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ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021 Volume 3 |  Trends in Identification for Development Claire Casher Anna Metz Julia Clark OTHER TITLES IN THE ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021 SERIES: Volume 1: Global ID Coverage Estimates Volume 2: Digital Identification Progress and Gaps CONTENTS Abstract v About ID4D vi Acknowledgements vii Executive Summary viii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Motivation 1 1.2 Objectives 2 1.3 Scope 2 1.4 Road Map 4 2. METHODOLOGY 5 2.1  Selecting Systems and Credentials 5 2.2 Data Sources 6 2.3 Analysis and Limitations 6 3. GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION 8 3.1 Management 10 3.2 Registration 13 3.3 Credentials 32 3.4 Use 42 4. CONCLUSION 47 REFERENCES 48 APPENDIX 1. EXCLUDED COUNTRIES 49 APPENDIX 2. ID AUTHORITY QUESTIONNAIRE 50 BOXES Box 1. What Is a Foundational ID System? 3 Box 2. Civil Registration Indicators 3 Box 3. Institutional Arrangement Terminology 10 Box 4. De Jure and De Facto Compulsoriness 14 Box 5. Collecting Sex and Gender Data 19 Box 6. Registration Limitations 30 Box 7. ID Number Formats 34 FIGURES Figure 1. The Identity Lifecycle (Summary) x Figure 2. Frequency of ID Authority Home Institution Types xiii Figure 3. Frequency of Biometric Data Collection, by Modality xiv Figure 4. Frequency of Select Identity Claim Procedures xiv Figure 5. Frequency of ID Number Formats xv Figure 6. Frequency of Credential Materials xvi Figure 7. Frequency of Biometric Use for Verification/Authentication, by Modality xvii Figure 8. The Identity Lifecycle 9 Figure 9. Frequency of ID authority Home Institution Types 11 Figure 10. Frequency of CR Authority Home Institution Types 11 Figure 11. Frequency of ID & CR Systems Managed by the Same Authority 12 Figure 12. Frequency of Compulsory Registration and Credentials 13 Figure 13. Age Requirements for Registration and Credentials 15 Figure 14. Relationship Between Age of Eligibility for Registration and for ID Credentials, by Region 16 Figure 15. Frequency of Non-National Eligibility for Registration 16 Figure 16. Frequency of Collection of Select Biographic Attributes 17 Figure 17. Frequency of (Any) Biometric Data Collection 20 Figure 18. Frequency of Various Combinations of Biometric Data Collection 20 Figure 19. Number of Fingerprints Collected 21 Figure 20. Examples of Biometric Data Collection 22 Figure 21. Frequency of Requiring Birth Certificate for Registration 23 Figure 22. Frequency of Alternatives to Document Requirements 23 Figure 23. Examples of Alternative Processes 24 Figure 24. Frequency of Use of Biometric Recognition for Deduplication 25 Figure 25. Frequency of Providing a First ID for Free 26 Figure 26. Frequency of Providing a Replacement ID for Free 26 Figure 27. Frequency of Subsidies or Waivers for ID Fees 27 Figure 28. Examples of ID Fee Waiver and Subsidy Programs 28 Figure 29. Frequency of Number of Fixed Registration Sites per 100,000 People (Rounded) 29 Figure 30. Types of Fixed Registration Locations 30 Figure 31. Examples of Fixed Registrations Sites 31  | iii Figure 32. Credential Types 32 Figure 33. Frequency of ID Systems Issuing Permanent ID Numbers 33 Figure 34. Frequency of ID Number Digit Lengths 34 Figure 35. Frequency of ID Number Formats 35 Figure 36. Frequency of Countries Issuing ID Number at Birth 35 Figure 37. Frequency of Printing ID Number on the Birth Certificate 36 Figure 38. Distribution of ID Credential Material Types 37 Figure 39. ID Credential Data Storage Features 38 Figure 40. Frequency of Printing Select Biographic Attributes on the ID 39 Figure 41. Frequency of Storing Select Biometric Attributes on the ID 39 Figure 42. Frequency of ID Credentials with Expiration Dates 40 Figure 43. Frequency of ID Validity Periods, in Years 41 Figure 44. Credential Validity Adjustments for Seniors and Children 41 Figure 45. Example of Manual Identity Verification Using ID Card in Rwanda 43 Figure 46. ID Acceptance and Requirement for Common Use Cases 43 Figure 47. Frequency of Biometric Use for Verification/Authentication (by Modality) 44 Figure 48. Example of Biometric Identity Verification in India 45 Figure 49. Frequency of Use of Permanent ID Number in Government Databases to Link Records 45 TABLES Table 1. Frequency Table for Main Variables, with Number of Complete Observations xi Table 2. Selection Criteria for Countries with Multiple Foundational Credentials 6 Table 3. Country Information Variable Details 9 Table 4. Institutional Arrangement Variable Details 12 Table 5. Details of Non-National Eligibility 17 Table 6. Registration Eligibility and Compulsoriness Variable Details 17 Table 7. Identity Claim Variable Details 25 Table 8. Identity Proofing Variable Details 26 Table 9. Registration Logistics Variable Details 32 Table 10. Matrix of ID/CR Authority Relationship and ID Number Assignment at Birth 36 Table 11. ID Number Variable Details 36 Table 12. Physical ID Credential Variable Details 40 Table 13. Credential Validity Variable Details 42 Table 14. Detailed Data on ID Acceptance and Compulsoriness for Common Use Cases 44 Table 15. Frequency of Biometric Use for Authentication/Verification, by Modality 45 Table 16. ID Use Variable Details 46 iv | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT ABSTRACT This paper accompanies the release of new qualitative indicators as part of the World Bank’s Identification for Development (ID4D) Global Dataset, vastly expanding the descriptive data available for each country’s identification (ID) system to establish a clearer picture of the global ID landscape. The authors collected new data through a survey of ID authorities and a comprehensive desk review of public materials for 175 countries, available for download at http://id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset. This paper and data are intended to serve as a benchmarking tool, an information repository, and a catalyst of discussion for ID practitioners and the broader ecosystem of stakeholders working on identity and civil registration. While the data are accurate to the best of our ability, significant missingness in some variables highlights the need for improved public information and crowdsourcing to ensure up-to-date information about these critical systems. This paper begins with a discussion of our objectives and methodology, followed by a description of global trends in identification, organized according to major stages of the identity lifecycle: registration, issuance, use, and management. In-depth country examples are provided to illustrate certain patterns and outliers. This paper is the third in a three-volume series collectively known as the 2021 ID4D Global Dataset. Volume 1 uses new data and modeling to estimate the number of globally who do (and do not) have official proof of identity. Volume 2 presents data on the digital maturity and capabilities of the world’s ID systems. This third and final volume enhances that snapshot by exploring many more facets of ID systems across 175 countries. All three volumes and corresponding datasets are available for download at http://id4d.worldbank. org/global-dataset. v ABOUT ID4D The World Bank Group’s Identification for Development (ID4D) Initiative harnesses global and cross-sectoral knowledge, World Bank financing instruments, and partnerships to help countries realize the transformational potential of identification (ID) systems, including civil registration (CR). The aim is to enable all people to exercise their rights and access better services and economic opportunities in line with the Sustainable Development Goals. This is especially important as countries transition to digital economies, digital governments, and digital societies, where inclusive and trusted means of verifying identity are essential to ensure accessibility and data protection. ID4D operates across the World Bank Group with global practices and units working on digital development, social protection, health, financial inclusion, governance, gender, and data protection, among others. To ensure alignment with international good practices for maximizing development benefits and minimizing risks, ID4D is guided by the 10 Principles on Identification for Sustainable Development, which have been jointly developed and endorsed by the World Bank Group and over 30 global and regional organizations (see http://idprinciples.org). ID4D makes this happen through its three pillars of work: 1. Thought leadership, research, and analytics to generate evidence and fill knowledge gaps  2. Global public goods and convening to develop and amplify good practices, foster collaboration across regional and global stakeholders, and support knowledge exchange 3. Country and regional action through financial and technical assistance to realize inclusive and trusted ID and CR systems  The work of ID4D is made possible through support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the UK Government, The French Government, The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), and the Omidyar Network.  To find out more about ID4D and access our other publications, visit www.id4d.worldbank. org. vi | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The 2021-2023 update to the Identification for Development (ID4D) Global Dataset was a significant undertaking that would not have been possible without the support and dedicated efforts of a large team. This work was led by the authors of this report, Claire Casher, Anna Metz, and Julia Clark, under the guidance of Vyjayanti Desai. The authors wish to acknowledge, with deep gratitude, the many people who contributed to the Dataset project as well as this report on Trends in Identification for Development, which is the third in a series to accompany the Dataset release. This includes Andrea Barone, Marie Eichholtzer, Daria Lavrentieva, and Robert Palacios (World Bank) for their insightful peer reviews and feedback on the methodology and presentation of the analysis for this volume. In addition, we thank Arnelyn (Mitch) Abdon (World Bank) and Chris Phillips (Circle Graphics) for their creativity and diligence as they developed many of the data visualizations featured in this report. Many colleagues, including Estefania Calderon, Nay Constantine, Faher Elfayez, Jonathan Marskell, Reina Ntonifor, Vasiliki Papagianni, Ana Quiroz, Aliaksandra Tyhrytskaya, and Emmanuel Vassor, also made significant contributions to the broader administrative data collection, validation, and publication process. Finally, continued improvements to the ID4D Global Dataset would not be possible without continued support from ID4D’s Multi-Donor Trust Fund partners, including the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, the UK Government, The French Government, The Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad), and the Omidyar Network. vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This paper is the third in a three-volume series. The first volume, Global ID Coverage Estimates, uses new data and modeling to estimate the number of globally who do (and do not) have official proof of identity. The second volume, Digital Identification Progress and Gaps, presents data on the digital maturity and capabilities of the world’s ID systems. This third and final volume enhances that snapshot by exploring many more facets of foundational ID systems across 175 countries. OVERVIEW Being able to prove who you are matters for equitable, sustainable development.1 Access to identification (ID) is a right on its own, and having a trusted, verifiable ID allows a person to participate fully in economic, social, and political life. As services and opportunities increasingly move online, being able to prove your identity remotely is rapidly becoming essential. For this reason, digital identity is a core building block in a country’s digital public infrastructure (DPI), along with other systems that can enable digitalization across sectors, such as digital payments and data exchange (Desai et al. 2023). Designing inclusive and effective digital ID requires a strong understanding of the current ID ecosystem to build on past successes and avoid potential missteps. The purpose of this paper is to take stock of the world’s foundational ID systems, diving deep into their policies, technologies, and operations. For ID practitioners, this paper offers a benchmarking tool to place policy decisions in context. For other stakeholders, from civil society organizations to international organizations to donors, it offers a new repository of information that can help guide coordinated efforts to build trusted and inclusive ID systems that provide a strong foundation for development and new forms of digital ID. 1 As recognized, inter alia, through Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 16.9: “to provide legal identity for all, including birth registration” by 2030. For more, see the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). viii | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES Our objective Where to find the results 1. To present a snapshot of ID system Dataset spreadsheet, available for features at the country level download at: https://id4d.worldbank. org/global-dataset 2. To identify patterns and trends Section 3 of this report, Global Trends in ID system characteristics at the in Identification global level SCOPE This ID4D Dataset release covers 175 countries2 that have a foundational system—i.e., a national ID, population register, or similar system—which issues general-purpose identification for adults. Within each system we focus on the most common credential issued to adults. Of the 198 countries included in the broader ID4D Dataset, 23 do not have such a foundational ID system thus are excluded from this data collection and analysis.3 METHODS The data used for this paper was collected between February 2021 and June 2022 in two phases: 1. First, extensive Desk Research was conducted to create a profile of each country’s ID system. Information was collected from official sources, such as government websites, press releases, and reports from UN agencies and other development partners. 2. Second, an ID Authority Questionnaire (“IDAQ”) was sent to 126 countries between August 2021 and May 2022, including a follow-up period to clarify and validate responses. The full text of the questionnaire is included in Appendix 2. Responses on ID system characteristics were received from 62 countries. The data collected—and the analysis presented in this paper—represent a snapshot of the world’s foundational ID systems as of mid-2022, and based on the best information available at the time. Changes to the ID systems and credentials that were enacted after July 2022 are outside the scope of this paper and data. 2 The term country, used interchangeably with economy in this paper, does not imply political independence but instead refers to any territory for which authorities report separate social or economic statistics. 3 See Appendix 1. Excluded Countries for a complete list. ix The data has two other limitations: missingness and scope. Regarding missingness, the Dataset includes high rates of “Unknown” values for some variables due to a lack of publicly available data and/or incomplete questionnaires. This could bias the observed patterns, and we therefore ask readers to exercise caution when interpreting global patterns for variables with higher levels of missingness. In terms of scope, there are also many important characteristics of ID systems that were not feasible to capture in this exercise. Despite validation efforts, there may still be errors or inconsistencies, particularly where it was not possible to confirm information via the IDAQ. The authors therefore welcome updates and corrections to inform future data releases. We hope that this Dataset can serve as a catalyst to improve publicly available information on these essential systems and to crowd-source corrections for future updates.4 Despite these limitations, however, these data represent a valuable starting point for further data collection and analysis. GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION Data and indicators in this paper are organized according to the major stages of the identity lifecycle: registration, issuance, use, and management (World Bank 2019). Figure 1. The Identity Lifecycle (Summary) REGISTRATION ISSUANCE USE MANAGEMENT Identity One or Identity is Maintenance data is more checked at of identities collected credentials the point of and and proofed are issued transaction credentials Summaries of some of the original data collected for this Dataset are presented in Table 1, with more variables included in the full Dataset. Here and throughout this paper, we report the number of complete observations (“n”) out of a possible 175, as well as the number of missing data points or “unknowns.” For variables with high levels of missingness, findings are prefaced with “at least” or “that we know of.” When a trend emerges from the data, it should be interpreted with this caveat in mind. 4 Please send relevant information to id4d@worldbank.org with the subject line “ID4D Global Dataset—Volume 3.” x | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Table 1. Frequency Table for Main Variables, with Number of Complete Observations Institutions Are ID & CR operated by ID authority home institution type (n=172) same authority? (n=153) 93 Interior/Home Affairs 3 Economy/Finance 78 Yes 19 Security 3 Local Affairs 75 No 15 Justice 3 Immigration/Citizenship 22 Unknown 11 Executive 2 Planning 8 Electoral 2 Statistics 7 None (independent 1 Public Service authority) 5 Digital/ICT 3 Unknown Registration Non-nationals eligible to Registration or credentials are mandatory? (n=158) register? (n=153) 129 Must register & obtain 1 Varies by sex 94 Yes credential 14 Must register, credential 17 Unknown 59 No optional 14 Registration & credential 22 Unknown both optional Biometric data collected: Face (n=153) Fingerprints (n=149) Iris (n=128) 136 Yes 134 Yes 16 Yes 17 No 15 No 112 No 22 Unknown 26 Unknown 47 Unknown ID fees: First ID issued for free? Replacement ID issued Waivers/subsidies available? (n=154) for free? (n=129) (n=70) 63 Yes 15 Yes 48 Yes 7 Yes, until a certain age 10 Yes, for renewal only 7 No 84 No 1 Yes, until a certain age 15 N/A (no fees) 21 Unknown 103 No 105 Unknown 46 Unknown (continues) xi Table 