access to STEM TVET is limited because TVET is considered the domain of males. Higher Education. More females graduate from non-STEM streams such as arts, education, management, commerce, and law—while more males graduate from STEM streams such as engineering, architecture, and computer science. The number of undergraduates enrolled in STEM and non-STEM courses varies among state universities (figure 3). Furthermore, more postgraduate female students graduate with non-STEM than STEM degrees, so enrollments among females in STEM postgraduate degrees should be encouraged. Labor Market Sri Lanka’s labor force consists of 8.1 million workers, but female participation is just 34 percent. In 2019, 45 percent of workers were engaged in STEM-related occupations. Factors Impeding Women’s Access • Shortages of teachers in some schools for some STEM streams. • Limited infrastructure facilities in some schools to enhance STEM learning. And. • Social perceptions that some occupations are better suited to males. 70