1. Frequency Table for Main Variables, with Number of Complete Observations (continued) Credentials ID Numbers: ID number issued by system is ID number assigned at birth? ID number recorded on birth permanent? (n=141) (n=124) certificate? (n=104) 135 Yes 86 Yes 58 Yes 6 No 35 No 43 No 34 Unknown 3 N/A (no number issued) 3 N/A (no number issued) 51 Unknown 71 Unknown ID Documents: Have 1D barcode? (n=148) Have 2D barcode? (n=149) Have chip? (n=152) 25 Yes 46 Yes 100 Yes 123 No 103 No 52 No 27 Unknown 26 Unknown 23 Unknown Use Biometrics used for verification/authentication: Face (n=67) Fingerprints (n=82) Iris (n=119) 31 Yes 54 Yes 6 Yes 19 No 13 No 1 No 17 N/A (not collected) 15 N/A (not collected) 112 N/A (not collected) 86 Use unknown 67 Use unknown 9 Use unknown 22 Collection/use both 26 Collection/use both 47 Collection/use both unknown unknown unknown Note: Table summarizes a subset of main variables available in ID4D’s latest Global Dataset Release. It includes the frequency of various characteristics of the country’s foundational ID system, as well as the number of complete and missing observations across 175 countries. xii | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT MANAGEMENT Foundational ID systems are typically owned and managed by a government entity, referred to generically as the “ID Authority.” In only six countries that we know of, the ID Authority is completely independent. In other cases, the ID Authority is housed within a “home institution” elsewhere in the government. The most common type of home institution is a Ministry of Interior or Home Affairs5 (at least 93 countries). In a least 77 countries, the ID system and the civil registration (CR) system are managed by the same authority. Figure 2. Frequency of ID Authority Home Institution Types The most common place to find an ID authority housed is a Ministry of Interior or Home Affairs Interior/Home Affairs 93 Security 20 Justice 15 Executive 10 Electoral 9 None (independent authority) 6 Digital/ICT 5 Local Affairs 3 Immigration/Citizenship 3 Economy/Finance 3 Statistics 2 Planning 2 Public Service 1 Unknown 3 Frequency 5 Depending on the country and legal tradition, Ministries of Interior and Home Affairs may include both territorial administration and security functions; in other cases, these are the responsibilities of separate ministries (e.g., Ministries of Public Security, or Ministries of Local Administration). On a global level, it is difficult to distinguish these cases without delving into the specific legal traditions and institutions of each country; therefore, these categories are broad and based solely on the name of the home institution. However, the Dataset provides the full name of the ID and CR authorities and home ministries so researchers are free to adjust these contextualize these classifications. xiii REGISTRATION Registration and obtaining an ID is mandatory for nationals is mandatory in at least 129 countries. Non-nationals are eligible to register in the foundational ID system in at least 94 countries, or over half of countries globally. The first credential issued is completely free in 63 countries, but replacement IDs are less likely to be free—only 15 countries that we know of issue free replacement credentials in all circumstances. However, at least 48 countries offer some type of waiver or subsidy for ID fees to reduce or eliminate the costs for those in need. Most countries have between 1 and 7 fixed registration sites per 100,000 people, and at least 72 countries also have mobile registration kits available. To establish a person’s identity during registration in the ID system, virtually all ID systems collect name, date of birth, and gender or sex (collection of other biographic details varies). In addition to biographic data, most foundational ID systems (at least 152) collect biometrics, and most commonly fingerprints and facial images. Figure 3. Frequency of Biometric Data Collection, by Modality at least at least at least 16 out of 136out of 134 out of 175 countries collect 175 countries collect 175 countries collect IRIS DATA FACE DATA FINGERPRINT DATA 112 do not 17 do not 15 do not 47 unknown 22 unknown 26 unknown The identity claim stage typically also involves documentation, and one of the most required documents is a birth certificate. In at least 90 out of 175 countries, everyone is required to present their birth certificate during registration. In an additional 26 countries a birth certificate is one of multiple accepted documents for establishing identity. However, at least 60 countries offer alternative processes for individuals who do not have the commonly required documents. Figure 4. Frequency of Select Identity Claim Procedures At least 90 countries But at least 60 countries offer require all registrants to an alternative ID registration present birth certificate process for individuals who do during ID registration, not have the required document— which can be a barrier although awareness and uptake for some. of these programs varies. xiv | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT ISSUANCE In any foundational ID system, identifying numbers are the most basic type of identifier or credential. Most countries (at least 134 out of 175) issue an ID number that is considered “permanent” (i.e., unchanging throughout a person’s lifetime). These numbers range in length from 7 to 20 digits, but most are around 10 to 13 digits. Only 21 countries that we know of generate completely random ID numbers. The most common ID number format, issued by at least 54 countries, is a mix of coded and sequential digits. Common information coded into ID numbers includes date of birth (49+ countries) and sex or gender (42+ countries). At least 86 countries issued their ID number to newborns at birth, and many of these (at least 58) print the newborn’s ID number on their birth certificate. Figure 5. Frequency of ID Number Formats The most common format for ID numbers is a mix of sequential & coded digits Sequential + Coded 56 Fully Coded 23 Fully Random 21 Fully Sequential 13 N/A (no number issued) 3 Unknown 59 Frequency Despite the rapid growth of digital credentials, physical credentials still play an important role in ID systems. These often (though not always) consist of an ID card, generally known as a “national ID” or a similar term. The majority of countries issue ID cards made of plastic (at least 125 out of 175), while at least 14 issue paper-based credentials. xv Most countries print a majority of the data that they collect on the ID credential, with the exception of attributes such as address, marital status, race, and religion, which are less commonly visible. The most common digital data storage feature that these cards have is a chip (seen in at least 100 countries). At least 46 countries’ cards have 2D barcodes like QR codes—sometimes in addition to a chip. In roughly half of the cases where biometric data is collected, it is also stored on the credential (via a chip, barcode, or both). However, it is difficult to assess whether chips or barcodes are used for digital authentication or verification in practice. Figure 6. Frequency of Credential Materials 125 are made of plastic 14 are made of paper or cardboard 36 are made of unknown material Regarding credential validity, most countries—at least 123—issue credentials to adults that expire at regular intervals. This either happens at a set number of years after the credential is issued or is mandated to happen when the holder reaches certain ages. If the former, the most common length of validity is 10 years—at least 71 countries have this policy. Only 6 countries that we know of have adopted the latter strategy of expiration based on age. Validity can also be adjusted for certain groups to accommodate their needs: in those countries where credentials do expire, at least 89 accommodate seniors by ending their expiration policy after a certain age. Validity adjustments for children are less common in the data, though at least 33 countries adjust validity for minors. xvi | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT USE Once an individual is registered in the system and issued a credential, they can engage in transactions or interactions using this credential and/or other services provided by the ID system. In some cases, government or private sector service providers may require the ID; in others, it may be accepted by not required. The data indicate that it is more common for service providers to accept their country’s national ID as one of multiple options for proof of identity, rather than to mandate that the national ID specifically must be used. The service in our study with the highest rate of requiring the national ID is bank account opening: to open an account at a bank or financial institution, 65 countries (out of 73 for which we have data) require the national ID, while another 10 accept it as one of multiple ID options. Figure 7. Frequency of Biometric Use for Verification/Authentication, by Modality Of 134 countries Of 16 countries Of 136 countries that we know collect that we know collect that we know collect FINGERPRINT DATA IRIS DATA FACE DATA at least at least at least 54 6 30 (40%) (38%) (24%) use it for verification use it for verification use it for verification and/or authentication and/or authentication and/or authentication Most ID systems offer some level of digital verification and/or authentication mechanisms beyond presenting a credential for visual inspection. When it comes to biometrics, the data suggests that fingerprints are the most common modality used for digital authentication. Of the 134 countries that we know collect fingerprint data, 54 reporting using it for verification and/or authentication (while 13 out of the 134 countries specifically do not).6 Around the same number of countries (136) collect facial images, but only 31 use it for digital authentication (while 19 out of 136 specifically do not).7 Iris data are only collected in 16 countries, and only 6 of these use it for digital authentication. 6 This information is unknown for the other 67 out of 134 countries. 7 This information is unknown for the other 86 out of 136 countries. xvii 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 MOTIVATION As digitalization accelerates, the world has a chance to define what Being able to prove who you are matters ID will mean in the digital age— for equitable, sustainable development.8 but it will be difficult to make smart Access to identification (ID) is a right, and decisions about the future direction having a trusted, verifiable ID ensures that of legal and digital identity without a person can participate fully in economic, a baseline understanding of where social, and political life. This is increasingly ID systems are today. true in the digital age. While ID has long been required to access services face- systems that can enable digitalization to-face—from opening a bank account to across sectors, such as digital payments registering for a government program— and data exchange (Desai et al. 2023). it now plays an analogous role in remote service delivery. As sectors from finance to Designing inclusive and effective digital ID requires a social protection move to digital platforms strong understanding of the current ID ecosystem to and online service delivery, the ability to build on past successes and avoid potential missteps. Digitalization has the potential to transform how securely, conveniently, and remotely verify people and businesses around the world access your identity is rapidly becoming essential. services and economic opportunities and how For this reason, digital identity is a core governments can meet the needs of their constituents. building block in a country’s digital public As digitalization accelerates, the world has a chance infrastructure (DPI), along with other to define what ID will mean in the digital age—but it 8 As recognized, inter alia, through Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Target 16.9: “to provide legal identity for all, including birth registration” by 2030. For more, see the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). 1 will be difficult to make smart decisions about the 2. Identifying patterns and trends in ID system at future direction of legal and digital identity without the global level. a baseline understanding of where ID systems are today. The purpose of this paper and data collection The data that accompanies this paper covers is therefore to take stock of the world’s ID systems foundational ID systems in 175 countries.9 There are and provide deep qualitative information on their 23 countries in the broader ID4D Dataset without policies, technologies, and operations. a foundational ID system that are excluded here. The accompanying Codebook gives context on the contents of each column’s variables and how they 1.2 OBJECTIVES were coded. Readers are encouraged to download the Dataset and use it for their own exploration and This paper is a descriptive exercise intended to serve analysis. multiple purposes. For ID practitioners, it provides a benchmark to help place policy decisions and ID Download the dataset at system trends in context. For other stakeholders invested in ID—including public and private id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset entities, civil society, researchers, and development for extensive ID system data from partners—it provides a repository of information 175 countries that can help guide coordinated efforts to build more trusted and inclusive ID systems that provide a strong foundation for development and new forms of digital ID. 1.3 SCOPE This paper is the culmination of a comprehensive This Dataset covers foundational ID systems and update to the ID4D Global Dataset, undertaken credentials, as these are typically the primary ID between 2021 and 2023. The first volume in the systems people use to establish and prove their series, Global ID Coverage Estimates, uses new data identity for a variety of services and transactions and modeling to estimate the number of people across the public and private sector (see Box 1). For globally who do (and do not) have government- each of 175 countries with foundational ID systems, issued proof of identification. The second volume, data was collected on the default credential issued The Digital Identification Gap, presents a snapshot to adults. This does not include optional “upgraded of the digital maturity and capabilities of the world’s credentials” or those primarily issued to children ID systems. This third and final volume extends that or non-nationals. These and other credentials are snapshot by exploring ID system characteristics in outside of the scope of this analysis, although depth. Together these papers and data releases further research—particularly into the features of provide a wide angle view of ID today. credentials issued exclusively to minors or foreign residents—would be valuable. Although there are The objectives of this paper are twofold: some indicators related to civil registration (CR), extensive data collection on CR systems is also 1. Presenting a snapshot of ID system characteristics beyond the scope of this paper and data collection at the country level, and (see Box 2). 9 The term country, used interchangeably with economy in this paper, does not imply political independence but instead refers to any territory for which authorities report separate social or economic statistics. 2 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Box 1. What Is a Foundational ID System? A foundational ID system provides identification to the general population for a wide variety of purposes or transactions. These systems have different names depending on the country, but typically include national ID systems, population registers, CR systems, etc. Foundational ID systems typically issue one or more types of credentials for this purpose—often a certificate, ID number, and/or card (World Bank 2019). In addition to foundational systems, most countries have multiple functional ID systems to manage identification and authentication for specific sectors or use cases—voter IDs for voting, passports for travel, and tax identification numbers for internal revenue are all common examples (World Bank 2019). While functional IDs may be used as proof of identity in many situations—particularly in the 23 countries without a foundational system10—they fall outside the scope of this paper. This paper aims to provide a snapshot as of mid- Finally, the results presented in this section of the paper 2022 based on the best information available at are descriptive in nature and not intended to endorse the time. As described in Section 2 in more detail, any specific features or approaches. The indicators the data used for this paper was collected between measured in this Dataset and paper are intended to February 2021 and June 2022. Changes to the ID provide a broad overview of key characteristics of systems and credentials featured that were enacted foundational ID systems across the globe. This analysis after June 2022 are therefore outside the scope of does not imply that such characteristics are good this paper. Even with that caveat, collecting nuanced practices—or that only variables not covered in this data about evolving systems at a global scale is a analysis are unimportant. However, we hope that future formidable undertaking, and we recognize that there researchers inside and outside the World Bank can use will always be room for improvement. Updates and this data to explore, for example, the degree to which corrections to include in the next release of data existing ID systems adhere to some of the Principles on can be submitted at id4d@worldbank.org with the Identification for Sustainable Development related to subject line “ID4D Global Dataset—Volume 3.” the inclusivity, design, and governance of ID systems.11 Box 2. Civil Registration Indicators Civil registration (CR) systems are also an important part of the identity ecosystem in each country. While ID is the focus of this paper, the ID4D Dataset therefore also includes some CR-related indicators, such as birth registration and certification logistics and the joint or separate administration of ID and CR. Over time we hope to add more details, including indicators about death registration logistics and technical interoperability. For a full discussion on the relationship between ID and CR systems, see the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). 10 See Appendix 1 for a list of the countries with no foundational ID system 11 For more on the Principles, see www.idprinciples.org. INTRODUCTION | 3 1.4 ROAD MAP identify global patterns and highlight interesting outliers. More detailed examples from countries Section 2 of this paper describes the methodology are incorporated at various points to illustrate used to select ID systems and credential for the trends that emerge in the data. Indicators are analysis, the data collection procedures and sources organized according to the major stages of the used, and the methodology used for analysis. identity lifecycle: registration, issuance, use, and Section 3 then summarizes country-level results to management (World Bank 2019). 4 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 2 METHODOLOGY This update to the ID4D Global Dataset is the foundational ID systems (if any). This list was validated latest in an ongoing effort by ID4D to generate to reflect changes in foundational ID systems and improvements in publicly available information about quantitative and qualitative evidence on the system and credential names. This validation also coverage and characteristics of ID systems identified 23 countries—out of the 198 included in around the world. ID4D published the first the ID4D Dataset—that do not have foundational ID estimate of global ID coverage in 2016. systems. These countries were excluded from data These figures were updated in 2017 and collection.12 Country authorities were also able to 2018, with some qualitative variables added correct any errors in the names of their foundational in each iteration. This paper and data release ID system and credentials as part of the ID Authority Questionnaire, described in detail below. represents a major update to the nature and volume of qualitative variables collected for For countries that issue more than one type or each country’s ID system. version of a credential, we selected one for our analysis using the criteria in Table 2. Focusing on the default credentials issues to adult nationals allows us 2.1  SELECTING SYSTEMS AND to compare, with relative uniformity, the most widely CREDENTIALS held credential type or version for each country. However, each of the “excluded” credential types— To select ID systems and credentials for analysis in those for children, credentials for non-nationals, the 2021-2023 update, we used the 2018 ID4D Global and credentials with upgraded features—would be Dataset as a starting point to create a list of countries’ valuable areas for future data collection. 12 For Volume 1: Global Coverage Estimates and Volume 2: Digital Identification Gaps proxy indicators are used for countries without a foundational ID so that these countries can be included in global estimates of the number of people without proof of identity (Volume 1) and the number of people with digital identity of various kinds (Volume 2). Since Volume 3 concerns ID system features and does not produce any global estimates, we have omitted these cases to avoid comparing unlike systems (i.e. “apples to oranges”). However, future data collection exercises could extend many of the indicators described in this paper to the most commonly used functional ID systems in these 23 countries. See Appendix 1 for a list of the excluded countries. 5 Table 2. Selection Criteria for Countries with Multiple Foundational Credentials Inclusion Criteria Excluded Credentials Issued to adults Versions of the credential issued only to children. Issued to nationals Versions of the credential issued only to non-nationals (for example, there may be different types of cards issued for permanent residents, asylum seekers, or others). Issued by default “Upgraded” versions of the credential with added features, such as a chip, that are available to adults for an additional fee. 2.2 DATA SOURCES 2022; changes to the ID systems and credentials featured that were enacted after June 2022 are The data presented in this paper was collected in thus outside the scope of this analysis. Systems are two phases: rapidly evolving, and this analysis provides only a snapshot. As noted above, the authors welcome 1. Desk Research was undertaken to create a profile submissions and corrections for future updates to of each country’s ID system. Information was this Dataset. collected only from official sources, including government websites, press releases, reports from UN agencies, and other development 2.3 ANALYSIS AND partners. LIMITATIONS 2. An ID Authority Questionnaire (“IDAQ”) was To identify the patterns showcased in this paper, sent to ID authorities in 126 countries. This was we look at the frequency of different characteristics part of the broader data collection exercise that and, in some cases, other summary statistics. A also informed Volume 1 and Volume 2 of the few areas of discussion in this paper also draw on ID4D Global Dataset update. The questionnaire data from the 2021 ID4D-Findex Survey,13 which was pre-populated with results from the is discussed in more detail in Volume 1: Global desk research and requested respondents to Coverage Estimates. confirm or correct this information, and provide missing information. These questionnaires For some variables that are not comparable across were fielded by the ID4D team and World countries due to different population sizes, we Bank country offices between August 2021 draw on population data from the United Nations and May 2022, including a follow-up period to Department of Economic and Social Affairs clarify and validate responses. The full text of (UNDESA) World Population Prospects 2022 the questionnaire is included in Appendix 2. (UNDESA 2022) to express the information as per ID Authority Questionnaire. Responses were capita ratios rather than absolute values. received from 62 countries, a response rate of approximately 50 percent. The data and analysis presented here are subject to two primary limitations. The first is that the Dataset The data collected in both phases was validated to includes high rates of missingness (recorded as the extent possible by the ID4D team and country “Unknown” values) for some variables due to a experts. Data collection for this paper ended in June lack of publicly available data and/or incomplete 13 The World Bank’s Global Findex is a nationally representative survey conducted by Gallup, Inc. that measures access to financial services and other core indicators covering 91 percent of the world’s population. For more information see https://www.worldbank. org/en/publication/globalfindex 6 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT questionnaires. To the extent that missingness A second limitation is that there are a number of correlates with any of the indictors measured in important variables related to ID system policies, this Dataset, this could bias the average results technology, and operations that were not feasible to and patterns we have highlighted. Despite this, collect during this update. We make note throughout we have chosen to share some variables with this paper of several such variables. We hope that significant missing data as a starting point for maintenance of this Dataset can eventually transition further evidence gathering. For this reason, to a collaborative effort fueled by online contributions. statistical findings in this paper are often prefaced This expansion of inputs would enable a wider Dataset. with “at least” or “that we know of” because most variables include some degree of missingness due Despite these limitations, this ID4D Dataset release to a lack of publicly available data. When a trend provides rich and novel data that we hope is a emerges from the data, it should be interpreted valuable starting point for further data collection with this caveat in mind. and analysis. METHODOLOGY | 7 3 GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION This section synthesizes country-level data account for missing responses and questions that only to illustrate notable patterns on a global apply to a subset of the 175 countries included. When interpreting summary statistics, it is important to keep scale using charts, infographics, and this missingness in mind—countries with missing data summary statistics, in addition to country may exhibit a similar pattern, or they may not. examples. As noted above, these results are entirely descriptive and not intended to The analysis in this section is grouped according to endorse any specific features or approaches the major stages of the identity lifecycle: registration, to identification. issuance, use, and management of ID systems. We begin with the latter category—including indicators Many findings are prefaced with the total number related to institutional arrangements and the home of observations (“n”) available for each variable to of the ID systems. 8 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 8. The Identity Lifecycle REGISTRATION ISSUANCE USE MANAGEMENT Identity data is One or more Identity is checked Maintenance of collected and credentials at the point of identities and proofed are issued transaction credentials Identity claim Credentialing Authentication Maintenance A person claims their Credentials and Tests of asserted Updating, revoking, identity by providing authentication factors credentials/factors to reactivating, retiring, etc. personal data and are issued and bound establish confidence that identities and credentials. supporting documents or to the person the person is who they other evidence. claim to be. Grievance redressal Responding to and Proofing Verification correcting errors and Validation: Determining the Verifying attributes (e.g., other issues. validity, authenticity, name, age, address, etc.) accuracy, and/or veracity of specific to the purpose of Engagement identity data and evidence. the transaction. Communication and Deduplication: 1:N matching consultation with people to ensure uniqueness (e.g., and other users (i.e., via biometric recognition or relying parties). demographic Service or deduplication). transaction Verification: Confirmation that the person is the true owner of the identity. Identity registered and stored Source: Adapted from the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). Table 3. Country Information Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following The variables Country Information variables: summarized in this paper are Variable Observations also available Country name 175 / 175 in detail at the country level in the Country code 175 / 175 accompanying ID4D Region 175 / 175 Global Dataset: Income level 175 / 175 Volume 3 release. Each subsection ID System name 175 / 175 will include a box ID Credential name 175 / 175 in this style, for the reader’s reference, For more information about these variables see Codebook that details these (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) variables. GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 9 3.1 MANAGEMENT foundational ID systems, generally a government department or agency. For this iteration of the The management of the identity lifecycle concerns ID4D Global Dataset, data collection around the the basic processes that must happen continuously management of ID systems focused on such for an identity system to fulfill its mandate. The institutional arrangements and the home of the ID system must maintain the accuracy and security of system. In the future we hope to complement this identity data and credentials by updating attributes foundational information with more details related to that change over time—such as address or name— the ongoing management and operations. and updating, renewing, revoking, or deactivating credentials. Identity records may need to be retired Of the 172 countries with data on home institution, if it is discovered that they were fraudulently created, 93 have ID authorities housed within a Ministry after security breaches, or following an individual’s of Interior/Home Affairs.14 The distant second- death. Identity providers must also work to address most common home institution type is a Ministry grievances and continuously engage with the public of Security or a national police body—at least and relying parties. 20 countries house their ID Authorities here. There are at least six countries with independent The entity responsible for managing these processes ID Authorities that do not have a broader home is typically the “ID authority”—in the case of institution. Box 3. Institutional Arrangement Terminology Institutional arrangements for an ID system vary significantly between countries. To allow for analysis and comparison across countries, the Dataset uses the following terminology: • An ID Authority is the entity directly responsible for “owning” and implementing the ID system. The Dataset includes the names of each country’s foundational ID Authority. In the future it would be useful to collect additional data on the capacity and functioning of these entities, including size, organization, and resources, along with further details on key identity management processes, such as updating data and credentials, grievance redress, and public communication and engagement. • The Home Institution is the organization in which the ID Authority is based, if applicable. In most cases, the ID Authority reports to and receives at least some of its funding from the Home Institution, which is usually a government ministry. In some cases, the ID Authority is independent—reporting to the cabinet or a board of directors—and there is no broader Home Institution. Similarly, the Dataset captures the CR Authority, or the entity responsible for implementing civil registration systems, as well as the CR Home Institution. 14 Depending on the country and legal tradition, Ministries of Interior and Home Affairs may include both territorial administration and security functions; in other cases, these are the responsibilities of separate ministries (such as Ministries of Public Security, or Ministries of Local Administration). On a global level, it is difficult to distinguish these cases without delving into the specific legal traditions and institutions of each country; therefore, these categories are broad and based solely on the name of the home institution. However, the Dataset provides the full name of the ID and CR authorities and home ministries for country-specific interpretation. 10 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 9. Frequency of ID authority Home Institution Types Interior/Home Affairs 93 Security 20 Justice 15 The most common place to Executive 10 find an ID authority housed Electoral 9 is a Ministry of Interior or Home Affairs None (independent authority) 6 Digital/ICT 5 Local Affairs 3 Immigration/Citizenship 3 Economy/Finance 3 Statistics 2 Planning 2 Public Service 1 Unknown 3 Frequency Figure 10. Frequency of CR Authority Home Institution Types Interior/Home Affairs 55 Justice 41 Local Affairs 13 CR authorities are Health 7 commonly housed in Electoral 6 Ministries of Interior, Home Affairs, or Justice None (independent authority) 5 Security 5 Economy/Finance 4 Executive 4 Immigration/Citizenship 2 Planning 2 Statistics 2 Digital/ICT 1 Education 1 Public Service 1 Tax 1 Unknown 25 Frequency GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 11 Figure 11. Frequency of ID & CR Systems by the same authority. Examples of combined Managed by the Same Authority ID and CR authorities include the Department of National ID and Civil Registration (DONIDCR) in Nepal (housed within the Ministry of Home Affairs) Unknown and the Direção Geral dos Registros e Notariado 23 (“General Directorate of Records and Notary”) in Yes São Tomé and Principe (housed within the Ministry 77 of Justice). In a comparable number of countries (at least 75), there are separate ID and CR authorities. No Figure 11 concerns ID & CR Authorities (as defined 75 in Box 3), not Home Institutions. For combined ID & CR Authorities, the Home Institution type is ID & CR being necessarily the same. It is also possible for a country managed by the to have different ID and CR authorities, but for these same authority, separate entities to be housed within the same Home or separate Institution. ones, are both common Even when ID and CR are housed in separate institutions, though, it is possible for those Similarly, of the 152 countries with data on the Home institutions to create formal linkages in operations Institution for CR, 55 countries are housed within to coordinate ID and CR. In Vietnam, for example, a Ministry of Interior/Home Affairs. The next-most the ID system is run by the Ministry of Public Security common Home Institution type is a Ministry of Justice– and CR is run by the Ministry of Justice, but these at least 41 countries house their CR Authorities here— ministries have partnered to ensure than each time a while at least 13 countries house CR in a Ministry of birth certificate is issued, a unique identifier from the Local Affairs or Territorial Administration. ID system is generated and added to the certificate (World Bank 2023). Such linkages were outside the Finally, for around half of countries globally—77 out scope of this data collection but would be a useful of 153 countries with data—ID and CR are managed topic for a future study. Table 4. Institutional Arrangement Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Institutional Arrangement variables: Variable Observations ID Authority name 173 / 175 ID Authority home institution name 172 / 175 ID Authority home institution type 172 / 175 ID and CR managed by same entity (Y/N) 152 / 175 CR Authority name 152 / 175 CR Authority home institution name 150 / 175 CR Authority home institution type 150 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) 12 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 3.2 REGISTRATION inclusion, data collection and validation processes, and how the ID is used. Common parameters that define eligibility include age, nationality, and residence The registration phase is where an individual enters status. In addition to eligibility criteria, ID systems the identity lifecycle process. Registration involves also vary on whether registration is mandatory for an identity claim (when applicants provide their those who are eligible, and if so, whether obtaining information) and identity proofing (when the ID a credential is also mandatory. Such eligibility criteria Authority verifies this information and typically the and compulsoriness were a core focus of this data uniqueness of the identity claim). This section also collection, and the results are summarized below. considers logistical aspects of registration such as One exception, however, is the question of residence eligibility, compulsoriness, fees, and service locations. status—these data do not cover whether nationals of a country living abroad are eligible to register in the ID Registration procedures have important implications system of their country of nationality. This would be an for inclusion, as they may facilitate easy registration interesting addition to future editions of the Dataset. or make it difficult. The 2021 ID4D-Findex survey showed that nearly 40 percent of adults without an ID reported that they lacked the necessary documents Compulsoriness to apply (World Bank 2022a). In addition, obtaining the ID remains too expensive for approximately In a majority of countries, registration and obtaining 36 percent of adults without one, either due to direct a credential is mandatory for nationals. As Figure 12 and/or indirect costs (World Bank 2022a). Volume 1: shows, out of 158 countries with data, both registering Global Coverage Estimates explores this demand-side and obtaining the credential are mandatory in 129. In survey data in more detail, including by analyzing at least 14 countries, registration in the ID system is how barriers vary by region and income level. In this mandatory but obtaining the credential is optional. paper, the focus is on supply-side variables related to Notably, in at least four countries it is mandatory to eligibility requirements and registration procedures. obtain an official identity document from a list of several, including but not limited to the ID credential included in this Dataset. For example, in Germany 3.2.1  Registration Eligibility and nationals must obtain either the Personalausweis Compulsoriness (“Identity Card”) or a passport. In at least one case (Oman), registering and obtaining a credential are Determining who is eligible to register in the mandatory for males but optional for females. Such ID system is a key decision with implications for cases are coded as “credential is mandatory.” Figure 12. Frequency of Compulsory Registration and Credentials Must register and obtain credential 129 Must register, credential optional 14 In at least 129 countries, All optional 14 both registration and obtaining a credential are Varies by sex 1 mandatory Unknown 17 Frequency GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 13 Box 4. De Jure and De Facto Compulsoriness Importantly, even if registration and/or obtaining a credential are de jure optional, these actions may be de facto mandatory for many individuals depending on how the ID is used in the country. If registration and/or presenting a credential are required to access certain services, it becomes difficult in practice not to participate. Avoiding ID-related exclusion therefore requires a combined approach of ensuring universal accessibility to identification and ensuring that alternative options for accessing services are available for those without any or a particular ID. Age Requirements Non-National Eligibility Data on age requirements was available for most In addition to age, nationality is a second common countries, revealing the following trends: factor for eligibility of registration into many ID systems. This Dataset includes both overall eligibility • The mean age of eligibility for registration is (are any non-nationals eligible?), and eligibility for 6 years old (150 observations), however the modal three categories of non-nationals: asylum seekers, policy in at least 87 countries is to allow registration refugees, and permanent residents. The breakdown in the foundational ID system from birth. of eligibilities for these groups is shown in Table 5. • The mean age when registration becomes Importantly, the issue of whether and how ID systems mandatory is higher at 10 years old (130 incorporate non-nationals goes beyond registration observations; countries without compulsory to granting credentials. Systems may allow non- registration excluded), with a median of 15 years. nationals to register but not issue them any credentials, However, for at least 45 countries, registration is or may issue them a different type of credential mandatory from birth. than it does to nationals. Furthermore, in countries where non-nationals are not included in the main • The mean age of eligibility to obtain a credential foundational ID system (such as a national ID), is 9 years old (159 observations), but registration they may in fact be provided with legal forms of is possible from birth in at least 63 countries. The identification through parallel systems that are not median is 12 years. captured in this data. These differences are noted in the Dataset when known; however, the findings • The mean age when obtaining a credential were not robust enough to summarize here. This is becomes mandatory is also higher at 15 years old an important area of extension for future work. (127 observations; countries without compulsory credentials excluded). However, the most common In the majority of countries–94 out of 153 complete mandatory age is 18 years old (39 countries). observations–non-nationals are eligible to register in the ID system. Table 5 shows that of the groups Figure 13 visualizes these various age requirements. examined, permanent residents are the most common Figure 14 focuses in on the specific relationship non-nationals included in the ID system—they between registration eligibility and ID eligibility. In are eligible for registration in 81 of the 94 countries most cases these ages are the same, but bubbles in known to extend eligibility to non-nationals. In at least the upper-left corner of each region’s box indicate six of these countries, however some conditions countries where ID eligibility follows several years apply. For example, in Grenada, Guyana, St. Lucia, and after registration eligibility. St. Vincent and the Grenadines, registration is only 14 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 13. Age Requirements for Registration and Credentials 90 80 70 60 Frequency 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n w no Age eligible to register nk U 90 80 70 60 Frequency 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n ry t to no w ) no da ( Age registration is mandatory an N/A nk U m 90 80 70 60 Frequency 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n w no Age eligible for ID nk U 90 80 70 60 Frequency 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n ry t to no ow ) da ( n Age ID is mandatory an /A nk m N U GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 15 Figure 14. Relationship Between Age of Eligibility for Registration and for ID Credentials, by Region EAST ASIA & PACIFIC EUROPE & CENTRAL ASIA LATIN AMERICA & CARIBBEAN 20 15 10 Age eligible for ID 5 0 MIDDLE EAST & NORTH AFRICA SOUTH ASIA SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 20 15 10 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 Age eligible to register open to permanent residents who are nationals of 3.2.2  Identity Information other British Commonwealth countries. In Portugal, registration is only open to permanent residents who Registration begins with capturing and recording are Brazilian nationals. There are likely conditions in attributes the attributes of a person, such as some of the remaining 75 countries as well, requiring biographic data (such as name, date of birth, gender), further data collection. contact information (address, phone number, and/or email) and/or biometric features (such as fingerprints, photos, and iris scans). During this process, people Figure 15. Frequency of Non-National also typically provide supporting documentation or Eligibility for Registration evidence to substantiate their claimed identity or— in the absence of such evidence—they may have Unknown their data vouched for by a trusted person, such as a 22 local government official or village chief. ID systems vary widely in terms of what attributes and evidence are captured and the methods and standards used Yes to capture them. Each of these decisions have No 94 implications for inclusion, user experience, program 59 cost, data protection and privacy, and system security and utility. Here, the data focus on data collection and documentation requirements. Non-nationals are eligible to register in at Biographic Data Collection least 94 countries' ID systems Virtually all ID systems collect name, date of birth, and gender or sex. Given that existing identity-related 16 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Table 5. Details of Non-National Eligibility Eligibility to Register in Foundational ID System Total (= known countries where some non-nationals Non-National Category Yes No Unknown are eligible to register) Permanent residents 81 0 13 94 Refugees 34 23 37 94 Asylum seekers 30 29 35 94 ww Table 6. Registration Eligibility and Compulsoriness Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Registration Eligibility and Compulsoriness variables: Variable Observations Age eligible to register 150 / 175 Age eligible to obtain credential 159 / 175 Compulsory to register (Y/N) 154 / 175 → (If yes) Age mandatory to register 144 / 175 Compulsory to obtain credential (Y/N) 156 / 175 → (If yes) Age mandatory to obtain credential 152 / 175 Compulsoriness of registration and/or obtaining credential (combined categorical variable) 158 / 175 Non-nationals eligible to register (Y/N) 153 / 175 → (If yes) Asylum seekers eligible to register (Y/N) 118 / 175 → (If yes) Refugees eligible to register (Y/N) 116 / 175 → (If yes) Permanent residents eligible to register (Y/N) 140 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) Figure 16. Frequency of Collection of Select Biographic Attributes Virtually all ID systems collect name, date of birth, and gender or sex 155 149 141 123 119 114 82 83 81 73 77 72 71 66 51 44 Frequency 37 36 26 30 20 19 21 21 17 17 0 0 4 1 Full name Date of Gender Address Written Nationality Marital Blood Race Religion birth or sex signature status type Biographic attribute is collected? Yes No Unknown GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 17 standards require name and date of birth,15 it is likely However, biometrics are not required or appropriate that collection of these two variables is universal, in all contexts. The collection and use of biometric despite some missing data on these variables. There data presents some particular data protection and is slightly more variation in whether and how sex exclusion risks and can significantly add to the cost of or gender are collected—see Box 5 for details. the ID system and add operational complexity. Thus, Other data that are commonly collected include while biometrics have become relatively ubiquitous current address (collected in 123 countries out of in modern ID systems, the use of this technology and 124 observations), a written signature (119 countries the amount of biometric data collected still requires out of 138 observations), nationality or immigration careful analysis and deliberation (World Bank 2019, status (114 countries out of 131 observations), and World Bank 2022b). marital or civil status (82 out of 103 observations).16 While some countries still collect highly sensitive Out of 158 observations, 116 countries collect more data such as blood group, race or ethnicity, and than one type of biometric data.19 Of these, most religion, these are much less prevalent.17 countries—103—collect fingerprints and a facial image. A further 16 countries collect iris images as well; iris tends to be collected in addition to, rather than Biometric Data Collection instead of, other characteristics. In addition to biographic data, many ID systems collect fingerprints, iris scans, facial images, and/or Collecting multiple biometric characteristics can have other biometric characteristics to use for biometric benefits: more data points offer greater accuracy for recognition.18 Biometric recognition can be used both statistical uniqueness in large populations, and may during registration as part of the deduplication process mitigate some failure-to-enroll risks by ensuring that (see 3.2.3 Identity Proofing for more on this) and/or more applicants are able to provide some biometrics. for authentication of individuals during services or However, it also increases the amount of sensitive transactions (see 3.4 Use). personal information collected, with implications for data protection as well as system costs (World Bank Figure 17 shows that a large majority of countries— 2019; World Bank 2022b). 152 out of 159 with observations—collect at least one type of biometric data. Biometric recognition The number of fingerprints collected (from 1 to 10) has rapidly proliferated in modern ID systems in part has implications for the accuracy, resiliency, and because it is currently the most accurate technology scalability of biometric recognition as well as the for preventing duplicate registrations, particularly volume of sensitive personal data that must be in the absence of strong documentary evidence of protected. Of those countries known to collect identity. It can also provide a relatively high level of fingerprints, most appear to collect either all assurance during authentication. 10 prints (at least 54 countries) or only two (at least 15 For example, the eIDAS Mandatory Attributes for Natural Persons (Bremmers 2023) and ICAO Machine Readable Travel Document standards (ICAO 2023). 16 For marital or civil status, the “Yes” category includes one country (Republic of the Congo) where this data is only collected from females, and 81 countries in which it is collected from everyone. 17 For race or ethnicity, the “Yes” category includes countries that directly report recording racial, ethnic, or tribal group, as well as countries that collect information that related to these categories in a given context, like “color of skin,” “Indigenous community or clan,” and “tribal affiliations.” In 20 of the 21 countries coded as “Yes,” the information is required; in Bolivia providing data on “Cultural Identity” is optional. For blood group, the information is optional in five of the countries where it is collected (Afghanistan, Armenia, Russian Federation, Slovak Republic, and Tunisia) and required in the other 31. 18 Biometric recognition is the “automatic recognition of individuals based on their biological or behavioral characteristics” (ISO/IEC 2382-37:2022). https://www.iso.org/standard/66693.html 19 Data collection focused on those biometric characteristics (fingerprints, face, and iris) that are the most commonly used for ID systems. However, exploring any emergent use of any other modalities in national ID systems would be an interesting extension for future research. 18 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Box 5. Collecting Sex and Gender Data Further systematic data collection on how gender and sex are recorded and used in ID systems— particularly as these norms change—is an important topic for future research. Sex vs. Gender “Sex” refers to a person’s biological status as male, female, or intersex, whereas “gender” refers to social, behavioral, and cultural attributes, expectations, and norms associated with being male or female and is not necessarily tied to biological indicators. Trends in Gender Data Collection and Coding While an ID system can, by design, collect either of these data, there is an increasing trend to collect gender—rather than sex—as more countries move toward recognition of the right to a gender identity, separate from sex, and incorporate this into official systems and documents. Furthermore, although a majority of ID systems still treat sex or gender as binary (M/F), it is becoming more common to allow include third options (X, T, or O), which may denote “nonbinary” or “undeclared/ undisclosed gender.” This approach is reflected in the ICAO standards on machine readable travel documents. Given the limitations in the data we were able to collect, the scope of our research is limited to whether or not gender or sex attributes are collected; we were not able to assess the coding (binary or non- binary). However, from prior research we do know of at least 15 countries that offer flexibility in gender disclosure for identification documents. Argentina and Malta, for example, include “X” as a gender option for identity documents. In India, the Aadhaar system includes “Transgender” as a gender option, and gender change in system records is self-asserted (no documentation is required). Source: ID Systems and SOGI Inclusive Design (World Bank 2020). 31 countries),20 although the number of fingerprints present their birth certificate during registration, and collected is unknown in 37 countries. in at least 26 countries a birth certificate is one of the options on a list of required documents from which a registrant must present one or more. Documentation In a handful of countries, birth certificates are only Birth certificates are one of the most required required from certain registrants. For example, in documents when registering in a foundational Nigeria a birth certificate is only required from ID system. In at least 90 countries (out of applicants aged 15 or younger, and in Cyprus a birth 153 observations) all registrants are required to certificate is only required from naturalized citizens. 20 Barbados is coded as collecting 10 fingerprints, however individuals in Barbados have a choice as to how many fingerprints are collected—anywhere from zero to ten. GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 19 Figure 17. Frequency of (Any) Biometric Data factors, including whether nationality is an Collection eligibility requirement, the legal frameworks for obtaining or substantiating nationality, whether Unknown the ID credentials are considered proof of No 16 nationality, and so on. We attempt to unpack 7 this through questions on eligibility (see earlier discussion) and including a question in the IDAQ on whether a document serving as “proof of nationality” is required. This appears to be the case for at least 56 countries who responded “yes,” for some or all applicants. However, there Yes are a significant number of missing values, 152 The vast and in several countries, it was not possible to majority of ID determine with certainty whether nationality was systems collect being assessed through other means, such as a biometric data birth certificate (if collected) or verification in a population register. A more in-depth analysis and data collection on this specific issue—whether In some cases, while a physical birth certificate is and how nationality and proof thereof is linked a not required, during the ID registration process to ID systems—requires deeper researcher than an agent will use birth registration data stored in a was possible through this exercise. database—meaning that in practice, the applicant’s birth must be registered to complete ID registration. • Marriage certificates—which are required in some capacity by 49 countries out of 150 observations, Other documents commonly required for registration though the purpose they serve within the include: process varies. The IDAQ asked simply whether a marriage certificate is or is not required, but • Proof of nationality—as shown in Figure 16, many of the responses received included more 114 countries collect data on the nationality of nuance. In some countries (e.g., India and Zambia), ID applicants. However, whether—and how— it was noted that a marriage certificate is simply applicants are required to provide proof of one in a list of many documents accepted to nationality varies by country and based on various establish proof of identity. In others, a marriage Figure 18. Frequency of Various Combinations of Biometric Data Collection Fingerprints + Face 103 Face only 17 The most common Fingerprints + Face + Irises 16 combination of biometric data collected is Fingerprints only 15 fingerprints + face None 7 Unknown 17 Frequency 20 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 19. Number of Fingerprints Collected For the 134 countries that collect fingerprint data, HOW MANY PRINTS DO THEY COLLECT? ? 9 2 countries 1 country countries 31 countries 37 54 countries countries certificate is required only if the applicant is Of the 88 countries with data on the topic, 60 offer updating their information due to a marriage- alternative processes for registrants who are unable related name change, or only required from to provide the required documents. This question certain types of applicants. For example, in was asked directly in the IDAQ, but was often Kuwait a marriage certificate is required from difficult to answer via desk research, contributing to non-nationals if it was issued in Kuwait or if the a high degree of missing values. Countries coded applicant’s wife has the Kuwaiti nationality. In such as “No” have specifically indicated—via the IDAQ or cases, the marriage certificate may be a means of another official source—that there is no alternative establishing nationality or eligibility for the system. available. It would be valuable in future research to capture Figure 23 gives examples of a common alternative more nuance on documentation requirements, offered: witness testimony. Witness testimony, especially the rationale for each one. This level of detail in which a witness vouches for the identity of an may be beyond what a standardized questionnaire applicant who cannot produce documentation, can can capture, however. Another important area be an effective tool for inclusion if well implemented. of future focus is the gendered dimensions of Other alternatives evident in the data include judicial documentation requirements (as introduced in Dahan processes and “in-house” solutions. For example, in & Hanmer, 2015). The data suggest that marriage Gabon a court tribunal hears applicants’ cases and certificates are often required only of women. The awards supplementary judgements for late birth reasons for (naming conventions or other) and certificates, and El Salvador has a process called impacts of this policy should be further analyzed. ‘Subsidiary Birth Establishment’ which can be carried GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 21 Figure 20. Examples of Biometric Data Collection Photo by Ezra Acayan (2021) for ID4D. Facial image collection in the Philippines Photo by Midas Touch Communications (2022) for ID4D. Fingerprint collection in Ethiopia Photo by Claire Casher (2023) for ID4D. Iris collection in Indonesia 22 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 21. Frequency of Requiring Birth Certificate for Registration Yes 90 Partially (other documents also accepted) 26 A Birth Certificate No 21 is required for registration in at No, but birth registration is verified 11 least 90 countries Partially (certain applicants only) 5 Unknown 22 Frequency out through a notary or a court. An example of an Figure 22. Frequency of Alternatives to “in-house” solutions is North Macedonia, where the Document Requirements Ministry of Interior coordinates with other institutions to collect the required documents if an applicant is missing them. It should be noted that this data collection only covered whether or not alternatives are offered; Figure 22 and Figure 23 do not reflect Yes 60 the extent to which individuals know about or make use of these alternatives. 3.2.3  Identity Proofing Unknown No 87 28 At least 60 Once a person has claimed an identity, the data they countries offer provide is then validated. This involves checking the an alternative validity, authenticity, and accuracy of the supporting for those who documents or evidence provided and confirming that cannot provide the identity data is valid, current, and related to the documents person presenting the documents. Identity proofing also commonly involves a deduplication process to ensure the uniqueness of each resident based on research can hopefully strengthen this data and biographic data and/or biometric recognition. assess other aspects of identity proofing. Identity proofing process varies widely, and many aspects are difficult to quantify or evaluate through Deduplication desk research and a questionnaire. Therefore, this data collection effort focused primarily on the Information on biometric deduplication practices use of biometric recognition for deduplication. As was relatively hard to find or verify. The IDAQ asked discussed below, however, a high level of uncertainty if fingerprints, iris images, and/or facial images are and missingness on this variable remains. Future used for deduplication,21 which yielded Yes/No 21 The IDAQ question text included the following definition of deduplication: “using biometric identification (1:N matching) for of each new enrollee via ABIS or AFIS to establish their uniqueness in the system.” GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 23 Figure 23. Examples of Alternative Processes In 35 of the countries that we have data for, applicants can have a witness vouch for their identity in lieu of providing documentation. Witness Turkey accepts testimony as verbal declaration an alternative from a family member for process for Bolivia and children or statements from various relatives for Chile accept identity claim testimony from applicants aged 15+. 2 witnesses aged 18+ who have national India accepts testimony from a ID cards. certified ‘Introducer’, and also allows Heads of Family* to enroll their family members. Malawi’s “Proof of Citizenship Scoring System”* includes non-document items like testimony from a relative, community member, or the Village Head. *Head of Family and family members as stated on a Family Entitlement Document answers. This data could also be verified through 3.2.4  Registration Logistics desk research in some cases. Figure 24 shows an amalgamation of these questions—countries are The logistics of registering for an ID have important coded as “Yes” if they answered “Yes” for one or implications for administration and costs, but also more modalities. This type of process information people’s experience and the barriers they may face was rarely available in public materials, however, in obtaining proof of identity. This data collection leading to the high number of missing values. focused on two specific logistical considerations that were feasible to measure through this data collection: If we consider only the 152 countries that we know fees and service locations. Fees covered here include do collect biometric data: at least 60 use it for the fee charged for a first credential, as well as the deduplication, 2 confirmed that they do not, and fee charged for any subsequent credentials, such for 90 we do not know whether or not they use as renewals in case of expiration or replacements in biometrics for deduplication. The 106 “unknown” case of loss, damage, or theft. For location, data was values in Figure 24 include these 90 as well as collected on the type of locations used to provide 16 additional countries where we do not know ID services and the number of locations available whether biometric data is collected. throughout the territory. Out of the 60 countries confirmed as using biometrics Both fees and locations are context specific. The for deduplication, 57 use fingerprints, 25 use facial optimal fee amount and service format must balance images, and 5 use irises (these options are not what is practical for individual registrants and avoids mutually exclusive). exclusion due to cost barriers against what is 24 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Table 7. Identity Claim Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Identity Claim variables: Variable Observations Biographic data: Full name collected (Y/N) 155 / 175 Date of birth collected (Y/N) 149 / 175 Sex or gender collected (Y/N) 145 / 175 Current address collected (Y/N) 124 / 175 Nationality or immigration status (Y/N) 131 / 175 Marital/civil status collected (Y/N) 103 / 175 Race or ethnicity collected (Y/N) 92 / 175 Religion collected (Y/N) 94 / 175 Blood group collected (Y/N) 102 / 175 Written signature collected (Y/N) 138 / 175 Biometric data: Any biometric data collected (Y/N) 159 / 175 Fingerprints collected (Y/N) 149 / 175 → (If yes) Total number of fingerprints collected 112 / 175 Iris scans collected (Y/N) 128 / 175 Facial image collected (Y/N) 153 / 175 Documentation: Birth certificate required (Y/N) 153 / 175 Marriage certificate required (Y/N) 150 / 175 Alternative to documentation available (Y/N) 88 / 175 → (If yes) Details of alternative process 88 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) Figure 24. Frequency of Use of Biometric Recognition for Deduplication At least 60 countries use biometrics to deduplicate ID registrants; however, many more are unknown. Yes 60 N/A (biometrics not collected) 7 No 2 Unknown 106 Frequency GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 25 Table 8. Identity Proofing Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Identity Proofing variables: Variable Observations Any biometric deduplication done (Y/N) 69 / 175 Fingerprints used for deduplication (Y/N) 91 / 175 Iris scans used for deduplication (Y/N) 119 / 175 Facial images used for deduplication (Y/N) 72 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) Figure 25. Frequency of Providing a First ID for Free Fees for a first ID are common, but at least 70 countries provide it cost-free (though sometimes with age limits) Not free 84 Free 63 Free until a certain age 7 Unknown 21 Frequency Figure 26. Frequency of Providing a Replacement ID for Free Replacement IDs are less likely to be cost-free than first IDs Not free 103 Free 15 Free renewal* 10 Free until a certain age 1 Unknown 46 Frequency *Not free if lost/stolen/damaged. 26 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 27. Frequency of Subsidies or Waivers for ID Fees Subsidies and waivers were difficult to verify, but are offered in at least 48 of the countries that charge fees Yes 48 N/A (no fees) 15 No 7 Unknown 105 Frequency sustainable for the system to maintain itself.22 The An ID holder may apply for a new ID because their location and density of ID service centers also existing ID has expired (“renewal”), or because depends significantly on a country’s population size their existing ID has been lost, stolen, or damaged. and density, geographic considerations, and the Out of 129 observations, only 15 countries issue free nature of the ID Authority (e.g., local municipalities vs. replacement IDs in any circumstance. In 10 countries, a centralized, independent agency). Digitalization of replacement IDs are free of cost at scheduled renewal the registration process also present new possibilities dates, but a fee is charged is case of lost, theft, or for remote onboarding that may shift the balance of damage.24 In one country that we know of—Croatia— physical registration centers over time. fees are only charged for ID holders above a certain age (aged 18 years and above). Fee amounts for replacement IDs in local currencies are included in the Dataset. Fees Out of 70 observations for this variable, 48 countries The first credential issued is free in 63 countries (out offer some type(s) of waiver or subsidy for some or of 154 observations),23 while at least 84 countries all their ID fees. In 15 countries, this is not applicable charge a fee for the first credential issued. For since both first and subsequent IDs are always free. 7 additional countries, the first credential is offered There is a high level of missingness for this variable free until a certain age (ranging from 1 to 19 years old because information about such policies is often kept in our sample), perhaps to incentivize registering early internal or only relayed locally, and therefore difficult in life. The amounts of these fees in local currency (at to find in online sources. Therefore, most observations the time of data collection) are included in the Dataset. derive from an IDAQ question. Figure 28 illustrates the recipients most targeted to benefit from waiver In our sample, replacement IDs are less likely to and subsidy programs and provides examples for be free of cost, compared to the first IDs issued. each category. 22 The Principles on Identification, for example, note that “. . . [c]osts to the individual must never be a barrier to obtain identity credentials required to fulfill rights or access basic services or entitlements.” See www.idprinciples.org for more. 23 Brazil is coded as “Free” for the first credential, however, this is true only if the registrant applies online; a 7 BRL registration fee is charged for applying in-person [Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas (CPF) system]. 24 Malaysia is coded as “Not Free,” however a replacement IDs are free if the original ID was damaged and it is within 12 months of issuance. If damaged after 12 months, or if lost or stolen, a fee is charged for replacement. Spain is coded as “Not Free,” however replacements are free if the ID holder simply needs to update their information. A fee is charged in all other cases. GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 27 Figure 28. Examples of ID Fee Waiver and Subsidy Programs YOUTH† In Bulgaria, fees are In Estonia, fees are LOW-INCOME waived for applicants aged 14–16* subsidized for applicants under age 15* VETERANS HOUSEHOLDS In Cabo Verde, fees are waived for In Guinea-Bissau, fees are subsidized 50% for In Georgia, fees are waived applicants aged 4–7* applicants aged 0–20 for applicants who were WWII participants and/or In Benin, fees are are veterans with subsidized for Programme disabilities* d'Assurance pour le Renforcement du Capital Humain (ARCH) recipients In Kazakhstan, fees In Romania, fees are waived for applicants DISASTER are waived for veteran applicants and their families* who receive social protection/assistance* VICTIMS In Malaysia, fees are In St Lucia waived for applicants In Uruguay, fees are replacement fees are waived for low-income who are retired police or waived if a card was military personnel applicants* In Bolivia, Colombia, lost or damaged as a and Romania, fees result of fire, natural In China, fees are are waived for disaster, or theft* waived for urban applicants affected In Moldova, fees are residents receiving by natural waived for applicants disasters* who are veterans* Fee subsidy/ minimum living allowances * waiver programs tend to be directed towards certain groups In Azerbaijan, fees are waived for applicants who are IDPs, refugees, or stateless persons* In Estonia, fees are SENIORS subsidized for applicants STATE DISPLACED who are asylum seekers* INSTITUTION INDIVIDUALS In Cabo Verde, fees are In Peru, fees are waived for RESIDENTS waived for applicants age undocumented applicants* 60+ with no revenues or whose pensions do not exceed the national minimum salary* In Kyrgyz Republic, fees are waived for PERSONS WITH applicants living in In Guatemala, South state institutions Africa, and the Slovak (orphans, veterans, DISABILITIES Republic*, fees are waived and others)* for applicants aged 60+ In Moldova, fees are In Kosovo, fees are In Bulgaria*, Estonia*, and waived for applicants subsidized 50% for retired Latvia*, fees are subsidized for in state care* applicants* applicants with disabilities In Lithuania, fees are In Angola, fees are waived if In Ecuador, Moldova*, waived for child In Peru, fees are waived the applicant has a physical or Peru*, and Romania*, fees applicants in foster care for applicants aged 66+* psychological disability as a are waived for applicants and applicants living in result of war* with disabilities state institutions* *An (*) indicates that the waiver/subsidy listed is one of multiple waivers/subsidies that the country provides † Age of eligibility for youth waivers/subsidies depends on the age of eligibility for registration 28 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Locations systems. For example, if the foundational ID system is operated by an electoral body, it is likely registration Fixed Registration Sites will be possible at election offices. The options are also not mutually exclusive; many countries offer The number of permanent centers offering ID registration through more than one type of location. registration services in each country varies widely based on geography and population size. Figure 29 The distribution of these categories across countries is shows the distribution of the variable Number of difficult to synthesize given a high level of missingness registration sites per 100,000 people. These values and variation among countries. Therefore, we have are rounded to the nearest whole number, which is not included statistics for each category in this paper. less than 1 in the case of 28 countries. Most countries However, Figure 30 includes examples and details have between one and seven fixed registration from a number of countries, and the specific names sites per 100,000 people, but a few outliers have provided for registration locations in the IDAQ is significantly more—as detailed in the callout boxes included in the Dataset. below. Many countries complement their fixed The type of fixed ID service centers generally fall into registration sites with mobile registration kits one of the six categories illustrated with examples that are deployed regularly or sporadically to in Figure 30. This includes centers dedicated to ID reach remote areas and/or conduct systematic services; centers that offer both ID and CR services; travelling “registration campaigns.” Data on the centers that offer many government services, number of mobile kits were less available than fixed including ID; police stations; electoral offices; and location details, but our results show that at least private sector agents that have been incorporated 72 countries have mobile kits, while 2 countries into an “ecosystem” of ID service providers. The confirmed that they do not. Of the 72 countries type of locations offered is closely linked to the known to have mobile kits, the number of kits that institutional home and governance of the ID and CR is available for 31 countries, and ranges from 1 to Figure 29. Frequency of Number of Fixed Registration Sites per 100,000 People (Rounded) Most countries with known data have between 1 and 7 fixed registration sites per 100,000 people 52 sites 32 sites 25 sites 16 sites PER 100K PER 100K PER 100K PER 100K 55 St. Vincent The Ethiopia’s Luxembourg has and the Maldives kebele IDs 105 registration Grenadines has 167 have 30,000 sites for its 35 has 54 registration registration population of registration sites for its sites for its 639,321, and 28 sites for its population population of Mongolia has population of 521,457 120,000,000 538 registration 20 of 104,332 sites for its 15 population of 3,347,783 8 5 5 2 2 <1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 >15 n w no nk U GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 29 Box 6. Registration Limitations Measuring the ratio of fixed registration locations to the population is a good starting point for assessing people’s access registration services, but it is not the full story. Geographical distribution also matters. Geospatial analysis is outside the scope of this report, however ID4D is separately collecting data on ID and CR office locations to calculate average time and distance to registration centers for the population and different regions. Beyond physical proximity, there may also be policy limitations on which site(s) people can access registration services from. During data collection we learned that there are at least 18 countries—and likely many more—that have some type of constraint on where people can register. Examples include: • In China administrative procedures can be done at any branch, but for some applicants (those with poor credit history, dramatic changes to facial features, no previous fingerprints on file, an ID-related criminal record, or who are otherwise difficult to identify) the application or renewal must be done in the city of their hukou (household registration). • In the Republic of the Congo, Croatia, Greece, and Myanmar, among many other examples, people must register in the locality of their official residence (that is, they cannot complete registration in any district or municipality); in many others, such as Syria, people must apply at the local civil registry office where their family records are kept. • In Germany, people can register anywhere, however an extra fee of 13 EUR is added for applications made at an office not associated with the applicant’s registered address. Figure 30. Types of Fixed Registration Locations COMBINED SUBNATIONAL GOVERNMENT ID & CR OFFICE OFFICE/SERVICE CENTER Papua New Guinea: South Korea: Community Service Papua New Guinea Centers (aka Eup/Myeon/Dong Centers) Civil & Identity Nepal: Enrollment Workstations at Registry (PNGCIR) District & Area Administration Offices Provincial & District Offices Italy: MunicipalityOffices POLICE STATION Burkina Faso: Centres de Collectes des Données (CCD) located within police stations Morocco: Centres d'Enregistrement des Titres Identitaires (CEDI) located within Where do people “ECOSYSTEM MODEL” police stations Serbia: Police Administration Units go to obtain ID? India: Aadhaar Seva Kendra (ASK) centres + Finland: Police Stations partner institutions (banks, post offices, BSNL telecommunications, and state authorities that offer Aadhaar services) Nigeria: NIMC (ID ID AUTHORITY OFFICE authority) Enrollment Offices + Front-End Partner Offices Pakistan: NADA Registration Centers (NRCs) North Macedonia: ID Card Service Points Malta: Identity Management Offices Bangladesh: Upozila & Nicaragua: Oficinas de Cédulas Thana level Election Offices Philippines: PhilSys Registration Centers ELECTORAL Costa Rica: Sedesdel Tribunal Sri Lanka: Department for Registration of Persons Branch offices OFFICE Supremo de Elecciones St. Kitts and Nevis: Electoral Offices 30 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 31,500. The rounded values of mobile registration 53,000,000—59 kits for every 100,000 people. kits per 100,000 people for these 31 countries all However, we do not have data on the degree to fall between <1 and 10, except one outlier: Kenya which kits in these countries are operational and/ has a reported 31,500 kits for its population of or regularly deployed. Figure 31. Examples of Fixed Registrations Sites Government service center: ASAN (Azerbaijan Service and Assessment Network) Photo by Jonathan Marskell for ID4D. Service Center in Azerbaijan Image from https://asan.gov.az/en/media/ press-releases/kuerdemir-asan-xidmet- merkezi-fealiyyete-baslayib Subnational office, ID & CR combined: Directorate of Population and Civil Registration (Dukcapil) in Indonesia elsalvador/Salvadorenos-realizan-tramites-en-el-DUI- -en-el-ultimo-dia-para-realizar-cambio-de-domicilio- Photo by Marie Eichholtzer for ID4D. previo-a-elecciones-2024-20230404-0018.html Image from https://www.laprensagrafica.com/ Police station: Commissariat in Cameroon ID Authority office: DUICentro in El Salvador GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 31 Table 9. Registration Logistics Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Registration Logistics variables: Variable Observations First credential is free (Y/N) 154 / 175 → (If no) Details of first credential fee 154 / 175 Replacement credential is free (Y/N) 129 / 175 → (If no) Details of replacement credential fee 129 / 175 Fee waivers/subsidies available (Y/N) 70 / 175 → (If yes) Details of waivers/subsidies 46 / 175 Birth registration is free (Y/N) 95 / 175 → (If no) Details of birth registration fee 95 / 175 First birth certificate is free (Y/N) 94 / 175 → (If no) Details of first birth certificate fee 94 / 175 Replacement birth certificate is free (Y/N) 74 / 175 → (If no) Details of replacement birth certificate fee 74 / 175 Total number of fixed registration sites 120 / 175 Details of fixed registration sites 120 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) 3.3 CREDENTIALS The types of credentials issued by an ID system vary along multiple dimensions, including whether Once an individual’s identity has been verified and or not they are physical (that is, they must be recorded in the system, they are typically issued physically carried by a person in order to use a credential. A credential can be defined as any them), and whether or not they are digital (that is, document, object, or data structure that vouches for they are machine readable and/or used in a digital the identity of a person through some method of trust environment). Figure 32 shows a range of common and authentication. Simply put, a credential is the types of credentials and authenticators. Our research thing that a person presents—in person or remotely— in this section focuses on two common credential to say: “this is who I am” (World Bank 2019). types: ID Numbers and physical ID Documents. Figure 32. Credential Types PHYSICAL DOCUMENTS DIGITAL CREDENTIALS ADDITIONAL FACTORS Present identity Attest to a person’s identity in Confirm a person is information a digital environment (i.e., used associated with a non-digitally for digital authentication) digital credential Documents with no Digitized & smart Mobile Digital User ID Biometric PIN Password OTP machine readability cards and documents ID certificate name number feature Token Question Etc. Source: ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). 32 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT As shown in Figure 32, the authentication process to change over time; and how they are issued. may involve presenting the credential along with Each of these characteristics can have important additional factors (known as “authenticators”) that implications for how the ID number is used, and risks bind the person to the credential, offering assurance related to data protection and privacy. that the person in possession of the credential is its rightful owner. Authentication is discussed briefly The majority of countries (135, out of in the Section 3.4. The previous paper in this series, 141 observations) issue an ID number that is intended Volume 2: Digital Identification Gaps, discusses to be “permanent”—in other words, an individual is authentication in more depth. assigned one consistent number for their lifetime. The six countries coded as “No” include three ID systems that generate new numbers for each card 3.3.1  ID Numbers that is issued to an individual, without a permanent number linking these cards to the same individual In any ID system, identifying numbers—including over time, and three that do not issue any kind of unique ID numbers (UINs), also sometimes known national ID number. In practice, issuing new numbers as national ID numbers (NINs)—are the most basic for each card issued is not mutually exclusive with type of identifier. These numbers can vary along a issuing a permanent ID number to an individual; few dimensions, including their structure; whether they systems that use tokenization 25 to reduce the are “permanent” for a person’s lifetime or expected proliferation of a UIN across systems may do both. For the countries coded as “No” we have confirmed that this is not the case. Figure 33. Frequency of ID Systems Issuing Permanent ID Numbers ID Number Structure Unknown Of the 118 countries where we have data on the 34 length of ID numbers, a large majority contain 10–13 digits.26 On the low end of the range, the No 6 Maldives’ ID number has only 7 digits. On the high end of the range, the ID numbers in Paraguay and Tanzania each have 20 digits. Yes 135 Most of the countries in our sample—at least 135—issue permanent ID numbers 25 Tokenization substitutes a sensitive identifier (such as a UIN or other personally identifiable information) with a non-sensitive equivalent (or “token”) that has no extrinsic or exploitable meaning or value. These tokens are used in place of identifiers when printed on cards (as done with credit cards, for example) or to represent the user in a database or during transactions such as authentication. For more, see the “Tokenization” section of the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). 26 The optimal number of digits for an ID number is related to population size, among other factors. The number of digits selected should allow for more than enough numeric combinations to provide new (that is, not recycled), unique numbers to all newborns and new arrivals expected in the foreseeable lifetime of the ID system. For example, an 8-digit number using numerals 0–9 provides 100 million unique numbers, while 10 digits provides 10 billion unique numbers (World Bank 2019). GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 33 Figure 34. Frequency of ID Number Digit Lengths For those countries with data, ID Numbers range in length from 7 to 20 digits 57 23 20 20 Frequency 12 12 10 7 2 3 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 n ed o w su n ) ( no is A / nk N U r be m nu Box 7. ID Number Formats In any system, ID numbers can take one of three formats: • Random: A random number (technically a “pseudo” random number) is generated using mathematical algorithms and contains no information about the person. • Serial or sequential: A serial number is assigned based on the order of entry into the system, with the highest number assigned to the most recent enrollee. • Coded: A number that contains information about the person, with certain digits coded based on attributes such as birth year, gender, nationality, and location of application. ID numbers often include multiple segments, allowing for any combination of these formats—although to be a true random number the entire numeric sequence must be random. Source: ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). Of the 116 countries with data, the combination of is the most coded information (at least 50 countries), sequential and coded segments has been the most followed by sex or gender27 information (at least 42 common format. Only 21 known countries generate countries). Other information coded in the ID numbers completely random ID numbers, although this number includes nationality or citizenship status, place of birth, is increasing over time. For countries in this sample and location information (that is, the place and/or date with fully or partially coded ID Numbers, date of birth of ID registration and/or issuance). 27 See the Box 5: Collecting Sex and Gender Data for more context on this data point. 34 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 35. Frequency of ID Number Formats The most common format for ID numbers is a mix of sequential & coded digits Sequential + Coded 56 Fully Coded 23 Fully Random 21 Fully Sequential 13 N/A (no number issued) 3 Unknown 59 Frequency ID Number Issuance through the same entity, and indeed all but 8 of those countries with more closely linked ID and The majority of countries with data (86 out of CR issue numbers at birth. However, Table 10 also 124 observations) issue an ID number at birth, shows that ID number assignments at birth occur and many of those (58 out of 104 observations) in 29 countries where ID and CR are management print the newborn’s ID number on their birth by separate authorities, suggesting stronger cross- certificate. Intuitively, we expect this to be more institutional linkages between ID and CR systems common in countries that operate ID and CR in these countries. Figure 36. Frequency of Countries Issuing ID Number at Birth At least 86 of the countries that issue ID numbers do so at the time of birth Yes 86 No 35 N/A (no number issued) 3 Unknown 51 Frequency GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 35 Figure 37. Frequency of Printing ID Number on the Birth Certificate At least 58 of the countries that issue ID numbers at birth print them on the birth certificate Yes 58 No 43 N/A (no number issued) 3 Unknown 71 Frequency Table 10. Matrix of ID/CR Authority Relationship and ID Number Assignment at Birth ID & CR implemented by same authority? No Yes Unknown Total No 25 8 2 35 ID number Yes 29 46 11 86 assigned at birth? Unknown 18 24 9 51 N/A (no number issued) 3 0 0 3 Total 75 78 22 175 Table 11. ID Number Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following ID Number variables: Variable Observations Name of ID Number 175 / 175 ID Number is permanent (Y/N) 141 / 175 Total digits in ID Number 118 / 175 ID Number digits are random (Y/N) 114 / 175 ID Number includes sequential digits (Y/N) 105 / 175 ID Number includes coded digits (Y/N) 115 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify date of birth (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify gender or sex (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify nationality or citizenship status (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify place of birth (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify date of place of residence (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Coded digits signify place and/or date of registration and/or issuance (Y/N) 113 / 175 → (If yes) Other info coded, if any 113 / 175 ID Number is assigned at birth (Y/N) 124 / 175 ID Number is printed on birth certificate (Y/N) 104 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) 36 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 3.3.2  Physical Credentials type is unknown for 36 countries. There are still at least 14 countries globally that issue ID documents in paper Despite the rapid growth of digital credentials and or cardboard formats. Many of these documents are remote transaction possibilities, physical credentials akin to letters, receipts, or certificates, rather than still play an important role in ID systems. These often wallet-sized ID cards. For example, Nigeria issues a (though not always) take the form of an ID card. “National Identification Number (NIN) Slip”; Mexico This section discusses the design of these physical issues a “CURP letter” (CURP stands for Clave Única credentials. As fully digital credentials become more de Registro de Población, or Unique Population common, this data will be collected in future iterations Registry Code); and India issues an “Aadhaar of the Dataset. Letter.” The paper document may or may not have embedded security features and mechanisms for digitaly verifying their authenticity or the holder’s Physical Credential Format identity information, such as a QR code containing a digital signature. The majority of countries issue plastic ID cards (125 out of 139 observations) as the primary In some cases, the paper document is simply a credential. When possible to determine the type means of issuing the ID number that is used in of plastic material, polycarbonate was the most combination with other factors for identification and common (used in 47 countries). Materials such as authentication (e.g., in the case of India). Alternately, Teslin appear to be rarer; however, data on material the paper document may later be supplemented by a Figure 38. Distribution of ID Credential Material Types Of 139 countries with data on material . . . 1 125 are made of PET 4 PVC plastic 47 7 66 Polycarbonate Teslin Type unknown 14 are made of paper or cardboard 36 are made of unknown material GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 37 Figure 39. ID Credential Data Storage Features YES 46 25 Unknown 27 YES Unknown 103 26 No 123 No 2D BARCODE (including QR) 1D BARCODE 23 Unknown 100 YES* 52 No CHIP *Chip is optional in 2 countries. In Serbia applicants can choose a card with or without a chip. In Switzerland card has a chip by default but applicants can request one without. physical card or other digital forms of identification. The data in Figure 39 is not mutually exclusive— Another emerging trend is for countries to digitally many countries’ credentials have more than one of issue documents digitally via a PDF that can be printed these features. Chips and barcodes store data that by the person if desired. This option is offered in offer the possibility—with various degrees of security addition to physical ID documents in several countries, and authentication assurance—of digital verification such as the Philippines’ ePhilID, which is available for or authentication, as discussed in more detail in download before the physical PhilID card has been Volume 2. printed and delivered, and can be used as an alternate form of ID (Philippine Statistics Authority 2023). Since this Dataset focuses on the main credential issued Biographic Data Visible on Credential to adults, data on alternative PDF options was not systematically collected. However, as the prevalence of Which data is printed on the card has implications the option grows it will be important to track this in for how it is used, the frequency with which updated future iterations of the Dataset. are needed in case information changes, and for data protection and privacy, including the visibility of Of all the features that can be added to a physical sensitive or personal information that might expose ID credential to store data, chips are the most the holder to various risks. common–out of 152 observations, 100 countries issue cards that have one. In 46 countries, physical Most countries choose to print a majority of the ID credentials have 2D barcodes (usually QR codes). data that they collect during registration on the ID 38 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 40. Frequency of Printing Select Biographic Attributes on the ID Most countries that collect name, birth date, and gender or sex print this information on the ID. Printing of other attributes varies. 27 32 45 37 39 42 2 48 148 141 7 127 58 8 25 110 43 80 49 49 92 71 37 Frequency 50 46 29 27 6 3 Full Date of Gender Written Nationality Address Blood Marital Race Religion name birth or sex signature type status Biographic attribute is printed on ID? (sum of stacked bar is total countries that are known to collect this attribute) Printed on ID Collected, not printed on ID Collected, printing unknown credential, with the exception of address, marital the orange segments shown countries known to not status, race, and religion, which are less commonly print/display the information, and grey segments visible. In Figure 40 the sum of each stacked bar is indicate missing values. the total number of countries known to collect each data point, as discussed previously in Section 3.2. Biometric Data Stored in Credential Within each bar, the purple segments show how many of those countries are known to print or In roughly half of the cases where biometric data display that information visibly on their credential, is known to be collected, it is also stored in a Figure 41. Frequency of Storing Select Biometric Attributes on the ID The storeage of biometric attributes on credentials is difficult to verify, but appears to be common for countries that collect this data. 51 38 8 81 15 65 Frequency 6 4 6 Fingerprints Face Irises Biometric attribute is stored on ID? (sum of stacked bars is total countries that are known to collect this attribute and whose ID has a chip or barcode for storage) Stored on ID Collected, not stored on ID Collected, storage unknown GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 39 Table 12. Physical ID Credential Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following ID Card variables: Variable Observations Credential material 139 / 175 Credential has 1D barcode (Y/N) 148 / 175 Credential has 2D barcode (Y/N) 149 / 175 Credential has a chip (Y/N) 152 / 175 Data printed/visible on credential: Full name printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 148 / 175 Date of birth printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 143 / 175 Gender or sex printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 138 / 175 Current address printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 130 / 175 Nationality or immigration status printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 133 / 175 Marital/civil status printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 127 / 175 Race or ethnicity printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 126 / 175 Religion printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 126 / 175 Blood group printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 132 / 175 Written signature printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 136 / 175 ID Number printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 139 / 175 Expiration date printed/visible on credential (Y/N) 127 / 175 Data stored electronically on credential: Fingerprints stored in ID (Y/N) 111 / 175 Irises stored in ID (Y/N) 123 / 175 Face stored in ID (Y/N) 103 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) credential. Figure 41 shows that of the 134 countries Figure 42. Frequency of ID Credentials with known to collect fingerprints, 81 store fingerprint Expiration Dates data electronically in a chip or barcode. Of the 136 countries known to collect face data, at least 65 store them electronically on the credential. At least Unknown 16 collect iris data but only 6 of these that we know 39 of store them electronically. In reality, however, the difference between collection and storage may be No smaller due to missing values. 13 Yes 123 3.3.3  Credential Validity The IDs issued Out of 136 countries with data, the credentials in at least issued to adults expire at regular intervals in 123. 123 countries expire after a Expiration of credentials either happens at a set designated number of years after the credential issued—such as period of time 40 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 43. Frequency of ID Validity Periods, in Years For countries whose IDs do expire, the most common validity length is 10 years 71 39 19 15 13 6 2 2 3 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 20 es ) n s ire ire ow ag p p kn Validity of ID (years) ex t ex se un t ID no at s ar er e es ac ye th do pl he s, re D ire w (I t n p us /A w ex M no N ID nk U in Cameroon, where credentials must be renewed 39 countries so this number may be higher. Some every 10 years—or is mandated to happen when the countries with adult credentials that do expire also holder reaches certain ages—such as in Vietnam, have different policies for children and seniors, and where individuals must renew their credentials at cut-off ages for these categories vary by country. ages 25, 40, and 60. Only 13 countries are known to issue credentials for adults that have no expiration Of the 123 countries with data whose adult dates, although expiration dates are unknown for credentials do expire, most (71) are valid for Figure 44. Credential Validity Adjustments for Seniors and Children VALIDITY ADJUSTED VALIDITY ADJUSTED FOR FOR SENIORS? Yes No CHILDREN? No 89 76 20 countries countries Unknown countries 14 countries Yes Unknown 33 countries 14 countries N/A, no expiration 13 countries GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 41 Table 13. Credential Validity Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following Credential Validity variables: Variable Observations Credential expires (Y/N) 136 / 175 Number of years credential is valid for, for age of majority 121 / 175 Different credential validity for seniors (Y/N) 122 / 175 Different credential validity for minors (Y/N) 122 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) 10 years. Next most common validity period in our • Spain: Credentials are valid for 2 years (ages sample is a 5 years (19 countries). There are at least 6 0–4), 5 years (ages 5–29), or 10 years (ages 30– countries that have adopted the strategy of requiring 70); credentials issued to seniors (ages 71+) or renewal at certain age. people with extreme disabilities (ages 30+) do not expire. The data suggest that in the 123 countries where credentials are confirmed to expire, a majority (89) accommodate seniors by ending their expiration 3.4 USE policy after a certain age. The “senior” cutoff age varies from 46 (in China) to 75 (in Argentina), among Once an individual is registered in the system and those countries with data. Some countries have an issued a credential, they can use it to assert their official “no expiration” policy after the cutoff age, while identity. Public and private service providers can use others set the expiration date longer than the average the ID credential or system as a means of identity human lifespan, which amounts to “no expiration” in authentication (confirming a person is who they claim practice. For example, in Croatia credentials are valid to be) and/or verification (confirming attributes specific for 40 years after a person reaches 70 years old. Such to the transaction, like age or address). ID systems vary policies are coded as no expiration for seniors. in the types of authentication mechanisms that they offer, and the levels of assurance that they provide. Validity adjustments for children are less common. Of the 123 known countries whose credentials do This section presents some select trends in expire, only 33 adjust validity for children. The authentication mechanisms and use cases for adjustment policies for minors vary more widely than foundational ID systems. A full portrait of each those for seniors, so we have taken a broad approach country’s use of authentication/verification services to coding the “Yes” category in the analysis shown is beyond the scope of this paper. However, digital in Figure 44. Some examples of policies coded as authentication/verification capabilities are the subject adjusting validity for children include: of Volume 2: Digital Identification Gaps and discussed there in more depth. In summary, that paper finds • Austria: Credentials are valid for 2 years (ages that ID systems—foundational or other—in at least 0–1), 5 years (ages 2–11), or 10 years (ages 12+). 132 countries support digital identity verification or authentication for in-person transactions and 81 offer • Azerbaijan: Credentials issued to children expire fully remote authentication for online transactions. at age 5 and age 15, adult credentials are valid While this prevalence is promising, our indicators do for 10 years (ages 15–54); credentials issued to not yet track how widely used these mechanisms are seniors do not expire (ages 55+). in the countries where they are offered. Another caveat 42 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Figure 45. Example of Manual Identity Another essential aspect of ID use is an individual’s Verification Using ID Card in Rwanda ability to view and manage their own data. New technologies for digital authentication have enabled services through which individuals can view their records, update biographic information, and receive requests or alerts when other parties (such as government service providers or private businesses) access their data. While this was difficult to track quantitatively for this round of the Dataset, we Image source: ID4D know through various ID4D engagements that this approach is becoming increasingly common, and that countries and stakeholders globally recognize its importance for user-centricity and data protection. 3.4.1  ID Use Cases to note is that digital verification and authentication offerings are concentrated in high-income and upper- Overall, the data suggest that it is more common middle income countries, but these capabilities are for service providers to accept their country’s absent in at least a third of low- and lower-income national ID as one of multiple options for proof countries (and potentially up to half, considering of identity than to mandate that the national countries with missing data). ID specifically must be used. Figure 46 shows Figure 46. ID Acceptance and Requirement for Common Use Cases OPENING A REGISTERING FOR ACTIVATING A ACCESSING DEPOSIT ACCOUNT GOVERNMENT SIM CARD BASIC PUBLIC at a bank/other SOCIAL ASSISTANCE HEALTH CARE financial institution The national ID is accepted The national ID in at least The national ID is mandatory 44% in at least is accepted in at least The national ID The national ID is accepted The national ID 38% 36% is mandatory in at least The national ID is mandatory is accepted in at least 28% 33% in at least in at least 30% The national ID 27% is mandatory in at least 20% of the of the of the of the 172 173 168 161 countries countries countries countries that require that require that require that require any ID any ID any ID any ID GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 43 Table 14. Detailed Data on ID Acceptance and Compulsoriness for Common Use Cases Is the national ID Financial Account Social Assistance Basic Public Health accepted for . . . ? Opening Registration SIM Card Activation Care Access Yes 75 62 55 48 No 0 2 2 7 N/A (no ID required) 3 2 7 14 Unknown 97 109 111 106 Total 175 175 175 175 Is the national ID Financial Account Social Assistance Basic Public Health mandatory for . . . ? Opening Registration SIM Card Activation Care Access Yes 65 48 46 32 No 5 11 8 17 N/A (no ID required) 3 2 7 14 Unknown 102 114 114 112 Total 175 175 175 175 this general trend, and Table 14 details the data to determine with certainty through desk research, behind the illustration. Data collection focused on and therefore relied mostly on the IDAQ. Due to four common use cases: financial account opening, these limitations in scope and data completeness, social assistance registration, SIM card activation, this information should be interpreted as a general and public health care access. There are substantial indication of prominent trends rather than definitive missing values because this information was difficult statistics. Figure 47. Frequency of Biometric Use for Verification/Authentication (by Modality) Of 134 countries Of 16 countries Of 136 countries that we know collect that we know collect that we know collect FINGERPRINT IRIS FACE DATA DATA DATA at least at least at least 54 6 30 (40%) (38%) (24%) use it for verification use it for verification use it for verification and/or authentication and/or authentication and/or authentication 44 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 3.4.2  Biometrics for Figure 48. Example of Biometric Identity Verification/Authentication Verification in India Fingerprints are currently the most commonly used biometric for verification and/or authentication during a transaction. This is done via a 1:1 match of against biometric data stored either locally in the credential (via a barcode, chip, or mobile device), Image source: ID4D or remotely in a database. For more detailed information on authentication mechanisms, see the ID4D Practitioner’s Guide (World Bank 2019). Since countries vary in what biometric data they collect, the use of biometrics in relative terms (how often it Table 15. Frequency of Biometric Use for is used if collected, rather than how often it is used Authentication/Verification, by Modality overall). The results are summarized in Figure 47 and Table 15. Are . . . used for biometric authentication and/or verification? Fingerprints Face Iris Yes (collected & used) 54 31 6 3.4.3  Use of ID Numbers No (collected but not used) 13 19 1 Of the 168 countries that issue permanent ID Collected, use unknown 67 86 9 Numbers, at least 86 use those numbers across Total (collected) 134 136 16 multiple government databases to link records N/A (not collected) 15 17 112 to individuals. A further 8 countries indicated that Collection & use both unknown 26 22 47 they do not do this, and for the remaining 74 this Overall Total 175 175 175 information was not available. Figure 49. Frequency of Use of Permanent ID Number in Government Databases to Link Records At least 86 countries use permanent ID numbers to link individuals' records across multiple government databases Yes 86 No 8 N/A (no permanent number) 7 Unknown 74 Frequency GLOBAL TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION | 45 Table 16. ID Use Variable Details See ID4D Global Dataset: Volume 3 for the following ID Use variables: Variable Observations ID number used across multiple govt databases to link records to an individual (Y/N) 101 / 175 Use of Biometric verification/authentication: Fingerprints used for verification/authentication (Y/N) 82 / 175 Irises used for verification/authentication (Y/N) 119 / 175 Face used for verification/authentication (Y/N) 67 / 175 Credential acceptance across sectors: Credential accepted to open a deposit account (Y/N) 78 / 175 Credential accepted to activate a SIM card (Y/N) 64 / 175 Credential accepted to register for social assistance (Y/N) 66 / 175 Credential accepted to access public health care (Y/N) 69 / 175 Credential required across sectors: Credential mandatory to open a deposit account (Y/N) 73 / 175 Credential mandatory to activate a SIM card (Y/N) 61 / 175 Credential mandatory to register for social assistance (Y/N) 61 / 175 Credential mandatory to access public health care (Y/N) 63 / 175 For more information about these variables see Codebook (id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset) 46 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT 4 CONCLUSION Improved identification—including as part 2. Establishing an information repository for identity stakeholders—including governments, of a country’s DPI—has the potential to civil society, the private sector, researchers, and transform how people and businesses development partners—working to build inclusive around the world access services ID systems that can support development goals and economic opportunities and how and provide a trusted foundation for new forms governments can meet the needs of of digital identity. their constituents. But advances towards The authors welcome feedback to improve future digital ID must be grounded in a strong data releases. Please email id4d@worldbank.org understanding of the current identity with the subject line “ID4D Global Dataset” with any landscape. We hope that this new data suggestions, additions, or questions regarding the adds to this understanding, including by: ID4D Global Dataset series or this paper specifically. We look forward to working together to improve 1. Providing a benchmarking tool for policymakers the quality and availability of data around global ID to place policy decisions in context, and systems and their use. ACCESS THE FULL ID4D GLOBAL DATASET Download the dataset and codebook at id4d.worldbank.org/global-dataset for extensive ID system data from 175 countries, and explore other ID4D Dataset releases, including on the coverage and digital capabilities of the World’s ID systems. 47 REFERENCES Bremmers, B. 2023. “2.1 - Identity and Record Matching - UNDESA. 2022. World Population Prospects 2022, Online Q1 2023.” OOTS Technical Design Documents. https:// Edition. United Nations, Department of Economic and ec.europa.eu/digital-building-blocks/wikis/display/ Social Affairs, Population Division. https://population. TDD/2.1+-+Identity+and+Record+Matching+-+Q1+2023 un.org/wpp/Download/Standard/Population/ (accessed (accessed 2 July 2023). 23 August 2022). Consulat Général de France à Sydney. 2021. Carte Nationale World Bank. 2018a. ID4D Global Dataset. Available at: https:// d’Identité Électronique. https://au.ambafrance.org/ datacatalog.worldbank.org/int/search/dataset/ Carte-Nationale-d-Identite-Electronique (accessed 0040787, 13 February 2024). World Bank. 2018b. Technology Landscape for Digital Dahan, M. & Hanmer, L. 2015. The identification for Identification (English). Identification for Development. development (ID4D) agenda : its potential for Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. https://documents. empowering women and girls - background worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/ paper (English). Washington, D.C. : World Bank documentdetail/199411519691370495/technology- Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ landscape-for-digital-identification en/859071468190776482/The-identification- for-development-ID4D-agenda-its-potential-for- World Bank. 2019. ID4D Practitioner’s Guide. Identification empowering-women-and-girls-background-paper. for Development. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ Desai, V. T., Marskell, J., Marin, G., and Varghese, M. 2023. “How en/248371559325561562/ID4D-Practitioner-s-Guide. digital public infrastructure supports empowerment, inclusion, and resilience.” World Bank Blogs. https:// World Bank. 2020. Creating Disability Inclusive ID Systems blogs.worldbank.org/digital-development/how-digital- (English). Identification for Development Washington, public-infrastructure-supports-empowerment-inclusion- D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank. and-resilience (accessed 2 July 2023). org/curated/en/967741605683569399/Creating- Embassy of the Republic of Uganda. 2024. National ID. https:// Disability-Inclusive-ID-Systems washington.mofa.go.ug/visa/national-id (accessed World Bank. 2022a. ID4D Global Dataset - Volume 1 2021: 13 February 2024) Global ID Coverage Estimates. Identification for George, T., Mittal, A., Anandan, V., and Rodriguez Caillava, M. Development Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. 2019. Open Source for Global Public Goods (English). www.id4d.worldbank.org./global-dataset. Identification for Development. Washington, D.C. : World World Bank 2022b. A Primer on Biometrics for ID Systems. Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/ https://id4d.worldbank.org/id-biometrics-primer. en/672901582561140400/Open-Source-for-Global- Public-Goods World Bank. 2022c. Principles on Identification for Sustainable Development. http://idprinciples.org. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). 2021. Doc 9303: Machine Readable Travel Documents; Eighth Edition, 2021; World Bank. 2023. Integrated Social Protection Information Part 4: Specifications for Machine Readable Passports System in Vietnam. Internal World Bank report: (MRPs) and other TD3 size MRTDs. https://www.icao.int/ unpublished. publications/documents/9303_p4_cons_en.pdf World Bank 2024. ID4D Global Dataset - Volume 2: Digital Philippine Statistics Authority. 2023. Introducing the ePhilID. Progress and Gaps. Identification for Development Philippine Identification System. https://philsys.gov.ph/ Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. www.id4d. ephilid/ (accessed 2 July 2023). worldbank.org./global-dataset. 48 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT APPENDIX 1. EXCLUDED COUNTRIES Of the 198 countries included in the ID4D Global Dataset, there are 23 countries that do not have a foundational ID system. Dataset releases Volume 1: Global Coverage Estimates (which aimed to produce global estimates of ID ownership) and Volume 2: Digital Identification Gaps (which aimed to assess the digital capabilities of ID systems), included these countries by analyzing their prominent functional ID systems. However, because the goal of this paper and the Volume 3 Dataset is to describe trends in foundational ID systems themselves, these countries have been excluded. Countries without a foundational ID system, excluded from this paper: Andorra Antigua and Barbuda Australia The Bahamas Belize Canada Democratic Republic of the Congo Dominica Fiji Ireland Jamaica Kiribati Marshall Islands Federated States of Micronesia Nauru New Zealand Palau Samoa Solomon Islands Somalia Tuvalu United Kingdom United States APPENDICES | 49 APPENDIX 2. ID AUTHORITY QUESTIONNAIRE (IDAQ) As part of the 2021 ID4D Global Dataset, a questionnaire was sent to ID agencies responsible for the primary foundational ID system to collect and validate key information about these systems. These questionnaires were fielded by the ID4D team and World Bank country offices between August 2021 and May 2022, including a follow-up period to clarify and validate responses.28 The questionnaires were prepared in English and translated to one of the other World Bank Group official languages (Arabic, Chinese, French, Portuguese, Russian, and Spanish) and other languages, on demand, when appropriate for the country context. ————————————————————— QUESTIONNAIRE Please answer the Questionnaire about the [SYSTEM NAME] (henceforth “ID system”) and [CREDENTIAL NAME] (henceforth “ID”), which we understand to be the primary ID system and government-issued credential for adults in [COUNTRY]. If this is incorrect, or there are other related systems or identity credentials managed by your agency or department, please provide this information below: 28 As a result of the data collection period and variation in reporting between countries, the administrative data received in these questionnaires represents a range of dates between 2020 (month not specified) and April 2022. 50 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT A. COVERAGE The questions in this section are intended to understand the coverage of the [SYSTEM NAME] across [COUNTRY]’s existing resident population. If possible, please provide figures that include only unique, living persons currently residing in the territory, excluding (a) deceased persons and/or (b) those who currently reside outside of the territory. If this is unknown, or these figures include deceased persons or non-residents, please note this information under the “2021 Update” column. PREVIOUS INFORMATION 2021 UPDATE QUESTIONS Provided in 2019 or Earlier Please provide Updated Figures A1. What is the total number of people [Previous figure included here, if known] currently registered in the system? Please also note the date (e.g., July 31,  2021) as of which this data is correct What is the total number of people A2.  registered by gender? Female [Previous figure included here, if known] Male [Previous figure included here, if known] Other [Previous figure included here, if known] What is the total number of people A3.  registered by age group? Less than 5 years old (0–4) Unknown 5–17 Unknown 18–25 Unknown 26–65 Unknown Over 65 Unknown Of those registered, how many have been [Previous figure included here, if known] A4.  issued with a/n [CREDENTIAL NAME]? APPENDICES | 51 B.  APPLYING FOR AN ID The following questions are intended to understand the eligibility criteria and procedures for obtaining the [CREDENTIAL NAME], referred to as ‘ID’ below. 2021 UPDATE PREVIOUS INFORMATION Please confirm or correct From previous questionnaire previous information or QUESTIONS and/or desk research provide details if ‘Unknown’ B1. Is the process to apply for the [Previous data included here, if known] [CREDENTIAL NAME] different from the process to register in the system? If yes, please describe. B2. Is it mandatory for nationals to obtain [Previous data included here, if known] the ID? → If yes, at what age is obtaining B3.  [Previous data included here, if known] the ID mandatory? B4. What is the minimum age when people [Previous data included here, if known] are eligible to obtain the ID? B5. Are non-nationals eligible to obtain the ID? [Previous data included here, if known] → If yes, are people in the following B6.  groups able to obtain the ID? i. Asylum seekers [Previous data included here, if known] ii. Refugees [Previous data included here, if known] iii. Permanent residents [Previous data included here, if known] B7. Where do people apply for the ID? [Previous data included here, if known] Please indicate the number and type of fixed locations (e.g., 25 ID offices, 12 service centers) and mobile units, including any enrollment locations abroad. B8. What is the fee for obtaining the first [Previous data included here, if known] [CREDENTIAL NAME]? (standard request) Please specify local currency and note if fees are waived or subsidized for any groups (e.g., low income, elderly, etc.). B9. Are any of the following documents required to apply for an ID? i. Birth certificate [Previous data included here, if known] Proof of nationality (in addition to/ ii.  [Previous data included here, if known] if different from birth certificate) Marriage certificate (for married iii.  [Previous data included here, if known] applicants) B10. Is there an alternative procedure for [Previous data included here, if known] people to apply for an ID if they do not have the required documents? If yes, please describe (e.g., testimony from witnesses or community leaders or obtaining court declarations). 52 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT C.  SYSTEM AND CREDENTIALS The following questions are intended to understand the technology used for the ID system and credential. 2021 UPDATE PREVIOUS INFORMATION Please confirm or correct From previous questionnaire previous information or QUESTIONS and/or desk research provide details if ‘Unknown’ C1. Is identity data stored electronically in a [Previous data included here, if known] database? If an electronic database was introduced recently and most records are still stored in paper format, please note. C2. Does the system issue a permanent [Previous data included here, if known] identity number? (i.e., a number that does not change for a person’s lifetime, often referred to as a “unique identity number” or “national identity number”.) → C3.  If yes, is the permanent number [Previous data included here, if known] issued at birth? → C4.  If yes, is the permanent number [Previous data included here, if known] printed on the birth certificate? C5. What is the structure of the ID number? [Previous data included here, if known] Please indicate the number of digits and whether these are sequential, random, or determined based on location, gender, nationality, etc. C6. Is the ID number used across multiple [Previous data included here, if known] government databases (e.g., health, tax, social protection) to link records to an individual? → C7.  If yes, do the following databases include the ID number? Social registry/social assistance i.  [Previous data included here, if known] program(s) ii. Tax registry [Previous data included here, if known] iii. Property/land registry [Previous data included here, if known] C8. What is the current format of the ID? [Previous data included here, if known] (e.g., plastic card with barcode, card with chip, paper booklet, mobile app). If there are multiple versions being issued, please indicate this. C9. Is the [CREDENTIAL NAME] recognized [Previous data included here, if known] as a proof of nationality according to [COUNTRY]’s laws or regulations? APPENDICES | 53 D.  ID SERVICES AND USE For the following questions, we are interested in understanding how the ID system and credential are used by people in their daily lives, and to provide digital identity verification and authentication services to third parties, including government agencies and private entities (e.g., banks). In addition, we would like to know if these same systems and credentials provide “digital ID”, enabling people to remotely log-in to web-based services (e.g., an e-government portal), or if there are other ID credentials or systems in the country that provide this capability. In the table below, please indicate whether any government-issued ID, and the [CREDENTIAL NAME] specifically is D1.  accepted or legally required (mandatory) for a person to complete each service or activity. Mark “Yes”, “No” or “N/A”. If yes, is the [CREDENTIAL Is a government- If yes, is the NAME] legally issued ID required [CREDENTIAL required Service/Activity for this purpose? NAME] accepted? (mandatory)? Opening a deposit account at a bank or other financial institution Activating a SIM card Registering for government social assistance program(s) Accessing basic public health care COVID vaccine registration (if planned) Does the system provide digital identity verification and/or authentication services? (e.g., via APIs, web services, D2.  digitally-enabled credentials, etc.). Mark “YES” (if true) or “NO” (if false). YES → continue to next question NO → skip to Section E. Which of the following digital identity verification or authentication services are currently provided? Mark “Yes” or D3.  “No”. Please feel free to provide further clarification where this may be helpful. Type of identity verification/authentication service Response/comments Checking the validity of the ID number or [CREDENTIAL NAME] Sharing identity attributes (e.g., sharing or displaying name and birth date after entering ID number) Verifying that a specified identity attribute is correct, i.e., giving a “Yes/No” response to a query Biometric verification (1:1 match) against database Biometric verification (1:1 match) using the ID (e.g., using a chip or barcode) ID number + password or OTP Other (please describe) 54 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Which of the following organizations or services, if any, currently use identity verification and/or authentication services? D4.  Mark “Yes” or “No”. Please feel free to provide further clarification where this may be helpful. Service/entity Response/comments Banks or other financial institutions Mobile network operators Social protection agency or programs Public security/law enforcement Entities in other countries (e.g., service providers/authorities of another country) Others (please describe) In total, how many organizations or entities currently use the identity verification and/or authentication services D5.  provided? Please provide number here D6. Is the [CREDENTIAL NAME] currently used to log in to an e-government portal or to access other online services? Mark “YES” or “NO”. YES NO D7. Does the [ID SYSTEM] issue other credentials to facilitate access to online services? Mark “YES” or “NO”. YES → continue to next question NO → skip to question D9 D8. If yes, please briefly describe these credentials: Apart from the [ID SYSTEM], please list any other systems operating in your country that provide government- D9.  recognized digital IDs: (i.e., credentials used to access services online), if applicable: APPENDICES | 55 E. DATA In this section, we hope to understand how biographic and biometric data are being used as part of the system and any options for individuals to access to their own data. For the following table of attributes, please indicate if these are (a) collected during registration and (b) visibly E1.  printed on the [CREDENTIAL NAME]. For each attribute and column, mark “YES” (if true), “NO” (if false), or “N/A”. Attribute Collected during registration Printed or visible on ID ID number Expiry date Full name Date of birth Gender or sex Current address Nationality or immigration status Marital/civil status Race or ethnicity Religion Blood group Written signature Other: specify or add rows ____ E2. Is biometric data collected? Mark “YES” or “NO”: YES → continue to next question NO → continue to E4. In the following table, please provide information about the biometrics collected and their use. Mark “YES” (if true), E3.  “NO” (if false), or “N/A” (if not applicable). i. Is this biometric ii. Is the biometric iii. Is the biometric iv. Is the biometric collected? If yes, stored on the ID? used for used for verification/ Biometric indicate how many (e.g., in chip or barcode) deduplication?1 authentication?2 Fingerprints (ink) Fingerprints (digital) Iris scans Digital facial image Other (specify) Notes: 1  Deduplication = using biometric identification (1:N matching) for of each new enrollee via ABIS or AFIS to establish their uniqueness in the system. 2  Authentication = using biometric verification (1:1 matching) of a person presenting their ID against a stored biometric to confirm they are the same. 56 | ID4D GLOBAL DATASET 2021: TRENDS IN IDENTIFICATION FOR DEVELOPMENT Is there a service that allows individuals to view the data that is held about them and how it has been accessed E4.  (e.g., a web portal, SMS or USSD system, or other application)? YES → continue to next question NO → end questionnaire E5. If yes, please describe these services. If there is an online portal, please provide a URL: - END – Thank you very much for your assistance APPENDICES | 57